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418091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstra%20University	Hofstra University	Hofstra University is a private university in Hempstead, New York. It is the largest private university on Long Island. Hofstra originated in 1935 as an extension of New York University under the name Nassau College – Hofstra Memorial of New York University. It became independent Hofstra College in 1939 and gained university status in 1963. Comprising ten schools, including the Zucker School of Medicine and Deane School of Law, Hofstra has hosted a series of prominent presidential conferences and several United States presidential debates. History The college was founded in 1935 on the estate of namesake William S. Hofstra (1861–1932), a lumber entrepreneur of Dutch ancestry, and his second wife Kate Mason (1854–1933). It began as an extension of New York University (NYU) under the name Nassau College – Hofstra Memorial of New York University. It became the fourth and most recent American college or university named after a Dutch American, and the only one that occurred in the 20th century. The extension had been proposed by a Hempstead resident, Truesdel Peck Calkins, who had been superintendent of schools for Hempstead. In her will, Kate Mason provided the bulk of their property and estate to be used for a charitable, scientific or humanitarian purpose, to be named in honor of her husband. In the spring of 1934, the estate was offered to be converted into a sanitarium for those suffering with polio by the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation, specifically offering to President Franklin Roosevelt, but nothing had materialized from it. Two friends, Howard Brower and James Barnard, were asked to decide what to do with the estate. Calkins remarked to Brower that he had been looking for a site to start an institution of higher education, and the three men agreed it would be an appropriate use of the estate. Calkins approached the administration at New York University, and they expressed interest. The college was founded as a coeducational, commuter institution with day and evening classes. The first day of classes at Nassau-Hofstra Memorial College was September 23, 1935, with 150 students enrolled and an equal divide between men and women. The first class of students was made up of 159 day and 621 evening students. The tuition fee for the year was $375. The college obtained provisional charter status, and its official name was changed to Hofstra College on January 16, 1937. Hofstra College separated from New York University on July 1, 1939, and was granted an absolute charter on February 16, 1940. In 1939, Hofstra celebrated its first four-year commencement, graduating a class of 83 students. The first graduates had strong feelings for the new institution. When they were allowed to choose whether they would receive degrees from New York University or Hofstra, they overwhelmingly chose Hofstra degrees. Academic recognition of Hofstra was affirmed when the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools accepted Hofstra for membership on November 22, 1940. Early in 1941 the college was elected to membership in the American Association of Colleges. In 1950, Calkins Gymnasium was the site of the first Shakespeare Festival. It was performed on a five-sixths-sized replica of the Globe Theatre. The festival is now performed on the Globe Stage, the most accurate Globe Theatre replica in the United States. With the approval of the New York State Board of Regents, Hofstra became Long Island's first private university on March 1, 1963, thus becoming Hofstra University. Also in that year, the Board of Trustees resolved to make Hofstra architecturally barrier-free for individuals with physical disabilities, stating that all students should have access to higher education. This later became federal law, and Hofstra was subsequently recognized as a pioneer. Other forward-thinking programs and events followed, including the New Opportunities at Hofstra (NOAH) program, which was established the following year. NOAH is Hofstra's Arthur O. Eve Higher Education Opportunity Program. In 1963, Mitchel Air Force Base was closed by the military and declared surplus property. The university asked for part of the area to be used for educational purposes, and was subsequently granted . Remnants of the concrete runways from the Air Force base are now parking lots for Hofstra's North Campus. The Hofstra University Museum was also established that year. In 1968, a three-bank Aeolian pipe organ was donated to Hofstra by John T. Ricks and Jane Ricks King, in the name of their late parents, Mr. and Mrs. Jesse Ricks. The organ was originally located in the former Ricks estate, Chanticlare, in Flower Hill, New York. Jesse Ricks was the former president and chairman of Union Carbide, and Mrs. Ricks was a volunteer church organist who often held organ performances at the estate for friends on Sundays. The organ was scheduled to be installed in the Hofstra Playhouse the following fall, and enabled organ music majors at Hofstra to practice on-campus - as opposed to at the nearby Episcopal Cathedral of the Incarnation. Hofstra Stadium served as the site of the first-ever NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship game in 1971. The university reorganized its divisions into “schools” in the 1960s. Hofstra was authorized by the Board of Regents to offer its first doctoral degrees in 1966. In 1968, the Hofstra Stadium became the first to install Astroturf outdoors in the East, and the New York Jets began holding their summer training camp to the North Campus, until 2008, when the Jets moved to Florham Park, New Jersey. Dutch heritage The university's founder, William S. Hofstra, was proud of his Dutch roots and that is reflected throughout Hofstra University's campus. It is one of three major American universities named after Dutch Americans, after Rutgers University for Henry Rutgers and Vanderbilt University for Cornelius Vanderbilt. Hofstra's original logo was a seal created by professor of art Constant van de Wall in 1937. The insignia was derived from the official seal of the reigning house of the Netherlands, the House of Orange-Nassau. Used with the permission of the monarch of the Netherlands, the seal also included the Dutch national motto Je Maintiendrai, meaning “I stand steadfast” (literally “I shall maintain”) in French.Hofstra's flag is modeled after the Netherlands' Prince's Flag, and its orange,-white-and-blue pattern was altered to feature the school's colors of gold and navy blue. In 1939, the Dutch ambassador to the United States left behind a flag of the Netherlands before he returned to his country for World War II, which influenced Hofstra's school colors, university seal and coat of arms. Hofstra also pays homage to its Dutch heritage with a miniature windmill structure near the admissions building and the planting of thousands of tulips in the springtime. In 1985, the commissioner to the Queen of the Netherlands presented the university with the Hofstra University Tulip, a flower hybrid named after the school. It is a focal point of Hofstra's annual springtime Dutch Festival. An on-campus housing complex is known as "the Netherlands" and features residence halls named after Dutch cities, including Delft, Groningen, Hague, Leiden, Rotterdam, Tilburg, Utrecht, Breukelen and Amsterdam. Hofstra's athletic teams were known as the Flying Dutchmen until 2001. Campus The Arboretum and Bird Sanctuary at Hofstra University has a collection of diverse trees and reflecting its Dutch origin, and displays an array of rare and colorful tulips in the Spring. The campus has approximately 117 buildings on , and is located in the Uniondale section of Hempstead, a mile east of the town center. The part of the campus located south of Hempstead Turnpike (NY Route 24) and west of California Avenue is located in Hempstead Village. Hofstra also offers an MBA program as well as other classes in New York City from a center in Manhattan. The campus is roughly from the Borough of Queens in New York City, and you can see the entire New York City skyline from the 10th floor of the library. The campus is located across the street from the "Nassau Hub" and Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, former home of the New York Islanders, Long Island Nets, New York Riptide, and New York Open. Academics Rankings and reputation Hofstra University is accredited in 28 academic areas and 32 total areas. Hofstra University offers 160 undergraduate and 170 graduate program options. Hofstra was ranked tied for 160th among national universities and named the 92nd 'best value school' by U.S. News & World Report for 2020, with its undergraduate engineering program ranked tied for 33rd among schools where doctorates are not offered. U.S. News also rated the part-time MBA program tied for 154th and the graduate programs in education as 133rd, among others. The Stuart and Nancy Rabinowitz Honors College, whose admissions policy is more selective than that of the university as a whole, offers rigorous educational opportunities for high-achieving students. The School for University Studies provides a program for students whose abilities are not reflected in standardized test scores; while New Opportunities at Hofstra (NOAH) is designed for students whose educational progress to date has been restricted by limited educational opportunities or economic status. In the fall of 2011, the university welcomed the first class of students to its new Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine. In 2012, it established its school of engineering and applied science, featuring programs that partner with regional industry leaders, and its school of health sciences and human services, housing a new master of public health program. In August 2017, after a $61 million donation to the school, it was renamed the Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell. The Zucker School of Medicine was ranked No. 55 in primary care and No. 71 in research, according to U.S. News & World Report, despite only being 2 years since its first class graduated. Hofstra University hosted the third and final 2008 presidential debate (between Barack Obama and John McCain) on October 15, 2008. The debate, the first presidential debate in New York since the 1960 debate between John F. Kennedy and then vice-president Richard M. Nixon, focused on economic policy and domestic issues. It is remembered for McCain's introduction and frequent references to "Joe the Plumber". Hofstra's successful bid to host this presidential debate in 2008 provided the springboard for a broad, campus-wide program called "Educate '08," featuring a year of free lectures, conferences and other events about politics and public policy. The program featured national media and political figures as guest speakers, including George Stephanopoulos, Maureen Dowd, Ari Fleischer, James Carville and Mary Matalin. "Educate '08" gave way to "Define '09", a program which brought to campus various speakers to examine the impact of the historic election of the nation's first African-American president and the policy challenges facing the Obama Administration. In September 2009, Hofstra University President Stuart Rabinowitz announced the appointment of two senior presidential fellows at the university's Peter S. Kalikow Center for the Study of the American Presidency: Republican strategist and former presidential advisor Edward J. Rollins and former Vermont governor, presidential candidate and Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean. In October 2011, the Commission on Presidential Debates announced it had chosen Hofstra for its second 2012 presidential debate on October 16, 2012, the "town hall" debate (between Barack Obama and Mitt Romney). Hofstra University hosted the first 2016 presidential debate between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton on September 26, 2016. Schools and colleges Hofstra College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, also known as Hofstra College, or Hofstra College of Arts & Sciences Peter S. Kalikow School of Government, Public Policy, and International Affairs School of Education School of Humanities, Fine and Performing Arts School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Frank G. Zarb School of Business Stuart and Nancy Rabinowitz Honors College The Lawrence Herbert School of Communication School of Health Professions and Human Services Fred DeMatteis School of Engineering and Applied Science Maurice A. Deane School of Law Zucker School of Medicine Hofstra Northwell School of Graduate Nursing and Physician Assistant Studies Centers and institutes Center for Children, Families and the Law Center for Civic Engagement Center for Educational Access and Success (CEAS) Center for Entrepreneurship Center for Legal Advocacy Center for "Race," Culture and Social Justice National Center for Suburban Studies Center for Technological Literacy Center for the Study of Higher Education Center for the Study of Labor and Democracy (CSLD) Hofstra University Cultural Center (HUCC) Institute for Health Law and Policy Institute for Real Estate Institute for the Study of Conflict Transformation Institute for the Study of Gender, Law and Policy Institute for the Study of Legal Ethics Long Island Studies Institute (LISI) Center for the Study of International Financial Service and Markets Peter S. Kalikow Center for the Study of the American Presidency The Joan and Arnold Saltzman Community Services Center Scott Skodnek Business Development Center (BDC) Wilber F. Breslin Center for Real Estate Studies Hofstra University Museum Asia Center Center for Climate Study Center for Innovation The Digital Research Center at Hofstra University Hofstra University Bioethics Center Institute for Forensic Linguistics, Threat Assessment, and Strategic Analysis at Hofstra University Athletics Hofstra University teams were nicknamed the Flying Dutchmen from 1935 until 2001. The school's official team name became "The Pride" in 2001, referring to a pair of lions which became the school's athletic mascots in the late 1980s. The Pride nickname evolved from the Hofstra Pride on- and off-campus image campaign that began in 1987, during the university's dramatic recovery and growth. This followed a financial crisis in the 1970s that forced the layoff of more than 100 employees. In 1977 Hofstra wrestler Nick Gallo won the 126 lb weight class at the NCAA National Championship and was a member of the 1976 and 1980 U.S. Olympic Freestyle Wrestling teams, he was also given the title "Most Outstanding Wrestler" in the 1977 NCAA Division I Wrestling Championships. The school's revival was credited in large part to the man who led the university from 1976 to 2001—educator, government official and former Hofstra football star Dr. James M. Shuart. Hofstra Stadium, the school's main outdoor athletic facility, has been named James M. Shuart Stadium since 2002. Prior to 2008, the New York Jets held summer training camp at their on-campus headquarters before moving to their new headquarters in Florham Park, New Jersey. The area has since been used for the construction of the medical school building, which was completed in 2015. On December 3, 2009, the university announced it was terminating the football program. Under NCAA rules, any football players who chose to transfer to other schools were eligible to play immediately, and not subjected to normal residency waiting periods. Scholarship-holders who wished to stay at Hofstra were permitted to keep their scholarships. Funds previously used for the football program went into the creation of the medical school, and enhancing a variety of programs, including hard sciences and engineering. Hofstra Stadium was home to the New York Lizards, a professional lacrosse team in the Major League Lacrosse (MLL) that played prior to the merger with Premier Lacrosse League in 2020. On February 26, 2011, Hofstra Senior Day, the university retired the basketball jersey number 22 to honor senior Charles Jenkins before the end of the season. Jenkins, the school's all-time leading scorer, ranked fifth in the nation at 23.3 points per game last season () and was the front-runner to win Colonial Athletic Association Player of the Year honors. "I think it's very rare," head coach Mo Cassara said by phone to reporter Jeff Eisenberg. "We have 25 other athletes that have had their numbers retired here at Hofstra, but none of them have ever been retired while they were still here at their last games. He's been such an integral part of this university on so many levels that we thought that was the highest honor we could give him." No other Hofstra athlete in any sport has received the same honor. The Hofstra University Pride Wrestling team competes in the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, as wrestling is not supported by the Colonial Athletic Association. Media Student newspaper The Hofstra Chronicle is the only student newspaper at Hofstra University. Established in 1935 and supported by the student activity fee and advertising, it is published in tabloid format every Tuesday evening each semester, with additional content available online. Student radio station The university operates Long Island's oldest public radio station, WRHU-FM (88.7). The non-commercial station was founded in 1950 as WHCH, a campus-limited station, and received its broadcast license on June 9, 1959, using the call letters WVHC. The station became WRHU (for Radio Hofstra University) in 1983. WRHU currently serves as the radio home of the Long Island Nets and New York Islanders, producing over 675 NHL broadcasts since 2010. It is the only student-run radio station to receive four Marconi Awards from the National Association of Broadcasters. Notable alumni and faculty See also Hofstra (surname), notable people with this surname. References External links Hofstra Athletics website Universities and colleges established in 1935 Private universities and colleges in New York (state) Hempstead (village), New York Universities and colleges on Long Island Universities and colleges in Nassau County, New York 1935 establishments in New York (state)
418094	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Rawlings	Jerry Rawlings	Jerry John Rawlings (22 June 194712 November 2020) was a Ghanaian military officer, aviator and politician who led the country for a brief period in 1979, and then from 1981 to 2001. He led a military junta until 1992, and then served two terms as the democratically elected president of Ghana. Rawlings came to power in Ghana as a flight lieutenant of the Ghana Air Force following a coup d'état in 1979. Prior to that, he led an unsuccessful coup attempt against the ruling military government on 15 May 1979, just five weeks before scheduled democratic elections were due to take place. After handing power over to a civilian government, he took back control of the country on 31 December 1981 as the chairman of the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC). In 1992, Rawlings resigned from the military, founded the National Democratic Congress (NDC), and became the first president of the Fourth Republic. He was re-elected in 1996 for four more years. After two terms in office, the limit according to the Ghanaian Constitution, Rawlings endorsed his vice-president John Atta Mills as a presidential candidate in 2000. Rawlings served as the African Union envoy to Somalia. He died in 2020 at age 73 and was accorded a state funeral. Background Rawlings was born as Jerry Rawlings John on 22 June 1947 in Accra, Ghana, to Victoria Agbotui, an Anlo Ewe from Dzelukope, Keta, and James Ramsey John, a British chemist from Castle Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Rawlings attended Achimota School and a military academy at Teshie. Rawlings was married to Nana Konadu Agyeman, whom he met while at Achimota College. They had three daughters: Zanetor Rawlings, Yaa Asantewaa Rawlings, Amina Rawlings; and one son, Kimathi Rawlings. Junior Agogo was the nephew of Rawlings. Education and military career Rawlings finished his secondary education at Achimota College in 1967. He joined the Ghana Air Force shortly afterwards; on his application, the military switched his surname John and his middle name Rawlings. In March 1968, he was posted to Takoradi, in Ghana's Western Region, to continue his studies. He graduated in January 1969, and was commissioned as a pilot officer, winning the coveted "Speed Bird Trophy" as the best cadet in flying the Su-7 ground attack supersonic jet aircraft as he was skilled in aerobatics. He earned the rank of flight lieutenant in April 1978. During his service with the Ghana Air Force, Rawlings perceived a deterioration in discipline and morale due to corruption in the Supreme Military Council (SMC). As promotion brought him into contact with the privileged classes and their social values, his view of the injustices in society hardened. He was thus regarded with some unease by the SMC. After the 1979 coup, he involved himself with the student community of the University of Ghana, where he developed a more leftist ideology through reading and discussion of social and political ideas. 1979 coup and purges Rawlings grew discontented with Ignatius Kutu Acheampong's government, which had come to power through a coup in January 1972. Acheampong was accused not only of corruption, but also of maintaining Ghana's dependency on pre-colonial powers, in a situation which led to economic decline and impoverishment. Rawlings was part of the Free Africa Movement, an underground movement of military officers who wanted to unify Africa through a series of coups. On 15 May 1979, five weeks prior to civilian elections, Rawlings and six other soldiers staged a coup against the government of General Fred Akuffo, but failed and were arrested by the military. Rawlings was publicly sentenced to death in a General Court Martial and imprisoned, although his statements on the social injustices that motivated his actions won him civilian sympathy. While awaiting execution, Rawlings was sprung from custody on 4 June 1979 by a group of soldiers. Claiming that the government was corrupt beyond redemption and that new leadership was required for Ghana's development, he led the group in a coup to oust the Akuffo Government and Supreme Military Council. Shortly afterwards, Rawlings established and became the Chairman of a 15-member Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), primarily composed of junior officers. He and the AFRC ruled for 112 days and arranged the execution by firing squad of eight military officers, including Generals Kotei, Joy Amedume, Roger Felli, and Utuka, as well as the three former Ghanaian heads of state; Acheampong, Akuffo, and Akwasi Afrifa. These executions were dramatic events in the history of Ghana, which had previously suffered few instances of political violence. Rawlings later implemented a much wider "house-cleaning exercise" involving the killings and abduction of over 300 Ghanaians. Elections were held on time shortly after the coup. On 24 September 1979, power was peacefully handed over by Rawlings to President Hilla Limann, whose People's National Party (PNP) had the support of Nkrumah's followers. Two years later, on 31 December 1981 Rawlings ousted President Hilla Limann in a coup d'état, claiming that civilian rule was weak and the country's economy was deteriorating. The killings of the Supreme Court justices (Cecilia Koranteng-Addow, Frederick Sarkodie, and Kwadjo Agyei Agyepong), military officers Major Sam Acquah and Major Dasana Nantogmah also occurred during the second military rule of Rawlings. However, unlike the 1979 executions, these persons were abducted and killed in secret and it is unclear who was behind their murders, though Joachim Amartey Kwei and four others were convicted of murdering the Justices and Acquah, and were executed in 1982. 1981 coup and reforms Believing the Limann regime to be unable to resolve Ghana's neocolonial economic dependency, Rawlings led a second coup against Limann and indicted the entire political class on 31 December 1981. In place of Limann's People's National Party, Rawlings established the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) military junta as the official government. Rawlings hosted state visits from "revolutionaries" from other countries, including Dési Bouterse (Suriname), Daniel Ortega (Nicaragua), and Sam Nujoma (Namibia). More famously, Rawlings reversed Limann's boycott of Gaddafi's Libya, allowing the Black Stars to compete in the 1982 African Cup of Nations. The team won the AFCON trophy for the fourth time, their last win as of 2022. Although the PNDC claimed to be representative of the people, it lacked experience in the creation and implementation of clear economic policies. Rawlings, like many of his predecessors, attributed current economic and social problems to the "trade malpractices and other anti-social activities" of a few businesspeople. In December 1982, the PNDC announced its four-year economic program of establishing a state monopoly on export-import trade with the goal of eliminating corruption surrounding import licences and shift trade away from dependency on Western markets. Unrealistic price controls were imposed on the market and enforced through coercive acts, especially against businesspeople. This resolve to employ state control over the economy is best demonstrated by the destruction of the Makola No.1 Market. The PNDC established Workers' Defence Committees (WDCs) and People's Defence Committees (PDCs) to mobilize the population to support radical changes to the economy. Price controls on the sale of food were beneficial to urban workers, but placed undue burden on 70% of the rural population whose income largely depended on the prices of agricultural products. Rawlings' economic policies led to an economic crisis in 1983, forcing him to undertake structural adjustment and submit himself to election to retain power. Elections were held in January 1992, leading Ghana back to multiparty democracy. 1992 elections Rawlings established the National Commission on Democracy (NCD) shortly after the 1982 coup, and employed it to survey civilian opinion and make recommendations that would facilitate the process of democratic transition. In March 1991, the NCD released a report recommending the election of an executive president, the establishment of a national assembly, and the creation of the post of prime minister. The PNDC used NCD recommendations to establish a committee for the drafting of a new constitution based on past Ghanaian Constitutions, that lifted the ban on political parties in May 1992 after it was approved by referendum. On 3 November 1992, election results compiled by the INEC from 200 constituencies showed that Rawlings' NDC had won 60% of the votes, and had obtained the majority needed to prevent a second round of voting. More specifically, the NDC won 62% in the Brong-Ahafo region, 93% in the Volta region, and majority votes in Upper West, Upper East, Western, Northern, Central, and Greater Accra regions. His opponents Professor Adu Boahen won 31% of the votes, former President Hilla Limann won 6.8%, Kwabena Darko won 2.9%, and Emmanuel Erskine won 1.7%. Voter turnout was 50%. The ability of opposition parties to compete was limited by the vast advantages Rawlings possessed. Rawlings' victory was aided by the various party structures that were integrated into society during his rule, called the "organs of the revolution". These structures included the Committees for the Defence of the Revolution (CDRs), Commando Units, 31 December Women's Organization, the 4 June movement, Peoples Militias, and Mobisquads, and operated on a system of popular control through intimidation. Rawlings held a monopoly over national media, and was able to censor print and electronic media through a PNDC newspaper licensing decree, PNDC Law 221. Moreover, Rawlings imposed a 20,000 cedis (about $400) cap on campaign contributions, which made national publicity of opposition parties virtually impossible. Rawlings himself began campaigning before the official unbanning of political parties and had access to state resources and was able to effectively meet all monetary demands required of a successful campaign. Rawlings travelled across the country, initiating public-works projects and giving public employees a 60% pay rise prior to election day. Opposition parties objected to the election results, citing incidences of vote stuffing in regions where Rawlings was likely to lose and rural areas with scant populations, as well as a bloated voters' register and a partisan electoral commission. However, the Commonwealth Observer Group, led by Sir Ellis Clarke, approved of the election as "free and fair", as there were very few issues at polling stations and no major incidences of voter coercion. In contrast, the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) issued a report supporting claims that erroneous entries in voter registration could have affected election results. The Carter Center did acknowledge minor electoral issues but did not see these problems as indicative of systematic electoral fraud. Opposition parties boycotted subsequent Ghana parliamentary and presidential elections, and the unicameral National Assembly, of which NDC officials won 189 of 200 seats and essentially established a one-party parliament that lacked legitimacy and only had limited legislative powers. After the disputed election, the PNDC was transformed into the National Democratic Congress (NDC). Rawlings took office on 7 January 1993, the same day that the new constitution came into effect, and the government became known as the Fourth Republic of Ghana. Policies and reforms Rawlings established the Economic Recovery Program (ERP) suggested by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund in 1982 due to the poor state of the economy after 18 months of attempting to govern it through administrative controls and mass mobilization. The policies implemented caused a dramatic currency devaluation, the removal of price controls, and social-service subsidies which favored farmers over urban workers, and privatization of some state-owned enterprises, and restraints on government spending. Funding was provided by bilateral donors, reaching US$800 million in 1987 and 1988, and US$900 million in 1989. Between 1992 and 1996, Rawlings eased control over the judiciary and civil society, allowing a more independent Supreme Court and the publication of independent newspapers. Opposition parties operated outside of parliament and held rallies and press conferences. 1996 elections Given the various issues with the 1992 elections, the 1996 elections were a great improvement in terms of electoral oversight. Voter registration was re-compiled, with close to 9.2 million voters registering at nearly 19,000 polling stations, which the opposition had largely approved after party agents had reviewed the lists. The emphasis on transparency led Ghanaian non-governmental organizations to create the Network of Domestic Election Observers (NEDEO), which trained nearly 4,100 local poll watchers. This organization was popular across political parties and civic groups. On the day of the election, more than 60,000 candidate agents monitored close to all polling sites, and were responsible for directly reporting results to their respective party leaders. The parallel vote-tabulation system allowed polling sites to compare their results to the official ones released by the Electoral commission. The Inter-Party Advisory Committee (IPAC) was established to discuss election preparations with all parties and the Electoral Commission, as well as establish procedures to investigate and resolve complaints. Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on the same day and see-through boxes were used in order to further ensure the legitimacy of the elections. Despite some fears of electoral violence, the election was peaceful and had a 78% turnout rate, and was successful with only minor problems such as an inadequate supply of ink and parliamentary ballots. The two major contenders of the 1996 election were Rawlings' NDC, and John Kufuor's Great Alliance, an amalgamation of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) and the People's Convention Party (PCP). The Great Alliance based their platform on ousting Rawlings, and attacked the incumbent government for its poor fiscal policies. However, they were unable to articulate a clear positive message of their own, or plans to change the current economic policy. As Ghana was heavily dependent on international aid, local leaders had minimal impact on the economy. The Electoral Commission reported that Rawlings had won by 57%, with Kufuor obtaining 40% of the vote. Results by district were similar to those in 1992, with the opposition winning the Ashanti Region and some constituencies in Eastern and Greater Accra, and Rawlings winning in his ethnic home, the Volta Region, and faring well in every other region. The NDC took 134 seats in the Assembly compared to the opposition's 66, and the NPP took 60 seats in the parliament. Post military The 1992 constitution limits a president to two terms, even if they are nonconsecutive. Rawlings did not attempt to amend the document to allow him to run for a third term in 2000. He retired in 2001 and was succeeded by John Agyekum Kufuor, his main rival and opponent in 1996. It was the first time in Ghanaian history that a sitting government peacefully transferred power to an elected member of the opposition. Kufuor won the presidency after defeating Rawlings' vice-president John Atta Mills in a runoff in 2000. In 2004, Mills conceded to Kufuor after another election between the two. Post presidency In November 2000, Rawlings was named the first International Year of Volunteers 2001 Eminent Person by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, attending various events and conferences to promote volunteerism. In October 2010, Rawlings was named as the African Union envoy to Somalia. In November 2010, he attended the inauguration of Dési Bouterse as President of Suriname, and took a tour of the country. He was especially interested in the Ghanaian origins of the Maroon people. Rawlings delivered lectures at universities, including Oxford University in England. Rawlings continued his heavy support for NDC. In July 2019, he went on a three-day working trip to Burkina Faso in the capacity of Chairman of the Thomas Sankara Memorial Committee. In September 2019, he paid a tribute on behalf of the president and people of Ghana, when he led a delegation to the funeral of Robert Mugabe, the late former president of Zimbabwe. Death and state funeral Rawlings died on 12 November 2020 at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, a week after having been admitted for a "short term illness" in Ghana. According to some reports, his death was caused by complications from COVID-19. His death came nearly two months after that of his mother, Victoria Agbotui, on 24 September 2020. President Nana Akufo-Addo declared a seven-day period of mourning in his honor and flags flown at half-mast. His family members appealed to the Government of Ghana to bury him in Keta in the Volta Region. A schedule for the signing of a book of condolence was opened in his memory. His funeral, originally planned for 23 December 2020, was postponed at the request of his family. State burial From 24 to 27 January 2021, funeral ceremonies were organised at Accra in Rawlings' memory. A requiem mass for Jerry Rawlings was held at the Holy Spirit Cathedral on 24 January 2021, followed by a vigil at the Air Force Officers' Mess in Accra later that evening. His body was laid in state in the foyer of the Accra International Conference Centre from 25 to 26 January 2021. There were also traditional rites performed by the Anlo Ewe people of his maternal ancestry. On 27 January 2021, a state funeral, attended by national and international political leaders, paramount chiefs, diplomats and other dignitaries, was held at the Black Star Square before his burial service at the Military Cemetery at Burma Camp, with full military honours, including a slow march by the funeral cortège, a flypast of a Ghana Air Force helicopter, the sounding of the Last Post by army buglers and a 21-gun salute. Awards and honours July 1984: the Order of Jose Marti by the Cuban leader Fidel Castro. October 2013: Honorary degree (Doctorate of Letters) from the University for Development Studies in northern Ghana. This award recognised Rawlings's contribution to the establishment of the university. In 1993, he used his US$50,000 Hunger Project cash prize as seed money to sponsor the establishment of the state-owned university (founded in May 1992), the first of its kind in the three northern regions of Ghana. October 2013: the Global Champion for People's Freedom award bestowed the Mkiva Humanitarian Foundation. August 2014: Doctor of Letters, Honoris Causa. August 2018: Marcus Garvey Awards. December 2018: Enstooled as the Togbuiga Nutifafa I of Anlo, a development chief in the Ghanaian chieftaincy system. Legacy President Nana Akufo-Addo proposed to the Governing Council of UDS to rename the institution after Jerry John Rawlings since Rawlings used his US$50,000 Hunger Project prize as seed money to establish the university. This suggestion was accepted by his family. References Further reading The following are physical books relevant to Jerry Rawlings, which may not be available online, but are added in case of looking for more information. Nugent, Paul (1996). Big men, small boys and politics in Ghana. London: Frances Pinter. See also, Shipley, Jesse Weaver. "Alternative Histories of Global Sovereignty: Ghana's Lost Revolution" Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Vol. 42, No. 2, 2022, pp. 532–537. DOI 10.1215/1089201X09988009. External links Flight Lieutenant Jeremiah John Rawlings at ghana-pedia.org – \|- \|- 1947 births 2020 deaths Alumni of Achimota School Chiefs of the Defence Staff (Ghana) Ghana Air Force personnel Ghanaian Roman Catholics Ghanaian people of Scottish descent Left-wing populists Leaders who took power by coup National Democratic Congress (Ghana) politicians People from Accra Presidents of Ghana Ewe people People from Volta Region Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana Ghanaian aviators 21st-century Ghanaian politicians 20th-century Ghanaian politicians 20th-century presidents in Africa
418101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary%20biology	Evolutionary biology	Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. Evolution holds that all species are related and gradually change over generations. In a population, the genetic variations affect the phenotypes (physical characteristics) of an organism. These changes in the phenotypes will be an advantage to some organisms, which will then be passed onto their offspring. Some examples of evolution in species over many generations are the peppered moth and flightless birds. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics, and paleontology. The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. Moreover, the newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryogenesis is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis. Subfields Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of biological organization, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by perceived taxonomic group, with fields such as zoology, botany, and microbiology, reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution, and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with evolutionary biology to create subfields like evolutionary ecology and evolutionary developmental biology. More recently, the merge between biological science and applied sciences gave birth to new fields that are extensions of evolutionary biology, including evolutionary robotics, engineering, algorithms, economics, and architecture. The basic mechanisms of evolution are applied directly or indirectly to come up with novel designs or solve problems that are difficult to solve otherwise. The research generated in these applied fields, contribute towards progress, especially from work on evolution in computer science and engineering fields such as mechanical engineering. Different types of evolution Adaptive evolution Adaptive evolution relates to evolutionary changes that happen due to the changes in the environment, this makes the organism suitable to its habitat. This change increases the chances of survival and reproduction of the organism (this can be referred to as an organism's fitness). For example, Darwin's Finches on Galapagos island developed different shaped beaks in order to survive for a long time. Adaptive evolution can also be convergent evolution if two distantly related species live in similar environments facing similar pressures. Convergent evolution Convergent evolution is the process in which related or distantly related organisms evolve similar characteristics independently. This type of evolution creates analogous structures which have a similar function, structure, or form between the two species. For example, sharks and dolphins look alike but they are not related. Likewise, birds, flying insects, and bats all have the ability to fly, but they are not related to each other. These similar traits tend to evolve from having similar environmental pressures. Divergent evolution Divergent evolution is the process of speciation. This can happen in several ways: Allopatric speciation is when species are separated by a physical barrier that separates the population into two groups. evolutionary mechanisms such as genetic drift and natural selection can then act independently on each population. Peripatric speciation is a type of allopatric speciation that occurs when one of the new populations is considerably smaller than the other initial population. This leads to the founder's effect and the population can have different allele frequencies and phenotypes than the original population. These small populations are also more likely to see effects from genetic drift. Parapatric speciation is allopatric speciation but occurs when the species diverge without a physical barrier separating the population. This tends to occur when a population of a species is incredibly large and occupies a vast environment. Sympatric speciation is when a new species or subspecies sprouts from the original population while still occupying the same small environment, and without any physical barriers separating them from members of their original population. There is scientific debate as to whether sympatric speciation actually exists. Artificial speciation is when scientists purposefully cause new species to emerge to use in laboratory procedures. Coevolution The influence of two closely associated species is known as coevolution. When two or more species evolve in company with each other, one species adapts to changes in other species. This type of evolution often happens in species that have symbiotic relationships. For example, predator-prey coevolution, this is the most common type of co-evolution. In this, the predator must evolve to become a more effective hunter because there is a selective pressure on the prey to steer clear of capture. The prey in turn need to develop better survival strategies. The Red Queen hypothesis is an example of predator-prey interations. The relationship between pollinating insects like bees and flowering plants, herbivores and plants, are also some common examples of diffuse or guild coevolution. Mechanism: The process of evolution The mechanisms of evolution focus mainly on mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. Mutation: Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence inside a gene or a chromosome of an organism. Most mutations are deleterious, or neutral; i.e. they can neither harm nor benefit, but can also be beneficial sometimes. Genetic drift: Genetic drift is a variational process, it happens as a result of the sampling errors from one generation to another generation where a random event that happens by chance in nature changes or influences allele frequency within a population. It has a much stronger effect on small populations than large ones. Gene flow: Gene flow is the transfer of genetic material from the gene pool of one population to another. In a population, migration occurs from one species to another, resulting in the change of allele frequency. Natural selection: The survival and reproductive rate of a species depends on the adaptability of the species to their environment. This process is called natural selection. Some species with certain traits in a population have higher survival and reproductive rate than others (fitness), and they pass on these genetic features to their offsprings. Evolutionary developmental biology In evolutionary developmental biology scientists look at how the different processes in development play a role in how a specific organism reaches its current body plan. The genetic regulation of ontogeny and the phylogenetic process is what allows for this kind of understanding of biology to be possible. By looking at different processes during development, and going through the evolutionary tree, one can determine at which point a specific structure came about. For example, the three germ layers can be observed to not be present in cnidarians and ctenophores, which instead present in worms, being more or less developed depending on the kind of worm itself. Other structures like the development of Hox genes and sensory organs such as eyes can also be traced with this practice. Phylogenetic Trees Phylogenetic Trees are representations of genetic lineage. They are figures that show how related species are to one another. They formed by analyzing the physical traits as well as the similarities of the DNA between species. Then by using a molecular clock scientists can estimate when the species diverged. An example of a phylogeny would be the tree of life. Homologs Genes that have shared ancestry are homologs. If a speciation event occurs and one gene ends up in two different species the genes are now orthologous. If a gene is duplicated within the a singular species then it is a paralog. A molecular clock can be used to estimate when these events occurred. History The idea of evolution by natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, but evolutionary biology, as an academic discipline in its own right, emerged during the period of the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1980s that many universities had departments of evolutionary biology. In the United States, many universities have created departments of molecular and cell biology or ecology and evolutionary biology, in place of the older departments of botany and zoology. Palaeontology is often grouped with earth science. Microbiology too is becoming an evolutionary discipline now that microbial physiology and genomics are better understood. The quick generation time of bacteria and viruses such as bacteriophages makes it possible to explore evolutionary questions. Many biologists have contributed to shaping the modern discipline of evolutionary biology. Theodosius Dobzhansky and E. B. Ford established an empirical research programme. Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright, and J. B. S. Haldane created a sound theoretical framework. Ernst Mayr in systematics, George Gaylord Simpson in paleontology and G. Ledyard Stebbins in botany helped to form the modern synthesis. James Crow, Richard Lewontin, Dan Hartl, Marcus Feldman, and Brian Charlesworth trained a generation of evolutionary biologists. Current research topics Current research in evolutionary biology covers diverse topics and incorporates ideas from diverse areas, such as molecular genetics and computer science. First, some fields of evolutionary research try to explain phenomena that were poorly accounted for in the modern evolutionary synthesis. These include speciation, the evolution of sexual reproduction, the evolution of cooperation, the evolution of ageing, and evolvability. Second, some evolutionary biologists ask the most straightforward evolutionary question: "what happened and when?". This includes fields such as paleobiology, where paleobiologists and evolutionary biologists, including Thomas Halliday and Anjali Goswami, studied the evolution of early mammals going far back in time during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras (between 299 million to 12,000 years ago). Other fields related to generic exploration of evolution ("what happened and when?" ) include systematics and phylogenetics. Third, the modern evolutionary synthesis was devised at a time when nobody understood the molecular basis of genes. Today, evolutionary biologists try to determine the genetic architecture of interesting evolutionary phenomena such as adaptation and speciation. They seek answers to questions such as how many genes are involved, how large are the effects of each gene, how interdependent are the effects of different genes, what do the genes do, and what changes happen to them (e.g., point mutations vs. gene duplication or even genome duplication). They try to reconcile the high heritability seen in twin studies with the difficulty in finding which genes are responsible for this heritability using genome-wide association studies. One challenge in studying genetic architecture is that the classical population genetics that catalysed the modern evolutionary synthesis must be updated to take into account modern molecular knowledge. This requires a great deal of mathematical development to relate DNA sequence data to evolutionary theory as part of a theory of molecular evolution. For example, biologists try to infer which genes have been under strong selection by detecting selective sweeps. Fourth, the modern evolutionary synthesis involved agreement about which forces contribute to evolution, but not about their relative importance. Current research seeks to determine this. Evolutionary forces include natural selection, sexual selection, genetic drift, genetic draft, developmental constraints, mutation bias and biogeography. This evolutionary approach is key to much current research in organismal biology and ecology, such as life history theory. Annotation of genes and their function relies heavily on comparative approaches. The field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how developmental processes work, and compares them in different organisms to determine how they evolved. Many physicians do not have enough background in evolutionary biology, making it difficult to use it in modern medicine. However, there are efforts to gain a deeper understanding of disease through evolutionary medicine and to develop evolutionary therapies. Drug resistance today Evolution plays a role in resistance of drugs; for example, how HIV becomes resistant to medications and the body's immune system. The mutation of resistance of HIV is due to the natural selection of the survivors and their offspring. The few HIV that survive the immune system reproduced and had offspring that were also resistant to the immune system. Drug resistance also causes many problems for patients such as a worsening sickness or the sickness can mutate into something that can no longer be cured with medication. Without the proper medicine, a sickness can be the death of a patient. If their body has resistance to a certain number of drugs, then the right medicine will be harder and harder to find. Not completing the prescribed full course of antibiotic is also an example of resistance that will cause the bacteria against which the antibiotic is being taken to evolve and continue to spread in the body. When the full dosage of the medication does not enter the body and perform its proper job, the bacteria that survive the initial dosage will continue to reproduce. This can make for another bout of sickness later on that will be more difficult to cure because the bacteria involved will be resistant to the first medication used. Taking the full course of medicine that is prescribed is a vital step in avoiding antibiotic resistance. Individuals with chronic illnesses, especially those that can recur throughout a lifetime, are at greater risk of antibiotic resistance than others. This is because overuse of a drug or too high of a dosage can cause a patient's immune system to weaken and the illness will evolve and grow stronger. For example, cancer patients will need a stronger and stronger dosage of medication because of their low functioning immune system. Journals Some scientific journals specialise exclusively in evolutionary biology as a whole, including the journals Evolution, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, and BMC Evolutionary Biology. Some journals cover sub-specialties within evolutionary biology, such as the journals Systematic Biology, Molecular Biology and Evolution and its sister journal Genome Biology and Evolution, and Cladistics. Other journals combine aspects of evolutionary biology with other related fields. For example, Molecular Ecology, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, The American Naturalist and Theoretical Population Biology have overlap with ecology and other aspects of organismal biology. Overlap with ecology is also prominent in the review journals Trends in Ecology and Evolution and Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. The journals Genetics and PLoS Genetics overlap with molecular genetics questions that are not obviously evolutionary in nature. See also Comparative anatomy Computational phylogenetics Evolutionary computation Evolutionary dynamics Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology On the Origin of Species Macroevolution Phylogenetic comparative methods Quantitative genetics Selective breeding Taxonomy (biology) Speculative evolution References External links Evolution and Paleobotany at the Encyclopædia Britannica Philosophy of biology
418106	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Army%20Rangers	United States Army Rangers	United States Army Rangers are U.S. Army personnel who have served in any unit which has held the official designation of "Ranger". The term is commonly used to include graduates of the Ranger School, even if they have never served in a "Ranger" unit; the vast majority of Ranger school graduates never serve in Ranger units and are considered "Ranger qualified". In a broader and less formal sense, the term "ranger" has been used, officially and unofficially, in North America since the 17th century, to describe light infantry in small, independent units—usually companies. The first units to be officially designated Rangers were companies recruited in the New England Colonies to fight against Native Americans in King Philip's War. Following that time, the term became more common in official usage, during the French and Indian Wars of the 18th century. The U.S. military has had "Ranger" companies since the American Revolutionary War. British Army units designated as "Rangers" have often also had historical links of some kind to British North America. The 75th Ranger Regiment is an elite airborne light infantry combat formation within the United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC). The six battalions of the modern Rangers have been deployed in Korea, Vietnam, Grenada, Panama, Afghanistan and Iraq. The Ranger Regiment traces its lineage to three of six battalions raised in World War II, and to the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional)—known as "Merrill's Marauders", and then reflagged as the 475th Infantry, then later as the 75th Infantry. The Ranger Training Brigade (RTB)—headquartered at Fort Moore—is an organization under the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) and is separate from the 75th Ranger Regiment. It has been in service in various forms since World War II. The Ranger Training Brigade administers Ranger School, the satisfactory completion of which is required to become Ranger qualified and to wear the Ranger Tab. History Colonial period Rangers served in the 17th and 18th-century wars between American colonists and Native American tribes. British regulars were unaccustomed to frontier warfare and so Ranger companies were developed. Rangers were full-time soldiers employed by colonial governments to patrol between fixed frontier fortifications in reconnaissance providing early warning of raids. In offensive operations, they were scouts and guides, locating villages and other targets for taskforces drawn from the militia or other colonial troops. In Colonial America, "The earliest mention of Ranger operations comes from Capt. John "Samuel" Smith," who wrote in 1622, "When I had ten men able to go abroad, our common wealth was very strong: with such a number I ranged that unknown country 14 weeks." Robert Black also stated that, In 1622, after the Berkeley Plantation Massacre... grim-faced men went forth to search out the Indian enemy. They were militia—citizen soldiers—but they were learning to blend the methods of Indian and European warfare... As they went in search of the enemy, the words range, ranging and Ranger were frequently used... The American Ranger had been born. The father of American ranging is Colonel Benjamin Church (c. 1639–1718). He was the captain of the first Ranger force in America (1676). Church was commissioned by the Governor of the Plymouth Colony Josiah Winslow to form the first ranger company for King Philip's War. He later employed the company to raid Acadia during King William's War and Queen Anne's War. Benjamin Church designed his force primarily to emulate Native American patterns of war. Toward this end, Church endeavored to learn to fight like Native Americans from Native Americans. Americans became rangers exclusively under the tutelage of the Native American allies. (Until the end of the colonial period, rangers depended on Native Americans as both allies and teachers.) Church developed a special full-time unit mixing white colonists selected for frontier skills with friendly Native Americans to carry out offensive strikes against hostile Native Americans in terrain where normal militia units were ineffective. His memoirs Entertaining Passages relating to Philip's War is considered the first American military manual, which was published in 1716. Under Church served the father and grandfather of two famous rangers of the eighteenth century: John Lovewell and John Gorham respectively. John Lovewell served during Dummer's War (also known as Lovewell's War). He lived in present-day Nashua, New Hampshire. He fought in Dummer's War as a militia captain, leading three expeditions against the Abenaki tribe. John Lovewell became the most famous Ranger of the eighteenth century. During King George's War, John Gorham established "Gorham's Rangers". Gorham's company fought on the frontier at Acadia and Nova Scotia. Gorham was commissioned a captain in the British Army in recognition of his outstanding service. He was the first of three prominent American rangers–himself, his younger brother Joseph Gorham and Robert Rogers—to earn such commissions in the British Army. (Many others, such as George Washington, were unsuccessful in their attempts to achieve a British rank.) Rogers' Rangers was established in 1751 by Major Robert Rogers, who organized nine Ranger companies in the American colonies. Roger's Island, in Modern Day Fort Edward, NY, is considered the "spiritual home" of the United States Special Operations Forces, particularly the United States Army Rangers. These early American light infantry units, organized during the French and Indian War, bore the name "Rangers" and were the forerunners of the modern Army Rangers. Major Rogers drafted the first currently-known set of standard orders for rangers. These rules, Robert Rogers' 28 "Rules of Ranging", are still provided to all new Army Rangers upon graduation from training, and served as one of the first modern manuals for asymmetric warfare. American Revolution Loyalist Rangers When the American Revolution began, Major Robert Rogers allegedly offered his services to General George Washington. Fearing that Rogers was a spy, Washington refused. An incensed Rogers instead joined forces with the Loyalists, raised the Queen's Rangers, and fought for the Crown. While serving with the British, Col. Rogers was responsible for capturing America's most famous spy in Nathan Hale. After Colonel Robert Rogers left the Queen's Rangers, he travelled to Nova Scotia, where he raised King's Rangers, in 1779. The regiment was disbanded in 1783. Continental Rangers Not all Rogers' Rangers went with him, however, including such notable figures as Israel Putnam and John Stark. Later on during the war, General Washington ordered Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Knowlton to select an elite group of men for reconnaissance missions. This unit was known as Knowlton's Rangers, and is credited as the first official Ranger unit (by name) for the United States. This unit carried out intelligence functions rather than combat functions in most cases, and as such are not generally considered the historical parent of the modern day Army Rangers. Instead, Knowlton's Rangers gave rise to the modern Military Intelligence branch (although it was not a distinct branch until the 20th century). In June 1775 Ethan Allen and Seth Warner had the Continental Congress create a Continental Ranger Regiment including many of the famed Green Mountain Boys. Warner was elected the Regiment's Colonel with the Rangers forming part of the Continental Army's Invasion of Quebec in 1775. The Regiment was disbanded in 1779. Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox" Revolutionary commander of South Carolina, developed irregular methods of warfare during his guerrilla period in South Carolina. He is credited in the lineage of the Army Rangers, as is George Rogers Clark who led an irregular force of Kentucky/Virginia militiamen to capture the British forts at Vincennes, Indiana and Kaskaskia, Illinois. War of 1812 In January 1812 the United States authorized six companies of United States Rangers who were mounted infantry with the function of protecting the Western frontier. Five of these companies were raised in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky. A sixth was in Middle Tennessee, organized by Capt. David Mason. The next year, 10 new companies were raised. By December 1813 the Army Register listed officers of 12 companies of Rangers. The Ranger companies were discharged in June 1815. Black Hawk War During the Black Hawk War, in 1832, the Battalion of Mounted Rangers, an early version of the cavalry in the U.S. Army was created out of frontiersmen who enlisted for one year and provided their own rifles and horses. The battalion was organized into six companies of 100 men each that was led by Major Henry Dodge. After their enlistment expired there was no creation of a second battalion. Instead, the battalion was reorganized into the 1st Dragoon Regiment. Civil War Several units that were named and functioned similarly to Rangers fought in the American Civil War between 1861 and 1865, such as the Loudoun Rangers that consisted of Quaker and German farmers from northern Loudoun County. They were founded by Captain Samuel C. Means, a Virginian refugee who was approached by Washington to form two detachments on 20 June 1862. The Loudoun Rangers conducted periodic raids in Loudoun, Clarke and Jefferson counties. Military historian Darl L. Stephenson stated that a unit called the Blazer's Scouts were also a precursor to Army Rangers during the Civil War. Aside from conducting similar irregular warfare on Confederate forces in Richmond, Mississippi and Tennessee, its members were also descendants of the first ranger groups, organized by Robert Rogers in the French and Indian War. The Blazer's Scouts were instrumental in fighting off other irregular forces such as partisan bushwhackers and Mosby's Rangers, another unit of Rangers that fought for the Confederacy. World War II Major General Lucian Truscott of the U.S. Army was a liaison officer with the British General Staff. In 1942 he submitted a proposal to General George Marshall that an American unit be set up "along the lines of the British Commandos". Five Ranger Battalions would be organized in the European Theatre including the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th; the 6th would be organized in the Pacific Theatre. The 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th Ranger Battalions were "Ghost" formations, which were part of the deception plan known as "Operation Quicksilver." European theater On 19 June 1942 the 1st Ranger Battalion was sanctioned, recruited, and began training in Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland. Eighty percent of the original Rangers came from the 34th Infantry Division. A select fifty or so of the first U.S. Rangers were dispersed through the British Commandos for the Dieppe Raid in August 1942; these were the first American soldiers to see ground combat in the European theater. Together with the ensuing 3rd and 4th Ranger Battalions they fought in North Africa and Italy commanded by Colonel William Orlando Darby until the Battle of Cisterna (29 January 1944) when most of the Rangers of the 1st and 3rd Battalions were captured. Of the 767 men in the battalions 761 were killed or captured. The remaining Rangers were absorbed into the Canadian-American First Special Service Force under Brigadier General Robert T. Frederick. They were then instrumental in operations in and around the Anzio beachhead that followed Operation Shingle. The 29th Ranger Battalion was a temporary unit made of selected volunteers from the 29th Infantry Division that was in existence from December 1942 to November 1943. Before the 5th Ranger Battalion landing on Dog White sector on Omaha Beach, during the Invasion of Normandy, the 2nd Ranger Battalion scaled the cliffs of Pointe du Hoc, a few miles to the west, to destroy a five-gun battery of captured French Canon de 155 mm GPF guns. The gun positions were empty on the day and the weapons had been removed some time before to allow the construction of casements in their place. (One of the gun positions was destroyed by the RAF in May—prior to D-day—leaving five missing guns). Under constant fire during their climb, they encountered only a small company of Germans on the cliffs and subsequently discovered a group of field artillery weapons in trees some to the rear. The guns were disabled and destroyed, and the Rangers then cut and held the main road for two days before being relieved. All whilst being reinforced by members of the 5th Ranger Battalion who arrived at 6pm on 6 June from Omaha Beach. More 5th Ranger units arrived by sea on 7 June when some of their wounded along with German prisoners were taken away to the waiting ships. Pacific theater Two separate Ranger units fought the war in the Pacific Theater. The 98th Field Artillery Battalion was formed on 16 December 1940 and activated at Fort Lewis in January 1941. On 26 September 1944, they were converted from field artillery to light infantry and became 6th Ranger Battalion. 6th Ranger Battalion led the invasion of the Philippines and executed the raid on the Cabanatuan POW camp. They continued fighting in the Philippines until they were deactivated on 30 December 1945, in Japan. After the first Quebec Conference, the 5307th Composite Unit (provisional) was formed with Frank Merrill as the commander, its 2,997 officers and men became popularly known as Merrill's Marauders. They began training in India on 31 October 1943. Much of the Marauders training was based on Major General Orde Wingate of the British Army who specialized in deep penetration raids behind Japanese lines. The 5307th Composite Group was composed of the six color-coded combat teams that would become part of modern Ranger heraldry, they fought against the Japanese during the Burma Campaign. In February 1944, the Marauders began a march over the Himalayan mountain range and through the Burmese jungle to strike behind the Japanese lines. By March, they had managed to cut off Japanese forces in Maingkwan and cut their supply lines in the Hukawng Valley. On 17 May, the Marauders and Chinese forces captured the Myitkyina airfield, the only all-weather airfield in Burma. For their actions, every member of the unit received the Bronze Star. Motto On 6 June 1944, during the assault landing on Dog White sector of Omaha Beach as part of the invasion of Normandy, then-Brigadier General Norman Cota (assistant division commander of the 29th Infantry Division) approached Major Max Schneider, CO of the 5th Ranger Battalion and asked "What outfit is this?", Schneider answered "5th Rangers, Sir!" To this, Cota replied "Well, goddamnit, if you're Rangers, lead the way!" From this, the Ranger motto—"Rangers lead the way!"—was born. Korean War At the outbreak of the Korean War, a unique Ranger unit was formed. Led by Second Lieutenant Ralph Puckett, the Eighth Army Ranger Company was created in August 1950. It served as the role model for the rest of the soon to be formed Ranger units. Instead of being organized into self-contained battalions, the Ranger units of the Korean and Vietnam eras were organized into companies and then attached to larger units, to serve as organic special operations units. In total, sixteen additional Ranger companies were formed in the next seven months: Eighth Army Raider Company and First through Fifteenth Ranger Company. The Army Chief of Staff assigned the Ranger training program at Fort Benning to Colonel John Gibson Van Houten. The program eventually split to include a training program located in Korea. 3rd Ranger Company and the 7th Ranger Company were tasked to train new Rangers. The next four Ranger companies were formed 28 October 1950. Soldiers from the 505th Airborne Regiment and the 82nd Airborne's 80th Anti-aircraft Artillery Battalion volunteered and, after initially being designated the 4th Ranger Company, became the 2nd Ranger Company—the only all-black Ranger unit in United States history. After the four companies had begun their training, they were joined by the 5th–8th Ranger companies on 20 November 1950. During the course of the war, the Rangers patrolled and probed, scouted and destroyed, attacked and ambushed the Communist Chinese and North Korean enemy. The 1st Rangers destroyed the 12th North Korean Division headquarters in a daring night raid. The 2nd and 4th Rangers made a combat airborne assault near Munsan where Life Magazine reported that Allied troops were now patrolling north of the 38th Parallel. Crucially, the 2nd Rangers plugged the gap made by the retreating Allied forces, the 5th Ranger Company helped stop the Chinese 5th Phase Offensive. As in World War II, after the Korean War, the Rangers were disbanded. Vietnam War Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (LRRP) and Long Range Patrol companies (commonly known as Lurps) were formed by the U.S. Army in the early 1960s in West Germany to provide small, heavily armed reconnaissance teams to patrol deep in enemy-held territory in case of war with the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. In Vietnam LRRP platoons and companies were attached to every brigade and division where they perfected the art of long-range patrolling. Since satellite communications were a thing of the future, one of the most daring long-range penetration operations of the Vietnam War was launched on 19 April 1968, by members of the 1st Air Cavalry Division's, Company E, 52nd Infantry (LRP), (redesignated Co. H, Ranger), against the NVA when they seized "Signal Hill" the name attributed to the peak of Dong Re Lao Mountain, a densely forested mountain, midway in A Shau Valley, so the 1st and 3rd Brigades, slugging it out hidden deep behind the towering wall of mountains, could communicate with Camp Evans near the coast or with approaching aircraft. On 1 January 1969, under the new U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System (CARS), these units were redesignated "Ranger" in South Vietnam within the 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger) and all replacement personnel were mandatory airborne qualified. Fifteen companies of Rangers were raised from LRRP units, which had been performing missions in Europe since the early 1960s and in Vietnam since 1966. The genealogy of this new Regiment was linked to Merrill's Marauders. The Rangers were organized as independent companies: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O and P, with one notable exception, since 1816, U.S. Army units have not included a Juliet or "J" company, (the reason for this is because the letter 'J' looked too similar to the letter 'I' in Old English script). Companies A and B were respectively assigned to V Corps at Fort Hood, Texas, and VII Corps at Fort Lewis, Washington. In addition to scouting and reconnoitering roles for their parent formations, Ranger units provided terrain-assessment and tactical or special security missions; undertook recovery operations to locate and retrieve prisoners of war; captured enemy soldiers for interrogation and intelligence-gathering purposes; tapped North Vietnamese Army and Vietcong wire communications lines in their established base areas along the Ho Chi Minh trail; and mined enemy trails as well as motor-vehicle transport routes. To provide tactical skills and patrol expertise all LRRP/Ranger team leaders and most assistant team leaders were graduates of the 5th Special Forces Group Recondo School at Nha Trang Vietnam. Post-Vietnam era After the Vietnam War, division and brigade commanders determined that the U.S. Army needed an elite, rapidly deployable light infantry, so on 31 January 1974 General Creighton Abrams asked General Kenneth C. Leuer to activate, organize, train and command the first battalion sized Ranger unit since World War II. Initially, the 1st Ranger Battalion was constituted; because of its success, eight months later, 1 October 1974, the 2nd Ranger Battalion was constituted, and in 1984 the 3rd Ranger Battalion and their regimental headquarters were created. In 1986, the 75th Ranger Regiment was formed and their military lineage formally authorized. The regiment, comprising three battalions, is the premier light infantry unit of the U.S. Army, a combination of special operations and elite airborne light infantry. The regiment is a flexible, highly trained and rapid light infantry unit specialized to be employed against any special operations targets. All Rangers—whether they are in the 75th Ranger Regiment, or Ranger School, or both—are taught to live by the Ranger Creed. Primary tasks include: direct action, national and international emergency crisis response, airfield seizure, airborne & air assault operations, special reconnaissance, intelligence & counter intelligence, combat search and rescue, personnel recovery & hostage rescue, joint special operations, and counter terrorism. The 4th, 5th, and 6th Ranger Battalions were re-activated as the Ranger Training Brigade, the cadre of instructors of the contemporary Ranger School; moreover, because they are parts of a TRADOC school, the 4th, 5th, and 6th battalions are not a part of the 75th Ranger Regiment. The Rangers have participated in numerous operations throughout modern history. In 1980, the Rangers were involved with Operation Eagle Claw, the 1980 second rescue attempt of American hostages in Tehran, Iran. In 1983, the 1st and 2nd Ranger Battalions conducted Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada. All three Ranger battalions, with a headquarters element, participated in the U.S. invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause) in 1989. In 1991 Bravo Company, the first platoon and Anti-Tank section from Alpha Company, 1st Battalion was deployed in the Persian Gulf War (Operations Desert Storm and Desert Shield). Bravo Company, 3rd Ranger Battalion was the base unit of Task Force Ranger in Operation Gothic Serpent, in Somalia in 1993, concurrent with Operation Restore Hope. In 1994, soldiers from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Ranger Battalions deployed to Haiti (before the operation's cancellation. The force was recalled from the Haitian coast.). The 3rd Ranger Battalion supported the initial war effort in Afghanistan, in 2001. The Ranger Regiment has been involved in multiple deployments in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom since 2003. War on Terror In response to the 11 September terrorist strikes, the United States launched the War on Terror with the invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. Special operations units such as the Rangers, along with some CIA officers and Navy SEALs were the first U.S. forces on Afghan soil during Operation Enduring Freedom. This was the first large Ranger operation since the Battle of Mogadishu. The Rangers met with success during the invasion aimed at overthrowing the Taliban government, in which they participated in two operations to secure strategic areas in Kandahar Province in Southern Afghanistan. The first operation, Operation Rhino, was designed to take control of a landing strip from the Taliban that would be useful for future missions. The Rangers faced little opposition during their attack on the airfield and didn't suffer any casualties during the mission. However, two Rangers from another group who were assigned to provide rescue support from a location in Pakistan died when their helicopter crashed. The seized landing strip would later become known as Camp Rhino. The second operation after seizing the airstrip was a supporting mission to assist Delta Force in an operation to raid a Taliban compound, known as Objective Gecko, in which the Taliban leader, Mullah Omar, was rumoured to be hiding. The Rangers set up blocking positions while Delta Force secured the compound. There were no Taliban inside the compound itself, but both the Rangers and Delta Force were ambushed by a group of Taliban fighters as they prepared to leave the area. During the ensuing firefight, one soldier reportedly had his foot blown off by an RPG. These two operations have been the subject of intense debate, with critics contending that they put the soldiers at unnecessary risk and had no clear strategic value or intelligence gains. There are even some who suggest that politicians in Washington ordered these operations purely for political gain, using soldiers as pawns to advance their own interests. The following year, the Rangers also participated in the biggest firefight of Operation Anaconda in 2002 at Takur Ghar. In 2003, when the United States invaded Iraq, the Rangers were among those sent in. During the beginning of the war, they faced some of Iraq's elite Republican Guard units. Rangers were also involved in the rescue of American prisoner of war POW Private First Class Jessica Lynch. The 75th Ranger Regiment has been one of the few units to have members continuously deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan. Ranger School Ranger training began in September 1950 at Fort Benning, Georgia "with the formation and training of 17 Airborne Companies by the Ranger Training Command". The first class graduated from Ranger training in November 1950." The United States Army's Infantry School officially established the Ranger Department in December 1951. Under the Ranger Department, the first Ranger School Class was conducted in January–March 1952, with a graduation date of 1March 1952. Its duration was 59 days. At the time, Ranger training was voluntary. In 1966, a panel headed by General Ralph E. Haines, Jr. recommended making Ranger training mandatory for all Regular Army officers upon commissioning. "On 16 August 1966, the Chief of Staff of the Army, General Harold K. Johnson, directed it so." This policy was implemented in July 1967. It was rescinded on 21 June 1972 by General William Westmoreland. Once again, Ranger training was voluntary. In August 1987, the Ranger Department was split from the Infantry School and the Ranger Training Brigade was established, commanded by Brigadier General (R) James Emory Mace. The Ranger Companies that made up the Ranger Department became the current training units—the 4th, 5th and 6th Ranger Training Battalions. These units conduct the United States Army's Ranger School at various locations at Fort Benning, Georgia, Camp Frank Merrill, near Dahlonega, Georgia, and Camp James Rudder at Eglin Air Force Base's Auxiliary Field No. 6/Biancur Field, in northwest Florida. As of 2011, the school is 61 days in duration. In August 2015, two women graduated from Ranger School; they were the "first females to successfully complete the notoriously gruelling program". Ranger Creed Recognizing that I volunteered as a Ranger, fully knowing the hazards of my chosen profession, I will always endeavor to uphold the prestige, honor, and high esprit de corps of my Ranger Regiment. Acknowledging the fact that a Ranger is a more elite soldier who arrives at the cutting edge of battle by land, sea, or air, I accept the fact that as a Ranger my country expects me to move further, faster, and fight harder than any other soldier. Never shall I fail my comrades. I will always keep myself mentally alert, physically strong, and morally straight and I will shoulder more than my share of the task whatever it may be, one hundred percent and then some. Gallantly will I show the world that I am a specially selected and well trained soldier. My courtesy to superior officers, neatness of dress, and care of equipment shall set the example for others to follow. Energetically will I meet the enemies of my country. I shall defeat them on the field of battle for I am better trained and will fight with all my might. Surrender is not a Ranger word. I will never leave a fallen comrade to fall into the hands of the enemy and under no circumstances will I ever embarrass my country. Readily will I display the intestinal fortitude required to fight on to the Ranger objective and complete the mission, though I be the lone survivor. Rangers, lead the way. "Ranger" terminology Organizations both use and define the term "Ranger" in different ways. For example, the annual Best Ranger Competition, hosted by the Ranger Training Brigade, the title "Best Ranger" can be won by any Ranger qualified entrants from any unit in the U.S. military. For an individual to be inducted into the U.S. Army Ranger Association's "Ranger Hall of Fame" they "must have served in a Ranger unit in combat or be a successful graduate of the U.S. Army Ranger School." The Ranger Association further clarifies the type of unit: "A Ranger unit is defined as those Army units recognized in Ranger lineage or history." Acceptance into the U.S. Army Ranger Association is limited to "Rangers that have earned the U.S. Army Ranger tab, WWII Rangers, Korean War Rangers, Vietnam War Rangers, all Rangers that participated in Operations Urgent Fury, Just Cause, Desert Storm, Restore Hope, Enduring Freedom, and all Rangers who have served honorably for at least one year in a recognized Ranger unit." Ranger Hall of Honor The U.S. Army Ranger Hall of Honor was established in 1952. It is hosted at the National Infantry Museum in Columbus, Georgia, which also hosts the U.S. Army Officer Candidate School Hall of Honor. The Ranger of Hall of Fame features a digital kiosk with over 200 biographies and portraits of inductees. Notable Rangers Colonial period Benjamin Church John Gorham Joseph Gorham John Lovewell Robert Rogers Josiah Standish John Stark - Commander, First New Hampshire Militia; coined phrase "Live Free or Die" American Revolution George Rogers Clark - led an irregular force of Kentucky/Virginia militiamen to capture the British forts at Vincennes, Indiana and Kaskaskia, Illinois. Thomas Knowlton - commander of Knowlton's Rangers; early American intelligence agent; the MICA Knowlton Award is named in his honor Francis Marion - the "Swamp Fox" during the American Revolution; credited in the lineage of the United States Army Rangers; recognized as one of the fathers of modern guerrilla warfare Daniel Morgan - commander of the 11th Virginia Regiment, later called the Corps of Rangers and "Morgan's Sharpshooters", during the American Revolution Israel Putnam - Major General in the Continental Army War of 1812 Daniel Appling - a Key Subordinate Commander of the American Regiment of Riflemen Joseph Bartholomew - a major general who served with the Indiana Rangers Nathan Boone - was a captain of a company of United States Rangers in the War of 1812 Benjamin Forsyth - a key subordinate commander of the American Regiment of Riflemen John Tipton - an officer with the Indiana Rangers, went on to become a brigadier general and then a U.S. Senator Bennet C. Riley - a second lieutenant of the American Regiment of Riflemen. Thomas Adams Smith - a commander of the American Regiment of Riflemen. World War II to present John Abizaid – former Commander, United States Central Command, 2003–2007 David Barno – former Commander, Combined Forces Command-Afghanistan; former commander of 2nd Ranger Battalion Charles Alvin Beckwith – Ranger-qualified Airborne Infantry and Special Forces officer, the creator and first commanding officer of Delta Force; helped shape the modern Ranger School, transforming the Florida phase from a WW2-era to a modern-era training regimen Christopher A. Celiz, Medal of Honor recipient, served in the 1st Ranger Battalion Wesley Clark – former Supreme Allied Commander in Europe; Democratic presidential candidate Richard D. Clarke, current commander of USSOCOM. Clarke previously served as a company commander from 1994 to 1996, then as a battalion commander from 2004 to 2006 and regimental commander from 2007 to 2009 in the 75th Ranger Regiment. William Orlando Darby – established and commanded "Darby's Rangers" that later evolved into the U.S. Army Rangers Wayne A. Downing Jason Everman – former member of the bands Nirvana and Soundgarden David Goggins, former Navy SEAL, ultramarathon runner, ultra-distance cyclist, triathlete, motivational speaker, and author. Graduated from Army Ranger School with the distinction of enlisted "Top Honor Man." Gary Gordon, served with the 10th Special Forces Group and later in Delta Force as a sniper. He, along with SFC Randy Shughart were the first two post-Vietnam War servicemembers to receive the Medal of Honor for their actions during the Battle of Mogadishu. David E. Grange Jr. - namesake of the annual "Best Ranger Competition" David L. Grange - former commander of Delta Force and the son of retired lieutenant general David E. Grange Jr. Kristen Marie Griest — one of the two first women to graduate from U.S. Army Ranger School Gary L. Harrell - former commander of Delta Force and served during the Battle of Mogadishu. Shaye Lynne Haver — one of the two first women to graduate from U.S. Army Ranger School Charles N. Hunter- member of Unit Galahad, Merrill's Marauders, from the beginning as its ranking or second-ranking officer; commanded it during its times of greatest trial, and contributed to its record Nicholas Irving - former sniper in the 3rd Ranger Battalion; served in Iraq and Afghanistan; noted for killing 33 enemy combatants in four months Lisa Jaster, the first female army reserve soldier to graduate from Ranger School. Peter Kassig - aid worker, taken hostage and ultimately beheaded by the Islamic State William F. Kernan - 6th Colonel of the 75th Ranger Regiment Kris Kristofferson - former Army Ranger; singer/songwriter; actor Paul LaCamera - Commander, 4th Infantry Division; former Commander, 75th Ranger Regiment (2005—2007) Robert D. Law - served in the Vietnam War, Medal of Honor recipient (posthumous) Gary L. Littrell - Medal of Honor recipient Leonard Lomell - Received the Distinguished Service Cross for action on D-Day at Pointe du Hoc, and the Silver Star for action on Hill 400 during the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, in WWII. Stanley A. McChrystal - former Commander, International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR-A); former Director of the Joint Staff; former Commander of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) Danny McKnight - served as commander of the 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment during the Battle of Mogadishu. Richard J. Meadows, Distinguished Service Cross recipient. A ranger-qualified Special Forces officer who was a pivotal player in the creation of the modern U.S. Army Special Forces. Frank D. Merrill - led the 5307th CUP (Composite Unit [Provisional]) aka Merrill's Marauders during World War II Mark Milley - current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff who had previously served as the 39th Chief of Staff of the United States Army. Henry Mucci - led and trained the 6th Ranger Battalion, responsible for the Raid at Cabanatuan Robert S. Mueller III, Second-longest serving FBI director in American history and Special Counsel in the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections; inducted into the Ranger Hall of Fame in 2016. Thomas Payne, a member of Delta Force and the first Medal of Honor recipient against the battle with ISIL. Thomas is also the first living Delta Force operator to be awarded the Medal of Honor, and the third overall Delta operator, with the first two being MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Randy Shughart. Payne with his partner MSG Kevin Foutz, also won the Best Ranger Competition in 2012. Kelly Perdew - winner of the second season of The Apprentice David Petraeus - Commander of International Security Assistance Force ISAF; former Commander of CENTCOM; former commander of Multi-National Force – Iraq; former Director of the CIA Leroy Petry - Army Ranger, 75th Regiment; Medal of Honor recipient Greg Plitt - fitness model and actor Colin Powell - former National Security Adviser; Commander, United States Army Forces Command; Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff; United States Secretary of State Robert Pruden - served in the Vietnam War; Medal of Honor recipient (posthumous) Ralph Puckett - Honorary Colonel of the 75th Ranger Regiment, 1996-2008 Laszlo Rabel - served in the Vietnam War, Medal of Honor recipient (posthumous) Jack Reed - U.S. Senator from Rhode Island David Richardson - Ranger who served with Merrill's Marauders; led a prominent career as a journalist John W. Ripley - first U.S. Marine to be inducted into the Ranger Hall of Fame; awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism in destroying the Dong Ha bridge during the April 1972 North Vietnamese Easter Offensive J Robinson, 4-time national wrestling champion, member of the US Olympic team, head coach of the Minnesota Golden Gophers wrestling team. James Earl Rudder - Commander of the 2nd Ranger Battalion during World War II; later president of Texas A&M University; led the Ranger assault on Pointe du Hoc on D-Day Perry Saturn - professional wrestler; real name Perry Satullo Nate Self - former captain, and Silver Star recipient. Self also served in the Battle of Takur Ghar. Randy Shughart – started his Army career as a Ranger; later selected for Delta Force; Medal of Honor recipient sniper; killed during the Battle of Mogadishu Arthur D. Simons – Army Ranger in World War II; later leader of Operation Ivory Coast, an effort to rescue prisoners of war in Vietnam Michael D. Steele - served as the commander of B Company, 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment, during the Battle of Mogadishu. Jeff Struecker, served in the Battle of Mogadishu as part of Task Force Ranger. He and his partner, SPC Isaac Gmazel won the Best Ranger Competition in 1996. Phil Stern – Hollywood and jazz photographer who joined Darby's Rangers as an official photographer during World War II Keni Thomas – former Army Ranger; country music singer Pat Tillman – American football player who left his professional career in the wake of the September 11 attacks; killed in action in a friendly fire incident in Afghanistan. Stephen Trujillo – 2d Ranger Battalion medic awarded the first Silver Star of the post-Vietnam era for gallantry in action during Operation Urgent Fury Alejandro Villanueva – NFL player for the Baltimore Ravens; served in the 1st Ranger Battalion in Afghanistan Vincent Viola – former chairman of the New York Mercantile Exchange Samuel V. Wilson – Chief Reconnaissance Officer and Intelligence & Reconnaissance Platoon Leader, 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) (Merrill's Marauders); ultimately served as the Director, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) before retiring as a Lieutenant General in 1977. Joshua Wheeler, Silver Star recipient. Former member of Delta Force. He was the first American service member killed in action as a result of enemy fire while fighting ISIS militants. He was also the first American to be killed in action in Iraq since November 2011. John Whitley, Acting US Secretary of the Army Honors The 75th Ranger Regiment has been credited with numerous campaigns from World War II onwards. In World War II, they participated in 16 major campaigns, spearheading the campaigns in French Morocco, Sicily, Naples-Foggia, Anzio and Leyte. During the Vietnam War, they received campaign participation streamers for every campaign in the war. In modern times, the regiment received streamers with arrowheads (denoting conflicts they spearheaded) for Grenada and Panama. To date, the Rangers have earned six Presidential Unit Citations, nine Valorous Unit Awards, and four Meritorious Unit Commendations, the most recent of which were earned in Vietnam and Haditha, Iraq. See also The Queen's York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC) Company E, 52nd Infantry (LRP) / H Co. 75th Infantry (Ranger) Company F, 425th Infantry (Michigan NG Ranger) Recondo Ranger (disambiguation) The Rangers (British regiment) References External links A study of U.S. 2d Ranger Battalion's mission evolution since WWII (PDF, 269.13 KB) PassRanger.com – a resource for those preparing to attend the U.S. Army Ranger School Photographic history of 1st Cav LRRP Rangers in Vietnam 'Soldier Life', GoArmy.com 1942 establishments in the United States Army reconnaissance units and formations
418109	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix%20Houphou%C3%ABt-Boigny	Félix Houphouët-Boigny	Félix Houphouët-Boigny (; 18 October 1905 – 7 December 1993), affectionately called Papa Houphouët or Le Vieux ("The Old One"), was an Ivorian politician and physician who served as the first president of Ivory Coast, serving from 1960 until his death in 1993. A tribal chief, he worked as a medical aide, union leader, and planter before being elected to the French Parliament. He served in several ministerial positions within the French government before leading Ivory Coast following independence in 1960. Throughout his life, he played a significant role in politics and the decolonisation of Africa. Under Houphouët-Boigny's politically moderate leadership, Ivory Coast prospered economically. This success, uncommon in poverty-ridden West Africa, became known as the "Ivorian miracle"; it was due to a combination of sound planning, the maintenance of strong ties with the West (particularly France) and development of the country's significant coffee and cocoa industries. However, reliance on the agricultural sector caused difficulties in 1980, after a sharp drop in the prices of coffee and cocoa. Throughout his presidency, Houphouët-Boigny maintained a close relationship with France, a policy known as Françafrique, and he built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart, the chief adviser on African policy in the de Gaulle and Pompidou regimes. He aided the conspirators who ousted Kwame Nkrumah from power in Ghana in 1966, took part in the failed coup against Mathieu Kérékou in Benin in 1977, was suspected of involvement in the 1987 coup d'état that removed Thomas Sankara from power in Burkina Faso and provided assistance to UNITA, a United States-supported, anti-communist rebel movement in Angola. Houphouët-Boigny maintained a strong anti-communist foreign policy, which resulted in, among other things, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1969 (after first establishing relations in 1967) and refusing to recognise the People's Republic of China until 1983. He re-established relations with the Soviet Union in 1986. In the West, Houphouët-Boigny was commonly known as the "Sage of Africa" or the "Grand Old Man of Africa". Houphouët-Boigny moved the country's capital from Abidjan to his hometown of Yamoussoukro and built the world's largest church there, the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, at a cost of US$300 million. At the time of his death, he was the longest-serving leader in Africa's history and the third longest-serving leader in the world after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il Sung of North Korea. In 1989, UNESCO created the Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize for the "safeguarding, maintaining and seeking of peace". After his death, conditions in Ivory Coast quickly deteriorated. Between 1994 and 2002, there were a number of coups, a devaluation of the CFA franc and an economic recession; a civil war began in 2002. Early life Birth, childhood and education According to his official biography, Houphouët-Boigny was probably born on 18 October 1905, in Yamoussoukro to a family of hereditary chiefs of the Baoulé people. Unofficial accounts, however, place his birth date up to seven years earlier. Born into the animist Akouès tribe, he was named Dia Houphouët: his first name Dia means "prophet" or "magician". His father was N'Doli Houphouët. Dia Houphouët was the great-nephew through his mother of Queen Yamousso and the village chief, Kouassi N'Go. When N'Go was murdered in 1910, Dia was named to succeed him as chief. Due to his young age, his stepfather Gbro Diby ruled as regent until Dia came of age; Dia's father had already died. Houphouët-Boigny descended from tribal chiefs through his mother, Kimou N'Dri (also known as N'Dri Kan). She died much later in 1936. Doubts remain as to the identity of his father, N'Doli. Officially a native of the N'Zipri of Didiévi tribe, N'Doli Houphouët died shortly after the birth of his son Augustin, although no reliable information regarding his death exists. Houphouët-Boigny had two elder sisters, Faitai (1898?–1998) and Adjoua (d. 1987), as well as a younger brother Augustin (d. 1939). The French colonial administration recognised tribal leaders; they arranged to have Houphouët go to school at the military post in Bonzi, not far from his village, in order to prepare for his future as a leader, despite strenuous objections from relatives, especially his great-aunt Queen Yamousso. In 1915, he was transferred to the école primaire supérieure (secondary) at Bingerville in spite of his family's reluctance to have him go to boarding school. The same year, at Bingerville, Houphouët converted to Christianity; he considered it a modern religion and an obstacle to the spread of Islam. He chose to be christened Félix. First in his class, Houphouët was accepted into the École normale supérieure William Ponty in 1919, and earned a teaching degree. In 1921, he attended the École de médecine de l'AOF (French West Africa School of Medicine) in French Senegal, where he came first in his class in 1925 and qualified as a medical assistant. As he never completed his studies in medicine, he could qualify only as a médecin africain, a poorly paid doctor. Medical career On 26 October 1925, Houphouët began his career as a doctor's aide at a hospital in Abidjan, where he founded an association of indigenous medical personnel. This undertaking proved short-lived as the colonial administration viewed it unsympathetically, considering it a trade union. As a consequence, they decided to move Houphouët to a lesser hospital in Guiglo on 27 April 1927. After he proved his considerable talents, however, he was promoted on 17 September 1929 to a post in Abengourou, which until then had been reserved for Europeans. At Abengourou, Houphouët witnessed the mistreatment of indigenous cocoa farmers by the colonists. In 1932, he decided to act, leading a movement of farmers against the influential white landowners and for the economic policies of the colonial government, who favoured the farmers. On 22 December, he published an article titled "On nous a trop volés" (They have stolen too much from us), in the Trait d'union, an Ivorian socialist newspaper. It was published under a pseudonym. The following year, Houphouët was called by his tribe to assume the responsibilities of village chief. Preferring to pursue his medical career, he relinquished the office to his younger brother Augustin. Wishing to live closer to his village, he obtained a transfer to Dimbokro on 3 February 1934 and then to Toumodi on 28 June 1936. While Houphouët had displayed professional qualities, his attitude had chafed those around him. As a result, in September 1938, his clinical director demanded that he choose between his job as a doctor and his involvement in local politics. The choice was quickly made for him: his brother died in 1939, and Houphouët became the chef de canton (an office created by the colonial administration to collect taxes). Due to this, Houphouët ended his medical career the next year. First marriage In 1930, Houphouët married Kady Racine Sow (1913–2006) in Abengourou; their union was controversial because he was a practising Catholic and she was the daughter of a wealthy Muslim from Senegal. The families of the two eventually overcame their opposition and accepted the interfaith union, the first ever celebrated in Ivory Coast. The couple had five children: Felix (who died in infancy), Augustine, Francis, Guillaume and Marie, all raised as Catholics. Chef de canton and union leader By becoming chef de canton, Houphouët assumed responsibility for the administration of Akouè, a canton which comprised 36 villages. He also took charge of the family plantation—at the time one of the most important in the country—and worked to diversify its rubber, cocoa and coffee crops. He soon became one of Africa's richest farmers. On 3 September 1944, he established, in cooperation with the colonial administration, the African Agricultural Union (Syndicat agricole africain, SAA). Under his presidency, the SAA brought together African farmers who were dissatisfied with their working conditions and worked to protect their interests against those of European planters. Anti-colonialist and anti-racist, the organisation demanded better working conditions, higher wages, and the abolition of the forced labour. The union quickly received the support of nearly 20,000 plantation workers, together with that of the left-wing French administrators placed in office by the Provisional Government. Its success irritated colonists to the extent that they took legal action against Houphouët, accusing him of being anti-French for never seeking French citizenship. However, Houphouët befriended the Inspector Minister of the Colonies, who ordered the charges dropped. They were more successful in obtaining the replacement of the sympathetic Governor André Latrille with the hostile Governor Henry de Mauduit. Houphouët entered electoral politics in August 1945, when elections for the Abidjan city council were held for the first time. The French electoral rules established a common roll: half of the elected would have to be French citizens (who were mostly Europeans) and the other half non-citizens. Houphouët reacted by creating a multi-ethnic all-African roll with both non-citizens and citizens (mostly Senegalese with French citizenship). As a result, most of the African contenders withdrew and a large number of the French protested by abstaining, thus assuring a decisive victory for his African Bloc. In October 1945, Houphouët moved onto the national political scene; the French government decided to represent its colonies in the assemblée constituante () and gave Côte d'Ivoire and Upper Volta two representatives in Parliament combined. One of these would represent the French citizens and another would represent the indigenous population, but the suffrage was limited to less than 1% of the population. In an attempt to block Houphouët, the governor de Mauduit supported a rival candidature, and provided him the full backing of the administration. Despite that and thanks to the SAA's strong organization, Houphouët, running for the indigenous seat, easily came first with a -vote majority. He failed, however, to obtain a majority, due to the large number of candidates running. Houphouët emerged victorious again in the second round of elections held on 4 November 1945, in which he narrowly defeated an Upper Voltan candidate with votes out of a total of . At this point, he decided to add "Boigny" to his surname, meaning "irresistible force" in Baoulé and symbolizing his role as a leader. French political career Member of Parliament In taking his seat at the National Assembly in the Palais Bourbon alongside compatriots Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly and Zinda Kaboré, Houphouët-Boigny had to first decide with which group to side, and he opted for the Mouvements unis de la Résistance (), a small party composed of Communist sympathizers but not formal members of the Communist Party. He was appointed a member of the Commission des territoires d'outre-mer (Commission of Overseas Territories). During this time, he worked to implement the wishes of the SAA, in particular proposing a bill to abolish forced labor—the single most unpopular feature of French rule. The Assembly adopted this bill, known as Loi Houphouët-Boigny, on 11 April 1946, greatly enhancing the author's prestige beyond his country. On 3 April 1946, Houphouët-Boigny proposed to unify labour regulations in the territories of Africa; this would eventually be completed in 1952. Finally, on 27 September 1946, he filed a report on the public health system of overseas territories, calling for its reformation. Houphouët-Boigny in his parliamentary tenure supported the idea of a union of French territories. As the first constitution proposed by the Constituent Assembly was rejected by the voters, new elections were held in 1946 for a second constituent assembly. For these elections Houphouët-Boigny organized on 9 April 1946, with the help of the Communist Study Groups, the Democratic Party of Ivory Coast – African Democratic Rally (PDCI), whose structure closely followed that of the SAA. It immediately became the first successful independent African party when the new party Houphouët-Boigny easily swept the elections with out of votes, his opponents obtaining only a few hundred votes each. In this he was helped by the recall of Governor Latrille, whose predecessor had been fired by the Overseas Minister Marius Moutet for his opposition to the abolition of the indigénat. With his return to the assembly he was appointed to the Commission du règlement et du suffrage universel (Commission for Regulation of Universal Suffrage); as secretary of the commission from 1947 to 1948, he proposed on 18 February 1947 to reform French West Africa (AOF), French Equatorial Africa (AEF), and the French territories' federal council to better represent the African peoples. He also called for the creation of local assemblies in Africa so that Africans could learn how to be politically autonomous. Foundation of the RDA and Communist alliance During the holding of the second Constituent Assembly the African representatives witnessed a strong reaction against the colonial liberalism that had been embedded in the rejected constitution drafted by the previous assembly. The new text, approved by the voters on 13 October 1946, reduced the African representatives from 30 to 24, and reduced the number of those entitled to vote; also, a large number of colonial topics were left in which the executive could govern by decree, and supervision over the colonial administration remained weak. Reacting to what they felt was a betrayal of the MRP's and the Socialists' promises, the African deputies concluded they needed to build a permanent coalition independent from the French parties. Houphouët-Boigny was the first to propose this to his African colleagues, and obtained their full support for a founding congress to be held in October at Bamako in French Sudan. The French government did all it could to sabotage the congress, and in particular the Socialist Overseas Minister was successful in persuading the African Socialists, who were originally among the promoters, from attending. This ultimately backfired, radicalizing those convened; when they founded the African Democratic Rally (RDA) as an inter-territorial political movement, it was the pro-Communist Gabriel d'Arboussier who dominated the congress. The new movement's goal was to free "Africa from the colonial yoke by the affirmation of her personality and by the association, freely agreed to, of a union of nations". Its first president, confirmed several times subsequently, was Houphouët-Boigny, while d'Arboussier became secretary-general. As part of the bringing of the territorial parties in the organization, the PDCI became the Ivoirian branch of the RDA. Too small to form their own parliamentary group, the African deputies were compelled to join one of the larger parties in order to sit together in the Palais Bourbon. Thus, the RDA soon joined the French Communist Party (PCF) as the only openly anti-colonialist political faction and soon organised strikes and boycotts of European imports. Houphouët-Boigny justified the alliance because it seemed, at the time, to be the only way for his voice to be heard: "Even before the creation of RDA, the alliance had served our cause: in March 1946, the abolition of compulsory labour was adopted unanimously, without a vote, thanks to our tactical alliance." During his stays in Paris, he travelled in a black limousine to the PCF executive school. On the strength of this contrast, he defends himself from any communist sympathy: "Can I, Houphouet, traditional leader, doctor, big owner, Catholic, can we say that I am a communist?" As the Cold War set in, the alliance with the Communists became increasingly damaging for the RDA. The French colonial administration showed itself increasingly hostile toward the RDA and its president, whom the administration called a "Stalinist". Repression against his party, the PDCI, was increasing in Ivory Coast. Activists are regularly arrested and beaten by police officers, sometimes with acts of torture; others are fired from their jobs. One of the party's main leaders, Senator Biaka Boda, was found hanging and shredded in the forest while wanted by the police. Houphouët-Boigny was afraid for his life and for the existence of the movement. Tensions reached their height at the beginning of 1950, when, following an outbreak of anti-colonial violence, almost the entire PDCI leadership was arrested; Houphouët-Boigny managed to slip away shortly before police arrived at his house. Although Houphouët-Boigny would have been saved by his parliamentary immunity, his missed arrest was popularly attributed to his influence and his prestige. In the ensuing chaos, riots broke out in Ivory Coast; the most significant of which was a clash with the police at Dimbokro in which 13 Africans were killed and 50 wounded. According to official figures, by 1951 a total of 52 Africans had been killed, several hundred wounded and around 3,000 arrested (numbers which, according to an opinion reported by journalist Ronald Segal in African Profiles, are certainly underestimated). In order to defuse the crisis, Prime Minister René Pleven entrusted the France's Minister for Overseas Territories, François Mitterrand, with the task of detaching the RDA from the PCF, and in fact an official alliance between the RDA and Mitterrand's party, the UDSR, was established in 1952. Knowing he was at an impasse, in October 1950, Houphouët-Boigny agreed to break the Communist alliance. Asked in an undated interview why he worked with the communists, Houphouët-Boigny replied: "I, a bourgeois landowner, I would preach the class struggle? That is why we aligned ourselves with the Communist Party, without joining it." A 1954 report from the French military authorities points out that Houphouët-Boigny "conducted his game alone with great flexibility, procrastination and Machiavellian roueries, refraining from convening either the Coordination Committee or the party congress, which could have opposed this volte-face and gradually became a pro-administrative party. "The Secretary General of the RDA, Gabriel d'Arboussier, denounced this new line and left the party. Similarly, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon, the Union démocratique sénégalaise and the Niger Democratic Union refuse to sever their relations with the PCF and the CGT. Rehabilitation and entry into government In the 1951 elections, the number of seats was reduced from three to two; while Houphouët-Boigny still won a seat, the other RDA candidate, Ouezzin Coulibaly, did not. All in all, the RDA only garnered of votes in that election, and the party in direct opposition to it captured a seat. On 8 August 1951, Boigny, speaking at René Pleven's inauguration as president of the board, denied being the leader of a communist group; he was not believed until the RDA's 1952 affiliation with UDSR. On the 24th of that same month, Boigny delivered a statement in the Assembly contesting the result of the elections, which he declared tainted by fraud. He also denounced what he saw as the exploitation of overseas deputies as "voting machines", who, as political pawns, supported the colonial government's every action. Thereafter, Houphouët-Boigny and the RDA were briefly unsuccessful before their success was renewed in 1956; at that year's elections, the party received of votes cast. From then on, his relationship with Communism was forgotten, and he was embraced as a moderate. Named as a member of the Committees on Universal Suffrage (distinct from the aforementioned committee regulating said suffrage), Constitutional Laws, Rules and Petitions. On 1 February 1956, he was appointed Minister Discharging the Duties of the Presidency of the Council in the government of Guy Mollet, a post he held until 13 June 1957. This marked the first time an African was elected to such a senior position in the French government. His principal achievement in this role was the creation of an organisation of Saharan regions that would help ensure sustainability for the French Union and counter Moroccan territorial claims in the Sahara. He said nothing against the First Indochina War or against Guy Mollet's vote for special powers to repress the insurrection of the National Liberation Front in Algeria. On 6 November 1957, Houphouët-Boigny became Minister of Public Health and Population in the Gaillard administration and attempted to reform the public health code. He had previously served as Minister of State under Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury (13 June – 6 November 1957). Following his Gaillard ministry, he was again appointed Minister of State from 14 May 1958;– 20 May 1959. In this capacity, he participated in the development of France's African policy, notably in the cultural domain. At his behest, the Bureau of French Overseas Students and the University of Dakar were created. On 4 October 1958, Houphouët-Boigny was one of the signatories, along with de Gaulle, of the Constitution of the Fifth Republic. The last post he held in France was Minister-Counsellor in the Michel Debré government, from 23 July 1959 to 19 May 1961. Leading up to independence Until the mid-1950s, French colonies in west and central Africa were grouped within two federations: French Equatorial Africa (AEF) and French West Africa (AOF). Côte d'Ivoire was part of the AOF, financing roughly two-thirds of its budget. Wishing to free the country from the guardianship of the AOF, Houphouët-Boigny advocated an Africa made up of nations that would generate wealth rather than share poverty and misery. He participated actively in the drafting and adoption of the framework of the Defferre Loi Cadre, a French legal reform which, in addition to granting autonomy to African colonies, would break the ties that bound the different territories together, giving them more autonomy by means of local assemblies. The Deffere Loi Cadre was far from unanimously accepted by Houphouët-Boigny's compatriots in Africa: Léopold Sédar Senghor, leader of Senegal, was the first to speak out against this attempted "Balkanization" of Africa, arguing that the colonial territories "do not correspond to any reality: be it geographical, economic, ethnic, or linguistic". Senghor argued that maintaining the AOF would give the territories stronger political credibility and would allow them to develop harmoniously as well as emerge as a genuine people. This view was shared by most members of the African Democratic Rally, who backed Ahmed Sékou Touré and Modibo Keïta, placing Houphouët-Boigny in the minority at the 1957 congress in Bamako. Following the adoption of the Loi Cadre reform on 23 June 1956, a territorial election was held in Ivory Coast on 3 March 1957, in which the PDCI—transformed under Houphouët-Boigny's firm control into a political machine—won many seats. Houphouët-Boigny, who was already serving as a minister in France, as President of the Territorial Assembly and as mayor of Abidjan, chose Auguste Denise to serve as Vice President of the Government Council of Ivory Coast, even though Houphouët-Boigny remained, the only interlocutor in the colony for France. Houphouët-Boigny's popularity and influence in France's African colonies had become so pervasive that one French magazine claimed that by 1956, the politician's photograph "was in all the huts, on the lapels of coats, on the corsages of African women and even on the handlebars of bicycles". On 7 April 1957, the Prime Minister of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah, on a visit to Ivory Coast, called on all colonies in Africa to declare their independence; Houphouët-Boigny retorted to Nkrumah: Unlike many African leaders who immediately demanded independence, Houphouët-Boigny wished for a careful transition within the "ensemble français" because, according to him, political independence without economic independence was worthless. He also invited Nkrumah to meet up with him in 10 years to see which one of the two had chosen the best approach toward independence. On 28 September 1958 Charles de Gaulle proposed a constitutional referendum to the Franco-African community: the territories were given the choice of either supporting the constitution or proclaiming their independence and being cut off from France. For Houphouët-Boigny, the choice was simple: "Whatever happens, Côte d'Ivoire will enter directly to the Franco-African community. The other territories are free to group between themselves before joining." Only Guinea chose independence; its leader, Ahmed Sékou Touré, opposed Houphouët-Boigny, stating that his preference was "freedom in poverty over wealth in slavery". The referendum produced the French Community, an institution meant to be an association of free republics which had jurisdiction over foreign policy, defense, currency, common ethnic and financial policy, and strategic raw materials. Houphouët-Boigny was determined to stop the hegemony of Senegal in West Africa and a political confrontation ensued between Ivorian and Senegalese leaders. Houphouët-Boigny refused to participate in the Inter-African conference in Dakar on 31 December 1958, which was intended to lay the foundation for the Federation of Francophone African States. Although that federation was never realised, Senegal and Mali (known at the time as French Sudan) formed their own political union, the Mali Federation. After de Gaulle allowed the Mali Federation independence in 1959, Houphouët-Boigny tried to sabotage the federation's efforts to wield political control; in cooperation with France, he managed to convince Upper Volta, Dahomey, and Niger to withdraw from the Mali Federation, before it collapsed in August 1960. Two months after the 1958 referendum, seven member states of French West Africa, including Ivory Coast, became autonomous republics within the French Community. Houphouët-Boigny had won his first victory against those supporting federalism. This victory established the conditions that made the future "Ivorian miracle" possible, since between 1957 and 1959, budget revenues grew by 158%, reaching 21,723,000,000 CFA francs. President of Ivory Coast Early years and second marriage Houphouët-Boigny officially became the head of the government of Ivory Coast on 1 May 1959. Although he faced no opposition from rival parties and the PDCI became the de facto party of the state in 1957, he was confronted by opposition from his own government. Radical nationalists, led by Jean-Baptiste Mockey, openly opposed the government's Francophile policies. In an attempt to solve this problem, Houphouët-Boigny decided to exile Mockey in September 1959, claiming that Mockey had attempted to assassinate him using voodoo in what Houphouët-Boigny called the "complot du chat noir" (black cat conspiracy). Houphouët-Boigny began drafting a new constitution for Ivory Coast after the country's independence from France on 7 August 1960. It drew heavily from the United States Constitution in establishing a powerful executive branch, and from the Constitution of France, which limited the capacities of the legislature. He transformed the National Assembly into a mere recording house for bills and budget proposals. On 27 November 1960, Houphouët-Boigny was elected unopposed to the Presidency of the Republic, while a single list of PDCI candidates was elected to the National Assembly. 1963 was marked by a series of alleged plots that played a decisive role in ultimately consolidating power in the hands of Houphouët-Boigny. There is no clear consensus on the unfolding of the 1963 events; in fact, there may have been no plot at all and the entire series of events may have been part of a plan by Houphouët-Boigny to consolidate his hold on power. Between 120 and 200 secret trials were held in Yamoussoukro, in which key political figures—including Mockey and the president of the Supreme Court Ernest Boka—were implicated. There was discontent in the army, as the generals grew restive following the arrest of Defense Minister Jean Konan Banny, and the president had to intervene personally to pacify them. For the next 27 years, almost all power in Ivory Coast was centered in Houphouët-Boigny. From 1965 to 1985, he was reelected unopposed to five successive five-year terms. Also every five years, a single list of PDCI candidates was returned to the National Assembly. For all intents and purposes, all of them were appointed by the president, since in his capacity as leader of the PDCI he approved all candidates. He and the PDCI believed that national unity and support for the PDCI were one and the same, and that a multiparty system would waste resources and harm the country's unity. For this reason, all adult citizens were required to be members of the PDCI. The media were tightly controlled, and served mainly as outlets for government propaganda. While Houphouët-Boigny's regime was authoritarian, it was somewhat more humane than other African regimes of the time. Once he had consolidated his power, he freed political prisoners in 1967. Under his "unique brand of paternalistic authoritarianism", Houphouët-Boigny subdued dissent by offering government positions instead of incarceration to his critics. As a result, according to Robert Mundt, author of Côte d'Ivoire: Continuity and Change in a Semi-Democracy, he was never seriously challenged after 1963. While Houphouët-Boigny's Ivory Coast lacked political democracy in the Western sense, it was somewhat more tolerant and open than became the case in post-colonial Africa. In order to foil any plans for a coup d'état, the president took control of the military and police, reducing their numbers from 5,300 to 3,500. Defence was entrusted to the French armed forces that, pursuant to the treaty on defence cooperation of 24 April 1961, were stationed at Port-Bouët and could intervene at Houphouët-Boigny's request or when they considered French interests to be threatened. They subsequently intervened during attempts by the Sanwi monarchists to secede in 1959 and 1969, and again in 1970, when an unauthorised political group, the Eburnian Movement, was formed and Houphouët-Boigny accused its leader Kragbé Gnagbé of wishing to secede. Houphouët-Boigny married the much younger Marie-Thérèse Houphouët-Boigny in 1952, having also divorced his first wife of twenty-two years earlier in 1952. The couple had no children of their own, but they adopted one child, Olivier Antoine, in 1981. Hélène Houphouët-Boigny – Abla Pokou - was legally recognized in 1960 by her father Mister Felix Houphouët-Boigny who came to Court along with his three witnesses: his sisters Ms Faitai and Adjoua Houphouët-Boigny and his cousin Yao Simon Yamoussoukro's chief of Canton (Judgement Supplétif numsber1261 – 26 AOUT 1960 – Tribunal of Toumodi – A Court Session opened to the public). Madame Helene Houphouët-Boigny is the granddaughter of the Bouale's King Nanan Kouakou Anougble II, her Mother being Madame Akissi Anougble. They both died in 1958. The marriage was not without scandal: in 1958, Marie-Thérèse went on a romantic escapade in Italy, while in 1961, Houphouët-Boigny fathered a child (Florence, d. 2007) out of wedlock by his mistress Henriette Duvignac. Leadership in Africa Following the example of de Gaulle, who refused proposals for an integrated Europe, Houphouët-Boigny opposed Nkrumah's proposed United States of Africa, which called into question Ivory Coast's recently acquired national sovereignty. However, Houphouët-Boigny was not opposed to collective African institutions if they were subject to his influence or control. On 29 May 1959, in cooperation with Hamani Diori (Niger), Maurice Yaméogo (Upper Volta) and Hubert Maga (Dahomey), Houphouët-Boigny created the Conseil de l'Entente (). This regional organisation, founded in order to hamper the Mali Federation, was designed with three major functions: to allow shared management of certain public services, such as the port of Abidjan or the Abidjan–Niger railway line; to provide a solidarity fund accessible to member countries, 90% of which was provided by Ivory Coast; and to provide funding for various development projects through low-interest loans to member states (70% of the loans were supplied by Côte d'Ivoire). In 1966, Houphouët-Boigny even offered to grant dual citizenship to nationals from member countries of the Conseil de l'Entente, but the proposition was quickly abandoned following popular protests. The ambitious Ivorian leader had even greater plans for French-speaking Africa: he intended to rally the different nations behind a large organisation whose objective was the mutual assistance of its member states. The project became a reality on 7 September 1961 with the signing of a charter giving birth to the Union africaine et malgache (UAM; ), comprising 12 French-speaking countries including Léopold Sédar Senghor's Senegal. Agreements were signed in various sectors, such as economic, military and telecommunications, which strengthened solidarity among Francophone states. However, the creation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in May 1963 affected his plans: the supporters of Pan-Africanism demanded the dissolution of all regional groupings, such as the UAM. Houphouët-Boigny reluctantly ceded, and transformed the UAM into the Organisation africaine et malgache de coopération économique et culturelle (). Considering the OAU a dead end organisation, particularly since Paris was opposed to the group, Houphouët-Boigny decided to create in 1965 l'Organisation commune africaine et malgache (OCAM; ), a French organization in competition with the OAU. The organisation included among its members 16 countries, whose aim was to break revolutionary ambitions in Africa. However, over the years, the organisation became too subservient to France, resulting in the departure of half of the countries. In the mid-1970s, during times of economic prosperity, Houphouët-Boigny and Senghor put aside their differences and joined forces to thwart Nigeria, which, in an attempt to establish itself in West Africa, had created the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The two countered the ECOWAS by creating the Economic Community of West Africa (ECWA), which superseded the old trade partnerships in the French-speaking regions. However, after assurances from Nigeria that ECOWAS would function in the same manner as the earlier Francophone organisations, Houphouët-Boigny and Senghor decided to merge their organization into ECOWAS in May 1975. Françafrique Throughout his presidency, Houphouët-Boigny surrounded himself with French advisers, such as Guy Nairay, Chief of Staff from 1960 to 1993, and Alain Belkiri, Secretary-General of the Ivorian government, whose influence extended to all areas. This type of diplomacy, which he labelled "Françafrique", allowed him to maintain very close ties with the former colonial power, making Ivory Coast France's primary African ally. Whenever one country would enter an agreement with an African nation, the other would unconditionally give its support. Through this arrangement, Houphouët-Boigny built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart, the chief adviser on African policy in the de Gaulle and Pompidou governments. Destabilization of revolutionary regimes By claiming independence for Guinea through the 28 September 1958 French constitutional referendum, Ahmed Sékou Touré had not only defied de Gaulle, but also his fellow African, Houphouët-Boigny. He distanced himself from Guinean officials in Conakry and the Guinean Democratic Party was excluded from the RDA. Tensions between Houphouët-Boigny and Touré also began to rise due to the conspiracies of the French intelligence agency SDECE against the Sékou Touré regime. In January 1960, Houphouët-Boigny delivered small arms to former rebels in Man, Ivory Coast and incited his council in 1965 to agree to taking part in an attempt to overthrow Sékou Touré. In 1967, he promoted the creation of the Front national de libération de la Guinée (FNLG; ), a reserve of men ready to plot the downfall of Sékou Touré. Houphouët-Boigny's relationship with Kwame Nkrumah, the leader of neighboring Ghana, degraded considerably following Guinea's independence, due to Nkrumah's financial and political support for Sékou Touré. After Sékou Touré convinced Nkrumah to support the secessionist Sanwi in Ivory Coast, Houphouët-Boigny began a campaign to discredit the Ghanaian regime. He accused Nkrumah of trying to destabilise Ivory Coast in 1963, and called for the Francophone states to boycott the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) conference scheduled to take place in Accra. Nkrumah was ousted from power in 1966 in a military coup; Houphouët-Boigny allowed the conspirators to use Ivory Coast as a base to coordinate the arrival and departure of their missions. Also in collaboration with Foccart, Houphouët-Boigny took part in the attempted coup of 16 January 1977 led by famed French mercenary Bob Denard against the revolutionary regime of Mathieu Kérékou in Dahomey. Houphouët-Boigny, in order to fight against the Marxists in power in Angola, also lent his support to Jonas Savimbi's UNITA party, whose feud with the MPLA party led to the Angolan Civil War. Despite his reputation as a destabiliser of regimes, Houphouët-Boigny granted refuge to Jean-Bédel Bokassa, after the exiled Central African Republic dictator had been overthrown by French paratroopers in September 1979. This move was met with international criticism, and thus, having become a political and financial burden to Houphouët-Boigny, Bokassa was expelled from Côte d'Ivoire in 1983. Alignment with France Houphouët-Boigny was a participant in the November 1960 Congo Crisis, a period of political upheaval and conflict in Congo-Kinshasa. The Ivorian leader supported President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, an opponent of Lumumba, and followed France in supporting the controversial Congolese Prime Minister Moise Tshombe. Tshombe, disliked by much of Africa, was passionately defended by Houphouët-Boigny and was even invited into OCAM in May 1965. After the overthrow of Kasa-Vubu by General Mobutu in November 1965, the Ivorian president supported, in 1967, a plan proposed by the French secret service which aimed to bring the deposed Congolese leader back into power. The operation was a failure. In response, Houphouët-Boigny decided to boycott the fourth annual summit of the OAU held in September 1967 in Kinshasa. Houphouët-Boigny was also a major contributor to the political tensions in Biafra. Considering Nigeria a potential danger to French-influenced African states, Foccart sent Houphouët-Boigny and Lieutenant-Colonel Raymond Bichelot on a mission in 1963 to monitor political developments in the country. The opportunity to weaken the former British colony presented itself in May 1967, when Biafra, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, undertook to secede from Nigeria. French-aligned African countries supported the secessionists who, provided with mercenaries and weapons by Jean Mauricheau-Beaupré, fought a civil war with the Nigerian government. By the end of the 1960s, French-supported nations suddenly and openly distanced themselves from France and Ivory Coast's position on the civil war. Isolated on the international scene, both countries decided to suspend their assistance to Ojukwu, who eventually went into exile in Ivory Coast. At the request of Paris, Houphouet-Boigny began forging relations with South Africa in October 1970, justifying his attitude by stating that "[t]he problems of racial discrimination, so painful, so distressing, so revolting to our dignity of Negros, must not be resolved, we believe, by force." He even proposed to the OAU in June 1971 that they follow his lead. In spite of receiving some support, his proposal was rejected. This refusal did not, however, prevent him from continuing his attempts to approach the Pretoria regime. His attempts bore fruit in October of that year, when a semi-official meeting between a delegation of high level Ivorian officials and South African Prime Minister B. J. Vorster was held in the capital of South Africa. Moreover, mindful of the Communist influence in Africa, he met Vorster in Geneva in 1977, after the Soviet Union and Cuba tried to collectively spread their influence in Angola and Ethiopia. Relations with South Africa continued on an official basis until the end of his presidency. Houphouët-Boigny and Thomas Sankara, the leader of Burkina Faso, had a highly turbulent relationship. Tensions reached their climax in 1985 when Ivory Coast Burkinabés accused authorities of being involved in a conspiracy to forcibly recruit young students to training camps in Libya. Houphouët-Boigny responded by inviting the dissident Jean-Claude Kamboulé to take refuge in Côte d'Ivoire so that he could organise opposition to the Sankara regime. In 1987, Sankara was overthrown and assassinated in a coup. The coup may have had French involvement, since the Sankara regime had fallen into disfavour in France. Houphouët-Boigny was also suspected of involvement in the coup and in November, the PDCI asked the government to ban the sale of Jeune Afrique following its allegations of Houphouët-Boigny's participation. The Ivorian president would have greatly benefited from the divisions in the Burkina Faso government. He contacted Blaise Compaoré, the second-most powerful man in the regime; it is generally believed that they worked in conjunction with Laurent Dona Fologo, Robert Guéï and Pierre Ouédraogo to overthrow the Sankara regime. Besides supporting policies pursued by France, Houphouët-Boigny also influenced their actions in Africa. He pushed France to support and provide arms to warlord Charles Taylor's rebels during the First Liberian Civil War in hopes of receiving some of the country's assets and resources after the war. He secretly participated in the trafficking of arms to the South African segregationist regime at the time when it is engaged in a conflict in Angola. Opposition to the Soviet Union and China From the time of Ivory Coast's independence, Houphouët-Boigny considered the Soviet Union and China "malevolent" influences on developing countries. He did not establish diplomatic relations with Moscow until 1967 and then severed them in 1969 following allegations of direct Soviet support to a 1968 student protest at the National University of Côte d'Ivoire. The two countries did not restore ties until February 1986, by which time Houphouët-Boigny had embraced a more active foreign policy reflecting his quest for greater international recognition. Houphouët-Boigny was even more outspoken in his criticism of the People's Republic of China (PRC). He voiced fears of an "invasion" by the Chinese and a subsequent colonisation of Africa. He was especially concerned that Africans would see the problems of development in China as analogous to those of Africa, and see China's solutions as appropriate to sub-Saharan Africa. Accordingly, Ivory Coast was one of the last countries to normalise relations with China, doing so on 3 March 1983. Under the principle demanded by Beijing for "one China", the recognition by Côte d'Ivoire of the PRC effectively disestablished diplomatic relations between Abidjan and Taiwan. Economic policies in the 1960s and 1970s Houphouët-Boigny adopted a system of economic liberalism in Ivory Coast in order to obtain the trust and confidence of foreign investors, most notably the French. The advantages granted by the investment laws he established in 1959 allowed foreign business to repatriate up to 90% of their profits in their country of origin (the remaining 10% was reinvested in Côte d'Ivoire). He also developed an agenda for modernising the country's infrastructure, for example, building an American-style business district in Abidjan where five-star hotels and resorts welcomed tourists and businessmen. Ivory Coast experienced economic growth of 11–12% from 1960 to 1965. The country's gross domestic product (GDP) grew twelvefold between 1960 and 1978, from 145 to 1,750 billion CFA francs, while the trade balance continued to record a surplus. The origin of this economic success stemmed from the president's decision to focus on the primary sector of the economy, rather than the secondary sector. As a result, the agricultural sector experienced significant development: between 1960 and 1970, cocoa cultivators tripled their production to 312,000 tonnes and coffee production rose by nearly 50%, from 185,500 to 275,000 tonnes. As a result of this economic prosperity, Ivory Coast saw an influx of immigrants from other West African countries; the foreign workforce—mostly Burkinabés—who maintained indigenous plantations, represented over a quarter of the Ivorian population by 1980. Both Ivorians and foreigners began referring to Houphouët-Boigny as the "Sage of Africa" for performing what became known as "Ivorian miracle". He was also respectfully nicknamed "The Old One" (Le Vieux). However, the economic system developed in cooperation with France was far from perfect. As Houphouët-Boigny described it, the economy of Ivory Coast experienced "growth without development". The growth of the economy depended on capital, initiatives and a financial framework from investors abroad; it had not become independent or self-sustaining. Crisis in Ivory Coast Economy on the brink of collapse Beginning in 1978, the economy of Ivory Coast experienced a serious decline due to the sharp downturn in international market prices of coffee and cocoa. The decline was perceived as fleeting, since its impact on planters was buffered by the Caistab, the agricultural marketing board, which ensured them a livable income. The next year, in order to contain a sudden drop in the prices of exported goods, Houphouët-Boigny raised prices to resist international tariffs on raw materials. However, by applying only this solution, Ivory Coast lost more than 700 billion CFA francs between 1980 and 1982. From 1983 to 1984, Côte d'Ivoire fell victim to a drought that ravaged nearly 400,000 hectares of forest and 250,000 hectares of coffee and cocoa plants. To address this problem, Houphouët-Boigny travelled to London to negotiate an agreement on coffee and cocoa prices with traders and industrialists; by 1984, the agreement had fallen apart and Ivory Coast was engulfed in a major financial crisis. Even the production of the offshore oil drilling and petrochemical industries, developed to supply the Caistab, was affected by the 1986 worldwide economic recession. Ivory Coast, which had bought planters' harvests for double the market price, fell into heavy debt. By May 1987, the foreign debt had reached US$10 billion, prompting Houphouët-Boigny to suspend payments of the debt. Refusing to sell off its supply of cocoa, the country shut down its exports in July and forced world rates to increase. However, this "embargo" failed. In November 1989, Houphouët-Boigny liquidated his enormous stock of cocoa to big businesses to jump-start the economy. Gravely ill at this time, he named a Prime Minister (the post was unoccupied since 1960), Alassane Ouattara, who established a series of belt-tightening economic measures to bring the country out of debt. Social tensions The general atmosphere of enrichment and satisfaction during the period of economic growth in Ivory Coast made it possible for Houphouët-Boigny to maintain and control internal political tensions. His easygoing authoritarian regime, where political prisoners were almost nonexistent, was well accepted by the population. However, the economic crisis that began in the 1980s caused a sharp decline in living conditions for the middle class and underprivileged urban populations. According to the World Bank, the population living below the poverty threshold went from 11% in 1985 to 31% by 1993. Despite the implementation of certain measures, such as the reduction of the number of young French workers (who worked abroad while serving in the military) from 3,000 to 2,000 in 1986, allowing many jobs to go to young Ivorian graduates, the government failed to control the rising rates of unemployment and bankruptcy in many companies. Strong social agitations shook the country, creating insecurity. The army mutinied in 1990 and 1992, and on 2 March 1990, protesters organized mass demonstrations in the streets of Abidjan with slogans such as "thief Houphouët" and "corrupt Houphouët". These popular demonstrations prompted the president to launch a system of democratization on 31 May, in which he authorised political pluralism and trade unions. Opposition Laurent Gbagbo gained recognition as one of the principal instigators of the student demonstrations during the protests against Houphouët-Boigny's government on 9 February 1982, which led to the closing of the universities and other educational institutions. Shortly thereafter, his wife and he formed what would become the Ivorian Popular Front (FPI). Gbagbo went into exile in France later that year, where he promoted the FPI and its political platforms. Although the FPI was ideologically similar to the Unified Socialist Party, the French socialist government tried to ignore Gbagbo's party to please Houphouët-Boigny. After a lengthy appeal process, Gbagbo obtained status as a political refugee in France in 1985. However, the French government attempted to pressure him into returning to Ivory Coast, as Houphouët-Boigny had begun to worry about Gbagbo's developing a network of contacts, and believed "his stirring opponent would be less of a threat in Abidjan than in Paris". In 1988, Gbagbo returned from exile to Ivory Coast after Houphouët-Boigny implicitly granted him forgiveness by declaring that "the tree did not get angry at the bird". In 1990, Houphouët-Boigny legalised opposition parties. On 28 October, a presidential election was held. Gbagbo filed to run against Houphouët-Boigny, resulting in the country's first contested election. Gbagbo highlighted the President's age, suggesting that the 85-year-old president would not survive a seventh five-year term. Houphouët-Boigny countered by broadcasting television footage of his youth. According to official figures, he defeated Gbagbo with 2,445,365 votes to 548,441—an implausible 81.7 percent of the vote. Displays of wealth During his presidency, Houphouët-Boigny benefited greatly from the wealth of Ivory Coast; by the time of his death in 1993, his personal wealth was estimated to be between US$7 and $11 billion. With regards to his large fortune, Houphouët-Boigny said in 1983, "People are surprised that I like gold. It's just that I was born in it." The Ivorian leader acquired a dozen properties in the metropolitan area of Paris (including Hotel Masseran on Masseran Street in the 7th arrondissement of Paris), a property in Castel Gandolfo in Italy, and a house in Chêne-Bourg, Switzerland. He owned real estate companies, such as Grand Air SI, SI Picallpoc and Interfalco, and had many shares in prestigious jewelry and watchmaking companies, such as Piaget SA and Harry Winston. He placed his fortune in Switzerland, once asking if "there is any serious man on Earth not stocking parts of his fortune in Switzerland". In 1983, Houphouët-Boigny moved the capital from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro. There, at the expense of the state, he built many buildings such as the Institute Polytechnique and an international airport. The most luxurious project was the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, which is currently the largest church in the world, with an area of and a height of . Personally financed by Houphouët-Boigny, construction for the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace was carried out by the Lebanese architect Pierre Fakhoury at a total cost of about US$150–200 million. Houphouët-Boigny offered it to Pope John Paul II as a "personal gift"; the latter, after having unsuccessfully requested it being shorter than St. Peter's in Rome, consecrated it all the same on 10 September 1990. Due to a collapse of the national economy coupled with lavish amounts spent on its construction, the Basilica was criticized: it was called "the basilica in the bush" by several western news agencies. Death and legacy Succession and death The political, social, and economic crises also touched the issue of who would succeed Houphouët-Boigny as head of state. After severing ties with his former political heir Philippe Yacé in 1980, who, as president of the National Assembly, was entitled to exercise the full functions of President of the Republic if the Head of State was incapacitated or absent, Houphouët-Boigny delayed as much as he could in officially designating a successor. The president's health became increasingly fragile, with Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara administering the country from 1990 onwards, while the president was hospitalised in France. There was a struggle for power, which ended when Houphouët-Boigny rejected Ouattara in favour of Henri Konan Bédié, the President of the National Assembly. In December 1993, Houphouët-Boigny, terminally ill with prostate cancer, was urgently flown back to Côte d'Ivoire so he could die there. He was kept on life support to ensure that the last dispositions concerning his succession were defined. After his family consented, Houphouët-Boigny was disconnected from life support at 6:35 am GMT on 7 December. At the time of his death, Houphouët-Boigny was the longest-serving leader in Africa and the third in the world, after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il Sung of North Korea. Houphouët-Boigny left no written will or legacy report for Côte d'Ivoire upon his death in 1993. His recognised heirs, especially Helena, led a battle against the government to recover part of the vast fortune Houphouët-Boigny had left, which she claimed was "private" and did not belong to the State. Funeral Following Houphouët-Boigny's death, the country's stability was maintained, as seen by his impressive funeral on 7 February 1994. The funeral for this "doyen of francophone Africa" was held in the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, with 7,000 guests inside the building and tens of thousands outside. The two-month delay before Houphouët-Boigny's funeral, common among members of the Baoule ethnic group, allowed for many ceremonies preceding his burial. The president's funeral featured many traditional African funerary customs, including a large chorus dressed in bright batik dresses singing "laagoh budji gnia" (Baoulé: "Lord, it is you who has made all things") and village chiefs displaying strips of kente and korhogo cloth. Baoulés are traditionally buried with objects they enjoyed while alive; Houphouët-Boigny's family, however, did not state what, if anything, they would bury with him. Over 140 countries and international organisations sent delegates to the funeral. However, according to The New York Times, many Ivorians were disappointed by the poor attendance of several key allies, most notably the United States. The small United States delegation was led by Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O'Leary and Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs George Moose. In contrast, Houphouët-Boigny's close personal ties with France were reflected in the large French delegation, which included President François Mitterrand; Prime Minister Édouard Balladur; the presidents of the National Assembly and of the Senate, Philippe Séguin and René Monory; former President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing; Jacques Chirac; his friend Jacques Foccart; and six former Prime Ministers. According to The New York Times, "Houphouët-Boigny's death is not only the end of a political era here, but perhaps as well the end of the close French-African relationship that he came to symbolize." Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize To establish his legacy as a man of peace, Houphouët-Boigny created an award in 1989, sponsored by UNESCO and funded entirely by extra-budgetary resources provided by the Félix-Houphouët-Boigny Foundation, to honor those who search for peace. The prize is "named after President Félix Houphouët-Boigny, the doyen of African Heads of State and a tireless advocate of peace, concord, fellowship and dialogue to solve all conflicts both within and between States". It is awarded annually along with a check for €122,000, by an international jury composed of 11 persons from five continents, led by former United States Secretary of State and Nobel Peace Prize winner Henry Kissinger. The prize was first awarded in 1991 to Nelson Mandela, president of the African National Congress, and Frederik Willem de Klerk, president of the Republic of South Africa, and has been awarded each year since, with the exception of 2001 and 2004. Positions in government France Ivory Coast Notes References page on the French National Assembly website Further reading External links Speech Delivered by Mister Houphouet-Boigny, Minister of State at the Geo-Andre Stadium in Abidjan on 7 September 1958 1908 births 1993 deaths People from Yamoussoukro People of French West Africa Baoulé people Ivorian Roman Catholics Converts to Roman Catholicism from animism Rassemblement Démocratique Africain politicians Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire – African Democratic Rally politicians Presidents of Ivory Coast Heads of government of Ivory Coast Foreign Ministers of Ivory Coast French Ministers of Health State ministers of France Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1945) Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1946) Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic Deputies of the 2nd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic Members of Parliament for French West Africa French planters 20th-century Ivorian politicians Ivorian anti-communists Ivorian conspiracy theorists Deaths from cancer in Ivory Coast Deaths from prostate cancer 20th-century presidents in Africa
418146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita%20Repulsa	Rita Repulsa	Rita Repulsa is a fictional character from the television series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, and the principal nemesis and archenemy of the main superhero protagonists in the show's first season. She is portrayed in the first season by Machiko Soga (via Zyuranger footage as Witch Bandora) and by Carla Perez in the remaining seasons, while voiced by Barbara Goodson in the series. Soga reprised her role as Rita, now the Mystic Mother, while Susan Brady provided her voice in the TV series Power Rangers Mystic Force. In the films, she is portrayed by Julia Cortez in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, and by Elizabeth Banks in the 2017 reboot film. Rita Repulsa is based on the Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger villain Witch Bandora. Character attributes Origins Rita Repulsa is an evil space witch bent on ruling the universe. Being a powerful sorceress, Rita has conquered many worlds and amassed a large collection of monsters and Putty Patrollers to do her bidding. During her reign of terror, she led a group of minions to conquer Earth. Imprisoned in a space dumpster by a sage named Zordon, Rita was cast into space where she would float for ten thousand years before arcing back to the Moon in 1993. Once freed by two astronauts, she and her minions reclaimed their headquarters and started a second campaign on Earth to defeat Zordon and take the planet for Lord Zedd. She is the first major villain of the Power Rangers franchise. Appearance and personality Most discernible by her two pointed hair cones, one may also recognize her by her screeching voice, Madonna-like cone bra, and obnoxious attitude. She is sarcastic and power hungry, her character would usually become humorous whenever the Power Rangers defeated her; this would usually end with the catchphrase "I've got such a headache!" As Rita then married Lord Zedd later on in the series, her humorous personality was increased (usually arguing with Zedd or her father, Master Vile). Rita is sometimes seen arguing with her younger brother, Rito, whose skeletal appearance was comically revealed on her account. He knew she was picky in gifts being given to her. Rita wanted a nice little planet to take over and Rito offended her by giving her a fire-breathing dragon instead. She used the dragon to attack him and burn their parents house to prove her point. Years after several defeats across the Universe, Rita was turned away from evil thanks to Zordon's Good energy wave. Rita then adopted a new title, Mystic Mother, and began to practice good magic. While confronted by evil, Mystic Mother proved stronger and was able to aid the Power Rangers Mystic Force in eradicating dark magic. Powers Being a powerful witch, Rita possessed many magical abilities. By far the most common demonstration of her power was her use of her "wand" (actually an ornate staff) to make her monsters and minions grow to enormous sizes. Rita has also used magical rituals to control humans to do her bidding and even turn them evil, at least temporarily (Tommy Oliver and Katherine Hillard being the most prominent examples). She can also trap people in other dimensions and shoot energy blasts, like most villains from the "Zordon era", teleport at will, though only at relatively short range (i.e., from the Moon to Earth and back, but not from Earth to another planet). Rita was also able to create her own Power Ranger, but she accomplished this by simply giving a Power Coin to an individual she had brainwashed to be evil, rather than facilitate a connection to the Morphing Grid herself. In the 2006 series Power Rangers Mystic Force she is the ruler of all good magic and can use that magic to defend herself if and when she needs to. She is also capable of facilitating a connection to the Universal Morphing Grid to create a full team of Power Rangers if necessary, hence the Mystic Force. As the Mystic Mother, Rita takes a behind-the-scenes role, ensuring the flow of good magic throughout the world rather than using it herself, unless she has no other choice. Portrayals The character of Rita Repulsa was portrayed by multiple actresses. Since the character was created from footage of the Witch Bandora from the original Japanese series Zyuranger, she was portrayed by Machiko Soga and dubbed in English by Barbara Goodson. Goodson continued to voice the role until Power Rangers in Space in 1998. Carla Perez took over the visual portrayal from Soga when the character was reintroduced midway through Mighty Morphin'''s second season in 1994, portraying her from 1994 until Power Rangers in Space in 1998, and Julia Cortez portrayed the character in the 1995 film Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie. In 2006, the character was reintroduced as Mystic Mother in Power Rangers Mystic Force, again portrayed by Soga, this time with Susan Brady providing her voice. Elizabeth Banks portrayed a re-imagined Rita in the 2017 reboot film. Goodson returned to voice Rita in 2021 for her playable appearance in Power Rangers: Battle for the Grid. Synopsis Mighty Morphin Power Rangers In Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Rita was born to Master Vile and Lady Fienna and had a younger brother named Rito Revolto. At one point, her parents got her a fire breathing dragon when she wanted a "cute little planet" instead. Rita then used the dragon to burn down their house. At some point, Rita began working for Lord Zedd in his attempts at conquering the universe. She served as his regent while he was elsewhere. However, Zordon and his army opposed her. Rita managed to steal and corrupt the Dragon Coin. However, Zordon eventually managed to seal Rita and her minions in a space dumpster, though Rita manages to trap Zordon in a time warp. Season 1 At the beginning of season 1, Rita Repulsa had been imprisoned for over ten thousand years in the space dumpster. She, along with the other season 1 villains, were released by a pair of Earth astronauts. She exited the dumpster along with her minions Goldar, Baboo & Squatt, and Finster. Rita claimed she would conquer the first planet she saw after being freed, which unsurprisingly happened to be Earth. Over the course of the show, Rita Repulsa battled the Power Rangers using everything from phobia spells, super Putty Patrollers, binding magic spells, and on occasion, she would even allow the likes of Goldar, Squatt, and Baboo to be "in charge" of destroying the Power Rangers. All of their plans failed, and Rita would normally take her frustrations out on her henchmen by bashing them on the head with her magic wand or yelling in their faces. One of Rita's most memorable traits was that following each loss, she would either swear vengeance or complain that she had a headache (the latter becoming one of her trademarks). Season 2 In season 2, Rita's reign of terror came to an end when Lord Zedd returned to assume control. Then it is revealed Rita was not the true empress, but actually the regent of Zedd's empire while he was off in other places. Zedd was furious that Rita had failed to defeat "children" and conquer the Earth, even when Rita warned him about Zordon. Despite Rita's begging and pleading, Lord Zedd vaporized Rita's magic wand and shrank her down to the size of a toy before again exiling her into space in a space dumpster. Locked within a space dumpster, Rita came within inches of freedom when her dumpster came to Earth, and Bulk and Skull succeeded in opening the dumpster. But the Power Rangers were successful in sending Rita back into space. Eventually, her dumpster crashed into the Moon, and she escaped. Down but not out, after regaining her freedom, Rita sought assistance from Finster, her still loyal henchman, to concoct a love potion that would generate libidic feelings for use on Lord Zedd. She also used a beauty cream made by Finster over her face to become younger (serving to transition the actress from Soga to Perez). The love potion worked and the two were then married. Once married to Lord Zedd, Rita eventually gave up her magic practices and worked alongside Lord Zedd as a partner in crime. With Zedd by Rita's side, they are more powerful together and attempted to defeat the Rangers. Though they each failed, the Rangers did not claim victory so easily as the result of how efficacious their enemies have become. Season 3 In season 3, Shortly after the wedding, Rita's brother, Rito Revolto, arrived to join his sister and brother-in-law on their quest to destroy the Power Rangers. Following this, crossing their staffs, Rita and Zedd were able to make monsters grow by the power of lightning. Nevertheless, they continued to fail, even with help from Rita's spy, Katherine Hillard, who, after breaking free from Rita's control, joined the forces of the Power Rangers as the second Pink Ranger when Kimberly Hart departed for Florida. Additionally, Goldar found out about the love potion that Rita used on Lord Zedd and had a concoction created to reverse the effects. The anti-love potion brought Zedd back to normal. However, he had apparently developed a real love for Rita of his own accord. Later still, her father, Master Vile, made his entrance and enraged over Rita's marriage to Lord Zedd, yells at her. He later aids the villains greatly by leaving the Rangers as powerless children. However, the Alien Rangers arrive to assist Zordon and foiling his plans. Rita is embarrassed to see Master Vile throwing a tantrum like child and tells him to stop doing that. Master Vile decides to leave much to her embarrassment and Zedd's pleasure Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers In Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers, Rita's father turned back time using the Orb of Doom. As a result the Alien Rangers were summoned from Aquitar, working to protect Earth from Rita and Zedd's forces until the de-aged Rangers could acquire the Zeo Crystal and use it to turn time back to normal. During this story arc, the villains were successful in destroying the power coins and planting an explosive device within the catacombs of the Command Center and once the Zeo sub crystals were all reassembled set off the device believing that they had finally destroyed Zordon, Alpha and the Power Rangers. They however lost contact with Rito and Goldar who they believed escaped the destruction of the Command Center with the Zeo Crystal. Power Rangers Zeo In Power Rangers Zeo, despite their apparent victory, Rita and Zedd were forced to flee to live in refuge with Master Vile following the arrival of the Machine Empire. However, the couple, along with the other villains, returned to the moon in a motorhome and throughout the latter part of Zeo. Rita and Zedd attempted to thwart the Machine Empire's plots and even aided the Rangers to prevent the Machine Empire from claiming Earth. In "Rangers of Two Worlds, Part 1", Finster made a new staff for Rita, which is much stronger than before. She had planned to make Katherine into a monster, but due to Goldar and Rito squabbling over seating arrangements, their fighting unwittingly veered the motorhome off target and created Impursonator from her ugly purse. Despite its harmless form, she ended up being one of Rita's most powerful monsters created and even deflecting hits from the Zeo Megazord. After King Mondo and his family are defeated by the Power Rangers, Zedd and Rita gave Prince Sprocket a present, claimed as a peace offering, which was actually a bomb, which blows the Royal House of Gadgetry to pieces. Zedd and Rita are seen driving away victoriously in their motorhome, while King Mondo swears revenge on the two. Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie Rita and Zedd made a small cameo appearance in Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie. Divatox calls them in the middle of the night to ask them how to destroy the Rangers. In a comical scene, Rita held the phone to a snoring Zedd, saying that if she knew how to stop the Rangers she would not be listening to that, and then told Divatox her advice was to run. Power Rangers Turbo In the Power Rangers Turbo episode "The Millennium Message", the Blue Senturion plays a video message from the future foretelling of Dark Specter's alliance and their attack on the galaxy. Shown working together and causing destruction are Rita, Zedd, Mondo, Machina and Divatox. Power Rangers In Space In Power Rangers In Space, Rita and Zedd joined the alliance of villains led by Dark Specter, and assisted with Dark Specter's scheme to vanquish all good in the universe. In the first episode, Rita competes with Divatox for the task of pursuing Andros, the Red Space Ranger who has infiltrated the meeting of villains. During Dark Specter's final assault, Zedd and Rita were assigned to conquer a Planet in the Vica Galaxy that was defended by Trey of Triforia, the Gold Zeo Ranger. During the final confrontation in "Countdown to Destruction, Part 2" when Zordon sacrificed his own life, it caused an energy wave that destroyed the invaders and purified the villains into humans. Rita was transformed into a normal human, who swiftly expressed delight that Lord Zedd had also been transformed. They were seen dancing happily, while the bemused Trey watches on with relief. Power Rangers Mystic Force In Power Rangers Mystic Force, viewers learn that Rita has become the Mystic Mother, Empress of Good Magic and leader of the Mystic Ones. She is the one who apparently gave the Power Rangers Mystic Force their link to the Morphing Grid. When she learns that the Master is about to assault the Mystic Mother's fortress, Udonna mentions that she was "known as Rita in the dark days". It is the Mystic Mother who gives Clare the powers of a full sorceress and helps the Mystic Rangers to defeat the Master of Darkness—in typical Rita fashion, she accuses the Master of giving her a headache. Note that the characters were unrelated in the original Japanese Super Sentai series, even though they were both played by Machiko Soga (she was one of many actors in the original franchise who played unrelated characters in different seasons). The writers decided to connect the characters both as an Easter egg for long-time fans and as a tribute to Soga herself, who died while Mystic Force was in production. Power Rangers Operation Overdrive In the Power Rangers Operation Overdrive 15th special anniversary episode, Once A Ranger, Zedd and Rita's previously unknown son, Thrax, confront the Overdrive Rangers. Thrax united the current team's various enemies and severed their connection to the Morphing Grid. In response, the Sentinel Knight assembles a team of veteran Rangers to defeat Thrax. Adam, the new team's leader, mentions his previous battles with Zedd and Rita and observes that Thrax will be difficult to defeat. When he later mentions Rita's change of allegiance, Thrax mocks his mother's decision to embrace good after Zordon's wave purified her. Power Rangers Beast Morphers Rita is mentioned and made a cameo in the footage in the Power Rangers Beast Morphers episode "Making Bad." She is shown in the footage of Lord Zedd when Scrozzle suggested that they use the Re-Animizer on Lord Zedd's staff. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Once & Always In the anniversary film Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Once & Always, Billy Cranston, in an attempt to revive Zordon, accidentally collects the evil that was blasted off of Rita by the Z-Wave. This evil possesses the body of Alpha 8, becoming a new version of the villainess called Robo-Rita. The revived witch unleashes an army of Putties and creates robot versions of Mighty Minotaur and Snizzard to serve her. She murders Trini Kwan in battle when Trini intercepts a blast meant for Billy, causing Trini's daughter Minh to swear vengeance. Later, she captures Tommy Oliver, Kimberly Hart, Jason Lee Scott, and Rangers from other teams and imprisons them in a machine that drains their energy. Her plan is eventually revealed that she will use the energy to power a time portal so she can help her past self kill the Power Rangers before Zordon can recruit them. Minh intercepts a blast meant for Billy, but survives and successfully morphs. The remaining Rangers defeat her minions and Minh and Zack Taylor destroy Robo-Rita, putting an end to the evil of Rita Repulsa. Power Rangers Cosmic Fury In the finale of Power Rangers Cosmic Fury, an evil copy of Lord Zedd is defeated by being placed in an eternal dream of being endlessly nagged by Rita. In other media Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie In Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, Rita, Zedd, Goldar, and Mordant arrive on earth at the constructive site and crack open a giant egg releasing Ivan Ooze after 6,000 years, a morphological being who ruled earth with an iron fist before he was overthrown by Zordon and a group of young warriors. Ivan usurps Rita and Zedd, trapping them in a snow globe. In a mid-credits scene, Goldar briefly lounges in Zedd's throne being served by Mordant only to panic when Zedd and Rita appear having been released after Ivan was destroyed. Power Rangers (2017 film) Production and marketing On February 2, 2016, it was announced that Elizabeth Banks would portray Rita Repulsa in the reboot. Rita is the former Green Ranger, with her character now seeking to harness the Ranger's power source. People'' released a promotional photo of the actress in character on April 19, 2016. Character description An apparent former member of Zordon's Ranger team, Rita betrayed them to acquire the power of the Zeo Crystal, the source of all life on Earth, killing the rest of the team until Zordon buried the Power Coins and had Alpha hide his location with a meteor that blasted Rita into the ocean and seriously damaged her armor. She is brought up in the present day by a fishing boat captained by Sam Scott, Jason's father, and soon sets about gathering gold to replenish her power with the goal of unleashing Goldar, a massive monster who will allow her to acquire the Crystal. After the Rangers are forced to confront her directly despite not having mastered their powers, she kills Billy after she forces him to reveal the location of the Crystal, which is underneath the Krispy Kreme doughnut shop, but Zordon and the other Rangers are able to revive him, at the cost of sacrificing Zordon's chance to come back to life himself. The Rangers subsequently face Goldar in battle with the Zords, but only gain the upper hand when they form the Megazord. Despite Rita merging with Goldar to take charge of the fight, the Rangers are finally able to defeat her and destroy Goldar. They offer her the chance to surrender and hand over the green Power Coin, but she instead tries to attack them again, only to be 'slapped' into the sky by Jason. She is last shown drifting in space towards the Moon, smiling in satisfaction as her body freezes. References Extraterrestrial supervillains Female characters in film Female characters in television Female supervillains Fictional kidnappers Fictional wandfighters Fictional characters who can change size Fictional witches Power Rangers characters Television characters introduced in 1993 Television supervillains
418156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20quantization	Second quantization	Second quantization, also referred to as occupation number representation, is a formalism used to describe and analyze quantum many-body systems. In quantum field theory, it is known as canonical quantization, in which the fields (typically as the wave functions of matter) are thought of as field operators, in a manner similar to how the physical quantities (position, momentum, etc.) are thought of as operators in first quantization. The key ideas of this method were introduced in 1927 by Paul Dirac, and were later developed, most notably, by Pascual Jordan and Vladimir Fock. In this approach, the quantum many-body states are represented in the Fock state basis, which are constructed by filling up each single-particle state with a certain number of identical particles. The second quantization formalism introduces the creation and annihilation operators to construct and handle the Fock states, providing useful tools to the study of the quantum many-body theory. Quantum many-body states The starting point of the second quantization formalism is the notion of indistinguishability of particles in quantum mechanics. Unlike in classical mechanics, where each particle is labeled by a distinct position vector and different configurations of the set of s correspond to different many-body states, in quantum mechanics, the particles are identical, such that exchanging two particles, i.e. , does not lead to a different many-body quantum state. This implies that the quantum many-body wave function must be invariant (up to a phase factor) under the exchange of two particles. According to the statistics of the particles, the many-body wave function can either be symmetric or antisymmetric under the particle exchange: if the particles are bosons, if the particles are fermions. This exchange symmetry property imposes a constraint on the many-body wave function. Each time a particle is added or removed from the many-body system, the wave function must be properly symmetrized or anti-symmetrized to satisfy the symmetry constraint. In the first quantization formalism, this constraint is guaranteed by representing the wave function as linear combination of permanents (for bosons) or determinants (for fermions) of single-particle states. In the second quantization formalism, the issue of symmetrization is automatically taken care of by the creation and annihilation operators, such that its notation can be much simpler. First-quantized many-body wave function Consider a complete set of single-particle wave functions labeled by (which may be a combined index of a number of quantum numbers). The following wave function represents an N-particle state with the ith particle occupying the single-particle state . In the shorthanded notation, the position argument of the wave function may be omitted, and it is assumed that the ith single-particle wave function describes the state of the ith particle. The wave function has not been symmetrized or anti-symmetrized, thus in general not qualified as a many-body wave function for identical particles. However, it can be brought to the symmetrized (anti-symmetrized) form by operators for symmetrizer, and for antisymmetrizer. For bosons, the many-body wave function must be symmetrized, while for fermions, the many-body wave function must be anti-symmetrized, Here is an element in the N-body permutation group (or symmetric group) , which performs a permutation among the state labels , and denotes the corresponding permutation sign. is the normalization operator that normalizes the wave function. (It is the operator that applies a suitable numerical normalization factor to the symmetrized tensors of degree n; see the next section for its value.) If one arranges the single-particle wave functions in a matrix , such that the row-i column-j matrix element is , then the boson many-body wave function can be simply written as a permanent , and the fermion many-body wave function as a determinant (also known as the Slater determinant). Second-quantized Fock states First quantized wave functions involve complicated symmetrization procedures to describe physically realizable many-body states because the language of first quantization is redundant for indistinguishable particles. In the first quantization language, the many-body state is described by answering a series of questions like "Which particle is in which state?". However these are not physical questions, because the particles are identical, and it is impossible to tell which particle is which in the first place. The seemingly different states and are actually redundant names of the same quantum many-body state. So the symmetrization (or anti-symmetrization) must be introduced to eliminate this redundancy in the first quantization description. In the second quantization language, instead of asking "each particle on which state", one asks "How many particles are there in each state?". Because this description does not refer to the labeling of particles, it contains no redundant information, and hence leads to a precise and simpler description of the quantum many-body state. In this approach, the many-body state is represented in the occupation number basis, and the basis state is labeled by the set of occupation numbers, denoted meaning that there are particles in the single-particle state (or as ). The occupation numbers sum to the total number of particles, i.e. . For fermions, the occupation number can only be 0 or 1, due to the Pauli exclusion principle; while for bosons it can be any non-negative integer The occupation number states are also known as Fock states. All the Fock states form a complete basis of the many-body Hilbert space, or Fock space. Any generic quantum many-body state can be expressed as a linear combination of Fock states. Note that besides providing a more efficient language, Fock space allows for a variable number of particles. As a Hilbert space, it is isomorphic to the sum of the n-particle bosonic or fermionic tensor spaces described in the previous section, including a one-dimensional zero-particle space C. The Fock state with all occupation numbers equal to zero is called the vacuum state, denoted . The Fock state with only one non-zero occupation number is a single-mode Fock state, denoted . In terms of the first quantized wave function, the vacuum state is the unit tensor product and can be denoted . The single-particle state is reduced to its wave function . Other single-mode many-body (boson) states are just the tensor product of the wave function of that mode, such as and . For multi-mode Fock states (meaning more than one single-particle state is involved), the corresponding first-quantized wave function will require proper symmetrization according to the particle statistics, e.g. for a boson state, and for a fermion state (the symbol between and is omitted for simplicity). In general, the normalization is found to be , where N is the total number of particles. For fermion, this expression reduces to as can only be either zero or one. So the first-quantized wave function corresponding to the Fock state reads for bosons and for fermions. Note that for fermions, only, so the tensor product above is effectively just a product over all occupied single-particle states. Creation and annihilation operators The creation and annihilation operators are introduced to add or remove a particle from the many-body system. These operators lie at the core of the second quantization formalism, bridging the gap between the first- and the second-quantized states. Applying the creation (annihilation) operator to a first-quantized many-body wave function will insert (delete) a single-particle state from the wave function in a symmetrized way depending on the particle statistics. On the other hand, all the second-quantized Fock states can be constructed by applying the creation operators to the vacuum state repeatedly. The creation and annihilation operators (for bosons) are originally constructed in the context of the quantum harmonic oscillator as the raising and lowering operators, which are then generalized to the field operators in the quantum field theory. They are fundamental to the quantum many-body theory, in the sense that every many-body operator (including the Hamiltonian of the many-body system and all the physical observables) can be expressed in terms of them. Insertion and deletion operation The creation and annihilation of a particle is implemented by the insertion and deletion of the single-particle state from the first quantized wave function in an either symmetric or anti-symmetric manner. Let be a single-particle state, let 1 be the tensor identity (it is the generator of the zero-particle space C and satisfies in the tensor algebra over the fundamental Hilbert space), and let be a generic tensor product state. The insertion and the deletion operators are linear operators defined by the following recursive equations Here is the Kronecker delta symbol, which gives 1 if , and 0 otherwise. The subscript of the insertion or deletion operators indicates whether symmetrization (for bosons) or anti-symmetrization (for fermions) is implemented. Boson creation and annihilation operators The boson creation (resp. annihilation) operator is usually denoted as (resp. ). The creation operator adds a boson to the single-particle state , and the annihilation operator removes a boson from the single-particle state . The creation and annihilation operators are Hermitian conjugate to each other, but neither of them are Hermitian operators (). Definition The boson creation (annihilation) operator is a linear operator, whose action on a N-particle first-quantized wave function is defined as where inserts the single-particle state in possible insertion positions symmetrically, and deletes the single-particle state from possible deletion positions symmetrically. Examples Hereinafter the tensor symbol between single-particle states is omitted for simplicity. Take the state , create one more boson on the state , Then annihilate one boson from the state , Action on Fock states Starting from the single-mode vacuum state , applying the creation operator repeatedly, one finds The creation operator raises the boson occupation number by 1. Therefore, all the occupation number states can be constructed by the boson creation operator from the vacuum state On the other hand, the annihilation operator lowers the boson occupation number by 1 It will also quench the vacuum state as there has been no boson left in the vacuum state to be annihilated. Using the above formulae, it can be shown that meaning that defines the boson number operator. The above result can be generalized to any Fock state of bosons. These two equations can be considered as the defining properties of boson creation and annihilation operators in the second-quantization formalism. The complicated symmetrization of the underlying first-quantized wave function is automatically taken care of by the creation and annihilation operators (when acting on the first-quantized wave function), so that the complexity is not revealed on the second-quantized level, and the second-quantization formulae are simple and neat. Operator identities The following operator identities follow from the action of the boson creation and annihilation operators on the Fock state, These commutation relations can be considered as the algebraic definition of the boson creation and annihilation operators. The fact that the boson many-body wave function is symmetric under particle exchange is also manifested by the commutation of the boson operators. The raising and lowering operators of the quantum harmonic oscillator also satisfy the same set of commutation relations, implying that the bosons can be interpreted as the energy quanta (phonons) of an oscillator. The position and momentum operators of a Harmonic oscillator (or a collection of Harmonic oscillating modes) are given by Hermitian combinations of phonon creation and annihilation operators, which reproduce the canonical commutation relation between position and momentum operators (with ) This idea is generalized in the quantum field theory, which considers each mode of the matter field as an oscillator subject to quantum fluctuations, and the bosons are treated as the excitations (or energy quanta) of the field. Fermion creation and annihilation operators The fermion creation (annihilation) operator is usually denoted as (). The creation operator adds a fermion to the single-particle state , and the annihilation operator removes a fermion from the single-particle state . Definition The fermion creation (annihilation) operator is a linear operator, whose action on a N-particle first-quantized wave function is defined as where inserts the single-particle state in possible insertion positions anti-symmetrically, and deletes the single-particle state from possible deletion positions anti-symmetrically. It is particularly instructive to view the results of creation and annihilation operators on states of two (or more) fermions, because they demonstrate the effects of exchange. A few illustrative operations are given in the example below. The complete algebra for creation and annihilation operators on a two-fermion state can be found in Quantum Photonics. Examples Hereinafter the tensor symbol between single-particle states is omitted for simplicity. Take the state , attempt to create one more fermion on the occupied state will quench the whole many-body wave function, Annihilate a fermion on the state, take the state , The minus sign (known as the fermion sign) appears due to the anti-symmetric property of the fermion wave function. Action on Fock states Starting from the single-mode vacuum state , applying the fermion creation operator , If the single-particle state is empty, the creation operator will fill the state with a fermion. However, if the state is already occupied by a fermion, further application of the creation operator will quench the state, demonstrating the Pauli exclusion principle that two identical fermions can not occupy the same state simultaneously. Nevertheless, the fermion can be removed from the occupied state by the fermion annihilation operator , The vacuum state is quenched by the action of the annihilation operator. Similar to the boson case, the fermion Fock state can be constructed from the vacuum state using the fermion creation operator It is easy to check (by enumeration) that meaning that defines the fermion number operator. The above result can be generalized to any Fock state of fermions. Recall that the occupation number can only take 0 or 1 for fermions. These two equations can be considered as the defining properties of fermion creation and annihilation operators in the second quantization formalism. Note that the fermion sign structure , also known as the Jordan-Wigner string, requires there to exist a predefined ordering of the single-particle states (the spin structure) and involves a counting of the fermion occupation numbers of all the preceding states; therefore the fermion creation and annihilation operators are considered non-local in some sense. This observation leads to the idea that fermions are emergent particles in the long-range entangled local qubit system. Operator identities The following operator identities follow from the action of the fermion creation and annihilation operators on the Fock state, These anti-commutation relations can be considered as the algebraic definition of the fermion creation and annihilation operators. The fact that the fermion many-body wave function is anti-symmetric under particle exchange is also manifested by the anti-commutation of the fermion operators. The creation and annihilation operators are Hermitian conjugate to each other, but neither of them are Hermitian operators (). The Hermitian combination of the fermion creation and annihilation operators are called Majorana fermion operators. They can be viewed as the fermionic analog of position and momentum operators of a "fermionic" Harmonic oscillator. They satisfy the anticommutation relation where labels any Majorana fermion operators on equal footing (regardless their origin from Re or Im combination of complex fermion operators ). The anticommutation relation indicates that Majorana fermion operators generates a Clifford algebra, which can be systematically represented as Pauli operators in the many-body Hilbert space. Quantum field operators Defining as a general annihilation (creation) operator for a single-particle state that could be either fermionic or bosonic , the real space representation of the operators defines the quantum field operators and by These are second quantization operators, with coefficients and that are ordinary first-quantization wavefunctions. Thus, for example, any expectation values will be ordinary first-quantization wavefunctions. Loosely speaking, is the sum of all possible ways to add a particle to the system at position r through any of the basis states , not necessarily plane waves, as below. Since and are second quantization operators defined in every point in space they are called quantum field operators. They obey the following fundamental commutator and anti-commutator relations, boson fields, fermion fields. For homogeneous systems it is often desirable to transform between real space and the momentum representations, hence, the quantum fields operators in Fourier basis yields: Comment on nomenclature The term "second quantization", introduced by Jordan, is a misnomer that has persisted for historical reasons. At the origin of quantum field theory, it was inappositely thought that the Dirac equation described a relativistic wavefunction (hence the obsolete "Dirac sea" interpretation), rather than a classical spinor field which, when quantized (like the scalar field), yielded a fermionic quantum field (vs. a bosonic quantum field). One is not quantizing "again", as the term "second" might suggest; the field that is being quantized is not a Schrödinger wave function that was produced as the result of quantizing a particle, but is a classical field (such as the electromagnetic field or Dirac spinor field), essentially an assembly of coupled oscillators, that was not previously quantized. One is merely quantizing each oscillator in this assembly, shifting from a semiclassical treatment of the system to a fully quantum-mechanical one. See also Canonical quantization First quantization Geometric quantization Quantization (physics) Schrödinger functional Scalar field theory References Quantum field theory Mathematical quantization
418159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus	Atlus	is a Japanese video game developer, publisher, arcade manufacturer and distribution company based in Tokyo. A subsidiary of Sega, the company is known for video game series such as Megami Tensei, Persona, Etrian Odyssey, and Trauma Center, as well as Print Club (Purikura) arcade machines. Its corporate mascot is Jack Frost, a snowman-like character from their Shin Megami Tensei series. Outside of video games, the company is known for their Purikura arcade machines, which are selfie photo sticker booths popular in East Asia. Altus was established in April 1986 and spent its early years as a video game developer for other companies. It became a video game publisher of its own in 1989 and existed until it was merged into Index Corporation in October 2010. After the dissolution, the name Atlus continued as a brand used by Index Corporation for video game publishing until 2013, when it was bought by Sega and revived as a company initially under the name Sega Dream Corporation. A North American branch of the company, Atlus West, was founded in 1991 in order to focus on publishing and localizing games for North America. A European branch, which is handled via the London-based Sega Europe, was founded in 2017. History Atlus began on 7 April 1986 as a video game developer of computer games for other companies. In January 1987, Atlus started selling amusement equipment. It expanded into the sale of karaoke equipment in March 1989. Atlus released the first video game under its own name in 1989: Puzzle Boy for the Game Boy. Atlus started in the arcade industry in the 1990s by manufacturing its first arcade video game, BlaZeon, in 1992. In 1995, Atlus launched Print Club (Purikura) at arcades in partnership with Sega. It is a photo sticker booth that produces selfie photos. It was conceived by Atlus employee Sasaki Miho in 1994; her bosses at Atlus were initially reluctant about the idea, before later deciding to go ahead with it. Atlus and Sega introduced Purikura in February 1995, initially at game arcades, before expanding to other popular culture locations such as fast food shops, train stations, karaoke establishments and bowling alleys. Purikura became a popular form of entertainment among youths across East Asia, laying the foundations for modern selfie culture. It also introduced a large female demographic to the company's previously male-dominated arcade customer base. By 1996, it accounted for 70% of the company's revenue. By 1997, about 47,000 Purikura machines had been sold, earning Sega an estimated () or annually from Purikura sales that year. Various other similar purikira machines appeared from other manufacturers, with Sega controlling about half of the market in 1997. Print Club went on to generate over in sales for Atlus and Sega. Atlus entered the Tokyo Stock Exchange in 1997, listing on the JASDAQ. In its goal to further increase its presence in the amusement industry, Atlus acquired the manufacturer Apies from Yubis Corporation in 1999. In 2000, Atlus formed a joint venture with Kadokawa Shoten to distribute and sell games. Atlus suffered from deficit financial results in both 1999 and 2000. To address the issue, Atlus established a management reform plan in 2001. In its restructuring efforts, Atlus sold two subsidiaries (one of them being Apies) to their respective employees as part of a management buyout. In October 2001, Atlus acquired Career Soft, and became the sole publisher of the Growlanser series: a real-time strategy role-playing game from the creators of the Langrisser series. In 2004, after the release of Growlanser IV, the majority of Career Soft's staff was merged into the main development team of Atlus where they worked on the Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Survivor games. As a developer brand, Career Soft was eventually dissolved. In October 2003, Japanese toy company Takara acquired Atlus. On 21 November 2006, Index Holdings announced the acquisition of Atlus, effective on 30 October 2006, and purchased 7.7 million shares (54.93 percent; 77,000 votes, or 54.96 percent of the voting rights) on 20 November 2006. Atlus became an Index Holdings subsidiary on 29 November 2006. In March 2009, Atlus and Sting Entertainment announced a publishing partnership making Atlus the only publisher of Sting-developed games in Japan. On 17 September 2009, Index Holdings announced the separation of Atlus' amusement facility and related business into a subsidiary, New Entertainment Waves, effective on 1 December. One hundred seventy-two shares of the subsidiary's stock were also transferred to Chushoukigyou Leisure on 1 December. On 30 August 2010, Index Holdings announced its merger with Atlus, with Index Holdings being the surviving company, effective on 1 October. After the merger, Index Holdings would continue to operate the Atlus brand. Although fans were concerned about the company's future, CEO Shinichi Suzuki said that Atlus would continue to provide the "finest quality game experiences possible" and the merger "further strengthens the foundation of Atlus, both in Japan and here in the United States." On 9 November 2010 Index Holdings announced its renaming to Index Corporation, to be confirmed at the shareholders meeting on 25 November 2010 and effective on 1 December. From 2010 to 2013, Atlus, as a company, ceased to exist and its name became a brand of Index Corporation for video games in Japan. However, Atlus USA remained active and was renamed Index Digital Media, serving as the North American subsidiary for Index Corporation. Much like in Japan, video games continued to be released in that region under the Atlus name during this period. In June 2013, it was reported that Index Corporation filed for civil rehabilitation proceedings, facing bankruptcy with debts of ¥24.5 billion. An Atlus USA spokesperson said that Index Digital Media and the Atlus brand were unaffected by the proceedings. On 18 September 2013, it was reported that Sega won a bid to acquire the bankrupt Index for ¥14 billion. All Index operations, including the Atlus brand and Index Digital Media (Atlus USA), were transferred on 1 November 2013 to Sega Dream Corporation (a new subsidiary established on 5 September 2013). That day, Sega announced that it would change the name of Sega Dream Corporation to Index Corporation. On 18 February 2014, Sega announced the separation of Index Corporation's contents and solution businesses into a new subsidiary, Index Corporation, renaming the old Index Corporation and its remaining digital game business division to Atlus effective 1 April 2014. The new Atlus would include the foreign subsidiary, Index Digital Media, which would revert its name back to Atlus USA at the establishment of the new Atlus. In April 2017, Sega Sammy Holdings announced a relocation of head office functions of the Sega Sammy Group and its major domestic subsidiaries located in the Tokyo metropolitan area to Shinagawa-ku by January 2018. Their stated reasoning was to promote cooperation among companies and creation of more active interaction of personnel, while pursuing efficient group management by consolidating scattered head office functions of the group. Atlus is one of the companies that has relocated in response to this. Development organization Atlus currently has three internal development divisions inside the company responsible for the development of its titles: Creative Department 1st Production (Team Maniax): This is the oldest and original development division, which has been active since the very beginning of the company. This is the group responsible for the development of the Megami Tensei series in general from mainline titles such as Shin Megami Tensei to spin-offs such as Devil Children series, Persona series prior to Persona 3, Devil Summoner series, Last Bible series, Majin Tensei series, Digital Devil Saga series, among many others. Outside of the Megami Tensei series, the group also created and developed the Trauma Center series and the Etrian Odyssey series. Creative Department 2nd Production (P-Studio): Headed by Kazuhisa Wada, this group was established by Atlus during the development of Persona 3 in 2006, to co-exist with the Creative Department 1st Production also known as Team Maniax, who were primarily responsible for developing entries in the Megami Tensei series at the company. The 2nd Production division would instead become the primary in charge of developing and overseeing all games and other products related to the Persona series, after all previous entries in the series on the original PlayStation had been mainly developed by Team Maniax. Leading the new Persona development team would be Katsura Hashino, who served as the director of Persona 3 and other Atlus games such as Shin Megami Tensei III: Nocturne and went to be the director of Persona 4 and Persona 5, being involved on various spin-offs until he departed from the division to create another one within Atlus. After Hashino left in 2016, long time director and producer Kazuhisa Wada became the head of the division. Outside of developing and overseeing all Persona games and products, P-Studio also developed the game Catherine in 2011. Creative Department 3rd Production (Studio Zero): Headed by Katsura Hashino. In 2016, following the Japanese launch of Persona 5, director and producer Hashino talked about his intent to depart P-Studio and retire his commitment to the Persona series, citing a desire to move onto another project due to his feelings that Persona 5 would mark a shift in the series' overall direction. He would eventually be part of a new Creative Department production division established by Atlus, its third one mainly known as Studio Zero, which would become responsible for developing original IP and content unrelated to Persona. With fourteen P-Studio employees including main staff from the Persona series becoming part of the group like character designer Shigenori Soejima, scenario writers Yuichiro Tanaka and Azusa Kido, lead programmer Yujiro Kosaka and graphic designer Yasuhiro Akimoto, alongside new hires to the division, they are currently developing Metaphor: ReFantazio, a new IP fantasy game which was originally announced with a concept art as Project Re Fantasy in 2016 when Studio Zero was founded. Studio Zero first project, the enhanced re-release Catherine: Full Body was released in 2019. International branches Atlus West Atlus West (formerly known as Atlus U.S.A., Inc.) established in 1991 and based in Irvine, California, is the American subsidiary of Atlus and publishes games created by Atlus and other developers. It was formally called Index Digital Media from 2010 to 2014 in response to Atlus being dissolved into Index Corporation. A number of Megami Tensei games have not been released in North America. During the 1990s, Jack Bros. for Virtual Boy, Revelations: Persona for PlayStation and Revelations: The Demon Slayer for the Game Boy Color were the first three games in the series to have a North American release. The 2004 release of Shin Megami Tensei: Nocturne was the first main-series video-game release in the U.S. Since then, the series has continued to be localized and released in the US, including games such as Persona 3, Devil Summoner: Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army, and Shin Megami Tensei: Strange Journey. Atlus West has localized cult classic Disgaea: Hour of Darkness, created by Nippon Ichi Software. The company have also published the tactical role-playing game Tactics Ogre and Game Boy Advance remakes of the Kunio-kun and Double Dragon games for Million (a company composed of former Technōs Japan employees). Other notable titles include Snowboard Kids and Snowboard Kids 2 (for Nintendo 64) and Odin Sphere and the Trauma Center series. Atlus USA released Riviera: The Promised Land, a role-playing video game for the Game Boy Advance previously released for the Wonderswan Color, in 2004 in collaboration with Sting and Bandai. In 2006 Atlus USA and Sting released Yggdra Union, a strategy role-playing game (RPG) for the Game Boy Advance. After Working Designs' publication of Growlanser Generations, they released Growlanser: Heritage of War in 2005 and Growlanser Wayfarer of Time in 2012. The company established an online division, including the Atlus Online portal which is servicing Neo Steam: The Shattered Continent and Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine. On 31 March 2013, Index Digital Media's Atlus Online Division was purchased by Marvelous AQL and transferred to Xseed Games. Atlus USA has published games under the Marl Kingdom name, beginning with Rhapsody: A Musical Adventure in 2000. On 18 February 2014 Sega announced that Index Digital Media would revert its name back to Atlus USA. In March 2016, Sega announced that all the future localized products from Atlus for North America will be published by Sega. Between 2019 and 2020, Atlus USA changed its public brand name to Atlus West. Europe and Oceania Until 2017, Atlus did not have a dedicated European division for publishing and distributing their titles within the European and Oceania region. Instead, many of Atlus' titles were published in these regions by Nippon Ichi Software (NIS) and its American division NIS America. Following Atlus's acquisition by Sega Sammy Holdings, NIS found that it became more difficult to work between Sega and Atlus for distribution and in April 2016, formally ended its distribution partnership with Atlus. In July 2016, Deep Silver announced that it had come to agreement to become Atlus' distributor for Europe and Oceania, and would begin to publish titles in both retail and digital form. In August 2017, Atlus announced that they had opened a European distribution team located in Sega Europe's offices in London that would publish all its games going forward. Controversies Atlus has sued two people related to its long-defunct MMO Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine. The complaint was first filed in December of 2021 against the owner of 'Rekueimu Games' Jonathan Sum and a yet-unidentified administrator named COMP_hack. The court documents were made public on September of 2022. Atlus alleges that their copyright was infringed, as the pair hosted a website that was a near exact copy of Atlus' website and distributed an exact copy of their game Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine. One of the main sources of Atlus' complaints was that the offending website contained false copyright information for 'Rekueimu Games', who do not own Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine or any of its associated media. The court document states that Atlus believes that the 'unauthorized acts as described herein have caused and will continue to cause irreparable damage to Atlus'. Atlus believes that the pair have violated 17 U.S.C. § 50 three times and Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. § 1202 once. Controversy began online when people mistakenly believed another group named ReIMAGINE, who run a similar service to Rekueimu Games, was being targeted by the lawsuit, as their servers coincidentally went down on the same day as the suit became public knowledge. As a precaution against a similar lawsuit, ReIMAGINE chose to close their services on the 26th of September. Corporate mascot Jack Frost, who appears as a demon character in the Shin Megami Tensei franchise, is the company mascot. Resembling a snowman, he has teeth, a tail and no nose, and wears a jester hat, collar, and shoes. His catchphrase is "Hee-Ho". He has appeared in several games in the Shin Megami Tensei series, as well as the Jack Bros. and Persona games. Jack Frost is a hidden character in the North American and Japanese versions of SBK: Snowboard Kids, with a larger role in the Japanese version. He has a family; more relatives were created since Shin Megami Tensei II, including King Frost, Pyro Jack (Known as "Jack-O-Lantern" in some localizations), Frost 5 Senshi, and Black Frost. Animation based on Atlus games Shin Megami Tensei: Tokyo Mokushiroku Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Summoner (TV Series) Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Children 2 Light & Dark Devil Survivor 2: The Animation Persona: Trinity Soul Persona 4: The Animation Persona 4: The Golden Animation Persona 3 The Movie: #1 Spring of Birth Persona 3 The Movie: #2 Midsummer Knight's Dream Persona 3 The Movie: #3 Falling Down Persona 3 The Movie: #4 Winter of Rebirth Persona 5: The Animation – The Day Breakers Persona 5: The Animation References External links Japanese companies established in 1986 Japanese companies established in 2013 Amusement companies of Japan Software companies based in Tokyo Video game companies established in 1986 Video game companies established in 2013 Re-established companies Sega divisions and subsidiaries Video game companies of Japan Video game development companies Video game publishers
418188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firecracker	Firecracker	A firecracker (cracker, noise maker, banger) is a small explosive device primarily designed to produce a large amount of noise, especially in the form of a loud bang, usually for celebration or entertainment; any visual effect is incidental to this goal. They have fuses, and are wrapped in a heavy paper casing to contain the explosive compound. Firecrackers, along with fireworks, originated in China. History The predecessor of the firecracker was a type of heated bamboo, used as early as 200 BCE, that exploded when heated continuously. The Chinese name for firecrackers, 爆竹(baozhu), literally means "exploding bamboo." After the invention of gunpowder, gunpowder firecrackers had a shape that resembled bamboo and produced a similar sound, so the name "exploding bamboo" was retained. In traditional Chinese culture, firecrackers were used to scare off enemies or evil spirits. Firecrackers production and sales Ingredients Firecrackers are generally made of cardboard or plastic, with flash powder, cordite, smokeless powder, or black powder as the propellant. This is not always the case, however. Anything from match heads to kerosene and lighter fluid has been used successfully in making firecrackers.The key to loud firecrackers, however, although in part lying in the propellant substance, is pressure. The entire firecracker must be very tightly packed in order for it to work best. Flash powder, however, does not need to be packed tightly, and should not be. Manufacturing James Dyer Ball, in his book Things Chinese, has a detailed description about the process and material used for making firecrackers at the end of the 19th century. At that time, firecrackers were made by women and children workers, using straw paper to make the body of the firecracker, while the fuse was made of paper imported from Japan made from the inner lining of the bamboo plant, or rice paper, stiffened with buckwheat paste. The bamboo paper was cut into strips of long and wide, laid on a table; a string of gunpowder was placed at the center with a hollow tube, then twisted up to make a piece of fuse. The firecracker tubes were made from pieces of straw paper wrapped around iron rods of various diameters and then tightened with a special tool. 200 to 300 firecrackers were tied up in a bunch, then red clay was spread at the bottom of the bunch and forced into each end of the firecracker with a punch; gunpowder was poured in, then the other end was sealed with an awl by turning the tube inward, and a fuse inserted. Green or environment friendly firecracker After India's National Green Tribunal (NGT) enacted a ban on the sale and use of crackers on Diwali festival in 2020, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) developed green crackers made from cleaner raw materials which reduce emissions by suppressing the production of dust; their emissions are 30% lower but are also of reduced loudness, at 110-125 decibels instead of the more than 160 decibels of traditional firecrackers. However, green crackers still contain harmful pollutants such as aluminium, barium, potassium nitrate and carbon. Sales, packaging and branding Early (pre-1920s) Chinese firecrackers (also known as "Mandarin firecrackers") were typically long, and approximately in diameter, and were charged with black powder. Mandarin crackers produced a less loud, duller thud compared to modern flash-light crackers (which utilize a different explosive known as flash powder). Mandarin crackers produced a dimmer, less brilliant flash when they exploded also. Individual Mandarin crackers were most often braided into "strings" of varying lengths, which, when ignited, exploded in rapid sequence. Generally, the strings (sometimes containing as many as several thousand crackers) would be hung from an overhead line before ignition. Most Mandarin crackers were colored all red and did not generally have designs or logos decorating their exterior surface (or "shell wraps"). Occasionally a few yellow and green colored Mandarin crackers were created and would be braided into the predominantly all-red strings to symbolize the emperor and the ruling class, while the numerous red crackers symbolized the common man. Once flash powder, which produces a significantly sharper and brighter bang, replaced black powder as a firecracker's explosive charge (circa 1924), manufacturers began competing to gain loyalty of typical consumers (that is, mainly boys 8 to 16 years old). Thousands of brands were created during the flash-light cracker's heyday from the 1920s through the early 1970s. Only a small percentage of brands lasted more than a year or two. Collectors now seek the various labels from the era. Until the mid-1980s, firecracker production was low-tech. They were handmade, beginning with rolling tubes. Once the firecracker tubes were rolled by hand (commonly from newspaper) and labelled, and then filled with powder, their ends were crimped and fuses inserted, all by hand. These finished firecrackers were usually braided into "strings" and sold in packs which came in many sizes, from the very small ("penny packs" containing as few as four to six firecrackers) to the most common size packs (containing 16 and 20 crackers per pack), to larger packs (containing 24, 30, 32, 40, 50, 60, 72, 90, 100, and 120 firecrackers), to huge "belts" and "rolls" (packages containing strings of several hundred to several thousand crackers—Phantom Fireworks sells rolls as large as 16,000 firecrackers). Firecracker packages were wrapped in colourful and translucent glassine paper, as well as clear cellophane, with glassine the most popular. The final operation involved applying a branded label on each pack, then bundling finished packs into wholesale lots called "bricks" which contained an average of 80 packs each (varying according to the size of the packs being bundled; for example, packs of 32 crackers might have 40 packs per brick, compared to packs of 16 or 20 with 80 packs per brick). Usage Laws governing production, sales and usage of firecrackers Firecrackers, as well as other types of explosives, are subject to various laws in many countries, although firecrackers themselves are not usually considered illegal contraband material. It is usually the manufacture, sale, storage, and use of firecrackers that are subject to laws, including safety requirements for manufacture, the requirement of a permit to sell or store, or restrictions on the use of firecrackers. Celebrations Firecrackers are commonly used in celebration of holidays or festivals, such as Halloween, Independence Day (also known as the Fourth of July) in the United States, Diwali in India, Eid al-Fitr in Southeast Asia, Tihar in Nepal, Day of Ashura in Morocco, Guy Fawkes Night or Bonfire Night in the United Kingdom, Halloween in Ireland, Bastille Day in France, Spanish Fallas, in almost every cultural festival of Sri Lanka (e.g. Sri Lankan New Year), New Year's Eve and New Year's Day, and in the celebration of Chinese New Year by Chinese communities around the world. Usage and legal status by country The use of firecrackers, although a traditional part of the celebration, has over the years led to many injuries and deaths. There have been incidents every year of users being blinded, losing body parts, or suffering other injuries, especially during festivities that customarily involve firecrackers such as Chinese New Year season. Hence, many governments and authorities have enacted laws completely banning the sale or use of firecrackers, or banning the use of firecrackers in the street, primarily because of safety or environmental reasons. These rules also require a permit from the local government, as well as any relevant local bodies such as maritime or aviation authorities (as relevant to the types of firecrackers being used) and hospitals, schools, etc., within a certain range. Australia In most states and territories, firecrackers are illegal without a permit and part of a display by a licensed pyrotechnician. Tasmania, ACT and Northern Territory allow consumer use with a permit (dependent on calendar date). Northern Territory is the only part of Australia where a consumer does not require a permit, but this only applies on 1 July for Territory Day. Canada Firecrackers are not authorized under the Explosives Act, thus making importation, possession, transportation, storage, or manufacturing illegal in Canada. Canada banned firecrackers on 27 September 1972, after two children were killed and three others severely burned when some older children threw some firecrackers inside their tent. Fireworks are still legal to buy for anyone 18 years of age or over. Croatia The use of firecrackers is regulated by the Law on Explosive Substances and the Production and Trading of Weapons (). According to the Law, firecrackers (including other pyrotechnic articles) are divided into three classes: Class 1 Pyrotechnics - pyrotechnic articles for fireworks which represent a very low risk, have negligible noise level and are intended for use in restricted areas, including fireworks intended for use within residential buildings; Class 2 and 3 Pyrotechnics - pyrotechnic articles for fireworks which represent low to medium risk, have medium to high noise level and are intended for outdoor use in restricted areas and large open areas. Class 1 Pyrotechnics can be sold all year round to people over the age of 14 in general stores and newsstands, while Class 2 and 3 Pyrotechnics can only be sold between 15 December and 1 January each year at gun shops and stores with special permits to the people over the age of 14 (class 2) or over the age of 18 (class 3). Use of Class 2 and 3 Pyrotechnics is allowed only in the period between 27 December and 1 January. Each year since 1993, between 15 December and 8 January, the police carries out the "Peace and good" action with the aim of prevention of people from getting hurt and violating public order. The penalties for unauthorized use of pyrotechnic articles range between 1,000 and 15,000 kunas (€135 - €2,035) for people, and between 10,000 and 80,000 kunas (€1,355 - €10,850) for companies. For a legal guardian of a child under the age of 14 who have used pyrotechnic articles, fine ranges between 1,000 and 3,000 kunas (€135 - €405). China As of 2008, most urban areas in mainland China permit firecrackers. In the first three days of the traditional New Year, it is a tradition that people compete with each other by playing with firecrackers. However, many urban areas banned them in the 1990s. For example, they were banned in Beijing's urban districts from 1993 to 2005. Since the ban was lifted, the firecracker barrage has been tremendous. An unusual feature is that many residents in major cities look down on street-level fireworks from their tower blocks. Bans are rare in rural areas. Czech Republic Firecrackers are legal in the Czech Republic. They can have up to 5g of flash powder and can be bought by anyone older than 21 years. For stronger firecrackers (up to 100g) a permit is required. Germany Fireworks are classified. Some fireworks are restricted to adults (18 years), may be sold to private persons only on three days before New Year's Eve and may be used only on New Year's Eve or New Year (special permits can be obtained to use these on other days of the year). Other fireworks have no such restrictions, however, they are not recommended for children below 12 years and guidance by adults is advised. Certain fireworks are available only to professionals. Finland Firecrackers sold to consumers are restricted to 0.95 grams of black powder. The ban on larger firecrackers went into effect in 1996. Before, mid-size kiinanpommi or kiinari ("Chinese bomb") and tykinlaukaus and large tykäri ("artillery shot") had become cheap and common products that were often used by children after the celebration, leading to accidents. Hong Kong Firecrackers and fireworks were banned in Hong Kong for security reasons in 1967, as a result of many IED attacks in the 1967 Leftist Riot. However, the government stages a fireworks display in Victoria Harbour for New Year countdown and the second day of the Chinese New Year. Hungary Firecrackers are banned in Hungary since 2005. Other types of consumer fireworks are only allowed to be sold and used on New Year's Eve. Many people smuggle firecrackers from Slovakia, where they are legal. India Firecrackers are easily available in India and are used to mark a celebratory event. They are legal, and anyone 18 and over can buy them without a licence. Vijayadashami and Diwali fireworks are a family event in many parts of India. People light up fireworks near their homes and in streets. Additionally, cities and communities have community fireworks. This custom may have begun on the Indian subcontinent after 1400 CE when gunpowder started being utilised in Indian warfare. India's first fireworks factory was established in Calcutta during the 19th century. In October and November, farmers from Punjab and Haryana burn agricultural waste and the weather tends not to be windy, so Delhi's air pollution usually increases, which has been a major environmental problem in recent years. Firecrackers for the Diwali holiday can worsen this pollution. In October 2017, the Supreme Court banned firecrackers in Delhi, as a result of which the industry said it faced losses of Rs 1,000-crore and consequently layoffs. After India's National Green Tribunal (NGT) ordered a ban in the NCR region on the sale and use of crackers in 2020, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) developed "green crackers" that used less polluting raw materials. Several states in India have either banned firecrackers or limited the time, noise level and type (mandatory use of less polluting firecrackers) that can be used. Nonetheless, many firecrackers were used to celebrate the Vijayadashami and Diwali holidays in 2020, immediately after which Delhi's air pollution was over 9 times the level that the World Health Organization considers safe. Aaratrika Bhaumik writing for the website "livelaw.in" mentions the ban put in place by the Calcutta High Court on firecrackers (green firecrackers included) throughout the state of West Bengal for the 2021 Vijayadashami and Diwali festivities. The ban extends to all remaining festivals in the year, such as, Chhath Puja, Kali Puja, Guru Nanak Jayanti, Christmas and New Year's. Indonesia Firecrackers and fireworks are generally forbidden in public during the Chinese New Year, especially in areas with significant non-Chinese populations, to avoid conflict between the two. However, there are some exceptions. The usage of firecrackers is legal in some metropolitan areas such as Jakarta and Medan, where the degree of racial and cultural tolerance is higher. Ireland Fireworks and firecrackers are not permitted in the Republic of Ireland; however, many people smuggle them from Northern Ireland, where they are legal. They are most common around Halloween. Irish anti-firecracker laws are considered among the strictest in the world, equal to Chile's. Malaysia Private citizens are banned from using fireworks in the Minor Offences Act 1955 and Explosives Act 1957. However, fireworks are readily available in the community. The government only allows fireworks for public events, and some authorised events held by businesses and other groups with a permit. Norway The government of Norway banned the sale of rockets to individuals in early 2009, while allowing rockets to continue to be used in firework displays managed by licensed professionals. Other types of fireworks can still be sold. Philippines Fireworks and firecrackers are widely available throughout the Philippines and both Republic Act 7183 and Executive Order 28 were enacted to regulate and to control the sale, distribution, manufacture and use of firecrackers for public safety. Under Republic Act 7183, there are certain firecrackers that are legal such as Judas' belt and the prohibition of a certain firecracker and pyrotechnic devices shall be determined by the Director-General of the Philippine National Police. Although, there are cities in the Philippines banning all kinds of firecrackers and those cities are Muntinlupa (since 2013), Olongapo (since 2008) and Davao City (since 2001). Injuries involving the use or ingestion of "Piccolo" sticks account for the majority of firecracker-related incidents in the country. However, in December 2020, firecrackers were banned in some areas of Metro Manila to prevent injuries and avoid mass gatherings in the region due to the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, Mayor Joy Belmonte of Quezon City said that fireworks and firecracker use is strictly prohibited in basketball courts, streets and public spaces, and can only be used in designated firecracker zones. Some provinces and municipalities outside of Metro Manila also imposed a firecracker ban to make sure that minimum health protocols will be observed during the new year celebration. Singapore A partial ban on firecrackers was imposed in March 1970 after a fire killed six people and injured 68. This was extended to a total ban in August 1972, after an explosion that killed two people. and an attack on two police officers attempting to stop a group from letting off firecrackers in February 1972. However, in 2003, the government allowed firecrackers to be set off during the festive season. At the Chinese New Year light-up in Chinatown, at the stroke of midnight on the first day of the Lunar New Year, firecrackers are set off under controlled conditions by the Singapore Tourism Board. Other occasions where firecrackers are allowed to be set off are determined by the tourism board or other government organizations. However, their sale is not allowed. Sweden Only rocket-type fireworks and small firecrackers are currently allowed in Sweden. The ban of firecrackers was effectuated by the EU Parliament and Swedish government effective 1 December 2001, but in 2006 the EU Parliament changed the laws, allowing smaller types of firecrackers. By 2008, the law had to be in effect in all EU member countries, including Sweden. Taiwan Firecrackers have been banned in urban areas of Taiwan since 2008, but are still allowed in rural areas. United Kingdom In 1997, firecrackers became illegal, but most other consumer fireworks are legal. United States In 2007, New York City lifted its decade-old ban on firecrackers, allowing a display of 300,000 firecrackers to be set off in Chinatown's Chatham Square. Under the supervision of the fire and police departments, Los Angeles regularly lights firecrackers every New Year's Eve, mostly at temples and the shrines of benevolent associations. The San Francisco Chinese New Year Parade, the largest outside China, is accompanied by numerous firecrackers, both officially sanctioned and illicit. Vietnam In 1994, the Government of Vietnam decided to ban firecrackers nationwide. Only fireworks displays produced and performed by the government are permitted. See also Quarter stick M-80 (explosive) Salute (pyrotechnics) Squib Superstring (fireworks) Sutli bomb References External links www.crackerpacks.com guide to collecting firecrackers The late Dennis Manochio Senior world's largest 4th of July Americana and fireworks collector! Historian for the American Pyrotechnics Association Severe firecracker injury to the hand (Warning: graphic photo) Fireworks Pyrotechnics Chinese inventions Gunpowder East Asian traditions
418189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle%20%28submersible%29	Turtle (submersible)	Turtle (also called American Turtle) was the world's first submersible vessel with a documented record of use in combat. It was built in 1775 by American David Bushnell as a means of attaching explosive charges to ships in a harbor, for use against the Royal Navy during the American Revolutionary War. Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull recommended the invention to George Washington, who provided funds and support for the development and testing of the machine. Several attempts were made using Turtle to affix explosives to the undersides of British warships in New York Harbor in 1776. All failed, and her transport ship was sunk later that year by the British with the submarine aboard. Bushnell claimed eventually to have recovered the machine, but its final fate is unknown. Modern replicas of Turtle have been constructed and are on display in the Connecticut River Museum, the U.S. Navy's Submarine Force Library and Museum, the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, and the Oceanographic Museum (Monaco). Development The American inventor David Bushnell made the idea of a submersible vessel for use in lifting the British naval blockade during the American War of Independence. Bushnell may have begun studying underwater explosions while at Yale College. By early 1775, he had created a reliable method for detonating underwater explosives, a clockwork connected to a musket firing mechanism, probably a flintlock, adapted for the purpose. After the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Bushnell began work near Old Saybrook on a small, individually manned submersible designed to attach an explosive charge to the hull of an enemy ship, which, he wrote Benjamin Franklin, would be, "Constructed with Great Simplicity and upon Principles of Natural Philosophy." Little is known about the origin, inspiration, and influences for Bushnell's invention. It seems clear Bushnell knew of the work of the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel. According to Dr. Benjamin Gale, a doctor who taught at Yale, the many brass and mechanical (moving) parts of the submarine were built by the New Haven clock-maker, engraver, silversmith, brass manufacturer and inventor Isaac Doolittle, whose shop was just a half block from Yale. Though Bushnell is given the overall design credit for the Turtle by Gale and others, Doolittle was well known as an "ingenious mechanic" (i.e. an engineer), engraver, and metalworker. He had both designed and manufactured complicated brass-wheel hall-clocks, a mahogany printing-press in 1769 (the first made in America, after Doolittle successfully duplicated the iron screw), brass compasses, and surveying instruments. He also founded and owned a brass foundry where he cast bells. At the start of the American Revolution,the wealthy and patriotic Doolittle built a gunpowder mill with two partners in New Haven to support the war, and was sent by the Connecticut government to prospect for lead. Though the design of the Turtle was necessarily shrouded in secrecy, based on his mechanical engineering expertise and previous experience in design and manufacturing, it seems Doolittle designed and crafted (and probably funded) the brass and the moving parts of the Turtle, including the propulsion system, the navigation instruments, the brass foot-operated water-ballast and forcing pumps, the depth gauge and compass, the brass crown hatch, the clockwork detonator for the mine, and the hand-operated propeller crank and foot-driven treadle with flywheel. According to a letter from Dr. Benjamin Gale to Benjamin Franklin, Doolittle also designed the mine attachment mechanism, "those Parts which Conveys the Powder, and secures the same to the Bottom of the Ship". The most historically important innovation in the Turtle was the propeller, as it was the first known use of one in a watercraft: it was described as an "oar for rowing forward or backward", with "no precedent" design and in a letter by Dr. Benjamin Gale to Silas Dean as "a pair of oars fixed like the two opposite arms of a windmill" and as "two oars or paddles" that were "like the arms of a windmill... long, and about wide." As it was probably brass, it was thus likely designed and forged by Doolittle. Doolittle also likely provided the scarce commodities of gunpowder and lead ballast as well. The wealthy Doolittle, nearly 20 years older than the Yale student Bushnell, was a founder and long time Warden of Trinity Episcopal Church on the Green, and was in charge of New Haven's port inspection and beacon-alarm systems – suggesting that Doolittle provided much of the political and financial leadership in building the Turtle as well as its brass and moving parts. In making the hull, Bushnell enlisted the services of several skilled artisans, including his brother the farmer Ezra Bushnell and ship's carpenter Phineas Pratt, both, like David Bushnell, from Saybrook. The hull was "constructed of oak, somewhat like a barrel and bound by heavy wrought-iron hoops." The shape of the hull, Gale informed Silas Deane, "has the nearest resemblance to the two upper shells of a Tortoise joined together." Named for its shape, Turtle resembled a large clam as much as a turtle; it was about long (according to the original specifications), tall, and about wide, and consisted of two wooden shells covered with tar and reinforced with steel bands. It dived by allowing water into a bilge tank at the bottom of the vessel and ascended by pushing water out through a hand pump. It was propelled vertically and horizontally by hand-cranked and pedal-powered propellers, respectively. It also had of lead aboard, which could be released in a moment to increase buoyancy. Manned and operated by one person, the vessel contained enough air for about thirty minutes and had a speed in calm water of about . Six small pieces of thick glass in the top of the submarine provided natural light. The internal instruments had small pieces of bioluminescent foxfire affixed to the needles to indicate their position in the dark. During trials in November 1775, Bushnell discovered that this illumination failed when the temperature dropped too low. Although repeated requests were made to Benjamin Franklin for possible alternatives, none was forthcoming, and Turtle was sidelined for the winter. Bushnell's basic design included some elements present in earlier experimental submersibles. The method of raising and lowering the vessel was similar to that developed by Nathaniel Simons in 1729, and the gaskets used to make watertight connections around the connections between the internal and external controls also may have come from Simons, who constructed a submersible based on a 17th-century Italian design by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. Preparation for use One of the central concerns for Bushnell as he planned and constructed the Turtle was funding. Due to colonial efforts to keep the existence of this potential war asset secret from the British, the colonial records concerning the Turtle are often short and cryptic. Most of the records that do exist concern Bushnell's request for funds. Bushnell met with Jonathan Trumbull, the governor of Connecticut, during 1771 seeking financial support. Trumbull also sent requests to George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson, who was an inventor himself, was intrigued by the possibilities while Washington remained skeptical of devoting funds from the Continental Army, whose funding was already being stretched. Ultimately, Washington was able to provide some funds possibly due to Trumbull's influence. Several setbacks plagued the design process. The mine in particular was delayed several times from its expected completion from 1771 to 1776. Piloting the Turtle, moreover, required great physical stamina and coordination. The operator would have to adjust the bilge in order to keep from sinking while providing his own propulsion by use of a crank, which worked a propeller located on the front of the submarine, and direction by use of a lever that would operate and direct a rudder in the back. The cabin also reportedly held air for only thirty minutes of use. Thereafter, the operator would have to surface and replenish the air through a ventilator. Obviously, training would be needed in order to ensure the project's success due to the complex nature of the machine. "The boat was moved from Ezra's farm on the Westbrook Road to what is now Ayer's Point in Old Saybrook on the Connecticut River," writes historian Lincoln Diamant. Bushnell had a Yale connection here that allowed him to run trials in secrecy. Bushnell did the initial testing of his submarine here, choosing his brother, Ezra, as the pilot. Despite Bushnell's insistence on secrecy surrounding his work, news of it quickly made its way to the British, abetted by a Loyalist spy working for New York Congressman James Duane. In August 1776, Bushnell asked General Samuel Holden Parsons for volunteers to operate Turtle, because his brother Ezra, who had been its operator during earlier trials at Ayer's Point on the Connecticut river, was taken ill. Three men were chosen, and the submersible was taken to Long Island Sound for training and further trials. While these trials went on, the British gained control of western Long Island in the August 27 Battle of Long Island. Since the British now controlled the harbor, Turtle was transported overland from New Rochelle to the Hudson River. After two weeks of training, Turtle was towed to New York, and its new operator, Sgt. Ezra Lee, prepared to attack the flagship of the blockade squadron, . Destroying this symbol of British naval power by means of a submarine would at least be a blow to British morale and, perhaps, threaten the British blockade and control of New York Harbor. The plan was to have Lee surface just behind Eagles rudder and use a screw to attach an explosive to the ship's hull. Once attached, Lee would re-enter the water and make his getaway. Attack on Eagle At 11:00 pm on September 7, 1776, Sgt. Lee piloted the submersible toward Admiral Richard Howe's flagship, , then moored off Governors Island. On that night, Lee maneuvered the small craft out to the anchorage. It took two hours to reach his destination, as it was hard work manipulating the hand-operated controls and foot pedals to propel the submersible into position. Adding to his difficulties was a fairly strong current and the darkness creeping overhead, which made visibility difficult. The plan failed. Lee began his mission with only twenty minutes of air, not to mention the complications of operating the craft. The darkness, the speed of the currents, and the added complexities all combined to thwart Lee's plan. Once surfaced, Lee lit the fuse on the explosive and tried multiple times to stab the device into the underside of the ship. Unfortunately, after several attempts Lee was not able to pierce Eagles hull and abandoned the operation as the timer on the explosive was due to go off and he feared getting caught at dawn. A popular story held that he failed due to the copper lining covering the ship's hull. The Royal Navy had recently begun installing copper sheathing on the bottoms of their warships to protect from damage by shipworms and other marine life, however the lining was paper-thin and could not have stopped Lee from drilling through it. Bushnell believed Lee's failure was probably due to an iron plate connected to the ship's rudder hinge. When Lee attempted another spot in the hull, he was unable to stay beneath the ship, and eventually abandoned the attempt. It seems more likely that he was suffering from fatigue and carbon dioxide inhalation, which made him confused and unable to properly carry out the process of drilling through the Eagles hull. Lee reported British soldiers on Governors Island spotted the submersible and rowed out to investigate. He then released the charge (which he called a "torpedo", the prevailing term for underwater explosive devices prior to about 1890), "expecting that they would seize that likewise, and thus all would be blown to atoms." Suspicious of the drifting charge, the British retreated back to the island. Lee reported that the charge drifted into the East River, where it exploded "with tremendous violence, throwing large columns of water and pieces of wood that composed it high into the air." It was the first recorded use of a submarine to attack a ship; however, the only records documenting it are American. British records contain no accounts of an attack by a submarine or any reports of explosions on the night of the supposed attack on Eagle. According to British naval historian Richard Compton-Hall, the problems of achieving neutral buoyancy would have rendered the vertical propeller useless. The route Turtle would have had to take to attack Eagle was slightly across the tidal stream which would, in all probability, have resulted in Lee becoming exhausted. In the face of these and other problems, Compton-Hall suggests the entire story was fabricated as disinformation and morale-boosting propaganda, and if Lee did carry out an attack it was in a covered rowing boat rather than Turtle. Despite Turtles failure, Washington called Bushnell "a Man of great Mechanical Powers, fertile of invention and a master in execution." In retrospect, Washington observed in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, "[Bushnell] came to me in 1776 recommended by Governor Trumbull (now dead) and other respectable characters…Although I wanted faith myself, I furnished him with money, and other aids to carry it into execution. He laboured for some time ineffectually and, though the advocates for his scheme continued sanguine, he never did succeed. One accident or another was always intervening. I then thought, and still think, that it was an effort of genius; but that a combination of too many things were requisite…" Turtles attack on Eagle reflected both the ingenuity of American forces after the fall of New York and the tendency of the weaker belligerent to adopt and embrace new, sometimes radical, technologies. "What astonishment it will produce and what advantages may be made…if it succeeds, [are] more easy for you to conceive than for me to describe," physician Benjamin Gale wrote to Silas Deane less than a year before Turtle'''s mission. The submarine's ultimate fate is not known, although it is believed that after the British took New York, the Turtle was destroyed to prevent her from falling into enemy hands. Aftermath On October 5, Sergeant Lee again went out in an attempt to attach the charge to a frigate anchored off Manhattan. He reported the ship's watch spotted him, so he abandoned the attempt.Turtle was lost on October 9, 1776, while aboard the sloop serving as her tender when the Royal Navy frigates , , and sank the sloop by gunfire by in the Hudson River near Fort Washington on Manhattan and Fort Lee, New Jersey. Bushnell reported salvaging Turtle, but its final fate is unknown. Washington called the attempt "an effort of genius", but "a combination of too many things was requisite" for such an attempt to succeed. Following Turtles abortive attack in New York Harbor, Bushnell continued his work in underwater explosives. In 1777, he devised mines to be towed for an attack on HMS Cerberus near New London harbor and to be floated down the Delaware River in an attempt to interrupt the British fleet off Philadelphia. Both attempts failed, and the latter occupied a brief, if farcical, place in the literature of the war. Francis Hopkinson's poem "Battle of the Kegs," captured the surprising, if futile, venture: "The soldier flew, the sailor too, and, scared almost to death, sir, wore out their shoes to spread the news, and ran till out of breath, sir." When the Connecticut government refused to fund further underwater project, Bushnell joined the Continental Army as a captain-lieutenant of sappers and miners, and served with distinction for several years the Hudson River in New York. After the war, Bushnell drifted into obscurity. He visited France for several years, then moved to Georgia in 1795 under the assumed name of David Bush, where he taught school and practiced medicine. He died largely unknown in Georgia in 1824. After the war, inventors such as Robert Fulton were influenced by Bushnell's designs in the development of underwater explosives. Despite Turtle'''s shortcomings, Bushnell's invention marked an important milestone in submarine technology. The American inventor Robert Fulton conceived of his submarine Nautilus in the first years of the nineteenth century and took it to Europe when the United States proved largely uninterested in the design. During the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America, faced with a similar situation to that of the colonies during the War of Independence, developed an operational submarine CSS H.L. Hunley, whose destruction of the USS Housatonic in Charleston Harbor in February 1864 was the first successful submarine attack in history. By the early-twentieth century, the world's navies were beginning to adopt submarines in larger numbers. Like Bushnell's design, these boats mimicked the natural forms of marine animals in their hull designs. As one contemporary historian of submarines observed in 1901, the evolution of modern submarine evolved from the whale, which he deemed a "submarine made by nature out of a mammal." While Bushnell's name is not generally well-known, he is often credited with revolutionizing naval warfare from below. Bushnell's Turtle created a military vantage point unseen prior to the Revolutionary Wara view from under the war-stricken waters. As historian Alex Roland argues, Bushnell's legacy as an inventor was also burnished by American writers and historians who in the early nineteenth-century lionized Bushnell and his submarine. To a new postwar generation of Americans, he seemed "the ingenious patriot who invented the submarine that terrified the British." Bushnell joined the ranks of American inventors of the era such as Eli Whitney and Robert Fulton. These men served as national heroes to Americans who advocated for technological advances and idolized the men making them. "Whether the motives were military pride or scientific nationalism," Roland contends, "it was important to Americans in the first half century after the Revolution to look upon Bushnell's submarine as an American original. Yet, while the Turtle occupies a prominent place in the history of technology and military history, Roland's scholarship points to other technological precedence that almost certainly influenced Bushnell's design. Roland points to Denis Papin, a French physician, physicist, and member of the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences, whose two submarines may well have served as a model for Bushnell. "The submarine Bushnell designed and built... had features peculiar to both of Papin's versions." As historian of technology Carroll Purcell argues, such trans-Atlantic technology cross-fertilization was hardly exceptional in this era. Since the Turtles emergence over two centuries ago, the international playing field has leveled. The monopoly over submersible technology once held by the United States was lost over time as other navies around the world modernized and adopted submarine warfare. From the innovations of John Holland in the early twentieth century to the German U-boat campaigns of the World Wars, and the nuclear-powered ICBM submarines of the Cold War, modern navies embraced the submarine, first, for missions of reconnaissance and commerce-raiding, but, increasingly, in offensive, attack roles. In the postwar era, the submarine has become a central component of modern navies. Submarine usage has gone far beyond Bushnell's conception of lifting naval blockades designed to bleed a country dry of their imports to become an essential arm of offensive naval warfare and power projection. Replicas The Turtle was the first submersible vessel used for combat and led to the development of what we know today as the modern submarine, forever changing underwater warfare and the face of naval warfare. As such, the Turtle has been replicated many times to show new audience the roots of submarine technology, how much it has changed, and the influence it has had on modern submarines. By the 1950s, historian of technology Brooke Hindle credited the Turtle as "the greatest of the wartime inventions." The Turtle remains a source of national as well as regional pride, which led to the construction of several replicas, a number of which exist in Bushnell's home state of Connecticut. As Benjamin Gale noted in 1775, the vessel was "constructed with great simplicity," and it has thus inspired at least four replicas. Many of these followed the designs set down by Bushnell, with "precise and comprehensive descriptions of his submarine," which aided the replication process. The vessel was a source of particular pride in Connecticut. In 1976, a replica of Turtle was designed by Joseph Leary and constructed by Fred Frese as a project marking the United States Bicentennial. It was christened by Connecticut's governor, Ella Grasso, and later tested in the Connecticut River. This replica is owned by the Connecticut River Museum. In 2002, Rick and Laura Brown, two sculptors from Massachusetts, along with Massachusetts College of Art and Design students and faculty, constructed another replica. The Browns set out to gain a better understanding of human ingenuity while keeping Bushnell's design, materials, and technique authentic. "With it, Yankee ingenuity was born," observed Rick Brown, referring to the latest in a long line of commemoration that perceived the Turtle as something authentically American. Of the temptation to use synthetic and ahistorical materials, Rob Duarte, a MassArts student observed, "It was always a temptation to use silicone to seal the thing. Then you realized that someone else had to figure this out with the same limited resources that we were using. That's just an interesting way to learn. You can't do it any other way than by actually doing it." The outer shell of the replica was hollowed, using controlled fire, from a Sitka spruce. The log was in diameter and shipped from British Columbia. This replica took twelve days to build and was successfully submerged in water. In 2003, it was tested in an indoor test tank at the United States Naval Academy. Lew Nuckols, a professor of Ocean Engineering at USNA, made ten dives, noting "you feel very isolated from the outside world. If you had any sense of claustrophobia it would not be a very good experience." The replica is currently on display at the International Spy Museum in Washington, DC. In 2003, Roy Manstan, Fred Frese, and the Naval Underwater Warfare Center partnered with students from Old Saybrook High School in Connecticut on a four-year project called The Turtle Project, to construct their own working replica, which they completed and launched in 2007. On August 3, 2007 three men were stopped by police while escorting and piloting a replica based on the Turtle within 200 feet (61 m) of RMS Queen Mary 2, then docked at the cruise ship terminal in Red Hook, Brooklyn. The replica was created by New York artist Philip "Duke" Riley and two residents of Rhode Island, one of whom claimed to be a descendant of David Bushnell. Riley claimed that he wanted to film himself next to the Queen Mary 2 for his upcoming gallery show. Riley's was not an exact replica, however, measuring tall and made of cheap plywood then coated with fiberglass. Its portholes and hatch were collected from a marine salvage company. He also installed pumps to allow him to add or remove water for ballast. Riley christened his vessel Acorn, to note the deviation from Bushnell's original design. The vessel, reported the New York Times, "resembled something out of Jules Verne by way of Huck Finn, manned by cast members from 'Jackass.' The Coast Guard issued Riley a citation for having an unsafe vessel, and for violating the security zone around Queen Mary 2. The NYPD also impounded the submarine. Police Commissioner Raymond W. Kelly, calling this an incident of "marine mischief" assured the public that this was simply an art project and did not, in fact, represent a terrorist threat to the passenger ship. In 2015, the replica built by Manstan and Frese in 2007 for The Turtle Project was acquired by Privateer Media and used in the television series TURN: Washington's Spies. The submarine was shipped to Richmond, VA where it underwent a full refit and was relaunched for film use in the water. Additional full-scale interior and exterior models were also made by AMC as part of the production. Also in 2015, Privateer Media used The Turtle Project replica for the Travel Channel series Follow Your Past, hosted by Alison Stewart. Filming took place in August where the submarine was launched with a tether in the Connecticut River in the town of Essex, CT. Footnotes References Roland, Alex. "Bushnell's Submarine: American Original or European Import."Technology and Culture 18 (April 1977): 157–74. Kennedy, Randy. "An Artist and His Sub Surrender in Brooklyn." The New York Times, August 4, 2007. Gidwitz, Tom. "The Turtle Dives Again." Archaeology, May/June 2005. Darian, Steven, and Amy Price. "David Bushnell: An Inventor Describes His Invention." Technical Communication, vol. 35, no. 4, 1988, p. 344, Submarines of the United States Ships built in Connecticut 1775 ships Age of Sail submarines of the United States Connecticut in the American Revolution New York (state) in the American Revolution American Revolutionary War ships of the United States Shipwrecks of the New York (state) coast Maritime incidents in 1776 Hand-cranked submarines 1775 in the Thirteen Colonies
418241	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank%20One%20Corporation	Bank One Corporation	Bank One Corporation was an American bank founded in 1968 and at its peak the sixth-largest bank in the United States. It traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the stock symbol ONE. The company merged with JPMorgan Chase & Co. on July 1, 2004, with its CEO Jamie Dimon taking the lead at the combined company. The company had its headquarters in the Bank One Plaza (now the Chase Tower) in the Chicago Loop in Chicago, Illinois, now the headquarters of Chase's retail banking division. Bank One traces its roots to the merger of Illinois based First Chicago NBD, and Ohio-based First Banc Group (later Bank One), a holding company for the City National Bank in Columbus, Ohio. History First Banc Group The First Banc Group, Inc. was formed in 1968 as a holding company for City National Bank and was used as a vehicle to acquire other banks. As Ohio began to gradually relax its very restrictive Great Depression era banking laws that had severely restricted bank branching and ownership, City National Bank, through its First Banc Group parent, started to purchase banks outside of its home county. The first acquisition by the new bank holding company was the 1968 acquisition of the Farmers Saving & Trust Company in Mansfield, Ohio. With each acquisition, new member banks kept their name, employees, and management while obtaining new resources from the parent holding company. This is very important when the bank holding company was expanding into primarily rural and extremely conservative markets. In 1971, First Banc acquired Security Central National in Portsmouth, Ohio. Initially, Ohio law did not permit bank mergers across county lines but allowed bank holding companies to own multiple banks across the state with some geographical restrictions. The newly acquired banks had to maintain their existing banking charters while each bank had to operate separately. Holding companies also were not allowed to have the word "bank" in their names so the word "banc" was used in its place. Expansions by Banc One Expansion in central Ohio by Banc One Corp. Although Ohio law still had restricted bank mergers outside a certain geographic area, the holding company management decided to unify the marketing efforts of its member banks by having all of its members banks adopt similar names. In October 1979, First Banc Group, Inc. became Banc One Corporation, and each member bank became Bank One followed by the city or the geographic area that the member bank served. For example, City National Bank was renamed Bank One Columbus, Security Central National Bank became Bank One Portsmouth, and Farmers Saving & Trust Company became Bank One Mansfield. In 1980, Banc One acquired banks in Painesville, Ohio (Lake County National Bank; Bank One Painesville), Akron, Ohio (Firestone Bank; Bank One Akron), and Youngstown, Ohio (Union National Bank; Bank One Youngstown). Winters National Bank in Dayton, Ohio was acquired in 1982 and renamed Bank One Dayton. The merger with Winters National Corporation brought into the Bank One organization 42 Winters National Bank & Trust Co. branch offices in the greater Dayton area, a branch in Cincinnati and three offices in Circleville. Also added were 21 Euclid National Bank branch offices in the Cleveland area which were renamed Bank One Cleveland. Early expansion outside Ohio With the change in federal and state banking laws in 1985, Banc One began to rapidly expand outside of Ohio. Its first out-of-state acquisition was of Purdue National Bank in Lafayette, Indiana which occurred just after the new laws went into effect. This bank was renamed Bank One Lafayette. This merger was quickly followed by the purchase of other small banks in Indiana and Kentucky, the only states that initially allowed bank purchases by Ohio-based banks. The bank entered Kentucky by acquiring Citizens Union National Bank & Trust Co. of Lexington, Kentucky in 1986. This bank was renamed Bank One Lexington. Banc One acquired the Merrillville, Indiana based Bank of Indiana and rename it Bank One Merrillville in early 1986. This was quickly followed by acquisitions in Marion, Indiana (First National Bank of Marion; Bank One Marion), Crawfordsville, Indiana (First National Bank and Trust Co. of Crawfordsville; Bank One Crawfordsville), Rensselaer, Indiana (Northwest National Bank of Rensselaer; Bank One Rensselaer) and Richmond, Indiana (First National Bank of Richmond; Bank One Richmond). The first major merger that had an effect on the management of the holding company occurred in 1986 with the acquisition of Indianapolis-based American Fletcher Corporation, a multi-bank holding company, with its lead bank, American Fletcher National Bank & Trust Company, which resulted in giving 20% of the voting stock in the new company to the former managers of American Fletcher and also had Frank E. McKinney, Jr., the head of American Fletcher, replaced John B. McCoy as president of Banc One Corp. and moved McCoy up to chairman of the combined organization. Another change made in the corporate organization was the formation of a two-tiered management system with the formation of statewide holding companies that were placed in between the regional member banks and the ultimate Banc One parent holding company. So, in Indiana, American Fletcher Corporation became Indianapolis based Banc One Indiana and all member banks in Indiana, such as Bank One Lafayette, which previously reported directly to the main parent in Columbus, reported to management in Indianapolis instead. The merger resulted in a $597.3 million swap of stock. The merger with American Fletcher Corp. also brought along four small banks that American Fletcher had just recently acquired or was in the process of acquiring. These banks included Citizens Northern Bank of Elkhart (Bank One Elkhart), Carmel Bank & Trust Co. (Bank One Carmel), First American National Bank of Plainfield (Bank One Plainfield), and Union Bank & Trust Co. of Franklin (Bank One Franklin). Under Indiana law at that time, American Fletcher was not permitted to merge these banks into its main American Fletcher National Bank. The First National Bank of Bloomington in Bloomington, Indiana was acquired in 1987. This bank became Bank One Bloomington. With the acquisition of the Bloomington-based bank, Banc One temporarily ceased further acquisitions in the state in Indiana since they had reached that state's cap of the percentage of ownership within that state at that time. Early expansion into Michigan Bank One expanded into the state of Michigan in late 1986 by acquiring the Citizens State Bank in Sturgis, Michigan and convert it into Bank One Sturgis. Within a few months of the Sturgis acquisition, additional acquisitions were quickly made in East Lansing, Michigan (East Lansing State Bank; Bank One East Lansing), Fenton, Michigan (First National Bank of Fenton; Bank One Fenton) and Ypsilanti, Michigan (National Bank of Ypsilanti; Bank One Ypsilanti) a few months later. Seven years later, Citizens Banking Corp. announced in September 1994 that they were acquiring all four Michigan banks in East Lansing, Fenton, Sturgis, and Ypsilanti from Banc One for $115 million. The divestiture was completed in February 1995. The Bank One brand did not return to Michigan until the 1998 merger with First Chicago NBD which resulted in the rebranding of the former NBD offices. Expansion into Wisconsin Banc One's first acquisition in a state that did not share a common border with the state of Ohio occurred in 1987 with the acquisition of Marine Corporation, the third-largest bank holding company in Wisconsin, after First Wisconsin Corporation and Marshall & Ilsley Corporation. The result of this merger brought into organization 21 banks and 76 offices in Wisconsin with Marine Corp. being renamed Banc One Wisconsin Corp. and each of the subsidiary Marine Banks were renamed Bank One along their respective affiliated geographical based name. The lead bank, Marine Bank, N.A., became Bank One Milwaukee. The merger came about Marine was trying to resist an unwanted acquisition attempt by Marshall & Ilsley that was initiated in June 1987 which would have resulted in massive firings. Prior to the unwanted overtures by Marshall & Ilsley, Marine went on a buying spree as soon as Wisconsin and surrounding states started loosening their restrictive bank branching and ownership laws and Marine had recently purchased banks throughout Wisconsin and most recently had purchased a bank with three branch offices in the state of Minnesota and another bank in the state of Illinois just a few months before. In late December 1986, Marine entered the Chicago market by initiating the purchase of the American branch of the Italian bank Banco di Roma, which was rename Marine Bank Chicago. Since Minnesota and Illinois forbid the bank ownership by companies based in Ohio, Marine had to sell those banks before the merger was permitted to proceed. The Minnesota banks were sold to First Bank System while the Chicago bank was sold to a lawyer with the understanding that Banc One wanted the Chicago bank back as soon as the Illinois banking laws would permit ownership by Ohio-based companies, which eventually happened in December 1990. The lawyer was able to sell the bank back to Banc One within two years at a substantial profit. Expansion into Texas Banc One entered the state of Texas in 1989 through the acquisition of a number of failed banks that were seized by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a result of the late 1980s banking crises in Texas that was caused by the defaulting of a large number of real estate and energy sector loans when energy prices dropped and large numbers of people lost their jobs as a result. Although Banc One could obtain failed banks at a discount that were subsidized by the Federal government, they could also be stuck with loans in which borrowers could later default on if the economic crises worsen. The first banks to be acquired were 20 banks that were formerly owned by MCorp, which the FDIC had consolidated into a single bank that they named the Deposit Insurance Bridge Bank. The FDIC had seized the banks in March 1989. The failure of 20 of MCorp's 24 banks cost the FDIC $2.8 billion. MCorp was the second largest bank holding company in Texas at the time of its failure. MCorp was formed in 1984 through the merger of Mercantile National Bank of Dallas with Bank of the Southwest of Houston with Mercantile becoming MBank Dallas and Southwest becoming MBank Houston. After the acquisition, the Deposit Insurance Bridge Bank became Bank One Texas with Banc One Texas formed as the state holding company. Banc One brought in managers from other parts of the Banc One organization to correct mistakes which led to the insolvency, though they kept on a few key MCorp staff whose leadership and connections were considered crucial to the transformation. Laws were changed in Texas that would allow Banc One, and other purchasers of failed banks, to operate a single bank statewide instead of being restricted by narrow geographical regions. The next acquisition that occurred in Texas was the purchase of the failed Bright Banc Savings a few months later from the Resolution Trust Corporation in 1990. This failed savings and loan association cost the federal government $1.4 billion. The 48 former branch offices were integrated into Bank One Texas, which had 63 branch offices at that time. The following year, Banc One acquired 13 Houston-area offices of the failed Benjamin Franklin Savings from the RTC for $36 million. In 1992, Banc One acquired Team Bancshares of Dallas, a company that was formed by a private investor group in 1988 to acquire failed and weak Texas banks, for $782 million in Banc One stock. The acquisition of Team Bank brought 56 branches into Banc One Texas, which then had 146, though a few branches needed to be closed because of branch overlaps. After this acquisition, Bank One Texas remained as the next largest bank in the state after NationsBank. The acquisition of Team Bancshares was unusual in Texas during this period since Team was making a profit at the time of sale. Expansion into Illinois Compared to other states, Illinois was very slow to allow statewide branching and multi-bank holding companies. When Illinois finally removed its last prohibition on interstate banking in December 1990, the first thing that Banc One did was to complete its planned acquisition of Marine Bank Chicago in downtown Chicago. In 1992, Banc One acquired the Marine Corp. of Springfield in Central Illinois with its 15 banking locations in Springfield, Bloomington, Champaign, and Monticello for $193 million in stock. Marine Corp. of Springfield was renamed Banc One Illinois and Marine's lead bank, Marine Bank of Springfield, became Bank One Springfield. A few months later, Banc One acquired First Illinois with its 15 offices in suburban Chicago for $349 million in stock. Because the Illinois legislature was slow in removing obstacles against interstate banking, Banc One had to compete with Northwest and NBD, along with some Chicago-based banks, to obtain available banks in key markets in Illinois. Later expansion into Kentucky After a five-year acquisition lull in the state of Kentucky, Banc One increased its presence in northeast central Kentucky with the acquisition of Lexington-based First Security Corporation of Kentucky with its 28 offices for $204 million in stock in 1992. Most of the First Security offices were folded into Bank One Lexington with a few offices were closed because they were too close to an existing branch. Although Banc One had a presence in Kentucky since 1986, it had little or no presence beyond Lexington and suburban Cincinnati. To remedy this problem, Banc One acquired Louisville-based Liberty National Bancorp with its 104 banking offices located throughout Kentucky and Southern Indiana in 1994 for $842 million in stock. At the time of the acquisition, Liberty National Bancorp was the largest bank holding company in Kentucky that was still headquartered in that state. Liberty National Bancorp was renamed Banc One Kentucky and its lead bank, Liberty National Bank and Trust Company of Kentucky, became Bank One Kentucky. As a result of the merger, Bank One Lexington was placed under the supervision of the new Banc One Kentucky holding company. Expansion into the western states In the 1992, Banc One announces the pending acquisitions of two western-based holding bank holding companies, Denver-based Affiliated Bankshares of Colorado and Phoenix-based Valley National Corporation, that would give the company access to new markets in Colorado, Arizona, Utah, and California. Banc One paid $378-million in stock to stockholders of Affiliated Bankshares for 27 affiliate banks with 38 offices in Colorado and $1.2 billion in stock to stockholders of Valley National for 206 offices in Arizona operating under the name Valley National Bank of Arizona (renamed Bank One Arizona), 35 offices in Utah operating under the name Valley Bank and Trust of Utah (renamed Bank One Utah), and 7 offices in California operating under the name California Valley Bank (renamed Bank One Fresno). Affiliated Bankshares was renamed Banc One Colorado and Valley National Corp. was renamed Banc One Arizona. Since all of the new offices in California were located in remote Fresno and far away from the large metropolitan areas of Los Angeles and San Francisco, Banc One had little opportunity to make a significant move into California and was not able to compete efficiently against California-based banks such as Bank of America and Wells Fargo. After two years of ownership, Banc One decided to withdraw from California market completely by selling Bank One Fresno to ValliCorp Holdings, the holding company for Valliwide Bank, formerly the Bank of Fresno. In May 1994, Banc One increased their holdings in Arizona by acquiring the 58 of 60 Arizona offices of the failed San Diego-based Great American Bank from the Resolution Trust Corporation for $49.36 million. The newly acquired offices were integrated into Bank One Arizona. Expansion into West Virginia In 1993, Banc One entered the state of West Virginia by acquiring Key Centurion Bancshares, the largest bank holding company in West Virginia with 54 offices throughout West Virginia and parts of eastern Kentucky, for $536 million in stock. Expansion into Oklahoma Banc One entered into Oklahoma by acquiring the Central Banking Group in Oklahoma City, with its 8 offices all located in Oklahoma City, for $96 million in stock in 1994. Thirty months later, Banc One entered Tulsa by the acquisition of Liberty Bancorporation of Oklahoma City for $546 million in stock in 1997. Liberty had 29 offices in Oklahoma City and Tulsa at the time of the acquisition. Expansion into Louisiana Banc One entered Louisiana by acquiring the assets of Premier Bancorp of Baton Rouge, the third-largest bank holding company in the state with 150 offices, for $700 million in stock in 1996. Although the merger was consummated in January 1996, the relationship between the two organizations goes back much further. The just recently retired and former head of Premier, and its predecessor Louisiana National Bank, was Charles "Chuck" McCoy, the younger brother of John G. McCoy and uncle to John B. McCoy. In 1991, Premier received $65 million from Banc One to help cover its debts in an exchange for the right for Banc One to acquire Premier within the next five years. Premier acquired most of its debts during the economic downturn that had hit Louisiana during the late 1980s. Premier Bancorp became Banc One Louisiana and Premier Bank became Bank One Louisiana. The following year, Banc One acquired First Commerce Corporation of New Orleans for $3.5 billion in stock. At the time of the acquisition in 1998, First Commerce was the largest Louisiana-based financial institution in the state. The acquisition included the lead bank First National Bank of Commerce plus five other regional banks with a combined total of 144 banking offices. All of the acquired banks were consolidated into Bank One Louisiana. Acquisition of First USA In 1997, Banc One decided to expand its national credit card business by acquiring the Dallas-based First USA for $7.9 billion in stock. Prior to this acquisition, most Bank One credit card accounts were issued and serviced by the various local Bank One banks. For example, most Bank One Indianapolis customers had credit cards that were issued and serviced by Bank One Indianapolis via the former American Fletcher credit card center prior to the acquisition. Unfortunately for Banc One and especially for John B. McCoy, First USA would later cause problems for its new parent by generating unexpected losses that were caused by mismanagement and by questionable decisions that were made in the attempt to increase profitability. History of First USA before Banc One First USA original was originally formed in Dallas as a subsidiary of MCorp that was called MNet. It was formed in 1985 to handle the back end work for providing credit cards, electronic banking, and other consumer services through member banks of the Texas bank holding company. To issue credit cards, MCorp (via MNet) established a credit card issuing bank in Wilmington, Delaware, called MBank USA. Although, the MNet division was generating a profit, the rest of MCorp began suffering huge loses when customers began to default on their mortgage payments that were the result of the economic downturn that had begun in Texas. In attempt to save itself, MCorp sold MNet to Lomas & Nettleton Financial Corporation the following year for $300 million in cash and securities. After the acquisition by Lomas, MNet was renamed Lomas Bankers Corp. and MBank USA was renamed Lomas Bank USA. Under Lomas, the credit card company aggressively acquired new customers by purchasing credit card accounts from other credit card issuers. In 1987, Lomas Bank USA acquired 230,000 accounts from two banks in Louisiana, 23,000 accounts from a bank in Amarillo, 260,000 accounts from two banks in Oklahoma, and 90,000 accounts from a bank in San Antonio. In 1988, Lomas acquired 80,000 accounts from a bank in New York. In 1989, Lomas & Nettleton Financial was in financial trouble and was forced to sell its credit card division. Lomas sold Lomas Bankers Corp. and Lomas Bank USA to an investor group led by Merrill Lynch Capital Partners for $500 million in cash and preferred stock. After the sale to the consortium led by Merrill Lynch, Lomas Bankers Corp. was renamed First USA, Inc. and Lomas Bank USA was renamed First USA Bank. At the time of the Merrill Lynch acquisition in 1989, Lomas Bankers/First USA was the 11th-largest issuer of credit cards in the nation. In 1992, First USA reduced some of its debt by going public. First attempt to sell stock occurred in late January, but the offer was quickly withdrawn because the stock market had dropped too low. A more successful attempt was made four months later in which $43 million was raised in the stock sale. At the time of the IPO in 1992, First USA was the 14th-largest issuer of credit cards in the nation. Most of the growth of the company during the 1980s and early 1990s were the results from the acquisition of credit cards accounts from banks needing to sell some assets for quick cash to stave off insolvency, or from banks that had ceased issuing and servicing their own credit cards accounts because they either could not compete with the larger credit card issuers such as First USA. As more bank credit card accounts became concentrated in a few large issuers during the 1990s, fewer banks had credit card accounts to sell, so large issuers switched to direct marketing to obtain more cardholders. Those issuers started offering no annual fee cards with introductory interest rates that quickly increased after a set time. This led to fierce competition among the remaining credit card issuers, especially in the fight to attract lucrative customers: those who maintain large monthly revolving balances. These are the same customers who could cause problems for the bank if the local economy turns sour. At this time, First USA was generating profits as high as nearly 25% on its owners' investment, which was phenomenal since a return of 1% on its assets is usually considered great for most other sectors of banking. The high rate of return was one of the factors that attracted Banc One to the acquisition of First USA. History of First USA after the acquisition by Banc One Banc One first announced the proposed acquisition of First USA in January 1997. Wall Street reaction to news caused Banc One's stock to drop 8%. First USA was the fourth-biggest credit card issuer in the nation at the time of the announcement. The acquisition was finalized six months later. First USA Chairman and co-founder (in 1985) John Tolleson was appointed a Banc One director while First USA president and co-founder Richard Vague was appointed chairman and CEO of First USA. History of Bank One Corporation In 1998, Banc One Corporation merged with Chicago-based First Chicago NBD – the result of the 1995 merger of First Chicago Corp. and NBD Bancorp, two large banking companies who had themselves been created through the merger of many banks) – to form Bank One Corporation, and moved its headquarters from Columbus to Chicago. Adverse financial results led to the departure of CEO John B. McCoy, whose father and grandfather had headed Banc One and predecessors. Jamie Dimon, a former key executive of Citigroup, was brought in to head the company. In 1998, Bank One paid $66 million for the naming rights for 30 years to a newly constructed ballpark in Phoenix, which was built for the Major League Baseball expansion team Arizona Diamondbacks. The retractable roof stadium was called Bank One Ball Park, and was ultimately renamed '''Chase Field''' in 2005. Private equity In 2001, Dimon selected former colleague Dick Cashin, from Citicorp Venture Capital to run a new private equity effort within Bank One, One Equity Partners. Dick Cashin is the brother of Steven Cashin, founder and CEO of Pan African Capital Group, based in Washington, D.C. In 2005, Bank One's private equity affiliate, One Equity Partners, was selected to be the exclusive private equity affiliate for the combined firm, prompting the spinout of JPMorgan's private equity affiliate, which is today CCMP Capital. See also Wingspan Bank References External links Bank One (Archive) Archives of Bank One Annual Reports 2003 Archives of Banc One and Bank One Annual Reports 1997–2002 Archives of Banc One and Bank One press releases 1997–2004 2004 mergers and acquisitions American companies established in 1968 Banks based in Chicago Banks disestablished in 2004 Banks established in 1968 Defunct banks of the United States Defunct companies based in Chicago JPMorgan Chase
418257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araucaria%20bidwillii	Araucaria bidwillii	Araucaria bidwillii, commonly known as the bunya pine (, ), bunya-bunya, or sometimes the monkey puzzle tree, is a large evergreen coniferous tree in the family Araucariaceae which is endemic to Australia. Its natural range is southeast Queensland with two very small, disjunct populations in northeast Queensland's World Heritage listed Wet Tropics. The southern population was, and is, of very high cultural significance to the indigenous tribes of the region. There are many planted specimens on the Atherton Tableland, in New South Wales, and around the Perth metropolitan area, and it has also been widely planted in other parts of the world. They are very tall trees – the tallest living individual is in Bunya Mountains National Park and was reported by Robert Van Pelt in January 2003 to be in height. Description Araucaria bidwillii will grow to a height of with a single unbranched trunk up to diameter, which has dark brown or black flaky bark. The branches are produced in whorls at regular intervals along the trunk, with leaf-bearing branchlets crowded at their ends. The branches are held more or less horizontally – those towards the top of the trunk may be somewhat ascending, those on the lowest section of the trunk may be somewhat drooping. This arrangement gives the tree a very distinctive egg-shaped silhouette. The leaves are small and rigid with a sharp tip which can easily penetrate the skin. They are narrowly triangular, broad at the base and sessile (without a stem). They measure up to long by wide with fine longitudinal venation, glossy green above and paler underneath. The leaf arrangement is both distichous and decussate (referred to as secondarily distichous) – that is, one pair of leaves are produced on the twig opposite each other, and the next pair above is rotated around the twig 90° to them, and so on. The cones are terminal, the male (or pollen) cone is a spike up to long which matures around October to November. The female (or seed) cone is much larger, reaching up to long and wide, which is roughly equivalent to a rugby ball. At maturity, which occurs from December through to March, female cones are green with 50–100 pointed segments, each of which encloses a seed, and they can weigh up to 10kg. Both seed and pollen cones are some of the largest of all conifer species. The edible seeds measure between and long and are ovoid to long-elliptic. Architecture Araucaria bidwillii, like many species from the Araucariaceae family and the fir genus, changes its structural model over time – initially its growth follows a perfect Massart's model and gradually changes to a Rauh model when old. Phenology The trees pollinate in South East Queensland in September/October. The cones require fifteen months to mature, and the cones fall 17 to 18 months after pollination in late January to early March from the coast to the current Bunya Mountains. When there is heavy rainfall or drought, pollination may vary. Taxonomy The species was described by the English botanist William Jackson Hooker in 1843, based on material collected in the "Mount Brisbane range of hills, 70 miles N.W. of Moreton Bay" by John Carne Bidwill in 1842. Hooker states in his paper that Bidwill took "not only branches and cones and male flowers, but also a healthy young living plant" to England where Hooker set about describing the new species, and his paper (titled "Figure and description of a new species of Araucaria from Moreton Bay, New Holland") was published in his own journal London Journal of Botany. Etymology The genus name Araucaria is taken from the Spanish word Araucanía, the name of the area in Chile where the first species of this genus originated, and/or Araucanos, the Spanish word for the original inhabitants of the area. Hooker coined the species epithet in honour of Bidwill, for his efforts in collecting specimens and bringing them to him. Vernacular names In various Australian Aboriginal languages this tree is known as bunya, bonye, bonyi (Gubbi Gubbi), bunyi or bunya-bunya, leading to the name bunya pine used by Europeans. It is also less-known as the monkey puzzle tree, and in New Zealand has been referred to as the false monkey puzzle tree. Evolution The bunya pine is a member of the Section Bunya of the genus Araucaria, and is the sole extant species within it. This section is thought to have been most widespread in the Mesozoic – fossils from the Jurassic period with cone morphology similar to A. bidwillii have been found found in the UK (Araucaria sphaerocarpa) and South America (Araucaria mirabilis) Distribution At the start of British occupation, A. bidwillii was abundant in southern Queensland, occurring in large groves or sprinkled regularly as an emergent species throughout other forest types on the upper Stanley and Brisbane Rivers, Sunshine Coast hinterland (especially the Blackall Range and Maleny), and also towards and on the Bunya Mountains. Two more natural, but very small and very isolated, populations of the species occur approximately to the north, in the wet tropics region of northeastern Queensland – one close to Cannabullen Falls on the Atherton Tableland, and the other in the Mount Lewis National Park. Today, the southeast Queensland populations exist as very small groves or single trees in its former range, except on and near the Bunya Mountains, where it is still fairly prolific, while the populations in north Queensland remain stable. The limited distribution of A. bidwillii in Australia is in part due to poor seed dispersal, and also the drying out of the Australian continent over the millenia, leading to a reduction of areas with suitable climatic zones for rainforest. Ecology A variety of birds and animals, including sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita), short-eared possums (Trichosurus caninus), fawn-footed melomys (Melomys cervinipes), and wallabies are known to eat the seeds. The cockatoos are also a dispersal agent as they will carry seeds to a distant perch to eat, but may drop them on the way. The suggestion that extinct large animals (initially dinosaurs and later the Australian megafauna) may have been dispersers for the bunya is reasonable, given the size of the seeds and their energy content, but difficult to confirm given the incompleteness of the fossil record for coprolites. A. bidwillii has an unusual cryptogeal seed germination in which the seeds develop to form an underground tuber from which the aerial shoot later emerges. The actual emergence of the seed is then known to occur over several years presumably as a strategy to allow the seedlings to emerge under optimum climatic conditions or, it has been suggested, to avoid fire. This erratic germination has been one of the main problems in silviculture of the species. A recent problem in small forestry plantations of the bunya pine in Southeast Queensland is the introduction of red deer (Cervus elaphus). Unlike possums and rodents, the deer eat bunya cones while still intact, preventing their dispersal. Cultural significance The bunya, bonye, bunyi, bunya-bunya or banya tree produces edible kernels. The ripe cones fall to the ground. Each segment contains a kernel in a tough protective shell, which will split when boiled or put in a fire. The flavour of the kernel is often compared to a chestnut, although it less intense in terms of aroma and flavour. The savory flavour and aroma is also comparable to cooked potato. The cones were a very important food source for native Australians – each Aboriginal family would own a group of trees and these would be passed down from generation to generation. This is said to be the only case of hereditary personal property owned by the Aboriginal people. After the cones had fallen and the fruit was ripe, a large festival harvest would sometimes occur, between two and seven years apart. The people of the region would set aside differences and gather in the Bon-yi Mountains (Bunya Mountains) to feast on the kernels. The local people, who were bound by custodial obligations and rights, sent out messengers to invite people from hundreds of kilometres to meet at specific sites. The meetings involved Aboriginal ceremonies, dispute settlements and fights, marriage arrangements and the trading of goods. In what was probably Australia's largest Indigenous event, diverse tribes – up to thousands of people – once travelled great distances (from as far as Charleville, Bundaberg, Dubbo and Grafton) to the gatherings. They stayed for months, to celebrate and feast on the bunya nut. The bunya gatherings were an armistice accompanied by much trade exchange, and discussions and negotiations over marriage and regional issues. Due to the sacred status of the bunyas, some tribes would not camp amongst these trees. Also in some regions, the tree was never to be cut. Representatives of many different groups from across southern Queensland and northern New South Wales would meet to discuss important issues relating to the environment, social relationships, politics and The Dreaming lore, feasting and sharing dance ceremonies. Many conflicts would be settled at this event, and consequences for breaches of laws were discussed. A Bunya festival was recorded by Thomas Petrie (1831–1910), who went with the Aboriginal people of Brisbane at the age of 14 to the festival at the Bunya Range (now the Blackall Range in the hinterland area of the Sunshine Coast). His daughter, Constance Petrie, put down his stories in which he said that the trees fruited at three-year intervals. The three-year interval may not be correct. Ludwig Leichhardt wrote in 1844 of his expedition to the Bunya feast. In 1842, the government of what was then the Colony of New South Wales published a notice in the N.S.W. Government Gazette which prohibited settlers from occupying land or cutting timber within a proclaimed "Bunya district". This may have been in recognition of the local Aboriginal people's close association with these trees, or their "fierce protection" of them. Regardless, the proclamation was repealed in 1860 in one of the first acts of the government of the newly created Colony of Queensland. The Aboriginal people were eventually driven out of the forests and the festivals ceased. The forests were felled for timber and cleared to make way for cultivation. Today Indigenous groups such as the Wakawaka, Githabul, Kabi Kabi, Jarowair, Goreng goreng, Butchulla, Quandamooka, Baruŋgam , Yiman and Wulili have continued cultural and spiritual connections to the Bunya Mountains to this day. A number of strategies including the use of traditional ecological knowledge have been incorporated into the current management practices of the national park and conservation reserves with the Bunya Murri Ranger project currently operating in the mountains. Uses Indigenous Australians eat the nut of the bunya tree (known as yenggi ) both raw and cooked, and also in its immature form. Traditionally, the nuts were additionally ground and made into a paste, which was eaten directly or cooked in hot coals to make bread called manu. The nuts were also stored in the mud of running creeks, and eaten in a fermented state. This was considered a delicacy. Apart from consuming the nuts, Indigenous Australians ate bunya shoots, and utilised the tree's bark as kindling. Bunya nuts are still sold as a regular food item in grocery stalls and street-side stalls around rural southern Queensland. Some farmers in the Wide Bay/ Sunshine Coast regions have experimented with growing bunya trees commercially for their nuts and timber. Bunya timber was and is still highly valued as "tonewood" for stringed instruments' sound boards since the first European settlers. Since the mid-1990s, the Australian company Maton has used bunya for the soundboards of its BG808CL Performer acoustic guitars. The Cole Clark company (also Australian) uses bunya for the majority of its acoustic guitar soundboards. The timber is valued by cabinet makers and woodworkers, and has been used for that purpose for over a century. However, its most popular use is as a 'bushfood' by indigenous foods enthusiasts. A huge variety of home-invented recipes now exists for the bunya nut; from pancakes, biscuits and breads, to casseroles, to 'bunya nut pesto' or hoummus. The nut is considered nutritious, with a unique flavour similar to starchy potato and chestnut. When the nuts are boiled in water, the water turns red, making a flavoursome tea. The nutritional content of the bunya nut is: 40% water, 40% complex carbohydrates, 9% protein, 2% fat, 0.2% potassium, 0.06% magnesium. It is also gluten free, making bunya nut flour a substitute for people with gluten intolerance. Cultivation Bunya nuts are slow to germinate. A set of 12 seeds sown in Melbourne took an average of about six months to germinate (with the first germinating in three months) and only developed roots after one year. The first leaves form a rosette and are dark brown. The leaves only turn green once the first stem branch occurs. Unlike the mature leaves, the young leaves are relatively soft. As the leaves age they become very hard and sharp. Cuttings can be successful, though they must be taken from erect growing shoots, as cuttings from side shoots will not grow upright. In the highly variable Australian climate, the varied timing of emergence of the seedlings maximises the possibility of at least successful replacement of the parent tree. A test of germination was carried out by Smith starting in 1999. Seeds were extracted from two mature cones collected from the same tree, a cultivated specimen at Petrie, just north of Brisbane (originally the homestead of Thomas Petrie, the son of the first European to report the species). One hundred apparently full seeds were selected and planted into 30 cm by 12 cm plastic tubes commercially filled with sterile potting mix in early February 1999. These were then placed in a shaded area and watered weekly. Four tubes were lost due to being knocked over. Of a total of 100 seeds placed, 87 germinated. The tubes were checked monthly for emergence over three years. Of these seeds, 55 emerged from April to December, 1999; 32 emerged from January to September in 2000, one seed emerged in January 2001, and the last appeared in February 2001. Once established, bunyas are quite hardy and they can be grown as far south as Hobart in Australia (42° S) and Christchurch in New Zealand (43° S) and (at least) as far north as Sacramento in California (38° N) and Coimbra (in the botanical garden) and even in Dublin area in Ireland (53ºN) in a microclimate protected from arctic winds and moderated by the Gulf Stream. They will reach a height of 35 to 40 metres, and live for about 500 years. In popular culture A specimen of Araucaria bidwillii in East Los Angeles, California is featured in Taylor Hackford's 1993 film Blood In Blood Out as a touchstone for the main characters. The tree, known as "El Pino" ("the pine" in Spanish), has become famous from this association, and is visited by international fans of the film. A late-2020 prank claiming the tree would be cut down incited a brief panic locally. References Bibliography Haines R. J. (1983) Embryo development and anatomy in Araucaria Juss. Australian Journal of Botany. 31, 125–140. Haines R. J. (1983) Seed development in Araucaria Juss. Australian Journal of Botany. 31, 255–267. Hernandez-Castillo, G. R., Stockey R. A.(2002) Palaeobotany of the Bunya Pine In (Ed. Anna Haebich) ppl 31–38. 'On the Bunya Trail' Queensland Review – Special Edition, Volume 9, No. 2, November 2002 (University of Queensland Press: St Lucia). Petrie C. C. (ed) (1904), Tom Petrie's Reminiscences of Early Queensland (Brisb, 1904) Pye M.G., Gadek P. A. (2004) Genetic diversity, differentiation and conservation in Araucaria bidwillii (Araucariaceae), Australia's Bunya pine. Conservation Genetics. 5, 619–629. Smith I. R., Withers K., Billingsley J. (2007) Maintaining the Ancient Bunya Tree (Araucaria bidwillii Hook.) – Dispersal and Mast Years. 5th Southern Connection Conference, Adelaide, South Australia, 21–25 January 2007. Smith I. R. (2004) Regional Forest Types-Southern Coniferous Forests In 'Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences' (eds. Burley J., Evans J., Youngquist J.) Elsevier: Oxford. pp 1383–1391. Smith I. R., Butler D (2002) The Bunya in Queensland's Forests, In (Ed. Anna Haebich) pp. 31–38. 'On the Bunya Trail' Queensland Review – Special Edition, Volume 9, No. 2, November 2002 (University of Queensland Press: St Lucia). External links View a map of historical sightings of this species at the Australasian Virtual Herbarium View observations of this species on iNaturalist View images of this species on Flickriver Bountiful bunyas : a charismatic tree with a fascinating history, Stacey Larner, John Oxley Library Blog. State Library of Queensland. bidwillii Flora of Queensland Flora of New South Wales Bushfood Edible nuts and seeds Pinales of Australia Trees of Australia Australian Aboriginal bushcraft Least concern flora of Australia Least concern biota of Queensland Trees of mild maritime climate Garden plants of Australia Ornamental trees Endemic flora of Queensland
418266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakley%2C%20Buckinghamshire	Oakley, Buckinghamshire	Oakley is a village and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England. It has an area of and includes about 400 households. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 1,007. At one time it was thought Oakley held a rare (and possibly unique) double distinction, in that a Victoria Cross recipient, Edward Brooks, and a Medal of Honor recipient, James J. Pym, were both born in the village. However, the latter, a namesake of a contemporary James Pym from Oakley, has been found to be from Garsington, a village away in Oxfordshire. In 1963 Oakley was centre of national and international news, when Leatherslade Farm, near Oakley, was used as a hideout by the criminal gang involved in the Great Train Robbery. Geography The parish is in the west of Buckinghamshire, adjoining the boundary with Oxfordshire. It is roughly diamond shaped, extending a maximum east to west and south to north. Oakley parish is bounded to the north-west by Boarstall parish, north-east by Brill, east by Chilton, south by Ickford and Worminghall and in the extreme west by Horton-cum-Studley in Oxfordshire. There were once four hamlets that stood within the vicinity of the parish of Oakley. Brill and Boarstall are now parishes in their own right. The hamlet of Studley was, many years ago, annexed to nearby Horton in Oxfordshire, to become Horton-cum-Studley. The hamlet of Little London became part of Oakley parish in 1934 and lies to the north of the B4011 road. The hamlet of Addingrove now no longer exists and its chapel has long since fallen into disrepair, but Addingrove Farm still exists and is south-east of Oakley. The hamlet of The Foresters lies about 750 yards to the North-West of Oakley on the B4011, it consists of twelve houses, including a former public house called The Foresters (closed in 1917). The village proper is about north-west of Long Crendon and south of Brill, mainly to the south of the B4011 road, midway between Thame and Bicester. The land is generally just below above sea level, that contour passing through Little London Green. At one time the village was owned by the dukes of Marlborough. Etymology Oakley's toponym is derived from Old English meaning "Oak-lea", a clearing within the oaks. Originally, the village was probably a collection of small huts around the stream, at the church end of the village, although the parish church as it is known today had not been built. The village would have been in Bernwood Forest. The Forest was not oak trees from horizon to horizon. In the Early Middle Ages a forest was a legally defined hunting area, with some densely wooded areas, shrub land, parks of pastureland and areas of cultivation. Oakley's name has been variously spelt through the ages (parenthesised dates denote earliest occurrence): Achelei (1086); Akeley (12th century), Aclei, Acle, Ocle (13th century); Ocle iuxta Brehull (14th century); and Whokeley (16th century). History 11th to 13th centuries Before the Norman Conquest two hides of land in Oakley belonged to Alwid (or Ælfgeth) the maid, and another half a hide of land granted her by Godric the sheriff on condition that she taught his daughter embroidery. Alwid is supposed to have been the same lady who held lands in Wiltshire under the name of Leuide, embroiderer to the King and Queen. Oakley, like many English settlements, has its first written mention in the Domesday Book in 1086. It was a settlement in the Hundred of Ixhill. Robert Doyley, son of Walter, held Achelei (as Oakley was called). The exact area is not known, since borders with other local villages were not specified. The village was valued at £6, and its land consisted of 5¾ hides; with Oakley's clay soil the total cultivated land would have been around . Seven ploughs, three by the Lord of the Manor and four by nine villagers (consisting of seven smallholdings) tilled the land. There were three slaves in the village and there was enough woodland for 200 pigs. Other local places mentioned in the Domesday Book were Brill, Addingrove and Nashway. The earliest parts, the nave and some pillars, of the present church date from around 1100. In 1142 Empress Matilda granted Oakley parish church, with its chapels of Brill, Boarstall and Addingrove to the monks of St Frideswide's Priory, in Oxford. St Frideswide's Monastery much later became Christ Church, Oxford. In 1208 William Basset was confirmed by King John, the knight's fee of Oakley (i.e. the Manor of Oakley), which his grandfather Osmund had held by charter of Brian FitzCount. In 1222 Ralphe de Norwich became first Rector of Oakley, appointed by the Henry III who had recovered the right of advowson by judgement of his Court at Westminster. Ralphe later founded the priory at Chetwode in 1226. A transaction in 1224 mentions selions (cultivated strips of land) in Oakley, suggesting an open field system, i.e. no fences or hedges. The Oakley area would have been a populated landscape of mixed farming and woodland, with roadways, drovers' roads, flocks of sheep, herds of cattle and pigs, small areas of meadow, and open fields of barley and oats (and possibly some wheat). 14th to 16th centuries 1327 John de Abingdon became the first vicar of Oakley (as opposed to rector). 1349 William de Grauntpont died in office as vicar of Oakley, probably of the Black Death. The first estimate of Oakley's population was, made by Lysons, of 257 in 1377. In 1522 Oakley's population of men eligible for military service (ages 16–60) was estimated at 140. The oldest existing houses in the village date from around this time. In 1570 coppicing enclosures drew complaints from Richard Leigh of Oakley (lord of Oakley). In 1586 Oakley had about 248 inhabitants in 56 households (22 landholders and 58 with small cottages within the Forest). These figures were drawn up by Hugh Cope of Oakley in his Court of the Exchequer return. In 1589 Roman Catholic layman Thomas Belson escaped capture in Aston Rowant, Oxfordshire and fled to Ixhill Lodge in Oakley, where he hid in a priest hole. After some time he went to Oxford but was captured, tried and convicted in London and was hanged, drawn and quartered in Oxford. 17th century In 1603 the Return of Communicants gave Oakley's population as 238. In the period 1622 to 1635 the Crown decided to remove Royal Forest status from Bernwood Forest, along with the severe laws protecting its contents (wood, animals and people). This was a most significant event for Oakley (and Brill and Boarstall), and transformed the economic balance of society. It modernised the farming structures of the communities in ways that left problems of poverty and rural under-employment for the smallholders and the landless. The process of disafforestation – analogous in modern terms to privatisation – should not be confused with deforestation, meaning to strip a forest of its trees. Nevertheless, disafforestation of Bernwood Forest led to a gradual deforestation over subsequent centuries. The Cottrell-Dormer enumeration of cottages recorded Oakley's population as 122 in 1622. In 1626 nine men were summoned to Aylesbury to resolve disafforestation issues. Two, Sir Timothy Tyrrell and John Dynham were from Oakley. The effect of the English Civil War of 1642–46 on Oakley is unrecorded. It was near the front line between the Parliamentarian and Royalist sides. It was at this time the church font was smashed, according to local tradition, by Parliamentarian troops. Foraging by soldiers from both sides would have made caused even more problems to local villagers exacerbating problems due to disafforestation. In 1662, according to Hearth tax returns the population was 238. The Compton Census returned a population of 258 for Oakley in 1676. 18th century Bishop Wake's visitation returns recorded Oakley as having 216 inhabitants. In 1713 a lace school is recorded as being in the village. On 8 May 1718 George I made William Cadogan the 1st Baron Cadogan of Oakley. Oakley's surviving parish records start in 1726, later than many English parishes. Most local parishes have registers dating from the 16th century, Worminghall going back to 1538. The index of the Poll for Knights of the Shire for the County of Bucks in April 1784, listed 11 knights in Oakley: Edward Batt, Thomas Dorrington, Isaac Fennimore, Thomas Hawes, Francis Kirby, Leonard Paulin, Robert Piers, Thomas Needham Rees, John Stevens, Reverend Robert Twicross and Thomas Wyatt. In 1790 Mark Ing was recorded as being a member of the Oakley Morris Men. In 1798 Buckinghamshire was the only county to have kept a complete record of an early census called Posse Commitatus. Oakley at this time had 21 farmers, a cordwainer, a carpenter, a pedlar and a schoolmaster (although Oakley's school was not established until the 1850s). 24 labourers and 12 other men were listed. 19th century The United Kingdom Census of 1801 recorded 257 inhabitants in 65 families living in 34 houses recorded in Oakley. The 1811 census recorded 325 people in Oakley. The first attempt to enclose Oakley was in 1818 and was unsuccessful. 382 people were recorded in the 1821 census. In the same year, the enclosure of common land was opposed by a mob that tried to prevent the attorney attaching notice of it to the church door. Villagers were outraged because large areas of land were granted to local landowners and were sold to cover the cost of the enclosure. Only were awarded to smallholders and only were set aside for the poor. The poor in Oakley would have to survive on what was left of Poor Folk's Pasture in Boarstall parish, itself subject to stringent eligibility rules. The enclosure listed every landowner in the village. The 1831 census gave Oakley's population as 413. In 1833 a turnpike was approved between Bicester and Thame, passing through the centre of Oakley. This is now the B4011 and bypasses the village. The first four censuses were merely a head count, but the United Kingdom Census 1841 was more detailed. On 20 October 1844, the hamlet of Studley, which had been part of Oakley parish, was transferred to Horton-cum-Studley in Oxfordshire, as a result of Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 The 1851 census noted that houses had been demolished in Oakley as villagers left (for English cities and emigration to the Americas). The population was 425. Oakley School was first recorded in use in 1853, in what is now School Lane. The first headmaster was Henry Fenemore. In the 1860s Charles Edmund Clutterbuck, a master stained glass artist, made two windows for the parish church. They are the south window in the vestry and the east window in the north aisle. Between the years 1880–1887 Oakley church was re-dedicated from Saint Matthew to Saint Mary. In 1889 a new local magazine was first printed, Waddesdon Deanery News. There was no mention of any Oakley people in the page of Oakley news in issue 1. However, in issue Number 2 in February 1889 carried the story about a pantomime and concert at the school – a complete success that befittingly crowned the exertions and careful organisations of its promoter, Miss Boys. A full-dress rehearsal of the piece was given on the previous evening to the Sunday School. Children were not invited in vain, a tea feast (generously given by Mrs. Kirby) winding up an extra-special treat, which coming as a surprise was all the more thoroughly enjoyed. The first Parish Council was formed on 19 December 1894. Its members were Thomas Brooks, James Eborn, Rev. William Greenwood, James Kirby and Thomas Kirby. 20th century Oakley Public Library (in the Lady Verney Reading Room) was opened on 17 February 1911 and closed in 1936. On 1 August 1910 the British painter etcher and engraver James Henry Govier was born at Oakley to Henry and Mary Ann (née Measey) Govier. In 1914 the family moved to Gorseinon in Glamorgan. During the First World War about 93 village boys went to war, of which 23 gave their lives for their country, including four brothers named Measey. Charles, Frank, George and Thomas were the sons of Joseph and Martha Measey (née Gladdy) of The Royal Oak. Thomas the first to be killed was a private in the 101st Machine Gun Corps. He died on 20 January 1917 aged 33 and was buried at the Cite Bonjean Military Cemetery at Armentieres in France. Charles was a private in the 146th Machine Gun Corps and was killed on 11 November 1917. He is buried at the Aeroplane Cemetery in Belgium. Frank was a corporal in the 7th Battalion of the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry. He was killed in action on 22 June 1918 and was buried at the Karasouli Military Cemetery on the Macedonian front in Greece. George the fourth son to be die, was a private in the 2nd/4th Battalion of the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry. He ended up as a wounded prisoner of war at the Hotel Berthad at Chateau Loes in Switzerland and died of illness on 5 October 1918. He is buried at St. Martin's Cemetery, Vevey, Switzerland. Victoria Cross recipient Edward Brooks was born in Oakley, winning his medal at Fayet, near St Quentin, France on 28 April 1917. While taking part in a raid on the enemy's trenches, he saw that the front wave was being checked by an enemy machine gun. On his own initiative he rushed forward from the second wave, killed one of the gunners with his revolver and bayoneted another. The remainder of the gun crew then made off, leaving the gun, whereupon the company sergeant-major turned it on the retreating enemy, after which he carried it back to Allied lines. His courageous action undoubtedly prevented many casualties and greatly added to the success of the operation. The alehouse called The Foresters on the Bicester Road closed in about 1919. An alehouse was an ordinary domestic house in which people were allowed to come into the kitchen or front room to drink beer, but not spirits. In 1934, by Bucks Review Order, Little London, then part of Brill, was added to Oakley. On 27 May 1942 RAF Oakley opened and became operational, initially a satellite airfield for RAF Bicester and then in August 1942 as RAF Westcott's satellite. No 11 Operational Training Unit (No 11 OTU) moved to Westcott in September 1942, many Vickers Wellingtons were located here. After Victory in Europe Day in 1945, orders were received to clear the hangar and fit it for the provision of refreshment and succour to thousands of repatriated prisoners of war brought here as part of Operation Exodus. RAF Oakley was closed to flying in August of that year. Two men from Oakley died in the war and are commemorated on the Oakley Roll of Honour. Halls Brewery gave the playing fields to Oakley Village in 1948. In 1957 Oakley Village Hall was completed having been built and financed by the village. In 1959 the original Oakley School in Bicester Road was closed and Oakley Combined School in Worminghall Road was opened, the first new post-war school to be built in Aylesbury Vale. The Sun Inn, an alehouse rather than a public house, closed in about 1961. In 1963 Oakley was centre of national and international news, when Leatherslade Farm, near Oakley, was used as a hideout by the criminal gang involved in the Great Train Robbery. John Maris, a local farm worker, alerted police to the hideout at the farm. John Wooley, a local policeman from Brill, was the first officer to go to the hideout. On 16 January 1991 Malcolm Rifkind opened the section of the M40 motorway: the stretch between Waterstock and Wendlebury, passing through Oakley parish. In 1997 the Oakley Village Appraisal / ACORN report reviewed what villagers thought about the village and what changes they would like to see. It was the most successful village appraisal in Buckinghamshire for a village of Oakley's size, with over 70% response. 21st century In 2003 Oakley featured in national and international news again through an exhibition marking the 40th anniversary of the Great Train Robbery. The guest speakers included the mastermind behind the robbery and ex-gang-leader Bruce Reynolds, John Wooley and John Maris (see above) – all meeting for the first time. On show were memorabilia from the robbery, Bruce Reynold's Lotus Cortina, the lorry and one of the Land Rovers used in the raid. Like many other English villages, in the years between 2000 and 2011, Oakley lost many local facilities, including its post office, shop, surgery, filling station and one of its pubs (the Royal Oak). The remaining businesses include one public house (the Chandos Arms) and Oakley Garage. On 28 April 2017, a paving stone will be laid at the foot of the war memorial to commemorate 100 years since the winning of a Victoria Cross by Edward Brooks in Fayet, France on 28 April 1917 (only two such stones will be laid in Buckinghamshire). On 30 September 2021, Oakley Parish Council bought the Chandos Arms. from Punch Taverns. after the company had threatened to de-licence this last remaining pub and sell it as a development opportunity. This action will ensure the facility is available for the villagers over the next decades. Other plans for the village in 2022 are a small shop and cafe attached to the village hall and rollout of ultrafast broadband to the village. St. Mary's parish is now part of the Church of England Benefice of Worminghall with Ickford, Oakley and Shabbington. Oakley Church of England Combined School is a mixed, voluntary controlled primary school, that takes children between the ages of four and 11. It has about 100 pupils. The village had a football club, Oakley United, which was successful in the Oxford Senior League and Oving Cup during the 2010s. Other local information Addingrove was a hamlet with a chapel of ease, no longer in existence, southeast of Oakley. Little London is a hamlet north of the B4011. It is now attached to Oakley but until 1934 it was part of the parish of Brill. Oakley featured obliquely in J.R.R. Tolkien's comic novella Farmer Giles of Ham, in which Oakley is the first village ravaged (and its parson eaten) by the dragon Chrysophylax Dives. ("Ham" is Thame, Oxfordshire, away). Notable residents Edward Brooks (1883–1944), recipient of the Victoria Cross, was born in Oakley. James Henry Govier (1910–74), British artist, was born in the village. Colin (born 1969) and Jonny Greenwood (born 1971) of the pop group Radiohead lived in the village when young. Max Mosley (1940–2021), president of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. Elizabeth Tyrrell (1619–83), daughter of churchman Dr. James Ussher and wife of Sir Timothy Tyrrell (below). James Tyrrell (1643–1718), Commissioner of the Privy Seal from 1697 John Tyrrell (1646–92), Second Admiral of the East Indies. Sir Timothy Tyrrell (1617–1701), army officer, Master of the Buckhounds to Charles I. Stan Woodell (1928–2004), botanist, lived in the village from the 1960s until his death. References Further reading External links Oakley Parish Council Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire Great Train Robbery (1963) Villages in Buckinghamshire
418271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20California%20Proposition%20187	1994 California Proposition 187	California Proposition 187 (also known as the Save Our State (SOS) initiative) was a 1994 ballot initiative to establish a state-run citizenship screening system and prohibit illegal immigrants from using non-emergency health care, public education, and other services in the State of California. Voters passed the proposed law at a referendum on November 8, 1994. The law was challenged in a legal suit the day after its passage, and found unconstitutional by a federal district court on November 11. In 1999, Governor Gray Davis halted state appeals of this ruling. Passage of Proposition 187 reflected state residents' concerns about illegal immigration into the United States. Opponents believed the law was motivated by bigotry against illegal immigrants of Hispanic or Asian origin; supporters maintained that their concerns were economic: that the state could not afford to provide social services for so many people who had entered the country illegally or overstayed their visas. The California Legislative Analyst's Office later said that the cost of verification would be greater than any fiscal benefits of the ballot measure. As the state's demographics have shifted to include more immigrants, those new citizens' opposition to Proposition 187 has been cited as a reason for the decline of the Republican Party in California. Background and passage In 1994, California had an estimated 1.3 million illegal immigrants. Some residents were increasingly concerned about the costs of providing services to the families of such illegal immigrants. The Republican assemblyman Dick Mountjoy of Monrovia introduced Proposition 187 to the state legislature as the "Save Our State" (SOS) initiative. It gained enough signatures to be placed on the ballot as a statutory initiative during the general election on November 8, 1994. Originally one of several immigration reform bills placed before the California legislature in the early 1990s, polls surveying community responses showed that Proposition 187 began with widespread support—a 37-point lead in July 1994, and 62-29% lead among likely voters by September 1994. Proponents of the bill estimated that California spent $3 billion per year on services for illegal immigrants, about half of which provided education to children of illegal immigrants. Governor Pete Wilson, a Republican, was a prominent supporter of Proposition 187, which ultimately became a key issue during his 1994 re-election campaign against Democratic opponent Kathleen Brown. After facing record low approval ratings during his first term, Wilson trailed Brown in opinion polls by more than 20% early during the gubernatorial campaign. Commentators considered his aggressive support of the Proposition 187 as crucial to his re-election. In the days leading up to the election, Wilson said that he would require all state and local government employees to report suspected illegal immigrants to the Attorney General's Office if Proposition 187 passed. State Attorney General Dan Lungren, also running for re-election, agreed to enforce emergency regulations to implement the law immediately after the election. During the United States Senate election in California, 1994 campaign, the incumbent Senator Dianne Feinstein and Republican challenger Michael Huffington both adopted tough policies against illegal immigration. The candidates each revealed that they had previously hired illegal immigrants for housekeeping and childcare. Unlike Feinstein, Huffington had hired a housekeeper who was an illegal immigrant after the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, which made it illegal to knowingly hire illegal immigrants. Feinstein was narrowly re-elected. President Bill Clinton urged Californians to reject Proposition 187 as an impediment to federal policy on immigration. After stating that "it is not wrong for you [Californians] to want to reduce illegal immigration," Clinton asked voters to allow the federal government to "keep working on what we're doing." In November 1994, Clinton publicly criticized the ballot measure, stating that it “is not the answer” to the issues stemming from illegal immigration. In the days leading up to the ballot measure vote, Latino students organized large protests of Proposition 187 across the state, including a mass boycott of high schools. Their protests often included waving the Mexican flag, a controversial symbol that was described by opponents as counterproductive. On November 8, 1994, California voters approved the proposition by a wide margin: 59% to 41%. According to the Los Angeles Times exit polls, 63% of non-Hispanic white voters and 23% of Latino voters voted for Proposition 187; African-American and ethnic Asian voters split their voting equally for and against the law. Although non-Hispanic whites comprised 57% of California's population at the time, they comprised 81% of voters in the 1994 general election. Latinos totaled 8% of voters, although they comprised 26% of the state's population. Among those who voted on the initiative, 78% of Republicans and 62% of Independents voted for it, while 64% of Democrats opposed it. Section 1 of Proposition 187 provides this introduction: The People of California find and declare as follows: That they have suffered and are suffering economic hardship caused by the presence of illegal aliens in this state. That they have suffered and are suffering personal injury and damage caused by the criminal conduct of illegal aliens in this state. That they have a right to the protection of their government from any person or persons entering this country unlawfully. Key elements of Proposition 187 Proposition 187 included the following key elements: All law enforcement agents who suspect that a person who has been arrested is in violation of immigration laws must investigate the detainee's immigration status, and if they find evidence of illegality they must report it to the attorney general of California, and to the federal Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). They must also notify the detainee of his or her apparent status as an alien. Local governments are prohibited from preventing or limiting the fulfillment of this requirement. If government agents suspect anyone applying for benefits of being illegal immigrants, the agents must report their suspicions in writing to the appropriate enforcement authorities. People shall not receive any public social services until verified as a United States citizen or as a lawfully admitted alien. People shall not receive any health care services from a publicly funded health care facility until verified as a United States citizen or as a lawfully admitted alien. A public elementary or secondary school shall not admit or permit the attendance of any child until verified as a United States citizen or as a lawfully admitted alien. By 1996, each school district shall verify the legal status of each child enrolled within the district and the legal status of each parent or guardian of each child. A child who is in violation of the requirements above shall not continue to attend the school 90 days from the date of notice to the attorney general and INS. The attorney general must keep records on all such cases and make them available to any other government entity that wishes to inspect them. The manufacture, distribution, sale, or use of false citizenship or residency documents is a state felony punishable by imprisonment or fine. Opposition Activists on campuses, churches, and ethnic communities in California and across the country rallied to express opposition to Proposition 187. Critics argued that the measure was xenophobic and discriminated against ethnic minorities, especially those of Latino origin. Others were fearful that the costs of a state-run citizenship screening system and the potential loss of federal funds would off-set any savings of denying public benefits to unlawful residents. The day after the law was approved, an alliance of Latino and civil rights groups, including Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund and American Civil Liberties Union, filed lawsuits against the measure in state court. Multiple local governments outside California, including the city of Denver, Colorado, threatened to boycott the state altogether. Latino organizations announced that they would not hold conventions in California and urged a boycott by their members and supporters of Disneyland, a major tourist attraction. In the weeks leading up to the election, opponents of Proposition 187 led a series of demonstrations. These events gathered several thousands of people. One of the largest protests of the proposition, as well as one of the largest protests in Los Angeles history, was held on October 16, 1994, when an estimated 70,000 people marched through the downtown area. The line of demonstrators stretched at least a mile long. Two weeks later, 7,000 people participated in another rally against Proposition 187 that took the form of a concert in which dozens of musicians and speakers performed. Young people, particularly Hispanic students, organized their own protests. Most often, these involved campus walkouts. Students as young as middle schoolers participated. In one of the largest student-led demonstrations against Proposition 187, more than 10,000 young people walked out from more than 30 campuses in the Los Angeles Unified School District. The protest was held without endorsement by any official groups; instead, students had been encouraged to stay in school and stage sit-ins as an alternative. Due to Proposition 187's statutes requiring children and their parents or legal guardians to prove their legal status, the California State Parent-Teacher Association joined in opposing the bill. The Democratic gubernatorial candidate, Gray Davis, who succeeded Wilson, campaigned against Proposition 187. Proposition 187 was widely supported by conservatives. However, some prominent conservatives, including former Congressman and Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Jack Kemp, former Secretary of Education William Bennett, and unsuccessful Republican gubernatorial candidate Ron Unz, publicly opposed the initiative. The Mexican president, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, decried the law as xenophobic and harmful to the human rights of migrant laborers. One week after the bill was approved, Salinas proposed cross-border discussions to develop a "guest worker" program that would permit non-resident Mexicans to work legally in the United States. Such a program had been in place during World War II. Ethnic minority reactions Reactions against the proposition varied between and within different ethnic minority groups. Latino communities are cited as having been the most active; Hispanic students in particular were marked as they marched in the streets with Mexican flags. Some sources claim that this reaction might have caused indecisive voters to vote in favor of the proposition. After the election, Harold Ezell, the former Immigration and Naturalization Service Director who helped author Proposition 187, maintained that the "biggest mistake the opposition made was waving those green and white flags with the snake on it. They should have been waving the American flag." When Hispanic students were criticized for waving Mexican flags during demonstrations in Los Angeles, community leaders responded to the controversy by saying that it was "a symbolic clinging to self-pride". But some movement leaders did attempt to address these criticisms. As the election drew near, organizers sold thousands of American flags at their demonstrations against Proposition 187. Asian communities in particular were divided, with a slight tendency towards supporting the proposition with 57 percent voting in favor. However, as the bill became more visible, Asian communities came to be known as a group that took increasingly more visceral actions. Over time, general populist support for the bill dropped from 49% to 38%, a drop that is credited to the "massive organizing among California's communities of color, particularly the Latino and Asian communities". In fact, the largest organized group in support of Proposition 187 at the time of October 1994 was the Asian Americans for Border Control in Sylmar, which had only ten members. On the other hand, Chinese, Japanese, Cambodian, Thai and Korean alliances and coalitions banded to form the Asian Pacific Islanders Against Proposition 187 which consisted of hundreds of members. Significantly, many consider the strong reactions against Proposition 187 as the first time such numbers of Asian Americans have come together, with around 60 organizations joining forces. Legal challenges The constitutionality of Proposition 187 was challenged by several lawsuits. On November 11, 1994, three days after the bill's passage, Federal Judge W. Matthew Byrne issued a temporary restraining order against institution of the measure, which was filed by State Attorney General Dan Lungren. After Judge Mariana Pfaelzer issued a permanent injunction of Proposition 187 in December 1994, blocking all provisions except those dealing with higher education and false documents, multiple cases were consolidated and brought before the federal court. In November 1997, Pfaelzer found the law to be unconstitutional on the basis that it infringed on the federal government's exclusive jurisdiction over matters relating to immigration. Pfaelzer also explained that Proposition 187's effect on the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, the congressional overhaul of the American welfare system, proved that the bill was a "scheme" to regulate immigration: "California is powerless to enact its own legislative scheme to regulate immigration. It is likewise powerless to enact its own legislative scheme to regulate alien access to public benefits." Governor Wilson appealed the ruling, which brought the case to the federal Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. But in 1999, the newly elected Democratic Governor Gray Davis had the case brought before mediation. His administration withdrew the appeal before the courts in July 1999, effectively killing the law. The unenforceable sections of Proposition 187 remained on the books until 2014. In September of that year, California passed a bill, SB 396, that removed those sections from California's education, health and safety, and welfare codes, as a symbolic act after the overturn of Prop.187. Bill author Kevin de León said this "closes a dark chapter in our state’s history, and brings dignity and respect to the national immigration debate." Legacy Noting a rapid increase in the number of Latinos voting in California elections, some analysts cite Wilson and the Republican Party's embrace of Proposition 187 as a cause of the subsequent failure of the party to win statewide elections. A 2006 study published in the American Journal of Political Science found that Republican support of Proposition 187 and two later state ballot initiatives—Proposition 209 in 1996, which ended affirmative action at governmental institutions, and Proposition 227 in 1998, which limited bilingual education in public schools—shifted both white and Latino voters in California away from identifying with the Republican Party and toward the Democratic Party. The authors of the study said that the "results raise serious questions about the long-term efficacy of racially divisive strategies for electoral gain." Studies published in 2001 and 2011 also show that Proposition 187 mobilized Hispanic voters for the Democratic Party. A 2016 article by pro-immigration researcher Alex Nowrasteh came to the same conclusion. However, a 2018 study questioned the conventional wisdom that Proposition 187 led to an abrupt realignment in Latino voters' political preferences. Conservative group Eagle Forum instead argues that immigration, whether legal or not, made California's electorate more liberal. Fred Bauer of National Review concurs, adding that Democrats have usually controlled both branches of the California state legislature since the 1960s and that the Democratic Party has had consistently strong support among both white and Hispanic voters in California. Bill Whalen, a former aide to Wilson, in an article for Forbes, noted that Proposition 187 was popular among voters and that Republican struggles in California are partly due to women gradually moving away from the party for other reasons, particularly reproductive rights. Whalen also cited Schwarzenegger's reelection as governor in 2006, in which he won 39% of the votes cast by Latinos, as evidence that Proposition 187 did not harm Republicans' chances of being elected in California. Writing after Schwarzenegger's 2003 recall election victory, Debra J. Saunders of The Weekly Standard noted that he won the election despite voting for Proposition 187, which other publications had claimed would seriously jeopardize his bid. Between 1995 and 2004 the following states passed similar ballot initiatives or laws: Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma and Texas. During Donald Trump's 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, his use of "anti-immigrant tactics" drew comparisons from media members to Wilson and California Proposition 187. Seema Mehta of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Many have had a visceral reaction to Trump's proposals that include deporting 11 million people and building an enormous border wall. Protests greet Trump whenever he holds rallies in California." See also California Coalition for Immigration Reform Gallegly amendment California Proposition 209 References Further reading Alvarez, R. Michael, and Tara L. Butterfield. "The resurgence of nativism in California? The case of Proposition 187 and illegal immigration." Social Science Quarterly (2000): 167-179. online Balin, Bryan J. "State Immigration Legislation and Immigrant Flows: An Analysis: School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) (2008) pp 1-20. Bosniak, Linda S. "Opposing Prop. 187: Undocumented immigrants and the national imagination." Connecticut Law Review 28 (1995): 555+ online. Garcia, Ruben J. "Critical race theory and Proposition 187: The racial politics of immigration law." ChiCano-Latino Law Review 17 (1995): 118+ online. Jacobson, Robin Dale. The new nativism: Proposition 187 and the debate over immigration (U of Minnesota Press, 2008) online. Lee, Yueh-Ting, Victor Ottati, and Imtiaz Hussain. "Attitudes toward “illegal” immigration into the United States: California Proposition 187." Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 23.4 (2001): 430-443. online Mailman, Stanley. "California's Proposition 187 and Its Lessons". New York Law Journal, (1995) Martin, Philip. "Proposition 187 in California." International Migration Review 29.1 (1995): 255-263. Ono, Kent A., and John M. Sloop. Shifting borders: Rhetoric, immigration, and California's Proposition 187 (Temple University Press, 2002) online. Wroe, Andrew. The Republican Party and Immigration Politics: From Proposition 187 to George W. Bush. (Palgrave, 2008). External links Wilson, Pete. "Illegal Immigration: Past, Present and Future": Remarks of Pete Wilson, Former Governor of California, Monday, June 12, 2006, 4:00 p.m. Hudson Institute (Washington, DC), December 12, 2006. Federal News Service. Accessed December 17, 2008. [Transcript of interview with Wilson about California Proposition 187.] 187 History of immigration to the United States United States immigration law Initiatives in the United States Hispanic and Latino American history of California
418292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain%20gauge	Strain gauge	A strain gauge (also spelled strain gage) is a device used to measure strain on an object. Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, the most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor. History Edward E. Simmons and Professor Arthur C. Ruge independently invented the strain gauge. Simmons was involved in a research project by Dätwyler and Clark at Caltech between 1936 and 1938. They researched the stress-strain behavior of metals under shock loads. Simmon came up with an original way to measure the force introduced into the sample by equipping a dynamometer with fine resistance wires. Arthur C. Ruge, a professor at MIT, on the other hand, conducted research in seismology. He tried to analyze the behavior of a model water tank installed on a vibration table. He was not able to utilize the standard optical strain measurement methods of his time due to the small scale and low strains in his model. Professor Ruge (and his assistant J. Hanns Meier) had the epiphany of measuring the resistance change in metallic wires caused by strain cemented on the thin walls of the water tank model. The development of the strain gauge was essentially just a byproduct of other research projects. Edward E. Simmons and Professor Arthur C. Ruge developed a widely used and useful measurement tool due to the lack of an alternative at their times. Arthur C. Ruge realized the commercial utility of the strain gauge. His employer at MIT waived all claims on the right of the invention, as they did not predict the economic and large-scale usage potential. This prediction turned out to be false. The strain gauge applications were quickly gaining traction as they served to indirectly detect all other quantities that induce strain. Additionally, they were simple to install by the scientists, did not cause any obstruction or property changes to the observed object and thus falsifying the measurement results. Probably the last and most important property was the ease of transmission of the electrical output signal. Physical operation A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its dependence on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer, which increases its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, which decreases its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of induced stress may be inferred. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines. This does not increase the sensitivity, since the percentage change in resistance for a given strain for the entire zig-zag is the same as for any single trace. A single linear trace would have to be extremely thin, hence liable to overheating (which would change its resistance and cause it to expand), or would need to be operated at a much lower voltage, making it difficult to measure resistance changes accurately. Gauge factor The gauge factor is defined as: where is the change in resistance caused by strain, is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and is strain. For common metallic foil gauges, the gauge factor is usually a little over 2. For a single active gauge and three dummy resistors of the same resistance about the active gauge in a balanced Wheatstone bridge configuration, the output sensor voltage from the bridge is approximately: where is the bridge excitation voltage. Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 2–10 mm2 in size. With careful installation, the correct gauge, and the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured. In practice An excitation voltage is applied to input leads of the gauge network, and a voltage reading is taken from the output leads. Typical input voltages are 5 V or 12 V and typical output readings are in millivolts. Foil strain gauges are used in many situations. Different applications place different requirements on the gauge. In most cases the orientation of the strain gauge is significant. Gauges attached to a load cell would normally be expected to remain stable over a period of years, if not decades; while those used to measure response in a dynamic experiment may only need to remain attached to the object for a few days, be energized for less than an hour, and operate for less than a second. Strain gauges are attached to the substrate with a special glue. The type of glue depends on the required lifetime of the measurement system. For short term measurements (up to some weeks) cyanoacrylate glue is appropriate, for long lasting installation epoxy glue is required. Usually epoxy glue requires high temperature curing (at about 80-100 °C). The preparation of the surface where the strain gauge is to be glued is of the utmost importance. The surface must be smoothed (e.g. with very fine sand paper), deoiled with solvents, the solvent traces must then be removed and the strain gauge must be glued immediately after this to avoid oxidation or pollution of the prepared area. If these steps are not followed the strain gauge binding to the surface may be unreliable and unpredictable measurement errors may be generated. Strain gauge based technology is used commonly in the manufacture of pressure sensors. The gauges used in pressure sensors themselves are commonly made from silicon, polysilicon, metal film, thick film, and bonded foil. Variations in temperature Variations in temperature will cause a multitude of effects. The object will change in size by thermal expansion, which will be detected as a strain by the gauge. Resistance of the gauge will change, and resistance of the connecting wires will change. Most strain gauges are made from a constantan alloy. Various constantan alloys and Karma alloys have been designed so that the temperature effects on the resistance of the strain gauge itself largely cancel out the resistance change of the gauge due to the thermal expansion of the object under test. Because different materials have different amounts of thermal expansion, self-temperature compensation (STC) requires selecting a particular alloy matched to the material of the object under test. Strain gauges that are not self-temperature-compensated (such as isoelastic alloy) can be temperature compensated by use of the dummy gauge technique. A dummy gauge (identical to the active strain gauge) is installed on an unstrained sample of the same material as the test specimen. The sample with the dummy gauge is placed in thermal contact with the test specimen, adjacent to the active gauge. The dummy gauge is wired into a Wheatstone bridge on an adjacent arm to the active gauge so that the temperature effects on the active and dummy gauges cancel each other. (Murphy's law was originally coined in response to a set of gauges being incorrectly wired into a Wheatstone bridge.) Every material reacts when it heats up or when it cools down. This will cause strain gauges to register a deformation in the material which will make it change signal. To prevent this from happening strain gauges are made so they will compensate this change due to temperature. Dependent on the material of the surface where the strain gauge is assembled on, a different expansion can be measured. Temperature effects on the lead wires can be cancelled by using a "3-wire bridge" or a "4-wire ohm circuit" (also called a "4-wire Kelvin connection"). In any case it is a good engineering practice to keep the Wheatstone bridge voltage drive low enough to avoid the self heating of the strain gauge. The self heating of the strain gauge depends on its mechanical characteristic (large strain gauges are less prone to self heating). Low voltage drive levels of the bridge reduce the sensitivity of the overall system. Applications Structural health monitoring Structural health monitoring (SHM) is used to monitor structures after their completion. To prevent failures, strain gauges are used to detect and locate damages and creep. A specific example is the monitoring of bridge cables increasing safety by detecting possible damages. Also, the bridge's behavior to unusual loads can be analyzed such as special heavy-duty transports. Biological measurements Measuring the strain of skin can provide a multitude of biomechanic measurements such as posture, joint rotation, respiration and swelling both in humans and other animals. Resistive foil strain gauges are seldom used for these applications, however, due to their low strain limit. Instead, soft and deformable strain gauges are often attached to a host garment, to make it simple to apply the sensor to the correct part of the body, though sometimes they are attached directly to the skin. Typically in these applications, such soft strain gauges are known as stretch sensors. For medical use, the sensors must be accurate and repeatable which typically requires the use of capacitive stretch sensors. Predictive maintenance Many objects and materials in industrial applications have a finite life. To improve their lifetime and cost of ownership, predictive maintenance principles are used. Strain gauges can be used to monitor the strain as an indicator of fatigue in materials to enable software systems to predict when certain components need to be replaced or serviced. Resistive foil gauges can be used to instrument stiff materials like metals, ceramics, composites and similar, whereas highly elastic strain gauges are used to monitor softer materials such as rubber, plastics, textiles and the like. Aviation In aviation, strain gauges are the standard approach to measuring the structural load and calculating wing deflection. Strain gauges are fixed in several locations on the aircraft. However, deflection measurement systems have been shown to measure reliable strains remotely. This reduces instrumentation weight on the aircraft and thus is replacing the strain gauge. Repurposing There are also applications where it isn't first obvious that you would measure strain to get to the wanted result. So for example in the detection of intruders on certain structures, strain gauges can be used to detect the presence of such an intruder. This is done by measuring the slight change in strain of the said structure. Errors and compensations Zero Offset - If the impedance of the four gauge arms are not exactly the same after bonding the gauge to the force collector, there will be a zero offset which can be compensated by introducing a parallel resistor to one or more of the gauge arms. Temperature coefficient of gauge factor (TCGF) is the change of sensitivity of the device to strain with change in temperature. This is generally compensated for by the introduction of a fixed resistance in the input leg, whereby the effective supplied voltage will decrease with a temperature increase, compensating for the increase in sensitivity with the temperature increase. This is known as modulus compensation in transducer circuits. As the temperature rises the load cell element becomes more elastic and therefore under a constant load will deform more and lead to an increase in output; but the load is still the same. The clever bit in all this is that the resistor in the bridge supply must be a temperature sensitive resistor that is matched to both the material to which the gauge is bonded and also to the gauge element material. The value of that resistor is dependent on both of those values and can be calculated. In simple terms if the output increases then the resistor value also increase thereby reducing the net voltage to the transducer. Get the resistor value right and you will see no change. Zero shift with temperature - If the TCGF of each gauge is not the same, there will be a zero shift with temperature. This is also caused by anomalies in the force collector. This is usually compensated for with one or more resistors strategically placed in the compensation network. Linearity is an error whereby the sensitivity changes across the pressure range. This is commonly a function of the force collection thickness selection for the intended pressure and the quality of the bonding. Hysteresis is an error of return to zero after pressure excursion. Repeatability - This error is sometimes tied-in with hysteresis but is across the pressure range. Electromagnetic interference (EMI)-induced errors - As the output voltage of strain gauges is in the mV range, even μV if the Wheatstone bridge voltage drive is kept low to avoid self heating of the element, special care must be taken in output signal amplification to avoid amplifying also the superimposed noise. A solution which is frequently adopted is to use "carrier frequency" amplifiers, which convert the voltage variation into a frequency variation (as in voltage-controlled oscillators) and have a narrow bandwidth, thus reducing out of band EMI. Overloading – If a strain gauge is loaded beyond its design limit (measured in microstrain) its performance degrades and can not be recovered. Normally good engineering practice suggests not to stress strain gauges beyond ±3000 microstrain. Humidity – If the wires connecting the strain gauge to the signal conditioner are not protected against humidity, such as bare wire, corrosion can occur, leading to parasitic resistance. This can allow currents to flow between the wires and the substrate to which the strain gauge is glued, or between the two wires directly, introducing an error which competes with the current flowing through the strain gauge. For this reason, high-current, low-resistance strain gauges (120 ohm) are less prone to this type of error. To avoid this error it is sufficient to protect the strain gauges wires with insulating enamel (e.g., epoxy or polyurethane type). Strain gauges with unprotected wires may be used only in a dry laboratory environment but not in an industrial one. In some applications, strain gauges add mass and damping to the vibration profiles of the hardware they are intended to measure. In the turbomachinery industry, one used alternative to strain gauge technology in the measurement of vibrations on rotating hardware is the non-intrusive stress measurement system, which allows measurement of blade vibrations without any blade or disc-mounted hardware... Geometries of strain gauges The following different kind of strain gauges are available in the market: Linear strain gauges Membrane Rosette strain gauges Double linear strain gauges Full bridge strain gauges Shear strain gauges Half bridge strain gauges Column strain gauges 45°-Rosette (3 measuring directions) 90°-Rosette (2 measuring directions). Other types Strain Gauge measurement devices are prone to drift problems. Additionally, their manufacturing requires precise requirements during all the production steps. So there are multiple different ways of also measuring strain. For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil gauges. A semiconductor gauge usually has a larger gauge factor than a foil gauge. Semiconductor gauges tend to be more expensive, more sensitive to temperature changes, and are more fragile than foil gauges. Nanoparticle-based strain gauges emerge as a new promising technology. These resistive sensors whose active area is made by an assembly of conductive nanoparticles, such as gold or carbon, combine a high gauge factor, a large deformation range and a small electrical consumption due to their high impedance. In biological measurements, especially blood flow and tissue swelling, a variant called mercury-in-rubber strain gauge is used. This kind of strain gauge consists of a small amount of liquid mercury enclosed in a small rubber tube, which is applied around e.g., a toe or leg. Swelling of the body part results in stretching of the tube, making it both longer and thinner, which increases electrical resistance. Fiber optic sensing can be employed to measure strain along an optical fiber. Measurements can be distributed along the fiber, or taken at predetermined points on the fiber. The 2010 America's Cup boats Alinghi 5 and USA-17 both employ embedded sensors of this type. Other optical measuring techniques can be used to measure strains like electronic speckle pattern interferometry or digital image correlation. Microscale strain gauges are widely used in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to measure strains such as those induced by force, acceleration, pressure or sound. As example, airbags in cars are often triggered with MEMS accelerometers. As alternative to piezo-resistant strain gauges, integrated optical ring resonators may be used to measure strain in microoptoelectromechanical systems (MOEMS). Capacitive strain gauges use a variable capacitor to indicate the level of mechanical deformation. Vibrating wire strain gauges are used in geotechnical and civil engineering applications. The gauge consists of a vibrating, tensioned wire. The strain is calculated by measuring the resonant frequency of the wire (an increase in tension increases the resonant frequency). Quartz crystal strain gauges are also used in geotechnical applications. A pressure sensor, a resonant quartz crystal strain gauge with a bourdon tube force collector is the critical sensor of DART. DART detects tsunami waves from the bottom of the open ocean. It has a pressure resolution of approximately 1mm of water when measuring pressure at a depth of several kilometers. Multi-axis force sensors could have plenty of advantages over strain gauges regarding their safety, dexterity, and collaborative perspectives. They are based on pre-stress resonant composite plates of which the measurements are performed by piezoelectric transducers. It allows for measuring 3 components of external forces. Moreover, the hardware needed is cheaper than classical strain gauges. Non-contact strain measurements Strain can also be measured using digital image correlation (DIC). With this technique one or two cameras are used in conjunction with a DIC software to track features on the surface of components to detect small motion. The full strain map of the tested sample can be calculated, providing similar display as a finite-element analysis. This technique is used in many industries to replace traditional strain gauges or other sensors like extensometers, string pots, LVDT, accelerometers... The accuracy of commercially available DIC software typically ranges around 1/100 to 1/30 of a pixels for displacements measurements which result in strain sensitivity between 20 and 100 μm/m. The DIC technique allows to quickly measure shape, displacements and strain non-contact, avoiding some issues of traditional contacting methods, especially with impacts, high strain, high-temperature or high cycle fatigue testing. Industry Nowadays there are many producers in the field of strain measuring. They produce strain gauges for diverse mounting surfaces, sizes, and shapes. For untrained personnel, the correct implementation and the choice of the appropriate type of measurement tool are very difficult. One needs the knowledge of the exact setup process of strain gauges to ensure the collection of usable data. The large providers of strain gauges provide consultation on the correct choice for each application. They also have training programs for their customers to ensure correct implementation. One of the leading companies is Zemic Europe, offering thousands of different types of strain gauges. Another global firm is HBM (Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH). They offer a wide variety of strain gauges and associated products. Literature In 1995 Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Keil published the first edition of a detailed book about strain gauges and how to use them called “Dehnungsmessstreifen”. Although this first edition was only published in German, it became popular outside of Germany because of the wide range of uses of strain gauges in different fields. After more than 20 years (in 2017), he published a second edition that was translated into English, hence available to more engineers that use strain gauges. This newest book is titled “Technology and Practical Use of Strain Gages”. Strain gauge theory (sociology) The term “strain gauge” can be encountered in sociology. The social strain gauge theory is an approach to understanding accusations of witchcraft and sorcery. An anthropologist by the name of Marwick studied these sociological phenomenons in Zambia and Malawi in 1965. Accusations of witchcraft reflect strain on relationships and or the whole social structure. The theory says that the sorcery accusations were a pressure valve of society. See also Resistance thermometer Compressometer References Sensors Elasticity (physics)
418334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20the%20United%20States	Cinema of the United States	The cinema of the United States, consisting mainly of major film studios (also known metonymously as Hollywood) along with some independent films, has had a large effect on the global film industry since the early 20th century. The dominant style of American cinema is classical Hollywood cinema, which developed from 1910 to 1962 and is still typical of most films made there to this day. While Frenchmen Auguste and Louis Lumière are generally credited with the birth of modern cinema, American cinema soon came to be a dominant force in the emerging industry. , it produced the third-largest number of films of any national cinema, after India and China, with more than 600 English-language films released on average every year. While the national cinemas of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand also produce films in the same language, they are not part of the Hollywood system. Because of this, Hollywood has also been considered a transnational cinema, and has produced multiple language versions of some titles, often in Spanish or French. Contemporary Hollywood often outsources production to the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The major film studios of Hollywood are the primary source of the most commercially successful and most ticket-selling movies in the world. Hollywood is considered to be the oldest film industry, in the sense of being the place where the earliest film studios and production companies emerged. It is the birthplace of various genres of cinema—among them comedy, drama, action, the musical, romance, horror, science fiction, and the epic—and has set the example for other national film industries. During 1878, Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated the power of photography to capture motion. In 1894, the world's first commercial motion-picture exhibition was given in New York City, using Thomas Edison's kinetoscope. In the following decades, production of silent film greatly expanded, studios formed and migrated to California, and films and the stories they told became much longer. The United States produced the world's first sync-sound musical film, The Jazz Singer, in 1927, and was at the forefront of sound-film development in the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has primarily been based in and around the thirty-mile zone centered in the Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles County, California. Director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of a film grammar. Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited in critics' polls as the greatest film of all time. Many of Hollywood's highest-grossing movies have generated more box-office revenue and ticket sales outside the United States than films made elsewhere. The United States is a leading pioneer in motion picture engineering and technology. History Origins and Fort Lee The first recorded instance of photographs capturing and reproducing motion was a series of photographs of a running horse by Eadweard Muybridge, which he took in Palo Alto, California, using a set of still cameras placed in a row. Muybridge's accomplishment led inventors everywhere to attempt to make similar devices. In the United States, Thomas Edison was among the first to produce such a device, the kinetoscope. The history of cinema in the United States can trace its roots to the East Coast where, at one time, Fort Lee, New Jersey, was the motion-picture capital of America. The industry got its start at the end of the 19th century with the construction of Thomas Edison's "Black Maria", the first motion-picture studio in West Orange, New Jersey. The cities and towns on the Hudson River and Hudson Palisades offered land at costs considerably less than New York City across the river and benefited greatly as a result of the phenomenal growth of the film industry at the turn of the 20th century. The industry began attracting both capital and an innovative workforce. In 1907, when the Kalem Company began using Fort Lee as a location for filming in the area, other filmmakers quickly followed. In 1909, a forerunner of Universal Studios, the Champion Film Company, built the first studio. Others quickly followed and either built new studios or leased facilities in Fort Lee. In the 1910s and 1920s, film companies such as the Independent Moving Pictures Company, Peerless Studios, The Solax Company, Éclair Studios, Goldwyn Picture Corporation, American Méliès (Star Films), World Film Company, Biograph Studios, Fox Film Corporation, Pathé Frères, Metro Pictures Corporation, Victor Film Company, and Selznick Pictures Corporation were all making pictures in Fort Lee. Such notables as Mary Pickford got their start at Biograph Studios. In New York, the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, which was built during the silent film era, was used by the Marx Brothers and W.C. Fields. The Edison Studios were located in the Bronx. Chelsea, Manhattan, was also frequently used. Other Eastern cities, most notably Chicago and Cleveland, also served as early centers for film production. In the West, California was already quickly emerging as a major film production center. In Colorado, Denver was home to the Art-O-Graf film company, and Walt Disney's early Laugh-O-Gram animation studio was based in Kansas City, Missouri. Picture City, Florida, was a planned site for a movie picture production center in the 1920s, but due to the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane, the idea collapsed and Picture City returned to its original name of Hobe Sound. An attempt to establish a film production center in Detroit also proved unsuccessful. The film patents wars of the early 20th century helped facilitate the spread of film companies to other parts of the US, outside New York. Many filmmakers worked with equipment for which they did not own the rights to use. Therefore, filming in New York could be dangerous as it was close to Edison's company headquarters, and close to the agents who the company set out to seize cameras. By 1912, most major film companies had set up production facilities in Southern California near or in Los Angeles because of the region's favorable year-round weather. Rise of Hollywood The 1908 Selig Polyscope Company production of The Count of Monte Cristo directed by Francis Boggs and starring Hobart Bosworth was claimed as the first to have been filmed in Los Angeles, in 1907, with a plaque being unveiled by the city in 1957 at Dearden's flagship store on the corner of Main Street and 7th Street, to mark the filming on the site when it had been a Chinese laundry. Bosworth's widow suggested the city had got the date and location wrong, and that the film was actually shot in nearby Venice, which at the time was an independent city. Boggs' In the Sultan's Power for Selig Polyscope, also starring Bosworth, is considered the first film shot entirely in Los Angeles, with shooting at 7th and Olive Streets in 1909. In early 1910, director D. W. Griffith was sent by the Biograph Company to the west coast with his acting troupe, consisting of actors Blanche Sweet, Lillian Gish, Mary Pickford, Lionel Barrymore and others. They started filming on a vacant lot near Georgia Street in downtown Los Angeles. While there, the company decided to explore new territories, traveling several miles north to Hollywood, a little village that was friendly and enjoyed the movie company filming there. Griffith then filmed the first movie ever shot in Hollywood, In Old California, a Biograph melodrama about California in the 19th century, when it belonged to Mexico. Griffith stayed there for months and made several films before returning to New York. Also in 1910, Selig Polyscope of Chicago established the first film studio in the Los Angeles area in Edendale and the first studio in Hollywood opened in 1912. After hearing about Griffith's success in Hollywood, in 1913, many movie-makers headed west to avoid the fees imposed by Thomas Edison, who owned patents on the movie-making process. Nestor Studios of Bayonne, New Jersey, built the first studio in the Hollywood neighborhood in 1911. Nestor Studios, owned by David and William Horsley, later merged with Universal Studios; and William Horsley's other company, Hollywood Film Laboratory, is now the oldest existing company in Hollywood, now called the Hollywood Digital Laboratory. California's more hospitable and cost-effective climate led to the eventual shift of virtually all filmmaking to the West Coast by the 1930s. At the time, Thomas Edison owned almost all the patents relevant to motion picture production and movie producers on the East Coast acting independently of Edison's Motion Picture Patents Company were often sued or enjoined by Edison and his agents while movie makers working on the West Coast could work independently of Edison's control. In Los Angeles, the studios and Hollywood grew. Before World War I, films were made in several American cities, but filmmakers tended to gravitate towards southern California as the industry developed. They were attracted by the warm climate and reliable sunlight, which made it possible to film their films outdoors year-round and by the varied scenery that was available. War damage contributed to the decline of the then-dominant European film industry, in favor of the United States, where infrastructure was still intact. The stronger early public health response to the 1918 flu epidemic by Los Angeles compared to other American cities reduced the number of cases there and resulted in a faster recovery, contributing to the increasing dominance of Hollywood over New York City. During the pandemic, public health officials temporarily closed movie theaters in some jurisdictions, large studios suspended production for weeks at a time, and some actors came down with the flu. This caused major financial losses and severe difficulties for small studios, but the industry as a whole more than recovered during the Roaring Twenties. In the early 20th century, when the medium was new, many Jewish immigrants found employment in the US film industry. They were able to make their mark in a brand-new business: the exhibition of short films in storefront theaters called nickelodeons, after their admission price of a nickel (five cents). Within a few years, ambitious men like Samuel Goldwyn, William Fox, Carl Laemmle, Adolph Zukor, Louis B. Mayer, and the Warner Brothers (Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack) had switched to the production side of the business. Soon they were the heads of a new kind of enterprise: the movie studio. The US had at least two female directors, producers and studio heads in these early years: Lois Weber and French-born Alice Guy-Blaché. They also set the stage for the industry's internationalism; the industry is often accused of Amerocentric provincialism. Other moviemakers arrived from Europe after World War I: directors like Ernst Lubitsch, Alfred Hitchcock, Fritz Lang and Jean Renoir; and actors like Rudolph Valentino, Marlene Dietrich, Ronald Colman, and Charles Boyer. They joined a homegrown supply of actors—lured west from the New York City stage after the introduction of sound films—to form one of the 20th century's most remarkable growth industries. At motion pictures' height of popularity in the mid-1940s, the studios were cranking out a total of about 400 movies a year, seen by an audience of 90 million Americans per week. Sound also became widely used in Hollywood in the late 1920s. After The Jazz Singer, the first film with synchronized voices was successfully released as a Vitaphone talkie in 1927, Hollywood film companies would respond to Warner Bros. and begin to use Vitaphone sound—which Warner Bros. owned until 1928—in future films. By May 1928, Electrical Research Product Incorporated (ERPI), a subsidiary of the Western Electric company, gained a monopoly over film sound distribution. A side effect of the "talkies" was that many actors who had made their careers in silent films suddenly found themselves out of work, as they often had bad voices or could not remember their lines. Meanwhile, in 1922, US politician Will H. Hays left politics and formed the movie studio boss organization known as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA). The organization became the Motion Picture Association of America after Hays retired in 1945. In the early times of talkies, American studios found that their sound productions were rejected in foreign-language markets and even among speakers of other dialects of English. The synchronization technology was still too primitive for dubbing. One of the solutions was creating parallel foreign-language versions of Hollywood films. Around 1930, the American companies opened a studio in Joinville-le-Pont, France, where the same sets and wardrobe and even mass scenes were used for different time-sharing crews. Also, foreign unemployed actors, playwrights, and winners of photogenia contests were chosen and brought to Hollywood, where they shot parallel versions of the English-language films. These parallel versions had a lower budget, were shot at night and were directed by second-line American directors who did not speak the foreign language. The Spanish-language crews included people like Luis Buñuel, Enrique Jardiel Poncela, Xavier Cugat, and Edgar Neville. The productions were not very successful in their intended markets, due to the following reasons: The lower budgets were apparent. Many theater actors had no previous experience in cinema. The original movies were often second-rate themselves since studios expected that the top productions would sell by themselves. The mix of foreign accents (Castilian, Mexican, and Chilean for example in the Spanish case) was odd for the audiences. Some markets lacked sound-equipped theaters. Classical Hollywood cinema and the Golden Age of Hollywood Classical Hollywood cinema, or the Golden Age of Hollywood, is defined as a technical and narrative style characteristic of American cinema from 1913 to 1962, during which thousands of movies were issued from the Hollywood studios. The Classical style began to emerge in 1913, was accelerated in 1917 after the U.S. entered World War I, and finally solidified when the film The Jazz Singer was released in 1927, ending the silent film era and increasing box-office profits for film industry by introducing sound to feature films. Most Hollywood pictures adhered closely to a formula – Western, slapstick comedy, musical, animated cartoon, biographical – and the same creative teams often worked on films made by the same studio. For example, Cedric Gibbons and Herbert Stothart always worked on MGM films, Alfred Newman worked at 20th Century Fox for twenty years, Cecil B. De Mille's films were almost all made at Paramount, and director Henry King's films were mostly made for 20th Century Fox. At the same time, one could usually guess which studio made which film, largely because of the actors who appeared in it; MGM, for example, claimed it had contracted "more stars than there are in heaven." Each studio had its own style and characteristic touches which made it possible to know this – a trait that rarely exists today. For example, To Have and Have Not (1944) is notable not only for the first pairing of actors Humphrey Bogart (1899–1957) and Lauren Bacall (1924–2014), but because it was written by two future winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature: Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), the author of the novel on which the script was nominally based, and William Faulkner (1897–1962), who worked on the screen adaptation. After The Jazz Singer was released in 1927, Warner Bros. gained huge success and were able to acquire their own string of movie theaters, after purchasing Stanley Theaters and First National Productions in 1928. In contrast Loews theaters owned MGM since forming in 1924, while the Fox Film Corporation owned the Fox Theatre. RKO (a 1928 merger between Keith-Orpheum Theaters and the Radio Corporation of America) also responded to the Western Electric/ERPI monopoly over sound in films, and developed their own method, known as Photophone, to put sound in films. Paramount, which acquired Balaban and Katz in 1926, would answer to the success of Warner Bros. and RKO, and buy a number of theaters in the late 1920s as well, and would hold a monopoly on theaters in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1930s, almost all of the first-run metropolitan theaters in the United States were owned by the Big Five studios—MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO, Warner Bros., and 20th Century Fox. Rise and decline of the studio system Motion picture companies operated under the studio system. The major studios kept thousands of people on salary—actors, producers, directors, writers, stunt men, crafts persons, and technicians. They owned or leased Movie Ranches in rural Southern California for location shooting of westerns and other large-scale genre films, and the major studios owned hundreds of theaters in cities and towns across the nation in 1920 film theaters that showed their films and that were always in need of fresh material. In 1930, MPPDA President Will Hays created the Hays (Production) Code, which followed censorship guidelines and went into effect after government threats of censorship expanded by 1930. However, the code was never enforced until 1934, after the Catholic watchdog organization The Legion of Decency—appalled by some of the provocative films and lurid advertising of the era later classified Pre-Code Hollywood- threatened a boycott of motion pictures if it did not go into effect. The films that did not obtain a seal of approval from the Production Code Administration had to pay a $25,000 fine and could not profit in the theaters, as the MPPDA controlled every theater in the country through the Big Five studios. Throughout the 1930s, as well as most of the golden age, MGM dominated the film screen and had the top stars in Hollywood, and they were also credited for creating the Hollywood star system altogether. Some MGM stars included "King of Hollywood" Clark Gable, Lionel Barrymore, Jean Harlow, Norma Shearer, Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, Jeanette MacDonald, Gene Raymond, Spencer Tracy, Judy Garland, and Gene Kelly. But MGM did not stand alone. Another great achievement of American cinema during this era came through Walt Disney's animation company. In 1937, Disney created the most successful film of its time, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. This distinction was promptly topped in 1939 when Selznick International created what is still, when adjusted for inflation, the most successful film of all time in Gone with the Wind. Many film historians have remarked upon the many great works of cinema that emerged from this period of highly regimented filmmaking. One reason this was possible is that, with so many movies being made, not every one had to be a big hit. A studio could gamble on a medium-budget feature with a good script and relatively unknown actors: Citizen Kane, directed by Orson Welles (1915–1985) and often regarded as the greatest film of all time, fits this description. In other cases, strong-willed directors like Howard Hawks (1896–1977), Alfred Hitchcock (1899–1980), and Frank Capra (1897–1991) battled the studios in order to achieve their artistic visions. The apogee of the studio system may have been the year 1939, which saw the release of such classics as The Wizard of Oz, Gone with the Wind, Stagecoach, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Wuthering Heights, Only Angels Have Wings, Ninotchka and Midnight. Among the other films from the Golden Age period that are now considered to be classics: Casablanca, It's a Wonderful Life, It Happened One Night, the original King Kong, Mutiny on the Bounty, Top Hat, City Lights, Red River, The Lady from Shanghai, Rear Window, On the Waterfront, Rebel Without a Cause, Some Like It Hot, and The Manchurian Candidate. The studio system and the Golden Age of Hollywood succumbed to two forces that developed in the late 1940s: a federal antitrust action that separated the production of films from their exhibition; and the advent of television. In 1938, Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released during a run of lackluster films from the major studios, and quickly became the highest grossing film released to that point. Embarrassingly for the studios, it was an independently produced animated film that did not feature any studio-employed stars. This stoked already widespread frustration at the practice of block-booking, in which studios would only sell an entire year's schedule of films at a time to theaters and use the lock-in to cover for releases of mediocre quality. Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold—a noted "trust buster" of the Roosevelt administration—took this opportunity to initiate proceedings against the eight largest Hollywood studios in July 1938 for violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The federal suit resulted in five of the eight studios (the "Big Five": Warner Bros., MGM, Fox, RKO and Paramount) reaching a compromise with Arnold in October 1940 and signing a consent decree agreeing to, within three years: Eliminate the block-booking of short film subjects, in an arrangement known as "one shot", or "full force" block-booking. Eliminate the block-booking of any more than five features in their theaters. No longer engage in blind buying (or the buying of films by theater districts without seeing films beforehand) and instead have trade-showing, in which all 31 theater districts in the US would see films every two weeks before showing movies in theaters. Set up an administration board in each theater district to enforce these requirements. The "Little Three" (Universal Studios, United Artists, and Columbia Pictures), who did not own any theaters, refused to participate in the consent decree. A number of independent film producers were also unhappy with the compromise and formed a union known as the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers and sued Paramount for the monopoly they still had over the Detroit Theaters—as Paramount was also gaining dominance through actors like Bob Hope, Paulette Goddard, Veronica Lake, Betty Hutton, crooner Bing Crosby, Alan Ladd, and longtime actor for studio Gary Cooper too- by 1942. The Big Five studios did not meet the requirements of the Consent of Decree during WWII, without major consequence, but after the war ended they joined Paramount as defendants in the Hollywood antitrust case, as did the Little Three studios. The United States Supreme Court eventually ruled in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. that the major studios ownership of theaters and film distribution was a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. As a result, the studios began to release actors and technical staff from their contracts with the studios. This changed the paradigm of film making by the major Hollywood studios, as each could have an entirely different cast and creative team. The decision resulted in the gradual loss of the characteristics which made Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios, Columbia Pictures, RKO Pictures, and 20th Century Fox films immediately identifiable. Certain movie people, such as Cecil B. DeMille, either remained contract artists until the end of their careers or used the same creative teams on their films so that a DeMille film still looked like one whether it was made in 1932 or 1956. New Hollywood and post-classical cinema Post-classical cinema is the changing methods of storytelling in the New Hollywood. It has been argued that new approaches to drama and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired in the classical period: chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature "twist endings", and lines between the antagonist and protagonist may be blurred. The roots of post-classical storytelling may be seen in film noir, in Rebel Without a Cause (1955), and in Hitchcock's storyline-shattering Psycho. The New Hollywood is the emergence of a new generation of film school-trained directors who had absorbed the techniques developed in Europe in the 1960s as a result of the French New Wave; the 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde marked the beginning of American cinema rebounding as well, as a new generation of films would afterwards gain success at the box offices as well. Filmmakers like Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, Brian De Palma, Stanley Kubrick, Martin Scorsese, Roman Polanski, and William Friedkin came to produce fare that paid homage to the history of film and developed upon existing genres and techniques. Inaugurated by the 1969 release of Andy Warhol Blue Movie, the phenomenon of adult erotic films being publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope), and taken seriously by critics (like Roger Ebert), a development referred to, by Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times, as "porno chic", and later known as the Golden Age of Porn, began, for the first time, in modern American culture. According to award-winning author Toni Bentley, Radley Metzger 1976 film The Opening of Misty Beethoven, based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw (and its derivative, My Fair Lady), and due to attaining a mainstream level in storyline and sets, is considered the "crown jewel" of this 'Golden Age'. At the height of his fame in the early 1970s, Charles Bronson was the world's No. 1 box office attraction, commanding $1 million per film. In the 1970s, the films of New Hollywood filmmakers were often both critically acclaimed and commercially successful. While the early New Hollywood films like Bonnie and Clyde and Easy Rider had been relatively low-budget affairs with amoral heroes and increased sexuality and violence, the enormous success enjoyed by Friedkin with The Exorcist, Spielberg with Jaws, Coppola with The Godfather and Apocalypse Now, Scorsese with Taxi Driver, Kubrick with 2001: A Space Odyssey, Polanski with Chinatown, and Lucas with American Graffiti and Star Wars, respectively helped to give rise to the modern "blockbuster", and induced studios to focus ever more heavily on trying to produce enormous hits. The increasing indulgence of these young directors did not help. Often, they would go overschedule, and overbudget, thus bankrupting themselves or the studio. The three most notable examples of this are Coppola's Apocalypse Now and One From The Heart and particularly Michael Cimino's Heaven's Gate, which single-handedly bankrupted United Artists. However, Apocalypse Now eventually made its money back and gained widespread recognition as a masterpiece, winning the Palme d'Or at Cannes. Rise of the modern blockbuster and independent films In the US, the PG-13 rating was introduced in 1984 to accommodate films that straddled the line between PG and R, which was mainly due to the controversies surrounding the violent content of the PG films Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Gremlins (both 1984). Filmmakers in the 1990s had access to technological, political and economic innovations that had not been available in previous decades. Dick Tracy (1990) became the first 35 mm feature film with a digital soundtrack. Batman Returns (1992) was the first film to make use of the Dolby Digital six-channel stereo sound that has since become the industry standard. Computer-generated imagery was greatly facilitated when it became possible to transfer film images into a computer and manipulate them digitally. The possibilities became apparent in director James Cameron's Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), in images of the shape-changing character T-1000. Computer graphics or CG advanced to a point where Jurassic Park (1993) was able to use the techniques to create realistic looking animals. Jackpot (2001) became the first film that was shot entirely in digital. In the film Titanic, Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects with his film, and enlisted Digital Domain and Pacific Data Images to continue the developments in digital technology which the director pioneered while working on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about the RMS Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their miniature of the ship as if "we're making a commercial for the White Star Line". Even The Blair Witch Project (1999), a low-budget indie horror film by Eduardo Sanchez and Daniel Myrick, was a huge financial success. Filmed on a budget of just $35,000, without any big stars or special effects, the film grossed $248 million with the use of modern marketing techniques and online promotion. Though not on the scale of George Lucas's $1 billion prequel to the Star Wars Trilogy, The Blair Witch Project earned the distinction of being the most profitable film of all time, in terms of percentage gross. The success of Blair Witch as an indie project remains among the few exceptions, however, and control of The Big Five studios over filmmaking continued to increase through the 1990s. The Big Six companies all enjoyed a period of expansion in the 1990s. They each developed different ways to adjust to rising costs in the film industry, especially the rising salaries of movie stars, driven by powerful agents. The biggest stars like Sylvester Stallone, Russell Crowe, Tom Cruise, Nicole Kidman, Sandra Bullock, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Mel Gibson, Kevin Bacon, and Julia Roberts received between $15–$20 million per film and in some cases were even given a share of the film's profits. Screenwriters on the other hand were generally paid less than the top actors or directors, usually under $1 million per film. However, the single largest factor driving rising costs was special effects. By 1999 the average cost of a blockbuster film was $60 million before marketing and promotion, which cost another $80 million. Contemporary cinema Since the beginning of 21st century, the theatrical market place has slowly been dominated by the superhero genre. , they are the best-paying productions for actors, because paychecks in other genres have shrunk for even top actors. In 2021, despite the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, blockbuster films such as Black Widow, F9, Death on the Nile and West Side Story were released in theaters after being postponed from their initial 2020 release dates. Various studios responded to the crisis with controversial decisions to forgo the theatrical window and give their films day-and-date releases. NBCUniversal released Trolls World Tour directly to video-on-demand rental on April 10, while simultaneously receiving limited domestic theatrical screenings via drive-in cinemas; CEO Jeff Shell claims that the film had reached nearly $100 million in revenue within the first three weeks. The decision was opposed by AMC Theatres, which then announced that its screenings of Universal Pictures films would cease immediately, though the two companies would eventually agree to a 2-week theatrical window. By December 2020, Warner Bros. Pictures announced their decision to simultaneously release its slate of 2021 films in both theaters and its streaming site HBO Max for a period of one month in order to maximize viewership. The move was vehemently criticized by various industry figures, many of whom were reportedly uninformed of the decision before the announcement and felt deceived by the studio. 2019 onwards has seen the rise of American streaming platforms, such as Netflix, Disney+, Paramount+, and Apple TV+, which came to rival traditional cinema. Industry commentators have noted the increasing treatment of films as "content" by corporations that correlate with the increased popularity of streaming platforms. This involves the blurring of boundaries between films, television and other forms of media as more people consume them together in a variety of ways, with individual films defined more by their brand identity and commercial potential rather than their medium, stories and artistry. Critic Matt Zoller Seitz has described the release of Avengers: Endgame in 2019 as "represent[ing] the decisive defeat of 'cinema' by 'content'" due to its grand success as a "piece of entertainment" defined by the Marvel brand that culminates a series of blockbuster films that has traits of serial television. The films Space Jam: A New Legacy and Red Notice have been cited as examples of this treatment, with the former being described by many critics as "a lengthy infomercial for HBO Max", featuring scenes and characters recalling various Warner Bros. properties such as Casablanca, The Matrix and Austin Powers, while the latter is a $200 million heist film from Netflix that critics described "a movie that feels more processed by a machine [...] instead of anything approaching artistic intent or even an honest desire to entertain." Some have expressed that Space Jam demonstrates the industry's increasingly cynical treatment of films as mere intellectual property (IP) to be exploited, an approach which critic Scott Mendelson called "IP for the sake of IP." Martin Scorsese has warned that cinema as an art form is "being systematically devalued, sidelined, demeaned, and reduced" to "content" and called blockbusters' overemphasis on box-office returns "repulsive". Quentin Tarantino opined that the 2020s were one of the "worst" eras "in Hollywood history" on a podcast interview. During a masterclass at the 2023 Sarajevo Film Festival, Charlie Kaufman criticized mainstream blockbusters, stating that "[a]t this point, the only thing that makes money is garbage" and encouraged industry professionals to "make movies outside of the studio system as much as possible". James Gray noted in an interview with Deadline, "When you make movies that only make a ton of money and only one kind of movie, you begin to get a large segment of the population out of the habit of going to the movies", which causes viewership to decrease, though clarified that he has "no problem with a comic book movie". As a solution to the lack of "investment in the broad-based engagement with the product", he suggests that studios "be willing to lose money for a couple of years on art film divisions, and in the end they will be happier." Hollywood and politics In the 1930s, the Democrats and the Republicans saw money in Hollywood. President Franklin Roosevelt saw a huge partnership with Hollywood. He used the first real potential of Hollywood's stars in a national campaign. Melvyn Douglas toured Washington in 1939 and met the key New Dealers. Political endorsements Endorsements letters from leading actors were signed, radio appearances and printed advertising were made. Movie stars were used to draw a large audience into the political view of the party. By the 1960s, John F. Kennedy was a new, young face for Washington, and his strong friendship with Frank Sinatra exemplified this new era of glamour. The last moguls of Hollywood were gone and younger, newer executives and producers began pushing more liberal ideas. Celebrities and money attracted politicians into the high-class, glittering Hollywood lifestyle. As Ron Brownstein wrote in his book The Power and the Glitter, television in the 1970s and 1980s was an enormously important new media in politics and Hollywood helped in that media with actors making speeches on their political beliefs, like Jane Fonda against the Vietnam War. Despite most celebrities and producers being left-leaning and tending to support the Democratic Party, this era produced some Republican actors and producers such as Clint Eastwood and Jerry Bruckheimer. Support groups such as the Friends of Abe were set up to support conservative causes in Hollywood, which is perceived as biased against conservatives. Former actor Ronald Reagan became governor of California and subsequently became the 40th president of the United States. It continued with Arnold Schwarzenegger as California's governor in 2003. Political donations Today, donations from Hollywood help to fund federal politics. On February 20, 2007, for example, Democratic then-presidential candidate Barack Obama had a $2,300-a-plate Hollywood gala, being hosted by DreamWorks founders David Geffen, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and Steven Spielberg at the Beverly Hilton. Criticisms Covert advertising Native advertising is information designed to persuade in more subtle ways than classic propaganda. A modern example common in the United States is copaganda, in which TV shows display unrealistically flattering portrayals of law enforcement, in part to borrow equipment and get their assistance in blocking off streets to more easily film on location. Other reputation laundering accusations have been leveled in the entertainment industry, including the burnishing the image of the Mafia. Product placement also has been a point of criticism, with the tobacco industry promoting smoking on screen. The Centers for Disease Control cites that 18% of teen smokers would not start smoking if films with smoking were automatically given an 'R' rating, which would save 1 million lives. Censorship Hollywood producers generally seek to comply with the Chinese government's censorship requirements in a bid to access the country's restricted and lucrative cinema market, with the second-largest box office in the world as of 2016. This includes prioritizing sympathetic portrayals of Chinese characters in movies, such as changing the villains in Red Dawn from Chinese to North Koreans. Due to many topics forbidden in China, such as Dalai Lama and Winnie-the-Pooh being involved in the South Park's episode "Band in China", South Park was entirely banned in China after the episode's broadcast. The 2018 film Christopher Robin, the new Winnie-the-Pooh movie, was denied a Chinese release. Although Tibet was previously a cause célèbre in Hollywood, featuring in films including Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet, in the 21st century this is no longer the case. In 2016, Marvel Entertainment attracted criticism for its decision to cast Tilda Swinton as "The Ancient One" in the film adaptation Doctor Strange, using a white woman to play a traditionally Tibetan character. Actor and high-profile Tibet supporter Richard Gere stated that he was no longer welcome to participate in mainstream Hollywood films after criticizing the Chinese government and calling for a boycott of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Historic examples Hollywood also self-censored any negative depictions of Nazis for most of the 1930s in order to maintain access to German audiences. Around that time economic censorship resulted in the self-censoring of content to please the group wielding their economic influence. The Hays Code was an industry-led effort from 1930–1967 to strict self-censorship in order to appease religious objections to certain content and stave off any government censorship that could have resulted. Relationship with the military Sexual abuse scandals Global Hollywood Political economy of communication researchers have long focused on the international or global presence, power, profitability and popularity of Hollywood films. Books on global Hollywood by Toby Miller and Richard Maxwell, Janet Wasko and Mary Erickson, Kerry Segrave, John Trumpbour and Tanner Mirrlees examine the international political economy of Hollywood's power. According to Tanner Mirrlees, Hollywood relies on four capitalist strategies "to attract and integrate non-US film producers, exhibitors and audiences into its ambit: ownership, cross-border productions with subordinate service providers, content licensing deals with exhibitors, and blockbusters designed to travel the globe." In 1912, American film companies were largely immersed in the competition for the domestic market. It was difficult to satisfy the huge demand for films created by the nickelodeon boom. Motion Picture Patents Company members such as Edison Studios, also sought to limit competition from French, Italian, and other imported films. Exporting films, then, became lucrative to these companies. Vitagraph Studios was the first American company to open its own distribution offices in Europe, establishing a branch in London in 1906, and a second branch in Paris shortly after. Other American companies were moving into foreign markets as well, and American distribution abroad continued to expand until the mid-1920s. Originally, a majority of companies sold their films indirectly. However, since they were inexperienced in overseas trading, they simply sold the foreign rights to their films to foreign distribution firms or export agents. Gradually, London became a center for the international circulation of US films. Many British companies made a profit by acting as the agents for this business, and by doing so, they weakened British production by turning over a large share of the UK market to American films. By 1911, approximately 60 to 70 percent of films imported into Great Britain were American. The United States was also doing well in Germany, Australia, and New Zealand. More recently, as globalization has started to intensify, and the United States government has been actively promoting free trade agendas and trade on cultural products, Hollywood has become a worldwide cultural source. The success on Hollywood export markets can be known not only from the boom of American multinational media corporations across the globe but also from the unique ability to make big-budget films that appeal powerfully to popular tastes in many different cultures. With globalization, movie production has been clustered in Hollywood for several reasons: the United States has the largest single home market in dollar terms, entertaining and highly visible Hollywood movies have global appeal, and the role of English as a universal language contributes to compensating for higher fixed costs of production. Hollywood has moved more deeply into Chinese markets, although influenced by China's censorship. Films made in China are censored, strictly avoiding themes like "ghosts, violence, murder, horror, and demons." Such plot elements risk being cut. Hollywood has had to make "approved" films, corresponding to official Chinese standards, but with aesthetic standards sacrificed to box office profits. Even Chinese audiences found it boring to wait for the release of great American movies dubbed in their native language. Role of women Women are statistically underrepresented in creative positions in the center of the US film industry, Hollywood. This underrepresentation has been called the "celluloid ceiling", a variant on the employment discrimination term "glass ceiling". In 2013, the "top-paid actors ... made times as much money as the top-paid actresses." "[O]lder [male] actors make more than their female equals" in age, with "female movie stars mak[ing] the most money on average per film at age 34 while male stars earn the most at 51." The 2013 Celluloid Ceiling Report conducted by the Center for the Study of Women in Television and Film at San Diego State University collected a list of statistics gathered from "2,813 individuals employed by the 250 top domestic grossing films of 2012." Women accounted for: "18% of all directors, executive producers, producers, writers, cinematographers, and editors. This reflected no change from 2011 and only a 1% increase from 1998." "9% of all directors." "15% of writers." "25% of all producers." "20% of all editors." "2% of all cinematographers." "38% of films employed 0 or 1 woman in the roles considered, 23% employed 2 women, 28% employed 3 to 5 women, and 10% employed 6 to 9 women." A New York Times article stated that only 15% of the top films in 2013 had women for a lead acting role. The author of the study noted that "The percentage of female speaking roles has not increased much since the 1940s when they hovered around 25 percent to 28 percent." "Since 1998, women's representation in behind-the-scenes roles other than directing has gone up just 1 percent." Women "directed the same percent of the 250 top-grossing films in 2012 (9 percent) as they did in 1998." Race and ethnicity On May 10, 2021, NBC announced that it would not televise the 79th Golden Globe Awards in 2022 in support of a boycott of the Hollywood Foreign Press Association by multiple media companies over inadequate efforts to address lack of diversity within the membership of the association with people of color, but that it would be open to televise the ceremony in 2023 if the HFPA were successful in its efforts to reform. The HFPA would be disbanded two years later as a result of this and other scandals. American cinema has often reflected and propagated negative stereotypes towards foreign nationals and ethnic minorities. For example, Russians and Russian Americans are usually portrayed as brutal mobsters, ruthless agents and villains. According to Russian American professor Nina L. Khrushcheva, "You can't even turn the TV on and go to the movies without reference to Russians as horrible." Italians and Italian Americans are usually associated with organized crime and the American Mafia. Hispanic and Latino Americans are largely depicted as sexualized figures such as the Latino macho or the Latina vixen, gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers. However, representation in Hollywood has improved in recent years, gaining traction in the 1990s, and no longer emphasizes oppression, exploitation, or resistance as primary themes. According to Charles Ramírez Berg, third wave films "do not accentuate Chicano oppression or resistance; ethnicity in these films exists as one fact of several that shape characters' lives and stamps their personalities." Filmmakers like Edward James Olmos and Robert Rodriguez were able to represent the Hispanic and Latino American experience like none had on screen before, and actors like Hilary Swank, Jordana Brewster, Jessica Alba, Camilla Belle, Al Madrigal, Alexis Bledel, Alexa PenaVega, Ana de Armas, and Rachel Zegler have become successful. In the last decade, minority filmmakers like Chris Weitz, Alfonso Gomez-Rejon, and Patricia Riggen have been given applier narratives. Films that portray Hispanic and Latino Americans include La Bamba (1987), Selena (1997), The Mask of Zorro (1998), Goal II (2007), Overboard (2018), Father of the Bride (2022), and Josefina López's Real Women Have Curves, originally a play which premiered in 1990 and was later released as a film in 2002. African-American representation in Hollywood improved drastically towards the end of the 20th century after the fall of the studio system. In old Hollywood, when racial prejudices were socially acceptable, it was not uncommon for white actors to wear black face. In the 2016 film Moonlight, masculinity is portrayed as rigid and aggressive, amongst the behavior of young black males in Chiron's teenage peer group. The expression of hyper-masculinity among black men has been associated with peer acceptance and community. Being a gay man within the black community, on the other hand, has been associated with social alienation and homophobic judgement by peers because black gay men are seen as weak or effeminate. In the film, Chiron is placed in this divide as a black gay man and alters his presentation of masculinity as a strategy to avoid ridicule because homosexuality is viewed as incompatible with black masculine expectations. As young kids, Kevin hides his sexuality in order to avoid being singled out like Chiron is. As Chiron grows older, he recognizes the need to conform to a heteronormative ideal of black masculinity in order to avoid abuse and homophobia. As an adult, Chiron chooses to embrace the stereotypical black male gender performance by becoming muscular and a drug dealer. According to Korean American actor Daniel Dae Kim, Asian and Asian American men "have been portrayed as inscrutable villains and asexualized kind of eunuchs." The Media Action Network for Asian Americans accused the director and studio of Aloha of whitewashing the cast of the film, and the director, Cameron Crowe, apologized about Emma Stone being miscast as a character who is meant to be of one quarter Chinese and one quarter Hawaiian descent. Throughout the 20th century, acting roles in film were relatively few, and many available roles were narrow characters. In the 21st century, young Asian American comedians and filmmakers have found an outlet on YouTube allowing them to gain a strong and loyal fanbase among their fellow Asian Americans. Although more recently the film Crazy Rich Asians has been lauded in the United States for featuring a predominantly Asian cast, it was criticized elsewhere for casting biracial and non-Chinese actors as ethnically Chinese characters. The film Always Be My Maybe was lauded for taking familiar rom-com beats and cleverly layering in smart social commentary. Before the September 11 attacks, Arabs and Arab Americans were often portrayed as terrorists. The decision to hire Naomi Scott, in the film Aladdin, the daughter of an English father and a Gujarati Ugandan-Indian mother, to play the lead of Jasmine, also drew criticism, as well as accusations of colorism, as some commentators expected the role to go to an actress of Arab or Middle Eastern origin. In January 2018, it was reported that white extras were being applied brown make-up during filming in order to "blend in", which caused an outcry and condemnation among fans and critics, branding the practice as "an insult to the whole industry" while accusing the producers of not recruiting people with Middle Eastern or North African heritage. Disney responded to the controversy saying, "Diversity of our cast and background performers was a requirement and only in a handful of instances when it was a matter of specialty skills, safety and control (special effects rigs, stunt performers and handling of animals) were crew made up to blend in." Working conditions Hollywood's work flow is unique in that much of its work force does not report to the same factory each day, nor follow the same routine from day to day, but films at distant locations around the world, with a schedule dictated by the scenes being filmed rather than what makes the most sense for productivity. For instance, an urban film shot entirely on location at night would require the bulk of its crews to work a graveyard shift, while a situational comedy series that shoots primarily on stage with only one or two days a week on location would follow a more traditional work schedule. Westerns are often shot in desert locations far from the homes of the crew in areas with limited hotels that necessitate long drives before and after a shooting day, which take advantage of as many hours of sunlight available, ultimately requiring workers to put in 16 or 17 hours a day from the time they leave their home to the time they return. While the role of labor in America has waned in many parts of the country, the unions have maintained a firm grip in Hollywood since their start during Great Depression when workers would line up outside the thriving movie studios looking for the only job in town. Terrible conditions awaited those workers as the studios exploited the eager workforce with meager pay and the ever present threat of the hundreds of others waiting just outside the gates to take their place if they voiced any complaints. Due to the casual nature of employment in Hollywood, it is only through collective bargaining can individual workers express their rights to minimum wage guarantees and access to pension and health plans that carry over from film to film or TV series to TV series, and offer the studios access to a trained workforce able to step onto a set on day one with the knowledge and experience to handle the highly technical equipment they are asked to operate. The majority of the workers in Hollywood are represented by several unions and guilds. The 150,000 member-strong International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE) represents most of the crafts, such as the grips, electricians, and camera people, as well as editors, sound engineers, and hair & make-up artists. The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) is the next largest group representing some 130,000 actors and performers, the Directors Guild of America (DGA) represents the directors and production managers, the Writers Guild of America (WGA) representing writers, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) represents the drivers. The unions and guilds serve as the collective bargaining unit for their membership, negotiating on regular intervals (most currently on 3 year contracts) with the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP), a trade alliance representing the film studios and television networks that hire the crews to create their content. While the relationship between labor and management has generally been amicable over the years, working together with the state to develop safe protocols to continue working during COVID-19 and lobbying together in favor of tax incentives, contract negotiations have been known to get contentious over changes in the industry and as a response to rising income inequality. The relationship even turned bloody in 1945 as a six-month strike by set decorators turned into a bloody melee on a sweltering October day between strikers, scabs, strikebreakers, and studio security. See also :Category:Documentary films about Hollywood, Los Angeles :Category:Documentary films about the cinema of the United States :Category:Films about Hollywood, Los Angeles Lists of American films American comedy films American Film Institute History of animation in the United States List of films in the public domain in the United States Motion Picture Association of America film rating system National Film Registry General List of cinema of the world Photography in the United States of America Cinema of North America References Notes Fraser, George McDonald (1988). The Hollywood History of the World, from One Million Years B.C. to 'Apocalypse Now. London: M. Joseph; "First US ed.", New York: Beech Tree Books. Both eds. collate thus: xix, 268 p., amply ill. (b&w photos). (U.K. ed.), 0-688-07520-7 (US ed.). Further reading Hallett, Hilary A. Go West, Young Women! The Rise of Early Hollywood. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2013. Ragan, David. Who's Who in Hollywood, 1900–1976. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1976. External links Industry in the United States Culture of Hollywood, Los Angeles History of the United States by topic
418338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamization	Vietnamization	Vietnamization was a policy of the Richard Nixon administration to end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War through a program to "expand, equip, and train South Vietnamese forces and assign to them an ever-increasing combat role, at the same time steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops". Brought on by the Viet Cong's Tet Offensive, the policy referred to U.S. combat troops specifically in the ground combat role, but did not reject combat by the U.S. Air Force, as well as the support to South Vietnam, consistent with the policies of U.S. foreign military assistance organizations. U.S. citizens' mistrust of their government that had begun after the offensive worsened with the release of news about U.S. soldiers massacring civilians at My Lai (1968), the invasion of Cambodia (1970), and the leaking of the Pentagon Papers (1971). At a January 28, 1969, meeting of the National Security Council, General Andrew Goodpaster, deputy to General Creighton Abrams and commander of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, stated that the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) had been steadily improving, and the point at which the war could be "de-Americanized" was close. Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird agreed with the point, but not with the language: "What we need is a term like 'Vietnamizing' to put the emphasis on the right issues." Nixon immediately liked Laird's word. Vietnamization fit into the broader détente policy of the Nixon administration, in which the United States no longer regarded its fundamental strategy as the containment of communism but as a cooperative world order, in which Nixon and his chief adviser Henry Kissinger were focused on the broader constellation of forces and the bigger world powers. Nixon had ordered Kissinger to negotiate diplomatic policies with Soviet statesman Anatoly Dobrynin. Nixon also opened high-level contact with China. U.S. relations with the Soviet Union and China were of higher priority than South Vietnam. Nixon said Vietnamization had two components. The first was "strengthening the armed force of the South Vietnamese in numbers, equipment, leadership and combat skills", while the second was "the extension of the pacification program [i.e. military aid to civilians] in South Vietnam". To achieve the first goal, U.S. helicopters would fly in support; however, helicopter operations were too much part of ground operations to involve U.S. personnel. Thus, ARVN candidates were enrolled in U.S. helicopter schools to take over the operations. As observed by Lieutenant General Dave Palmer, to qualify an ARVN candidate for U.S. helicopter school, he first needed to learn English; this, in addition to the months-long training and practice in the field, made adding new capabilities to the ARVN take at least two years. Palmer did not disagree that the first component, given time and resources, was achievable. However: "Pacification, the second component, presented the real challenge ... it was benevolent government action in areas where the government should always have been benevolently active ... doing both was necessary if Vietnamization were to work." The policy of Vietnamization, despite its successful execution, was ultimately a failure as the improved ARVN forces and the reduced American and allied component were unable to prevent the fall of Saigon and the subsequent merger of the north and south, to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Precedent: French jaunissement in Indochina War From 1950, after several years of the First Indochina War, French commanders adopted a policy they called "yellowing" (jaunissement), expressly to minimize white casualties. This change, at the time, was mostly due to a deficit of troops in the FTEO, the Far-East segment of the French army. Vietnamese soldiers were progressively integrated in battalions. U.S. critics of the war compared Vietnamization to jaunissement. Preparation under Johnson Lyndon Johnson's major political interests were domestic; the war interfered with his domestic focus, and he was eager to end the war in a way that he considered politically acceptable. In 1967, Kissinger attended a Pugwash Conference of scientists interested in nuclear disarmament. Two participants approached Kissinger and offered a disavowable means of communication between the U.S. and the communist leadership. In particular, Raymond Aubrac, an official of the World Health Organization, knew Ho Chi Minh and agreed to carry a message. After discussing the matter with Assistant Secretary of State William Bundy and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, a message was sent. Ho said he would be willing to negotiate if the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam under Operation Rolling Thunder ceased. Mai Van Bo, Hanoi's diplomatic representative in Paris, was named a point of contact. Since Hanoi would not communicate with an American official without a bombing halt, Kissinger served as an intermediary. Johnson made a speech in San Antonio on September 29, offering the possibility of talks. They were rejected, although brought up again in 1967. End of Americanization The departure of Lyndon B Johnson did not end the war; rather, it spread throughout Southeast Asia. The Tet Offensive (1968) was a political and media disaster. Newsman Walter Cronkite announced that he saw a stalemate as the best case scenario for the Tet Offensive. Other members of the press added to the call to retrench (reduce costs and spending). President Johnson's popularity plummeted and he announced a bombing halt on March 31, simultaneously announcing he would not run for re-election. Though he had low expectations, on May 10, 1968, Johnson began peace talks between U.S. and North Vietnamese in Paris. The war, however, continued. Nixon Administration analysis of options Under the Nixon administration, Henry Kissinger, Nixon's chief adviser, asked the Rand Corporation to provide a list of policy options, prepared by Daniel Ellsberg. On receiving the report, Kissinger and Schelling asked Ellsberg about the apparent absence of a victory option; Ellsberg said "I don't believe there is a win option in Vietnam." While Ellsberg eventually did send a withdrawal option, Kissinger would not circulate something that could be perceived as defeat, though privately, he realized the United States were in a difficult position and priorities needed to be set. According to a record, prepared by Soviet Ambassador to the United States Anatoliy Dobrynin, of discussions between Dobrynin and Kissinger, the crux of the U.S. position, was progress still must be made at the Paris talks and, for domestic political reasons, Nixon "simply cannot wait a year for Hanoi to decide to take some new step and take a more flexible position". Dobrynin expressed the Soviet position that the U.S. needed to stop trying to divide the Paris Peace Talks into two parts: discussion of military issues between the U.S. and the DRV resolution of political issues by placing them, "for all practical purposes, entirely in the hands of Saigon, which does not want to resolve them and is unable to do so, since it is unable to soberly assess the situation and the alignment of forces in South Vietnam". Dobrynin, however, misunderstood the extent to which the U.S. was willing to apply military force not involving ground troops, culminating in Operation Linebacker II. The domestic aspect The process of Vietnamization was partly influenced by Nixon’s delicate political position on a domestic level. He had been elected with 43.4% of the votes, and Laird was concerned with his support at home. Indeed, he could sense the impatience of the American public regarding the war. Nixon himself believed American casualties reduced the support for the war. For members of his administration, a campaign of attrition was useless against an Asian power, because they were able to tolerate a greater number of casualties compared to a Western power. On the left, Senator Fulbright, chairman of the Foreign Relations committee, feared Vietnamization would not be enough to reduce the numbers of casualties:My fear is that the current policy will keep the US bogged down in Vietnam – with the killing and cost continuing indefinitely. Nixon policy direction Nixon directed the Joint Chiefs of Staff to prepare a six-step withdrawal plan. The Commandant of the Marine Corps General Leonard F. Chapman Jr. remembered, "I felt, and I think that most Marines felt, that the time had come to get out of Vietnam." Leading the ground force withdrawals, Marine redeployments started in mid-1969, and by the end of the year the entire 3rd Marine Division had departed. In the aftermath of the Tet Offensive, units were able to take control of areas held by the Viet Cong. General Tran Van Tra of the Viet Cong forces in the South stated: Some ARVN units, especially that had been operating closely with U.S. troops or using facilities, could quickly move into a dominant role in their areas. Other ARVN units faced more of a challenge. For example, the ARVN 5th Division was directed to move from its existing base camp, Phu Cuong, to that of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division in Lai Khê, while the U.S. division moved southeast to Dĩ An. The ARVN unit had to retain its previous operational responsibility, while replacing a division that was far better equipped with helicopters than a standard U.S. division. At Phu Cong, Major General Nguyen Van Hieu, the 5th Division commander, was able to use a local Popular Force battalion for base security. The Popular Force battalions, however, did not move away from the area in which they were formed. Joint operations against Cambodia In 1969, Nixon ordered B-52 strikes against the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) bases and supply routes in Cambodia, which had been used as a sanctuary by North Vietnam forces. The orders for U.S. bombing of Cambodia were classified, and thus kept from the U.S. media and Congress. In a given strike, each B-52 normally dropped of bombs, and each strike consisted of three or six bombers. Cambodian change of government Much of North Vietnamese infiltration went through Cambodia. Nixon authorized unacknowledged bombing in Cambodia while U.S. ground troops were in South Vietnam. General Lon Nol had overthrown Prince Norodom Sihanouk in March 1970, who had presented himself as a neutralist while aware of the PAVN use of his country. In June 1969, the Viet Cong and its allied organizations formed the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG), recognized by Hanoi as the legal government of South Vietnam. At that time, communist losses dating from the Tet Offensive numbered 75,000, and morale was faltering, even among the party leadership. Joint ground operations On April 30, 1970, responding to a Communist attempt to take Cambodia, Nixon announced a large scale U.S.–ARVN incursion into Cambodia to directly hit the PAVN headquarters and supply dumps; the area bordered ARVN III Corps tactical zone. The campaign began on May 1. The U.S. Task Force Shoemaker, of the 1st Cavalry Divisions, carried out B-52 strikes in the Fishhook area of Cambodia. T.F. Shoemaker operated with the ARVN Airborne Brigade. Separate ARVN operations took place in the Parrot's Beak area. III Corps tactical zone commander Do Cao Tri, the most visible ARVN leader, encouraged the deepest ARVN penetrations. The incursion prevented the immediate takeover of Cambodia by Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge, and cost the PAVN the supply line from the port of Sihanoukville. The Khmer Rouge broke with its North Vietnamese sponsors, and aligned with China. This made American involvement visible to the U.S. population, and there were intense protests, including deaths in a confrontation between rock-throwing protesters and National Guardsmen at Kent State University. Intelligence and security The U.S. intelligence collection systems, a significant amount of which (especially the techniques) were not shared with the ARVN, and, while not fully declassified, examples have been mentioned earlier in this article. The Communist side's intelligence operations, beyond the spies that were discovered, are much less known. While there had been many assumptions that the South Vietnamese government was penetrated by many spies, and there indeed were many, a December 1969 capture of a Viet Cong communications intelligence center and documents revealed that they had been getting a huge amount of information using simple technology and smart people, as well as sloppy U.S. communications security. This specific discovery was made by U.S. Army infantry, with interpretation by regular communications officers; the matter infuriated General Abrams in regards to the communications specialists. Before and after, there had been a much more highly classified, and only now available in heavily censored form, National Security Agency analysis of how the Communists were getting their information, which has led to a good deal of modern counterintelligence and operations security. Some of the material from Touchdown also gave insight into the North Vietnamese intelligence system. For example, the NVA equivalent of the Defense Intelligence Agency was the Central Research Directorate (CRD) in Hanoi. COSVN intelligence staff, however, disseminated the tactically useful material. Their espionage was under the control of the Military Intelligence Sections (MIS), which were directed by the Strategic Intelligence Section (SIS) of CRD. U.S. direct discussions with North Vietnam Henry Kissinger began secret talks with the North Vietnamese official, Lê Đức Thọ, in February 1970. However, this is credible. 1971 Subsequent congressional action banned further U.S. ground intervention outside the boundaries of South Vietnam, so the next major drive, Operation Lam Son 719, would have to be based on ARVN ground forces, U.S. air and artillery support, and U.S. advisory and logistical assistance. The Vietnamization policy achieved limited rollback of Communist gains inside South Vietnam only, and was primarily aimed at providing the arms, training and funding for the South to fight and win its own war, if it had the courage and commitment to do so. By 1971, the Communists lost control of most, but not all, of the areas they had controlled in the South in 1967. The Communists still controlled many remote jungle and mountain districts, especially areas that protected the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Commanded by Hoang Xuan Lam, known more for loyalty to Nguyen Van Thieu than for military talent, Saigon's effort to strike against one of these strongholds, Operation Lam Son 719, failed in 1971. The SVN forces, with some U.S. air support, were unable to defeat PAVN regulars. While the operation is detailed in a separate sub-article, the key issues were that the ARVN were inexperienced in executing large operations. They underestimated the needed forces, and the senior officers had developed in a context that rewarded loyalty rather than competence. Let there be no doubt that there were individual ARVN commanders who would be credit to any military, but, Thieu, like those RVN leaders before him, was constantly concerned at preventing a military coup. "Promotions were won in Saigon, not in battle. And vital to advancement was the avoidance of risk, even at the price of defeat." Thieu relieved the operational commander, head of I Corps tactical zone commander Hoang Xuan Lam with the most respected combat commander in the ARVN, Do Cao Tri. Tri died 2.5 hours later in his first helicopter crash of inspection. It is known the crash was at low altitude; it has been argued it had crashed due to mechanical failure or enemy fire. Certainly, mechanical failure was less demoralizing. The 25,000-man ARVN force, which U.S. planners had considered half the necessary size, took admitted 25% casualties, which some estimates put as high as 50%. 1972 By the beginning of 1972, over 400,000 U.S. personnel had been withdrawn, most of whom were combat troops. Politically, this allowed Nixon to negotiate with China and the Soviet Union without suggesting that he was compromising U.S. soldiers in the field. North Vietnam made a major conventional attack on the South, for which the U.S. provided major air support under Operation Linebacker I, which enabled the ARVN to regain substantial control. When North Vietnam, late in the year, left the negotiating table, Nixon authorized the intensive Operation Linebacker II campaign, which forced the North Vietnamese to negotiate; a peace treaty was signed and all U.S. combat forces were withdrawn. 1973 and ceasefire The Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam had some excellent ground combat units, but still had very serious problems of command, control, and communications at division level and above. Many units had become overdependent on American air support, and, while the RVN Air Force had not developed large-scale interdiction capability, they were also of varied quality for close air support. Beyond the issue that the Air Force was always fragmented to the corps commanders, they also did not receive various expected equipment upgrades. Photoreconnaissance was extremely limited. Armored units had developed the greatest confidence in their ability to fight without U.S. air support. Ground commanders also learned that armored units were not for infantry support and static defenses, but needed to be used as mobile reserves. Neither North nor South Vietnam, however, had really mastered large-scale combined arms methods, compared to a NATO or Warsaw Pact level of proficiency. In a postwar interview with the RAND Corporation, Nguyễn Bá Cẩn said: "Vietnamese officials called Vietnamization the U.S. Dollar and Vietnam Blood Sharing Plan." See also Afghanization - Similar program to equip and train the Afghan Armed Forces. Notes References United States in the Vietnam War History of South Vietnam Presidency of Richard Nixon Vietnam War 1969 in Vietnam 1970 in Vietnam 1971 in Vietnam 1973 in Vietnam Military history of the United States during the Vietnam War United States–Vietnam relations Articles containing video clips
418355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babbling	Babbling	Babbling is a stage in child development and a state in language acquisition during which an infant appears to be experimenting with uttering articulate sounds, but does not yet produce any recognizable words. Babbling begins shortly after birth and progresses through several stages as the infant's repertoire of sounds expands and vocalizations become more speech-like. Infants typically begin to produce recognizable words when they are around 12 months of age, though babbling may continue for some time afterward. Babbling can be seen as a precursor to language development or simply as vocal experimentation. The physical structures involved in babbling are still being developed in the first year of a child's life. This continued physical development is responsible for some of the changes in abilities and variations of sound babies can produce. Abnormal developments such as certain medical conditions, developmental delays, and hearing impairments may interfere with a child's ability to babble normally. Though there is still disagreement about the uniqueness of language to humans, babbling is not unique to the human species. Typical development Babbling is a stage in language acquisition. Babbles are separated from language because they do not convey meaning or refer to anything specific like words do. Human infants are not necessarily excited or upset when babbling; they may also babble spontaneously and incessantly when they are emotionally calm. The sounds of babbling are produced before an infant begins to construct recognizable words. This can be partly attributed to the immaturity of the vocal tract and neuromusculature at this age in life. Infants first begin vocalizing by crying, followed by cooing and then vocal play. These first forms of sound production are the easiest for children to use because they contain natural, reflexive, mostly vowel sounds. Babbling is assumed to occur in all children acquiring language. Particularly it has been studied in English, Italian, Korean, French, Spanish, Japanese and Swedish. Infants across the world follow general trends in babbling tendencies. Differences that do appear are the result of the infants' sensitivity to the characteristics of the language(s) they are exposed to. Infants mimic the prosody of the language(s) they are exposed to. They use intonation patterns and timing that matches the characteristics of their parent language. Infants also babble using the consonants and vowels that occur most frequently in their parent language. Most babbling consists of a small number of sounds, which suggests the child is preparing the basic sounds necessary to speak the language to which he is exposed. The consonants that babbling infants produce tend to be any of the following: . The following consonants tend to be infrequently produced during phonological development: . The complexity of the sounds that infants produce makes them difficult to categorize, but the above rules tend to hold true regardless of the language to which children are exposed. The sounds produced in babble have been categorised relative to their components. For example, babble may be broken down into syllables that contain a consonant and a vowel (CV syllables) and syllables that contain only a vowel sound (non-CV syllables). These components have been studied in relation to speech development in children, and have been found to relate to future speech outcomes. If babbling occurs during the first year of life, it can typically be concluded that the child is developing speech normally. As babies grow and change, their vocalizations will change as well. Timeline of typical vocal development Infants follow a general timeline of vocal developments in childhood. This timeline provides a general outline of expected developments from birth to age one. Babbling usually lasts 6–9 months in total. The babbling period ends at around 12 months because it is the age when first words usually occur. However, individual children can show large variability, and this timeline is only a guideline. From birth to 1 month, babies produce mainly pleasure sounds, cries for assistance, and responses to the human voice. Around 2 months, babies can distinguish between different speech sounds, and can make "goo"ing sounds. Around 3 months, babies begin making elongated vowel sounds "oooo" "aaaa", and will respond vocally to speech of others. They continue to make predominantly vowel sounds. Around 4 months, babies may vary their pitch, and imitate tones in adult speech. Around 5 months, babies continue to experiment with sound, imitating some sounds made by adults. Around 6 months, babies vary volume, pitch and rate. When infants are 6 months old they are finally able to control the opening and closing of the vocal tract, and upon obtaining this ability, infants begin to distinguish between the different sounds of vowels and consonants. This age is often distinguished as the beginning of the canonical stage. During the canonical stage, the babbling involves reduplicated sounds containing alternations of vowels and consonants, for example, "baba" or "bobo". Reduplicated babbling (also known as canonical babbling) consists of repeated syllables consisting of consonant and a vowel such as "da da da da" or "ma ma ma ma". Around 7 months, babies can produce several sounds in one breath, and they also recognize different tones and inflections in other speakers. Around 8 months, babies can repeat emphasized syllables. They imitate gestures and tonal quality of adult speech. They also produce variegated babbling. Variegated babbles contain mixes of consonant vowel combinations such as "ka da by ba mi doy doy". Variegated babbling differs from reduplicated babbling in terms of the variation and complexity of syllables that are produced. Around 9–10 months, babies can imitate non speech sounds, and speech-like sounds if they are in the child's repertoire of sounds. Infant babbling begins to resemble the native language of a child. The final stage is known as conversational babbling, or the "jargon stage". Usually occurring by about ten months of age, the jargon stage is defined as "pre-linguistic vocalizations in which infants use adult-like stress and intonation". The general structure of the syllables that they are producing is very closely related to the sounds of their native language and this form of babbling significantly predicts the form of early words. Around 11 months, babies imitate inflections, rhythms, and expressions of speakers. By 12 months, babies typically can speak one or more words. These words now refer to the entity which they name; they are used to gain attention or for a specific purpose. Children continue to produce jargon babbles beyond their first words. Manual babbling Manual babbling is structurally identical to vocal babbling in its development. Just as hearing and/or speaking infants babble with their mouths, infants who grow up with a sign language babble with their hands. If a hearing infant has deaf and/or mute parents or parents who otherwise use a sign language, they will still imitate the signs that they see their parents displaying. This is evidence that manual babbling is possible in both hearing and deaf infants, and in both speaking and mute infants. All babies imitate with their hands the movements that they see. Typical gestures for example are raising arms to be lifted up, or grabbing/reaching to indicate wanting a bottle; these are used referentially. In addition, infants who grow up with a sign language begin to make gestures that are distinct from all other hand movements and gestures. After it was established that infants could babble with their hands and their mouths, the patterns in which productions occurred were studied. Speaking and signing infants follow very similar maturational paths in language acquisition. Both go through a number of stages, and exhibit similar complexity in their babbling sequences. In studies where deaf and hearing children were compared, children learning sign language produced more multi-movement manual babbling than children who were not learning a sign language. There are three main components of manual babbling. The hand gestures contain a restricted set of phonetic units, show a syllabic organization, and are used without reference or meaning. This is comparable to aspects of vocal babbling as mentioned above. It is difficult to study manual babbling as often the manual activity can be mistaken as gestures rather than signs. When signing children are in fact babbling it will most often take place in front of their torso in a designated area that is called the phonetic space. One of the most common forms of manual babbling is the extension and spreading of all fingers. This babble is also one of the first indicators that an infant will begin to make in manual communication. Children are able to produce signs correctly, which is important since many articulation tendencies of manual babbling transfer to the children’s early sign production. Children acquire signs for the same concepts as speaking children's words, and in the same stage of development. Transition from babbling to language Two hypotheses have been devised in order to explain how babbling is related to language development. Discontinuity hypothesis – This early hypothesis suggests that babbling has absolutely no relationship to language development. If true, infants would produce a full range of random sounds in no particular order during the babbling stage. However, it has been demonstrated that early babbling is quite limited. Supporters of this hypothesis also thought that children might drop certain sounds only to pick them up again in later months. Supporters proposed it would be possible for babies to incorrectly and inconsistently use sounds that they had already mastered in the early babbling stages later in life or even lose sounds altogether before learning how to speak. The hypothesis also implies that when children finally reach the age where they are able to learn their native language, they develop phonological sounds in an orderly manner. Over time, infants will relearn sounds and develop words in a specific language. Current evidence does not support these claims. Contemporary research supports the notion that babbling is directly related to the development of language as discussed in The Continuity Hypothesis. Continuity hypothesis – According to this hypothesis, babbling is a direct forerunner to language. At first, infants produce universal sounds that exist in all areas of the world and in all languages. Reduplicated canonical babbling produces a number of sounds but only some of them ("ma ma" and "da da", turning into "mommy" and "daddy", respectively) are recognized as meaningful and thus reinforced by caregivers and parents, while the others are abandoned as meaningless (this is the argument in, for instance, Susanne Langer's Philosophy in a New Key). This hypothesis agrees with the claim that the anatomical changes of the vocal tract are very important, but suggests that the social environment in which an infant is raised has a greater influence on the development of language. Infants pay close attention to their caregivers' reactions and use their feedback as approval for the sounds that they are making. This reinforcement through feedback helps infants to focus their attention on specific features of sound. Social feedback facilitates faster learning and earlier production of a variety of advanced words. There is evidence that babbling varies depending on the linguistic environment in which a baby is raised. Current babbling research supports The Continuity Hypothesis. For example, it has been noted that infants raised in French speaking environments display greater amounts of rising intonation in comparison to infants raised in English speaking environments. This is likely due to the differences between French and English intonations while speaking. The ordering of consonants and vowels in the babbling of English, French, Swedish and Japanese infants also appears to resemble that of their native language. These findings support another hypothesis, the "babbling drift hypothesis" in which infant babbling resembles the phonetic characteristics of a child's native language through exposure to speech. When babies are exposed to two languages, their babbles resemble the language that they are most exposed to. The dominant language is considered to be the one that children have the most exposure to. Most often infants do not produce a blend of language styles while babbling however, may switch between languages. Sometimes infants may choose which language style they prefer to babble in based upon particular features. The babbling drift hypothesis provides further support for The Continuity Hypothesis. Physiology of babbling The human mouth moves in distinct ways during speech production. When producing each individual sound out loud, humans use different parts of their mouths, as well as different methods to produce particular sounds. During the beginnings of babbling, infants tend to have greater mouth openings on the right side. This finding suggests that babbling is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain. The larynx, or voicebox, is originally high in the throat which allows the baby to continue to breathe while swallowing. It descends during the first year of life, allowing the pharynx to develop and facilitates the production of adult-like speech sounds. Reduplicated babbling (such as 'bababa') involves a rhythmic opening and closing of the jaw. According to the frame dominance theory, when the mandible (jaw) is elevated, a consonant sound will be produced. When the mandible is lowered, a vowel-like sound is produced. Therefore, during a reduplicated sequence of sounds, the consonant and vowels are alternated as the mandible elevates and depresses. The opening and closing of the mouth alone will not produce babbling, and phonation (or voicing) is necessary during the movement in order to create a meaningful sound. Other important oral structures involved in articulation, such as the tongue, lips and teeth remain in a stable resting position during babbling. Sometimes during the babbling period, the motions can be made without any vocalization at all. Signing infants produce manual babbling through similar rhythmic alternations, but they perform with their hands instead of their mouths. As a baby goes beyond the reduplicated sequences of babbling, they exhibit equal sized mouth or hand openings on the right and left sides. Abnormal development Typically by 6 months of age, all normally developing children will babble. However, infants with certain medical conditions or developmental delays may exhibit a delay or an absence of babbling. For example, infants who have had a tracheotomy typically do not babble because they are unable to phonate. Following decannulation, it has been found that these infants do produce more vocalizations, but the sounds or syllables are not as diverse as those found in typically developing infant's canonical babbling behaviour. Infants with severe apraxia may not babble, and may fail to produce first words. Communication by infants with apraxia may instead be in the form of grunting and pointing. Infants with autism may show a delay in babbling, and in some cases it may be completely absent. Babbling in children with autism tends to occur less frequently than in typically developing children, and with a smaller range of syllables produced during the canonical babbling stage. Babbling may also be delayed in individuals who are born with Down syndrome. The canonical stage may emerge two months later for individuals with Down syndrome compared to other infants, although, when produced, it is similar to babbling in typically developing infants. Vocal babbling in deaf infants Research has been conducted to determine whether or not infants with impaired hearing can demonstrate typical vocal sounds. Babbling can appear at the same age and in similar forms in hearing and deaf child, however, further continuation of babbling and speech development depends upon the ability for the child to hear themselves. For this reason, deaf children stop babbling vocally earlier than hearing children. Babbling should appear if the child is exposed to language, but vocal babbling can be delayed or non-existent for deaf children. It is not clear whether spoken language can develop fully without auditory experience. Deaf children are not only significantly delayed in spoken language development in comparison to their hearing counterparts, but they also produce fewer noises. This suggests that auditory experience is necessary in spoken language development. Some researchers have taken these findings as evidence against the hypothesis that language is an innate human capability. A number of solutions have been used for hearing-impaired humans to gain auditory experience, one of which is hearing aids; they can be used to help infants reach babbling stages earlier. Cochlear implants have also been tested. Once the surgical implantation is complete, an infant has the opportunity to experience spoken language input. Once language has been heard, the infant begins to babble and speak in rhythmic patterns just as hearing infants do. Evidence across species Though there is disagreement about the uniqueness of language to humans, babbling is not unique to the human species. Many animals produce similar ranges of sounds to human infants. These ranges of sounds are used in the young of many species to experiment with sound-making capabilities, or to practice for future vocal behavior. Similar to human infants, animal babbling is restricted by physiological development. Songbirds Not only are songbird and human language parallel regarding neural and molecular factors, they also are similar in how their communication is initially produced. Observations about these similarities can be traced back to Charles Darwin and his studies. Avian and mammalian brains are similar in form and connectivity and there may even be a gene that is relevant to speech found in both organisms. The learning of a song is produced through a mix of interaction, experience, and predisposition. Young songbirds will imitate their species' call when presented with songs from their own and another species. They are physically capable of producing either song, but do not. Humans learn language through similar means, which is why this early vocalization in songbirds is considered babbling. Songbirds produce varieties of immature songs that are referred to as babbling because the immature songs precede those that are fully developed. As with humans, if these songs are reinforced with positive social feedback, they are more likely to recur. Other conspecifics provide feedback, especially the females in species for which only the males produce song. If females provide more social signals as feedback, males will develop more mature songs at a faster rate than other male birds. Young birds require reinforcement from adults in order to finalize their songs. Another relation to human infants is that the amount of vocalizations is not key, but rather the quality of the sounds that is retained and resembles the final produce of language. The physiology of the animal is important. The properties of the ear and vocal tract, as well as the brain regions used in analyzing and processing information are critical determinants of how song is interpreted and later produced. In studies using isolated birds that have not had exposure to song, they produce an abnormal 'isolate song' that nevertheless contains species-specific aspects. This shows that the neural pathways have predetermined features that allow for such a phenomenon to occur. The pathways are able to allow for plasticity of the songs that can be learned in the future. There is an important phase in development when song learning is best accomplished. This phase is called the 'sensitive period' and the amount of change that a songbird experiences in adulthood varies by species. Young birds have a production phase after a listening phase of development. The production of song is called 'subsong' where vocalizations resemble that of an adult as time passes. Memory for songs is able to form before the period where learning to sing occurs. Social interaction is important in vocal learning where non-singing females can even influence an infant through feedback. Pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea) Pygmy marmosets have been studied and found to produce complex vocalizations 2–3 weeks after birth. Both sexes are capable of creating calls at a rate of 3 calls/second and each bout of calls can last up to 6 or 7 minutes. A normal series of calls by a pygmy marmoset contains approximately 10 different call types. This variety of call forms produced by this creature is comparable to babbling in human infants for a number of reasons. Like reduplicative babbling in humans, the call is often repeated several times before a new sequence of sounds is produced. The vocalizations gain attention from caregivers and provide practice for future vocal behavior. For these reasons, pygmy marmoset calls are seen as babbling behavior. There are a total of 16 call types in pygmy marmoset babbling language. Different calls serve different survival functions such as when desiring food, social interaction or during times of alarm. As human infants have, marmoset babies have higher rates of social interaction when producing babbling sounds. During the juvenile age, marmosets often regress back to babbling stages if a new infant is born. It is suggested that their production of babbling calls increases because they are seeking attention and social interaction. Another babbling occurrence during the juvenile age is the addition of territorial calls and mild threat vocalizations. Although babbling is important for practising adult calls during the juvenile age, babbling decreases with age in pygmy marmosets. Overall, babbling progresses through a series of stages from infancy to adulthood and slowly leads to the construction of adult calls. Sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx bilineata) Babbling-like behavior in songbirds, humans and some nonhuman primates has been previously researched, but it has not been researched until recently in non-primate mammals. The sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx bilineata) is a social creature and the vocalizations that it produces depend on the social situation that the animal is in. This bat has a large repertoire of vocalizations with males being more vocal than females. Echolocation pulses, barks, chatters, and screeches are used in various social situations including courtship and territorial defense. Infants produce isolation calls if their mothers are absent, but the pups also produce vocalizations that mirror those of adults. Both sexes of infants babble, even though as an adult, the vocalizations are solely produced by males. Social context, mothers, and surrounding bats do not influence pups because the multiple vocalizations are combined regardless of the situation. Since there is not a social aspect correlated with the vocalizations, the productions of the sounds suggest that the pups vocalize for training. The pups repeat and combine adult vocalizations so that they resemble babbling in what humans, other primates and some songbirds do as infants. However, while human babbling increases social interactions, there are no social responses to babbling in bats. Babbling is common in infants that have a large repertoire of adult vocalizations to learn and this is seen in the pups of sac-winged bat. See also Baby talk Crib talk Critical period Glossolalia Mama and papa Motor babbling Hypocorism References Language acquisition Articles containing video clips Child development
418359	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki%20Matsui	Hideki Matsui	, nicknamed "Godzilla", is a Japanese former professional baseball outfielder and designated hitter who played baseball in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) and Major League Baseball (MLB). He batted left-handed and threw right-handed. Matsui played the first ten seasons of his career in Japan for NPB's Yomiuri Giants. During that span, he was a nine-time All-Star, three-time Japan Series champion, and three-time Central League Most Valuable Player (MVP). In 2003, Matsui transitioned to playing in MLB in North America, and spent his first seven seasons there with the New York Yankees. As a Yankee, he was a two-time All-Star and 2009 World Series champion, for which he was named the World Series MVP. After becoming a free agent, Matsui had one-year stints with three other MLB teams: the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Oakland Athletics, and Tampa Bay Rays. On July 28, 2013, Matsui signed a one-day minor league contract with the Yankees in order to officially retire with the team. During his 20-year playing career, Matsui hit 507 home runs—332 in NPB and 175 in MLB. In 2018, Matsui was inducted into the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame. Early life Hideki Matsui was born in Neagari, Ishikawa, Japan (later merged into Nomi, Ishikawa). According to an interview on YES Network's CenterStage, Matsui originally batted right-handed as a child. However, when he started playing with his older brother and his friends, Matsui was such a good hitter that his embarrassed brother insisted that he bat left-handed or stop playing with them. Matsui soon became an overpowering left-handed batter, thereafter batting left-handed. Matsui was recruited by Seiryo High School in Kanazawa, Ishikawa, a Western Honshu baseball powerhouse. During his high school years, Matsui participated in four National High School Baseball Tournaments at Koshien Stadium (once in the spring and three times in the summer). In 1992, he drew five consecutive intentional walks in a game at Koshien and became a nationwide topic of conversation. The intentional walks were considered excessive and unsportsmanlike but the strategy worked, as Matsui's team lost. Matsui's reaction to the intentional walks was widely commented upon by the media. "Matsui's stoic, emotionless conduct during those at-bats drew great praise from tournament officials and reporters alike", author Robert Whiting wrote. At the end of the tournament, a representative of the High School Federation declared that "All students should learn from Matsui's attitude." Professional career Yomiuri Giants Following high school Matsui was drafted by the Yomiuri Giants in the first round. He was given the uniform number 55, which was the single-season home run record held by Sadaharu Oh. Matsui's first three seasons were unspectacular. His breakout season came in 1996, when he batted .314 with 38 home runs and 99 RBIs. A three-time MVP in the Japanese Central League (1996, 2000, and 2002), Matsui led his team into four Japan Series and winning three titles (1994, 2000 and 2002). He also made nine consecutive all-star games and led the league in home runs and RBIs three times (1998, 2000, and 2002). His single season mark for home runs was 50 in 2002, his final season in Japan. In the ten seasons he played in Japan, Matsui totalled 1268 games played, 4572 AB, 1390 hits, 901 runs, 332 home runs, 889 RBIs, a .304 batting average, and a .582 slugging percentage. His streak of 1,250 consecutive games played was the second longest in Japan. His first trip to the Japan Series became well-known. Because of the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, Matsui became known to the American media, as media outlets were covering the Series, which was referred in Sports Illustrated as "the" Fall Classic. In Japan, Matsui earned the popular nickname "Godzilla." The origin of the name is derisive in nature, in reference to Matsui's skin problems early on in his career, but has since come to represent his powerful hitting. In 2002, he made a cameo in the film Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla. In 2001, Matsui turned down a $64 million, six-year offer from the Yomiuri Giants, the highest in NPB history. New York Yankees Matsui signed a three-year, $21 million contract with the Yankees on December 19, 2002. A parade was held for him in Tokyo to celebrate his signing with the Yankees and many reporters and photographers followed him to MLB from his home in Tokyo. On March 31, 2003, Matsui made his MLB debut against Toronto Blue Jays in Canada. He became the first Japanese player who made his MLB debut in Canada. He hit an RBI single in his first MLB at-bat and, at the 2003 Yankee home opener, he became the first Yankee to hit a grand slam in his first game at Yankee Stadium. Matsui went on to hit .287 with 16 home runs and 106 RBIs. On defense, he led the AL in errors by an outfielder, with eight. In the postseason of that year, he became the first Japanese player to hit a home run in the World Series, in Game Two of the 2003 World Series against the Florida Marlins. In a controversial vote, Matsui narrowly lost the Rookie of the Year Award to Ángel Berroa after two writers, Jim Souhan and Bill Ballou, refused to include him on their ballots due to his age. Yankees owner George Steinbrenner responded by pointing out this had not prevented either writer from voting for Ichiro Suzuki or Kazuhiro Sasaki, both of whom had previously played in the NPB for several years and were the two oldest players to have received the award, and stated he felt Matsui had been robbed. In his second season, Matsui finished 2004 with a .298 average with 31 home runs and 108 RBIs. He was the American League All-Star Final Vote winner in 2004. In 2005, Matsui set MLB career highs with a .305 average and 116 RBIs. On November 15, 2005, Matsui signed a four-year deal for $52 million, surpassing Ichiro Suzuki as the highest paid Japanese player in baseball, and securing his place with the Yankees through 2009. In 2006, Matsui finished his fourth season with a .302 average with eight home runs and 29 RBIs after missing most of the season due to a wrist injury. Matsui retained the "Godzilla" nickname and the song "Godzilla" by Blue Öyster Cult was often played when he went up to bat. On May 6, 2007, Matsui recorded his 2,000th hit in combined hits in NPB and MLB during a game vs. the Mariners, which earned him a place in Japan's Golden Players Club, reserved for players who have hit 2,000 hits, have 200 wins or have 250 saves professionally. It was originally ruled an error on Raúl Ibañez, who lost track of the ball due to the sun, but a scoring change gave Matsui the hit. Matsui went 2-for-4 that day; the second hit (#2001) was a clean single to right field. On August 5, 2007, Matsui became the first Japanese player in MLB history to hit 100 home runs. The home run came in the bottom of the third inning off Gil Meche of the Kansas City Royals. In 2007, he was third in the AL with 10 sacrifice flies, and ninth in walks per strikeout (1.00). In the winter of 2007, it was widely reported in the media that the Yankees were in talks to send Matsui to the San Francisco Giants in exchange for one or two pitchers. No deal ever materialized and Matsui remained with the Yankees. On June 12, 2008, Matsui hit a grand slam on his 34th birthday, helping the Yankees to a 4–1 victory over the A's. Later that month, Matsui went on the disabled list with knee pain. He returned on August 19 against the Toronto Blue Jays and became the team's everyday designated hitter. After the final game at Yankee Stadium, Matsui underwent surgery on his left knee. Through 2008, Matsui batted .294 against right-handed pitchers in his career and .295 against lefties. On June 12, 2009, Matsui hit a three-run home run on his 35th birthday, giving the Yankees a 7–6 lead over the New York Mets in the sixth inning. On July 20, he hit a walk-off solo home run with one out in the bottom of the ninth against Jim Johnson of the Baltimore Orioles, giving the Yankees their fourth win in a row after the All Star break, their ninth walk-off win, and a tie for first place in the division with the Boston Red Sox. A month later, on August 21, Matsui hit two home runs and drove in a career-high seven runs in the Yankees' unusual 20–11 win over the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park. He became the first Yankees hitter to ever drive in seven runs in a game at Fenway Park since Lou Gehrig in 1930. Two games later, Matsui would hit two home runs for his third time in just seven games. Matsui was voted by fans as MLB Clutch Performer of the Month Presented by Pepsi for August after his performance through the month. On September 19, Matsui hit his 26th home run of the season, breaking the Yankees' record for home runs in a single season by a designated hitter which was previously held by Don Baylor. In the 2009 World Series, Matsui helped the Yankees defeat the defending champion Philadelphia Phillies in six games by hitting .615 (8-for-13) with three home runs and 8 RBI, including tying Bobby Richardson's single-game World Series record (Game 3 of the 1960 World Series) with six RBIs in Game 6. Since the designated hitter position was not used in the three games in Philadelphia, Matsui only started the three games in New York; nevertheless, his performance earned him the World Series Most Valuable Player Award. He became the first Japanese-born player to win the award, as well as the first player to win it as a full-time designated hitter in the World Series. He joined his 1994 Japan Series teammate Dan Gladden (1987 and 1991, Minnesota) as players to have won championships in both North America and Japan. Matsui also became the third player in Major League history to bat .500 or above and hit three home runs in the same World Series, joining only Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim On December 16, 2009, Matsui agreed to a one-year deal with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim worth $6.5 million. He told Yomiuri Shimbun that he "loved the Yankees the best" but that he no longer felt valued and when his agent called to negotiate, "The Yankees had nothing prepared [in terms of contract conditions]." He made up his mind to sign with the Angels quickly. "I really felt their high expectations of me", he said. "They also acknowledged that I want to give fielding a shot." On Opening Day 2010, Matsui went 2-for-4 with a home run in the Angels cleanup spot. While playing in 145 games for the Angels, he produced a .274 batting average, 21 home runs and 84 RBI. Matsui returned to free agent status following the close of the season, and on November 23, 2010, the Angels announced that they would not offer him salary arbitration. Oakland Athletics On December 14, 2010, Matsui signed a one-year contract worth $4.25 million with the Oakland Athletics for the 2011 season. On April 3, 2011, Matsui collected career hit number 2,500 (between NPB and MLB) at Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum versus the Seattle Mariners, and on July 20, 2011, Matsui hit career home run number 500 versus the Detroit Tigers at Comerica Park. Tampa Bay Rays On April 30, 2012, Matsui signed a minor league contract with the Tampa Bay Rays. He joined the Rays' Triple-A affiliate, the Durham Bulls, on May 15, 2012. On May 28, 2012, it was reported that the Rays were going to call Matsui up for a game against the Chicago White Sox on May 29, 2012. Upon joining the Rays, due to his preferred number 55 belonging to pitcher Matt Moore, he elected to wear uniform number 35 for his former teammate Mike Mussina. On the first pitch of his second at bat against the Chicago White Sox on May 29, 2012, Matsui hit a two-run home run. In 2012, there were thirty-five members of the Japanese media assigned to report on Matsui. However, Matsui's hitting was unimpressive during the next two months as he posted a .147 batting average. He was designated for assignment by the Rays on July 25, 2012, and was released on August 1. Upon playing for the Rays, Matsui succeeded in playing 10 top-tier professional seasons in both America (MLB) and Japan (NPB), the first player in history to do so. Retirement Matsui ended his career by signing a one-day contract with the New York Yankees in 2013. The Yankees held a ceremony honoring Matsui before their game against the Tampa Bay Rays on July 28. On December 27, 2012, Matsui officially announced his retirement from baseball. His retirement ceremony was held on May 5, 2013, at the Tokyo Dome, during which the Japanese government awarded him, and Shigeo Nagashima with the People's Honour Award. On July 28, 2013, Matsui signed a one-day contract with the New York Yankees, and formally retired as a member of the team, the Yankees organization granting his last wish in honor of his years as a successful player with the team. On January 15, 2018, Matsui was elected to the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame with 91.3% of the vote. Elected at the age of 43, he became the youngest player to be inducted to the Hall, breaking a record held by Hideo Nomo. Matsui was one of the torchbearers in the 2020 Summer Olympics. Playing streak Matsui did not miss a game in his first three seasons with the Yankees, putting together a streak of 518 games played. Before that, he played in 1,250 consecutive games with Yomiuri, for a total professional baseball streak of 1,768. Matsui holds the record for longest streak of consecutive games played to start a Major League Baseball career. On May 11, 2006, in his 519th game with the Yankees, Matsui fractured his left wrist on an unsuccessful sliding catch in the top of the first inning against the Boston Red Sox. Matsui, despite the injury, threw the ball back to the infield before gripping his wounded wrist in obvious pain. The game did not count toward Matsui's streak, as a player must field for at least half an inning or take an at-bat to be credited with a game played (MLB rule 10.24). Matsui underwent surgery on May 12, 2006, the next day. He returned to the Yankees starting lineup on September 12 against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, and had an RBI-single in his first at-bat back, and proceeded to go 4 for 4 with a walk and scored twice. Philanthropy Matsui donated $500,000 towards charity relief for victims of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which the country becoming the second donation to the relief efforts of national crises since SARS pandemic in 2003, although Japan did not severely affected by the outbreak. Matsui also donated $620,000 to relief efforts for victims of the 2011 earthquake, tsunami, and subsequent Fukushima nuclear disaster in the Tōhoku region of Japan. On March 21, 2015, Matsui and former teammate Derek Jeter held a baseball charity event to support children affected by the 2011 earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear disaster, at the Tokyo Dome. The event included a baseball clinic and a home run derby between Matsui and Jeter. Personal life Matsui announced to the press on March 27, 2008, that he had married in a private ceremony in New York. His bride's name was not announced, but it was reported that she was 25 years old and had been formerly working in a "reputable position at a highly respected company". They met in Japan after the 2006 off-season. Matsui's first son was born in the United States around the time of his retirement. , Matsui had an apartment in the Upper West Side of Manhattan and a home in Connecticut where he was raising his son. In January 2017, his wife gave birth to the couple's second son. See also List of Major League Baseball players from Japan History of baseball outside the United States References External links Japanese league stats and info of Hideki Matsui An Inside Look At Hideki Matsui Hideki Matsui Baseball Museum (This museum was built by his older brother) -Legend of Hideki,Matsui- THE GOLDEN PLAYERS CLUB 1974 births Living people American League All-Stars Baseball people from Ishikawa Prefecture Durham Bulls players Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame inductees Japanese expatriate baseball players in the United States Los Angeles Angels players Major League Baseball designated hitters Major League Baseball left fielders Major League Baseball players from Japan New York Yankees players Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners Nippon Professional Baseball outfielders Oakland Athletics players People's Honour Award winners Tampa Bay Rays players Tampa Yankees players World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners Yomiuri Giants players
418418	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IWI%20Tavor	IWI Tavor	The IWI Tavor, previously designated as the Tavor TAR-21 (Tavor Assault Rifle – 21st century), is an Israeli bullpup assault rifle chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO calibre, designed and produced by Israel Weapon Industries (IWI). It is part of the Tavor family of rifles, which have spawned many derivatives of the original design. The Tavor TAR-21 can also be mounted with the M203 grenade launcher, designated as the GTAR-21. A compact variant with a barrel is also available, designated as the CTAR-21. A designated marksman rifle variant with a folding under-barrel bipod and Trijicon ACOG 4× magnification sight was also made but later phased out in favour for the Tavor TAR Flattop. Built around a long-stroke piston system (as found in the M1 Garand and AK-47), the Tavor is designed to maximise reliability, durability, simplicity of design, and ease of maintenance, particularly under adverse or battlefield conditions. In 2009, the Tavor X95 (also known as the Micro Tavor or MTAR) was selected by the Israel Defense Forces to gradually replace the M16 assault rifle and M4 carbine variants as the standard-issued weapon of the Israeli infantry by the end of 2018. The first X95 bullpup rifles were issued to infantry units in 2013. The Tavor X95 is part of the Tavor family of rifles, along with the Tavor 7. A report published on the IDF's Hebrew website revealed the IDF plans to continue acquiring the Micro Tavor and equipping combat units with it. History Israel Military Industries (the small arms branch of IMI was privatized into Israel Weapon Industries) initiated the Tavor development team in 1995, under the direction of gun designer Zalmen Shebs. The objective of the project was to create an assault rifle that was more reliable, durable, and easier to maintain than the M4A1 carbine, while also being better suited to close-quarters combat and mechanized infantry roles. As a result, they hoped that the weapon would be officially adopted by the Israel Defense Forces. Due to the military's close-quarters and mechanized infantry requirements, the project team selected a bullpup design that would allow the weapon to be compact while keeping a long barrel able to achieve ballistically favourable high muzzle velocities. A long-stroke piston system, similar to that found in the AK-47 and M1 Garand, was selected to ensure the weapon's reliability under adverse conditions. Trials and service The Tavor prevailed over the M4A1 in a series of trials conducted during 2001 and 2002 by the Israel Defense Force. Qualities tested included Mean Rounds Between Failures (MRBF), reliability, ergonomics during long marches, and ease-of-maintenance. As part of initial testing by Israel Defense Forces' infantry units, the TAR-21 was distributed to members of the training company of the Tzabar Battalion from the Givati Brigade who were drafted in August 2001. They received their rifles in November 2001 during basic training. Initial testing results were favourable – the TAR-21 was found to be significantly more accurate and reliable (as well as more comfortable) than the M4 during extensive field testing. Issues with fine sand entering the Tavor TAR's chamber, which were identified over the two years of testing, were rectified by numerous small adjustments. A number of other improvements and changes to the design were also made between 2001 and 2009. The Tavor CTAR-21 saw combat service in Operation Cast Lead, used by Givati Brigade and Golani Brigade, and the soldiers reported the Tavor bullpup assault rifles functioned flawlessly. In November 2009, the IDF announced that the Tavor X95 would become the standard infantry weapon of the IDF, with the addition of an integrated grenade launcher. A gradual changeover has begun in 2006 and expected completion among front line troops was to be by the end of 2018. In December 2012, the IDF announced that they would begin equipping and training their new reserve forces with the Tavor TAR-21. The first Tavor X95s were issued to new recruits of a main IDF infantry brigade in 2013, replacing the M16. In 2014 the IDF announced that in the future (from as early as the end of 2014) some infantry units could start to be issued some numbers of an improved X95, which will have a longer barrel (instead of the original 33 cm barrel) and a lighter trigger pull. On 8 September, the IsraelDefense website reported that the IDF plans to continue acquiring the Micro Tavor, quoting from a report posted on the IDF's Hebrew website on 7 September regarding a multi-year plan. The rifle is to be distributed to combat troops of relevant units in upcoming rounds of recruitment. The weapons division of the Ground Forces Command was quoted as saying that it's "very satisfied by its capabilities... the rifle performs very well and has proven itself." Design details The Tavor is a bullpup assault rifle, capable of both semi-automatic fire and fully automatic fire. Due to its bullpup design the receiver, bolt carrier group, and magazine are placed behind the pistol grip. This shortens the firearm's overall length without sacrificing barrel length. As a result, the Tavor provides carbine overall length, yet can achieve rifle muzzle velocities if equipped with a rifle-length barrel. Long-stroke piston system The Tavor uses a non-lubricated long-stroke piston system, as found in the M1 Garand, IMI Galil, and the AK-47. Like in the AK-47, the long-stroke piston mechanism contributes to the extreme forcefulness of the TAR-21's extraction and chambering. The Tavor's attachment of the piston to a heavy bolt carrier, and the extension of the mainspring into the hollow stem of the bolt carrier, bears a familiar resemblance to the internal mechanism of the AK-47. Ambidexterity and modularity The Tavor has ejection ports on both sides of the rifle so it can easily be reconfigured for right or left-handed shooters. However, this process requires partial disassembly, so it cannot be quickly reconfigured while the rifle is in use. An issue related to this is the original plastic cover on the unused ejection can allow gas to escape during the course of fire. Due to the bullpup design, this vents right under the shooter's face, causing issues such as inhaling ejection gases and the fouling of glasses and face with ejection debris. The issue is exacerbated when the weapon is suppressed. This has been addressed by various non-factory solutions which increase sealing of the unused port. Its ambidextrous fire mode selector above the pistol grip has a semi-automatic mode and a fully automatic mode. The Tavor features a self-contained, drop-in trigger group so that the trigger group can be changed or replaced without the use of additional tools. Chambering, cartridges and ammunition feeding The Tavor is primarily chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO and uses STANAG magazines, conversion kits for 9×19mm Parabellum and 5.45×39mm calibre are also available. The IDF uses both M193 and M855 5.56×45mm rounds. M193 rounds are used by regular infantrymen for better terminal effects at shorter distances, while the heavier M855 is used by sharpshooters. Last round bolt-open catch The Tavor features a last round bolt catch, whereby the bolt holds open after the last round discharges. This is a request of modern armies, as it helps to allow soldiers to know when their magazine empties and to reduce reloading times during combat while also not requiring manual action cycling after. Barrel The Tavor barrels are made from CrMoV steel and cold-hammer-forged (CHF) on the premises of the IWI factory in Ramat HaSharon. The TAR-21 barrel is 18 inches (457 mm) in length and is chrome-lined for durability and corrosion resistance. The barrel features 6 grooves in a 1 in 7 inch (178 mm) twist, or 32 calibres right hand twist rate. The barrel is fitted with a 'birdcage' style flash suppressor, which can be fully disassembled without the need for additional tools. Reliability, ease-of-maintenance and waterproofing The design objectives of the Tavor aimed for reliability and ease-of-maintenance, particularly under adverse or battlefield conditions. According to Russell C. Tilstra, the Tavor is "easily considered more reliable" than the M16 and M4 series rifles. The Tavor is designed to be easily field-stripped, without the need for any additional tools. It is waterproofed and its internal mechanism is sealed from outside elements, so that it can pass over-the-beach requirements. Variants IWI produces the Tavor TAR-21 in different variations as outlined below. TAR-21 The Tavor TAR-21 is the standard variant with a 457 mm (18 in) long barrel. GTAR-21 The GTAR-21 has a notched barrel, to accept an M203 grenade launcher, or a licensed variant thereof, chambered in 40x46mm. CTAR-21 The CTAR-21 is a compact shorter 380 mm (15 in) barrel variant intended for commandos and special forces, but has become more favoured than the standard TAR-21 throughout the IDF. STAR-21 The STAR-21 is a designated marksman variant with folding under-barrel bipod and Trijicon ACOG 4× magnification sight Tavor X95 The X95 (previously known as the MTAR-21) is the variant of the Tavor that was selected as the future standard infantry weapon of the IDF in 2009. In 2013, the X95 was issued for the first time as the standard infantry weapon to recruits of the Givati Brigade. With the use of a relatively simple conversion kit, the X95 can be converted from a 5.56 mm assault rifle to a 9 mm submachine gun. A suppressor can also be added to the weapon, as part of the 9 mm conversion kit. A grenade launcher can also be attached to the X95. Tavor 7 The IWI Tavor 7 is derived from the Tavor TAR. Essentially a battle rifle, chambered in 7.62×51 mm NATO. It is fully ambidextrous, features a 432 mm (17 in) barrel with a 730 mm (28.7 in) overall length. and a 508 mm (20 in) barrel with an 806 mm (31.7 in) overall length. Ukrainian licensed Tavors Ukraine purchased a license for Tavors to be manufactured by Ukrainian firearm manufacturer RPC Fort. As of March 2021, Fort is no longer marketing them. Fort-221 – Ukrainian locally produced version of the CTAR-21 in 5.45×39 mm. Fort-222 – Ukrainian locally produced version of the STAR-21 in 5.45×39 mm. Fort-223 Fort-224 TC-21 The semi-automatic Tavor Carbine (TC-21) was first made available for civilian customers to purchase in Canada from 2008. The Canadian civilian version initially shipped with the Mepro reflex sight and a slightly longer barrel to meet the Canadian requirement for non-restricted semi-automatic centrefire rifles to have a barrel length of at least 470 mm. Current versions are shipped with a full-length Picatinny rail, without optics. In Europe, the Czech company Zeleny Sport recently (December 2015) imported Israeli-made TC-21s, equipped with Mepro M5 or M21 reflex sight, which are now available for both civilian and law enforcement customers. In 2013, IWI started a US subsidiary, IWI US, which is manufacturing the semi-automatic TC-21 as the Tavor SAR for U.S. sales. The weapon is manufactured with a combination of Israeli and US parts. IWI US had shipped 50,000 Tavor SARs to US civilian customers by early 2016. IWI US sells the Tavor SAR in variety of variants: TSB16: Semi-automatic version of the CTAR-21, with a 26.125 in (663.575 mm) overall length. TSB16L: A TSB16 with left-handed controls pre-installed. TSB16-BLK: A TSB16 chambered in .300 AAC Blackout. TSB17-9: 9×19 mm submachine gun with a 17 in (431.8 mm) barrel and a 26.125 in (663.575 mm) overall length. TSB18: 5.56×45 mm rifle with an 18 in (457.2 mm) barrel and a 27.625 in (701.675 mm) overall length. TSB18RS: 5.56×45 mm rifle with an 18 in (457.2 mm) barrel and a 30 in (762 mm) overall length; integrated permanent in muzzle brake and a 10-round magazine to be compliant with laws of certain states. ("RS" stands for Restricted State.) TSIDF16: Semi-automatic version of the CTAR-21 without a full-length rail, an integrated MEPRO 21 sight, and a 26.125 in (663.575 mm) overall length; meant to be a semi-automatic replica of the CTAR-21 issued to the IDF. Note: IWI US sells their Tavor SARs in a variety of colours, including Black (B), Flat Dark Earth (FD), and OD Green (G); the letter "B" subsequent to "TS" in the rifles' designations can be switched with any of the colours' respective letters. Aftermarket parts A significant aftermarket of spare and replacement parts has developed around the Tavor rifle family, including the development of match grade accurizing triggers for the bullpup rifle that are produced by manufacturers such as Geissele Automatics and double stage trigger pack TAV-D from Shooting Sight. Shlomi Sabag, Deputy CEO of IWI, says that one of the indicators of the success of the rifle in the shooting sports or civilian market is the fact that "an aftermarket of products associated with the Tavor bullpup rifle, like triggers, has evolved very quickly". Awards American Rifleman magazine awarded the Tavor SAR the 2014 Golden Bullseye Award as its Rifle of the Year. Shooting Illustrated magazine named the Tavor X95 as its 2017 Rifle of the Year. Users : Angolan Army purchase for Special Forces. : Azerbaijan purchased a number of TAR-21 for the special operations forces of the Azerbaijani Army in August 2008. : Produced under license by Taurus for the military, but as of 2017, Taurus has never carried out a licensed production of the Tavor TAR. Small numbers are issued to soldiers in the Frontier Brigade. : Issued to the Special Forces of Cameroon Army. : Issued to Chadian Ground Forces since 2006. : Used by special forces and the National Police of Colombia. : Investigations Police of Chile. : The Tavor Χ95 assault rifle is used by Cypriot Special Forces. : Different variants of the weapon have been acquired and issued to law enforcement, special commando and protection units of the Georgian MIA since 2001. In 2004 the TAR-21 was to replace the Soviet Kalashnikov rifle, however due to lack of funding and low purchase quantity that idea was abandoned. The construction of a manufacturing plant was also considered. : Guatemala's police force or PNC (Policia Nacional Civil) operates the TAR-21. : Honduran Army and special forces operate the Tavor X95. : In late 2002, India signed an deal with Israel Military Industries for 3,070 manufactured TAR-21s to be issued to India's special forces personnel, where its ergonomics, reliability in heat and sand might give them an edge at close quarters and deployment from inside vehicles. By 2005, IMI had supplied 350–400 TAR-21s to India's northern Special Frontier Force (SFF). These were subsequently declared to be "operationally unsatisfactory". The required changes were made and tests in Israel during 2006 went well, clearing the contracted consignment for delivery. The new GTAR-21s came with a modified single-piece stock, new sights and Turkish-made MKEK T-40 under-barrel grenade launchers chambered in 40x46mm. In 2011 the rifles were handed over to Para SF divisions. A consignment of over 500 Tavor TAR-21s and another 30 Galil sniper rifles worth over and respectively was delivered to the MARCOS (Marine Commandos) in December 2010. In 2016, IWI announced that it was establishing a 49:51 joint venture with Punj Lloyd in India, in order to manufacture rifle components in India. There was an attempt to create an Indian version of the Tavor under license known as Zittara, which was not adopted and it was made with a few prototypes from OFB. : Used by BRIMOB Police Special Forces. : Used by Ivorian Special Forces. : See: Trials and Use in Israel : In service with the Ministry of Public Security since 2011. : Special forces. : General Directorate for National Security equipped with the Tavor X95. The first Arab or North African country to use the Tavor X95 publicly. : The State Security Service employ it as the primary assault rifle for their close protection and tactical units replacing the Uzi. Adopted by the Nigerian Navy and the Nigerian Air Force Regiment as their main assault rifle. : Used by Rapid Deployment Unit (Tar-21) and Special Anti-terrorist Unit – Tiger (Tavor x95) . : Small quantities in use by special units of the Philippine Marines and Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency and one PNP SWAT team in Pasig. : Small quantities of the TAR-21 are in use by field and intervention units of the Polícia Judiciária, like hostage negotiation teams and investigators who usually work alongside other dedicated law enforcement intervention units—the Special Operations Group (GOE) and the National Republican Guard's Special Operations Company (COE); these weapons were initially intended to equip a new unit under the command of the Polícia Judiciária resembling the GOE. The TAR-21 also participated in the competition for the new service rifle for the three branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces and the Police Special Operations Group (GOE)—a bid that also included the local production of the TAR-21 in Portugal. However, the TAR-21 was excluded from the shortlist. The competition has meanwhile been annulled, after the other contenders and both political and defence critics accused the competition of favouring the Heckler & Koch G36. : Issued to the Special Forces of the Senegal Army. : To replace some of its current inventory of M16A1 assault rifles, the Royal Thai Army purchased three batches of TAR-21 bullpup assault rifles for US$27.77 million (THB 946.99 million) and approved delivery of a fourth batch with total number of 13,868 rifles at US$27,777,604 US (THB 964,993,963 at the exchange rate of 34.74 THB/USD) on 15 September 2009, bringing the total to more than 76,000 TAR-21s. : Used by Special Forces Command in executive protection role. : Yuriy Lutsenko, then head of Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, announced on October 1, 2008 that IWI and Ukrainian state-owned company RPC Fort would jointly manufacture Tavor TAR to enter service with special Ukrainian military and police units. RPC Fort had displayed working samples of Tavor TARs chambered in 5.45×39mm cartridge with Milkor 40mm UBGL grenade launchers to showcase to Ukrainian security forces officers as a means of convincing them to buy Ukrainian-made Tavor TARs for special forces units. In December 2009, a resolution was adopted to purchase the Fort 221 chambered in 5.45x39 for Ukrainian intelligence/border guard agencies, purchased in small numbers. It was subsequently adopted in 2014 for Ukrainian military and police forces. Known users include Ukrainian Spetsnaz forces and the Scorpion unit. : In August 2013, IWI US announced that the Pennsylvania Capitol Police had adopted the Tavor SAR, a variant specifically designed for the U.S. market. In July 2014, it was announced that the Lakewood, New Jersey Police Department would begin to adopt the Tavor SAR, after the weapon "met the demands and requirements of the Lakewood PD for reliability, ease-of-maintenance, durability and accuracy". The Hidalgo County Sheriff's Office in Texas, operate Tavor SAR. : On 13 October 2021, it was reported that the Uruguayan Ministry of the Interior acquired some 200 Tavor X-95s, manufactured by IWI, for the Uruguayan National Republican Guard Directorate. Training was carried out by an instructor from IWI, brought especially to Uruguay for that purpose. The Uruguayan police also purchased thousands of Tavor rifles from IWI. : From 2012, the TAR-21 entered service in special units of the Vietnamese Army, equipping special forces, naval infantries and navy personnel. : Used by the Zambian Army Special Forces Group. See also IWI Tavor TS12 References External links Israel Weapon Industries (I.W.I.): TAVOR TAR-21 5.56 mm (TAVOR TAR FLATTOP) Israel Weapon Industries (I.W.I.): Micro TAVOR MTAR-21 5.56 mm / 9×19 mm YouTube Video: Overview of the civilian semi-automatic version of the Tavor YouTube Video: Water Tests of the Micro Tavor (X95) Tavor Israeli Weapons: The TAR-21 Tavor bullpup assault rifle Modern Firearms Decidedly Different: The IWI TAVOR , American Rifleman, National Rifle Association, USA 5.56 mm assault rifles Long stroke piston firearms Bullpup rifles Israeli inventions Designated marksman rifles Weapons and ammunition introduced in 2001 Assault rifles of Israel
418434	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian%20alphabet	Romanian alphabet	The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Romanian language. It is a modification of the classical Latin alphabet and consists of 31 letters, five of which (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, and Ț) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language: The letters Q (chiu), W (dublu v), and Y (igrec or i grec, meaning "Greek i") were formally introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982, although they had been used earlier. They occur only in foreign words and their Romanian derivatives, such as quasar, watt, and yacht. The letter K, although relatively older, is also rarely used and appears only in proper names and international neologisms such as kilogram, broker, karate. These four letters are still perceived as foreign, which explains their usage for stylistic purposes in words such as nomenklatură (normally nomenclatură, meaning "nomenclature", but sometimes spelled with k instead of c if referring to members of the Communist leadership in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries, as nomenklatura is used in English). In cases where the word is a direct borrowing having diacritical marks not present in the above alphabet, official spelling tends to favor their use (München, Angoulême etc., as opposed to the use of Istanbul over İstanbul). Letters and their pronunciation Romanian spelling is mostly phonemic without silent letters (but see i). The table below gives the correspondence between letters and sounds. Some of the letters have several possible readings, even if allophones are not taken into account. When vowels , , , and are changed into their corresponding semivowels, this is not marked in writing. Letters K, Q, W, and Y appear only in foreign borrowings; the pronunciation of W and Y and of the combination QU depends on the origin of the word they appear in. * See Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ). Special letters Romanian orthography does not use accents or diacritics – these are secondary symbols added to letters (i.e. basic glyphs) to alter their pronunciation or to distinguish between words. There are, however, five special letters in the Romanian alphabet (associated with four different sounds) which are formed by modifying other Latin letters; strictly speaking these letters function as basic glyphs in their own right rather than letters with diacritical marks, but they are often referred to as the latter. Ă ă — a with breve – for the sound Â â — a with circumflex – for the sound Î î — i with circumflex – for the sound Ș ș — s with comma – for the sound Ț ț — t with comma – for the sound The letter â is used exclusively in the middle of words; its majuscule version appears only in all-capitals inscriptions. Writing letters ș and ț with a cedilla instead of a comma is considered incorrect by the Romanian Academy. Romanian writings, including books created to teach children to write, treat the comma and cedilla as a variation in font. See Unicode and HTML below. Î versus Â The letters î and â are phonetically and functionally identical. The reason for using both of them is historical, denoting the language's Latin origin. For a few decades until a spelling reform in 1904, as many as four or five letters had been used for the same phoneme (â, ê, î, û, and occasionally ô, see Removed Letters), according to an etymological rule. All were used to represent the vowel , toward which the original Latin vowels written with circumflexes had converged. The 1904 reform saw only two letters remaining, â and î, the choice of which followed rules that changed several times during the 20th century. During the first half of the century the rule was to use î in word-initial and word-final positions, and â everywhere else. There were exceptions, imposing the use of î in internal positions when words were combined or derived with prefixes or suffixes. For example, the adjective "ugly" was written with î because it derives from the verb "to hate". In 1953, during the Communist era, the Romanian Academy eliminated the letter â, replacing it with î everywhere, including the name of the country, which was to be spelled . The first stipulation coincided with the official designation of the country as a People's Republic, which meant that its full title was . A minor spelling reform in 1964 brought back the letter â, but only in the spelling of "Romanian" and all its derivatives, including the name of the country. As such, the Socialist Republic proclaimed in 1965 is associated with the spelling . Soon after the fall of the Ceaușescu government, the Romanian Academy decided to reintroduce â from 1993 onward, by canceling the effects of the 1953 spelling reform and essentially reverting to the 1904 rules (with some differences). The move was publicly justified as the rectification either of a Communist assault on tradition, or of a Soviet influence on the Romanian culture, and as a return to a traditional spelling that bears the mark of the language's Latin origin. The political context at the time, however, was that the Romanian Academy was largely regarded as a Communist and corrupt institution — Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena had been its honored members, and membership had been controlled by the Communist Party. As such, the 1993 spelling reform was seen as an attempt of the Academy to break with its Communist past. The Academy invited the national community of linguists as well as foreign linguists specialized in Romanian to discuss the problem; when these overwhelmingly opposed the spelling reform in vehement terms, their position was explicitly dismissed as being too scientific. According to the 1993 reform, the choice between î and â is thus again based on a rule that is neither strictly etymological nor phonological, but positional and morphological. The sound is always spelled as â, except at the beginning and the end of words, where î is to be used instead. Exceptions include proper nouns where the usage of the letters is frozen, whichever it may be, and compound words, whose components are each separately subjected to the rule (e.g. + → "clumsy", not *). However, the exception no longer applies to words derived with suffixes, in contrast with the 1904 norm; for instance what was spelled after 1904 became after 1993. Although the reform was promoted as a means to show the Latin origin of Romanian, statistically only few of the words written with â according to the 1993 reform actually derive from Latin words having an a in the corresponding position. In fact, this includes a large number of words that contained an i in the original Latin and are similarly written with i in their Italian or Spanish counterparts. Examples include "river", from the Latin (compare Spanish ), now written ; along with < , < , < , < , etc. While the 1993 spelling norm is compulsory in Romanian education and official publications, and gradually most other publications came to use it, there are still individuals, publications and publishing houses preferring the previous spelling norm or a mixed hybrid system of their own. Among them are the weekly cultural magazine and the daily , whereas some publications allow authors to choose either spelling norm; these include , magazine of the Writers' Union of Romania, and publishing houses such as . Dictionaries, grammars and other linguistic works have also been published using the and long after the 1993 reform. Ultimately, the conflict results from two different linguistically-based reasonings as to how to spell . The choice of â derives from a being the most average or central of the five vowels (the official Bulgarian romanization uses the same logic, choosing a for ъ, resulting in the country's name being spelled Balgariya; and also the European Portuguese vowel for a mentioned above), whereas î is an attempt to choose the Latin letter that most intuitively writes the sound (similarly to how Polish uses the letter y). Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ) Although the Romanian Academy standard mandates the comma-below variants for the sounds and , the cedilla variants are still widely used. Many printed and online texts still incorrectly use "s with cedilla" and "t with cedilla". This state of affairs is due to an initial lack of glyph standardization, compounded by the lack of computer font support for the comma-below variants (see the Unicode section for details). The lack of support for the comma diacritics has been corrected in current versions of major operating systems: Windows Vista or newer, Linux distributions after 2005 and currently supported macOS versions. As mandated by the European Union, Microsoft released a font update to correct this deficiency in Windows XP (also applicable to 2000/Server 2003) in early 2007, soon after Romania joined the European Union. Obsolete letters Before the spelling reform of 1904, there were several additional letters with diacritical marks. Vowels: ĭ — i with breve indicated semivowel i as part of Romanian diphthongs and triphthongs ia, ei, iei etc., or a final, "whispered" sound of the preceding palatalized consonant, in words such as București (), lupi ( – "wolves"), and greci ( – "Greeks") — Bucurescĭ (the proper spelling at the time used c instead of t, see -ești), lupĭ, grecĭ, like the Slavonic soft sign. The Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet kept the Cyrillic equivalents of this letter, namely й and ь, but it was abolished in the Romanian Latin alphabet for unknown reasons. By replacing this letter with a simple i without making any additional changes, the phonetic value of the letter i became ambiguous; even native speakers can sometimes mispronounce words such as the toponym Pecica (which has two syllables, but is often mistakenly pronounced with three) or the name Mavrogheni (which has four syllables, not three). Additionally, in a number of words such as subiect "subject" and ziar "newspaper", the pronunciation of i as a vowel or as a semivowel is different among speakers. ŭ — u with breve was used only in the ending of a word. It was essentially a Latin equivalent of the Slavonic back yer found in languages like Russian. Unpronounced in most cases, it served to indicate that the previous consonant was not palatalized, or that the preceding i was the vowel and not a mere marker of palatalization. When ŭ was pronounced, it would follow a stressed vowel and stand in for semivowel u, as in words eŭ, aŭ, and meŭ, all spelled today without the breve. Once frequent, it survives today in author Mateiu Caragiale's name – originally spelled Mateiŭ (it is not specified whether the pronunciation should adopt a version that he himself probably never used, while in many editions he is still credited as Matei). In other names, only the breve was dropped, while preserving the pronunciation of a semivowel u, as is the case of B.P. Hasdeŭ. ĕ — e with breve. This letter is now replaced with ă. The existence of two letters for one sound, the schwa, had an etymological purpose, showing from which vowel ("a" or "e") it originally derived. For example împĕrat – "emperor" (<Imperator), vĕd – "I see" (<vedo), umĕr – "shoulder" (<humerus), păsĕri – "birds" (< cf. passer). é / É — Latin small/capital letter e with acute accent indicated a sound that corresponds either to today's Romanian diphthong ea, or in some words, to today's Romanian letter e. It would originally indicate the sound of Romanian letter e when it was pronounced as diphthong ea in certain Romanian regions, e.g. acéste (today spelled aceste) and céle (today spelled cele). This letter would sometimes indicate a derived word from a Romanian root word containing Latin letter e, as is the case of mirésă (today spelled mireasă) derived from mire. For other words it would underlie a relationship between a Romanian word and a Latin word containing letter e, where the Romanian word would use é, such as gréle (today spelled grele) derived from Latin word grevis. Lastly, this letter was used to accommodate the sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong ia, as in the word ér (iar today). ó / Ó — Latin small/capital letter o with acute accent indicated a sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong oa. This letter would sometimes indicate a derived word from a Romanian root word containing Latin letter o, as is the case of popóre (today spelled popoare) derived from popor. For other words it would underlie a relationship between a Romanian word and a Latin word containing letter o, where the Romanian word would use ó, such as fórte (today spelled foarte) derived from Latin word forte. Lastly, this letter was used to accommodate the sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong oa, as in the word fóme (foame today). ê, û and ô — see Î vs Â Consonants d̦ / D̦ — Latin small/capital letter d with comma below was used to indicate the sound that corresponds today to Romanian letter z. It would denote that the word it belonged to derived from Latin and that its corresponding Latin letter was d. Examples of words containing this letter are: d̦ece ("ten"), d̦i ("day") – reflecting its derivation from the Latin word dies, Dumned̦eu ("God") – reflecting the Latin phrase Domine Deus, d̦ână ("fairy") – to be derived from the Latin word Diana. In today's Romanian language this letter is no longer present and Latin letter z is used in its stead. A parallel development has occurred in Polish, which turned d before a front vowel (i or e) into dz; Romanian then removed the d to leave the z. In addition, the acute accent (á, í) was used in verb infinitives and 3rd-person imperfect forms stressed on the last syllable: lăudá ("to praise"), aud̦í ("to hear"), 3rd-person imperfect lăudá, aud̦iá. The grave accent (à, ì, ù) was used in 3rd-person perfect forms stressed on the last syllable: lăudà, aud̦ì. Use of these letters was not fully adopted even before 1904, as some publications (e.g. Timpul and Universul) chose to use a simplified approach that resembled today's Romanian language writing. Other diacritics As with other languages, the acute accent is sometimes used in Romanian texts to indicate the stressed vowel in some words. This use is regular in dictionary headwords, but also occasionally found in carefully edited texts to disambiguate between homographs that are not also homophones, such as to differentiate between cópii ("copies") and copíi ("children"), éra ("the era") and erá ("was"), ácele ("the needles") and acéle ("those"), etc. The accent also distinguishes between homographic verb forms, such as încúie and încuié ("he locks" and "he has locked"). Diacritics in some borrowings are kept: bourrée, pietà. Foreign names are also usually spelled with their original diacritics: Bâle, Molière, even when an acute accent might be wrongly interpreted as a stress, as in István or Gérard. However, frequently used foreign names, such as names of cities or countries, are often spelled without diacritics: Bogota, Panama, Peru. Digital typography ISO 8859 The character encoding standard ISO 8859 initially defined a single code page for the entire Central and Eastern Europe — ISO 8859-2. This code page includes only "s" and "t" with cedillas. The South-Eastern European ISO 8859-16 includes "s" and "t" with comma below on the same places "s" and "t" with cedilla were in ISO 8859-2. The ISO 8859-16 code page became a standard after Unicode became widespread, however, so it was largely ignored by software vendors. Unicode and HTML The circumflex and breve accented Romanian letters were part of the Unicode standard since its inception, as well as the cedilla variants of s and t. Ș and ț (comma-below variants) were added to Unicode version 3.0. From Unicode version 3.0 to version 5.1, the cedilla-using characters were specified by the Unicode Standard to be "used in both Turkish and Romanian data" and that "a glyph variant with comma below is preferred for Romanian"; On the newly encoded comma-using characters, it said that they should be used "when distinct comma below form is required". Unicode 5.2 explicitly states that "the form with the cedilla is preferred in Turkish, and the form with the comma below is preferred in Romanian", while mentioning (possibly for historical reasons) that "in Turkish and Romanian, a cedilla and a comma below sometimes replace one another". Widespread adoption was hampered for some years by the lack of fonts providing the new glyphs. In May 2007, four months after Romania (and Bulgaria) joined the EU, Microsoft released updated fonts that include all official glyphs of the Romanian (and Bulgarian) alphabet. This font update targeted Windows 2000, XP and Server 2003. The subset of Unicode most widely supported on Microsoft Windows systems, Windows Glyph List 4, still does not include the comma-below variants of S and T. Vowels with diacritics are coded as follows: Adobe/Linotype de facto standard Adobe Systems decided that the Unicode glyphs "t with cedilla" U+0162/3 are not used in any language. (It is in fact used, but in very few languages. T with Cedilla exists as part of the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages, in some Gagauz orthographies, in the Kabyle dialect of the Berber language, and possibly elsewhere.) Adobe has therefore substituted the glyphs with "t with comma below" (U+021A/B) in all the fonts they ship. The unfortunate consequence of this decision is that Romanian documents using the (unofficial) Unicode points U+015E/F and U+0162/3 (for ş and ţ) are rendered in Adobe fonts in a visually inconsistent way using "s with cedilla", but "t with comma" (see figure). Linotype fonts that support Romanian glyphs mostly follow this convention. The fonts used by Microsoft before Windows Vista also implement this de facto Adobe standard. Few Microsoft fonts provide a consistent look when cedilla variants are used; notable ones are Tahoma, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Microsoft Sans Serif and Segoe UI. The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts provide proper and consistent glyphs in both variants. Red Hat's Liberation fonts only support the comma below variants starting with version 1.04, scheduled for inclusion in Fedora 10. OpenType ROM/locl feature Some OpenType fonts from Adobe and all C-series Vista fonts implement the optional OpenType feature GSUB/latn/ROM/locl. This feature forces "s with cedilla" to be rendered using the same glyph as "s with comma below". When this second (but optional) remapping takes place, Romanian Unicode text is rendered with comma-below glyphs regardless of code point variants. Unfortunately, most Microsoft pre-Vista OpenType fonts (Arial etc.) do not implement the ROM/locl feature, even after the European Union Expansion Font Update, so old documents will look inconsistent as in the left side of the above figure. Select few fonts, e.g. Verdana and Trebuchet MS, not only have a consistent look for cedilla variants (after the EU update), but also do a simultaneous remapping of cedilla s and t to comma-below variants when ROM/locl is activated. The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts do not yet offer this feature in their current releases, but development versions do. Pango supports the locl tag since version 1.17. XeTeX supports locl since version 0.995. As of July 2008, very few Windows applications support the locl feature tag. From the Adobe CS3 suite, only InDesign has support for it. The status of Romanian support in the free fonts that ship with Fedora is maintained at Fedoraproject.org. Combining characters Unicode also allows diacritical marks to be represented as separate combining diacritical marks. The relevant combining accents are U+0326 COMBINING COMMA BELOW and U+0327 COMBINING CEDILLA. Support for applying a combining Comma Below to letters S and T may have been poorly supported in commercial fonts in the past, but nearly all modern fonts can successfully handle both the Cedilla and Comma Below marks for S and T. As with all fonts, typographical quality can vary, and so it is preferable to use the single code points instead. Whenever a combining diacritical mark is used in a document, the font in use should be tested to confirm that it is rendered acceptably. (La)TeX LaTeX allows typesetting in Romanian using the cedilla Ş and Ţ using the Cork encoding. The comma-below variants are not completely supported in the standard 8-bit TeX font encodings. The lack of a standard LICR (LaTeX Internal Character Representations) for comma-below Ș and Ț is part of the problem. The latin10 input method attempts to remedy the problem by defining the \textcommabelow LICR accent. This is unfortunately not supported by the utf8 input method. The problem may partially worked around in a LaTeX document using these settings, which would allow use of ș, ț or their cedilla variants directly in the LaTeX source: \usepackage[latin10,utf8]{inputenc} % transliterates utf8 chars with çedila at their comma-below representation \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{015F}{\textcommabelow s} % ş \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{015E}{\textcommabelow S} % Ş \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0163}{\textcommabelow t} % ţ \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0162}{\textcommabelow T} % Ţ % transliterates utf8 comma-below characters to the comma-below representation \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0219}{\textcommabelow s} % ș \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0218}{\textcommabelow S} % Ș \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{021B}{\textcommabelow t} % ț \DeclareUnicodeCharacter{021A}{\textcommabelow T} % Ț The latin10 package composes the comma-below glyphs by superimposing a comma and the letters S and T. This method is suitable only for printing. In PDF documents produced this way searching or copying text does not work properly. The Polish QX encoding has some support for comma-below glyphs, which are improperly mapped to cedilla LICRs, but also lacks A breve (Ă), which must always be composite, thus unsearchable. In the Latin Modern Type 1 fonts the T with comma below is found under the AGL name /Tcommaaccent. This is in contradiction with Adobe's decision discussed above, which puts a T with comma-below at /Tcedilla. In consequence, no fixed mapping can work across all Type 1 fonts; each font must come with its own mapping. Unfortunately, TeX output drivers, like dvips, dvipdfm or pdfTeX's internal PDF driver, access the glyphs by AGL name. Since all of the output drivers mentioned are unaware of this peculiarity, the problem is essentially intractable across all fonts. In consequence, one needs to use fonts that include a mapping which is not bypassed by TeX. This is the case with newer TeX engine XeTeX, which can use Unicode OpenType fonts, and does not bypass the font's Unicode map. Keyboard layout Modern computer operating systems can be configured to implement a standard Romanian keyboard layout, to permit typing on any keyboard as if it were a Romanian keyboard. In systems such as Linux which employ the XCompose system, Romanian letters may be typed from a non-Romanian keyboard layout using a compose-key. The system's keyboard layout must be set up to use a compose-key. (Exactly how this is accomplished depends on the distribution.) For instance, the 'left Alt' key is often used as a compose-key. To type a letter with a diacritical mark, the compose-key is held down while another key is typed indicate the mark to be applied, then the base letter is typed. For instance, when using an English (US) keyboard layout, to produce ț, hold the compose-key down while typing semicolon ';', then release the compose-key and type 't'. Other marks may be similarly applied as follows: Spelling alphabet There is a Romanian equivalent to the English-language spelling alphabets. Most of the code words are people's first names, with the exception of K, J, Q, W and Y. Letters with diacritics (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț) are generally transmitted without diacritics (A, A, I, S, T). See also Aromanian alphabet Istro-Romanian alphabet Megleno-Romanian alphabet Romanian transitional alphabet Romanian Cyrillic alphabet Romanian Braille References Notes Bibliography Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toți, Editura Litera Internațional, 2002 External links Unicode Latin Extended-B characters, unicode.org Sounds of the Romanian Language, etc.tuiasi.ro Latin alphabets Alphabet
418436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20anthropology	Economic anthropology	Economic anthropology is a field that attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It is an amalgamation of economics and anthropology. It is practiced by anthropologists and has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology began with work by the Polish founder of anthropology Bronislaw Malinowski and the French Marcel Mauss on the nature of reciprocity as an alternative to market exchange. For the most part, studies in economic anthropology focus on exchange. Post-World War II, economic anthropology was highly influenced by the work of economic historian Karl Polanyi. Polanyi drew on anthropological studies to argue that true market exchange was limited to a restricted number of western, industrial societies. Applying formal economic theory (Formalism) to non-industrial societies was mistaken, he argued. In non-industrial societies, exchange was "embedded" in such non-market institutions as kinship, religion, and politics (an idea he borrowed from Mauss). He labelled this approach Substantivism. The formalist–substantivist debate was highly influential and defined an era. As globalization became a reality, and the division between market and non-market economies – between "the West and the Rest" – became untenable, anthropologists began to look at the relationship between a variety of types of exchange within market societies. Neo-substantivists examine the ways in which so-called pure market exchange in market societies fails to fit market ideology. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists. They now study the operations of corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective. Reciprocity and the gift Malinowski and Mauss: Debate over the Kula exchange Bronislaw Malinowski's groundbreaking work, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922), posits the question, "why would men risk life and limb to travel across huge expanses of dangerous ocean to give away what appear to be worthless trinkets?" Carefully traced the network of exchanges of bracelets and necklaces across the Trobriand Islands, Malinowski established that they were part of a system of exchange, the Kula ring. He stated that this exchange system was clearly linked to political authority. In the 1920s and later, Malinowski's research became the subject of debate with the French anthropologist, Marcel Mauss, author of The Gift (Essai sur le don, 1925). Contrasting Mauss, Malinowski emphasised the exchange of goods between individuals, and their non-altruistic motives for giving: they expected a return of equal or greater value. In other words, reciprocity is an implicit part of gifting; no "free gift" is given without expectation of reciprocity. Mauss, however, posited that the gifts were not merely between individuals, but between representatives of larger collectivities. These gifts were, he argued, a "total prestation." They were not simple, alienable commodities to be bought and sold, but, like the Crown jewels, embodied the reputation, history, and identity of a "corporate kin group". Given the stakes, Mauss asked, "Why anyone would give them away?" His answer was an enigmatic concept, hau, "the spirit of the gift." Largely, the confusion (and resulting debate) was due to a bad translation. Mauss appeared to be arguing that a return gift is given to keep the very relationship between givers alive; a failure to return a gift ends the relationship and the promise of any future gifts. Based on an improved translation, Jonathan Parry has demonstrated that Mauss was arguing that the concept of a "pure gift" given altruistically only emerges in societies with a well-developed market ideology. Mauss' concept of "total prestations" has been developed in the later 20th century by Annette Weiner, who revisited Malinowski's fieldsite in the Trobriand Islands. Publishing in 1992, her critique was twofold: Weiner first noted that Trobriand Island society has a matrilineal kinship system. As a consequence, women hold a great deal of economic and political power, as inheritance is passed from mother to daughter through the female lines. Malinowski missed this insight in his 1922 work, ignoring women's exchanges in his research. Secondly, Weiner further developed Mauss' argument about reciprocity and the "spirit of the gift" in terms of inalienable possessions: "the paradox of keeping while giving." Weiner contrasted "moveable goods," which can be exchanged, with "immoveable goods," which serve to draw the gifts back. In the context of the Trobriand study, male Kula gifts were moveable gifts compared to those of women's landed property. She argued that the specific goods given, such as Crown Jewels, are so identified with particular groups that, even when given they are not truly alienated. Not all societies, however, have these kinds of goods, which depend upon the existence of particular kinds of kinship groups. French anthropologist Maurice Godelier pushed the analysis further in The Enigma of the Gift (1999). Albert Schrauwers has argued that the kinds of societies used as examples by Weiner and Godelier, such as the Kula ring in the Trobriands, the Potlatch of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, or the Toraja of South Sulawesi, Indonesia, are all characterized by ranked aristocratic kin groups that fit with Claude Lévi-Strauss' model of "House Societies" where "House" refers to both noble lineage and their landed estate. Total prestations are given, he argues, to preserve landed estates identified with particular kin groups and maintain their place in a ranked society. Gifts and commodities The misunderstanding about what Mauss meant by "the spirit of the gift" led some anthropologists to contrast "gift economies" with "market economies," presenting them as polar opposites and implying that non-market exchange was always altruistic. Marshall Sahlins, a well-known American cultural anthropologist, identified three main types of reciprocity in his book Stone Age Economics (1972). Gift or generalized reciprocity is the exchange of goods and services without keeping track of their exact value, but often with the expectation that their value will balance out over time. Balanced or Symmetrical reciprocity occurs when someone gives to someone else, expecting a fair and tangible return - at a specified amount, time, and place. Market or Negative reciprocity is the exchange of goods and services whereby each party intends to profit from the exchange, often at the expense of the other. Gift economies, or generalized reciprocity, occur within closely knit kin groups, and the more distant the exchange partner, the more imbalanced or negative the exchange becomes. This opposition was classically expressed by Chris Gregory in his book "Gifts and Commodities" (1982). Gregory argued that Commodity exchange is an exchange of alienable objects between people who are in a state of reciprocal independence that establishes a quantitative relationship between the objects exchanged… Gift exchange is an exchange of inalienable objects between people who are in a state of reciprocal dependence that establishes a qualitative relationship between the transactors" (emphasis added.) Other anthropologists, however, refused to see these different "exchange spheres" as polar opposites. Marilyn Strathern, writing on a similar area in Papua New Guinea, dismissed the utility of the opposition in The Gender of the Gift (1988). Spheres of exchange The relationship of new market exchange systems to indigenous non-market exchange remained a perplexing question for anthropologists. Paul Bohannan (see below, under substantivism) argued that the Tiv of Nigeria had three spheres of exchange, and that only certain kinds of goods could be exchanged in each sphere; each sphere had its own different form of money. Similarly, Clifford Geertz's model of "dual economy" in Indonesia, and James C. Scott's model of "moral economy" hypothesized different exchange spheres emerging in societies newly integrated into the market; both hypothesized a continuing culturally ordered "traditional" exchange sphere resistant to the market. Geertz used the sphere to explain peasant complacency in the face of exploitation, and Scott to explain peasant rebellion. This idea was taken up lastly by Jonathan Parry and Maurice Bloch, who argued in Money and the Morality of Exchange (1989) that the "transactional order" through which long-term social reproduction of the family takes place has to be preserved as separate from short-term market relations. Charity: "the poison of the gift" In his classic summation of the gift exchange debate, Jonathan Parry highlighted that ideologies of the "pure gift" (as opposed to total prestations) "is most likely to arise in highly differentiated societies with an advanced division of labour and a significant commercial sector." Schrauwers illustrated the same points in two different areas in the context of the "transition to capitalism debate" (see Political Economy). He documented the transformations among the To Pamona of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, as they were incorporated in global market networks over the twentieth century. As their everyday production and consumption activities were increasingly commodified, they developed an oppositional gift (posintuwu) exchange system that funded social reproductive activities, thereby preserving larger kin, political and religious groups. This "pure gift" exchange network emerged from an earlier system of "total prestations." Similarly, in analyzing the same "transition to capitalist debate" in early 19th century North America, Schrauwers documented how new, oppositional "moral economies" grew in parallel with the emergence of the market economy. As the market became increasingly institutionalized, so too did early utopian socialist experiments such as the Children of Peace, in Sharon, Ontario, Canada. They built an ornate temple dedicated to sacralizing the giving of charity; this was eventually institutionalized as a mutual credit organization, land sharing, and co-operative marketing. In both cases, Schrauwers emphasizes that these alternate exchange spheres are tightly integrated and mutualistic with markets as commodities move in and out of each circuit. Parry had also underscored, using the example of charitable giving of alms in India (Dāna), that the "pure gift" of alms given with no expectation of return could be "poisonous." That is, the gift of alms embodying the sins of the giver, when given to ritually pure priests, saddled these priests with impurities that they could not cleanse themselves of. "Pure gifts" given without a return, can place recipients in debt, and hence in dependent status: the poison of the gift. Although the Children of Peace tried to sacralize the pure giving of alms, they found charity created difficulties for recipients. It highlighted their near bankruptcy and hence opened them to lawsuits and indefinite imprisonment for debt. Rather than accept charity, the free gift, they opted for loans. 'The social life of things' and singularization Rather than emphasize how particular kinds of objects are either gifts or commodities to be traded in restricted spheres of exchange, Arjun Appadurai and others began to look at how objects flowed between these spheres of exchange. They shifted attention away from the character of the human relationships formed through exchange, and placed it on "the social life of things" instead. They examined the strategies by which an object could be "singularized" (made unique, special, one-of-a-kind) and so withdrawn from the market. A marriage ceremony that transforms a purchased ring into an irreplaceable family heirloom is one example; the heirloom, in turn, makes a perfect gift. Singularization is the reverse of the seemingly irresistible process of commodification. These scholars show how all economies are a constant flow of material objects that enter and leave specific exchange spheres. A similar approach is taken by Nicholas Thomas, who examines the same range of cultures and the anthropologists who write about them, and redirects attention to the "entangled objects" and their roles as both gifts and commodities. This emphasis on things has led to new explorations in "consumption studies" (see below). Cultural construction of economic systems: the substantivist approach Formalist vs substantivist debate The opposition between substantivist and formalist economic models was first proposed by Karl Polanyi in his work The Great Transformation (1944). He argued that the term 'economics' has two meanings: the formal meaning refers to economics as the logic of rational action and decision-making, as rational choice between the alternative uses of limited (scarce) means. The second, substantive meaning, however, presupposes neither rational decision-making nor conditions of scarcity. It simply refers to the study of how humans make a living from their social and natural environment. A society's livelihood strategy is seen as an adaptation to its environment and material conditions, a process which may or may not involve utility maximisation. The substantive meaning of 'economics' is seen in the broader sense of 'economising' or 'provisioning'. Economics is simply the way members of society meet their material needs. Anthropologists embraced the substantivist position as empirically oriented, as it did not impose western cultural assumptions on other societies where they might not be warranted. The Formalist vs. Substantivist debate was not between anthropologists and economists, however, but a disciplinary debate largely confined to the journal Research in Economic Anthropology. In many ways, it reflects the common debates between "etic" and "emic" explanations as defined by Marvin Harris in cultural anthropology of the period. The principal proponents of the substantivist model were George Dalton and Paul Bohannan. Formalists such as Raymond Firth and Harold K. Schneider asserted that the neoclassical model of economics could be applied to any society if appropriate modifications are made, arguing that its principles have universal validity. For some anthropologists, the substantivist position does not go far enough. Stephen Gudeman, for example, argues that the processes of making a livelihood are culturally constructed. Therefore, models of livelihoods and related economic concepts such as exchange, money or profit must be analyzed through the locals' ways of understanding them. Rather than devising universal models rooting in Western economic terminologies and then applying them indiscriminately to all societies, scholars must come to understand the 'local model'. Stephen Gudeman and the culturalist approach In his work on livelihoods, Gudeman seeks to present the "people's own economic construction" (1986:1); that is, people's own conceptualizations or mental maps of economics and its various aspects. His description of a peasant community in Panama reveals that the locals did not engage in exchange with each other in order to make a profit but rather viewed it as an "exchange of equivalents", with the exchange value of a good being defined by the expenses spent on producing it. Only outside merchants made profits in their dealings with the community; it was a complete mystery to the locals how they managed to do so. Gudeman also criticizes the substantivist position for imposing their universal model of economics on preindustrial societies and so making the same mistake as the formalists. While conceding that substantivism rightly emphasises the significance of social institutions in economic processes, Gudeman considers any deductive universal model, be it formalist, substantivist or Marxist, to be ethnocentric and tautological. In his view they all model relationships as mechanistic processes by taking the logic of natural science based on the material world and applying it to the human world. Rather than to "arrogate to themselves a privileged right to model the economies of their subjects", anthropologists should seek to understand and interpret local models (1986:38). Such local models may differ radically from their Western counterparts. For example, the Iban use only hand knives to harvest rice. Although the use of sickles could speed up the harvesting process, they believe that this may cause the spirit of the rice to flee, and their desire to prevent that outcome is greater than their desire to economize the harvesting process. Gudeman brings post-modern cultural relativism to its logical conclusion. Generally speaking, however, culturalism can also be seen as an extension of the substantivist view, with a stronger emphasis on cultural constructivism, a more detailed account of local understandings and metaphors of economic concepts, and a greater focus on socio-cultural dynamics than the latter (cf. Hann, 2000). Culturalists tend to be both less taxonomic and more culturally relativistic in their descriptions while critically reflecting on the power relationship between the ethnographer (or 'modeller') and the subjects of his or her research. While substantivists generally focus on institutions as their unit of analysis, culturalists lean towards detailed and comprehensive analyses of particular local communities. Both views agree in rejecting the formalist assumption that all human behaviour can be explained in terms of rational decision-making and utility maximisation. Culturalism can be criticized from various perspectives. Marxists argue that culturalists are too idealistic in their notion of the social construction of reality and too weak in their analysis of external (i.e. material) constraints on individuals that affect their livelihood choices. If, as Gudeman argues, local models cannot be held against a universal standard, then they cannot be related to hegemonic ideologies propagated by the powerful, which serve to neutralise resistance. This is further complicated by the fact that in an age of globalization most cultures are being integrated into the global capitalist system and are influenced to conform to Western ways of thinking and acting. Local and global discourses are mixing, and the distinctions between the two are beginning to blur. Even though people will retain aspects of their existing worldviews, universal models can be used to study the dynamics of their integration into the rest of the world. Householding Entrepreneurs in "imperfect markets" Inspired by a collection on "Trade and Market in the early Empires" edited by Karl Polanyi, the substantivists conducted a wide comparative study of market behavior in traditional societies where such markets were embedded in kinship, religion and politics. They thus remained focused on the social and cultural processes that shaped markets, rather than on the individual focused study of economizing behavior found in economic analysis. George Dalton and Paul Bohannon, for example, published a collection on markets in sub-Saharan Africa. Pedlars and Princes: Social Development and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns by Clifford Geertz compared the entrepreneurial cultures of Islamic Java with Hinduized Bali in the post-colonial period. In Java, trade was in the hands of pious Muslims, whereas in Bali, larger enterprises were organized by aristocrats. Over time, this literature was refocused on "informal economies", those market activities lying on the periphery of legal markets. Modernization theory of development had led economists in the 1950s and 1960s to expect that traditional forms of work and production would disappear in developing countries. Anthropologists found, however, that the sector had not only persisted, but expanded in new and unexpected ways. In accepting that these forms of productions were there to stay, scholars began using the term informal sector, which is credited to the British anthropologist Keith Hart in a study on Ghana in 1973. This literature focuses on the "invisible work" done by those who fall outside the formal production process, such as the production of clothing by domestic workers, or those who are bound labourers in sweatshops. As these studies have shifted to the informal sector of western economies, the field has been dominated by those taking a political economy approach. Neo-Substantivism and capitalism as a cultural system While many anthropologists like Gudeman were concerned with peasant economic behaviour, others turned to the analysis of market societies. Economic sociologist Mark Granovetter provided a new research paradigm (neo-substantivism) for these researchers. Granovetter argued that the neo-liberal view of economic action which separated economics from society and culture promoted an 'undersocialized account' that atomises human behavior. Similarly, he argued, substantivists had an "over-socialized" view of economic actors, refusing to see the ways that rational choice could influence the ways they acted in traditional, "embedded" social roles. Neo-Substantivism overlaps with 'old' and especially new institutional economics. Granovetter applied the concept of embeddedness to market societies, demonstrating that even their, "rational" economic exchanges are influenced by pre-existing social ties. In his study of ethnic Chinese business networks in Indonesia, Granovetter found individual's economic agency embedded in networks of strong personal relations. In processes of clientelization the cultivation of personal relationships between traders and customers assumes an equal or higher importance than the economic transactions involved. Economic exchanges are not carried out between strangers but rather by individuals involved in long-term continuing relationships. Money and finance Special and general purpose of money Early anthropologists of the substantivist school were struck by the number of "special purpose monies," like wampum and shell money, that they encountered. These special purpose monies were used to facilitate trade, but were not the "universal" money of market-based economies. Universal money served five functions: Medium of exchange: they facilitated trade Unit of account: they are an abstract measure of value or worth Store of value: they allow wealth to be preserved over time Standard of deferred payment: they are a measure of debt Means of payment: they can be used in non-market situations to pay debts (like taxes). Special purpose monies, in contrast, were frequently restricted in their use; they might be limited to a specific exchange sphere such as the brass rods used by the Tiv of Nigeria in the early twentieth century (see "spheres of exchange" above). Most of this early work documented the effects of universal money on these special purpose monies. Universal money frequently weakened the boundaries between exchange spheres. Others have pointed out, however, how alternative currencies such as Ithaca HOURS in New York state are used to create new community based spheres of exchange in western market economies by fostering barter. Much of this work was updated and retheorized in the edited collection: Money and Modernity: State and Local Currencies in Melanesia. A second collection, Money and the morality of exchange examined how "general purpose money" could be transformed into a "special purpose money" - how money could be "socialized" and stripped of its moral danger so that it abets domestic economies free of market demands. William Reddy undertook the same kind of analysis of the meanings of monetary exchange in terms of the growth of Liberalism in early modern Europe. Reddy critiques what he calls the "Liberal illusion" that developed in this period, that money is a universal equivalent and a principle of liberation. He underscores the different values and meanings that money has for those of different classes. Barter David Graeber argues that the inefficiencies of barter in archaic society has been used by economists since Adam Smith to explain the emergence of money, the economy, and hence the discipline of economics itself. "Economists of the contemporary orthodoxy... propose an evolutionary development of economies which places barter, as a 'natural' human characteristic, at the most primitive stage, to be superseded by monetary exchange as soon as people become aware of the latter's greater efficiency." However, extensive investigation since then has established that "No example of a barter economy, pure and simple, has ever been described, let alone the emergence from it of money; all available ethnography suggests that there never has been such a thing. But there are economies today which are nevertheless dominated by barter." Anthropologists have argued "that when something resembling barter does occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers, people who would otherwise be enemies." Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to naturalistically explain the origin of money without the state. Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit. Marcel Mauss, author of 'The Gift', argued that the first economic contracts were to not act in one's economic self-interest, and that before money, exchange was fostered through the processes of reciprocity and redistribution, not barter. Everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial "communism" where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have. Other anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between "total" strangers, a form of barter known as "silent trade". However, Benjamin Orlove has shown that barter occurs through "silent trade" (between strangers), but also in commercial markets as well. "Because barter is a difficult way of conducting trade, it will occur only where there are strong institutional constraints on the use of money or where the barter symbolically denotes a special social relationship and is used in well-defined conditions. To sum up, multipurpose money in markets is like lubrication for machines - necessary for the most efficient function, but not necessary for the existence of the market itself." Barter may occur in commercial economies, usually during periods of monetary crisis. During such a crisis, currency may be in short supply, or highly devalued through hyperinflation. In such cases, money ceases to be the universal medium of exchange or standard of value. Money may be in such short supply that it becomes an item of barter itself rather than the means of exchange. Barter may also occur when people cannot afford to keep money (as when hyperinflation quickly devalues it). Money as commodity fetish Anthropologists have analyzed these cultural situations where universal money is being introduced as a means of revealing the underlying cultural assumptions about money that market based societies have internalized. Michael Taussig, for example, examined the reactions of peasant farmers in Colombia as they struggled to understand how money could make interest. Taussig highlights that we have fetishized money. We view money as an active agent, capable of doing things, of growth. In viewing money as an active agent, we obscure the social relationships that actually give money its power. The Colombian peasants, seeking to explain how money could bear interest, turned to folk beliefs like the "baptism of money" to explain how money could grow. Dishonest individuals would have money baptized, which would then become an active agent; whenever used to buy goods, it would escape the till and return to its owner. Schrauwers similarly examines a situation where paper money was introduced for the first time, in early nineteenth century Ontario, Canada. Paper money, or bank notes, were not a store of wealth; they were an I.O.U., a "promisory note," a fetish of debt. Banks in the era had limited capital. They didn't loan that capital. Instead, they issued paper notes promising to pay that amount should the note be presented in their office. Since these notes stayed in circulation for lengthy periods, banks had little fear they would have to pay, and so issued many more notes than they could redeem, and charged interest on all of them. Utilizing Bourdieu's concept of symbolic capital, Schrauwers examines the way that elite social status was converted into economic capital (the bank note). The bank note's value depended entirely on the public's perceptions that it could be redeemed, and that perception was based entirely on the social status of the bank's shareholders. Banking, finance and the stock market More recent work has focused on finance capital and stock markets. Anna Tsing for example, analyzed the "Bre-X stock scandal" in Canada and Indonesia in terms of "The economy of appearances." Ellen Hertz, in contrast, looked at the development of stock markets in Shanghai, China, and the particular ways in which this free market was embedded in local political and cultural realities; markets do not operate in the same manner in all countries. A similar study was done by Karen Ho on Wall Street, in the midst of the financial crisis of 2008. Her book, Liquidated: an ethnography of Wall Street, provides an insiders view of how "market rationality" works, and how it is embedded in particular kinds of social networks. Bill Maurer has examined how Islamic bankers who are seeking to avoid religiously proscribed interest payments have remade money and finance in Indonesia. His book, Mutual Life, Limited, compares these Islamic attempts to remake the basis of money to local currency systems in the United States, such as "Ithaca Hours." In doing so, he questions what it is that gives money its value. This same question of what gives money its value is also addressed in David Graeber's book Towards an Anthropological Theory of Value: The false coin of our own dreams. James Carrier has extended the cultural economic and neo-substantivist position by applying their methods to the "science of economics" as a cultural practice. He has edited two collections that examine "free market" ideologies, comparing them to the culturally embedded economic practices they purport to describe. The edited collection, "Meanings of the market: the Free Market in Western Culture", examined the use of market models in policy-making in the United States. A second edited collection "Virtualism: A New Political Economy," examined the cultural and social effects on western nations forced to adhere to abstract models of the free market: "Economic models are no longer measured against the world they seek to describe, but instead the world is measured against them, found wanting and made to conform." The anthropology of corporate capitalism Symbolic and economic capital Similar insights were developed by Pierre Bourdieu, who also rejected the arguments of the new institutional economists. While these economists attempted to incorporate culture in their models, they did so by arguing that non-market "tradition" was the product of rational maximizing action in the market (i.e., to show they are the solution to an economic problem, rather than having deep cultural roots). Bourdieu argued strongly against what he called RAT (Rational Action Theory) theory, arguing that any actor, when asked for an explanation for their behaviour will provide a rational post hoc answer, but that excuse does not in fact guide the individual in the act. Driving a car is an example; individuals do so out of an acquired "instinct", obeying the rules of the road without actually focusing upon them. Bourdieu utilized an alternate model, which emphasized how "economic capital" could be translated into "symbolic capital" and vice versa. For example, in traditional Mexican villages, those of wealth would be called upon to fulfill "cargo offices" in the church, and host feasts in honour of the saints. These offices used up their economic capital, but in so doing, it was translated into status (symbolic capital) in the traditional role. This symbolic capital could, in turn, be used to draw customers in the marketplace because of a reputation for honesty and selflessness. Actor-Network theory Michel Callon has spearheaded the movement of applying Actor–network theory approaches to study economic life (notably economic markets). This body of work interrogates the interrelation between the economy and economics, highlighting the ways in which economics (and economics-inspired disciplines such as marketing) shapes the economy (see Callon, 1998 and 2005). Ethnographies of the corporation Corporations are increasingly hiring anthropologists as employees and consultants, leading to an increasingly critical appraisal about the organizational forms of post-modern capitalism. Aihwa Ong's Spirits of resistance and capitalist discipline: factory women in Malaysia (1987) was pathbreaking in this regard. Her work inspired a generation of anthropologists who have examined the incorporation of women within corporate economies, especially in the new "Free trade zones" of the newly industrializing third world. Others have focused on the former industrialized (now rust-belt) economies. Daromir Rudnyckyj has analyzed how neo-liberal economic discourses have been utilized by Indonesian Muslims operating the Krakatau Steel Company to create a "spiritual economy" conducive to globalization while enhancing the Islamic piety of workers. George Marcus has called for anthropologists to "study up" and to focus on corporate elites, and has edited a series called Late Editions: Cultural Studies for the End of the Century. Notable people Contemporary economic anthropologists include: Karen Ho David Graeber Jason Hickel Hannah Appel Arjun Appadurai Jessica Cattelino See also Charity (practice) Critique of political economy Cultural economics Dāna Economic sociology Money Palace economy Society for Economic Anthropology References Further reading "Wirtschaftsanthropologie", special issue of the journal Historische Anthropologie, 17-2, 2009. Appel, Hannah C. (2017). "Toward an Ethnography of the National Economy". Cultural Anthropology. 32(2): 294-322. Earle, Timothy (2008). "Economic anthropology," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract. Halperin, Rhoda H. (1982). "New and Old in Economic Anthropology" American Anthropologist 84(2): 339-349. External links The Society for Economic Anthropology Interdisciplinary subfields of economics
418462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal%20record	Criminal record	A criminal record (not to be confused with a police record or arrest record) is a record of a person's criminal convictions history. The information included in a criminal record and the existence of a criminal record varies between countries and even between jurisdictions within a country. In most cases it lists all non-expunged criminal offences and may also include traffic offences such as speeding and drunk driving. In most countries a criminal record is limited to unexpunged and unexpired actual convictions (where the individual has pleaded guilty or been found guilty by a qualified court, resulting in the entry of a conviction), while in some it can also include arrests, charges dismissed, charges pending and charges of which the individual has been acquitted. A criminal history may be used by potential employers, lenders, and others to assess a person's trustworthiness. Criminal records may also be relevant for international travel, and for the charging and sentencing of persons who commit additional criminal offenses. Australia Individuals in Australia can obtain a national criminal history to check themselves, and certain organisations can apply for one on their behalf. A person may be required to undergo a criminal record check for a variety of reasons, including employment screening, volunteer work, preparing for a court appearance, visa applications, firearms licensing, or to satisfy a statutory requirement. Individuals can obtain a national criminal history through two ways: Their local police service. An Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (ACIC) – accredited organisations such as employing institutions, or commercial background checking service providers. A list of ACIC accredited agencies is available from their website. Some of the commercial providers allow online application, real time responses, and online verification. The Working With Children Check, which is used to screen workers and volunteers in child-related work, is a specific check for those whose criminal records are deemed to pose a high risk to children. Austria In Austria, criminal records and "Strafregisterbescheinigung" (criminal record certificate) are maintained by the Register Division ("Strafregisteramt") of Federal Police Bureau Vienna ("Bundespolizeidirektion Wien"). In order to access a criminal record in Austria, a person must complete a form with relevant identification and pay a fee (in July 2014, currently 28.60 Euro, or 16.40 Euro if it is for the purposes of employment). Requests for a criminal record certificate can be taken to police stations and will be processed and provided to the applicant immediately, or a person can request for a hard-copy to be posted to an address within Austria. In Austria, a request for a criminal record certificate can come in two forms – restricted and unrestricted disclosure. An application at the request of a future employer will be issued a restricted disclosure, which only contains unexpunged convictions and may not include less serious convictions. An unrestricted disclosure certificate is exclusively for specific state agencies (for example, firearms licensing bodies, military and law enforcement agencies), and, even then, is only issued in specific circumstances. This type of criminal record certificate contains details of all convictions. All criminal offences are recorded on the Criminal Register. Convictions are removed from the Criminal Register upon expiry of the penalty, which generally occurs when the penalty ends, but can extend to up fifteen years after the penalty has been completed. The only exception is life sentences which are not removed from the Criminal Register. Austria maintains a sex offender registry; however, this is for law enforcement and intelligence purposes only. Belgium In Belgium, there is a national central criminal record system which records, keeps and modifies data related to penal decisions. The criminal record system is maintained by the Federal Public Service Justice. The criminal records held within the central system contain the following data: criminal record number; name, surname and given name; date and place of birth; gender; residence; profession; nationality; court; number of judges; degree of jurisdiction; reference, number and date of judgement; date of transmission to central criminal record; sentence pronounced, place and date of the criminal acts. The central system contains records of a) Penal convictions for all types of offence; b) Penal convictions of guilt subjecting the convicted person to a probationary period; c) Decisions of revocation of the previous category; d) Penal decisions concerning confinement of mentally ill offenders; e) Deprivation of parental rights, and reintegration, as well as several measures regarding delinquent minors; f) Several decisions which quash prior judgements; g) Several decisions of retraction; h) Decisions that rectify or interpret the law on which the conviction has been decided; i) Decisions of rehabilitation; j) Decisions of pardon; k) Decisions of release on parole; l) Decisions from foreign jurisdictions regarding Belgian citizens; m) Sentences accompanying a main sentence, subsidiary sentences, 'security measures', and deferred sentences There is no record of dismissed cases or verdicts of not guilty. To access their own criminal record, a person can seek it from their local police authority or send a written request to the Federal Public Service Justice. In terms of public access to criminal records, the following persons and judicial and administrative bodies may be able to gain access to records through the Federal Public Service Justice. Corporations: corporations, association, etc. Individuals when the document should be used abroad Foreigners for the period of their stay in Belgium Specific categories (e.g. diplomats) Two kinds of erasure exist in the Belgian system: The real erasure is the disappearance of the conviction, and applies only to police sentences (small fines and 8 days of imprisonment or less). For all other sentences, a system of "no mention" applies, whereby the conviction remains recorded in the central system but is no longer available for access by several categories of people. Bulgaria Disclosure of criminal records in Bulgaria is governed by Regulation No 8/26.02.2008 for the Functions and Organisation of the Activity of the Criminal Records Offices. The criminal record system for citizens of Bulgaria are kept in the Criminal Records Office located at every Regional Court in Bulgaria, and the Central Office of Criminal Records at the Ministry of Justice. There are two types of criminal records disclosed in Bulgaria; Conviction Status Certificate, and the Verification of Conviction Status. The Conviction Status Certificate contains personal information about the concerned individual (full name, personal identification number, date and place of birth, nationality, names of parents), details of all the convictions and the purpose of the Certificate. This Certificate is valid for 6 months from the date it was issued, and can only be applied for by the concerned individual, relative of individual, legal heir of the concerned individual, or a power of attorney. The Verification of Conviction Status contains personal information about the concerned individual (full name, personal identification number, date and place of birth, nationality, names of parents), details of all convictions, including whether rehabilitation was required, and information about all imposed administrative sanctions. There is no term of validity for this status; however, it can only be issued for an official purpose by governmental or law enforcement authorities. These records can be accessed through application to the Central Office of Criminal Records. The cost is approximately €2.60. The Bulgarian Penal Code allows the removal of conviction data for individuals, known as the 'rehabilitation of individuals'. This can be awarded by a court of law given that the individual has demonstrated good conduct, and has compensated any damages. A second type of rehabilitation is known as rehabilitation de jure which enacts new legislation. This can occur if the individually has been sentenced conditionally, the individual has been sentenced to up to three years' imprisonment and has not committed any other crimes punishable by imprisonment, the individual was sentenced to a fine, public reprimand or deprivation of civil rights, and they have not committed another crime the year following. Additionally, judgments are removed from a criminal record after the sentence has been served and the following time has elapsed: For life imprisonment without substitution or life imprisonment: 20 years For imprisonment of over 10 years: 15 years Imprisonment between 3 and 10 years: 10 years Imprisonment between of less than 3 years: 5 years All remaining cases: 2 years Canada In Canada, criminal records are stored in Criminal Records Information Management Services, a centralized database operated by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police under the Canadian Police Information Centre (CPIC) since 1972. The database includes all convictions for which a pardon has not been granted, all charges regardless of disposition, outstanding warrants and charges, all judicial orders and other information that might be of interest to police investigations. Screening There are two types of criminal record checks: standard and vulnerable sector. Vulnerable sector is defined under the Criminal Records Act as minor (less than 18 years of age) andThere are 4 levels of standard criminal record checks—levels 1 to 4. Level 1 is the most basic check and level 4 being the most extensive. Criminal record checks can only be done with the consent of the individual. Due to the sensitive nature of CPIC, only police agencies are authorized to conduct a criminal record check, with the exception of BC Ministry of Justice. Level 1: Records of criminal convictions for which a pardon has not been granted (CPIC Level 1 Query) Level 2: Level 1 + outstanding charges that the police force is aware of (CPIC Level 1 Query + Persons Query) Level 3: Level 2 + records of discharges which have not been removed (all charges regardless of disposition) (CPIC Level 2 Query + Persons Query) Level 4: Level 3 + check on local police databases, court and law enforcement agency databases (also known as "Police Record Check"). The vulnerable sector screening includes a level 4 check plus any sexual offences and convictions which pardon was granted. In the event that the name and date of birth of the applicant matches any sexual offence record in the system, he/she is required to submit fingerprints to the RCMP for a physical confirmation. Criminal record check is an integral part of the process for obtaining security clearances regardless of level of access. Some provinces may require high-risk professions to be screened to ensure public safety. For example, the BC Ministry of Justice requires all healthcare professionals, practicum students in healthcare, childcare facilities staff and volunteers, school and hospital staff regardless of position to undergo a CRC via the Criminal Records Review Program. Pardon Criminal offences can be pardoned either by the Governor General of Canada, Parole Board of Canada or through an Order in Council by the federal government, as determined by the crime involved under the Criminal Records Act. Pardon has been renamed as record suspension under Bill C-10, otherwise known as the omnibus crime bill or by its formal name Safe Streets and Communities Act, introduced by the Conservative government in 2011. The change officially came into force on March 13, 2012. In 2017, two provincial superior courts struck down the retroactive nature of these changes as unconstitutional. As a result, pardons are currently being granted to residents of BC and Ontario who were convicted prior to 2012. Chile In Chile, citizens can request their own criminal records at the Civil Registrations office or the Registro Civil. According to the Article 19 N°16 of the Constitution of Chile, an employer cannot discriminate based on anything else but personal capabilities to perform at the job offered. One can eliminate one's criminal records by a voluntary checkup, providing your signature two years for first offenses, or five years for more. A person must be complaint of the requisites provided by the law No. 409. Croatia The Criminal Code of Croatia: The Official Gazette of the Republic of Croatia "Narodne novine" entered into force on January 1, 1998. Under Article 86, criminal record data may be given only to courts and state attorney's offices when a criminal case is brought against the person. Governmental bodies can access this data upon a reasonable request and must be related to specific tasks in public service to be entrusted to the person for whom such information is requested. The police can also gain access with the intention of discovering the perpetrator of a criminal act. Other members of the general public do not have the right to demand that citizens submit records concerning their convictions. A citizen retains the right to access data from their own criminal record, only under the condition that the purpose is to exercise his rights in another state. Certificates of criminal records are issued from the Department for Criminal Records. To be expunged of any conviction from one's criminal record, Article 19 of the Law on Legal Consequences of Conviction, Rehabilitation and Criminal Records (Official Gazette 143/12) needs to be referred to. Cyprus In Cyprus, criminal records are held by the Criminal Investigation Office of Cyprus Police which forms part of the Republic of Cyprus Minister of Justice and Public Order. A Clear Criminal Record Certificate or existing Criminal Record can be requested by individuals through application to the Criminal Investigation Office. Applications can be made in person at the Central Police Station in Nicosia. Criminal records in Cyprus are maintained for life. Cyprus introduced legislation in 2014 allowing for the creation of a sex offenders register. The legislation also provides for inclusion of a greater European Union sex offender registry. There are different procedures and protocols for the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Czech Republic The Czech Republic took part in the Network of Judicial Registers pilot project, with 10 other countries, exchanging information on criminal records electronically. The criminal record system of the Czech Republic is a computerized system. Criminal record information is maintained at the Criminal Records Office in Prague—which is state-funded and can be found at the offices of the Ministry of Justice. Individuals can request An Excerpt from the Penal Register for personal access only. Applications can be made from Czech Republic embassies, and also by prospective employers for people who have been a resident or citizen of the Czech Republic. Data on corporate criminal records are accessible by the general public. Length of time that individuals are on the criminal record system. Criminal convictions remain on record for an indefinite period. Under certain conditions, the Court will expunge convictions after 15 years in an exceptional sentence, 10 years if there conviction of the sentence does not exceed 5 years, 5 years if the sentence of imprisonment does not exceed one year. Denmark The Danish criminal record certificate is titled "Privat Straffeattest" and is the responsibility of the National Police Authority (the Rigspolitiet). The Danish Data Protection Agency governs the legislation in relation to criminal records and provides certain restrictions. Criminal convictions on the certificate include all violations of the Denmark Criminal Code. There are varying time frames for which convictions remain on an individual's criminal record. For example, fines remain on the record for 2 years from the date of payment, unconditional convictions for 5 years from date of release from prison, and suspended sentences for 3 years from the conviction date. Any older convictions will be struck from the record. In order to obtain a criminal record check in Denmark an individual or third party (with written consent) can apply in person at a local police station or by way of email to the National Police Authority. Available languages for the certificate include English, German, Danish, French and Spanish where there are no convictions. When there are convictions, the only available language for the certificate is Danish. The certificate is issue free of charge and the turnaround ranges from immediate access to 2 days. Denmark does not allow the transfer of criminal records to foreign authorities or to the Europol database for storage. In Denmark, child sex abuse information is contained in two registers, the National Patient Register and the Criminal Register. The National Patient Register contains all hospital contacts including inpatient, outpatient and emergency department contacts. The Danish National Criminal Register of child sex abuse contains data relating to cases reported to the Danish police. Any sexual relationship with an individual below the age of 15 is prohibited by law as the Danish age of sexual consent is 15. Cases involving child sexual abuse are classified into three different categories according to the type of the offence involved. These groups include incest, sexual offences (physical or attempted physical sexual assault) and indecent exposure. Estonia The database that holds data about the criminal records of Estonian individuals is known as The Punishment Register, available for access through the Internet. It is owned and maintained by the Estonian Centre of Registers and Information Systems. Those records that are valid are made completely public. Some misdemeanour cases with the main punishment being less than 200 Euros, and cases involving minors are not published by The Punishment Register. Since the beginning of 2012, the data providing for the criminal records of Estonian citizens is available online. Any individual with a criminal record can access the electronic version of the database to receive this information for free. In order to view information pertaining to a non-related individual, then a fixed fee must be paid to the Ministry of Justice of the Republic. The individual's name and identification in number is also required to view their criminal record. However, there still remain some restrictions on access to this register, including protecting access to information on the criminal records of minors. Registering of sex offenders Estonia do not have a public register for sex offenders, as the Punishment Register which is available for public viewing is viewed to be sufficient by The Minister of Justice. The Minister, Hanno Pevkur, was quoted as saying: Since 2009, the police in Estonia have the power to check up on sex offenders who have completed their punishment. European Union The European Criminal Records Information System (ECRIS) is a computerised system that allows EU countries to access and exchange information regarding EU citizens' criminal convictions in an efficient way. It was implemented in April 2012. The ECRIS was brought about in order to simplify the exchange of information relating to the criminal records of European citizens. Intended to counterbalance the relatively new ease with which individuals can move between States, it is a mechanism of ensuring that individuals are not able to escape their criminal records by merely travelling across a border. The underlying rationale is that technological advancements in transport services which have given individuals the ability to easily move between European States should not amount to an ability to expunge their own criminal records. This is particularly important given that most domestic courts in European countries place significant weight on offenders' past convictions during criminal sentencing (for example, under s 151(1) of the Powers of Criminal Courts (Sentencing) Act 2000 (UK)). The EU State to which an offender is a citizen is the central repository of all criminal information relating to that offender. Accordingly, the ECRIS is not a general IT architecture that centralises all criminal information relating to all offenders. Rather, it acts as a platform that connects the central database of each State. Developments allowing non-EU countries to utilise and contribute to the ECRIS are under current consideration. On 24 January 2019, MEP's agreed to close a criminal records loophole, so that going forwards national authorities will be able to quickly establish whether another EU member state holds criminal records on a non-EU citizen. In January 2020 it was revealed by The Guardian newspaper that the UK government had failed to inform other EU member states of 75,000 convictions of foreign criminals, it then concealed the scandal to avoid damaging Britain’s reputation. “There is a nervousness from Home Office around sending the historical notifications out dating back to 2012 due to the reputational impact this could have.” from the minutes of the ACRO criminal records meeting, May 2019. This disclosure followed deliberate abuse of the Schengen Information System, and GCHQ hacking into the Belgian telecoms provider Proximus. Finland The name of the certificate of criminal record in Finland is titled: "Extract from the Criminal Record and Security Clearances". In Finland there is a variety of legislation governing the use and access to criminal records, some of which include The Penal Code of Finland 1889, The Criminal Records Act 1993, Act on Background Checks 2002, and the Personal Data Act 1999 chapter 6. Finnish criminal record checks can come in different forms by way of different types of certificates. An Extract from the Criminal Record can be applied for only by individuals. Commonly issued for those whom have regular contact with children, it contains information that is relevant to the specific type of employment. Another type of certificate which is issued for visa, work or permit applications is the Criminal Record Extract for a Visa Application. The final type of certificate is the Security Clearance Check whereby companies within the UK who have a branch office in Finland can apply for security clearance checks on prospective employees. Three levels of check are provided (limited, basic and extended). Individuals cannot apply for this certificate and certain conditions must first be met by employers before applying to the Finnish Police, including obtaining the written consent from the individual before application. The categories of criminal conviction contained within the Extract from the Criminal Record includes those involving offences against children, sexual offences, violent offences and narcotics offences. Any other convictions not relating to these categories will not be included on the certificate. The Criminal Record Extract for a Visa Applications contains information pertaining to custodial or suspended sentences, community service, fines, juvenile punishments, and overseas decisions against Finnish citizens or permanent residents. The length of time convictions are kept on the record varies according to type of conviction. Convictions will be removed from a criminal record after 5 years (suspended sentences, fines, and community service supplementary to a suspended sentence), 10 years (custodial sentences less than 2 years, community service) or 20 years (custodial sentences between 2–5 years). If no recent convictions have been added to an individual's records, judgments will be removed upon death or when the individual reaches 90 years old. There are multiple avenues in which an individual can obtain a criminal record check in Finland including applying online, by fax, post or email. An individual can also apply in person to the Legal Register Centre (Oikeusrekisterikeskus), which is the department responsible for the criminal record. The certificate, issued in English, French, German, Spanish and Swedish costs approximately €12 to €15. The certificate can be expected to be received within approximately seven working days, taking into account postage time. As proscribed by Finnish legislation, extracts from criminal records can be transmitted to police authorities of the International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO), to police authorities, or to non-ICPO states on the grounds that it is to uphold public law, investigate and prevent criminal activity or to serve justice and social order. France Criminal records The criminal records of all French citizens are maintained through an electronic register manned by the Ministry of Justice. The register is a collection of all sanctions and convictions from all penal courts since 1966 and remains the source for all aspects of criminal record disclosure in the state. Generally speaking, the disclosure of a criminal record is only released to the individual who committed the offense and only when that individual has handed power of attorney to another or they are declared legally incompetent may another successfully apply to receive the disclosure. Perspective employers are not allowed access to disclosure at any time. Applications must be made through the Casier Judiciaire National (National Judicial Record, CJN) and are free of charge. Applications can be submitted online, via email, in person or by post of fax but are limited to the CJN. Criminal record certificates cannot be accessed through a French consulate or embassy at any time. The three types of criminal bulletin: Bulletin 1 – legislatively restricted to issuance only to judicial authorities Bulletin 2 – restricted to French administrative authorities and various private organisations through the sanctions of the penal code Bulletin 3 – criminal record available only to the individual it concerns, available primarily in French but translation services can be accessed Crimes that can be disclosed through the certificate of criminal record: Drug offences (possession, trafficking, attempt to sell) Violence against another individual (murder, attempted murder, assault) Sexual offences (sexual assault, sexual coercion, rape) Burglary and robbery Theft (including possession of stolen property, attempt to sell stolen goods) Fraud (including counts of forgery) Criminal damage (vandalism) Motoring offences and infractions Removal of Offences from the Record Judgements against an individual are not published on a Bulletin 3 certificate once the rehabilitation period has passed (depending on the severity of the conviction either three years for misdemeanours or five years for felony crimes, after the sentence was completed). The records of the convictions will remain on the system but will not show on the request of a record. In the case of minors, these are removed from the Bulletin 3 once the individual concerned has reached 18 years and/or three years from the date the crime was committed. Registering of sex offenders France has a sex offenders registry but unlike systems such as the United States, does not allow the public to access information regarding the information of cases and individuals who have been convicted of sex crimes, nor does France require the community to be notified of the presence of a sex offender in their neighbourhood as is obligatory in some other countries. France in particular takes into account the need for rehabilitation as well as the need for public safety. Justice Minister Dominique Perben stated "On the one hand, we must improve medical-psychiatric follow-up for these individuals and on the other hand, we must put in place a system that allows us to know where they are so we can help investigators do their jobs" in response to the soaring number of convictions for sexual offences in 2002. Germany In Germany, a criminal record certificate (Führungszeugnis) is issued by the (Bundesamt für Justiz). Germany has a criminal record system holding all the information regarding past offences and sentences. The information is maintained by the Federal Central Criminal Register (Bundeszentralregister), which is in turn subordinate to the Federal Ministry of Justice. The registry is updated daily and holds information on approximately 6.3 million individuals. Once a person turns 14, they are able to request their own criminal record. One's criminal record can be viewed by any member of the public at request, as long as they provide ID and purpose of the disclosure. The information in the criminal record certificate (führungszeugnis) includes prior offences, court citations and convictions. However, not all entries in record system (bundeszentralregister) are included in the certificate. According to the severity of the committed crime and, more importantly, the sentence received, most entries are not included in the certificate after 3, 5, 10 or 20 years. The time limit starts the day of the verdict. The only sentences exempt from this rule are life imprisonment, preventive detention and commitment in a mental hospital. Greece In Greece, criminal records are written certificates where entries are created according to the legal provisions provided for in Articles 573–580 of the Greek Code of Criminal Procedure (CCrP). An Independent Department of Criminal Records exists within the Ministry of Justice and operates as the central authority, able to supervise the criminal record system in Greece. According to provisions contained within Article 573.2 of the CCrP, records will be kept for all nationals, regardless of country of birth and even including foreigners. Each criminal record certificate has two components: the first regarding the individuation of the person and the second consisting of the content of the person's prior criminal acts. Every certificate must contain: information concerning the person's identity including the paternal surname and if they are married, and the final judgement/s passed down by a court. Specifically, Article 574.2 CCrP states that certificates must record: the complete listing of any irrevocable convictions issued by a court where a custodial penalty or a pecuniary sanction has been imposed; the complete list of any decisions sentencing a minor to confinement in an institution or educational measures; the complete list of convictions handed down by foreign courts, if the act committed constitutes a felony or misdemeanour according to Greek criminal law; the complete list of any decisions acquitting the accused due to the incapacity of the individual to stand trial because of lack of culpability or for reasons of practical repentance, given that the offence was punishable by a minimum penalty of three months' imprisonment; and any judicial decision suspending a custodial penalty. These certificates of criminal records will no longer be in effect, according to Article 578, under the following conditions: when the person dies or is at least 80 years old; in cases in which a criminal offence was committed as a minor, when the minor is 17 years old; when the convicting order suspends the sentence and the suspension is omitted from the certificate five years after the ending of the suspension; if a minor has served a sentence in a correctional institution less than one year, the certificate will cease to be in effect after five years. If the sentence served exceeds one year, eight years after the completion of the sentence will the criminal act/s be struck from the record, unless a new conviction has been imposed in the meantime; if the judgement imposed a financial punishment or a sentence of imprisonment up to one month for an offence committed with intention, or a sentence of imprisonment for up to two months for an act committed by negligence, the criminal record ceases ten years after the sentence has been served. In the aforementioned cases, the certificates are destroyed upon the validity of the reasons provided. The full and detailed records of a one's criminal past can be available to a certain range of individuals and authorities, under the terms 'general use' and 'judicial use'. Under Article 575, general use dictates criminal records will and can be supplied for prospective members of the Bar, future notaries and chartered accountants as they are a prerequisite for registration. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, criminal records are maintained by the Hong Kong Police Force. Unlike other countries listed on this article, Hong Kong authorities do not allow for access to criminal records by employers or school purposes. The Chief Executive of Hong Kong has the sole power to pardon offences committed in Hong Kong under section 12 of article 48 Basic Law of Hong Kong. "The Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall exercise the following powers and functions... To pardon persons convicted of criminal offences or commute their penalties". Spent records Criminal records are not purged regardless of time or seriousness of the case. However, under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Ordinance (HK Laws. Chap 297), a criminal record is considered 'spent' if it was the first criminal offence, sentenced to less than 3 months in jail or fined less than $10,000 and a period of 3 years has elapsed since conviction and no new conviction is registered against the said person. Spent records are recorded as such with the exception to: Attempting to be licensed as a barrister, solicitor, accountant or insurance broker Applying to become a trustee or controller for Mandatory Provident Fund or a bank controller, executive or employee Disciplinary proceedings against any judicial officer, members of disciplined services, probation officer, employees of Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Mandatory Provident Fund Schemes Authority, Office of the Commissioner of Insurance (insurance officers) and Securities and Futures Commission (executive grade only) Disciplinary proceedings against government officials who are paid on any Directorate or Directorate (Judicial/Legal Group) Pay Scale and those above point 27 on the Master Pay Scale All Hong Kong residents who plan to adopt children or travel/emigrate to another country can request for a Certificate of No Criminal Conviction—a document that is issued directly to the Consulate and/or government agencies and not to the requester. Spent records do appear on such certificates with annotations that such records are spent according to Hong Kong law. Hungary A criminal database exists in Hungary which is allowed for under the 85th Act of 1999 on the criminal database and the official certificate of criminal record. There are 5 different databases, the database of offenders, the database of those under coercive measures, database of those under criminal procedures, the database of fingerprint, palm prints and photographs and the database of DNA profiles. Therefore, there is not only information recorded for those who have had a criminal sanction place against them, covered by the database of offenders, but also for those that are in pre-trial detention (database for those under coercive measures) and those who are suspected and accused of a crime (database for those under criminal procedures). The Central Office for Administrative and Electronic Public Services (COAEPS) of the Ministry of the Interior operates, managers and maintains the databases. Investigative authorities, public prosecutors offices and criminal courts all contribute to the databases. The amount of time a person's information is held on these databases varies. For people imprisoned for an intentional offence, data will be removed 15 years after their release. If the offence was committed recklessly, then the data will be removed 5 years after release The data is not publicly accessible, but a person can obtain the data held about themselves upon request. Indonesia In Indonesia, criminal record certificate exist in the form of Surat Keterangan Catatan Kepolisian (SKCK) (English: Certificate of Police Records) Issued by Indonesian National Police. This certificate state the criminal records (or the lack of it) of an individual. An individual could request the issuance of their criminal record certificate on variety of reasons. For example, in Indonesia, employers often requires job applicants to submit their police record certificate to check whether said job applicant has any criminal history or not. The certificate cost Rp 30,000 for Indonesian citizens or Rp 60,000 for foreigners to be issued (it was previously Rp 10,000 for Indonesian citizens until 2016), and valid for 6 months. After expiration date, an individual must request for a new certificate if they still need the certificate . A certificate also could only be used for one specific purpose, as the purpose of the certificate's issuance is stated on the certificate, so individual must also request for a new one if they need a certificate for different purposes. A certificate will also be declared invalid if after the issuance, the individual in question is involved in any criminal activity. In the past, the certificate was called Surat Keterangan Kelakuan Baik (SKKB) (English: Certificate of Good Conduct), and as the name suggest, this certificate certified the lack of criminal record of a person, thus, only a person without any criminal record could apply for an issue. Ireland The criminal record system for Ireland exists in the form an information database system which is held by the Garda Criminal Records Office as part of the Garda Síochána (the national police force). The information is owned and maintained by the Gardaí as part of their main function in tackling crime and protecting civilians. The data held by the Gardaí is not openly available to the public. However, section 4 of the Data Protection Act allows individuals to make a formal request in writing to the Garda Criminal Records Office to access personal data held about them. In making this formal request, individuals must provide sufficient information to establish their identity and ensure that the Gardaí is both able to locate their file and make certain that the personal data is being given to the right person. Sufficient information would include: full name, correct date of birth, any other names used, current address and previous addresses in Ireland, a copy of your passport, driving licence or birth certificate and a fee of €6.35. Additionally, a third party may also be able to access your personal data on your behalf. However, this requires that the third party satisfy the Gardaí of their identity and that the individual provides written authorization to allow the third party to make this request. In Ireland, criminal convictions remain on the criminal record system for life if the offence was committed after the individual turned 18, as there are currently no legislative provisions which provide for the expungement of criminal convictions. Ireland remains the only country in the EU and one of the only countries in the Council of Europe area to not have such legislation. However, under Section 258 of the Children Act 2001, offences committed by those under eighteen years of age can be expunged from the record once certain conditions are met: where a person has been found guilty of an offence and: the offence was committed before they reached the age of eighteen years the offence is not one required to be tried by the Central Criminal Court (such as murder or rape) three years have elapsed since the conviction, and the person has not been dealt with for another offence in that three-year period then that person will be treated as a person who has not committed or been charged with or prosecuted for or found guilty of or dealt with for that offence. In other words, your conviction will become spent. Registering of sex offenders There is no official sex offender registry in Ireland. However, under the Sex Offenders Act 2001 which came into force in June 2001, an unofficial registry exists and is held centrally by the Gardaí. The location of sex offenders in Ireland is provided by a certificate issued by the court, stating that the convicted person is subject to the requirements of the Sex Offenders Act 2001 and is now obliged to provide certain information including their name and address to the Gardaí. Therefore, this certificate system is commonly referred to as the Sex Offenders Register, as it allows the details of all sex offenders subject to the requirements of the Sex Offenders Act 2001 to be held centrally by the Gardaí. Italy Italy has a criminal record system held at the Criminal Records Bureau in Rome, governed by the department of Justice. It includes convicted criminals and those awaiting trials. Anyone who is an Italian citizen or is a non-citizen but has resided in Italy for a significant period of time can apply to see the records at the criminal records bureau or at one of their offices located in Italy. One can also apply from the UK. The Penal Certificate includes details of all criminal offences, court hearings and outcomes. Civil Certificate – contains information regarding bankruptcy, mental competency, and information regarding expulsion from Italy. General Certificate – Similar to Penal Certificate but also includes any information regarding expulsion from Italy. Information that is included includes, full name, date of birth, place of birth, reason for request, type of request. Cost is 3.10 Euros. The certificates are only produced in Italian. Can someone get their record expunged? Yes, Generally speaking, the record of an individual is expunged once the individual reaches 80 years of age or death. As the Italian system hold information regarding pending trails, once the guilty verdict is confirmed, it can take 3–10 years for their record to be expunged. Latvia Information relating to the criminal records of Latvians is held at the Information Centre of the Ministry of the Interior. The aim of this Centre – through the collection of information relating to crime – is to facilitate and investigate the most effective ways in which crime can be prevented to ensure public safety. If a Latvian individual needs a certificate of their criminal history, they can electronically request this through www.latvija.lv. They may need this record of their criminal history to submit to employers, study overseas or enter into marriage. This record can only be obtained in person at the Ministry of Interior Information Centre or it can be received through registered mail. Therefore, information about an offender's criminal history is not accessible to all members of the public. In accordance with Latvian law, most criminal records are terminated after several years. The amount of time for this to occur is dependent on the nature and scope of the legal sanction for that crime. These cancelled records are still held in Information Centre records, and are readily available if the individual involved authorises the disclosure of the entire record. Lithuania On 13 September 2004, the National Register of Convictions of the Republic of Lithuania was established. The Departmental Register of Suspected, Accused and Convicted Persons is a central repository of criminal record data and related information in Lithuania. It is administered by the IT and Communications Department of the Lithuanian Ministry of the Interior which was appointed as the processing body in charge of ensuring the proper functioning and data management of the Register. The register maintains records provided by the courts, pre-trial investigation institutions, national and local prosecution services, the prison department and the police criminal investigations centre. The Department also collects and accumulates information received from foreign countries on the convictions of Lithuania in these countries. With the consent of the individual, the Ministry of the Interior provides individuals and third parties with two types of disclosure: a Personal Certificate, containing information about unspent convictions only; and a Personal History Statement, comprising a full criminal record disclosure (both spent and unspent convictions). In Lithuania, judgments will be removed from the Register immediately after the completion of the sentence, depending on the seriousness of the sentence. For high-risk recidivists (10 years from completion of sentence), very serious offences (8 years), serious offences (5 years), less serious offences (3 years), suspended sentences (immediately on completion of sentence). In cases of minors, convictions incurring custodial sentences remain unspent for half the period of time stated above. Luxembourg The criminal record system in Luxembourg is maintained under the authority of the State Prosecutor General. It contains information about convictions from Luxembourg criminal courts and, under certain conditions, foreign courts. Criminal records have two parts, Bulletin no 1 which contains the complete statement of convictions of a person living or working in Luxembourg, and Bulletin no 2 which contains all convictions with the exception of suspended criminal sentences to prison for less than six months. For a person with a clear criminal record, access to it is free and they may access it by email or post. For those with convictions, a fee applies and should present personally to the City Criminal Court for their extract. Malta In Malta, criminal records are held by the Criminal Records Office which is maintained by the Malta Police. Individual criminal records can be obtained by requesting a Conduct Certificate from the Malta Police. Requests can be made in writing if outside the country or in person at the Malta Police Headquarters in Floriana. According to Conduct Certificate Ordinance, Chapter 77 of the Laws of Malta, a court order is required to issue a Conduct Certificate of someone other than the person which it refers to. Information contained in the Conduct certificate includes a declaration of whether the person is in good conduct or a declaration containing the convictions recorded against the person. In Malta there is provision under the Probation Act for conviction to be removed from the criminal record. Criminal records are kept for a maximum of 10 years. Malta has recently introduced a sex offenders register. The legislation which enacted the introduction of the register is the Protection of Minors Registration Act 2012. Under the Act current and prospective employers can request information about employees contained in the register by application to the Attorney General. The application will then be heard in court. The Act states that it is a criminal offence to employ a registered person into an entity which deals with education, care, custody, welfare or upbringing of minors. Netherlands Technically spoken all Dutch people do have an empty criminal record. A criminal record (Dutch: strafblad) is stored at Justitiële Informatiedienst in Almelo. By sending an e-mail with required data, scan of individual's passport or ID card, and paying €4.54 it is possible to have access to their own criminal record. Creating and destroying a criminal record A criminal record will be created after sentencing because of a violation or crime. The record will exist for 5 years in case of violations or 20 years for crimes. If the sentence is three years of imprisonment or longer, 30 years will be added at the time the criminal record will be stored. A traffic violation (according to the Mulder law) will not be stored in a criminal record, unless there will be a trial. Normally the traffic fine is given by a police officer, and the payment is generally done by banking. There will not be a trial, nor an addition in a criminal record. In case of sexual crimes (article 240b-250) the criminal record will be destroyed after 80 years. (article 4) Consequences of a criminal record For a person to be eligible to join certain professions, it may required that the person not have a criminal record or to pass an ethics review based upon the nature and seriousness of any past convictions. Professions that may not be open to those with criminal records or serious convictions include legal practice, teaching, and law enforcement. A foreign national with a criminal record may be prevented from getting a visa to enter the country. Declaration about Behaviour Close to the opposite of a criminal record is a Declaration about Behaviour, or as the English translation on the paper itself is called: 'Declaration of Conduct' (Dutch: Verklaring omtrent het Gedrag or VOG). This declaration is needed to apply for certain jobs, e.g. some government jobs, army positions, policing, or working as a security guard. The VOG will be given if the person: has no criminal record; has data in the criminal record which is irrelevant for the person who requested it. Not in all cases, because for becoming a police officer, for instance, the individual may not have any data in the record. There is a criminal register for the Netherlands. The Netherlands took part in the Network of Judicial Registers pilot project, with 10 other countries, exchanging information on criminal records electronically. As of 2004, the criminal record system of the Netherlands takes the form of a computerized system. This was brought about in order to reduce the manual labour associated with the previous system. Public access Judicial Documentation Data can be requested firstly by the individual involved. Within four weeks, the individual can be told verbally of the information included in the Judicial Documentation. The law prohibits the provision of written information. If necessary for state security purposes, the information can be refused. Judicial data can be given to: Court officials for use in court proceedings, staff members at the office of Public Prosecutor, the Board of Procurators General, individuals and agencies not involved with criminal procedure if they serve a public function and if it serves the public interest. Conduct Certificate is a statement by the Minister of Justice, that there are no objections to the individual in question practicing a certain profession or occupying a certain position. Length of time that individuals remain in the criminal record system Judicial data on criminal offences are kept for 30 years after the criminal sentence has become irrevocable. Extensions can occur for non suspended prison sentences, mental hospital orders and youth detention. Data involving Minor offences are stored until five years after the irrevocable settlement of the case – extended to ten years if the individual was sentenced to prison or community service. Eighty years after the death of the individual, all data is removed. Registration of sex offenders A sex offenders register under the name of ViCLAS (Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System) allows for links to be made between national and international crimes and possible offenders. Data is not removed until 20 years after death of individual in question. New Zealand In New Zealand, criminal records are administered by the Ministry of Justice. Under the Criminal Records (Clean Slate) Act 2004, records are automatically hidden from the public for less serious offences, if the individual has had no convictions for at least seven years and meets the other criteria of the act. An individual can request either their current (Clean Slate) or complete criminal record through the Ministry of Justice, or provide authorisation for a third party (e.g. employer) to view the current record. It is illegal, with some exceptions, for a third party to request a complete criminal record. Poland The Polish Ministry for Justice administers the National Criminal Register (), and it is regulated by the Act on the National Criminal Register 2000. The Act states that personal data is protected and can only be used for the public interest. Article 7(1) further states that data is only accessible to persons who fit certain criteria. Data can only be transferred to other entities, such as other law enforcement agencies, if their data protection meets the same standards, and if it is necessary for the public interest, or for the establishment of a legal claim (Article 47(4)). As per the Act on the National Criminal Register 2000, the length of time an outcome remains on the National Criminal Register is as follows: Non-custodial sentences: 1 year from the date of decision Fines: 3 years from the date of decision Custodial sentences of up to 3 years: 5 years from the date of release (at the Court's discretion) Custodial sentences of more than 1 month: 10 years from the date of release The exception to this is where an individual is convicted of a sexual offence against a minor under the age of 15 years; in these circumstances, the conviction remains on the National Criminal Register permanently. The National Criminal Register also includes information on collective entities (or publicly registered organisations). A person can obtain a copy of their criminal history from the National Criminal Register, by contacting the central information office of the KRK in Warsaw, or information points of the KRK located within Polish common courts. In order to receive a copy of your criminal record, you must complete a form, stating the reasons for your request, and pay a fee (in July 2018: 20PLN for a digital copy, or 30PLN for a paper copy). An employer may also apply directly for disclosure in relation to a prospective employee if this is permitted under Polish laws or regulations (for example, in relation to employment in the security industry or employment involving contact with children). The written consent of the individual is not required. The National Criminal Register Information Office provides individuals and employers with disclosure in one of two formats: as an Inquiry about an Individual ("Zapytanie o udzielenie informacji o osobie") in the event that no disclosable convictions are found; or a National Criminal Register's Information about an Individual ("Informacja o osobie z Krajowego Rejestru Karnego") in the event that disclosable information exists. Poland also participated in the pilot project for 'Network of Judicial Registers', along with ten other EU member states, for the electronic exchange of criminal records among member states. Portugal Portugal's criminal record system is an electronic database manned and maintained by Portugal's Direcção Geral da Administração da Justiça (General Direction for the Administration of Justice, DGAJ). The system contains the records of Portuguese citizens that reside in Portugal, Portuguese nationals that live abroad and any foreign citizens that reside within Portugal. Disclosure of an individual's criminal record is allowed at the request of the individual; themselves, or a third party with written consent of the individual. For example, an employer may request to see their possible employee's criminal record with their consent. However, the application must be made in person. The certificate regarding criminal records in Portugal is called a "certificado do registo criminal" (certificate of criminal registration) which conveys whether an individual has a criminal record. An extension of this is a more detailed certificate regarding an individual's criminal activities which provides evidence for an individual to be employed in a job where they have access to large sums of cash, need high security clearance or supervise children. This particular certificate is granted in a similar way to Australia's Working With Children Check, which supplies an employer with information regarding any previous criminal activity and ensures that convicted criminals are not employed in the same areas where they may have previously committed crimes. Applications for the certificates can be made through several channels, there is a central repository for criminal records located in Lisbon, alongside a vast selection of regional courts and their administration services throughout Portugal that can provide individuals with certificates and for Portuguese nationals residing overseas, applications can be made through embassies and consulates. However, none of the channels through which the certificates are available provide translation services, and therefore the certificate produced is always written in Portuguese, even when produced by an embassy in a non-Portuguese-speaking state. The types of criminal convictions that can be exposed through the publishing of the certificate are very similar to that of the United Kingdom and are presented below: Drug offences (possession, trafficking, attempt to sell) Violence against another individual (murder, attempted murder, assault) Sexual offences (sexual assault, sexual coercion, rape) Burglary and robbery Theft (including possession of stolen property, attempt to sell stolen goods) Fraud (including counts of forgery) Criminal damage (vandalism) Portuguese legislation allows for all criminal convictions to be removed from an individual's record once the rehabilitation period has passed. It is determined as follows: Custodial sentences of up to 5 years – 5 years from the date of release Custodial sentences of between 5 and 8 years – 7 years from the date of release Custodial sentences of over 8 years – 10 years from the date of release Reprimands and warnings – 5 years from the date of decision Essentially this legislation allows individuals to move on from their convictions and ensure that they are not socially and economically disadvantaged for the rest of their lives after serving their crimes. However, the governing legislation is only available in Portuguese. A very contentious aspect of this legislation is that those that commit heinous, sexually based crimes have their records expunged on the same time frame as all other individuals convicted. This legislation issue was brought into the spotlight during the 2007 media coverage of the Madeleine McCann case. Romania Law No 290 governs the disclosure of criminal records in Romania. The criminal records of all Romanian citizens are kept in a Central Criminal Records database by the General Inspectorate of the Romanian Police. Police stations gather and keep the records of conviction status of individuals born in Romania, and it is their responsibility to keep these records up-to-date. This type of criminal record disclosure is named the Criminal Records Certificate. These Certificates contain personal information including full name, unique identification number, date and place of birth, most recent address, name of parents, and the details of the committed offence, rehabilitation and extradition information. To obtain access to a criminal record, an individual must apply directly to the local county police station in person. If the application is approved, results are issued in the form of a Criminal Records Certificate by the Central Inspectorate of the Romanian Police. Only the individual person is allowed to apply for their own record; however, a third-party individual may submit an application only if they have been authorised power of attorney. Judgements are able to be removed from an individual's criminal record if the legislation decriminalising the act for which the person has been sentenced is passed, in the event of amnesty or court rehabilitation, and for imprisonment of up to 3 years after 20 years from the date of the final decision. Russia Individuals in Russia can obtain a national criminal history to check themselves, and this certificate is required for individuals seeking education employment: certain offences ban individual from such job. The certificate is issued by Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs for free within one month after application submitted via official Public Services Portal or in person. Certificate also can be in electronic form with digital signature or on paper. Slovakia There is a centralised criminal record system, there is only one centralised database where the final criminal conviction issued by a Slovak criminal court is registered. This database is in electronic form and is maintained a unit within the General Prosecutors office of the Slovak Republic. The relevant legislation for this is governed by the Act on Criminal Records. As of 2008 there was a proposed bill that these criminal records could only be accessed by request to the General Prosecutors office when the person in question was up for a position which required a clean criminal record. Certain criminal records are not accessible at any time for instance the criminal record/record details of the President of the Republic of Slovakia are not available to anyone during his/her time in office. The criminal records and personal details of everyone held by the General Prosecutors office are lifelong, and continue to be updated throughout their life, every time they move address/change name etc. Slovenia Criminal record information in Slovenia is looked after by the Department for Criminal Records and Educational Measures (DCREM), this is based at the Ministry of Justice. Among other things the DCREM maintains a database which holds information on convicted criminals. Although this database is not public, applications for a criminal records disclosure can be made to the DCREM, anyone who has lived in Slovenia for a significant amount of time may apply for the disclosure of a particular criminal record. Although perspective employers cannot request a copy directly from the DCREM, they must request this from the perspective employee. The time in which a conviction remains on a person's criminal record depends on the type of conviction received, i.e. The longer the prison sentence served the longer the conviction remains on the record, up to 15 years. If a conviction is 15 years' imprisonment this shall never be removed from the criminal record. However, if the conviction is removed, then all rights are given back to the person in question, as if the conviction had never been received at all. The driving license of those who reject the sobriety test may be revoked permanently, and their revocation stays in records indefinitely. At the European Court of Human Rights, there is currently a case pending which aims at the ruling that permanent keeping of the records is excessive. Spain The criminal record system for Spain exists in the form of the "Central Criminal Records Registry" (Registro Central de Penados). It contains convictions for all crimes and also for misdemeanors. The Central Criminal Records Registry is not publicly accessible and therefore very few public agencies and no private agencies have access to it. This has been confirmed by the New Penal Code (1995) Art.136.4. Therefore, the Central Criminal Records Registry is only accessible to judges, public prosecutors and the judicial police for investigative purposes. Other cases where direct access can be granted include: Guardia Civil for gun permits and border control police. Besides judges, prosecutors and some police agencies, only the recorded subject may request a copy of their personal Conviction Record. In Spain, conviction records are not 'expunged' as they are not erased completely but rather are 'cancelled' in a process known as 'cancelling a conviction record'. Therefore, judges will still be aware of the records but they disregarded as an aggravating factor when sentencing. Once conviction records are cancelled, the individual will possess a clean criminal record. Therefore, the record of their convictions will be sealed in the Central Criminal Records Registry and is likely made unavailable to the police. To cancel a conviction record the following requirements under Penal Code 47 (art.136.2) must be met: 1) A period of time after having served the sentence must have elapsed (6 months, 2 years, 3 years or 5 years depending on the sentence); 2) no further crime has been committed in the interim; 3) civil compensation has been paid or the person has been declared without money. To cancel a criminal record, the individual either makes a free of charge formal request to the Ministry of Justice or the Central Criminal Records Registry cancels the record itself. Sweden In Sweden, the police have a record of convictions ("Belastningsregistret"). It does not contain arrests, and its information is not available for general public, even regarding serious crimes. Individuals can ask for a copy of their own record once per year, or for a fee anytime. For employment involving children or for security guards etc., a check will be made against the criminal record. Regular employers more and more often require applicants to get a record copy themselves and give the employer. The number of requests for own copies increased from 40,000 to 199,000 between 2003 and 2012. Sweden is one of the countries with the largest databases of criminal records, containing some of the oldest population statistics in the world. In the past, individuals were prohibited from retrieving information about themselves to prevent being forced by employers or landlords to hand over the information. Yet there have been two notable changes in Swedish regulation of criminal records. In 1989, access was given to employers with the implementation of the 'subject access' paragraph in Swedish criminal records legislation. In 2001, it became mandatory for employers to check criminal records of teachers and childcare workers before they were hired, given the seriousness of sex offences against children. Individuals' criminal history records are today more available to the public than ever before. The Swedish Criminal Records Registry is administered by the Swedish National Police Board which regulates access to criminal records and the use of criminal background checks by employers. The registry contains information on those who have been sentenced in criminal courts or summarily imposed a fine, who have had a restraining order issued against them, or in whose cases prosecution had been abstained from. Generally, the information is kept for five years if the offence was punishable by fine, and ten years if it called for other sentences and sanctions. For those aged under 18 at the time the crime was committed, information is kept for only three or five years depending on the type of punishment. In January 2014, Swedish criminal records became available online with the launch of a new website Lexbase. People can search for their friends', colleagues' and neighbours' criminal records, showing the location of convicted criminals in the past five years in their neighbourhood by plotting red dots on the map. The user is able to then pay a fee to get more information about the crime committed. Lexbase has become the subject of intense criticism from Swedish media, government and the general public, given its alleged infringement on the right to privacy and increased social alienation of offenders. Switzerland The Strafregister is run by the Federal Department of Justice and Police. It lists final judgments in case of: felonies (offences that are punishable by imprisonment for more than three years) misdemeanors (offences that are punishable by imprisonment for up to three years or monetary penalty) infractions, if a fine exceeding 5000 Swiss francs or community service of more than 180 hours has been imposed certain infractions against road traffic regulations (serious speeding, driving with a blood alcohol content of more than 0.08%) court-ordered psychiatric treatments any judgment involving prohibitions (for example driving vehicles, working in certain professions, taking part in activities, contacting persons or the obligation not to enter certain defined areas). When the prosecutor decides not to refer the matter to a court, or if the court has acquitted the defendant, there will be no criminal record. Crimes committed by Swiss citizens abroad will also result in a Swiss criminal record, as soon as Swiss authorities have been informed and the sentences are comparable. As of February 28th, 2022, the Strafregister contains 1'154'055 sentences against 796'605 persons. The full criminal record can be requested by anybody, as long as the person involved has given written authority to do so. Other than that, state authorities like courts, migration and naturalization authorities, the Federal Office of Civil Aviation and road traffic authorities can request the record without approval. Expunging records Criminal records will be expunged after a period of 10, 15 or 20 years plus the duration of the prison sentence handed down in the judgment, depending on the length of the sentence. In case a prisoner is released early, on parole, the period will commence on the day the prisoner would have been regularly released. In all other cases, the record will be expunged after ten years. If somebody has been sentenced to a period of probation, the record will only appear until the end of successful probation. When a non-official requests the criminal record as a Privatauszug (private excerpt), the sentences will only appear for ⅔ of the mentioned time spans. When somebody has been expelled from Switzerland, the expulsion notice is never stricken from the record. If a minor has been sentenced under the Jugendstrafrecht (youth penal code, affecting 10 to 18 years old persons), the Privatauszug only shows the sentences if the person has re-offended as an adult. Special private excerpt The Sonderprivatauszug (special private excerpt) can be requested to prove that there is no ongoing ban on activities that involve minors (e.g. teaching, sport training) or vulnerable persons (e.g. treating and nursing patients). The employer must confirm the (intended) employment of the person in question before the special private excerpt is requested. This different excerpt is necessary because the usual Privatauszug could be empty while a prohibition is still active, for example when it has been set for a lifetime in case of certain serious crimes. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, checks on a person's criminal record are undertaken by the Disclosure and Barring Service (in England and Wales), Disclosure Scotland (Scotland and basic Disclosure for all the UK) and Access Northern Ireland, all of which have partial access to the Police National Computer (PNC) which holds the definitive record. In England and Wales, a PNC record is held for 100 years. The PNC has the ability to record youth reprimands, youth final warnings, cautions and convictions. In 2006 Scotland opted out of retaining records indefinitely. In Scotland, non-convictions are held for 2 years whereas convictions are held for 20 or 30 years depending on the seriousness of the crime. The police also utilize the Police national Database which is a depositary of locally held records. Locally held records may involve non-guilty verdicts, known associates, being a suspect in a report, drug intelligence on vehicles. Most information held on the PND is deleted after 7 years. The PND may be used to add other relevant information onto an enhanced DBS check. In 2021, the home office will introduce the national law enforcement data service (NLEDS). All records from PNC and PND will migrate to the new system. The ACPO criminal records office was founded in 2006, and it has the role of managing criminal record information and improving links between criminal records and biometric information. These records are not publicly accessible and cannot be viewed without the subject's consent, although in some cases an employer might make such consent a condition of employment, especially if the employee is to work with children or other vulnerable people. The child sex offenders disclosure scheme allows parents and guardians to ask the police if someone with access to a child has a record for child sexual offences. Information supplied depends on the level of disclosure required. Low-level disclosures only reveal unspent convictions (convictions which have not yet been expunged under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974), while enhanced disclosures normally include all convictions, cautions, reprimands and final warnings. An enhanced criminal record certificate may contain relevant information that need not relate solely to criminal matters. Arrests that do not lead to an official finding of guilt, i.e. a conviction or the acceptance of a caution, are not considered part of a person's criminal record and are not typically disclosed as part of the process. However, an enhanced disclosure may include such additional information, which is supplied at the chief police officer's discretion. Enhanced disclosures are typically used to screen applicants for positions such as police officer, social worker, and teacher, which involve contact with vulnerable groups and children. Individuals and the self-employed cannot apply for a DBS check of their own criminal record, as they cannot ask an exempted question (a valid request for a person to reveal their full criminal history, including spent convictions) of themselves. Only organisations registered with the DBS can ask an exempted question and submit applications for criminal records checks. There are two types of registered organisation: a registered body, which is the employer; and an umbrella body, a registered body that processes criminal record checks for non-registered organisations who can ask the exempted question. Effect on recidivism The Lammy Review found that a criminal record that is visible to potential employers is a significant detriment to a person's future work prospects, and that work is key to reducing re-offending. Therefore having a criminal record that is visible to employers can increase the likelihood for a criminal to re-offend. The review also found that BAME groups are disproportionately affected as they are already more likely to be discriminated in employment. United States In the United States, criminal records are compiled and updated on local, state, and federal levels by various law enforcement agencies. The primary purpose of a criminal record is to present a comprehensive criminal history for an individual. Criminal histories are maintained by law enforcement agencies in all levels of government. Local police departments, sheriffs' offices, and specialty police agencies may maintain their own internal databases. On the state level, state police, troopers, highway patrol, correctional agencies, and other law enforcement agencies also maintain separate databases. Law enforcement agencies often share this information with other similar enforcement agencies and this information is usually made available to the public. All states have official "statewide repositories" of criminal history information that include information contributed by the various county and municipal courts and law enforcement agencies within the state. State repositories are usually accurate, but all states have provisions for the correction of errors that occur in the reporting and recording of criminal history information. Individuals may normally obtain their own records from the state, but to obtain the records of another person, a private individual will normally need to obtain a release from the subject of the record search. The federal government maintains extensive criminal histories and acts as a central repository for all agencies to report their own data. The Next Generation Identification (NGI) System is a database of criminal history information that is maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Acting within the NGI System the Interstate Identification Index (III) System maintains a system of state pointers that provide a gateway to the state that maintains administrative control of that arrest information. The FBI maintains administrative control for the federal agencies. When a criminal history record is requested, then the appropriate agency responds with their criminal history record for that subject. Use and usage controversy Criminal records may be used for many purposes, mostly for background checks, including identification, employment, security clearance, adoption, immigration/international travel/visa, licensing, assistance in developing suspects in an ongoing criminal investigation, and for enhanced sentencing in criminal prosecutions. In the 21st century, there has been controversy about for-profit data mining companies that harvest much of the electronic booking blotter records from various police authorities nationwide and offer it for free on the public Internet and for sale to employers. Though frequently effective at identifying applicants with criminal backgrounds, the mined data does not usually reflect subsequent results of any criminal prosecution, acquittal, or dismissal of charges, and the highly prejudicial nature of such records can damage applicant chances for jobs and other benefits when such records are not in proper context of subsequent prosecutorial result for a hiring manager or recruiter to evaluate. In many cases, records are available for seven years or more beyond acquittals or dismissal of charges. In addition, since arrest records can sometimes be mistakenly matched to individuals with the same or similar names, the prejudicial nature of the available records, particularly violent ones, can negatively affect applicants and candidates in a dramatic way when they otherwise have no actual criminal record. Expungement In the United States, a conviction can be expunged, although the laws vary from state to state. Although in most states people with an expunged record may deny having a conviction, they may have to nonetheless inform certain prospective employers or government agencies of an expunged conviction. See also Background check Collateral consequences of criminal conviction Police certificate References External links Australia crimtrac.gov.au Canada Understanding Criminal Records Hong Kong Rehabilitation of Offenders Ordinance United Kingdom Criminal Records Bureau Disclosure Scotland Criminal Record
418467	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Dinklage	Peter Dinklage	Peter Hayden Dinklage (; born June 11, 1969) is an American actor. He received international recognition for portraying Tyrion Lannister on the HBO television series Game of Thrones (2011–2019), for which he won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series a record four times. He also received a Golden Globe Award in 2011 and a Screen Actors Guild Award in 2020 for the role. Dinklage has a common form of dwarfism known as achondroplasia; he stands tall. He has used his celebrity status to raise social awareness concerning dwarfs. Dinklage studied acting at Bennington College, performing in a number of amateur stage productions. He made his film debut in the black comedy Living in Oblivion (1995), and had his breakthrough with a starring role in the 2003 comedy-drama The Station Agent. His other films include Elf (2003), Lassie (2005), Find Me Guilty (2006), Penelope (2006), Underdog (2007), Death at a Funeral (2007), The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (2008), Death at a Funeral (2010), X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), Pixels (2015), and Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017). In 2018, he appeared as Eitri in the Marvel film Avengers: Infinity War and Hervé Villechaize in the biopic film My Dinner with Hervé. He also provided voice-acting for the video game Destiny. In 2023, he voiced Scourge in Transformers: Rise of the Beasts. Dinklage has also performed in theater, with roles such as the title character in Richard III (2003) at the Public Theatre, Rakitin in A Month in the Country (2015) at Classic Stage Company, and Cyrano de Bergerac in Cyrano at the Daryl Roth Theatre in 2019. Early life Dinklage was born on June 11, 1969, either at the Jersey Shore region of New Jersey, or in Morristown, New Jersey, to John Carl Dinklage, an insurance salesman, and Diane Dinklage, an elementary-school music teacher of German and Irish descent. He grew up in the historic Brookside section of Mendham Township, with his parents and older brother Jonathan. He is the only member of his family with achondroplasia. As a child, Dinklage and his brother performed puppet musicals for people in their neighborhood. He has described his brother Jonathan as being the "real performer of the family", saying that his brother's passion for the violin was the only thing that kept him from pursuing acting. (Jonathan graduated from the Mason Gross School of the Arts at Rutgers University and is a violinist and concertmaster for the musical Hamilton.) Dinklage had his first theatrical success in a fifth-grade production of The Velveteen Rabbit. Playing the lead, he was delighted by the audience's response to the show. He attended Delbarton School, a Catholic preparatory school for boys, where he developed his acting skills. In 1984, he was inspired by a production of the play True West, by American playwright Sam Shepard, to pursue an acting career. He then attended Bennington College, where he studied for a drama degree and appeared in numerous productions before graduating in 1991. He moved to New York City with his friend Ian Bell to build a theater company. Failing to pay the rent, they moved out of their apartment. He lived in New York for 20 years in Williamsburg and the West Village. He then worked at a data-processing company for six years before pursuing a career as a full-time actor. Career Early career (1995–2002) Dinklage initially struggled to find acting work, partially because he refused to take the roles typically offered to actors with his condition, such as "elves or leprechauns". He had a credited film debut in the low-budget independent comedy-drama Living in Oblivion (1995), where he starred alongside Steve Buscemi. It tells the story of a director, crew, and cast filming a low-budget independent film in New York City. Dinklage's role was that of a frustrated actor with dwarfism who complains about his clichéd roles. The next year, he appeared as a building manager in the crime drama Bullet starring rapper Tupac Shakur. Even after his well-received performance in Living in Oblivion, Dinklage could not find someone willing to be his agent. After a recommendation from Buscemi to director Alexandre Rockwell, Dinklage was cast in the comedy 13 Moons (2002). When later interviewed for a theater website, he was asked what his ideal role was, and he replied "the romantic lead" who gets the girl. Breakthrough (2003–2010) Dinklage found his breakthrough playing Finbar McBride, who is a quiet, withdrawn, unmarried man in the 2003 Tom McCarthy-directed film The Station Agent. According to co-star Bobby Cannavale, the film took three years to make and was not at first written with Dinklage in mind. Cannavale said McCarthy "set out to tell a story about a guy who was a train enthusiast who had chosen to isolate himself from the world," but when McCarthy actually started "putting pen to paper" for the screenplay, he decided to write the role for him. Speaking about the role, Dinklage noted that usually "roles written for someone my size are a little flat"—often either comical or "sort of Lord of the Rings" type characters filled with wisdom; further: "They're not sexual, they're not romantic" and "they're not flawed." What attracted him to the character McCarthy had written was that it was not one of the stereotypical roles people with dwarfism play; rather, McBride has "romantic feelings" as well as "anger and ... flaws." The role earned him the Independent Spirit Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor nominations. In the New York Observer, reviewer Andrew Sarris wrote, "Dinklage projects both size and intelligence in the fascinating reticence of his face." Besides being Dinklage's highest-rated film on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Station Agent was modestly successful at the box office, earning over $8 million against its small budget. Dinklage later appeared in the direct-to-DVD film Tiptoes (2003) with Gary Oldman and Matthew McConaughey. The film met with negative reviews, particularly Oldman's role as a person with dwarfism. According to Dinklage, the original cut of the film was "gorgeous," but the director was fired shortly after turning it in, and the film was re-cut into a "rom-com with dwarfs." Speaking on the Oldman controversy, Dinklage said, "There was some flak: 'Why would you put Gary Oldman on his knees? That's almost like blackface.' And I have my own opinions about political correctness, but I was just like, It's Gary Oldman. He can do whatever he wants, and I'm so happy to be here." That year, Dinklage also starred in several off-Broadway productions, such as Richard III. Dinklage appeared in the Christmas comedy film Elf as Miles Finch, an irritable children's author who beats up Buddy Hobbs (Will Ferrell) after he mistakes him for an elf. In 2005, he starred in the short-lived CBS science fiction series Threshold and appeared as a wedding planner in the comedy film The Baxter. He also made an appearance in the adventure comedy-drama Lassie as a traveling circus performer. In 2006, Dinklage co-starred with Vin Diesel in Find Me Guilty, a courtroom drama directed by Sidney Lumet. The film tells the true story of the longest Mafia trial in American history; Dinklage played Ben Klandis, the lead defense attorney. Critical reaction to the film was mostly positive, though it was a commercial failure. Writing for Chicago Sun-Times, film critic Roger Ebert praised Dinklage's performance, saying that the character he plays stands apart as "concise, articulate and professional." The same year, he portrayed the character Marlowe Sawyer in episodes of Nip/Tuck. He played a fictionalized version of himself in an episode of the HBO series Entourage and appeared in NBC's 30 Rock as Stewart. The same year, Dinklage appeared in the British romantic comedy Penelope playing Lemon, a tabloid reporter. The film received mixed reviews from critics. Dinklage appeared in the 2007 British comedy film Death at a Funeral, reprising the role in the 2010 American remake; the films tell the story of a family trying to deal with a variety of issues after the death of their father. Later in 2007, he played the villainous Simon Bar Sinister in Underdog, which was poorly received, but had some commercial success. Dinklage played Trumpkin in the 2008 film The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian. The film was a box office disappointment, with global revenues of $419.7 million, and film critic Bill Gibron described Dinklage's role as a "cutesy stereotype he has tried to avoid." Later that year, he played the title role in Uncle Vanya (directed by his wife, Erica Schmidt) in Bard College's annual Bard SummerScape, the Upstate New York summer stage on the Annandale-on-Hudson campus. In 2010, he appeared in the Australian movie I Love You Too alongside Brendan Cowell and Peter Helliar. Mainstream and critical success (2011–present) Game of Thrones Between 2011 and 2019, Dinklage portrayed Tyrion Lannister in HBO's fantasy drama Game of Thrones, an adaptation of author George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire novels. Game of Thrones takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. Tyrion is a member of House Lannister, one of the wealthiest and most powerful families in Westeros, and uses his status as a Lannister to mitigate the impact of the marginalization and derision he has received all of his life. In May 2009, he was the first actor to be cast, as showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss noted that Dinklage, whom they described as funny, smart and witty, was their first choice for the role, as the actor's "core of humanity, covered by a shell of sardonic dry wit, is pretty well in keeping with the character." Unfamiliar with the source material, Dinklage was cautious in his first meeting with the producers; as a dwarf, "he wouldn't play elves or leprechauns" and was choosy about genre roles. Benioff and Weiss told Dinklage that the character was "a different kind of fantasy little person," or in the actor's words, "No beard, no pointy shoes, a romantic, real human being." Dinklage signed on to play Tyrion before the meeting was half over, in part because, he said, "They told me how popular he was." Martin said of Dinklage's casting, "If he hadn't accepted the part, oh, boy, I don't know what we would have done." The series proved to be a commercial success; it was renewed for multiple seasons and concluded with its eighth season in May 2019. Dinklage received widespread critical praise for his performance. Matthew Gilbert from The Boston Globe said that Dinklage "gives a winning performance that is charming, morally ambiguous, and self-aware." Dan Kois of The New York Times noted that Dinklage's performance has made the character "all the more popular." The Los Angeles Times wrote "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage." HuffPost called Tyrion the "most quotable" character and "one of the most beloved characters" of the series. For his performance, he has gone on to win an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2011, 2015, 2018, and 2019, as well as the 2012 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor. As a result of his performance and increased screen time, Dinklage was given top billing starting in the series' second season. In 2014, he said on The Late Show with David Letterman that he had once tried to read the books the show is based upon, but had found them confusing. He joked, "George Martin, our author, is probably going to kill my character soon because I mentioned that." In 2014, Dinklage and four of his Game of Thrones co-stars became some of the highest paid actors on television, although sources differ on the actors' per-episode salaries. In 2015, Dinklage lent his voice for the role of Tyrion in Game of Thrones: A Telltale Games Series, a video game based on the show. Other performances In 2012, Dinklage voiced Captain Gutt in Ice Age: Continental Drift. Dinklage said he prepared himself by making sure to rest his voice before the recording sessions as it was his first voice acting role, and that he prefers doing roles he has not done before. After appearing in an episode of NBC's late-night sketch comedy Saturday Night Live in 2013, Dinklage hosted an episode of the show in April 2016; his appearances included a sketch of him and Gwen Stefani singing a new song called "Space Pants." He received praise for his performance. In 2014, Dinklage starred in the comedy horror film Knights of Badassdom opposite Ryan Kwanten and Steve Zahn. The film is about three best friends that go to the woods and reenact a live action Dungeons & Dragons role play, when they mistakenly conjure up a demon from Hell. The same year, he played the villain Bolivar Trask in the superhero film X-Men: Days of Future Past. In preparation for his role, Dinklage stated that he did not want to approach the character necessarily as a villain, saying that Trask "actually sees what he's doing as a good thing." He also voiced the AI Ghost in the 2014 video game Destiny, but was replaced by Nolan North in August 2015. Executive producer Mark Noseworthy said that it was due to scheduling difficulties caused by Dinklage's other acting commitments. In 2015, Dinklage starred in the science fiction comedy film Pixels as a former arcade champion named Eddie Plant. According to director Chris Columbus, Plant was partially inspired by Billy Mitchell. The film was critically panned. The Guardian praised Dinklage's performance in an otherwise "dreary romp". In 2016, Dinklage provided the voice of The Mighty Eagle in The Angry Birds Movie, and recorded a song for the musical's soundtrack. His next release, the independent film Rememory (2017), failed to impress reviewers, but his role of Sam Bloom was praised. Freelance film critic Yasmin Kleinbart stated that "Dinklage deserves better than this film" and John DeFore in The Hollywood Reporter said that he "delivers a soulful lead performance that will attract fans' attention." Also in 2017, Dinklage had a supporting role in the drama-dark comedy film Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri, from director Martin McDonagh, and the drama Three Christs, both of which played at the Toronto International Film Festival, with the former receiving widespread critical success. In 2018, Dinklage produced and starred in I Think We're Alone Now, a post-apocalyptic drama based on the companionship between Del, played by Dinklage, and Grace, played by Elle Fanning. The film premiered at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival, and was later released to theaters on September 14, 2018. In 2016, Dinklage and his longtime manager David Ginsburg founded their joint-venture production company, Estuary Films. I Think We're Alone Now is the first film under Estuary. Dinklage appeared in the 2018 Marvel Studios film Avengers: Infinity War as the character Eitri, a giant dwarf. Dinklage and writer-director Sacha Gervasi spent several years writing and producing a film based on the final days of actor Hervé Villechaize, who died by suicide shortly after his 1993 interview with Gervasi. In 2018, Dinklage starred and played the title role in My Dinner with Hervé. The movie was approved by HBO, with Dinklage co-starring alongside Jamie Dornan. In August and September 2018, he starred in the title role of Cyrano, a stage musical adaptation of Cyrano de Bergerac written by his wife Erica Schmidt, with songs by the band The National. He reprised the role in a 2021 film adaptation of the musical, for which he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy. In 2021, Dinklage portrayed mobster Roman Lunyov in the crime thriller I Care a Lot. His performance was praised, with Tony Sokol favorably comparing his character to Russian mobsters in other media, including Training Day and Orange is the New Black. In 2023, Dinklage voiced Terrorcon Scourge, the main antagonist in Transformers: Rise of the Beasts. Upcoming projects In 2017, it was announced that Dinklage has been attached to star in the American comedy O Lucky Day, which is to be directed by Jon S. Baird where he will play a con-man who pretends to be a leprechaun. On October 5, 2017, Dinklage purchased the rights to the film adaptation of Joe R. Lansdale's novel The Thicket. In 2020, it was announced Dinklage will voice Hitpig in the upcoming animated film Hitpig. More recently, his production company Estuary Films signed a first look deal with Entertainment One. Dinklage will star in the upcoming film She Came to Me, an American romantic comedy-drama written and directed by Rebecca Miller. Personal life In 2005, Dinklage married Erica Schmidt, a theater director. They have two children: a daughter born in 2011 and a son born in 2017. Dinklage's face was injured in the early 1990s, when he was in a "punk-funk-rap" band called Whizzy. It gave him a scar that runs from his neck to his eyebrow. He was playing at the nightclub CBGB in New York City, where he was accidentally kneed in the face and started bleeding on the stage. In 2008, Dinklage described himself as a lapsed Catholic. Dinklage has been a vegetarian since the age of 16. An advocate for animal rights, he supports Farm Sanctuary and has served as the spokesman for the organization's Walk for Farm Animals. He also narrated the video Face your Food, a film on behalf of PETA advocating a vegan diet on ethical grounds. He appeared in another PETA campaign, asking Game of Thrones fans to adopt from shelters rather than to buy huskies that might look like direwolves. In 2017, Dinklage attended the Women's March demonstration in Park City, Utah, to advocate legislation and policies regarding human rights and other issues. Dwarfism Dinklage has a form of dwarfism, achondroplasia, a genetic disorder which affects bone growth. As a result, he is tall, with an average-sized head and torso but shorter than average limbs. While Dinklage has come to accept his condition, he sometimes found it challenging when growing up. In 2003, he said that when he was younger he was often angry and bitter about his condition, but as he got older, he realized that he "just ha[s] to have a sense of humor," to know "that it's not your problem. It's theirs." When asked in 2012 whether he saw himself as "a spokesman for the rights of little people," Dinklage responded: "I don't know what I would say. Everyone's different. Every person my size has a different life, a different history. Different ways of dealing with it. Just because I'm seemingly okay with it, I can't preach how to be okay with it." Despite his own sentiment about the matter, Dinklage has been viewed as a role model for people sharing his condition. At the 2012 Golden Globe ceremony, when Dinklage won the award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film, he told the audience that he had been thinking about "a gentleman, his name is Martin Henderson," and suggested that they Google his name. Henderson was a man with dwarfism from Somerset, England, who was badly injured after being tossed by a rugby fan in a bar. The speech by Dinklage brought media and public attention to the act of dwarf-tossing with Henderson's name being trended worldwide on social media. Henderson eventually died of his injuries in 2016, five years after the incident. Dinklage turned down offers from talk shows to discuss the topic. He later explained that 20 years earlier he might have accepted these offers but that he's a "little bit more at peace with things now and I—said what I wanted to say. I have a friend who says the world doesn't need another angry dwarf." In January 2022, Dinklage appeared on an episode of the WTF with Marc Maron podcast, in which he criticized Disney's portrayal of the Seven Dwarfs in the upcoming live-action remake of the 1937 animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. He stated that Disney tried to be progressive in one way by casting a Latina actress as Snow White, but retained the damaging stereotype of the Seven Dwarfs. In response, Disney issued a statement, saying "We are taking a different approach with these seven characters and have been consulting with members of the dwarfism community. We look forward to sharing more as the film heads into production after a lengthy development period". Fellow dwarf actor and professional wrestler Hornswoggle criticized Dinklage for his comments, claiming he is trying to reduce the number of roles available that dwarf actors can play. Works and accolades According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, Dinklage's most critically acclaimed films are Living in Oblivion (1995), The Station Agent (2003), Lassie (2005), X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), and Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017). Dinklage won a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actor Guild Award for his performance in Game of Thrones. He has also won four Primetime Emmy Awards: Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for the same role. He is also the only member of the cast to receive a Primetime Emmy. Dinklage has been nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor each year from 2013 to 2017. He has also been nominated for Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor three times, in 2012, 2016 and 2017. , Dinklage has won twelve awards from 58 nominations. He has been nominated for eight Primetime Emmy Awards and 15 Screen Actor Guild Awards, winning four Primetime Emmy Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award. Notes References External links General Interviews Interview with Peter Dinklage about The Station Agent BBC Movies Interview about The Station Agent Playboy 20Q Interview with Peter Dinklage Talks Peter Dinklage '91 Addresses Bennington College's Class of 2012 1969 births Living people Actors from Williamsburg, Brooklyn Actors with dwarfism American actors with disabilities American film producers American male film actors American male stage actors American male television actors American male video game actors American male voice actors American people of German descent American people of Irish descent Audiobook narrators Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (television) winners Film producers from New Jersey Male actors from New Jersey Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Mendham Township, New Jersey 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors
418488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston%20Nutt	Houston Nutt	Houston Dale Nutt Jr. (born October 14, 1957) is a former American football player and coach. He formerly worked for CBS Sports as a college football studio analyst. Previously, he served as the head football coach at Murray State University (1993–1996), Boise State University (1997), the University of Arkansas (1998–2007), and the University of Mississippi (2008–2011). Nutt's all-time career winning percentage is just under 59 percent. Early life and family Houston Nutt Jr. was born in Arkansas, a distant descendant of Haller Nutt and member of the Nutt family, which is prominent in Southern society. He is the son of the late Houston Dale Nutt Sr., and Emogene Nutt and is the oldest of four children. Houston Nutt Sr. briefly played basketball for the University of Kentucky under Adolph Rupp before transferring to Oklahoma A&M (now Oklahoma State) in 1952. Nutt graduated from Little Rock Central High School. His parents taught at the Arkansas School for the Deaf at Little Rock, Arkansas, for 35 years. His father also served as athletic director and head basketball coach for the school. His father was inducted into the Arkansas Sports Hall of Fame in 2001. During his childhood, Houston and his brothers were daily members at the Billy Mitchell Boys and Girls Club in Little Rock. Wife Diana, like Nutt, graduated from Oklahoma State University. The couple have four children together: Houston III (born March 11, 1987), twins Hailey and Hanna (born September 26, 1988), and Haven (born March 19, 1991). Nutt's brother Dickey Nutt was the head basketball coach at Arkansas State University until he announced his resignation on February 19, 2008. He was also head coach at Southeast Missouri State of the OVC, before moving on to coach at Stetson University. He is now a special assistant coach at Cleveland State. His brother Danny Nutt served as the Assistant Athletics Director for Player Development at Ole Miss during Houston's tenure as head coach. Nutt's youngest brother Dennis Nutt, a former NBA player, is head men's basketball coach at Ouachita Baptist University. College athletic career Nutt was the last player recruited by Arkansas head coach Frank Broyles before his retirement in 1976. Nutt was recruited as a drop-back-style quarterback and started four games as a true freshman after starting quarterback Ron Calcagni was sidelined with an injury. Nutt also played that year for the Southwest Conference champion Arkansas basketball team under coach Eddie Sutton, which went 26–2 and accomplished a 16–0 conference mark. With the retirement of Broyles, Arkansas hired Lou Holtz as the head football coach. Holtz established an option offense that did not make use of Nutt's passing style and relegated him to the bench as a backup. Disappointed by his lack of playing time, Nutt transferred to Oklahoma State University and played two years as a backup quarterback. During his time at Oklahoma State, he also played for the basketball team. Nutt graduated from Oklahoma State in 1981 with a degree in physical education. Coaching career Assistant coaching After graduation, Nutt became a graduate assistant at Oklahoma State under head coach Jimmy Johnson. In 1983, Nutt returned to Arkansas and became a graduate assistant coach under former coach Lou Holtz. In the spring of 1984, Nutt was hired by Arkansas State University as a full-time assistant coach, but he spent only four months there before returning to Oklahoma State that summer as a wide receivers coach. Nutt spent six seasons as an assistant coach for receivers and quarterbacks at Oklahoma State, and was promoted to offensive coordinator in 1989. During his years at Oklahoma State, he helped mentor running back Barry Sanders, who won the 1988 Heisman Trophy and Buffalo Bills legend Thurman Thomas. In 1990, Nutt returned to the University of Arkansas as an assistant under head coach Jack Crowe and established a reputation as an excellent recruiter. Nutt remained with the Razorbacks for three seasons and established relationships with Arkansas high school football coaches that would serve him in good stead in later years. Murray State In 1993, Nutt received his first head coaching position at NCAA Division I-AA Murray State University. The team went 4–7 and 5–6 in Nutt's first two years. In 1995, his efforts paid off with an 11–1 record and an Ohio Valley Conference championship after reeling off an 8–0 conference mark. Nutt received Ohio Valley Conference Coach of the Year honors and was recognized with the Eddie Robinson National Division I-AA Coach of the Year Award. Nutt repeated his success for the 1996 season with an 11–2 record and another undefeated run through his Ohio Valley Conference schedule. Murray State won its first round Division I-AA playoff appearance, earning Nutt the OVC Coach of the Year honors and regional Coach of the Year honors. Boise State Nutt made the step up to NCAA Division I-A the next year when Boise State University hired him to take over their program, which was the lowest ranked of 112 Division I-A schools and had posted a 2–10 record the year before. Two years after making the Division I-AA finals in 1994, the Broncos had an interim head coach in 1996 as head coach Pokey Allen battled cancer. Boise State's first year in Division I-A had been difficult; the school was looking for a recruiter and motivator to jump start their program following Allen's death in late December. Nutt's team posted a 5–6 record in 1997, playing at the Division I-A level with its Division I-AA players. Nutt's team beat rival Idaho on the road in overtime for the first Boise win in Moscow, Idaho since 1981. Additionally, Boise State almost pulled off an upset against Wisconsin of the Big Ten. Arkansas Nutt became the head coach of the University of Arkansas Razorbacks on December 10, 1997, succeeding head coach Danny Ford. Nutt, during his first press conference as coach, immediately mentioned a "National Championship" as his goal and felt that Arkansas had the program to win one. The Razorbacks had suffered through a low period under a succession of head coaches in the previous years, having only received two bowl game bids in the eight seasons prior to Nutt's arrival. Upon his arrival at Arkansas, Nutt invigorated the Razorback fan base with his enthusiasm and high energy. Under Nutt, the Razorbacks were one of three SEC schools to play in three New Year's Day bowls within five years. Nutt's teams were noted for a series of overtime games including the two longest overtime games in NCAA history. Off the field, some of Nutt's players were named to the SEC Academic Honor Roll 145 times and he established a reputation as a responsible coach academically. Nutt received some criticism for a SEC win–loss record that was just barely over .500 and because he called his own offensive plays during a game instead of relying on an offensive coordinator. In his first six seasons, Nutt led the team to a bowl game each year and averaged eight wins per season. 1998 season In his first season as head coach, Nutt's Razorbacks were picked to finish last in the Southeastern Conference Western Division in 1998, but ended up with a 9–3 record and a share of the division title. The Razorbacks lost to the eventual national champion Tennessee Volunteers on Tennessee's home field after quarterback Clint Stoerner fumbled while trying to run out the clock. For their efforts, the Razorbacks received their first-ever invitation to the Citrus Bowl and ended the season ranked No. 16 after losing to Michigan, led by junior quarterback Tom Brady. Nutt was selected as the Football News' National Coach of the Year. 1999 season In 1999, Nutt's Razorbacks were picked to win the SEC Western Division, but suffered a series of setbacks during the season. They recovered to defeat #4 ranked Tennessee, getting revenge for the loss in Knoxville the previous season due to Stoerner's fumble, and Mississippi State to earn a Cotton Bowl Classic bid versus arch-rival Texas. The Razorbacks defeated Texas 27–6, becoming the first team to ever hold Texas to negative rushing yards in a bowl game. It was Arkansas' first bowl victory since the 1985 Holiday Bowl. The Cotton Bowl victory, which was the first college football game played in the 21st Century, propelled Arkansas into the top 20 to end the season, finishing (8-4). 2000 season The 2000 season saw the Razorbacks lose the core of their team and suffer a string of injuries, including season-ending injuries to all of the starting running backs, and injuries to three of their quarterbacks. The Razorbacks struggled throughout the season until the final two games, when they defeated ranked Mississippi State and LSU teams to pull out another winning record and a Las Vegas Bowl appearance. Arkansas lost to UNLV in that game, finishing (6-6). 2001 season In the 2001 season, the Razorbacks started off with a revenge victory over UNLV, but then suffered three straight losses in conference play. They then came back to win six of the last seven, including victories over ranked South Carolina and Auburn teams. Based on this performance, the Razorbacks were selected to return to the Cotton Bowl Classic to face the defending national champion Oklahoma Sooners. Arkansas lost, gaining only 50 yards of total offense and just six first downs. Nutt was named SEC coach of the year by the Associated Press and by the SEC coaches. Arkansas finished (7-5). 2002 season In 2002, Nutt's Razorbacks (9-5) stumbled midway through the season but rallied to pull together five straight wins, including a last second touchdown pass against LSU, often referred to as the "Miracle on Markham" to pull out a share of a Western Division title. Arkansas was defeated by the Georgia Bulldogs in the SEC Championship Game and ended the season with a loss to Minnesota in the Music City Bowl. 2003 season In 2003, Nutt's team started off with a 4–0 record including a win against #5 Texas in Austin (Arkansas' first victory at Texas since 1988). The early season success raised fan expectations sky-high and put Nutt under intense pressure when the Razorbacks lost their next three games, to include controversial losses to Auburn and Florida, putting them out of contention for the national championship or even the SEC Western Division crown. The Razorbacks won four of their final five games and defeated Missouri in the Independence Bowl to finish with a record of (9-4). After the 2003 season, Nebraska was rumored to be courting Nutt to be their head coach, after the firing of Frank Solich. 2004 season The 2004 and 2005 campaigns were widely expected to be rebuilding years due to young teams. The 2004 season ended with a 5–6 record and without a bowl invitation for the first time under Nutt. 2005 season The 2005 season was also a rebuilding year as expected. Tough losses to USC (70–17) as well as to Vanderbilt and South Carolina showed that the season had been predicted accurately. The team was ineligible for a bowl for the second season in a row (and the second season overall under coach Nutt). This led to Razorback fans calling for coaching changes. After meeting with Frank Broyles (athletic director) at the conclusion of the season, coaching changes were made by Nutt in the offseason at the risk of being fired, the most notable of which was the forced addition of Gus Malzahn, previously the head coach at Springdale High School in Springdale, Arkansas, as offensive coordinator. The hiring of Malzahn allowed Nutt to sign several highly recruited Springdale players, including Springdale High School quarterback Mitch Mustain and wide receiver Damian Williams, both of whom eventually transferred to USC. 2006 season The 2006 season began with a new offensive coordinator in Malzahn. The Razorbacks started the season losing 50–14 in blowout fashion, at a home game in Fayetteville, to USC. Following the loss to the Trojans, Nutt announced that Mustain would replace Robert Johnson as the Hogs' starting quarterback. Mustain led Arkansas to eight straight wins, including victories against No. 22 Alabama at home and No. 2 Auburn at Auburn, before losing the starting job to Casey Dick during the South Carolina game. Dick had been slotted to start at the beginning of the season but was unable to do so due to a back injury suffered in the spring. Dick led the Razorbacks to two victories out of four for a total of 10 wins, including a win over No. 13 Tennessee in Fayetteville when ESPN's College Gameday crew was in attendance. The Razorbacks moved to No. 7 in the BCS standings. However, the Hogs lost their last regular season game to the No. 8 LSU Tigers, 31–26. Despite the loss, the Hogs were still Western Division Champions of the SEC, and played the 11–1, fourth-ranked Florida Gators for the SEC Championship. Florida won, 38–28. The Razorbacks then lost to the No. 5 Wisconsin Badgers on New Year's Day, 2007 in the Capital One Bowl, finishing the season with a (10-4) record. It was Arkansas' first 10-win season since 1989. The general consensus is that Arkansas' success in 2006 can be directly attributed to Malzahn's play-calling, and the strength of Arkansas' running game. A highlight of the season was the second-place finish of sophomore tailback Darren McFadden in the Heisman Trophy voting. Nutt was named SEC coach of the year by the Associated Press and by the SEC coaches for the second time. 2007 season The 2007 season began with the Razorbacks ranked No. 21 by the AP Poll. The Hogs opened at home with a victory over Troy. However, early losses to Alabama and Kentucky knocked Arkansas out of the rankings and made the remaining SEC schedule an uphill struggle, even with Darren McFadden, Felix Jones, and Peyton Hillis in the Razorback backfield. Fan frustration boiled over, with some fans wearing all black T-shirts with anti-Nutt statements, radicals made death threats against the Nutt family, and one fan bought an entire page in a local Little Rock newspaper calling for Nutt to be fired. A non-official flyover was made hours before the Auburn home game with a small airplane towing a banner which read: "Fire Houston Nutt. Players and fans deserve better." On November 23, 2007, in Baton Rouge, Nutt's Razorbacks beat the #1 football team in the nation. In a game that lasted three overtimes, Arkansas defeated eventual national champion LSU Tigers, 50–48, returning the Golden Boot back to Arkansas. Darren McFadden would finish his career at Arkansas as the school's all-time leading rusher, was a consensus first team All-American, and finished runner-up in the Heisman voting for the second year in a row. Resignation Three days after defeating LSU, Nutt resigned as head coach of the Arkansas Razorbacks amid several controversies and rumors, which had come prior to and throughout the 2007 season. He left the school with a 75–48 record, which is second on the school's all-time win list, behind only Broyles. The 2007 team would go on to lose to Missouri in the 2008 Cotton Bowl Classic under interim head coach Reggie Herring, finishing (8-5). Ole Miss On November 27, 2007, Nutt was hired as the new head coach of the Ole Miss Rebels, replacing former head coach Ed Orgeron, who was fired after three consecutive losing seasons. Nutt's move to Ole Miss served to stoke the long-standing Arkansas–Ole Miss football rivalry. It was announced on April 16, 2009, that Nutt and his wife, Diana, had committed to give a gift of $100,000 to Ole Miss, evenly divided between the university's indoor practice facility and the creation of student-athlete scholarships. 2008 season After a 41–24 victory over border rival Memphis to open the season, the Rebels suffered a loss to the then-ranked Wake Forest Demon Deacons, 30–28, on a last-second field goal. After defeating Samford, Ole Miss lost to the Vanderbilt Commodores at home. After the loss, the Rebels traveled to Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville, Florida, where they defeated the #4-ranked, and eventual national champion, Florida Gators, 31–30, after blocking Florida's attempt at a tying extra point and a defensive stop of Florida quarterback Tim Tebow on 4th-and-1. The next weekend, the Rebels lost to South Carolina. Next on the schedule was Alabama, ranked No. 2 in the nation at the time. During the game, Ole Miss became the first team Alabama trailed in the 2008 season. Alabama ultimately prevailed, however, in the final series of the game, winning, 24–20. Then came Arkansas. Nutt, facing his old team, came out victorious, 23–21. The Rebels followed that with a 17–7 home win against Auburn. On November 15, Ole Miss beat ULM, 59–0, to push their record to 6–4 and become bowl eligible for the first time since 2003. Ole Miss next beat No. 8 LSU, 31–13, in Baton Rouge, snapping a six-game losing streak to the Tigers, earning the Rebels an Associated Press ranking of No. 25, the first time in four years Ole Miss had been ranked, and putting them in position for a possible bid to the Cotton Bowl Classic in Dallas, Texas. The Rebels went on to beat SEC West and in-state rival Mississippi State, 45–0, in the Egg Bowl to finish the regular season at 8–4. The win over the Bulldogs moved the Rebels up to No. 22 in the AP Poll and landed the team their first ranking of the year in the Coaches' Poll, coming in at No. 25. Ole Miss defeated the No. 7 Texas Tech Red Raiders, 47–34, in the Cotton Bowl Classic. 2009 season The Ole Miss Rebels began the 2009 season rated highly by the media. After beating Memphis, 45–14, and Southeastern Louisiana, 52–6, which gave Ole Miss the second longest winning streak in the nation at eight games dating back to the 2008 season, Ole Miss climbed as high as No. 4 in the AP Poll before losing their 2009 SEC opener, 16–10, on the road at South Carolina in a Thursday night game on September 24. After the loss, Ole Miss fell 17 spots in the AP Poll, down to No. 21. Ole Miss went on the road again and beat Vanderbilt the next week, 23–7. After a disappointing start and pair of conference losses, they managed to rebound against Arkansas, winning 30–17. Ole Miss went on to beat No. 8 LSU, 25–23, at Oxford. Ole Miss lost to in-state and SEC rival Mississippi State on November 28 in the Egg Bowl at Starkville, 41–27. Ole Miss was picked to play in the Cotton Bowl Classic for the second year in a row, where they defeated Oklahoma State, 21–7, to end the season. The Houston Nutt Rule Nutt recruited 37 players in February 2010, leading the SEC to enact the Houston Nutt Rule: effective August 1, 2010, "SEC teams will be limited to signing 28 football recruits, with the usual maximum of 25 allowed to enroll in the fall." ESPN recruiting analyst Tom Luginbill said: 2010 season The Ole Miss Rebels finished 4–8 overall in the 2010 season, including 1–7 in the Southeastern Conference. Among the worst of these losses was to FCS-member Jacksonville State, which was Ole Miss' first loss to a lower division team since 1945. In an ironic twist, the head coach of Jacksonville State at the time was Jack Crowe, who was fired by athletic director Frank Broyles one game into the 1992 season as head coach at Arkansas, after a season-opening loss to FCS-member The Citadel. Houston Nutt was an assistant on Crowe's staff at that time. All four victories were vacated in 2019 as punishment for recruiting violations committed by members of Nutt's staff, leaving the team officially winless. It was Ole Miss' first winless record in modern times. 2011 season Nutt set an Ole Miss coaching record with his 12th straight Southeastern Conference loss. On November 7, 2011, Nutt was fired by the University of Mississippi, but was allowed to coach through the end of the season. His final game was a 31–3 loss to Mississippi State in the annual Egg Bowl. Nutt also lost for the second straight year to his former team, the University of Arkansas, as the Razorbacks held on for a 29–24 victory in Oxford. Ole Miss finished winless in conference play. Two wins in non-conference play were vacated in 2019 as punishment for recruiting violations committed by members of Nutt's staff, leaving the team officially winless. Allegations of misconduct in recruiting In January 2016, the NCAA notified Nutt's former university, Mississippi, of 13 compliance violations alleged to have occurred under both Nutt and then-head coach Hugh Freeze. Nutt was alleged to have cheated by allowing ineligible students to play in Ole Miss games in 2011 and 2012. However, Nutt filed suit against Ole Miss, and the suit was later settled with the university and Nutt issuing this official statement: "Certain statements made by University employees in January 2016 appear to have contributed to misleading media reports about Coach Nutt. To the extent any such statements harmed Coach Nutt’s reputation, the University apologizes, as this was not the intent. The NCAA’s Notice of Allegations dated January 22, 2016, did not name or implicate Coach Nutt in any misconduct, and it would have been inappropriate for any University employee to suggest otherwise." Apparently, two assistants under Nutt had conspired to fix certain players' ACT scores to make them eligible to play and those assistants under Nutt were found guilty of academic fraud. These were the only two violations which occurred under Nutt's administration; of the 21 total NCAA findings, the remaining 19 violations were under Freeze's administration. Head coaching record Notes References External links 1957 births Living people American men's basketball players American football quarterbacks Arkansas Razorbacks football coaches Arkansas Razorbacks football players Arkansas Razorbacks men's basketball players Arkansas State Red Wolves football coaches Boise State Broncos football coaches Murray State Racers football coaches Oklahoma State Cowboys basketball players Oklahoma State Cowboys football coaches Oklahoma State Cowboys football players Ole Miss Rebels football coaches Little Rock Central High School alumni Players of American football from Little Rock, Arkansas Basketball players from Arkansas
418532	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Eastern%20Caribbean%20people	List of Eastern Caribbean people	Listed below are prominent people from the Eastern Caribbean, the Guianas. Because of the close proximity of these countries, some people are listed under more than one heading. The following are not included: Bahamians, Belizeans, Cubans, Dominicans (from the Dominican Republic), Haitians, Jamaicans, or Puerto Ricans. Antigua and Barbuda List of British people of Antigua and Barbuda descent Actors and comedians Anna Maria Horsford - actress (of Antiguan descent) Artists Gregory Abbott - singer Jazzie B - singer (Soul II Soul) Shermain Jeremy Athletes Che Adams - footballer Curtly Ambrose - cricketer Craig Speedy Claxton - basketball player (of Antiguan descent) Carl Herrera - former NBA basketball player Emile Heskey - football player (of Antiguan descent) Maurice Hope - boxer Colin Kazim-Richards - football player (of Antiguan descent) Ledley King - footballer Sir Isaac Vivian Richards - cricketer Richie Richardson - cricketer Andy Roberts - cricketer Political leaders Lester Bird Sir Vere Cornwall Bird Sir James Carlisle Tim Hector Sir Wilfred Jacobs Baldwin Spencer Sydney Walling Sir George Walter Writers and intellectuals Leonard Tim Hector Joanne C. Hillhouse Marie-Elena John Jamaica Kincaid Barbados Actors Nicole Byer (father is Bajan) Alfred Enoch (mother is Barbadian Brazilian) Melyssa Ford Doug E. Fresh Meagan Good Cuba Gooding Jr. (father is a first-generation Bajan American) Omar Gooding David Harewood (both parents Bajan) LL Cool J (mother is a first-generation Bajan American) Mari Morrow Redd Pepper Jada Pinkett Smith Robert Christopher Riley (Trini mother, Bajan father) Lamman Rucker (mother is a first-generation Bajan American) Artists Ras Akyem Karl Broodhagen Edward Rupert Burrowes Alison Chapman-Andrews Jeena Chatrani Paul Dash Annalee Davis Stanley Greaves Gwendolyn Knight Coral Bernadine Pollard Sheena Rose Athletes Robert Bailey - American football player Nigel Benn - British boxer Andrea Blackett - hurdler Emmerson Boyce - footballer who captained the 2013 FA Cup winning Wigan Athletic side Fred Brathwaite - NHL goalie (born in Canada; both parents are from Barbados) Pierre Browne - sprinter Anson Carter - NHL player (born in Canada to parents from Barbados) Ashley Cole - English footballer (parents are from Barbados) Jon Cornish - CFL player (born in Canada to father from Barbados) Joel Garner - cricketer Kieran Gibbs (born in United Kingdom to father from Barbados) - footballer Joshua Gibson - Aussie rules footballer (parents are from Barbados) Gordon Greenidge - cricketer Marlon Harewood - footballer Ramon Harewood - American football player (Baltimore Ravens) Desmond Haynes - cricketer Hadan Holligan - footballer Sir Conrad Hunte - cricketer Paul Ince - English footballer and football manager (parents are from Christ Church, Barbados) Winston Justice - American football player (Denver Broncos) Darian King - professional tennis player Zane Maloney - racing driver Malcolm Marshall - cricketer Fran Matthews - Negro league baseball player Earl Maynard - bodybuilder, wrestler, etc. Anton Norris - high jumper Kemar Roach - cricketer Sam Seale - American football player Alana Shipp - American/Israeli IFBB professional bodybuilder Sir Garfield Sobers - cricketer Obadele Thompson - sprinter, etc. Walter Tull - English footballer; first British-born black Army officer; father was from Barbados Sir Clyde Walcott - cricketer Joel Ward (both parents are immigrants from Barbados) - ice hockey player Sir Everton Weekes - cricketer Kevin Weekes - NHL goalie (born in Canada, parents are both from Barbados) Andrew Wiggins - NBA basketball player (born in Canada, mother was born in Barbados) Sir Frank Worrell - cricketer Rhian Brewster Mariners Stede Bonnet William Shorey Musicians Afrika Bambaataa Kelly Beckett - member of the Paradiso Girls Vita Chambers CJ Fly - rapper Carl Cox - producer, DJ Cover Drive - pop band consisting of Amanda Reifer, T-Ray Armstrong, Barry "Bar-Man" Hill and Jamar Harding Damon Dash Dave East - rapper Faith Evans Doug E. Fresh Cuba Gooding, Sr. Grandmaster Flash Grynner Alison Hinds Jackie Opel Jaicko - R&B and pop music singer-songwriter Killy (rapper) Ryan Leslie Charles D. Lewis - artist, bassist, producer Hal Linton Livvi Franc Magnet Man Zeeteah Massiah Rakim Mayers - artist (A$AP Rocky) Mighty Gabby Mark Morrison Leigh-Anne Pinnock - member of Little Mix Rayvon Red Plastic Bag Rihanna - singer Rupee - musician, born Rupert Clarke Shontelle - pop, reggae, and R&B singer Arturo Tappin Tory Lanez Tweet - singer, born Charlene Keys Joseph L. Walcott - founded the first black-owned nightclub in New England, featuring many jazz greats Political leaders Sir Grantley Adams J. M. G. Adams Owen Arthur Errol Barrow Sir Courtney Blackman London Bourne - former Barbadian slave who became a merchant and abolitionist Bussa Shirley Chisholm - Congresswoman Anne C. Cools - Canadian senator Adrian Fenty - former Mayor of Washington, DC Charles Gittens - first black United States Secret Service agent Eric Holder - Attorney General of the United States Sir Clifford Husbands Gwen Ifill - American political journalist; television newscaster Thomas R. Jones - former civil court judge and civil rights activist in Brooklyn, New York Clyde Mascoll - Barbadian government official Chirlane McCray - poet, public speech writer; married to New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio Dame Billie Miller Richard B. Moore Mia Mottley - Barbadian prime minister Charles O'Neale Clement Payne Erskine Sandiford - former Barbadian prime minister Bret Schundler - former Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey Lloyd Sealy - first African American NYPD officer to command a police precinct and patrol borough David Thompson - former Barbadian prime minister Elizabeth Thompson (born 1961) - politician, Permanent Representative to the UN Dennis M. Walcott - Deputy Mayor for Education and Community Development in New York City Frank L. White - original chef face on Cream Of Wheat box Writers and intellectuals Adisa Andwele - rhythm poet Hilary Beckles - historian Edward Brathwaite - poet and academic Austin Clarke - author and poet Tony Cozier - cricket writer and broadcaster Alan Emtage - Internet pioneer Neville Lancelot Goddard - mystic and author Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge - writer on history and law Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge - organizational head Ken R. Harewood - molecular biologist Ted Harris - Sweden-based pastor, theologian and writer Agymah Kamau - novelist Odimumba Kwamdela - poet and novelist George Lamming - author and poet Glenville Lovell - author, playwright, dancer Paule Marshall - novelist (born in USA) Avinash Persaud - businessman Sheena Rose - artist (born in USA) Susan L. Taylor - former editor-in-chief of Essence magazine (born in USA) Others Frederick Atkins - convicted murderer Curaçao Singers Tory Lanez (mother from Curaçao) Athletes Ozzie Albies Vurnon Anita Leandro Bacuna Tahith Chong Leroy Fer (parents both Curaçaoan descent) Kenley Jansen Andruw Jones Patrick Kluivert (mother of Curaçaoan descent) Jurgen Locadia Hedwiges Maduro (mother of Curaçaoan descent) Tyrell Malacia (father of Curaçaoan descent) Churandy Martina Javier Martina Armando Obispo (father of Curaçaoan descent) Jaron Vicario (parents both Curaçaoan descent) Charlton Vicento (Parents both Curaçaoan descent) Errol Zimmerman Raily Ignacio (Parents both Curaçaoan descent) Comedians Jandino Asporaat Political leaders Daniel De Leon Moises Frumencio da Costa Gomez Ben Komproe Maria Liberia-Peters Dominica List of British people of Dominica descent Media Maurice DuBois Edward Scobie Musicians Lemuel McPherson Christian Pearle Christian Ophelia Marie Political leaders Phyllis Shand Allfrey Dame Eugenia Charles Pierre Charles Rosie Douglas Edison James Patrick R. John Edward Oliver LeBlanc Nicholas Liverpool Doreen Paul Sir Clarence Seignoret Oliver Seraphin Vernon Shaw Roosevelt Skerrit Crispin Sorhaindo Cricketers Adam Sanford Liam Sebastien Shane Shillingford Soccer Tobi Jnohope Writers and intellectuals Lennox Honychurch Jean Rhys French Guiana Political leaders Léon Bertrand Justin Catayée Félix Éboué Gaston Monnerville Victor Schœlcher Christiane Taubira Writers and intellectuals Léon Damas Athletes Ludovic Baal Alexis Claude-Maurice Roy Contout Simon Falette Marc-Antoine Fortuné Jaïr Karam Mike Maignan Florent Malouda Ludovic Proto Jean-Clair Todibo Grenada List of British people of Grenadian descent Artists Canute Caliste Athletes Lewis Hamilton - F1 driver and 7-time World Champion 2008, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, & 2020 seasons Kirani James - Grenadian sprinter who specialises in 200 and 400 meters Yazmeen Jamieson Cameron Jerome Jason Roberts - footballer currently playing for Blackburn Rovers Business people and agriculturalists James Baillie Musicians Ajamu Casey Benjamin - member of the Robert Glasper Project Craig David (of Grenadian descent) Dollarman David Emmanuel Leslie Hutchinson Finley Jeffrey Jemeni Row Lewis Mighty Sparrow Ms. Dynamite Sir Galba Sonika Political leaders Jean Augustine Maurice Bishop Herbert A. Blaize Nicholas Brathwaite Tubal Uriah Butler Henri Christophe Bernard Coard Eric Gairy Malcolm X (of Grenadian descent) Dickon Mitchell Keith Mitchell David Paterson (Grenadian grandfather) David Pitt, Baron Pitt of Hampstead Tillman Thomas Writers and intellectuals Tobias S. Buckell Merle Collins Franklyn Harvey Audre Lorde (of Grenadian descent) Jacob Ross Guadeloupe Artists Jacques Schwarz-Bart Athletes Eric Abidal Jocelyn Angloma Christine Arron Jonathan Biabiany Jim Bilba Pascal Chimbonda Wylan Cyprien Laura Flessel-Colovic William Gallas Thierry Henry Layvin Kurzawa Thomas Lemar Jérôme Moïso Jean-Marc Mormeck Marie-José Pérec Mickaël Piétrus Therry Racon Teddy Riner Louis Saha Kevin Seraphin Jordan Tell Lilian Thuram Marius Trésor Ronald Zubar Filmmakers Sarah Maldoror Political leaders Louis Delgrès Victor Hugues Victorin Lurel Stéphane Pocrain Patrick Reason Religious leaders Jean Baptiste Labat Writers and intellectuals Maryse Condé Daniel Maximin Saint-John Perse Simone Schwarz-Bart Guyana List of Guyanese British people Artists Stanley Greaves George Simon Aubrey Williams Denis Williams Athletes Martin Braithwaite Shivnarine Chanderpaul Nicolette Fernandes Lance Gibbs Carl Hooper Rohan Bholalall Kanhai Clive Lloyd Jaime Peters Kieran Richardson Ramnaresh Ronnie Sarwan Musicians Eddy Grant Melanie Fiona P. Reign Red Cafe Rihanna (Guyanese mother [not Bajan]) Saint Jhn Political leaders Brindley Benn Forbes Burnham Arthur Chung Clinton Collymore Hubert Nathaniel Critchlow Cuffy Jack Gladstone Quamina Gladstone David A. Granger Bernie Grant Sam Hinds Desmond Hoyte Cheddi Jagan Janet Jagan Bharrat Jagdeo Eusi Kwayana Moses Nagamootoo Reepu Daman Persaud Sir Shridath Ramphal Clement Rohee Rupert Roopnaraine Writers and intellectuals Edward Ricardo Braithwaite Jan Carew Martin Carter David Dabydeen Wilson Harris Roy Heath Matthew James Higgins Edgar Mittelholzer Walter Rodney Ivan Van Sertima A. J. Seymour Eric Walrond Martinique Athletes Claude Anelka Nicolas Anelka Garry Bocaly Manuel Cabit Mikaël Cantave Joan Hartock Steeven Langil Peter Luccin Johnny Marajo Steve Marlet Ronny Turiaf Filmmakers Euzhan Palcy Political leaders Joséphine de Beauharnais Alfred Marie-Jeanne Writers and intellectuals Aimé Césaire Patrick Chamoiseau Raphaël Confiant Frantz Fanon Édouard Glissant René Maran Jeanne Nardal Paulette Nardal Joseph Zobel Saint Kitts and Nevis List of British people of Saint Kitts and Nevis descent Sports Personalities Keith Arthurton Kim Collins Derick Parry Elquemedo Willett Stuart Williams Soccer Marcus Rashford Business and agriculture James Baillie Political leaders Sir Clement Arrindell Robert Bradshaw Denzil Douglas Alexander Hamilton Timothy Harris Rawlins Lowndes Sir Lee Moore Sir Cuthbert Sebastian Sir Kennedy Simmonds Paul Southwell Writers, intellectuals, filmmakers, and artists Joan Armatrading Imruh Bakari Christene Browne Burt Caesar Pogus Caesar Caryl Phillips Cicely Tyson Saint Lucia See also List of Saint Lucians List of British people of Saint Lucian descent Actors Marianne Jean-Baptiste Joseph Marcell Artists Winston Branch Dunstan St. Omer Llewellyn Xavier Athletes Ken Charlery (St Lucian parents) Jermain Defoe (St Lucian mother) Anton Ferdinand (St Lucian father) Les Ferdinand Rio Ferdinand (St Lucian father) Dominic Johnson Cyrille Regis Dave Regis John Regis Darren Sammy Economists Sir Arthur Lewis Musicians Shola Ama Nicole David Ronald "Boo" Hinkson Joey Badass Trevor Nelson Political leaders Kenny Anthony Winston Cenac George Charles Sir John Compton Julian Hunte Sir Allen Lewis Vaughan Lewis Sir Allan Louisy Dame Pearlette Louisy George Odlum Philip J. Pierre Writers and intellectuals Derek Walcott Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Athletes Adonal Foyle Dan Gadzuric Jesse Lingard Sancho Lyttle Sophia Young Musicians Kevin Lyttle Mattafix Political leaders Sir Charles Antrobus Sir Frederick Ballantyne Milton Cato Joseph Chatoyer Arnhim Eustace Ralph Gonsalves Sir David Jack Ebenezer Joshua Sir James F. Mitchell Sir Louis Straker Suriname Artists Ramdew Chaitoe Damaru Dropati Natalie La Rose Athletes Donyell Malen Dwight Tiendalli Florian Jozefzoon Tommy Asinga Ryan Babel Remy Bonjasky Edgar Davids Eljero Elia Ilonka Elmont Ruud Gullit Ernesto Hoost Patrick Kluivert Anthony Nesty Frank Rijkaard Clarence Seedorf Tyrone Spong Letitia Vriesde Aron Winter Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink Kevin Wattamaleo Kurt Elshot Sigourney Bandjar Romario Sabajo Inventors Jan Earnst Matzeliger Political leaders Jules Ajodhia Henck Arron Bram Behr Dési Bouterse Ronnie Brunswijk Johan Ferrier Otto Huiswoud Harry Kisoensingh Jagernath Lachmon Pretaapnarian Radhakishun Ram Sardjoe Ronald Venetiaan Jules Wijdenbosch Writers and intellectuals Aphra Behn Anton de Kom Lou Lichtveld Musician Tony Scott Trinidad and Tobago List of Trinidadian Britons Artists Isaiah James Boodhoo Michel-Jean Cazabon Boscoe Holder Geoffrey Holder Che Lovelace Zak Ové Athletes Carlos Edwards Inshan Ali Stephen Ames Marvin Andrews Ian Bishop Marlon Black Ato Boldon George Bovell III Dwayne Bravo Darrel Brown Marc Burns Learie Constantine Hasely Crawford Rajindra Dhanraj Mervyn Dillon Ansil Elcock Daren Ganga Roger Gibbon Hilary Angelo "Larry" Gomes Gerald "Gerry" Gomez Anthony Gray Shaka Hislop Clayton Ince Stern John Kenwyne Jones Brian Lara Russell Latapy Leonson Lewis Augustine "Gus" Logie Clint Marcelle Wendell Mottley Deryck Murray Jerren Nixon Sonny Ramadhin Manny Ramjohn Dinanath Ramnarine Anthony Rougier Phil Simmons Jeffrey Stollmeyer Victor Stollmeyer Richard Thompson Evans Wise Dwight Yorke Levi García Dancers Pearl Primus Filmmakers Horace Ové Frances-Anne Solomon Musicians Attila the Hun (Raymond Quevado) - calypsonian Winifred Atwell Denise "Saucy Wow" Belfon Inga "Foxy Brown" Marchand Chalkdust (Hollis Liverpool) Ken Marlon Charles (KMC) Maximus Dan Destra Garcia Bunji Garlin Haddaway Heather Headley Raymond Holman Lord Invader Lord Kitchener (Alwyn Roberts) Lord Melody Fay Ann Lyons-Alvarez Mighty Sparrow (Slinger Francisco) Mighty Spoiler Nicki Minaj (Onika Tanya Maraj-Petty) - rapper PartyNextDoor (Trinidadian father) Cardi B (Belcalis Marlenis Almánzar) (Trinidadian mother) Lennox "Bobby" Mohammed Machel Montano Billy Ocean Denyse Plummer Sundar Popo Patrice Roberts David Rudder Adesh Samaroo Jit Samaroo Hazel Scott Len "Boogsie" Sharpe Lord Shorty/Ras Shorty I (Garfield Blackman) Black Stalin (Leroy Calliste) André Tanker Rakesh Yankaran Political leaders Tubal Uriah Butler Rudranath Capildeo Simbhoonath Capildeo Stokely Carmichael (a.k.a. Kwame Ture) George Chambers Carson Charles Arthur Andrew Cipriani (A. A. Cipriani) Sir Ellis Clarke Tracy Davidson-Celestine Winston Dookeran Knowlson Gift Albert Gomes Geddes Granger (Makandal Daaga) Gary Griffith Noor Hassanali Karl Hudson-Phillips A. P. T. James Roy Joseph Franklin Khan Fuad Khan Gillian Lucky Ramesh Maharaj Patrick Manning Bhadase Sagan Maraj Ralph Maraj Wendell Mottley George Padmore Basdeo Panday Kamla Persad-Bissessar David Pitt, Baron Pitt of Hampstead George Maxwell Richards Adrian Cola Rienzi (born Krishna Deonarine) A. N. R. Robinson Keith Rowley Austin "Jack" Warner Dr. Eric Williams Eric A. Williams Gerald Yetming Writers and intellectuals Lloyd Best Neil Bissoondath Ralph de Boissière Dionne Brand Vahni Capildeo Stokely Carmichael Rosa Guy Merle Hodge C. L. R. James Earl Lovelace Mustapha Matura Shiva Naipaul V. S. Naipaul Lakshmi Persaud Kenneth Ramchand Arnold Rampersad Lall Sawh Samuel Selvon Eric Williams United States Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands Actors Kelsey Grammer Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs Artists and architects Camille Pissarro Dr. William Thornton Athletes Raja Bell Horace Clarke Midre Cummings Tim Duncan Julian Jackson Calvin Pickering Elmo Plaskett Trent Alexander-Arnold Tyler Adams Doctors and scientists Dr John C. Lettsom Morris Simmonds Political leaders Edward Blyden Frank Rudolph Crosswaith Hubert Henry Harrison Casper Holstein Roy Innis D. Hamilton Jackson J. Raymond Jones William Alexander Leidesdorff T. McCants Stewart Terence Todman Denmark Vesey Writers and intellectuals Barbara Christian Arthur Schomburg Eastern
418537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic%20%28novel%29	Relic (novel)	Relic is a 1995 novel by American authors Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child, and the first in the Special Agent Pendergast series. As a horror novel and techno-thriller, it comments on the possibilities inherent in genetic manipulation, and is critical of museums and their role both in society and in the scientific community. It is the basis of the film The Relic (1997). Plot In September 1987, Dr. Julian Whittlesey is leading an expedition through the Amazon Basin, in the Brazilian rainforest, in search of the lost Kothoga tribe. He hopes to prove that they still do exist and in the process learn more about their culture, including their lizard god Mbwun ("He Who Walks On All Fours"), supposedly the son of Satan. However, Whittlesey disappears after finding the mutilated body of his partner, Crocker, and realizes that a creature in the bush is stalking him. A year later, in Belém, a dock worker named Ven is suddenly and brutally killed when a freighter arrives with a shipment of crates from Whittlesey's expedition. Seven years later, in a fictionalized version of New York City's American Museum of Natural History, two young boys are found dead in a museum stairwell, having gotten lost in the late hours of the museum. NYPD Lieutenant Vincent D'Agosta leads the subsequent investigation. He has the museum under tight lockdown and its staff placed under curfew for fear the murderer is still hiding somewhere in the museum or the many catacombs that run underneath it. The three prominent leadership figures of the facility—curator Winston Wright, deputy head Ian Cuthbert, and public relations director Lavinia Rickman—all try to keep the murders under wraps, as the grand gala opening of the new "Superstition" exhibition, led by George Moriarty, draws nearer, an event that will feature many wealthy benefactors as well as Mayor Harper. Rickman even hires The New York Times reporter Bill Smithback, Jr. to cover the murder investigation but repeatedly edits his reports so they will appear more palatable towards the museum and its leadership. Assistant Curator Gregory Kawakita jokingly begins spreading the rumor of the "Museum Beast", a legendary monster that has allegedly been roaming the tunnels under the museum for years and is responsible for the murders. Although the rumors are initially dismissed as myth, D'Agosta is shocked during the autopsy when he discovers a claw buried in one of the boy's brains. When a security guard suffers a similarly brutal death, FBI Special Agent Aloysius Pendergast arrives to aid in the investigation, having taken a personal interest in the unique nature of the kills. The investigation intensifies as the gala draws nearer, with the search spreading to the tunnels under the museum. Margo Green and her mentor, Dr. Whitney Frock, initially take little to no interest in the investigation, but Pendergast eventually approaches them when he realizes the claw from the autopsy matches the claws on a Mbwun figurine that had been sent back to the museum in a crate in 1987 and is set to be put on display in the new exhibition. Green, with Smithback's help, manages to get into the secure vault and gain access to some letters that Whittlesey had sent to a museum colleague named H.C. Montague, detailing the struggles experienced by the 1987 expedition. Pendergast then reveals the primary reason for his interest in the case: the nature of the murders of the two boys and the security guard matches the murder of the Brazilian dock worker in 1988, as well as several other dock workers in Louisiana later that year. Pendergast was able to trace back to the one connection among the museum murders, the Louisiana murder, and the Belem murder: the shipment of crates Whittlesey had sent the museum in 1987. However, other than one smaller crate containing the Mbwun figurine, the crates were empty, save massive quantities of local plant leaves seemingly used as packaging. Frock reveals that those crates have been moved into the heavily reinforced secure vault as well, and after Green and Smithback's stunt to get the letters, the directors are well aware of their intentions and will never allow them access to the crates. Pendergast hints at the possibility that the murders might not have been committed by a human, and that the Mbwun monster may somehow have been sent to the museum by Whittlesey's shipment. Reading through more of Whittlesey's letters, Green and Smithback discover one other major colleague of Whittlesey's who is still working at the museum, and to whom one of the letters was addressed, Dr. Jorgensen. They ask Jorgensen about the nature of the expedition and its aftermath. Jorgensen explains that Whittlesey was determined to prove that the Kothoga tribe had not gone extinct, and that he had found it at long last on a tepui deep in the Brazilian jungle. In addition, Whittlesey had apparently discovered a unique plant at the base of the tepui that had some kind of protein-like quality to it. However, Whittlesey was being accompanied by a museum bureaucrat simply identified as "Maxwell", whose job was to hinder Whittlesey's progress so that the find would not interfere with the local government's discovery of an undisclosed natural resource that had been discovered on the tepui. Determined to mine the entire area, the government bombarded the tepui with napalm in 1988, killing all of the remaining Kothoga and destroying the plant. Jorgensen also reveals that Whittlesey's colleague Montague had disappeared rather suddenly several years ago. Green and Frock soon realize that the plant Whittlesey discovered was the same plant that had been sent back as packaging in the crates, and that Whittlesey had never sent the crates back to the museum empty; that the main content of the crates was the plant itself. The day of the gala, Green and Frock then begin running computer analyses on samples of the plant as well as the claw from the autopsy. The results reveal that the plants are rich in thalamoid hormones, which can also be found in the human hypothalamus gland, though to a much lesser extent. After reviewing the autopsy reports, Green realizes that what all of the murders - in the museum and in Louisiana and Brazil - all had in common was that the hypothalamus had been ripped out of the victim's heads and was completely missing. The analysis of the claw creates a general caricature of the creature in question, comprising a primary mix of primate, reptile, and human genes; a nocturnal nature; a strong sense of smell; a quadruped build; a maximum ground speed of 60-70 km/h (approximately 43.5 mph); and thick muscle definition and bone structure. Frock describes this hypothetical combination as having the strength of a grizzly bear, the speed of a greyhound, and the intelligence of a human being - the ultimate predator. Frock and Green finally discover the truth behind the entire ordeal, but their efforts to warn their superiors before the gala are thwarted. As the investigation ultimately did not produce a suspect, the gala is allowed to begin, with combined forces from the NYPD and FBI providing a tightened security presence, under the official command of Special Agent Coffey. The exhibition initially appears to be going fine until the body of NYPD officer Fred Beauregard drops down from the rafters above the exhibition and right into the crowd, causing a mass panic. At the same time, an NYPD officer named Waters, assigned to monitor the museum's security control room, hears a strange noise in the generator room (later revealed to be simply the air conditioner pump) and opens fire; this inadvertent discharge completely destroys the central switching box and shuts down the museum's power. This in turn leads to the museum's massive, metal security doors automatically closing, separating the museum into five cells and trapping a group of civilians, personnel, and security guards/ law enforcement members alike inside the museum. When the chaos settles, dozens of people have either been killed by the stampeding crowd or crushed by the closing doors, and the roughly three dozen who are trapped inside the area where the exhibition is includes D'Agosta, Smithback, Cuthbert, Wright, Rickman, Mayor Harper, museum security director Ippolito, and NYPD officer John Bailey. Coffey and Kawakita manage to make it outside the museum. but Green, Frock, and Pendergast, who are all in the tunnels under the museum, soon encounter the creature. Pendergast manages to fire a single shot, which merely bounces off the creature's skull. Pendergast manages to contact D'Agosta via radio, to warn him about the creature, and explains that the best way for the trapped crowd to escape is down through the museum tunnels, which eventually lead to the sewer systems of New York. The three directors refuse to head down into the tunnels, and instead retreat into Wright's office on the fourth floor. Just as D'Agosta prepares to lead the crowd down the first stairwell, the creature attacks, killing Ippolito and an injured guest. The rest of the crowd manages to escape down into the tunnels. Although extremely sceptical of the consistent reports of a creature's being responsible, Coffey eventually orders a SWAT team to descend into the museum through the skylights, to eliminate the creature. The Mbwun then enters the office where the three directors are hiding, and Cuthbert sends Rickman and a now-drunk Wright into the adjacent dinosaur area to safety, while he draws a pistol to make a stand. However, the creature inexplicably leaves him alone and pursues the other two, killing both of them. Cuthbert is rescued by the SWAT team shortly before they move in to attack the creature, only for the entire team to be slaughtered. The crowd manages to navigate the tunnels and reaches the sewers just before the monster returns, killing Bailey. They then reach a massive underground chamber that is filled with skeletons and torn meat, presumably the creature's lair. They struggle to stay above the rising water as the storm outside intensifies, and another woman is dragged away by the current and dies, shortly before the crowd finally reaches a manhole and escapes back out onto the streets of New York. Pendergast and Green devise a plan to make a final stand against the creature, with Pendergast hoping to use his old hunting techniques of shooting the creature's legs in order to stop its charge. However, the shots fail to penetrate the hide, and the creature closes in. At the last second, Green shouts for Pendergast to shoot through the creature's eye, causing the bullet to pass straight through the skull and into the brain, which kills it instantly. In the epilogue four weeks later, Green, Frock, Kawakita, Pendergast, D'Agosta, and Smithback all convene in Frock's office to discuss the events of that night. Pendergast explains everything in great detail: the Kothoga legend claimed that Mbwun was given to them by Satan in order to slay their enemies in battle, when in actuality, the Kothoga created the Mbwun by feeding a human the strange plant that Whittlesey had discovered and shipped back to the museum. Eating the plant resulted in the human subject's undergoing the transformation process into the creature known as Mbwun, larger, faster, stronger, and slightly smarter. However, the Mbwun subsequently needed a consistent supply of the plant in order to survive, like an addictive drug. When the tepui where the Kothoga and Mbwun lived was completely destroyed, the Mbwun knew the last surviving samples of the plant were in the crates Whittlesey had shipped back, and thus, it followed the crates all the way to New York. It initially lived off the plants in a steady ration for years, and in the process, killed Montague one day when he came down to investigate the crates. Montague's disappearance was marked by a puddle of blood by the crates, but when it was discovered by Cuthbert, Wright, and Rickman, they washed it away to preserve the museum's reputation. As part of the cover-up, the crates were moved into the heavily fortified vault, rendering them permanently inaccessible to the Mbwun. Thus, in order to stay alive, it needed the next best substitute: the human hypothalamus. Though it tried its best to keep its existence a secret by living off smaller animals and homeless people in the sewers, it eventually turned to the murders of the boys and the security guard. Even during the police investigation, it could no longer deny its appetite, and thus ran amok during the exhibition. Pendergast also reveals that among the bodies that were found in the lair were the remains of Moriarty and a pendant that Whittlesey had always worn on him, serving as proof that the creature killed both of them. Cuthbert has since been institutionalized, Coffey was demoted and sent to the Waco field office, and Smithback reveals that he will release a book on the entire event, with half of the money going to a memorial fund for the late Bailey and his family. In his lab, Kawakita has realized a horrific truth; the creature didn't kill Whittlesey and take his pendant as a trophy, it actually was Whittlesey. He speculates that the Kothoga, having failed with Mbwun using their own people, had decided to feed the plant to a white man instead, hoping the resulting creature would be easier to control. The gamble failed, and Whittlesey was able to survive on the plants for years before their destruction, and he later followed his own samples back home to the museum. Thanks to the samples that survived and were analyzed, Kawakita manages to develop a drug that would turn the users first into addicts, then into Mbwun itself. He begins selling it on the street, reflecting that the Kothoga's problem had been that Mbwun was able to feed on the plants himself whenever he wanted, and thus they had no hold over it. Now, as the only person alive capable of making the drug, the creatures would never turn on him; he would have total control over the creatures and succeed where the Kothoga failed. Characters Major characters NYPD Lieutenant Vincent D'Agosta, a police officer working to solve the murders Margo Green, a graduate student working at the museum Dr. Frock, Green's advisor and department head at the museum William Smithback, Jr., an ambitious journalist who is writing a book about the exhibition for the museum Special Agent Aloysius X. L. Pendergast, a secretive and highly resourceful FBI special agent George Moriarty, the curator of the Superstition exhibit. Minor characters Dr. Ian Cuthbert, deputy head of the museum. Gregory Kawakita, he eventually discovers what/who Mbwun really is. Julian Whittlesey, the principal antagonist. Lavinia Rickman, the chief of public relations. Ippolito, the director of security at the museum. John Bailey, an NYPD officer. Special Agent Spencer Coffey, an FBI agent. Sequel novel Relic was followed by the bestselling sequel, Reliquary (1997) Aloysius Pendergast, who is introduced in Relic, also appears in several of Preston's and Child's following novels, along with Smithback, Green, and D'Agosta. Film adaptation A film based on the book was released in 1997, but changed several aspects of the story, omitting numerous characters and changing the setting to the Chicago Museum of Natural History rather than the New York Museum of Natural History (fictional but strongly based on the American Museum of Natural History). The film was directed by Peter Hyams and stars Penelope Ann Miller as Dr. Margo Green, Tom Sizemore as Lt. Vincent D'Agosta, and Linda Hunt as Dr. Ann Cuthbert. Changes from the novel The film gives away key plot points throughout its duration; in contrast, in the novel, the explanation is delivered in the last few pages, giving the book a twist ending. The movie has a similar twist during its climax. The following table details additional changes. See also Altered States The Crate References External links Relic page from Preston & Child's official web site Relic (all editions) at WorldCat.org 1995 American novels Eco-thriller novels Novels by Douglas Preston Novels by Lincoln Child Collaborative novels Novels about museums Techno-thriller novels American thriller novels Novels set in New York City American novels adapted into films American Museum of Natural History Novels set in the 1980s Novels set in natural history museums Tor Books books
418550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Antwerp%20%281914%29	Siege of Antwerp (1914)	The siege of Antwerp (, , ) was an engagement between the German and the Belgian, British and French armies around the fortified city of Antwerp during World War I. German troops besieged a garrison of Belgian fortress troops, the Belgian field army and the British Royal Naval Division in the Antwerp area, after the German invasion of Belgium in August 1914. The city, which was ringed by forts known as the National Redoubt, was besieged to the south and east by German forces. The Belgian forces in Antwerp conducted three sorties in late September and early October, which interrupted German plans to send troops to France, where reinforcements were needed to counter the French armies and the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). A German bombardment of the Belgian fortifications with heavy and super-heavy artillery began on 28 September. The Belgian garrison had no hope of victory without relief; despite the arrival of the Royal Naval Division beginning on 3 October, the Germans penetrated the outer ring of forts. When the German advance began to compress a corridor from the west of the city along the Dutch border to the coast, through which the Belgians at Antwerp had maintained contact with the rest of unoccupied Belgium, the Belgian Field Army commenced a withdrawal westwards towards the coast. On 9 October, the remaining garrison surrendered, the Germans occupied the city and some British and Belgian troops escaped to the Netherlands to the north and were interned for the duration of the war. Belgian troops from Antwerp withdrew to the Yser river, close to the French border and dug in, to begin the defence of the last unoccupied part of Belgium and fought the Battle of the Yser against the German 4th Army in October and November 1914. The Belgian Army held the area until late in 1918, when it participated in the Allied liberation of Belgium. Background Strategic context The city of Antwerp was defended by numerous forts and other defensive positions, under the command of the Military Governor General Victor Deguise, and was considered to be impregnable. Since the 1880s, Belgian defence planning had been based on holding barrier forts on the Meuse (Maas) at Liège and at the confluence of the Meuse and the Sambre rivers at Namur, to prevent French or German armies from crossing the river, with the option of a retreat to the National redoubt at Antwerp, as a last resort, until the European powers guaranteeing Belgian neutrality could intervene. The National redoubt consisted of a dozen older forts around outside to the city, completed in the 1860s, with an enceinte around the town abutting the Scheldt estuary at either end, with wet ditches around the enceinte and forts. The principal line of resistance comprised a ring of outside the city, which had been built after 1882. A group of two forts and three coastal batteries defended the Scheldt and there were a small number of prepared inundations. Forts built at Liège and Namur on the Meuse were of similar construction and intended to be "barrier forts and bridgeheads", a first line of defence in the event of an invasion from the east or south-east. German invasion On 2 August 1914, the Belgian government refused the passage of German troops through Belgium to France and on the night of the Belgian General Staff ordered the 3rd Division to Liège to obstruct a German advance. The German army invaded Belgium on the morning of 4 August. Covered by the 3rd Division, the Liège fortress garrison, a screen of the Cavalry Division and detachments from Liège and Namur, the rest of the Belgian Field Army closed up to the river Gete and by 4 August the 1st Division had assembled at Tienen, the 5th Division at Perwez, the 2nd Division at Leuven and the 6th Division at Wavre, covering central and western Belgium and the communications towards Antwerp. German cavalry appeared at Visé early on 4 August and found the bridge down and Belgian troops on the west bank. The Germans found a ford, crossed the river and forced the Belgians to retire towards Liège. By the evening it was clear to the Belgian High Command that the 3rd Division and the Liège garrison were in the path of a very large invasion force. On 5 August the Battle of Liège began, when the Germans tried to capture the fortified city of Liège by a and then attempted a night attack, which collapsed in confusion until General Erich Ludendorff rallied the infantry. Ludendorff attacked again around noon on 6 August and found no opposition in the city, the Belgian 3rd Division having been withdrawn to the Gete. The Germans began a siege of the fortress, which fell on 16 August. On 10 August German cavalry reached the Gete and Jägers began to move northwards to Diest and Hasselt. On 12 August German cavalry and attacked at the Battle of Halen and were driven off after a ten-hour battle. By 17 August, a huge number of German troops had crossed into Belgium between the Meuse, Demer and Gete, despite the demolitions carried out by the Belgian Army and paramilitary . The Belgian position on the right (southern) flank of the Gete, was threatened by a flanking manoeuvre through Huy. On 18 August the Germans attacked again, captured Halen, entered Tienen and attacked the 1st Division frontally and on the northern flank, which the 1st Division repulsed only with great difficulty. With information that five German corps and six reserve corps were in Belgium and with no support from the French Army and British Expeditionary Force (BEF) ready, the Belgian Field Army was ordered to withdraw towards Antwerp on the evening of 18 August. It arrived on 20 August, with little interference from German advanced parties, except for an engagement between the 1st Division and the German IX Corps near Tienen, in which the Belgians had Brussels, the Belgian capital, was captured on 20 August, as the Belgian Field Army arrived at Antwerp. Namur fell on 24 August, at the same time that the field army made a sortie from Antwerp towards Brussels. The Belgian government of Charles de Broqueville left Brussels and moved to Antwerp to avoid capture by the Germans, who detached the III Reserve Corps from the First Army to mask the city from positions either side of the Dyle Canal. A brigade of the IV Reserve Corps was sent to occupy Brussels. The IX Reserve Corps was ordered to move to Antwerp on 22 August. Prelude German plan of attack As part of the war planning conducted by Schlieffen and then Moltke between 1898 and 1914, a plan had been made to isolate Antwerp, to counter the possibility that Belgian forces reinforced by British troops, would threaten the northern flank of the German armies involved in the invasion of France. The plan anticipated operations by eleven divisions from seven reserve corps on the east of the National Redoubt, where inundations were impossible. In 1914 the siege was conducted by only six divisions, one of which was needed to guard the Liège–Brussels railway between Tienen and Brussels and the ground between Brussels and Antwerp. Beseler abandoned the pre-war plan and substituted an attack from south of Antwerp, towards Forts Walem, Sint-Katelijne-Waver and then an exploitation northwards in the area of Forts Koningshooikt, Lier, Kessel, four intermediate works, the river Nete and an inundation wide. The 6th and 5th Reserve, Marine and 4th Ersatz divisions forced Belgian outposts back on 28 September and formed a covering line from the Nete to the Scheldt at Mechelen. Behind the covering line, German siege artillery was installed to the east and south of Mechelen, ready to commence a bombardment on Forts Sint-Katelijne-Waver and Walem as the Dorpveld and Bosbeek redoubts, to the north-east of Sint-Katelijne-Waver were engaged by mortars and the field defences between the forts, the Nete bridges and Antwerp waterworks north of Walem were bombarded by other heavy guns. Belgian defensive preparations Work by Belgian engineers to construct field defences around Antwerp had gone on since the beginning of the war, building positions in the intervals between the forts, inundations formed and the foreground cleared of obstructions. The clearances proved unwise, since they made the forts visible, trenches could only be dug deep, because of the high water-table and had no overhead cover. During the German advance to Mechelen, most of the Belgian Army occupied the 4th Sector between the 3rd Sector and the Scheldt, only light forces held the 3rd Sector and the 4th Division held the sector around Dendermonde. The 1st and 2nd divisions were sent to the 3rd Sector and the 5th Division took up reserve positions behind them. Siege First sortie, 24–26 August The Belgian Army made a first sortie from Antwerp to help French and British troops engaged in fighting at the Sambre and at the Mons Canal. The operation was intended to distract the III Reserve and IX Reserve corps observing Antwerp and to cut German communications through Leuven and Brussels. After reconnaissance on 24 August, four divisions advanced southwards from Mechelen the next day, leaving one division of infantry and the Cavalry Division in reserve. The sortie was halted on 26 August, after receiving news of the withdrawal of the French and British and that Joseph Joffre, commander of the French army, did not intend to attack immediately and the Belgian forces returned to Antwerp. On the night of the city was bombed by a German Zeppelin airship. Ten Belgian civilians were killed but the bombing failed to undermine the morale of the garrison. By 27 August reports to OHL led Moltke to believe that the Belgian army had lost its offensive capacity and ordered the brigade of the IV Reserve Corps at Brussels, to move south to rejoin the corps at Péronne. On 2 September German intelligence sources in Brussels reported that troops had landed at Ostend, occupied the coast westwards to Boulogne and reinforced the Belgian Army in Antwerp. Beseler attacked on 4 September, with three divisions on either side of the Scheldt towards Termonde, which captured the fortress and blew the bridges to the north. Second sortie, 9–13 September After the end of the first sortie, the Belgian field army joined the fortress troops in improving the defences between the forts, while the German besiegers consolidated their positions on an east–west line, about north of Brussels and away from the outer forts. On 31 August Beseler was made responsible for the security of the German forces around Antwerp from relief attempts from the west. battalions were transferred from the appointed to administer occupied Belgium, Field Marshal Von der Goltz and a division of the Marinekorps was ordered to the area. On 1 September, the Belgians received information that the Germans were preparing to advance towards the Belgian western flank, on the Scheldt at Dendermonde. The Belgian commanders had received reports that the IX Reserve Corps and the 6th Division of the III Reserve Corps, were being relieved by the Marine Division and troops. The Germans had received agent reports of an imminent sortie from Antwerp, troops concentrations in western Belgium and northern France and the arrival of more British troops at Ostend. With the concentration of more troops and at Brussels underway, the reports caused no alarm. The Belgian Army Command considered that the German attack on 4 September was a feint and began to plan another sortie, to induce the Germans to recall the troops being transferred to France and to disrupt German communications in central Belgium. German troop withdrawals were observed from A frontal attack was considered to be impossible given the extent of the German trenches but an attack on the eastern flank was considered possible. Two divisions were to remain inside the Antwerp defences, while three divisions and cavalry were to attack towards Aarschot. Important crossings over the Demer and Dyle rivers were quickly taken, Aarschot was captured and by 10 September, the cavalry reached the city of Leuven. The German 6th Reserve Division and IX Reserve Corps were recalled to the region, joining the 30th Division of XV Corps from Alsace, which conducted operations against the sortie between around Brussels. The Belgian advance was stopped and the army retired to Antwerp on 13 September. Third sortie, 26–27 September At Antwerp, the German concentration of troops on the south-eastern side of the line had left a gap to the north from the Dender to the Dutch frontier. The gap spanned about at the confluence of the Dender and the Scheldt rivers at Dendermonde, through which the defenders of Antwerp retained contact with western Belgium and the Allied forces operating on the coast and in northern France. After the Siege of Maubeuge in France, German super-heavy artillery was moved towards Antwerp which like Liège and Namur, would be untenable unless it could be incorporated into the main Allied front line, like the fortified regions of Verdun and Belfort in France. On 25 September the French General Staff (GQG) requested another sortie from Antwerp. The Belgian General Staff began to plan another operation. Signs of German preparations for a general attack on Antwerp, led to the forces intended for the sortie being reduced. The 5th Division, elements of the 4th Division and the Cavalry Division, which held the defences on the west side of the National Redoubt at Dendermonde and the Waasland, attacked German troops moving westward from Aalst. Although they succeeded in making a small advance, a counter-attack by Brigade 37, supported by heavy artillery, led to the cancelling of the assault. On 28 September, the German bombardment of the Antwerp fortresses began. Battle Bombardment The German bombardment began on 28 September, with German siege guns directed by observation balloons on gun emplacements, flanking positions and magazines, which were the most vital parts of the forts, had by on 29 September with extraordinary accuracy, made Fort Sint-Katelijne-Waver untenable and extensively damaged Fort Walem. Preparations to evacuate the Belgian Army to Ostend were begun by the Belgian Army Headquarters on 29 September and wounded, recruits, untrained men, prisoners of war, transport, equipment, ammunition and industrial machinery were gradually moved from Antwerp. The route out of the city crossed the Scheldt on two narrow pontoon bridges at the city centre and at Burcht. Trains had to run south along the right bank, cross the Rupel near German infantry positions only from the siege guns at Mechelen and then cross the railway bridge at Temse away. From trains with lights extinguished, ran each night unopposed. The 4th Division assembled at Dendermonde, where a German attack was expected and the Cavalry Division guarded the river line, to protect the escape route between the Dender and the coast. Early on 29 September, the Belgian Prime Minister, Charles de Broqueville, informed the British that if all the outer forts were lost, the government and field army of would withdraw to Ostend and leave the troops to hold Antwerp for as long as possible. The next day, de Broqueville formally appealed to the British and French governments for help. German attack On 1 October the German attack began on Forts Sint-Katelijne-Waver, Walem and the Bosbeek and Dorpveld redoubts by the 5th Reserve and Marine divisions. By Fort Walem was severely damaged, Fort Lier had been hit by a shell, Fort Koningshooikt and the Tallabert and Bosbeek redoubts were mostly intact and the intervening ground between Fort Sint-Katelijne-Waver and Dorpveld redoubt had been captured. A counter-attack had failed and the 4th Division had been reduced to The Belgian commanders ordered the left flank of the army to withdraw to another line of defence north of the Nete, which covered the gap in the outer defences and kept the city out of range of German super-heavy artillery. Proclamations warning the inhabitants that King Albert I and his Government would leave Antwerp, were put up during the day. Fort Sint-Katelijne-Waver and Dorpveld redoubt were taken during the night of but Walem and the Bosbeek redoubt were not captured until the afternoon of 2 October, after every available German gun was used to bombard them. German bombardment of gun emplacements, destruction of magazines and the exhaustion of Belgian ammunition led to Forts Walem and Koningshooikt falling to the Germans and the evacuation or surrender of the remaining defences in the 3rd Sector except for the Duffel redoubt. The Belgian 2nd Division at the east side of the 3rd Sector, began to retire across the Nete at noon and an hour later the 1st Division began to withdraw to an unfinished intermediate position, from Rumst north-west of Fort Walem to Duffel and Lisp, above Lier, which had bridgeheads at Duffel, Anderstad and Lier. The 2nd Division was relieved by the 5th Division and went into reserve. No attempt was made by the Germans to pursue during the retirements, despite the inundations on the south bank of the Nete being only deep and patrols reported that no attempt had been made to cut the line of retreat from Antwerp. The Duffel redoubt was evacuated on 3 October after the garrison ran out of ammunition and German artillery-fire was switched to Fort Kessel on the flank of the break-in. Next day German super-heavy guns began to bombard the fort, which forced the garrison to abandon the fort and German preparations for an attack on the line of the Nete were made, opposite Lier at the junction of the Grote and Kleine Nete and Duffel. The Royal Marine Brigade arrived opposite Lier in requisitioned London buses on 4 October and occupied a position around the northern fringe of Lier, which turned out to be sections of a shallow trench between hedgerows, with one strand of wire in front. Some skirmishing took place in the town and the position was bombarded by German artillery, against which the British had no reply except from an armoured train. German attacks between the Grote and Kleine Nete forced back the defenders and crossed the Dender; attempts were made to cross the Scheldt at Schoonaarde and Dendermonde. At dawn on 5 October, two German battalions of Reserve Infantry Regiment 26 crossed the Nete at Anderstad farm, below Lier, under cover of enfilade fire from the outskirts of Lier, using a trestle bridge built in a creek nearby. The crossing-point was screened from view by vegetation and the two battalions were able to hold the river bank until dark when two more battalions crossed the river. Attacks at Lier had taken the town up to the line of the Kleine Nete and on the flank had reached the line of the inundations. German artillery commenced a bombardment of Fort Broechem to the north, which was devastated and evacuated on 6 October. The Belgian commanders decided to continue the defence of Antwerp, since the German advance had not brought the inner forts and the city within range of the German heavy artillery. Orders for a counter-attack against the German battalions on the north bank were not issued until on 6 October and did not arrive in time to all of the Belgian and British units in the area. Attacks made at local initiative by some Belgian units which recaptured some ground before being repulsed. The defenders withdrew to another unfinished position midway between the Nete and the inner forts, from Vremde south-east of the centre of Antwerp, to the Lier–Antwerp road and then south-west around Kontich during the day. The Marine Brigade moved to trenches north of the Lier–Antwerp road, under command of the Belgian 2nd Division. On the western flank at Dendermonde on the Scheldt, south of Antwerp, Landwehr Brigade 37 was reinforced by Reserve Ersatz Brigade 1 and attempted to cross the river from at Schoonaarde, Dendermonde and Baasrode, downstream but were repulsed. By the afternoon of 6 October the 3rd and 6th divisions still held ground in front of the outer forts, between Fort Walem and the Scheldt to the south-west of Antwerp and around to the west but in the south and south-east the German attack had reached a line within of the city, which would be in range of the German guns as soon as they were brought across the Nete. The 6th Division was moved through Temse to reinforce the 4th Division and the Cavalry Division, which was guarding the escape corridor to the west. Two British naval brigades had arrived early on 6 October to reinforce the Marine Brigade but were diverted to of the inner ring, where the trenches were again found to be shallow and the ground cleared for in front which made them easily visible to German artillery observers. In northern France, German troops engaged in mutual outflanking attempts, from the Aisne northwards since September, had reached Arras. Lens was captured by I Bavarian Reserve Corps on 5 October. Three German cavalry corps had attempted another flanking manoeuvre to the north and IV Cavalry Corps had reached Zwartberg and Mont des Cats near Ypres. The advance of the German army threatened to block the western retreat route of the Belgian army out of Antwerp. On 6 October discussions between the British and Belgians, led to a decision to withdraw the field army to the west bank of the Scheldt, where it could maintain contact with a relieving force and avoid the danger of being trapped on the east bank. On the night of the 1st, 3rd and 5th divisions crossed the river and joined the Cavalry, 4th and 6th divisions, as the eight forts of the inner ring were taken over by fortress troops. Intervening trenches between were occupied by the two British naval brigades and the 4th and 7th Fortress regiments, with the Belgian 2nd Division and British Marine Brigade in reserve. The British forces under the command of Major-General Archibald Paris, were ordered by First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, to continue the defence for as long as possible and to be ready to cross to the west bank rather than participate in a surrender. Early on 7 October, two battalions of Regiment 37 were able to cross the Scheldt at Schoonaerde by boat, during a thick fog. The Belgian 6th Division made several counter-attacks which were repulsed and a bridge was built by the evening over which the rest of the Landwehr crossed. The width of the escape route from Antwerp had been reduced to fewer than , which led to the Belgian commanders ordering the field army to retreat behind the Terneuzen Canal, which ran from Ghent northwards to the Dutch border. The 1st and 5th divisions, which had lost most casualties and a brigade each of the 3rd and 6th divisions moved first and the remaining troops less the 2nd Division in Antwerp, formed a flank guard on the Scheldt and the Durme. The Belgian army headquarters moved to Zelzate further west. A Belgian improvised brigade was at Ghent and British troops in the area were requested to move to Ghent, after a German cavalry division was reported to be near Kruishoutem to the south-west. Later in the day German troops entered fort Broechem and the Massenhoven redoubt to the north unopposed, which widened the gap in the Antwerp defence perimeter to and began to move German super-heavy artillery over the Nete, which took until 8 October. At on 7 October German howitzers began to bombard the city. By the night of 7 October the Belgian 2nd Division, the Royal Naval Division and the fortress garrison held the line of the inner forts at Antwerp, the Belgian field army was moving west between Ghent and the coast, a French naval brigade was en route to Ghent and the British 7th Division had concentrated at Bruges. Further west in a gap wide to the south-west of Ghent, Allied cavalry covered the ground between Lens and Hazebrouck, against three German cavalry divisions probing westwards. On 8 October at Antwerp, Brigade 37 was reinforced by Bavarian Brigade 1 and Brigade 9 from the 4th Division, which was being relieved by the Marine Division. The German attack pushed forward , which was close to Lokeren and also from the Dutch border. German air reconnaissance had reported that roads west of Antwerp were clear and many people were moving north towards the frontier, which was assumed to mean that the Belgian army was not trying to escape to the west. The Belgian command had expected to withdraw the 1st and 5th divisions by rail but a lack of rolling stock led to most troops moving by road, while the 2nd Division remained in Antwerp, the 3rd Division was at Lokeren, the 4th, 6th divisions were on either flank and the Cavalry Division was to the west, covering the railway to Ghent. Belgian withdrawal The 4th and 6th divisions began to retire during the day, although delayed by the German advance to Lokeren and during the night of most of the field army moved west of the Ghent–Zelzate Canal, with rearguards from Loochristy northwards; the 4th Brigade moved to Ghent, where French arrived in the morning. The British 7th Division moved from Bruges to Ostend, to cover the landing of the 3rd Cavalry Division, parts of which arrived on 8 October. By the night of the Belgian field army had escaped from Antwerp and had assembled north-west of Ghent, which was garrisoned by three Allied brigades; at Ostend from Ghent, were the British 7th Division and the 3rd Cavalry Division. At Lokeren, the German attack on Antwerp had begun to close the escape route and at Antwerp, German heavy artillery had been moved across the Nete to bombard of the inner ring and the city. Fires could not be put out after the waterworks had been hit; rampart gates on the (main defensive wall) where the wet ditches were bridged were also bombarded. The shelling of caused little damage but facing east, were attacked by Brigade 26 to outflank which faced south to cut off the garrisons. Erroneous reports to the Belgian and British commanders before dawn on 8 October that had fallen, led to a decision that if they were not recaptured, the inner line would be abandoned at dusk and the defenders withdrawn to the city ramparts. The ramparts were earth parapets with shelters underneath and had (passages) protruding on the flanks, with moats wide and deep in front. The Belgian and British commanders decided to continue the defence of Antwerp with the garrison troops and move the Belgian 2nd Division and the British troops across the Scheldt, when the erroneous report was corrected and it was decided that if were lost, the Royal Naval Division would withdraw at dusk. News arrived that the forts had fallen at and orders were sent to the Belgian 2nd Division and the British to retire. The Belgian division withdrew in stages between and and crossed the Scheldt by The British began to retire at but the orders failed to reach all of the 1st Naval Brigade, only one battalion of which withdrew. At the mistake was realised as the rest of the division began to cross the river from and moved west parallel to the Dutch frontier. The 1st Naval Brigade reached the Scheldt at midnight, only to find that the bridges were being demolished and under a German shrapnel bombardment. The troops crossed using barges and boats and set out for a rendezvous at Zwijndrecht, which was reached at on 9 October. The British moved on to Sint-Gillis-Waas, where information arrived that the Germans had cut the railway at Moerbeke. The British commander Commodore Henderson, decided to head for the Dutch border to the north and at half the original complement were interned and about forty stragglers managed to sneak along the border and escape. The British forces in Belgium were instructed on 8 October to cover the retirement of the Belgians and British from Antwerp to Ghent, Zelzate, Ostend, Torhout and Diksmuide and then join the left flank of the BEF, as it advanced into Flanders. On 9 October most of the 7th Division moved to join the French and Belgian forces at Ghent, as the 3rd Cavalry Division and the rest of the 7th Division assembled at Bruges; the French 87th Territorial Division was ordered to stop its move to Antwerp at Poperinghe. The British forces came under the command of the BEF as IV Corps, with the 8th Division once it arrived from England (11 November). The BEF II Corps was assembling at Abbeville and Rawlinson, the commander of the new IV Corps, was instructed to hold on at Ghent for as long as possible. The retirement from Antwerp proceeded satisfactorily and no German troops were seen west of Aalst, south-east of Ghent. A German force encountered at Melle from Ghent on the night of was driven off with many casualties by the French marines. A conference between the Belgians, French and British at Ostend on 10 October, decided to hold Ghent as the Belgian field army continued its retirement. By nightfall the 1st, 3rd and 4th divisions were at Ostend, the 5th and 6th divisions were at Torhout and Diksmuide and the Antwerp garrison troops were in an area north-west of Ghent. The German besiegers had not discovered the retirement and the 4th Ersatz Division and Landwehr troops at Lokeren and Moerbeke, turned east towards the city before the withdrawal was discovered. The III Reserve Corps and the 4th Ersatz Division were then ordered to turn west and advance on Kortrijk. The move was to prolong the main German front, before being sent towards Ghent and Bruges, with orders to reach Blankenberge and Ostend on the coast. On 11 October, German troops were detected advancing on Ghent but by then the Belgian fortress troops had joined the field army and a staged withdrawal from Ghent from had begun, after which German troops entered the city. Several bridges were demolished during the retirement, although crowds of civilians on the main road and rail bridges led to those not being destroyed. Capitulation Early on 9 October German troops found some of the forts of the inner ring empty; Beseler had the bombardment stopped and summoned the Military Governor, General Deguise to surrender. As German made their way to Antwerp, four civilian representatives, including the Mayor of Antwerp, Jan De Vos, reached Beseler at Kontich, to request an end to the bombardment of the city. During the afternoon, under threat of a resumption of the bombardment, the civilian representatives signed a capitulation of the city and such fortresses which continued to hold out. On the morning of 10 October, when the Chief of Staff of the Military Governor appeared with authority to discuss surrender, he was presented with a and had to agree to the terms already accepted. The last of the Antwerp garrison surrendered and the city was occupied by German troops until November 1918. of the Antwerp garrison fled north to the Netherlands, where they were interned for the rest of the war, as far as possible from the Belgian border, for fear of compromising Dutch neutrality. The British troops were interned at Groningen and the Belgians were accommodated at Zeist, Gaasterland, Amersfoort, and Oldebroek. The internees were employed in various industries. Germans who crossed the frontier were interned at Bergen. About one million civilian refugees left in 1914 for Great Britain, the Netherlands and France; most returned after the siege but a sizeable number of the refugees in the Netherlands remained after 1918. Several Belgian military refugees are nowadays buried or commemorated at the Belgian Military Field of Honour 1914–1918 in Harderwijk. Aftermath Analysis In the History of the Great War (1915–1948), the official British account of World War I, James Edmonds wrote that although the operations to save Antwerp had failed, the resistance of the defenders (after the outer forts were destroyed) detained German troops, when they were needed for operations against Ypres and the coast. Ostend and Zeebrugge were captured unopposed, while further west Nieuwpoort (Nieuport) and Dunkirk were held by the Allies, which thwarted the final German attempt to turn the Allied northern flank. The troops from Antwerp were also needed to cover the approach of four German corps towards Ypres, which caused delays to all the German manoeuvres in the north. Edmonds wrote that it had been a mistake to assume that second line troops were sufficient to hold fortifications and that the effect on recruits and over-aged reservists of being subjected to heavy artillery-fire, which destroyed "impregnable" defences as the field forces retreated to safety, had a deleterious effect on morale, which could only be resisted by first-class troops. A large amount of ammunition and many of the at Antwerp were captured intact by the Germans. The men of the Belgian field army escaped westwards, with most of the Royal Naval Division. The British lost and prisoner. Subsequent operations The Belgian forces which had escaped from Antwerp had been in action for two months and the King planned to withdraw west of a line from St Omer–Calais to rest the army, incorporate recruits and train replacements but was persuaded to assemble the army on a line from Dixmude, north to the port of Nieuport and Furnes to the south-west of the port to maintain occupation of Belgian territory. The Belgian Army continued its retirement on covered by the original Cavalry Division and a second one formed from divisional cavalry, along with cyclists and motor machine-gun sections. On 14 October the Belgian army began to dig in along the Yser, the 6th and 5th Divisions to the north of French territorial divisions from Boesinghe, along the Yser canal to Dixmude, where the Fusiliers Marins had formed a bridgehead, covered by the artillery of the Belgian 3rd Division, with the rest of the division in reserve at Lampernisse to the west. The 4th, 1st and 2nd Divisions prolonged the line north with advanced posts at Beerst, Keyem, Schoore and Mannekensvere, about forward on the east bank. A bridgehead was also held near the coast around Lombartzyde and Westende to cover Nieuport, with the 2nd Cavalry Division in reserve. On 18 October the German III Reserve Corps from Antwerp, began operations against Belgian outposts on the east bank from Dixmude to the sea, in the Battle of the Yser The Allied forces around Ghent withdrew on the approach of German forces on 11 October. The British 7th Division moved to Aeltre to the west, made rendezvous with British detachments, which had moved inland from Bruges and began to march to Ypres. The southern flank was covered by the 3rd Cavalry Division, which had moved from Thourout to Roulers and the French Fusiliers Marins brigade moved on to Dixmude. At Thielt on the night of General Capper, the 7th Division commander was informed that German cavalry near Hazebrouck had retired on the approach of the British II Corps, leaving the country west of the 7th Division clear of German forces. The division reached Roulers on met BEF cavalry near Kemmel and linked with the French 87th Territorial Division around Ypres. The German IV Cavalry Corps had moved south four days previously, except for several who were disturbed by a party arranging billets and captured by the 10th Hussars. By 18 October the Belgian, British and French troops in northern France and Belgium had formed a line with the BEF II Corps in position with the 5th Division from La Bassée Canal north to Beau Puits, the 3rd Division from Illies to Aubers and three divisions of the French Cavalry Corps of General Conneau in position from Fromelles to Le Maisnil, the BEF III Corps with the 6th Division from Radinghem to Epinette and the 4th Division from Epinette to Pont Rouge, the BEF Cavalry Corps with the 1st and 2nd Cavalry divisions, from Deulemont to Tenbrielen, the BEF IV Corps with the 7th Division and 3rd Cavalry Division from Zandvoorde to Oostnieuwkirke, the French and the de Mitry Cavalry Corps from Roulers to Cortemarck, the French 87th and 89th Territorial Divisions from Passchendaele to Boesinghe and then the Belgian Field Army and fortress troops from Boesinghe to Nieuport (including the Fusilier Marin brigade at Dixmude). The Battle of the Yser began on 16 October. See also Constant Permeke – Belgian artist who served in the Belgian army and was wounded during the siege of Antwerp Notes Citations References Further reading Books Websites External links The 42-cm. Mortar: Fact and Fancy (1922) German Official History situation map, August 1914 OÖLB German Official History situation map, September 1914 OÖLB Belgian Army order of battle Siege of Antwerp, 1914 Third Battle of Antwerp, 1–10 October 1914 1910s in Antwerp 1914 in Belgium Antwerp Antwerp Antwerp History of the Royal Marines October 1914 events September 1914 events Antwerp Antwerp 1914
418568	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Godfrey	Arthur Godfrey	Arthur Morton Godfrey (August 31, 1903 – March 16, 1983) was an American radio and television broadcaster and entertainer who was sometimes introduced by his nickname The Old Redhead. At the peak of his success, in the early to mid 1950s, Godfrey was heard on radio and seen on television up to six days a week, sometimes for as many as nine separate broadcasts for CBS. His programs included Arthur Godfrey Time (Monday-Friday mornings on radio and television), Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts (Monday evenings on radio and television), Arthur Godfrey and His Friends (Wednesday evenings on television), The Arthur Godfrey Digest (Friday evenings on radio) and King Arthur Godfrey and His Round Table (Sunday afternoons on radio). The infamous on-air firing of cast member Julius La Rosa in 1953 tainted Godfrey's down-to-earth, family-man image and resulted in a marked decline in his popularity which he was never able to overcome. Over the following two years, Godfrey fired over twenty additional cast and crew members, under similar circumstances, for which he was heavily attacked by the press and public alike. A self-made man, Godfrey was fiercely competitive; some of his employees were fired for merely speaking with those he considered to be competitors, like Ed Sullivan, or for signing with an agent. By the late 1950s, his presence had been reduced to hosting the occasional television special and his daily CBS radio show, which ended in 1972. Godfrey was strongly identified with many of his commercial sponsors, especially Chesterfield cigarettes and Lipton Tea. He advertised Chesterfield for many years, during which time he devised the slogan "Buy 'em by the carton"; he terminated his relationship with the company after he quit smoking, five years before he was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1959. He later became a prominent spokesman for the anti-tobacco movement. Early life Godfrey was born in Manhattan in 1903. His mother, Kathryn Morton Godfrey, was from a well-to-do Oswego, New York, family which disapproved of her marriage to an older Englishman, Arthur's father, Arthur Hanbury Godfrey. The senior Godfrey was a sportswriter and considered an expert on surrey and hackney horses, but the advent of the automobile devastated the family's finances. By 1915, when Arthur was 12, the family had moved to Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey. Godfrey dropped out after a year at Hasbrouck Heights High School. Arthur, the eldest of five children, had tried to help his family survive by working before and after school, but at age 14 left home to ease the financial burden on the family. By 15 he was a civilian typist at Camp Merritt, New Jersey, and enlisted in the Navy two years later, lying about his age. Godfrey's father was something of a "free thinker" by the standards of the era. He did not disdain organized religion but insisted that his children explore all faiths before deciding for themselves which to embrace. Their childhood friends included Catholic, Jewish and every kind of Protestant playmates. The senior Godfrey was friends with the Vanderbilts, but was as likely to spend his time talking with the shoeshine man or the hotdog vendor about issues of the day. In the book Genius in the Family (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1962), written about their mother by Godfrey's youngest sister, Dorothy Gene (who preferred to be called "Jean"), with the help of their sister, Kathy, it was reported that the angriest they ever saw their father was when a man on the ferry declared the Ku Klux Klan a civic organization vital to the good of the community. They rode the ferry back and forth three times, with their father arguing with the man that the Klan was a bunch of "Blasted, bigoted fools, led 'round by the nose!" Godfrey's mother, Kathryn, was a gifted artist and composer whose aspirations to fame were laid aside to take care of her family after her husband, Arthur or "Darl'", died. Her creativity enabled the family to get through some very hard times. She played the piano to accompany silent films, made jams and jellies, crocheted bedspreads, and even cut off and sold her floor length hair, as it was extremely difficult for a woman of her social class to find work without violating social mores of the time. The one household item that was never sold or turned into firewood was the piano, and she believed at least some of her children would succeed in show business. In her later years some of her compositions were performed by symphony orchestras in Canada, which earned her a mention in Time. In 1958, at the age of 78, her sauciness made her a big hit with the audience when she appeared on Groucho Marx's quiz show You Bet Your Life. She died of cancer in 1968 at a nursing home in a suburb north of Chicago. Godfrey served in the United States Navy from 1920 to 1924 as a radio operator on naval destroyers, then returned home to care for the family after his father's death. Additional radio training came during Godfrey's service in the Coast Guard from 1927 to 1930. He passed a stringent qualifying examination and was admitted to the prestigious Radio Materiel School at the Naval Research Laboratory, graduating in 1929. During a Coast Guard stint in Baltimore he appeared in a local talent show broadcast on October 5 of that year and became popular enough to land his own brief weekly program. Radio On leaving the Coast Guard, Godfrey became a radio announcer for Baltimore station WFBR (now WJZ (AM)), then moved to Washington, D.C., to become a staff announcer for NBC-owned station WRC the same year. He remained there until 1934. Recovering from a near-fatal automobile accident en route to a flying lesson in 1931 (he was already an avid flyer), he decided to listen closely to the radio and realized that the stiff, formal style then used by announcers could not connect with the average radio listener. The announcers spoke in stentorian tones, as if giving a formal speech to a crowd and not communicating on a personal level. Godfrey vowed that when he returned to the airwaves, he would affect a relaxed, informal style as if he were talking to just one person. He also used that style to do his own commercials and became a regional star. Over time, he added wisecracks to his commercials and would kid the sponsors, a risky move that offended advertising agency executives whose staff worked on the commercial scripts. Nonetheless, Godfrey's antics quickly gained acceptance when his sponsors discovered their sales actually increased after Godfrey's added jokes. At times, he would read an ad agency script on television as he mockingly rolled his eyes, used a sarcastic tone of voice or added his own wisecracks. Since the sponsors approved, given their added sales, the agencies were powerless to stop him. In addition to announcing, Godfrey sang and played the ukulele. In 1934 he became a freelance entertainer, but eventually based himself on a daily show titled Sundial on CBS-owned station WJSV (later WTOP and now WFED) in Washington. Godfrey was the station's morning disc jockey, playing records, delivering commercials (often with tongue in cheek; a classic example had him referring to Bayer Aspirin as "bare ass prin"), interviewing guests, and even reading news reports during his three-hour shift. Godfrey loved to sing, and would frequently sing random verses during the "talk" portions of his program. In 1937, he was a host on Professor Quiz, radio's first successful quiz program. One surviving broadcast from 1939 has Godfrey unexpectedly turning on his microphone to harmonize with the Foursome's recording of "There'll Be Some Changes Made". Godfrey was eager to remain connected with the Navy, but found his hip injuries rendered him unsuitable for military service. He knew President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who listened to his Washington program, and through Roosevelt's intercession, he received a commission in the U.S. Naval Reserve before World War II. He would participate in exercises around the Washington area. Godfrey eventually moved his base to the CBS station in New York City, then known as WABC (now WCBS), and was heard on both WJSV and WABC for a time. In the autumn of 1942, he also became the announcer for Fred Allen's Texaco Star Theater show on the CBS network, but a personality conflict between Allen and Godfrey led to his early release from the show after only six weeks. Godfrey became nationally known in April 1945 when, as CBS's morning-radio man in Washington, he took the microphone for a live, firsthand account of President Roosevelt's funeral procession. The entire CBS network picked up the broadcast, later preserved in the Edward R. Murrow and Fred W. Friendly record series, I Can Hear it Now. Unlike the tight-lipped news reporters and commentators of the day, who delivered news in an earnest, businesslike manner, Godfrey's tone was sympathetic and neighborly, lending immediacy and intimacy to his words. When identifying new President Harry S. Truman's car in the procession, Godfrey fervently said, in a choked voice, "God bless him, President Truman." Godfrey broke down in tears and cued the listeners back to the studio. The entire nation was moved by his emotional outburst. CBS gave Arthur Godfrey his own morning time slot on the nationwide network. Arthur Godfrey Time was a Monday–Friday show that featured his monologues, interviews with various stars, music from his own in-house combo, and regular vocalists. Godfrey's monologues and discussions were usually unscripted, and went wherever he chose. Arthur Godfrey Time remained a late morning staple on the CBS Radio Network schedule until 1972. Two radio monologues proved to be audience favorites and were rebroadcast on several occasions by popular demand, and later on his television show. They were "What is a Boy?" and a follow-up, "What is a Girl?" With the skilled addition of sentimental music, both monologues captured the essence of what made parents love their children, fondly describing the highly varied personality traits of each child as the monologue progressed. Each monologue struck a chord with everyone who heard it. "What is a Boy?" in particular proved to be so popular that it was released as one of Godfrey's records, which he issued on Columbia Records (Record no. 39487) in the summer of 1951, with "What is a Girl?" on the B-side of the record. It reached the top of the Billboard charts in August 1951, one of several successful records Godfrey released between 1947 and 1952. Godfrey was also known for sparking impromptu jam sessions on the air with the band, all of them first-rate musicians who could improvise on the fly. He would sometimes begin singing along with his ukulele, the band falling in behind him. At other times, he would jump into a number sung by one of the "Little Godfreys" and continue it, encouraging solos from various band members. It was further proof of his insistence on spontaneity on the air. He began to play a baritone ukulele. Over time, tutored by the band's guitarist Remo Palmier, Godfrey's playing took a decidedly jazzy quality. Palmier, a top Manhattan studio guitarist, was also a respected jazz guitarist and the only one of Godfrey's musicians to remain with the show from its 1945 debut until the final 1972 broadcast. In 1947, Godfrey had a surprise hit record with the novelty "Too Fat Polka (She's Too Fat For Me)" written by Ross MacLean and Arthur Richardson. The song reached number two in the US charts and its popularity led to the Andrews Sisters recording a version adapted to the women's point-of-view. In general, Godfrey despised most of his novelty recordings, including "Too Fat Polka", his biggest-selling record. Godfrey's morning show was supplemented by a prime time variety show, Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts, broadcasting from the CBS Studio Building at 49 East 52nd Street, where he had his main office. This variety show, a showcase for rising young performers, was a slight variation of CBS's successful Original Amateur Hour. Some of the performers had made public appearances in their home towns and were recommended to Godfrey by friends or colleagues. These "sponsors" would accompany the performers to the broadcast and introduce them to Godfrey on the air. Two acts from the same 1948 broadcast were Wally Cox and the Chordettes. Both were big hits that night, and both were signed to recording contracts. Godfrey took special interest in the Chordettes, who sang his kind of barbershop-quartet harmony, and he soon made them part of his broadcasting and recording "family". Godfrey was also known for extemporizing music on the show, grabbing his ukulele and launching into songs the band may not have rehearsed. He had insisted on employing musicians in his small orchestra who would be able to accompany him quickly and "follow" him as he sang. This resulted in impromptu jam sessions on some broadcasts, rarely heard on mainstream variety programs. Performers who appeared on Talent Scouts included Lenny Bruce, Don Adams, Tony Bennett, Patsy Cline, Lu Ann Simms, Pat Boone, opera singer Marilyn Horne, Roy Clark, and Irish vocalist Carmel Quinn. Later, he promoted "Little Godfrey" Janette Davis to a management position as the show's talent coordinator. Three notable acts rejected for the show were Buddy Holly, the Four Freshmen, and Elvis Presley. Following his appearances on the Louisiana Hayride, Presley traveled to New York for an unsuccessful Talent Scouts audition in April 1955. After the Talent Scouts staff rejected the Orioles, they went on to have a hit record with their version of "Crying in the Chapel" (a cover of the song by Darrell Glenn, written by his father, Artie, and a subsequent hit for Presley as well). That success kicked off the "bird group" trend of early rock 'n' roll. Godfrey was also an avid amateur radio operator, with the station call sign K4LIB. He was a member of the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame in the radio division. Beginning in January 1950, another Godfrey program on CBS Radio, Arthur Godfrey's Digest, was a transcribed compilation of highlights from morning shows of the preceding week. The 30-minute show was broadcast on Saturdays at 9:30 p.m. Eastern Time, sponsored by Chesterfield cigarettes. Theatre In 1946, Arthur appeared in the Broadway revue Three to Make Ready, "offering monologues and serving as a kind of master of ceremonies." In 1965, he appeared as Harry Lambert in Never Too Late at the Playhouse Theatre, with Maureen O'Sullivan. Television In 1948, Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts began to be simultaneously broadcast on radio and television, and by 1952, Arthur Godfrey Time also appeared on both media. The radio version ran an hour and a half; the TV version an hour, later expanded to an hour and a half. The Friday shows were heard on radio only, because at the end of the week, Godfrey traditionally broadcast his portion from a studio at his Virginia farm outside of Washington, D.C., and TV cameras were unable to transmit live pictures of him and his New York cast at the same time. Godfrey's skills as a commercial pitchman brought him a large number of loyal sponsors, including Lipton Tea, Frigidaire, Pillsbury cake mixes and Liggett & Myers's Chesterfield cigarettes. By 1959, total advertising billings from Godfrey's TV shows were estimated at an industry-high $150 million, almost double those of second-place Ed Sullivan. Godfrey found that one way to enhance his pitches was to extemporize his commercials, poking fun at the sponsors (while never showing disrespect for the products themselves), the sponsors' company executives, and advertising agency types who wrote the scripted commercials that he regularly ignored. (If he read them at all, he ridiculed them or even threw aside the scripts in front of the cameras.) To the surprise of the advertising agencies and sponsors, Godfrey's flippancy during the commercials frequently enhanced the sales of the sponsor's products. His popularity and ability to sell brought a windfall to CBS, accounting for a significant percentage of their corporate profits. While his willingness to mock the scripted commercials provided to him by sponsors' ad agencies angered those agencies, the sponsors, concerned only with improving their sales, were happy to let Godfrey tear apart those scripts (even physically on occasion). In 1949, Arthur Godfrey and His Friends, a weekly informal variety show, began on CBS-TV in prime time. His affable personality combined warmth, heart, and occasional bits of double entendre repartee, such as his remark when the show went on location: "Well, here we are in Miami Bitch. Hehheh." Godfrey received adulation from fans who felt that despite his considerable wealth, he was really "one of them", his personality that of a friendly next-door-neighbor. His ability to sell products, insisting he would not promote any in which he did not personally believe, gave him a level of trust from his audience, a belief that "if Godfrey said it, it must be so." When he quit smoking after his 1953 hip surgery, he began speaking out on the air against smoking, to the displeasure of longtime sponsor Chesterfield. When he stood his ground, the company withdrew as a sponsor in early 1954. Godfrey shrugged off their departure since he knew other sponsors would easily fill the vacancy. Eventually Godfrey added a weekend "best of" program culled from the week's Arthur Godfrey Time, known as Arthur Godfrey Digest. He began to veer away from interviewing stars in favor of a small group of regular performers that became known as the "Little Godfreys". Many of these artists were relatively obscure, but were given colossal national exposure, some of them former Talent Scouts winners, including Hawaiian vocalist Haleloke, veteran Irish tenor Frank Parker, Marion Marlowe and Julius La Rosa, who was in the Navy when Godfrey, doing his annual Naval reserve duty, discovered the young singer. He subsequently invited him on the show as a guest, offering him a job upon his discharge. La Rosa joined the cast in 1951 and became a favorite with Godfrey's immense audience, who also saw him on the prime-time weekly show Arthur Godfrey and his Friends. Godfrey also had a regular announcer-foil on the show, Tony Marvin. Godfrey preferred his performers not to use personal managers or agents, but often had his staff represent the artists if they were doing personal appearances, which allowed him considerable control over their careers and incomes. In 1953, after La Rosa hired an agent, Godfrey was so angry that he fired him on the air. Godfrey was one of the busiest men in the entertainment industry, often presiding over several daytime and evening radio and TV shows simultaneously. (Even busier was Robert Q. Lewis, who hosted Arthur Godfrey Time whenever Godfrey was absent, adding to his own tight schedule.) Both Godfrey and Lewis made commercial recordings for Columbia Records, often featuring the "Little Godfreys" in various combinations. In addition to the "Too Fat Polka", these included "Candy and Cake"; "Dance Me Loose". "I'm Looking Over a Four Leaf Clover"; "Slap 'Er Down Again, Paw"; "Slow Poke"; and "The Thing". In 1951 Godfrey also narrated a nostalgic movie documentary, Fifty Years Before Your Eyes, produced for Warner Brothers by silent-film anthologist Robert Youngson. Godfrey had been in pain since the 1931 car crash that damaged his hip. In 1953, he underwent pioneering hip replacement surgery in Boston using an early plastic artificial hip joint. The operation was successful and he returned to the show to the delight of his vast audience. During his recovery, CBS was so concerned about losing Godfrey's audience that they encouraged him to broadcast live from his Beacon Hill estate (near Leesburg, Virginia), with the signal carried by microwave towers built on the property. Godfrey's immense popularity and the trust placed in him by audiences was noticed not only by advertisers but also by his friend U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower, who asked him to record a number of public service announcements to be played on American television in the case of nuclear war. It was thought that viewers would be reassured by Godfrey's grandfatherly tone and folksy manner. The existence of the PSA recordings was confirmed in 2004 by former CBS president Dr. Frank Stanton in an exchange with a writer with the web site CONELRAD. Aviation Godfrey learned to fly in 1929 while working in broadcast radio in the Washington, D.C., area, starting with gliders, then learning to fly airplanes. He was badly injured on his way to a flying lesson one afternoon in 1931 when an oncoming truck lost its left front wheel and hit him head on. Godfrey spent months recuperating, and the injury kept him from flying on active duty during World War II. He served during the war as a reserve officer in the United States Navy in a public affairs role. Godfrey used his pervasive fame to advocate a strong anti-Communist stance and to pitch for enhanced strategic air power in the Cold War atmosphere. In addition to his advocacy for civil rights, he became a strong promoter of his middle-class fans' vacationing in Hawaii and Miami Beach, Florida, formerly enclaves for the wealthy. In Hawaii, he helped raise funds for the "Coronation" carillon installed at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in 1956. He made a television movie in 1953, taking the controls of an Eastern Air Lines Lockheed Constellation airliner and flying to Miami, thus showing how safe airline travel had become. As a reserve officer, he used his public position to cajole the Navy into qualifying him as a Naval Aviator, and played that against the United States Air Force, who later successfully recruited him into the Air Force Reserve. At one time during the 1950s, Godfrey had flown every active aircraft in the military inventory. His continued unpaid promotion of Eastern Air Lines earned him the undying gratitude of good friend Eddie Rickenbacker, the World War I flying ace who was the president of the airline. He was such a good friend of the airline that Rickenbacker took a retiring Douglas DC-3, fitted it out with an executive interior and DC-4 engines, and presented it to Godfrey, who then used it to commute to the studios in New York City from his huge Leesburg, Virginia, farm every Sunday night. Aviation incidents In January 1954, Godfrey buzzed the control tower of Teterboro Airport in his DC-3. His certificate was suspended for six months. He claimed that the windy conditions that day required him to turn immediately after takeoff, but in fact he was upset with the tower because they would not give him the runway that he requested. He later recorded a satirical song about the incident called "Teterboro Tower", roughly to the tune of "Wabash Cannonball". A similar event occurred while he flew near Chicago in 1956, though no sanctions were imposed. Leesburg airport The original Leesburg airport, which Godfrey owned and referred to affectionately on his show as "The Old Cow Pasture", was less than a mile from the center of town, and local residents had come to expect rattling windows and crashing dishes every Sunday evening and Friday afternoon. In 1960, Godfrey proposed building a new airport by selling the old field and donating a portion of the sale to a local group. Since Godfrey funded the majority of the airport, it is now known as Leesburg Executive Airport at Godfrey Field. He was also known for flying a North American/Ryan Navion, a smaller single-engined airplane, a Lockheed Jetstar, and in later years a Beech Baron and a Beech Duke, registration number N1M. In 1964, he became one of the founding members of the board of directors of Executive Jet Aviation Corporation. Behind the scenes When the Godfrey show began appearing on television, some Southern CBS affiliates objected to the Mariners barbershop quartet. This group of four US Coast Guard veterans included two whites and two blacks. Godfrey resisted criticism from network affiliates in Southern states and struck back. He noted that black and white troops were serving together in the Korean War, and he attacked critics including Democratic Georgia Governor Herman Talmadge. Godfrey's opposition to racial discrimination was longstanding, alluded to on his broadcasts. According to several people who worked either for or closely with Godfrey, behind his on-air warmth and benevolent image was a volatile, egomaniacal and controlling personality. He insisted that his "Little Godfreys" all attend dance and singing classes, believing they should be versatile performers regardless whether they possessed the aptitude for those disciplines. In meetings with his staff and cast, he could be abusive, sarcastic and intimidating. CBS historian Robert Metz, in CBS: Reflections in a Bloodshot Eye, quoted Godfrey as having once told cast and staffers, "Remember that many of you are here over the bodies I have personally slain. I have done it before and I can do it again." Julius La Rosa claimed in an interview with writer Gene Lees it occurred during what were referred to as Wednesday night “prayer meetings” held after that night’s show to start preparing for the next week’s. Godfrey also demanded, though there was no contractual requirement, that his cast members refrain from hiring personal managers or booking agents. He insisted his staff could handle all of that. Given the rise of the "Little Godfreys" from total obscurity due to their exposure on Godfrey's popular programs, no one felt inclined to challenge him. Despite his ability to bring in huge profits, most CBS executives who respected Godfrey professionally disliked him personally, since he often baited them on and off the air, occasionally by name, even including CBS chairman William S. Paley. Godfrey's attitude was controlling before his hiatus for hip surgery, but upon his return, he added more air time to his morning shows and became critical of a number of aspects of the broadcasts. One night, he substituted a shortened, hastily arranged version of his Wednesday night variety show in place of the scheduled "Talent Scouts" segment, feeling that none of the talent that evening was up to his standards. He also began casting a critical eye on others in his cast, particularly La Rosa, whose popularity continued to grow. La Rosa incident Like many men of his generation, Julius La Rosa, as well as other male Godfrey cast members, thought dance lessons to be somewhat effeminate and bristled when Godfrey ordered them for his entire performing crew. CBS historian Robert Metz suggested that Godfrey had instituted the practice because his own physical limitations made him sensitive to the need for physical coordination on camera. "Godfrey", Metz wrote, "was concerned about his cast in his paternalistic way". Godfrey and La Rosa had a dispute in the fall of 1953, when La Rosa, the most popular of the "Little Godfreys", missed a dance lesson due to a "family emergency". He claimed he had advised Godfrey, but was nonetheless barred, via a notice placed on a cast bulletin board, from appearing on the show for a day in retaliation. La Rosa went to Godfrey's hotel and attempted to discuss the incident, but after being rebuffed by Godfrey's assistants, he waited in the lobby. When Godfrey came into the lobby, he reportedly walked past La Rosa as if he wasn't there and refused to talk with him. At that point, La Rosa, whose success on records had brought interest from top show business managers and agents, retained manager Tommy Rockwell to renegotiate his contract with Godfrey or, failing that, to receive an outright release; however, such talks had yet to occur. La Rosa was also signed to Cadence Records, founded by Godfrey's musical director Archie Bleyer, who produced "Eh, Cumpari!", the best-selling record of La Rosa's musical career. La Rosa later admitted the record's success had made him a little cocky. Godfrey discovered that La Rosa had hired Rockwell in the wake of the dance lesson reprimand, when he received a letter from Rockwell, dictating that all future dealings with La Rosa would be handled through General Artists Corporation, Rockwell's agency. At that point, Godfrey immediately consulted with CBS President Dr. Frank Stanton, who noted that Godfrey had hired La Rosa on the air and suggested firing him the same way. Whether Stanton intended this to occur after Godfrey spoke with La Rosa and his manager about the singer's future on the program, or whether Stanton suggested Godfrey actually fire La Rosa on air without warning, is unknown. Soon after the firings, Stanton conceded "maybe this was a mistake". On October 19, 1953, near the end of his morning radio show – deliberately waiting until after the television portion had ended – after lavishing praise on La Rosa in introducing the singer's performance of "Manhattan", Godfrey thanked him and then announced that this was La Rosa's "swan song" with the show, adding, "He goes now, out on his own – as his own star – soon to be seen on his own programs, and I know you'll wish him godspeed as much as I do". Godfrey then signed off for the day, saying, "This is the CBS Radio Network". La Rosa, who did not know what the phrase "swan song" meant, was incredulous when told he had just been fired, since he had not been informed beforehand of his termination, and contract renegotiations had not yet taken place. In perhaps a further illumination of the ego that Godfrey had previously kept hidden, radio historian Gerald Nachman, in Raised on Radio, claims that what truly angered Godfrey about his now-former protegé was that La Rosa's fan mail had come to exceed Godfrey's. It is probable that a combination of these factors led to Godfrey's decision to discharge La Rosa. Godfrey very likely did not expect the public backlash that followed, a result of the incident running directly counter to Godfrey's solicitous, paternal image. The La Rosa incident was the beginning of an era of controversy that enveloped Godfrey, gradually destroyed his folksy image, and diminished his popularity. La Rosa's was not, however, the only firing that day. Godfrey also fired Archie Bleyer. In 1952, Bleyer had formed his own record label, Cadence Records, which had a contract with La Rosa; Bleyer also married Janet Ertel of The Chordettes. The focus of Godfrey's anger was the fact that Bleyer, while on hiatus from the show, had produced a spoken-word record by Godfrey's Chicago counterpart Don McNeill to be issued by Cadence. McNeill hosted The Breakfast Club, which had been Godfrey's direct competition on the NBC Blue Network (later ABC) since Godfrey's days at WJSV. Despite the far more modest following of the McNeill show, Godfrey was unduly offended, even paranoid, at what he felt was disloyalty on Bleyer's part. According to Godfrey, a meeting between Bleyer and Godfrey immediately following La Rosa's dismissal, revealing Bleyer was unconcerned about the matter. He claimed Bleyer simply shrugged off the dismissal and focused on developing Cadence, which found significant success with hit records by the Everly Brothers and Andy Williams. Bleyer himself never commented publicly on the rift with Godfrey. La Rosa, on the other hand, was beloved enough by Godfrey's fans that they saved their harshest criticism for Godfrey himself. After the firing, a conference was held by La Rosa and his agent. On October 21, with public animosity towards Godfrey steadily rising, Godfrey further complicated the matter at a press conference of his own where he announced the firing of La Rosa and Bleyer, citing their "outside activities". While praising La Rosa, Godfrey added he felt that La Rosa had lost his "humility". The charge, given Godfrey's sudden baring of his own ego beneath the façade of warmth, brought anger, mockery, and a significant backlash from both the press and public. Almost instantly, Godfrey and the phrase "no humility" became the butt of many comedians' jokes. In November 1953 singer-songwriter Ruth Wallis, renowned for her double-entendre "party records", wrote and recorded a topical novelty song, "Dear Mr. Godfrey", with the pointed lyric "hire me and fire me and make a star of me." The record, self-published by Wallis, was an immediate sensation, selling more than 100,000 copies during its first 10 days of release, and launching Wallis on a whirlwind nightclub tour later that same month. Godfrey later claimed he had given La Rosa a release from his contract that the singer had personally requested. Godfrey, however, provided no evidence to support that contention. The firings continue After his 1953 hospitalization broke his smoking habit, he had concluded that smoking was not beneficial and very likely harmful, a total reverse from his earlier commercials. His once-friendly rapport with the Liggett & Myers tobacco company ended as he spoke out on the air against smoking. The Teterboro Airport incident in January 1954 kept Godfrey's image negative in the media. Godfrey subsequently fired other producers, writers, and cast members including Marion Marlowe, Lu Ann Simms, Haleloke, and The Mariners. The integrated quartet (two members of the foursome were African-American) believed Godfrey had acceded to continued criticism from CBS affiliates in the South over the group's presence on the show. Pat Boone and Carmel Quinn joined the cast for a time. But any thoughts of Godfrey curtailing the fired cast members' network-television exposure backfired somewhat when they continued to perform for Godfrey's substitute host, Robert Q. Lewis, who now had his own afternoon show on CBS. Occasionally, Godfrey snapped at cast members on the air, including Tony Marvin. Other performers, most notably Pat Boone and, briefly, Patsy Cline, stepped in as "Little Godfreys". Cline, who had won top honors for her appearance on Talent Scouts, declined to become a regular, confining her appearances to a few guest spots. Eventually, Godfrey did away with any regular cast except Marvin, bringing in performers for a stipulated period of time and, if they did well with his audiences, bringing them back at various times. Godfrey's problems with the media and public feuds with newspaper columnists, such as Jack O'Brian and newspaperman turned CBS variety show host Ed Sullivan, were duly documented by the media, which began running critical exposé articles linking Godfrey to affairs with several female "Little Godfreys". Godfrey's anger at Sullivan stemmed from the variety show impresario's featuring fired "Little Godfreys" on his Sunday night program, including La Rosa. Godfrey later dismissed long-time vocalist Frank Parker, an Italian-American known for his Irish tenor. Godfrey had been told Parker made jokes about him during a Las Vegas appearance. In popular culture As the media turned on Godfrey, two films, The Great Man (1956) starring José Ferrer, who also directed and produced, and Elia Kazan's A Face in the Crowd (1957) starring Andy Griffith and Patricia Neal, were inspired in part by Godfrey's increasingly controversial career: The Great Man, adapted from a novel by TV writer Al Morgan, centered on a tribute broadcast for Herb Fuller, a Godfrey-like figure killed in a car crash whose genial public demeanor concealed a dissolute phony. Various parallels to Godfrey's life could be seen in the film, from his affair with the show's girl singer to his dicey relationship with the show's bandleader. The term "The Fuller Family" was a direct play off "The Little Godfreys". A Face in the Crowd creator Budd Schulberg maintained his story was actually inspired by contrasts between the public image and private personality of Will Rogers, Sr. Also, the film's protagonist, Lonesome Rhodes, with his combination of country singing and country storytelling, superficially resembled popular singer and network TV host Tennessee Ernie Ford. Nonetheless, prominent elements of the film, including the scenes when Rhodes (played by Andy Griffith) spoofed a mattress commercial on a TV show he was hosting in Memphis, were clearly Godfrey-inspired. The research by Kazan and Schulberg included attending an advertising agency meeting about Lipton Tea. Godfrey was a frequent target for parody: Actor and comedian Art Carney, whose celebrity impersonations were part of his comic repertoire, frequently parodied Godfrey, singing one of his signature tunes "Candy and Cake" and imitating his laugh. As early as 1949, comedians Bob and Ray presented an obvious parody with the character of Arthur Sturdley (voiced by Bob Elliott) who, in plummy, folksy tones, constantly ragged his announcer Tony (Ray Goulding, imitating Godfrey's announcer Tony Marvin). Tony, meanwhile, would incessantly answer every question with "That's right, Arthur!" In the 1969 film Cold Turkey, Ray (not Bob) played another parody of Godfrey, this time as folksy radio announcer "Arthur Lordly". Satirist Stan Freberg picked up on Bob and Ray's use of the catchphrase "That's right, Arthur", and recorded a barbed spoof of Godfrey's show. "That's Right, Arthur" depicted the star as a rambling, self-absorbed motormouth and his longtime announcer (Tony Marvin, portrayed by voice actor Daws Butler) as a yes-man, responding "That's right, Arthur" to every vapid Godfrey pronouncement. Freberg's label Capitol Records, fearing legal problems and noting objections from Godfrey's attorney, refused to release it, to Freberg's annoyance. The recording was finally issued in a 1990s Freberg career retrospective CD box set. Comedian Jerry Lester mocked him as "Arthur Clodfrey". The Joy Boys performed a similar satire of Godfrey on their radio show, calling their fellow Washingtonian "Arthur Codfish". Godfrey appeared on many major magazine covers including Life, Look, Time, and more than a dozen TV Guide covers. He was also the first man to make the cover of Cosmopolitan magazine. Despite his faux pas, Godfrey still commanded a strong presence and a loyal fan base. Talent Scouts lasted until 1958. Allegations of anti-Semitism Accusations of anti-Semitism shadowed Godfrey during the height of his career and continue to persist. Eddie Fisher, in his autobiography, Been There, Done That, discusses the rumor: Arthur J. Singer, author of Arthur Godfrey: The Adventures of an American Broadcaster (2000), rejects this accusation, citing Godfrey's good personal relations with a number of Jews in the entertainment industry, including his longtime announcer Tony Marvin. As for Godfrey's association with the Kenilworth, the hotel did establish a "No Jews" policy in the 1920s, but abandoned it when Godfrey acquired a stake in the hotel in the early 1950s. In the eyes of the public, the increasingly negative, and largely self-inflicted publicity Godfrey, despite his ongoing popularity, had generated since 1953 no doubt added credence to the accusations. In fact Godfrey was only a part-owner of the hotel and insisted that when he took that stake, he ended any discriminatory policies that existed. Further undermining Fisher's account, he appeared on Talent Scouts years before Godfrey purchased a part interest in the Kenilworth. Dick Cavett, in an opinion piece for the New York Times (July 16, 2010), calls the accusations of anti-Semitism "...purest nonsense". Later life Godfrey was an avid hunter who teamed with professional hunters to kill big-game animals on safari in Africa, employing helicopters to gain close access to his prey. In 1959, Godfrey began suffering chest pains. Examination by physicians revealed a mass in his chest that could have been lung cancer. Surgeons discovered cancer in one lung that spread to his aorta. One lung was removed. Yet, despite the disease's discouragingly high mortality rate, it became clear after radiation treatments that Godfrey had beaten the substantial odds against him. He returned to the air on a prime-time TV special but resumed the daily morning show on radio only, reverting to a format featuring guest stars such as ragtime pianist Max Morath and Irish vocalist Carmel Quinn, maintaining a live combo of first-rate Manhattan musicians (under the direction of Sy Mann) as he had done since the beginning. Godfrey also became a persuasive spokesman advocating regular medical checkups to detect cancer early, noting his cancer was cured only because it was discovered when still treatable. Godfrey's initial return to television occurred in a TV special centered on his gratitude to have survived what was by 1959 standards, an almost-certain death sentence. He sang, danced, did commercials and announced that he'd make greater use of the new videotape technology for the future. Despite appearing healthy on the broadcast, Godfrey, fearing the after-effects of his illness would adversely affect his appearance, announced that he would resume the Monday–Friday Arthur Godfrey Time on radio only, ending the daily TV broadcasts. Long-time announcer Tony Marvin, with Godfrey since the late 1940s, did not make the transition to the new program. Marvin was one of Godfrey's few associates who left on amicable terms, and went on to a career as a radio news anchor on the Mutual Broadcasting System. The Godfrey show was the last daily long-form entertainment program on American network radio when Godfrey and CBS agreed to end it in April 1972, when his 20-year contract with the network expired. Godfrey by then was a colonel in the United States Air Force Reserve and still an active pilot. He appeared in the films 4 for Texas (1963), The Glass Bottom Boat (1966), and Where Angels Go, Trouble Follows (1968). He briefly co-hosted the 1960–61 debut season of Candid Camera with creator Allen Funt, but that relationship, like so many others, ended abruptly and acrimoniously; Godfrey hosted at least one broadcast without Funt. Godfrey also made various guest appearances, and he and Lucille Ball co-hosted the CBS special 50 Years of Television (1978). He also made a cameo appearance in the 1979 B-movie Angels Revenge. Post-retirement In retirement, Godfrey wanted to find ways back onto a regular TV schedule. He appeared on the rock band Moby Grape's song "Just Like Gene Autry: A Foxtrot", a 1920s-pop-style piece from their album Wow. Godfrey's political outlook was complex, and to some, contradictory; his lifelong admiration for Franklin Roosevelt combined with a powerful libertarian streak in his views and his open support for Dwight D. Eisenhower as president. During his later years he became a powerful voice for the environmentalist movement who identified with the youth culture that irreverently opposed the "establishment", as he felt that he had done during his peak years. He renounced a lucrative endorsement deal with Colgate-Palmolive when it became clear to him that it clashed with his environmental principles. He had made commercials for Colgate toothpaste and the detergent Axion, only to repudiate the latter product when he found out that Axion contained phosphates, implicated in water pollution. He did far fewer commercials after that incident. While Godfrey was a great fan of technology, including aviation and aerospace developments, he also found time for pursuits of an earlier era. He was a dedicated horseman and master at dressage and made charity appearances at horse shows. He also found in later years that his enthusiasm for high-tech had its limits when he concluded that some technological developments posed the potential to threaten the environment. During one appearance on The Dick Cavett Show, Godfrey commented that the United States needed the supersonic transport "about as much as we need another bag of those clunkers from the moon." The concern that the SST contributed to noise pollution, an issue Godfrey was instrumental in raising in the United States, is considered to have effectively ended SST interest in the U.S., leaving it to Britain and France. (Cavett claims that Godfrey's statement also earned tax audits from the Richard Nixon-era Internal Revenue Service for the show's entire production staff.) Although Godfrey's desire to remain in the public eye never faltered, his presence ebbed considerably over the next ten years, despite an HBO special and an appearance on a PBS salute to the 1950s. A 1981 attempt to reconcile him with La Rosa for a Godfrey show reunion record album, bringing together Godfrey and a number of the "Little Godfreys", collapsed. Godfrey had initially resisted the idea, floated by his agent, but finally relented. At an initially amicable meeting, Godfrey reasserted that La Rosa wanted out of his contract and asked why he had not explained that instead of insisting he was fired without warning. When La Rosa began reminding him of the dance lesson controversy, Godfrey, then in his late seventies, exploded and the meeting ended in shambles. The Arthur Godfrey Collection Toward the end of his life, Godfrey became a major supporter of public broadcasting, and left his large personal archive of papers and programs to public station WNET/Thirteen in New York. Godfrey biographer Arthur Singer helped to arrange a permanent home for the Godfrey material at the Broadcasting Archives at the University of Maryland in early 1998. The collection contains hundreds of kinescopes of Godfrey television programs, more than 4,000 audiotapes and wire recordings of his various radio shows, videotapes, and transcription discs. The collection also contains Godfrey's voluminous personal papers and business records, which cover his spectacular rise and precipitous fall in the industry over a period of more than 50 years. Death Emphysema, thought to have been caused by decades of smoking and the radiation treatments for Godfrey's lung cancer, became a problem in the early 1980s. Godfrey died of the condition at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan on March 16, 1983, at the age of 79. Godfrey was buried at Union Cemetery in Leesburg, Virginia, not far from his farm. Personal life Godfrey was married twice. He and his first wife, Catherine, had one child. He was next married to the former Mary Bourke from February 24, 1938, until their divorce in 1982, a year before his death. They had two children. His granddaughter is Mary Schmidt Amons, a cast member on The Real Housewives of Washington, D.C.. Awards NBAA Meritorious Service to Aviation Award (1950) National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame (radio) National Aviation Hall of Fame (1987) Radio Hall of Fame (1988) Peabody Award (1971) Hollywood Walk of Fame ( Honored with three stars; Radio, TV, Recording) Ukulele Hall of Fame (2001) In 2002 Godfrey was one of only three people named on both of industry publication Talkers Magazine'''s 25 greatest radio, and 25 greatest television, talk show hosts of all time lists. References External links {{ }} Arthur Godfrey at Flickr Commons via Boston Public Library Museum of Broadcast Communication: Arthur Godfrey Kinescope of an episode of 'Arthur Godfrey Time' at the Internet Archive WJSV Complete Broadcast Day on September 21, 1939, including Sundial with Arthur Godfrey'', at the Internet Archive 76-page booklet, Arthur Godfrey and His Gang (PDF) Arthur Godfrey papers at the University of Maryland libraries 1903 births 1983 deaths People from Manhattan Radio and television announcers Amateur radio people Television personalities from New York City American ukulele players Peabody Award winners National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees United States Air Force officers United States Coast Guard enlisted United States Navy sailors Vee-Jay Records artists Deaths from emphysema Radio personalities from Baltimore Radio personalities from New York City Radio personalities from Washington, D.C. Hasbrouck Heights High School alumni People from Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey People from Leesburg, Virginia Military personnel from New York City 20th-century American musicians American anti-communists Military personnel from New Jersey Musicians from New York City
418594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20Crystal%20Chronicles%20%28video%20game%29	Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles (video game)	is an action role-playing video game developed by The Game Designers Studio and published by Nintendo for the GameCube. It was released in 2003 in Japan and 2004 in North America, Europe and Australia. A remastered version for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Android, and iOS was released in August 2020. A spin-off of the Final Fantasy series and beginning of the series of the same name, Crystal Chronicles was the first title in the franchise to be released for a Nintendo home console since Final Fantasy VI in 1994. Players take on the role of adventurers who travel in a caravan gathering mystical fuel for crystals which protect the world's settlements from the destructive Miasma. The single-player campaign has the player escort the vessel carrying the crystal's energy, defending it from enemies and solving puzzles to progress. Multiplayer, which uses Game Boy Advance units connected using the console's link cable, has up to four players protecting the vessel. Deciding to partner with Nintendo for game development following severe financial problems created by the failure of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, franchise creator Square formed the Game Designers Studio as a shell company to develop for Nintendo hardware without impacting games for Sony platforms. The development team wanted to create an accessible gameplay experience focusing on multiplayer. The music, written by Kumi Tanioka, made extensive use of medieval and Renaissance musical instruments. Upon release, the title was positively received by journalists, and was nominated for multiple awards. Reaching high sales positions in Japan and the West, it went on to sell over one million copies worldwide. The remastered version saw generally mixed reviews, with many faulting the change to online-only multiplayer, and by-then dated gameplay mechanics. Subsequent entries in the Crystal Chronicles series have released for Nintendo consoles, beginning with Ring of Fates for the Nintendo DS. Gameplay Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles is an action role-playing game where players take control of a group of adventurers who travel the world searching for rare trees which produce "myrrh", used to fuel crystals protecting the world's settlements from the poisonous Miasma. Players are guided through a repeating series of events which dictate their progress through the game and its story. The adventurers set out from their village, travelling to the trees guarding the vessel which gathers the myrrh, exploring dungeons in which the trees reside, then returning home to renew their village's protective crystal. Players choose their avatar character from one of four races; they can be male or female, each with four pre-set body types. Each race has specific strengths, such as the human-like Clavats having high defence and magic statistics and the nomadic Selkies being able to use special abilities with less cooldown time. Each character's attributes are further customised by choosing the profession of their family, which gives the character access to unique facilities and items each time they return to their home town. Players navigate the world map with their Caravan, and enter town and dungeon environments discovered during the journey. In towns, the player can freely explore and use the available facilities to create and upgrade both items and equipment using materials and blueprints gathered during their journey. The player can also encounter other caravans and travellers, triggering story events. Items used to support the player are both bought in shops and received as gifts from the player character's family. While exploring dungeons, players are confined to a safe zone created by the vessel, fighting enemies in a style similar to hack and slash games with actions assigned to command buttons; actions can be chained together into short combination attacks using equipped weapons to increase damage and charge up magic abilities. Magic can be used to damage enemies or trigger status ailments, with multiple spells able to fuse and create new effects in battle. The elemental affinity of the player's attacks can be changed using crystals found in dungeons. Certain elemental affinities are necessary for crossing into new zones otherwise blocked by streams of Miasma. Instead of an experience point system, character attributes and statistics are increased by completing challenges in each dungeon session which award skill points, and Artifacts found in dungeons which can be equipped to a character. In single-player, the player controls one character guarding the Moogle-held vessel from monster attacks while navigating dungeons. The game's multiplayer allows up to four players to join in a local gameplay session; multiplayer relies on the GameCube console linking with the Game Boy Advance (GBA) link cable. All players are displayed on the screen, while their GBAs both control their characters and allow functions such as shopping in towns and performing battle functions. Character attributes are increased in the same way, except that the necessary points are given to the best player during that session. In battle, players can raise attack meters using standard attacks in succession, and combine individual spells to create more powerful versions for higher damage. The link cable can also be used in single player, allowing the GBA to be used both as a controller and a second screen displaying radar information. The type of radar and what it shows is determined by the color the player's Moogle—one of a recurring Final Fantasy race—is painted during stays in towns and visits to the adventurers' hometown. Plot Crystal Chronicles takes place in an unnamed fantasy world inhabited by four races. The player takes control of a caravan hailing from the village of Tipa, in which members of the world's four races come together to help its mission. 1000 years before the game's events, the world's sustaining Great Crystal was shattered by a meteorite carrying an alien lifeform called the Meteor Parasite. The Parasite generated a poisonous vapour called the Miasma, which kills anyone it touches. Fragments of the Great Crystal ward off the Miasma from surviving settlements, but require renewal using myrrh, an energy harvested from magical trees using magical vessels protected by dedicated caravans. The Tipa caravanners go on missions across the world to gather myrrh, learning the world's history from travellers and characters found in other settlements. The caravanners eventually reach the home of the Carbuncles, an ancient race who guided the world's races to the Great Crystal fragments before going into hiding. After hearing of their adventures, the Carbuncles direct the caravanners to the source of the Miasma, asking them to destroy the Meteor Parasite. The caravanners fight the Meteor Parasite, but before they can kill it are transported to an unknown realm. There they meet Mio and her evil counterpart Raem, metaphysical beings born following the Great Crystal's destruction. Raem attacks the caravanners, merging with Mio to increase his power, before being finally destroyed. Mio and Raem separate and fade away, then the caravanners are sent back to Mount Vellenge to destroy the wounded Meteor Parasite. The world is freed from the Miasma—allowing the four tribes to begin rebuilding civilisation—and the caravanners return home. Development Crystal Chronicles was the first original Final Fantasy title to be developed for a Nintendo console since the release of Final Fantasy VI in 1994. Final Fantasy developer Square had broken with Nintendo in 1996 to develop Final Fantasy VII and future mainline entries in the series for Sony's PlayStation platforms, resulting in a long-standing enmity between Square and Nintendo. In 2001, following the financial failure of the feature film Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, Sony purchased a stake in the company amounting to 19% of shares. After considering their still-poor financial situation and wishing to keep their staff from leaving, Square decided to begin developing titles for Nintendo consoles once again. Sony, whose rivalry with Nintendo had softened with the appearance of Microsoft's Xbox on the console market, agreed to the partnership on the condition that it would not impact development of titles for the PlayStation 2. This resulted in the creation of "The Game Designers Studio", a shell company for Square's Product Development Division 2 co-owned by Square and Akitoshi Kawazu, a staff member famous for his work on the SaGa series. Development of the new project began in late 2001. The title was developed with the aid of Q Fund, a fund set up by Nintendo's Hiroshi Yamauchi to help first-time developers for the GameCube and GBA consoles. Kawazu acted as the game's producer. The director was Kazuhiko Aoki, a veteran of the Final Fantasy series who had worked on Final Fantasy IX. The artwork and character designs were created by Toshiyuki Itahana, who had also worked on IX. During the game's development in 2003, Square underwent a merger with Enix to become Square Enix, though the nature of the merger meant operations at the Gamer Designers Studio continued as normal. Square Localization Specialist Aziz Hinoshita stated that the game was originally meant to be an offshoot of Final Fantasy, and once the series was established it would drop the connection to that series and would be called "Crystal Chronicles". It was the only title ever developed by the company for the GameCube. Similar to his SaGa games, Kawazu wanted to promote player freedom. The basic concept was to build a game around use of the link cable. Kawazu explained that using the GBA would "introduce different elements of gameplay". He later stated that this type of multiplayer meant "the entry was a bit high" for potential players. The battle system was initially going to use the series' recurring Active Time Battle system, but instead chose a purely action-based system to allow more people to enjoy the gameplay. Leveling based on experience points was also removed to create an level field for players. It was initially planned to include a human sidekick character, but upon considering its impact on multiplayer, they changed it to the current Moogle system. The game's event planner was Masahiro Kataoka, a Square staff member who had previously worked in that capacity on Final Fantasy IX. The central plot details of the Miasma and role of Crystals were established early on, based around the wish to keep players together. Each race's defining traits were influenced by the designers' decisions about their combat options, with story-based additions coming from the planners later in production. The narrations which accompanied new areas were written in the style of journal entries, designed to both fit the theme of a caravan and introduce a new area to the player. While previous Final Fantasy games were driven by their narrative, Crystal Chronicles was driven by its gameplay; the narrative was instead communicated through basic storytelling and environmental narrative. Despite this shift, recurring elements from the Final Fantasy were included. The many encounters players had along the way were important to Kawazu, with the scenario designers "pushing themselves as far as they could" to fill the game world with these encounters and accompanying lore. Most of them were created well after production had begun. Itahana heard about the project while he was attached to Final Fantasy XII during its early production, and transferred over to work on Crystal Chronicles. The scenario was already decided upon, with Itahana working from their briefs. A recurring theme in his artwork was the phrase "Memento mori". The four races were designed to have distinct sillouettes, so players would not get confused. Itahana originally created a cat-like race for the game, but Kawazu "hated" their design, so he created the plant-themed Lilties as a replacement. His work on the game lacked strong character designs due to the online multiplayer nature of the title. The player character designs were intended to be highly distinctive, allowing players to differentiate each other during play sessions. When creating the graphics, the team created graphical effects they considered possible only on the GameCube, and constantly checked background designs throughout development. Due to the multitude of elements new to Final Fantasy being incorporated into Crystal Chronicles, the development team faced multiple difficulties. Music The soundtrack to Crystal Chronicles was primarily composed by Kumi Tanioka, while music programmer and arranger Hidenori Iwasaki provided one additional piece of music. Prior to Crystal Chronicles, Tanioka had worked on the score of Final Fantasy XI. Beginning work on the score in 2002, Tanioka and Iwasaki decided to exclusively use period instruments. The soundtrack makes extensive use of many medieval and Renaissance musical instruments such as the recorder, the crumhorn and the lute, creating a distinctively rustic feel. Tanioka said that the idea came to her while looking at illustrations of the game world, which gave her the idea of making "world music", where the tracks would "not [be] limited to a single country or culture". She also credits Iwasaki with doing "fantastic technical work" that brought her vision to life. The live music was performed by the Roba Music Theater, whom Iwasaki and Tanioka had seen perform. In addition to performing, the musicians made suggestions about the use of instruments. The game features two vocal themes; the opening theme "Kaze no Ne", and the ending theme "Hoshizukiyo". Tanioka originally composed a longer version of "Kaze no Ne", but to keep the opening at a reasonable length she had to shorten it. The Japanese versions are sung by Yae Fujimoto, while the English versions are sung by Donna Burke. Burke also provided narration for the English version of the game. The lyrics for both "Kaze no Ne" and "Hoshizukiyo" were written by Kataoka. Describing her localization of the songs, Burke felt it was a challenge as Japanese is a more compact language than English, meaning she needed to "pad [the lyrics] out about 30-40%". Rather than a direct adaptation, Burke's work carried a similar message using altered words. A soundtrack album was released under the Pony Canyon label on August 20, 2003. It included all of the music from the game with the exception of the English versions of "Kaze no Ne" and "Hoshizukiyo". Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: A Musical Journey was a European promotional album which was given alongside the game on March 11, 2004 as a pre-order bonus. It contains six tracks from the soundtrack, including "Kaze No Ne" in both Japanese and English, the only time the English version has been released. It was published by Nintendo of Europe. "Kaze no Ne" was released as a single by Pony Canyon, featuring "Kaze No Ne", an arranged version, and two other songs by Yae from her album Blue Line. The single was released on July 30, 2003. Release The game was officially announced at the Jump Festa event in Japan in December 2002. A Western release was announced in April the following year. The game was among those shown by Square Enix at the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo, alongside a number of other titles including Final Fantasy XI and X-2, and other titles including Unlimited SaGa and Drakengard. Crystal Chronicles was released in Japan on August 8, 2003, after being delayed twice. The game came packaged with a GameCube-GBA link cable for use in multiplayer. In North America, the game was released on February 9, 2004, in Europe on March 12, and Australia on March 19. The game was published worldwide by Nintendo. Remastered Edition A remastered version, titled Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Remastered Edition, was released in 2020. The remaster includes enhanced graphics, new and arranged music, thirteen new dungeons, voice acting, and cross-platform online multiplayer. The game was released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Android and iOS mobile platforms. The port's online engine environment, dubbed STRIX Engine, was licensed from Fantasy Earth Zero developer SoftGear. Originally scheduled for a release in January 2020, it was delayed past the original planned release so the development team could further polish the game. The game was released online worldwide on August 27. A physical cartridge for Nintendo Switch was released only in Japan. A free downloadable Lite Version, acting as a demo covering three dungeons, was released alongside the retail version. Players of the Lite Version can join multiplayer sessions with retail version owners, allowing them to experience all thirteen dungeons. The Lite Version was developed late in full production, when the majority of the remaster was in place. Producer and director Ryoma Araki talked with senior staff about remastering older games after finishing work on another project. Araki had joined Square Enix originally after seeing Crystal Chronicles, and so when the chance came he expressed his wish to revive the game for a modern generation. While they had the option to remake it, Araki wanted to keep the game faithful to the memories of earlier players, both evoking nostalgia and assuring them that Crystal Chronicles was returning unchanged. Itahana returned, creating new lead character designs, but due to positive fan memories the original player designs were kept intact. Itahana worked on the new designs with Rubi Asami, who had previously worked on Mobius Final Fantasy. Araki estimated that around half the game had been remade rather than remastered due to the number of changes and additions. When consulting Aoki and Kawazu, Araki was asked to keep the project faithful to its roots and update it for modern players. In addition to enhancing the graphics, the team improved the AI character behavior. Along with the new features, many of the changes were small adjustments done to increase its playability for a modern audience. One of these changes was the timing system for casting magic, which was adjusted to both work through an online connection and be more lenient on players than the original version. The mimic mechanic, which allows players to appear as characters met during the story, was implemented as a way for players to continue travelling with favorite characters without breaking the narrative flow. Unlike the original, the remaster does not support local multiplayer. During production, the team had to choose between local and online co-op rather than having both, so they opted for online to allow the maximum number of people to play. Commenting on the delays, Araki said the team were prioritising a smooth playing experience, but he ended up being "reprimanded by a lot of important people". Composer Hidenori Iwasaki was brought in to both compose new tunes and arrange the original themes, though this was originally unplanned. The remaster was planned to use the original score, but the team's passion for the project prompted the decision to also remaster the music tracks. Remastering the old score was very easy as the original sound files had been kept in "perfect condition". While they worked on the game for a year, remastering the original score took only three months. New themes were composed by Tanioka, who had become a freelance composer and performer in 2010. In order to recall her feelings to create new tracks, Tanioka listened to the original soundtrack. While the new themes were mainly for the additional dungeons, other tracks were incorporated into the rest of the game. The new boss battle theme, while more energetic and modern-sounding than the original score, was written in the same style as Tanioka's earlier work. Fujimoto and Burke both returned to record new versions of the opening and ending themes. Burke enjoyed redoing the English theme, as she had gained more depth and experience since the original release. Reception Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu praised the game's fairytale aesthetic and unconventional treatment of the RPG genre; journalists Shane Bettenhausen, Jennifer Tsao and Kevin Gifford Electronic Gaming Monthly each gave the game high praise for its innovation in gameplay and graphical style. Eurogamers Rob Fahey gave the game a near-perfect score, noting the clear production values and calling it "one of the best action RPGs" he played; his only major fault was the implementation of multiplayer and its potential problems. Andrew Reiner—writing for Game Informer—was highly critical of the overall experience, calling the game "an experiment gone awry [...] unfit to bear the sacrosanct Final Fantasy name". A second opinion given by Adam Biessener supported this view, with Biessener feeling that the game did little to distinguish itself from other similar titles. GameSpots Brad Shoemaker enjoyed the game despite faulting its high hardware demands for the full experience, and his publication later named it the best GameCube game of February 2004. Mary Jane Irwin of IGN also gave praise to its gameplay concepts and design, but noted a lack of replay value and the steep entry requirements for multiplayer. Reviewers praised the game's art design and music, but most considered the story lacking compared to other Final Fantasy games. The gameplay was lauded for its implementation of multiplayer despite the hardware requirements and its detrimental effect on the single player campaign. A consensus in both Japanese and international reviews was that it was an innovative title, but with several flaws keeping it from being ranked among the best Final Fantasy games. Remastered Edition saw generally "mixed or average" reviews on both Switch and PS4. Jordan Rudek of Nintendo World Report felt that the single-player campaign lacked compelling content, and the multiplayer was hampered by the new additions to the point of making it worse than the original. IGNs Seth Macy was very negative, feeling that the game only made the original frustrating mechanics worse and added new problems. Mitch Vogel, writing for Nintendo Life, felt that the game would not appeal to a wide demographic and the new multiplayer functions sapped much of the original version's entertainment. Bryan Vitale of RRG Site felt it was still "serviceable" as an RPG, but showed its age and lacked polish on top of the frustrating online multiplayer functions. Kirstin Swalley of Hardcore Gamer was notably more positive, noting the age of its graphics design but otherwise finding it a fun and enjoyable Final Fantasy title. Reviews generally praised the art and music, but many faulted its archaic gameplay and unfriendly online multiplayer design. Sales During its debut in Japan, Crystal Chronicles sold over 179,500 units, reaching second place in sales charts. During the next two weeks, it first dropped to third place then rose to second place again. By 2004, Crystal Chronicles had sold nearly 355,000 units, becoming the twenty-eighth best-selling game title of the year in Japan and boosting GameCube sales for August. Following its North American release, the game was the best-selling title of the month. In the United Kingdom, the game was the best-selling GameCube title of its week of release, a position it retained during the second week. As of October 2007, the game has shipped over 1.3 million copies worldwide. The Nintendo Switch version sold 48,957 physical copies during its first week on sale in Japan, making it the third bestselling retail game of the week in the country. Awards and retrospectives Crystal Chronicles received the Grand Prize at the 2003 Japan Media Arts Festival; it was given the award based on its multiplayer function and graphical achievements. During the 2004 National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers ceremony, the game was nominated for awards in the "Character Design", "Costume Design", "Game - Sequel RPG" and "Original Musical Score" categories. It was later nominated for the "Console Role-Playing Game of the Year" award at the 8th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. IGN ranked the game in 2003 prior to its Western release as second in a list of the best co-op video games; while noting that the game's unusual features and chosen platform caused confusion within the Final Fantasy fan base, its multiplayer promised a high quality experience if other elements could live up to it. Eurogamers Rob Haines praised the game's approach to the inherent conflict between multiplayer gameplay and narrative, and despite its drawbacks called its multiplayer function "the most fully-featured implementation of Gamecube-Game Boy Advance connectivity ever created". Henry Gilbert of GamesRadar, as part of a 2017 article ranking the best Final Fantasy spin-off games, praised the game's multiplayer elements and return to Nintendo consoles despite its extensive hardware demands. Legacy Crystal Chronicles was the only original game developed by the Game Designers Studio, which had become a subsidiary of Square Enix following the 2003 merger. The Game Designers Studio was eventually renamed SQEX Corporation in 2005. It was later merged with Taito in 2006 following Taito's acquisition by Square Enix, and eventually dissolved entirely during consolidation of Square Enix's arcade businesses in 2010. Multiple Crystal Chronicles titles were later developed for Nintendo's later consoles, with Square Enix's aim being to make full use of Nintendo hardware while developing the Final Fantasy franchise. The first was Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: Ring of Fates for the Nintendo DS (DS). Two further titles were Echoes of Time for the DS and Wii, and The Crystal Bearers for the Wii. Square Enix also developed two Crystal Chronicles titles for the Wii's WiiWare service; My Life as a King and its direct sequel My Life as a Darklord. All the Crystal Chronicles games share the same continuity, creating a narrative spanning several millennia. Kataoka would go on to work on the scenarios of multiple titles following Crystal Chronicles including Final Fantasy X and XII. He eventually left the company and founded Studio Reel in 2012. Studio Reel and Kataoka would work together with Kawazu on the development of the 2015 title SaGa: Scarlet Grace. Notes References External links 2003 video games Action role-playing video games Final Fantasy video games GameCube games Nintendo games Nintendo Switch games PlayStation 4 games IOS games Android (operating system) games Multiplayer and single-player video games Video games about amnesia Video games developed in Japan Video games with gender-selectable protagonists Video games scored by Hidenori Iwasaki Video games scored by Kumi Tanioka Video games with cross-platform play Games with GameCube-GBA connectivity
418600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece%E2%80%93Turkey%20relations	Greece–Turkey relations	Relations between Greece and Turkey began in the 1830s following Greece's formation after its declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. Modern relations began when Turkey declared its formation in 1923 following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. Greece and Turkey have a rivalry with a history of events that have been used to justify their nationalism. These events include the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, the Istanbul pogrom and Cypriot intercommunal violence. Greek-Turkish feuding was not a significant factor in international relations from 1930 to 1955, and during the Cold War, domestic and bipolar politics limited competitive behaviour against each other. By the mid-1990s and later decades, these restraints on their rivalry were removed, and both nations had become each other's biggest security risk. Control of the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean seas remain the basis of the countries' rivalry. Following the aftermath of World War II, the UNCLOS treaty, the decolonisation of Cyprus, and the addition of the Dodecanese to Greece's territory have caused turbulence in the relationship. Several issues frequently affect their current relations, including territorial disputes over the sea and air, minority rights, and Turkey's relationship with the European Union (EU) and its member states—especially Cyprus. Control of energy pipelines is also an increasing focus in their relations. Diplomatic missions The first official diplomatic contact between Greece and the Ottoman Empire occurred in 1830. Consular relations between the two countries were established in 1834. In 1853, a Greek embassy was opened in Istanbul; this was discontinued during periods of crisis and eventually transferred to the new capital Ankara in 1923 when the Republic of Turkey was formed. Turkey's missions in Greece include its embassy in Athens and consulates general in Thessaloniki, Komotini and Rhodes. Greece's missions in Turkey include its embassy in Ankara, and consulates general in Istanbul, İzmir and Edirne. History Background The histories of the Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Empire factor into modern relations between Turkey and Greece. Anthony Kaldellis views the Byzantine Empire as the medieval expression of a Greek nation and a pre-modern nation state. There is a debate that Turkey is not a successor state but the legal continuation of the Ottoman Empire as a republic. The Greek presence in Asia Minor (Anatolia) dates to the Late Bronze Age (1450 BC) or earlier. The Göktürks of the First Turkic Khaganate was the first Turkic state to politically use the name Türk. The first contact with the Byzantine Empire is believed to have occurred in AD 563. In the 10th century, the Seljuk Turks rose to power. The first conflict between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuk Turks occurred at the Battle of Kapetron in 1048. More notable is the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the Turkish settlement of Anatolia that followed. Later, Turkish Anatolian beyliks were established in former Byzantine lands and in the territory of the fragmenting Seljuk Sultanate. One of those beyliks was the Ottoman dynasty, which became the Ottoman Empire. In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire. Much of modern Greece and Turkey came under Ottoman rule in the 15th century. During the following centuries, there were sporadic but unsuccessful Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. Greek nationalism started to appear in the 18th century. In March 1821. the Greek War of Independence began. Greece and the Ottoman Empire relations: 1822–1923 Following the Greek War of Independence, Greece was formed as an independent state in 1830. Relations between Greece and the Ottoman Empire were shaped by the Eastern Question and the Megali Idea. Conflicts between the two countries include the Epirus Revolt of 1854 during the Crimean War, the 1878 Greek Macedonian rebellion and the Epirus Revolt of 1878 during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Wars between the Ottomans and the Greeks include the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the two Balkan Wars. By the end of the Second Balkan War due to the Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Greece grew by two-thirds; it went from and its population from 2,660,000 to 4,363,000. With the Allies' victory in World War I, Greece was awarded sovereignty over Western Thrace in the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine; and Eastern Thrace and the Smyrna area in the Treaty of Sèvres. Greek gains were largely undone by the subsequent Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). Greece occupied Smyrna on 15 May 1919, while Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later Atatürk), who was to become the leader of the Turkish opposition to the Treaty of Sèvres, landed in Samsun on 19 May 1919, an action that is regarded as the beginning of the Turkish War of Independence. Mustafa Kemal united the protesting voices in Anatolia and began a nationalist movement to repel the Allied armies that had occupied the Ottoman Empire and establish new borders for a sovereign Turkish nation. The Turkish nation would be Western in civilisation and would elevate Turkish culture that had faded under Arab culture; this included disassociating Islam from Arab culture and restricted it to the private sphere. The Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) ended all conflict and replaced previous treaties to constitute modern Turkey. The treaty provided for a population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The treaty also contained a declaration of amnesty for the perpetrators of crimes that were committed between 1914 and 1922, a period which was marked by many atrocities. The Greek genocide was the systematic killing of the Christian-Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which started before World War I, and continued during the war and its aftermath (1914–1922). Initial relations between Greece and Turkey: 1923–1945 Following the population exchange, Greece wanted to end hostilities but negotiations stalled because of the issue of valuations of the properties of the exchanged populations. Driven by Eleftherios Venizelos in co-operation with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as well as İsmet İnönü's government, a series of treaties between Greece and Turkey were signed in 1930, in effect restoring Greek-Turkish relations and establishing a de facto alliance between the two countries. As part of these treaties, Greece and Turkey agreed the Treaty of Lausanne would be the final settlement of their respective borders, pledged they would not join opposing military or economic alliances, and to immediately stop their naval arms race. The Balkan Pact of 1934 was signed, in which Greece and Turkey joined Yugoslavia and Romania in a treaty of mutual assistance, and settled outstanding issues. Venizelos nominated Atatürk for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1934. Greece was a signatory to a 1936 agreement that gives Turkey control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits, and regulates the transit of naval warships. The nations signed the 1938 Salonika Agreement which abandoned the demilitarised zones along the Turkish border with Greece that were a result of the Treaty of Lausanne. In 1941, due to Turkey's neutrality during the Second World War, Britain lifted the blockade and allowed shipments of grain from Turkey to relieve the great famine in Athens during the Axis occupation. Using the vessel , foodstuffs were collected by a nationwide campaign of Kızılay, the Turkish Red Crescent, and the operation was funded by the American Greek War Relief Association and the Hellenic Union of Constantinopolitans. During this period, the Greek minority that remained in Turkey faced discriminatory targeting. In 1941 in anticipation of the Second World War, in the Twenty Classes, adult male Armenians, Greeks and Jews were conscripted into labour battalions. In 1942, Turkey imposed the Varlık Vergisi, a special tax that heavily impacted the non-Muslim minorities of Turkey. Officially, the tax was devised to fill the state treasury that would have been needed if Germany or the Soviet Union invaded the country. The tax's main purpose, however, was to nationalise the Turkish economy by reducing minority populations' influence and control over the country's trade, finance, and industries. Post World War II relations: 1945–1982 Following the power vacuum left by the ending of the Axis occupation after the war, the Greek Civil War erupted as one of the first conflicts of the Cold War. It represented the first example of Cold War involvement on the part of the Allies in the internal affairs of a non-Allied country. Turkey was a focus for the Soviet Union due to foreign control of the straits; it was a central reason for the outbreak of the Cold War In 1950, both Greece and Turkey fought in the Korean War, ending Turkey's diplomatic isolation and brought it an invitation to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); in 1952, both countries joined NATO; and in 1953, Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia formed a new Balkan Pact for mutual defence against the Soviet Union. According to think tank Geopolitical Futures, three events contributed to the deterioration of post-1945 bilateral relations: After the defeat of Italy in the Second World War, the long-standing issue of sovereignty over the Dodecanese archipelago, which had been a sore point since the Venizelos–Tittoni agreement between Greece and Italy, was resolved to Greece's favour in 1946, upsetting Turkey because it changed the balance of power. Turkey renounced claims to the Dodecanese in the Treaty of Lausanne but future administrations wanted them for security reasons, and possibly due to the Cyprus issue. After the decolonisation of Cyprus, conflict between Greeks and Turks broke out on the island. In the 1950s, the pursuit of enosis became a part of Greece's national policy. Taksim became the slogan by some Turkish Cypriots in reaction to enosis. Tensions between Greece and Turkey increased, and the ambivalence towards Cyprus by the Greek government of George Papandreou led to the Greek military coup. In 1974, the Greek government staged a coup against the Cypriot president and Archbishop Makarios by invading Cyprus and establishing a Greece-controlled Cyprus government. Soon after, Turkey—using its guarantor status arising from the trilateral accords of the 1959–1960 Zürich and London Agreement—invaded Cyprus. The Turkish Federated State of Cyprus was declared one year later. Starting in 1958 and expanded in 1982 for the issue of territorial waters, the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) replaced the older concept of freedom of the seas, which dated from the 17th century. According to this concept, national rights were limited to a specified belt of water extending from a nation's coastlines, usually —known as the three-mile limit. By 1967, only 30 nations still used the old three-nautical-mile convention. It was ratified by Greece in 1972 but Turkey has not ratified it, asking for a bilateral solution since 1974 which uses the mid-line of the Aegean instead In 1955, the Adnan Menderes government is believed to have orchestrated the Istanbul pogrom, which targeted the city's substantial Greek ethnic minority and other minorities. In September 1955, a bomb exploded close to the Turkish consulate in Greece's second-largest city Thessaloniki, also damaging the Atatürk Museum, site of Atatürk's birthplace, breaking some windows but causing little other damage. In retaliation, in Istanbul, thousands of shops, houses, churches and graves belonging to members of the ethnic Greek minority were destroyed within a few hours, over 12 people were killed and many more injured. The ongoing struggle between Turkey and Greece over control of Cyprus, and Cypriot intercommunal violence, were concurrent with the pogrom. Pressure over the resulting London Conference to discuss Cyprus, and to direct attention away from the domestic political problems were the likely motivation of the Turkish Menderes government. In 1964, Turkish prime minister İsmet İnönü renounced the Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship of 1930 and took actions against the Greek minority. An estimated 50,000 Greeks were expelled. A 1971 Turkish law nationalised religious high schools and closed the Halki seminary on Istanbul's Heybeli Island, an issue that affects 21st-century relations. Contemporary history and issues Military and diplomatic tensions Towards the end of the 20th century, there were several high profile incidents between the countries. In 1986 by the border at the Evros River, a Greek soldier was shot dead. In 1987, the Turkish survey ship Sismik 1 nearly triggered a war. In 1995, a military crisis erupted over an uninhabited island called Imia, over which both countries claim sovereignty. Lesser incidents where both side exchange fire often occur. This creates volatility when relations are tense and the risk of starting war. In the 1990s, Greece pursued a policy of encircling Turkey. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, both Greece and Turkey viewed each other with suspicion as they developed relations with the new countries. In 1995, however, this fear materialised. Greece formed a defence co-operation agreement with Syria, and between 1995 and 1998 established good relations with Turkey's other neighbours Iran and Armenia. In reaction, Turkey spoke with Israel in 1996, which caused uproar in Arab countries. Dr. R. Craig Nation of the United States Army War College views the conflict between the nations as a fight for control over the Aegean Sea and the eastern Mediterranean. Positive relations In 1995, relations began to change with the Greek election of Kostas Simitis who redefined priorities but it wasn't until the meeting of the foreign ministers the following years that this was noticed. In 1998, the capture of the Kurdish separatist Abdullah Öcalan– on the way from the Greek embassy in Kenya – and the related fallout led to the Greek foreign minister resigning, whose replacement was with a strong supporter for discussions with Turkey. The 1999 İzmit earthquake followed by the 1999 Athens earthquake led to an outpouring of goodwill and what has been called earthquake diplomacy that aided in a change of relations. In the years that followed, relations improved. They included agreements on fighting organised crime, reducing military spending, preventing illegal immigration, and clearing land mines on the border. Additionally, Greece lifted its opposition to Turkey's accession to the European Union (EU). Dr R. Craig Nation states there was a lot of progress but ultimately not on the issues that mattered. The Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean conflicts The conflict between Turkey and Greece is largely over whether the Greek islands are allowed an exclusive economic zone, the basis of claiming rights over the sea. Some claim fear of sovereignty loss is what is driving this conflict. Under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the Blue Homeland policy of Turkey has emerged. Islands and islets Iying within of the coast were included as part of the respective state under the Treaty of Lausanne. Greece controversially extended this limit to in 1936, which Turkey did not dispute due to good relations and reciprocated in 1964. The conference for the UN sea treaty UNCLOS defined territorial waters in 1982 and came into force in 1994. There are 168 nations as signatories of the treaty, including Greece but not Turkey. Turkey disputes Greece can claim 12 miles off the coast of its islands, which the sea treaty permits, implying only the mainland has this right, otherwise it would give Greece dominant control of the Aegean. Turkey has made a claim for the economic zone by splitting the Aegean Sea in the middle. The EU requires membership of the sea treaty as a condition. There has been an extension of the conflict with other nations in the Mediterranean. In 2019 and 2022, Turkey made deals with Libya to extend its economic rights over the sea, which were countered with Greece and Egypt. The Cyprus dispute created a subsequent military build up. The dispute escalated with Greece's coup in Cyprus, which led to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. In 1974, Greece reacted with the militarisation of the Greek islands off the coast of Turkey, the legality of which is challenged by Turkey. In 1975, Turkey created Izmir army base. Military buildups in 2022 have continued. Cyprus and the EU Greece has been a member of the EU since 1981. Cyprus joined in 2004. Turkey submitted its application to join in 1987 and became a full candidate in 1999. Until 1999, Greece concentrated its diplomatic efforts on barring Turkey's admission to the EU. Concerns about Turkey included its human rights record and Greece's veto ultimately had Turkey disregarded by the EU. In Turkey, this contributed to the shift away from Turkey's founding secular doctrine Kemalism and the rise of political Islam. There was a change to the Kemalism amnesia of the Ottoman Empire's past, which instead became a source of pride and identity for Turkey. Kemalism evolved to an alternative identity of European orientation as Turkey became a regional centre in the emerging Eurasian political formation. In the 1990s, friction around Turkey's EU accession involving Cyprus was paralleled by military tensions between Turkey and Greece. In 1994, Greece and Cyprus agreed on a security doctrine that would mean any Turkish military action in Cyprus would cause war with Greece. In 1997, Cyprus purchased two Soviet-era S-300 missile systems, resulting in a political standoff between Cyprus and Turkey. Negotiations on the division on the island in the 1990s failed because of the Turkish side's recognition of North Cyprus as an independent state, an issue that remains as of 2022. When Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, negotiations on Turkey's accession stalled due to Cyprus's veto on the matter. Turkey's migrant crisis has also had a big effect on its relationship with the EU. The enforcement of the arms embargo against Libya Operation Irini brought other EU members into conflict with Turkey. Gas drilling on territory disputed with Greece using research vessel RV MTA Oruç Reis led to EU sanctions against Turkey. Energy pipelines The 2010 discovery of natural gas deposits in the eastern Mediterranean, first by Israel and then Egypt, has increased tensions between Greece and Turkey. The region is estimated to contain 5% of the world's known natural gas reserves. Historical security issues of the Aegean and Cyprus are important for resolving Europe's energy needs. The 2016 Turkey-Israel reconciliation led to Greece sabotaging the 2017 Cyprus-UN talks to reunify the island, preventing Israel and Turkey from developing a gas pipeline. In 2019, the east Mediterranean gas forum was created, including seven countries but excluding Turkey. The region is considered the end-point for east–west pipelines. In 2007, the countries inaugurated the Greek-Turkish natural gas pipeline, giving gas from the Caspian Sea its first direct Western outlet. The Caspian Sea is one of the oldest oil-producing regions; it is estimated to have reserves of 48 billion barrels, and 292 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. The opening of these fields followed more than 20 years of negotiation following the 2018 convention on the legal status of the Caspian Sea. Outside of the Caspian Sea nations, there are other suppliers that wish to leverage the geographical positioning of the nations. In May 2022, Greece signed a deal with Turkey's rival the United Arab Emirates for the distribution of the UAE's liquefied natural gas. Minority rights The treaty of Lausanne provided for the protection of the Greek Orthodox Christian minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece. The Greek minority in Turkey has shrunk from over 200,000 in 1923 to only 2,000 in 2023, while the Turkish minority in Greece has remained steady at 120,000 in the same period. Minorities in both countries since have been affected by the state of relations between them. Minorities are used as leverage, using the principle of reciprocity. In the 1960s, Turkey pressured the Greek minority in Turkey when the Cyprus issue escalated. Turkey used the election of Muftis by the Muslim Turkish minority in Greece as a condition for opening Halki Seminary which was closed in 1971. As a reaction in 1972, Greece closed a Turkish school in Rhodes. In recent years, Turkey has used its cultural heritage, such as Sumela Monastery, to achieve political ends. Examples of minority mistreatment include: During World War II, Turkey nationalised its industry and imposed the Varlık Vergisi, a discriminatory wealth tax that targeted minorities. Turkey blamed Greeks for Turkey's economic problems, resulting in the Istanbul pogrom. In 1967, the Greek military government deported Turkish citizens on the Dodecanese peninsula. In 1955, Greece's Article 19 of the Nationality Code established two classes of Greek citizens; those of "non-Greek descent" lost their citizenship if they left the country. By the time of its abolition in 1998, 60,000 people had lost their citizenship and the abolition had no retroactive effect. The election of Muftis in Greece and the reopening of the Halki Seminary in Turkey have become the most prominent issues. Issues around political authority and pre-conditions contribute to the stalemate. Former Greek prime minister George Papandreou has said Turkey and Greece would benefit if they treated minorities as citizens rather than foreigners. Migrants Turkey has become a transit country for people entering Europe. In 2015, the route that passes from Turkey to Greece and then through the Balkan countries became the most-used route for migrants escaping conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa, with irregular migration from further East continuing. Turkey assumed the role of guardian of the Schengen Area, protecting it from irregular migration. This, combined with Turkey's migrant crisis, has resulted in illegal migration being a key issue between Turkey and the EU. People moving across the border of Greece and Turkey are a frequent cause of incidents between the two countries. In 2016, the EU and Turkey reached a deal on the migrant crisis. There was some success with the four-year agreement extended to 2022, but several incidents have occurred. In 2019, the Greek government warned a new migrant crisis similar to the previous one would occur. Turkish insurgents and asylum seekers During the 2010 trial of those accused of organising a 2003 alleged military coup attempt in Turkey called Sledgehammer, the conspirators were accused of planning attacks on mosques, triggering a conflict with Greece by Turkey shooting down one of its own warplanes and then accusing Greeks of this and planting bombs in Istanbul to initiate a military takeover. Greece has on many occasions arrested members of the DHKP-C who planned attacks in Turkey. Turkey has accused Greece of supporting terrorists such as the DHKP-C. Turkey has seen a slide to authoritarianism resulting in Turkish refugees becoming more common, like politician Leyla Birlik accused of insulting the president. This has increased since the failed 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, after which 995 people, including military personnel, applied for asylum. More than 1,800 Turkish citizens requested asylum in Greece in 2017, including those who plotted the assassination. Sometimes, this causes tensions between the nations in other areas. Timeline See also History of Greece History of Turkey History of Cyprus Hellenoturkism Foreign relations of Greece, Turkey, Cyprus and Northern Cyprus European Union–Turkey relations Greece–Turkey border Intermediate Region Greeks in Turkey Greeks in the Middle East Turks in Greece Turks in Europe Greece–Turkey football rivalry Notes References Further reading External links Turkish PM on landmark Greek trip Greece-Turkey boundary study by Florida State University, College of Law Greece's Shifting Position on Turkish Accession to the EU Before and After Helsinki (1999) Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Greece Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Turkey Turkey Bilateral relations of Turkey Relations of colonizer and former colony
418611	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gannett	Gannett	Gannett Co., Inc. () is an American mass media holding company headquartered in Tysons, Virginia, in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. It is the largest U.S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation. It is wholly owned by the Japanese multinational company SoftBank Group. It owns the national newspaper USA Today, as well as several local newspapers, including the Detroit Free Press; The Indianapolis Star; The Cincinnati Enquirer; The Columbus Dispatch; The Florida Times-Union in Jacksonville, Florida; The Tennessean in Nashville, Tennessee; The Daily News Journal, in Murfreesboro, Tennessee; The Courier-Journal in Louisville, Kentucky; the Democrat and Chronicle in Rochester, New York; The Des Moines Register; the El Paso Times; The Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona; The News-Press in Fort Myers, Florida; the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel; and the Great Falls Tribune in Great Falls, Montana. In 2015, Gannett split into two publicly traded companies, one focusing on newspapers and publishing and the other on broadcasting. The broadcasting company took the name Tegna, and owns about 68 TV stations. The newspaper company inherited the Gannett name. The split was structured so that Tegna is the legal successor of the old Gannett, while the new Gannett is a spin-off. In November 2019, New Media Investment Group acquired and merged its GateHouse Media subsidiary into Gannett, creating the largest newspaper publisher in the United States, which adopted the Gannett name. Mike Reed was named CEO. History 1906–1983 Gannett Company, Inc., was formed in 1923 by Frank Gannett in Rochester, New York, as an outgrowth of the Elmira Gazette, a newspaper business he had begun in Elmira, New York, in 1906. Gannett, who was known as a conservative, gained fame and fortune by purchasing small independent newspapers and developing them into a large chain, a 20th-century trend that helped the newspaper industry remain financially viable. By 1979, the chain had grown to 79 newspapers. In April 1957, Paul Miller succeeded Frank Gannett as president and CEO. In 1973, Miller was succeeded by Al Neuharth. In 1979, Gannett acquired Combined Communications Corp., operator of 2 major daily newspapers, the Oakland Tribune and The Cincinnati Enquirer, seven television stations, 13 radio stations, as well as an outdoor advertising division, for $370 million. The outdoor advertising became known as Gannett Outdoor, before being acquired by Outdoor Systems (previously a division of 3M), before the company was sold to Infinity Broadcasting, which later became part of Viacom, and was part of CBS Corporation, until 2014 when CBS Outdoor went independent and became Outfront Media. In 1982, the broadcasting unit partnered with Telepictures Corporation to start out its Newscope program. Gannett's oldest newspaper is the Berrow's Worcester Journal based in Worcester, England and founded in 1690. In the United States the oldest newspapers still in circulation are the Poughkeepsie Journal, founded in Poughkeepsie, New York in 1785, and The Leaf-Chronicle founded in Clarksville, Tennessee in 1808. 1984–2013 In 1984, John Curley was appointed president and COO. In 1985, Curley became CEO and continued as president. The company was headquartered in Rochester until 1986, when it moved to Arlington County, Virginia. Its former headquarters building, the Gannett Building, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. Douglas H. McCorkindale succeeded Curley as CEO in 2000 and chairman in 2001. That year, the company moved to its current headquarters in Tysons Corner, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C. Beginning in 2005 at the Fort Myers News-Press, Gannett pioneered the mojo concept of mobile multimedia journalists, reporters who were initially untethered from conventional newsrooms and drove around their communities filing hyperlocal news in various formats including text for print publication, still photos for print and online publication, and audio and video for the News-Press website. The practice has spread throughout the chain. In 2010, Gannett increased executive salaries and bonuses; for example, Bob Dickey, Gannett's U.S. newspapers division president, was paid $3.4 million in 2010, up from $1.9 million the previous year. The next year, the company laid off 700 U.S. employees to cut costs. In the memo announcing the layoffs, Dickey wrote, "While we have sought many ways to reduce costs, I regret to tell you that we will not be able to avoid layoffs." On March 7, 2011, Gannett replaced the stylized "G" logo in use since the 1970s (notably used on its TV stations as a corporate/local ID with different animations), and adopted a new company tagline: "It's all within reach." In February 2012, Gannett announced that it would implement a paywall system across all of its daily newspaper websites, with non-subscriber access limited to between five and fifteen articles per month, varying by newspaper. The USA Today website became the only one to allow unrestricted access. On March 24, 2012, the company announced that it would discipline 25 employees in Wisconsin who had signed the petition to recall Governor Scott Walker, stating that this open public participation in a political process was a violation of the company's code of journalistic ethics and that their primary responsibility as journalists was to maintain credibility and public trust in themselves and the organization. On August 21, 2012, Gannett acquired Blinq Media. Around the first week of October 2012, Gannett entered a dispute against Dish Network regarding compensation fees and Dish's AutoHop commercial-skip feature on its Hopper digital video recorders. Gannett ordered that Dish discontinue AutoHop on the account that it is affecting advertising revenues for Gannett's television station. Gannett threatened to pull all of its stations should the skirmish continue beyond October 7, and Dish and Gannett fail to reach an agreement. The two parties eventually reached an agreement after extending the deadline for a few hours. Acquisition of Belo Corporation On June 13, 2013, Gannett announced plans to buy Dallas-based Belo Corporation for $1.5 billion and the assumption of debt. The purchase would add 20 additional stations to Gannett's portfolio and make the company the fourth largest television broadcaster in the U.S. with 43 stations. Because of ownership conflicts that exist in markets where both Belo and Gannett own television stations and newspapers, the use of a third-party company (Sander Media, LLC, owned by former Belo executive Jack Sander) as a licensee to buy stations to be operated by the owner of a same-market competitor and concerns about any possible future consolidation of operations of Gannett- and Belo-owned properties in markets where both own television stations or collusion involving the Gannett and Sander stations in retransmission consent negotiations, anti-media-consolidation groups (such as Free Press) and pay television providers (such as Time Warner Cable and DirecTV) have called for the FCC to block the acquisition. On December 16, 2013, the United States Department of Justice announced that Gannett, Belo, and Sander would need to divest Belo's station in St. Louis, KMOV, to a government-approved third-party that would be barred from entering into any agreements with Gannett, in order to fully preserve competition in advertising sales with Gannett-owned KSDK. The deal was approved by the FCC on December 20, and it was completed on December 23. On February 28, 2014, Meredith Corporation officially took over full control of KMOV. Acquisition of London Broadcasting Company stations On May 14, 2014, Gannett announced the acquisition of six stations from the Texas-based London Broadcasting Company in a $215 million deal, including KCEN-TV (NBC) in Waco-Temple-Bryan, KYTX (CBS) in Tyler-Longview, KIII (ABC) in Corpus Christi, KBMT (ABC/NBC) in Beaumont-Port Arthur, KXVA (FOX) in Abilene-Sweetwater and KIDY (FOX) in San Angelo. The company's COO Phil Hurley will also join Gannett to continue his leadership role at the six stations. The acquisition was completed on July 8, 2014; in total, Gannett stations now serve 83% of households in the state. Post acquisition, Gannett now outright owns and operates their first Fox affiliates, KIDY & KXVA. Split and further deals On August 5, 2014, Gannett announced that it plans to split into two independent publicly traded companies–one focused on newspapers and publishing, the other on broadcasting. Robert Dickey, head of old Gannett's newspaper division, became CEO of the newspaper company, leaving Gannett's remaining broadcasting and digital operations under the leadership of Martore. In a statement, she explained that the split plans were "significant next steps in our ongoing initiatives to increase shareholder value by building scale, increasing cash flow, sharpening management focus, and strengthening all of our businesses to compete effectively in today's increasingly digital landscape." Additionally, the company announced that it would buy out the remainder of Classified Ventures—a joint venture between Gannett and several other media companies, for $1.8 billion, giving it full ownership of properties such as Cars.com. On April 21, 2015, Gannett announced that the publishing arm would continue to use the Gannett name, while the broadcasting and digital company would be named Tegna—an anagram of Gannett. The split was completed on June 29, 2015. The split was structured so that the old Gannett changed its name to Tegna, and then spun off its publishing interests as a "new" Gannett Company. Tegna retained "old" Gannett's stock price history under a new ticker symbol, TGNA, while "new" Gannett inherited "old" Gannett's ticker symbol, GCI. The two companies shared a headquarters complex in Tysons Corner for a time, though Tegna has since moved to a new 440,000-square-foot office tower nearby, occupying roughly 60,000 square feet. On October 7, 2015, Gannett struck a deal to buy the Journal Media Group for $280 million, giving it control of publications in over 100 markets in the Midwestern and Southern U.S. Similar to what Gannett had earlier done with its broadcasting assets, the Milwaukee-based Journal had separated its publishing and broadcasting arms in April 2015, with the E. W. Scripps Company acquiring the television and radio properties owned by the former's technical predecessor Journal Communications and spinning out their respective publishing operations into Journal Media Group. In December 2015, Gannett announced that its local newspapers would be branded as the "USA Today Network", signifying a closer association with the national USA Today paper. In April 2016, Gannett made an unsolicited bid to acquire the Tribune Publishing Company for $12.25 per-share, or around $400 million. This deal was rejected by Tribune's shareholders in May 2016; in turn, Gannett increased its offer to around $15 per-share (around $800 million). Although the two companies held talks during the summer and into the fall of 2016, disappointing earning reports for Gannett for the second and third quarters of 2016 caused Gannett to pull out of talks on November 1. Gannett announced it would not be delaying print deadlines for the 2018 midterm elections in the United States, meaning that next-day newspapers would no longer contain the election's results, instead directing readers to the Internet. Sale to GateHouse Media and relationship with Softbank In January 2019, Digital First Media (DFM) made an unsolicited bid to acquire Gannett for $1.36 billion, but it was rejected for being undervalued. In an attempt to pursue a hostile takeover, DFM built up a 7.5% stake of Gannett's public shares. Gannett subsequently accused the company of engaging in a proxy fight. After a failed attempt to place three DFM nominees on Gannett's board of directors through a proxy vote on May 16, 2019, DFM sold shares lowering their ownership to 4.2%. On August 5, 2019, New Media Investment Group, parent of GateHouse Media, announced that it would acquire Gannett. New Media Investment Group is managed and controlled by another private equity firm, Fortress Investment Group. Fortress is owned by the Japanese conglomerate Softbank. Apollo Global Management funded the acquisition with a $1.792 billion loan. Although GateHouse was the nominal survivor, the combined company took the better-known Gannett name. Michael E. Reed, the CEO of GateHouse's parent company, was named CEO. The new management team immediately announced it would target "inefficiencies", which could lead to cutbacks at newspapers and reduction in newspaper staff. Gannett's board of directors, which does not include anyone with journalism background, paid CEO Mike Reed a salary $900,000 and long term stock incentives adding to a total of $7.7 million in 2021, the first full year after the merger. The total compensation was estimated with Gannett stock valued at the then current price. During Reed's tenure, Gannett stock has fallen 70%, reducing the value of future equity incentive plan awards. Sued for enabling sexual abuse of paperboys in New York and Arizona Gannett was sued in October 2019 under the New York State Child Victim's Act by a former paperboy who accused the company of enabling a former district manager to sexually abuse him in the 1980s. In late 2018 as Gannett was seeking partners for a merger, fending off a hostile takeover and its stock fell, this former paperboy emailed investigative reporters and Gannett management asking them to investigate his claims. In response, Karen Magnuson, then Executive Editor for Gannett's Democrat & Chronicle, told reporters to put their investigative reporting of abuse claims on "pause", and brought the email to the attention of Gannett's management to conduct their own investigation. Gannett COO Michael G. Kane then sent the original claimant a letter indicating no evidence had been found and they were "closing out" the matter. A few months later New York passed its Child Victim Act lifting statute of limitations on child sex abuse claims. This initial case is currently pending. Four more lawsuits were filed in February 2020 and are pending. Additionally, three more men filed suit against Gannett for child sex abuse in September 2020 and April 2021, these cases are all pending too. In December 2020, Gannett and its Arizona Republic newspaper were also sued by two former paperboys in the Phoenix, AZ community for enabling its employees to sexually abuse them in the late 1970s. As the New York state window to file under its Childs Victim Act closed in August 2021, another man sued Gannett in Rochester NY alleging child sex abuse by the same former district manager of paperboys. This latest case brings the total to eleven men who are suing Gannett for enabling sexual abuse of former paperboys, some as young as eleven at the time. Nearly three years after the first lawsuit filing, in July 2022, Gannett defense attorneys notified the court of their intent to file a motion to have the former paperboys' Child Victims Act cases taken "out of the state court system and turn them over to the New York Workers' Compensation Board" stating that the 11-14 year old paperboys should have applied for workman's compensation at the time of their injuries in the 1980s as it is a "simple online process". Gannett and COVID-19 In March 2020, Gannett announced that due to COVID-19, it will be forced to make a series of cuts and furloughs. Executives would also take a 25% reduction in salary. Reduction of editorial content In April 2022, a committee of Gannett editors made the formal recommendation that newspapers in the chain should significantly pare back the opinion material that newspapers traditionally publish on their editorial pages, including editorials, op-ed columns, syndicated columns and editorial cartoons. According to the company-wide memo, "Readers don't want us to tell them what to think. They don't believe we have the expertise to tell anyone what to think on most issues. They perceive us as having a biased agenda." The memo additionally claimed that editorial content is the least-read content in the papers while being the most likely reason someone gives for cancelling a subscription. Financial conditions and layoffs 2022 In the second quarter of 2022, Gannett's revenue was $749 million, sustaining a loss of $54 million. In reaction to the news, the company announced, "In the coming days, we will be making necessary but painful reductions to staffing, eliminating some open positions and roles that will impact valued colleagues." At the end of August, the company announced that it was laying off 3% of its United States workforce, which was about 400 employees. At this announcement, Gannett also said they would not be filling 400 open positions. At the time of the announcement, Gannett stock—which was already down about 45% on the year—fell an additional 28.5%. In October, the company announced the second round of financial austerity steps. These included the requirement that all employees take a week of unpaid leave in December, and a suspension of matching contributions to employee 401(k) accounts. Gannett also instituted a hiring freeze and is seeking volunteers for buyouts. Gannett announced around 200 more layoffs, or 6% of the news division, in November. As part of the cuts, Gannett stopped printing six community papers, collectively known as the Observer and Eccentric chain, in southeast Michigan. This cut included the print editions of the Livonia Observer as well as papers covering Westland, Farmington, Plymouth, Canton, and Birmingham. Gannett indicated that the publications would provide online content. Acquisitions List of Gannett Co. assets Gannett's media properties include the following newspapers among the top 100 by circulation in the United States: USA Today Network The USA TODAY Network is the largest local-to-national publishing organization in the country according to Gannett. USA Today, as the national paper, is its flagship brand. The network uses reporting from local publications in the national publication and vice versa. According to the New York Times in 2021, it included local papers published by Gannett in 46 states. In 2023, the network hired dedicated reporters to cover Taylor Swift and Beyonce. Gannett acknowledged in 2021 that it provided advertisers with inaccurate information for nine months misrepresenting where billions of ads were placed. Print media Significant digital investments Digg sold to BuySellAds in April 2018 WordStream (Digital Marketing Company) LocaliQ (Marketing Platform) Directors and senior executives Gannett has an eight-member board of directors and 11 senior executives. On October 6, 2011, Gannett's chairman, president and Chief executive officer Craig A. Dubow resigned, citing health reasons. He was succeeded by Gracia Martore, Gannett's Chief operating officer, a 26-year company veteran. In May 2019, Barbara Wall was appointed as interim chief executive officer after Bob Dickey retired. Mike Reed became Gannett's Chief Executive Officer in June 2020. His immediate predecessor, Paul Bascobert, served in the role for about ten months, starting in August 2019. References External links Holding companies of the United States Mass media companies of the United States Newspaper companies of the United States Companies based in McLean, Virginia Publishing companies established in 1906 Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Pulitzer Prize for Public Service winners Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting winners American companies established in 1906
418634	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffy%20Sainte-Marie	Buffy Sainte-Marie	Buffy Sainte-Marie, (born Beverly Jean Santamaria; February 20, 1941) is an American singer-songwriter, musician and social activist. While working in these areas, her work has focused on issues facing Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Since the early1960s, Sainte-Marie has claimed to have Indigenous Canadian ancestry, but a 2023 investigation by CBC News concluded she was born in the United States and is of European descent. Her singing and writing repertoire also includes subjects of love, war, religion, and mysticism. She has won recognition, awards and honours for her music as well as her work in education and social activism. In 1983, her song "Up Where We Belong", co-written for the film An Officer and a Gentleman, won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 55th Academy Awards. The song also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song that same year. In 1997, she founded the Cradleboard Teaching Project, an educational curriculum devoted to better understanding Native Americans. Personal life According to her website biography, Sainte-Marie was born in 1941 on the Piapot 75 reserve in the Qu'Appelle Valley, Saskatchewan, Canada, to Cree parents, and at the age of two or three she was taken from her parents as part of the Sixties Scoop—a government policy where indigenous children were taken from their families, communities and cultures for placement in non-First Nations families. However, a 2023 investigation by CBC News found that Sainte-Marie was born at the New England Sanitarium and Hospital in Stoneham, Massachusetts, to biological parents Albert Santamaria and Winifred Irene Santamaria, . The Santamarias, who she has claimed she was adopted by, were an American couple from Wakefield, Massachusetts. Her father Albert's parents were born in Italy while her mother Winifred was of English ancestry. Her mother was of old New England stock, a descendant of Mayflower passenger Elder William Brewster. Her family changed their surname from Santamaria to Sainte-Marie due to "anti-Italian sentiment" following the Second World War. Though "visibly white", her mother, Winifred, "self-identified as part Mi'kmaq," according to Sainte-Marie. She attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst earning degrees in teaching and Oriental philosophy; she graduated as one of the top ten members of her class. In 1964, on a trip to the Piapot Cree reserve in Canada for a powwow, she was welcomed and (in a Cree Nation context) adopted by the youngest son of Chief Piapot, Emile Piapot and his wife, Clara Starblanket Piapot, who added to Sainte-Marie's cultural value and place in native culture. In 1968, she married a Hawaiian surfing teacher named Dewain Bugbee and they divorced in 1971. She married Sheldon Wolfchild from Minnesota in 1975; they have a son, Dakota "Cody" Starblanket Wolfchild. They divorced. She married Jack Nitzsche, her co-writer of "Up Where We Belong" on March 19, 1982; they were married for seven years. Sainte-Marie has characterized the relationship as abusive and controlling; she left their home in Los Angeles out of fear for her and her son's safety. She also blames Nitzsche for the stagnation of her career during this time. Although not a Baháʼí herself, she became an active friend of the Baháʼí faith and has appeared at concerts, conferences and conventions of that religion. In 1992, she appeared in the musical event prelude to the Baháʼí World Congress, a double concert "Live Unity: The Sound of the World" in 1992 with video broadcast and documentary. In the video documentary of the event Sainte-Marie is seen on the Dini Petty Show explaining the Baháʼí teaching of progressive revelation. She also appears in the 1985 video Mona With The Children by Douglas John Cameron. However, while she supports a universal sense of religion, she does not subscribe to any particular religion. I gave a lot of support to Baháʼí people in the '80s and '90s … Baháʼí people, as people of all religions, is something I'm attracted to … I don't belong to any religion. … I have a huge religious faith or spiritual faith but I feel as though religion … is the first thing that racketeers exploit. … But that doesn't turn me against religion … Career Sainte-Marie taught herself to play piano and guitar in her childhood and teen years. In college some of her songs, "Ananias", the Indian lament "Now That the Buffalo's Gone", and "Mayoo Sto Hoon" (a cover of a Hindi Bollywood song "Mayus To Hoon Waade Se Tere" sung by the Indian singer Mohammed Rafi from the 1960 movie Barsaat Ki Raat) were already in her repertoire. 1960s In her early twenties she toured alone, developing her craft and performing in various concert halls, folk music festivals, and First Nations communities across the United States, Canada, and abroad. She spent a considerable amount of time in the coffeehouses of downtown Toronto's old Yorkville district, and New York City's Greenwich Village as part of the early to mid-1960s folk scene, often alongside other emerging Canadian contemporaries, such as Leonard Cohen, Neil Young, and Joni Mitchell. (She also introduced Mitchell to Elliot Roberts, who became Mitchell's manager.) In 1963, recovering from a throat infection, Sainte-Marie became addicted to codeine and recovering from the experience became the basis of her song "Cod'ine", later covered by Donovan, Janis Joplin, the Charlatans, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Man, the Litter, the Leaves, Jimmy Gilmer, Gram Parsons, Charles Brutus McClay, the Barracudas (spelled "Codeine"), the Golden Horde, Nicole Atkins and Courtney Love. Also in 1963, she witnessed wounded soldiers returning from the Vietnam War at a time when the U.S. government was denying involvement – which inspired her protest song "Universal Soldier", released on her debut album It's My Way on Vanguard Records in 1964, and later became a hit for both Donovan and Glen Campbell. She was subsequently named Billboard magazine's Best New Artist. Some of her songs addressing the mistreatment of Native Americans, such as "Now That the Buffalo's Gone" (1964) and "My Country 'Tis of Thy People You're Dying" (1964, included on her 1966 album), created controversy at the time. In 1967, she released Fire & Fleet & Candlelight, which contained her interpretation of the traditional Yorkshire dialect song "Lyke Wake Dirge". In 1968 she released her song "Take My Hand for a While" which was also later recorded by Glen Campbell and at least 13 other artists. Sainte-Marie's other well-known songs include "Mister Can't You See", (a Top 40 U.S. hit in 1972); "He's an Indian Cowboy in the Rodeo"; and the theme song of the movie Soldier Blue. She appeared on Pete Seeger's Rainbow Quest with Pete Seeger in 1965 and several Canadian Television productions from the 1960s to the 1990s, and other TV shows such as American Bandstand, Soul Train, The Johnny Cash Show and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson; and sang the opening song "The Circle Game" (written by Joni Mitchell) in Stuart Hagmann's film The Strawberry Statement (1970) Then Came Bronson; episode 20 "Mating Dance for Tender Grass" (1970) sang and acted. In the late 1960s, she used a Buchla synthesizer to record the album Illuminations, which did not receive much notice. It was the first totally quadraphonic electronic vocal album. She appeared in "The Heritage" episode of The Virginian, that first aired on October 30, 1968. She played a Shoshone woman who had been sent to be educated at school. 1970s In late 1975, Sainte-Marie received a phone call from Sesame Street producer Dulcy Singer to appear on the show for a one-shot guest appearance. Sainte-Marie told Singer she had no interest in doing a children's TV show, but reconsidered after asking "Have you done any Native American programming?" According to Sainte-Marie, Singer wanted her to count and recite the alphabet but Buffy wanted to teach the show's young viewers that "Indians still exist". She regularly appeared on Sesame Street over a five-year period from 1976 to 1981. Sainte-Marie breastfed her first son, Dakota "Cody" Starblanket Wolfchild, during a 1977 episode. Sainte-Marie has suggested that this is the first representation of breastfeeding ever aired on television. Sesame Street aired a week of shows from her home in Hawaii in January 1978. In 1979, Spirit of the Wind, featuring Sainte-Marie's original musical score, including the song "Spirit of the Wind", was one of three entries that year at the Cannes Film Festival. The film is a docudrama about George Attla, the "winningest dog musher of all time", as the film presents him, with all parts played by Native Americans except one by Slim Pickens. 1980s Sainte-Marie began using Apple II and Macintosh computers as early as 1981 to record her music and later some of her visual art. The song "Up Where We Belong" (which Sainte-Marie co-wrote with Will Jennings and musician Jack Nitzsche) was performed by Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes for the film An Officer and a Gentleman. It received the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1982. On January 29, 1983, Jennings, Nitzsche and Sainte-Marie won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. They also won the BAFTA film award for Best Original Song in 1984. On the Songs of the Century list compiled by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2001, the song was listed at number 323. In 2020, it was included on Billboard magazine's list of the "25 Greatest Love Song Duets". In the early 1980s one of her native songs was used as the theme song for the CBC's native series Spirit Bay. She was cast for the TNT 1993 telefilm The Broken Chain. It was shot entirely in Virginia. In 1989 she wrote and performed the music for Where the Spirit Lives, a film about native children being abducted and forced into residential schools. In 1986, British pop band Red Box covered her song "Qu'Appele Valley, Saskatchewan" (shortened to just "Saskatchewan") on their debut album The Circle & the Square. The song originally appears on Sainte-Marie's 1976 album Sweet America. 1990s Sainte-Marie voiced the Cheyenne character, Kate Bighead, in the 1991 made-for-TV movie Son of the Morning Star, telling the Indian side of the Battle of the Little Bighorn, where Sioux Chief Sitting Bull defeated Lt. Col. George Custer. In 1992, after a sixteen-year recording hiatus, Sainte-Marie released the album Coincidence and Likely Stories. Recorded in 1990 at home in Hawaii on her computer and transmitted via modem through the Internet to producer Chris Birkett in London, England, the album included the politically charged songs "The Big Ones Get Away" and "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" (which mentions Leonard Peltier), both commenting on the ongoing plight of Native Americans (see also the book and film with the same name). Also in 1992, Sainte-Marie appeared in the television film The Broken Chain with Wes Studi and Pierce Brosnan along with First Nations Baháʼí Phil Lucas. Her next album followed up in 1996 with Up Where We Belong, an album on which she re-recorded a number of her greatest hits in more unplugged and acoustic versions, including a re-release of "Universal Soldier". Sainte-Marie has exhibited her art at the Glenbow Museum in Calgary, the Winnipeg Art Gallery, the Emily Carr Gallery in Vancouver and the American Indian Arts Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. In 1995, she provided the voice of the spirit in the magic mirror in HBO's Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child, which featured a Native American retelling of the Snow White fairy tale. Also in 1995, the Indigo Girls released two versions of Sainte-Marie's protest song "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" on their live album 1200 Curfews. The song appears toward the end of Disc One in a live format, recorded at the Atwood Concert Hall in the Alaska Center for the Performing Arts in Anchorage, Alaska. "Every word is true", Emily says in the introduction. The second, found at the end of Disc Two, is a studio recording. In 1996, she started a philanthropic non-profit fund Nihewan Foundation for American Indian Education devoted to improving Native American students’ participation in learning. The word "Nihewan" comes from the Cree language and means "talk Cree", which implies "Be Your Culture". Sainte-Marie founded the Cradleboard Teaching Project in October 1996 using funds from her Nihewan Foundation and with a two-year grant from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation of Battle Creek, Michigan. With projects across Mohawk, Cree, Ojibwe, Menominee, Coeur d'Alene, Navajo, Quinault, Hawaiian, and Apache communities in eleven states, partnered with a non-native class of the same grade level for Elementary, Middle, and High School grades in the disciplines of Geography, History, Social Studies, Music and Science and produced a multimedia curriculum CD, Science: Through Native American Eyes. 2000s In 2000, Sainte-Marie gave the commencement address at Haskell Indian Nations University. In 2002 she sang at the Kennedy Space Center for Commander John Herrington, USN, a Chickasaw and the first Native American astronaut. In 2003 she became a spokesperson for the UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network in Canada. In 2002, a track written and performed by Sainte-Marie, titled "Lazarus", was sampled by Hip Hop producer Kanye West and performed by Cam'Ron and Jim Jones of The Diplomats. The track is called "Dead or Alive". In June 2007, she made a rare U.S. appearance at the Clearwater Festival in Croton-on-Hudson, New York. In 2008, a two-CD set titled Buffy/Changing Woman/Sweet America: The Mid-1970s Recordings was released, compiling the three studio albums that she recorded for ABC Records and MCA Records between 1974 and 1976 (after departing her long-time label Vanguard Records). This was the first re-release of this material. In September 2008, Sainte-Marie made a comeback onto the music scene in Canada with the release of her studio album Running for the Drum. It was produced by Chris Birkett (producer of her 1992 and 1996 best of albums). Sessions for this project commenced in 2006 in Sainte-Marie's home studio in Hawaii and in part in France. They continued until spring 2007. 2010s In 2015, Sainte-Marie released the album Power in the Blood on True North Records. She had a television appearance on May 22, 2015, with Democracy Now! to discuss the record and her musical and activist career. On September 21, 2015, Power in the Blood was named the winner of the 2015 Polaris Music Prize. Also in 2015, A Tribe Called Red released an electronic remix of Sainte-Marie's song, "Working for the Government". In 2016, Sainte-Marie toured North America with Mark Olexson (bass), Anthony King (guitar), Michel Bruyere (drums), and Kibwe Thomas (keyboards). In 2017, she released the single "You Got to Run (Spirit of the Wind)", a collaboration with fellow Polaris Music Prize laureate, Tanya Tagaq. The song was inspired by George Attla who is a champion dog sled racer from Alaska. On November 29, 2019, a 50th-anniversary edition of Sainte-Marie's 1969 album, Illuminations, was released on vinyl by Concord Records, the company that bought Vanguard Records, the original publisher of the album. 2020s Saint-Marie is the subject of Buffy Sainte-Marie: Carry It On, a 2022 documentary film by Madison Thomas. In the same year the National Arts Centre staged Buffy Sainte-Marie: Starwalker, a tribute concert of musicians performing Sainte-Marie's songs. On August 3, 2023, Saint-Marie issued a statement announcing her retirement from live performances, due to health concerns. Controversies Alleged blacklisting Sainte-Marie said in a 2008 interview at the National Museum of the American Indian that she had been blacklisted by American radio stations and that she, Native Americans, and other Indigenous people in the Red Power movements were pushed out of the industry during the 1970s. In a 1999 interview at Diné College with a staff writer with Indian Country Today, Sainte-Marie said, "I found out 10 years later, in the 1980s, that President Lyndon B. Johnson had been writing letters on White House stationery praising radio stations for suppressing my music" and "In the 1970s, not only was the protest movement put out of business, but the Native American movement was attacked." As a result of being blacklisted which Sainte-Marie claims was led by (among others) Presidents Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, and Nashville disc jockey Ralph Emery (following the release of I'm Gonna Be a Country Girl Again), Sainte-Marie said, "I was put out of business in the United States". Indigenous identity In October 2023, an investigation by CBC's The Fifth Estate called Sainte-Marie's claims of indigenous ancestry into question, in an investigation that included interviews with her supposed adoptive family and located her birth certificate, which listed her as white and her parents as her birth parents. Sainte-Marie's 2018 authorized biography states she was "probably born" on the Piapot First Nation reserve in Saskatchewan, and throughout her adult life she claimed she was adopted, and does not know where she was born or who her biological parents are. However, there is no known official record of her adoption. Early in her career, various newspapers referred to her as Algonquin, full-blooded Algonquin, Mi'kmaq, and half-Mi'kmaq. The first reference to Sainte-Marie being Cree that CBC News could locate during its investigation of her identity came in December 1963, when the Vancouver Sun referred to "Cree Indian folk singer Buffy St. Marie". Sainte-Marie reiterated that she has community ties with the Piapot First Nation and that she was adopted by Chief Emile Piapot and Clara Starblanket. Emile's great-granddaughter Ntawnis Piapot has corroborated this, saying Sainte-Marie was adopted according to traditional Cree customs over "days and months and years". Descendants of Piapot and Starblanket also issued a statement defending Sainte-Marie's ties to the Piapot First Nation: "We claim her as a member of our family and all of our family members are from the Piapot First Nation. To us, that holds far more weight than any paper documentation or colonial record keeping ever could." They also criticized the allegations against Sainte-Marie as being "hurtful, ignorant, colonial — and racist." On October 27, 2023, CBC News published Sainte-Marie's official birth certificate. It indicates that she was born in Stoneham, Massachusetts to her white parents, Albert and Winifred Santamaria. Her son with Dakota activist Sheldon Wolfchild has stated she obtained her claims to Native identity through "naturalization" and not by birth. To verify Sainte-Marie's early Mi'kmaq identity claims, her younger sister took a DNA test that showed she had "almost no" Native American ancestry and she says she is genetically related to Sainte-Marie's son, which would not be possible if Buffy was adopted as she claimed. The CBC documentary included documentation showing her Sainte-Marie family had attempted to clarify her European ancestry in the 1960s and 1970s, and were later threatened with legal action for doing so. In December 1964, Arthur Santamaria, Sainte-Marie’s paternal uncle, wrote to the Wakefield Daily Item, who published his editorial that Sainte-Marie "has no Indian blood in her" and "not a bit" of Cree heritage. Her brother, Alan Sainte-Marie also wrote to newspapers, including the Denver Post in 1972, to clarify that his sister was born to Caucasian parents and that "to associate her with the Indian and to accept her as his spokesman is wrong". Alan's daughter, Heidi Sainte-Marie, claims in 1975 he met Buffy and a PBS producer for Sesame Street while working as a commercial pilot. She claims the producer would later ask her father if he was Indigenous because he did not look like it and her father would clarify they were from European ancestry and not Indigenous. On November 7, 1975, he received a letter from a law firm representing Buffy Sainte-Marie, which said, "We have been advised that you have without provocation disparaged and perhaps defamed Buffy and maliciously interfered with her employment opportunities" and the letter stated no expense would be spared in pursuing legal remedies. Included with the law firm letter was a handwritten note from Buffy Sainte-Marie claiming she would expose her brother for allegedly sexually abusing her as a child if he continued speaking about her ancestry. He decided to back off from his letter writing campaign afterwards and a month later, on December 9, 1975, Buffy made her first appearance on Sesame Street. Current Piapot Chief Ira Lavallee responded to the CBC News findings and noted that despite her false claims of being Indigenous, Sainte-Marie remained accepted, saying, "We do have one of our families in our community that did adopt her. Regardless of her ancestry, that adoption in our culture to us is legitimate". Cree author Darrel J. McLeod noted that Sainte-Marie is an honorary member of the Piapot family, "but she grew up with a white family and white privilege" and should apologize to Indigenous people for her "betrayal". Honours and awards Academy Award for Best Original Song – "Up Where We Belong" (1983) Officer of the Order of Canada (1997) Honorary Doctor of Letters – Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design – (2007) Honorary Doctor of Laws – Carleton University (2008) Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts – Ontario College of Art and Design (2010) Governor General's Performing Arts Award (2010) Juno Award – Indigenous music album of the year (2018) (for Medicine Songs) Indigenous Music Awards – Best Folk Album (2018) (for Medicine Songs) Honorary Doctor of Laws – University of Toronto (2019) Polaris Heritage Prize – It's My Way! (2020) New stamp honours renowned singer-songwriter Buffy Sainte-Marie November 18, 2021 Other In 1979, the Supersisters trading card set was produced and distributed; one of the cards featured Sainte-Marie's name and picture. Discography Albums Compilation albums Singles Soundtrack appearances See also Music of Canada Pretendian References Further reading External links Short documentary Buffy (2010) at the National Film Board of Canada Article at The Canadian Encyclopedia Legendary Native American Singer-Songwriter Buffy Sainte-Marie – video report by Democracy Now! American women singer-songwriters Canadian Music Hall of Fame inductees 1941 births Living people Canadian digital artists Women digital artists Canadian women folk singers Canadian feminists Canadian folk guitarists Canadian women folk guitarists Canadian pacifists Canadian women singer-songwriters Canadian women artists Cree people Feminist musicians Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters Canadian Screen Award winners Indspire Awards Juno Award for Indigenous Music Album of the Year winners Polaris Music Prize winners Officers of the Order of Canada Angel Records artists MCA Records artists Chrysalis Records artists Vanguard Records artists University of Massachusetts Amherst College of Education alumni Canadian expatriate musicians in the United States 20th-century Canadian guitarists 21st-century Canadian guitarists 20th-century American women singers Canadian rock guitarists Canadian folk singer-songwriters Canadian women rock singers Canadian country singer-songwriters Canadian women country singers Canadian country guitarists 21st-century Canadian women singers Golden Globe Award-winning musicians Juno Award for Contemporary Roots Album of the Year winners Companions of the Order of Canada Piapot Cree Nation 20th-century Canadian women singers 20th-century American singer-songwriters 21st-century American women 20th-century women guitarists 21st-century women guitarists Governor General's Award winners 20th-century Canadian singer-songwriters 21st-century Canadian singer-songwriters American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent Canadian people of American descent Canadian people of English descent Canadian people of Italian descent
418644	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KARE%20%28TV%29	KARE (TV)	KARE (channel 11) is a television station licensed to Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, serving as the NBC affiliate for the Twin Cities area. Owned by Tegna Inc., the station maintains studios on Olson Memorial Highway (MN 55) in Golden Valley and a transmitter at the Telefarm site in Shoreview, Minnesota. History Early years Channel 11 signed on the air in 1953 with its broadcast hours split between WTCN-TV in Minneapolis and WMIN-TV in St. Paul; the WTCN-TV callsign was originally used by the Minneapolis-licensed channel 4 from that station's sign-on in 1949 to 1952; channel 4 changed to WCCO-TV when, in August 1952, Twin Cities Newspapers (a partnership between the Minneapolis Tribune and the Saint Paul Pioneer Press-Dispatch) divested its broadcast properties. The television station was sold to a new company, Midwest Radio and Television, which was created for the purchase, with CBS as a minority partner. CBS at the time owned WCCO radio; with the purchase of the TV station, channel 4's calls were changed to match the radio cousins. Meanwhile, the Twin Cities Newspapers radio properties, WTCN (1280 AM) and WTCN-FM (97.1, now KTCZ-FM), were sold to the Minnesota Television Service Corporation headed by Saint Paul businessman Robert Butler, a former ambassador to Cuba and Australia. Soon afterward, Butler's group and the owner of WMIN radio submitted separate applications for the new channel 11 construction permit. Because the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) had a backlog of contested licenses, the two parties submitted a joint application to share the allocation in hopes of expediting its processing and approval. The FCC approved this deal and WTCN-TV/WMIN-TV went on the air on September 1, 1953, as an ABC affiliate. The station also carried a secondary affiliation with DuMont. During the late 1950s, the station also was briefly affiliated with the NTA Film Network. Under the agreement, the stations shared a transmitter mounted atop the Foshay Tower in downtown Minneapolis, alternating use every two hours. WTCN-TV's studios were in the Calhoun Beach Hotel in Minneapolis near Lake Calhoun, while WMIN-TV was based in the Hamm Building in downtown Saint Paul. On April 3, 1955, with FCC approval, WMIN sold its share of channel 11, making the frequency solely WTCN-TV. On the same day, the WTCN stations were sold to the Bitner Group. Two years later, the Bitner group merged with Time-Life. The early draw of WTCN-TV was its children's programs that featured characters like J. P. Patches, Skipper Daryl, Captain 11 (originally played by Jim Lange), Sergeant Scotty, Wrangler Steve (Steve Cannon, who would later become one of WCCO radio's biggest draws) and the most popular of all, Casey Jones, a train engineer played by Roger Awsumb and accompanied by his sidekick, Joe the Cook (Chris Wedes), succeeded by Roundhouse Rodney (Lynn Dwyer). The Lunch With Casey show originated on WMIN-TV and was on the channel 11 schedule from 1954 until 1972. On April 16, 1961, KMSP-TV (channel 9) took the ABC affiliation and WTCN-TV became an independent station. As a traditional general entertainment station, channel 11 offered cartoons, sitcoms, old movies, Minnesota Twins baseball, locally produced shows, news and drama series. It was also home to the Twin Cities' first prime-time newscast, with its 10:00 p.m. newscast moving to 9:00 p.m. Chris-Craft Industries bought WTCN-TV in 1964; WTCN radio was sold later that year by Time-Life to Buckley Broadcasting and became WWTC. Under Chris-Craft, channel 11 modernized its newscasts; up to that time, they were still shot on film. Metromedia enters the picture Metromedia announced its purchase of WTCN-TV from Chris-Craft in July 1971. Upon taking control of the station's operations in June 1972 Metromedia made channel 11 its fourth independent outlet, falling in line with the company's stations in New York City, Los Angeles and Washington, D.C. The new owners announced plans to upgrade channel 11's lineup of acquired programming (among the new shows added by Metromedia were The Merv Griffin Show in prime time and Wonderama on Sunday mornings) as well as make an investment in news and public affairs. WTCN-TV also began using a new tower at the Telefarm site in Shoreview, Minnesota; the new transmitter increased the station's broadcasting range significantly, boosting its secondary coverage to . In 1973, after 20 years at the Calhoun Beach Hotel, WTCN-TV moved to its current studio in Golden Valley. The address of the building was originally 441 Boone Avenue North, but is now known as 8811 Highway 55 (55427-4762)—the 11 corresponding to the station's then-analog and now virtual channel number. The switch to NBC; Gannett takes over In the mid-1970s, ABC—then enjoying its first run as America's top-rated television network—began looking for stronger affiliates across the country, and largely did so at the expense of third-place NBC. ABC surprised the industry in August 1978 by announcing it had signed an affiliation deal with KSTP-TV (channel 5), ending that station's 30-year relationship with NBC. NBC then chose to affiliate with WTCN-TV after rejecting an offer from former ABC affiliate KMSP-TV. The three-way switch occurred on March 5, 1979, making WTCN-TV Metromedia's first (and only) NBC affiliate. As part of its new network affiliation status, Metromedia promised further upgrades to WTCN-TV's programming as well as a major investment in the news department. Channel 11's schedule in its first few weeks as an NBC outlet was a hodgepodge of network programs and syndicated fare the station was still obligated to run, such as Spider-Man, Tom and Jerry, I Love Lucy, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, and The PTL Club; Metromedia also recently acquired for WTCN-TV the Twin Cities' rights to Happy Days, MASH, and The Waltons. NBC continued to struggle early in the 1980s (including the loss of the 1980 Summer Olympics to the American boycott, which resulted in the network considerably scaling back its coverage), and channel 11 suffered. The station quickly fell back to fourth place in the ratings—behind even KMSP-TV, which had replaced WTCN-TV as the Twin Cities' largest independent station and one of the most prominent in the upper Midwest—suggesting at the time that NBC's refusal to affiliate with KMSP-TV had backfired on the network locally. Metromedia would later sell about half of WTCN's cartoons and syndicated programming inventory to KMSP-TV. The station's newscasts were an even bigger concern as they drew single-digit audience shares, far behind both WCCO-TV and KSTP-TV, and utilized an underwhelming version of NBC's NewsCenter format. By coincidence, Chris-Craft would take a majority stake in KMSP-TV's parent company, United Television in 1981, pitting WTCN-TV against its former owners. In August 1982, having grown tired of the sustained losses, Metromedia announced it was selling channel 11 to the then-Rochester, New York–based Gannett Company. Gannett took over WTCN-TV in March 1983 and made immediate changes in the station's on-air look, and prominently made a significant investment in the station's news department; these moves enabled the station to become a factor in the Twin Cities TV ratings race. The anchor team of Paul Magers and Diana Pierce was hired that September and led the station's 10:00 p.m. newscasts for 20 years, which is a record among Twin Cities news anchors. The station's "Backyard" weather studio was also launched in 1983, following the arrival of meteorologist Paul Douglas in May. KARE (1986–present) On July 4, 1985, Gannett rebranded Channel 11 as WUSA, but after the company purchased WDVM-TV in Washington, D.C. later the same year, it transferred the call letters to that station on July 4, 1986, and changed channel 11's call sign on the same day to the current KARE (acquired from an AM radio station in Atchison, Kansas) that sounds like "care". The WTCN call letters now reside on the low-powered, MyNetworkTV-affiliated TV station in Palm Beach, Florida. On April 27, 2006, KARE became the first station in the Twin Cities to broadcast its local newscasts in high definition. As part of this transition, the station completely replaced its news set, originally built in 1986 and updated in the 1990s, with a new state-of-the-art backdrop. All newscasts continued to be presented in 4:3 (standard definition) as well as simulcast in 16:9 (high definition) until the federally mandated digital transition on June 12, 2009. Around the first week of October 2012, Gannett entered a dispute against Dish Network regarding compensation fees and Dish's AutoHop commercial-skip feature on its Hopper digital video recorders. Gannett ordered that Dish discontinue AutoHop on the account that it is affecting advertising revenues for KARE. Gannett threatened to suspend KARE's contract with the satellite provider should the skirmish continue beyond October 7 and Dish and Gannett fail to reach an agreement. The two parties eventually reached an agreement after extending the deadline for a few hours. On June 29, 2015, the Gannett Company split in two, with one side specializing in print media and the other side specializing in broadcast and digital media. KARE was retained by the latter company, named Tegna. Programming As the NBC affiliate for the Minneapolis–St. Paul market, KARE clears all NBC programming on its primary channel; however, this station has a history of preempting or delaying late night programming for syndicated reruns. In 1982, channel 11 started airing an episode of MASH in between the 10 p.m. newscast and The Tonight Show. MASH would be replaced with Cheers in 1987. Tonight aired on a delay for nearly 19 years before finally being moved to the network recommended 10:35 p.m. timeslot in 2000, with Cheers placed in between Tonight and Late Night. Finally, in 2001, Late Night moved to its normal 11:35 p.m. timeslot. Channel 11 additionally ran Saturday Night Live on a half-hour delay between 1982 and 2000 with MASH (later Puttin' on the Hits, then Cheers) airing after the 10 p.m. newscast. A locally produced children's program, Lunch with Casey, is remembered as being one of the unique contributions of the station. The show, featuring Roger Awsumb as Casey Jones, ran from 1954 until the end of 1972, with a brief reappearance in 1974. Sidekicks on the show included Joe the Cook, played by Chris Wedes, and Roundhouse Rodney, played by Lynn Dwyer. Wedes went on to play the clown J.P. Patches in Seattle, Washington, credited as partial inspiration (along with Portland, Oregon's Rusty Nails) for Krusty the Clown on The Simpsons. In 1999, the station was given the National Association of Broadcasters Service to Children Award for its locally produced programs. The short-lived game show Let's Bowl (taped in the Twin Cities) had some episodes air on KARE in the late '90s before the program went national on Comedy Central for two seasons in 2001 and 2002. In January 2005, a local public access cable television program debuted called The Show to Be Named Later...; it is described as "The first (and only) sports talk, comedy, and variety show", somewhat of a cross between Late Night with Conan O'Brien and Fox Sports Net's The Best Damn Sports Show Period. A weekly show for teenagers called The Whatever Show (or simply Whatever) and an outdoors program known as Minnesota Bound have both aired on the station for about a decade. Former Minnesota Twin Kent Hrbek also has hosted his own outdoors show Kent Hrbek Outdoors on the station since 2004, but in the fall of 2008, Kent Hrbek Outdoors was moved over to rival Fox affiliate KMSP. Syndicated programming For decades, both Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune aired on rival station WCCO-TV. However, in 1996, WCCO shifted Jeopardy! from 9:30 a.m. (where it was airing for the past ten years) to an undesired 1:37 a.m. time slot, which prompted King World (then the distributor for both game shows) to move the program to its current 4:30 p.m. time slot on KARE in 1999 to replace the defunct syndicated newsmagazine Hard Copy. During an episode of the show that aired early in its first season on the station, host Alex Trebek announced one of the categories as "the Twin Cities, where we are now airing on television station KARE in the daytime, I'm very happy to say!" Wheel remains on WCCO-TV today, making the Twin Cities one of the few TV markets in which Jeopardy! and Wheel are aired on separate stations, and not on the same station as is standard. News operation KARE presently broadcasts more than 27½ hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with 4½ hours each weekday, 4 hours on Saturdays and an hour on Sundays). Unlike most NBC affiliates in large and mid-sized markets, the station does not produce a Sunday morning newscast. The 10 p.m. newscast features a "KARE 11 News Extra", an extended in-depth news story, and the station periodically produces special sports shows. The National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) has awarded KARE its "Station of the Year" honor (for large market stations) in 1985, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2015. In the 1980s, the station experimented with a 40-minute newscast at 10p.m., before 35-minute nightly newscasts—now the standard—became common. The station made weather history on July 18, 1986, when helicopter pilot Max Messmer was flying out to cover a news story and noticed a funnel cloud forming over the Springbrook Nature Center in Fridley. Photojournalist Tom Empey was on board the chopper and shot video of the twister. The images were broadcast live for 30 minutes on that day's 5p.m. newscast. The funnel soon formed into a full-fledged tornado as it touched the ground. In the years to come, this first aerial video of a tornado was heavily studied by meteorologists, and contributed significantly to what is known about tornado formation. It was moderate in intensity, with winds of (an F2 on the original Fujita Scale), and caused $650,000 in damages. On January 10, 2011, Showcase Minnesota at 11 a.m. weekdays was replaced by KARE 11 Today, hosted by its 4 p.m. anchors Diana Pierce and Pat Evans. Besides news, KARE 11 Today includes lifestyle segments. KARE ran a subchannel with NBC Weather Plus, which was rebranded as NBC Plus after the announcement of its planned shutdown. In mid-June 2009, KARE launched its Weather Now subchannel on .2 using WeatherNation (now AerisWeather) outsourcing company. KARE affiliated the subchannel in 2012 with the WeatherNation TV network and renewed in 2014. Ratings KARE has won the coveted demographic of viewers 25 to 54 years old in almost every Nielsen Ratings sweeps period since the late 1980s. The station has been able to build on NBC's prime time lead-ins, which are the lowest in the market. However, KARE has placed second overall in households at 5, 6, and 10p.m. since May 2006, trailing rival CBS owned-and-operated station WCCO. The station slipped from its top spot among women in 2007 for the first time in two decades, and factoring in KMSP-TV's 9p.m. newscast, KARE tumbled to third place overall in February 2008. In November 2010, KARE suffered its first loss in the target 25-54 demographic during its 10p.m. newscast since 1986, with longtime runner-up WCCO-TV gaining the upper hand. However, WCCO likely benefited from a series of heavily promoted newscasts to mark the retirement of the station's longtime evening anchor involving the return of former on-air personalities during the sweeps period, leading at least one media critic to question the durability of WCCO's edge. The November 2010 numbers also showed KARE had regained second place in overall viewership. In the May 2012 ratings, KARE 11 was the most-watched news station in the key demographic of adults 25-54 throughout the day, finishing #1 at 10 p.m., 6 p.m., 5 p.m. and 6 a.m. Notable current on-air staff Julie Nelson weeknights anchor Boyd Huppert award-winning journalist, host of Land of 10,000 Stories Notable former on-air staff Roger Awsumb as Casey Jones, host of Lunch With Casey children's show (1954–1972) deceased Andre Bernier weekday morning meteorologist (1980s); later at WJW Cleveland Asha Blake news reporter/news anchor (later at America Now) Dennis Bounds weekend news anchor (later at KING-TV Seattle; retired) Steve Cannon children's show host "Wrangler Steve" (1950s on shared-time WMIN-TV St. Paul); deceased Paul Douglas meteorologist (1983–1994; later at WCCO-TV and WCCO Radio) Bernie Grace crime news reporter (1979–2006) Jack Horner sportscaster (1960s); later at KCBS-TV Los Angeles; deceased Jim Lange host of Captain 11 (1954–1955); later became host of The Dating Game; deceased Paul Magers news anchor (1983–2003; later at KCBS-TV Los Angeles; retired) Mike Pomeranz news anchor (later on San Diego Padres shows on Fox Sports San Diego) Technical information Subchannels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: KARE's 11.2 digital subchannel, branded as KARE WX NOW, originally ran programming from NBC Weather Plus from 2005 until the network shut down in November 2008, and then ran an automated version of the network called NBC Plus until it became an affiliate of WeatherNation TV in 2011. Translators In addition to the main transmitter in Shoreview, KARE's signal is relayed to outlying parts of Minnesota through a network of translators. All stations PSIP to 11.1 except for Jackson, St. James and Frost which PSIP to 11.4 and K24KT, which PSIP to 24.1. KARE formerly had a translator serving Breezy Point and Brainerd, KLKS-LP (channel 14). The repeater signed on in 1995 and operated until July 16, 2011, when its use as a repeater of KARE was discontinued due to a corporate decision made by Gannett management. The repeater was owned locally by the Lakes Broadcasting Group, owner of KLKS radio. Coverage in Canada KARE, along with WCCO-TV, is also carried in Canada on most cable systems in Manitoba and northwestern Ontario via Tbaytel and Shaw Cable. The stations do not make any attempt to cater to this audience, other than their inclusion on regional weather maps. References External links Lunch with Casey Jones Minnesota Bound TC Media Now - historical footage and documents from WTCN/WUSA/KARE KARE 1986 Tornado coverage Historical photos of WTCN-TV and WTCN Radio from the Minnesota Historical Society Television stations in Minneapolis–Saint Paul NBC network affiliates Court TV affiliates True Crime Network affiliates Quest (American TV network) affiliates Circle (TV network) affiliates Tegna Inc. Metromedia Television channels and stations established in 1953 1953 establishments in Minnesota Minnesota Fighting Saints Former Gannett subsidiaries
418646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-1B%20visa	H-1B visa	The H-1B is a visa in the United States under the Immigration and Nationality Act, section 101(a)(15)(H), that allows U.S. employers to employ foreign workers in specialty occupations. A specialty occupation requires the application of specialized knowledge and a bachelor's degree or the equivalent of work experience. The duration of stay is three years, extendable to six years, after which the visa holder can reapply. Laws limit the number of H-1B visas that are issued each year. There exist congressionally mandated caps limiting the number of H-1B visas that can be issued each fiscal year, which is 65,000 visas, and an additional 20,000 set aside for those graduating with master’s degrees or higher from a U.S. college or university. An employer must sponsor individuals for the visa. USCIS estimates there are 583,420 foreign nationals on H-1B visas as of September 30, 2019. The number of issued H-1B visas have quadrupled since the first year these visas were issued in 1991. There were 206,002 initial and continuing H-1B visas issued in 2022. The H-1B visa has its roots in the H-1 visa of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. The Immigration Act of 1990 split the H-1 visa into the H-1A (for nurses) and H-1B. The law capped H-1B visas at 65,000 each fiscal year and required employers to submit Labor Condition Applications. Additional modifications to H-1B rules were made by legislation in 1998, 2000, in 2003 for Singapore and Chile, in the H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004, 2008, and 2009. United States Citizenship and Immigration Services has modified the rules in the years since then. H-1B visa structure An H-1B visa allows an individual temporarily work in a specialty occupation in the United States. Specialty occupation The regulations define a specialty occupation as requiring theoretical and practical application of a body of highly specialized knowledge in a field of human endeavor, including but not limited to biotechnology, chemistry, computing, architecture, engineering, statistics, physical sciences, journalism, medicine, and health: doctor, dentists, nurses, physiotherapists, etc., economics, education, research, law, accounting, business specialties, technical writing, theology, and the arts, and requiring the attainment of a bachelor's degree or its equivalent as a minimum (with the exception of fashion models, who must be "of distinguished merit and ability"). Likewise, the foreign worker must possess at least a bachelor's degree or equivalent and state licensure, if required to practice in that field. H-1B work authorization is strictly limited to employment by the sponsoring employer. Employment A person in H-1B status must continue to be employed by their employer in order to stay in H-1B status. If the person's employment ends for any reason, the person must leave the United States, unless the person applies for and is granted a change of status or finds another employer compatible with the H-1B status. Effective January 17, 2017, the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services allows a grace period of up to 60 days after employment termination to stay in the United States. Stay duration The duration of stay for an H-1B visa holder is typically six years. The American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act of 2000 created exceptions to maximize length of stay in certain circumstances: If a visa holder has submitted an I-140 immigrant petition or a labor certification prior to their fifth anniversary of having the H-1B visa, they are entitled to renew their H-1B visa in one-year increments until a decision has been rendered on their application for permanent residence. This is backed up by the Immigration and Nationality Act 106(a). If the visa holder has an approved I-140 immigrant petition but is unable to initiate the final step of the green card process due to their priority date not being current, they may be entitled to a three-year extension of their H-1B visa until their adjustment of status can finish. This exception originated in section 104a (AC21 104a). The maximum duration of the H-1B visa is ten years for exceptional United States Department of Defense project related work. A time increment of less than three years has sometimes applied to citizens of specific countries. For example, during Melania Trump's time as a H-1B visa holder, she was limited to one year increments, which was the maximum time allowed then per H-1B visa for citizens of Slovenia. Melania Trump became a citizen in 2006. H-1B holders who want to continue to work in the U.S. after six years, but who have not obtained permanent residency status, must remain outside of the U.S. for one year before reapplying for another H-1B visa if they do not qualify for one of the exceptions noted above allowing for extensions beyond six years. Despite a limit on length of stay, no requirement exists that the individual remain for any period in the job the visa was originally issued for. This is known as H-1B portability or transfer, provided the new employer sponsors another H-1B visa, which may or may not be subjected to the quota. Annual cap and exemptions The Immigration Act of 1990 established a limit of 65,000 foreign nationals who may be issued a visa or otherwise provided H-1B status each fiscal year; the annual limit is often called a quota or a cap. The H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004 added 20,000 additional H-1Bs to foreign nationals holding a master's or higher degree from U.S. universities. In addition, excluded from the ceiling are all H-1B non-immigrants who are employed (or have received an offer of employment) at any of the following: an institution of higher education a nonprofit entity related or affiliated to an institution of higher education a nonprofit research organization a governmental research organization Contractors working at, but not directly employed by, these institutions may be exempt from the annual quotas as well. However, employers must show that, first, the majority of the worker's duties will be performed at the qualifying institution, organization or entity and, second, the job duties directly and predominantly further the essential purpose, mission objectives or functions of the qualifying institution, organization, or entity. The Chile–United States Free Trade Agreement and the Singapore–United States Free Trade Agreement created a separate quota of 1,400 H-1B1 visas for Chilean nationals and 5,400 H-1B1 visas for Singapore nationals. If these reserved visas are not used, however, then they added to the following fiscal year's H-1B annual quota. Due to these exemptions and rollovers, the number of H-1B visas issued each year is often greater than 65,000, such as when 117,828 H-1B visas were issued in fiscal year 2010, 129,552 in fiscal year 2011, and 135,991 in fiscal year 2012. In some years, the cap was not reached. For example, in fiscal year 1996, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (now known as USCIS) announced on August 20, 1996, that a preliminary report indicated that the quota had been exceeded, and processing of H-1B applications was temporarily halted. However, when more accurate numbers became available on September 6, it became apparent the quota had not been reached after all, and processing resumed for the remainder of the fiscal year. The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services starts accepting applications on the first business day of April for visas that count against the fiscal year starting in October. For instance, H-1B visa applications that count against the fiscal year 2013 cap were submitted starting Monday, 2012 April 2. USCIS accepts H-1B visa applications no more than 6 months in advance of the requested start date. Beneficiaries not subject to the annual cap are those who currently hold cap-subject H-1B status or have held cap-subject H-1B status at some point in the past six years. Electronic registration process and lottery In 2020, USCIS instituted a new electronic registration process where employers no longer need to send a fully completed H-1B filing package. Instead, during March (exact dates are announced by USCIS every year) of every year, employers can submit an electronic registration for a $10 non-refundable fee through a new USCIS H-1B Electronic Registration system. These employers can begin creating a USCIS registrant account starting in February of a year(USCIS usually gives the dates). USCIS requires only basic information to register for the H-1B lottery, which is unlike the actual H-1B petition in April. The annual H-1B season officially starts in March of each year, when petitioners are allowed to register electronically for their applicant. If more registrations are submitted there will be a random selection also called as H-1B lottery. The lottery will determine who gets an option to file H-1B visa petition with USCIS. As of the most recent H1B season, on March 31, 2023 USCIS notifies the selected registrants. During the FY 2024 H-1B lottery, there were 758,994 eligible electronic registrations and 110,791 people selected for an H-1B visa. Selected registrants can legally begin filing their Labor Conditions Application to the Department of Labor on April 1. It allows a six-month window before the employee start date on October 1. Participants with a U.S. master's degree or higher have two chances to be selected in the lottery: the first lottery is for the 65,000 visas available to all H-1B applicants. Those not selected are then entered in another lottery for 20,000 extra spots. Those without a U.S. advanced degree are entered only in the former lottery. Feedback Pro-H-1B pundits claim that the early closure, and number of applications received, including H-1B Lottery for the last 10 consecutive years, are indications of employment demand and advocate increasing the 65,000 bachelor's degree cap. David North, of the Center for Immigration Studies, claimed that unlike other immigration categories, H-1B filing fees, for applications which are not randomly selected, are refunded to the intending employer. However, applications that are not selected are simply returned unopened to the petitioner, with no money changing hands or refunded. Legal challenge The lottery process was challenged in Tenrec v. USCIS, a class action lawsuit in Oregon, but the case was decided against the plaintiffs. On June 28, 2021, the lottery process was challenged again in LIU et al. v. MAYORKAS et al., a lawsuit filed in United States District Court for the District of Columbia by 500+ FY 2022 H-1B applicants who didn't get selected in March 2021. The Labor Condition Application The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is responsible for ensuring that foreign workers do not displace or adversely affect wages or working conditions of U.S. workers. For every H-1B petition filed with the USCIS, there must be included a Labor Condition Application (LCA) (not to be confused with the labor certification), certified by the U.S. Department of Labor. The LCA is designed to ensure that the wage offered to the non-immigrant worker meets or exceeds the "prevailing wage" in the area of employment. ("Immigration law has a number of highly technical terms that may not mean the same thing to the average reader.") The LCA also contains an attestation section designed to prevent the program from being used to import foreign workers to break a strike or replace U.S. citizen workers. While an employer is not required to advertise the position before hiring an H-1B non-immigrant pursuant to the H-1B visa approval, the employer must notify the employee representative about the Labor Condition Application (LCA)—or if there is no such representation, the employer must publish the LCA at the workplace and the employer's office. Under the regulations, LCAs are a matter of public record. Corporations hiring H-1B workers are required to make these records available to any member of the public who requests to look at them. Copies of the relevant records are also available from various web sites, including the Department of Labor. History The LCA must be filed electronically using Form ETA 9035E. Over the years, the complexity of the form increased from one page in 1997 to three pages in 2008, to five pages as of August 2012. Employer attestations By signing the LCA, the employer attests that: The employer pays H-1B non-immigrants the same wage level paid to all other individuals with similar experience and qualifications for that specific employment, or the prevailing wage for the occupation in the area of employment, whichever is higher. The employment of H-1B non-immigrants does not adversely affect working conditions of workers similarly employed. On the date the application is signed and submitted, there is not a strike, lockout, or work stoppage in the course of a labor dispute in the occupation in which H-1B non-immigrants will be employed at the place of employment. If such a strike or lockout occurs after this application is submitted, the employer must notify the DOL's Employment and Training Administration (ETA) within three days, and the application is not used to support petition filings with USCIS (formerly known as INS) for H-1B non-immigrants to work in the same occupation at the place of employment until ETA determines the strike or lockout is over. A copy of this application has been, or will be, provided to each H-1B non-immigrant employed pursuant to this application, and, as of the application date, notice of this application has been provided to workers employed in the occupation in which H-1B non-immigrants will be employed: Notice of this filing has been provided to bargaining representative of workers in the occupation in which H-1B non-immigrants will be employed; or There is no such bargaining representative; therefore, a notice of this filing has been posted and was, or will remain, posted for 10 days in at least two conspicuous locations where H-1B non-immigrants will be employed. The law requires H-1B workers to be paid the higher of the prevailing wage for the same occupation and geographic location, or the same as the employer pays to similarly situated employees. Other factors, such as age and skill were not permitted to be taken into account for the prevailing wage. Congress changed the program in 2004 to require the Department of Labor to provide four skill-based prevailing wage levels for employers to use. This is the only prevailing wage mechanism the law permits that incorporates factors other than occupation and location. The approval process for these applications are based on employer attestations and documentary evidence submitted. The employer is advised of their liability if they are replacing a U.S. worker. Employment authorization limits USCIS clearly states the following concerning H-1B nonimmigrants' employment authorization. When a H-1B nonimmigrant works with multiple employers, if any of employers fail to file the petition, it is considered as an unauthorized employment and the nonimmigrant fails to maintain the status. U.S. workforce training In 2007, the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration (ETA), reported on two programs, the High Growth Training Initiative and Workforce Innovation Regional Economic Development (WIRED), which have received or will receive $284 million and $260 million, respectively, from H-1B training fees to educate and train U.S. workers. According to the Seattle Times $1 billion from H-1B fees have been distributed by the Labor Department to further train the U.S. workforce since 2001. H-1B tax status The taxation of income for an individual with H-1B status depends on whether they are categorized as either nonresident aliens or resident aliens for tax purposes. A nonresident alien for tax purposes is only taxed on income that is effectively connected with a trade or business in the United States and United States-source income that is fixed, determinable, annual, or periodical. A resident alien for tax purposes is taxed on all income, including income from outside the United States. The classification is determined based on the substantial presence test. If the substantial presence test indicates that the individual is a resident, then income taxation is like any other U.S. person and may be filed using Form 1040 and the necessary schedules. Otherwise, the individual must file as a non-resident alien using Form 1040NR or Form 1040NR-EZ; the individual may claim a benefit from tax treaties that exist between the United States and the individual's country of citizenship. An individual in the first year in the U.S. may choose to be considered a resident for taxation purposes for the entire year, and must pay taxes on their worldwide income for that year. This first-year choice can only be made once in an individual's lifetime. A spouse, regardless of visa status, must include a valid Individual Taxpayer Identification Number or Social Security number on a joint tax return with the individual in H-1B status. Tax filing rules for an individual in H-1B status may be complex, depending on the individual situation. A tax professional who is knowledgeable about the rules for foreigners may be consulted. Social Security tax and Medicare tax Employers must generally withhold Social Security and Medicare taxes from the wages paid to employees in H-1B status. Similarly to U.S. citizens, a person who worked in H-1B status may be eligible to receive Social Security benefit payments at retirement. Generally, a worker must have worked in the U.S. and paid Social Security taxes obtaining at least 40 credits before retirement. The person will not be eligible for payments if the person moves outside the U.S. and is a citizen of a country with a social insurance system or a pension system that pays periodic payments upon old age, retirement, or death. The U.S. has bilateral agreements with several countries to ensure that the credit granted into the U.S. Social Security system, even if it is fewer than 40 credits, is taken into account in the foreign country's comparable system and vice versa. H-1B and permanent immigration intention Even though the H-1B visa is a non-immigrant visa, it is one of the few temporary visa categories recognized as dual intent, meaning an H-1B holder could legally have an immigration intent (apply for and obtain the green card) while still being a holder of the H-1B visa. Effectively, the non-immigrant visa may eventually lead to permanent residence; companies often support it with the agreement to support the employee with green card petitions. In the past, the employment-based green card process used to take only a few years, less than the duration of the H-1B visa itself because requirement to maintain a foreign address for this non-immigrant classification was removed in the Immigration Act of 1990. The Trump administration in 2017 expressed its dislike of the use of the H-1B visa, a nonimmigrant visa, as a pathway to permanent residence, and said it intended to restructure the immigration/permanent residence pathway with efficient systems such as Points-based immigration system. In apparent response, some green card seekers looked to alternatives, like the EB-5 visa, which offers better prospects for permanent immigration than the H-1B visa. As a response to the abuse of H-1B visas, groups like U.S. Tech Workers advertised opposition posters throughout San Francisco's Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) stations and trains. H-1B visa dependents H-1B visa holders can bring immediate family members (spouse and children under 21) to the United States under the H-4 visa category as dependents. An H-4 visa holder may remain in the U.S. as long as the H-1B visa holder retains legal status. An H-4 visa holder is allowed to attend school, apply for a driver's license, and open a bank account in the United States. Effective May 26, 2015, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services allows some spouses of H-1B visa holders to apply for eligibility to work unrestricted in the United States. The spouse would need to file Form I-765, Application for Employment Authorization, with supporting documents and the required filing fee. The spouse is authorized to work in the United States only after the Form I-765 is approved and the spouse receives an Employment Authorization Document card. In 2022, the U.S. government handed out 82,616 work permits for H-1B spouses. Travel When an H-1B worker travels outside the U.S. for any reason (other than to Canada or Mexico), he or she must have a valid visa stamped on his or her passport for re-entry in the United States. If the worker has an expired stamp but an unexpired i-797 petition, he or she will need to appear in a U.S. Embassy to get a new stamp. In some cases, H-1B workers can be required to undergo "administrative processing," involving extra background checks of different types. Under current rules, these checks are supposed to take ten days or less, but in some cases, have lasted years. Additionally, an individual with a valid H-1B visa does not need a visa to enter Costa Rica for tourism for up to 30 days. The H-1B visa must be stamped in the passport and be valid for at least six months. The passport needs to be valid for at least six months after entering Costa Rica. Job loss departure requirement If an employer lays off an H-1B worker, the employer is required to pay for the laid-off worker's transportation outside the United States. If an H-1B worker is laid off or quits, the worker has a grace period of 60 days or until the I-94 expiration date, whichever is shorter, to find a new employer or leave the country. There also is a 10-day grace period for an H-1B worker to depart the United States at the end of his/her authorized period of stay. This grace period only applies if the worker works until the H-1B expiration date listed on his/her I-797 approval notice, or I-94 card. Application process The process of getting a H-1B visa has three stages: The employer files with the United States Department of Labor a Labor Condition Application (LCA) for the employee, making relevant attestations, including attestations about wages (showing that the wage is at least equal to the prevailing wage and wages paid to others in the company in similar positions) and working conditions. With an approved Labor Condition Application, the employer files a Form I-129 (Petition for a Nonimmigrant Worker) requesting H-1B classification for the worker. This must be accompanied by necessary supporting documents and fees. Once the Form I-129 is approved, the worker may begin working with the H-1B classification on or after the indicated start date of the job, if already physically present in the United States in valid status at the time. If the employee is outside the United States, he/she may use the approved Form I-129 and supporting documents to apply for the H-1B visa. With a H-1B visa, the worker may present himself or herself at a United States port of entry seeking admission to the United States, and get a Form I-94 to enter the United States. (Employees who started a job on H-1B status without a H-1B visa because they were already in the United States still need to get a H-1B visa if they ever leave and wish to reenter the United States while on H-1B status.) Premium processing An applicant may choose to pay for Premium Processing Service. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services guarantees processing of applications and petitions within 15 calendar days. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services will send an approval notice, a denial notice, a notice of intent to deny, a request for additional evidence, or open an investigation for fraud or misrepresentation within 15 calendar days of receiving Form I-907: Request for Premium Processing Service. If the 15-calendar-day window is not satisfied, then the Premium Processing Fee will be refunded. In the past, USCIS suspended, then resumed the premium processing program. History Legislation history Visa creation On June 27, 1952, Congress passed the Immigration and Nationality Act after overriding a veto by President Harry S. Truman. For the first time, the Immigration and Nationality Act codified United States' immigration, naturalization, and nationality law into permanent statutes, and it introduced a system of selective immigration by giving special preference to foreigners possessing skills that are urgently needed by the country. Several different types of visas were established, including a H-1 visa for "an alien having a residence in a foreign country which he has no intention of abandoning who is of distinguished merit and ability and who is coming temporarily to the United States to perform temporary services of an exceptional nature requiring such merit and ability." The term "distinguished merit and ability" was not new to United States immigration law; it had previously been used as a qualification for musicians and artists who had wanted to enter the United States. The visa was called an H-1 visa because it had been made into law by section 101(15)(H)(1) of the Immigration and Nationality Act. The Immigration Act of 1990 The Immigration Act of 1990 was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush on November 20, 1990. The H-1 visa was split into two different visas. The law created the H-1A visa for nurses, and the H-1B visa was established for workers in a "specialty occupation". The Immigration Act defined a specialty occupation as "an occupation that requires theoretical and practical application of a body of highly specialized knowledge, and attainment of a bachelor's or higher degree in the specific specialty (or its equivalent) as a minimum for entry into the occupation in the United States". In order to qualify, a visa applicant needed any applicable state license for the particular occupation and either an educational degree related to the occupation or an equivalent amount of professional experience. For the first time, there was established a quota of 65,000 H-1B visas available each fiscal year, rather than an unlimited amount before. An employer was required by law to pay such employees at least the prevailing wage for the position, and employers were required to make certain attestations by way of a Labor Condition Application. The American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act of 1998 President Bill Clinton signed the American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act into law on October 21, 1998. The law required that each application for an H-1B must include an additional $500 payment, which would be used for retraining U.S. workers in order to reduce the need for H-1B visas in the future. The quota of H-1B visas was increased from 65,000 to 115,000 for fiscal years 1999 and 2000 only. For an employer with a large number of employees in H-1B status or who had committed a willful misrepresentation in the recent past, the employer attest that the additional H-1B worker would not displace any U.S. workers. The act also gave investigative authority to the United States Department of Labor. The American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act of 2000 On October 17, 2000, the American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act was signed by President Bill Clinton. Under the law, the required retraining fee was increased from $500 to $1,000. The quota was increased to 195,000 H-1B visas in fiscal years 2001, 2002, and 2003 only. Nonprofit research institutions sponsoring workers for H-1B visas became exempt from the H-1B visa quotas. Under the law, a worker in H-1B status who had already been subject to a visa quota would not be subject to quotas if requesting a transfer to a new employer or if applying for a three-year extension. An H-1B worker became allowed to change employers if the worker had an I-485 application pending for six months and an approved I-140 and if the new position is substantially comparable to their current position. In the case of an H-1B holder's spouse in H-4 status, the spouse may be eligible to work in the United States under certain circumstances. The spouse must have an approved "Immigration Petition for Alien Worker" form or the spouse must have been given H-1B status under sections 106(a) and (b) of the American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act of 2000. Free trade agreements in 2003 Congress ratified the Singapore–United States Free Trade Agreement in 2003. It ratified the Chile–United States Free Trade Agreement later that year. With these free trade agreements, a new H-1B1 visa was established as being available solely for people from either Singapore or Chile. Unlike H-1B visas that had a limited renewal time, H-1B1 visas can be renewed indefinitely. H-1B1 visas are subject to a separate quota of 6,000 per fiscal year. Unlike H-1B visas, an H-1B1 visa is not a dual-intent visa, and an H-1B1 applicant must convince the visa officer that they have no intention of permanently immigrating to the United States. The H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004 The H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004 was a part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2005, which President George W. Bush signed on December 6, 2004. For employers with 26 or more employees, the required retraining fee was increased from $1,000 to $1,500, and it was reduced to $750 for all other employers. A new $500 "anti-fraud fee" was established that was required to be paid by the employer with the visa application. While the H-1B quota returned to 65,000 per year, the law added 20,000 visas for applicants with J-1 status with either a master's degree or a doctorate degree from a U.S. graduate school. Governmental entities became exempt from H-1B visa quotas. According to the law, H-1B visas that were revoked due to either fraud or willful misrepresentation would be added to the H-1B visa quota for the following fiscal year. The law also allowed one-year extensions of H-1B for H-1B visa holders who were applying for permanent residency and whose petitions had been pending for a long time. The United States Department of Labor had more investigative authority, but an employer could defend against misdeeds by using either the Good Faith Compliance Defense or the Recognized Industry Standards Defense. The Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008 The Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008 federalized immigration in the U.S. territory of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and it stipulated that, during a transition period, numerical limitations would not apply to otherwise qualified workers in the H visa category in the U.S. territories of Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The exemption does not apply to any employment to be performed outside of Guam or the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The Employ American Workers Act of 2009 The Employ American Workers Act, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, was signed into law by President Barack Obama on February 17, 2009. For employers who applied to sponsor a new H-1B and who had received funds under either the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) or the Federal Reserve Act Section 13, the employers were required to attest that the additional H-1B worker would not displace any U.S. workers and that the employer had not laid off, and would not lay off, any U.S. worker in a job equivalent to the H-1B position in the area of intended employment of the H-1B worker within the period beginning 90 days prior to the filing of the H-1B petition and ending 90 days after its filing. Proposed legislation in 2007 Senators Dick Durbin of Illinois and Charles Grassley of Iowa began introducing "The H-1B and L-1 Visa Fraud & Prevention Act" in 2007. According to Durbin, speaking in 2009, "The H-1B visa program should complement the U.S. workforce, not replace it;" "The…program is plagued with fraud and abuse and is now a vehicle for outsourcing that deprives qualified American workers of their jobs." Compete America,a tech industry lobbying group, opposed the proposed legislation. Proposed legislation in 2017-2018 In 2017, the U.S. Congress considered more than doubling the minimum wage required for an H-1B holder from the $60,000 (USD) established in 1989 and unchanged since then. The High Skilled Integrity and Fairness Act, introduced by U.S. Rep. Zoe Lofgren of California, would raise H-1B holders' minimum salaries to $130,000. The action was criticized in the Indian press for confirming "the worst fears of [Indian] IT companies" in the wake of the reforms discussed during the 2016 Presidential election by both major candidates, and for causing a 5% drop in the BSE SENSEX index. Though, India in general has been welcoming this change and requirement since 2015. Lofgren's office described it as a measure to "curb outsourcing abuse" citing unfair tech hiring practices by employers including Disney and University of California San Francisco. Executive action history The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services has updated and issued new rules regarding the H-1B visa in the past decade. STEM Optional Practical Training extension and cap-gap extension On April 2, 2008, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Secretary Michael Chertoff announced a 17-month extension to the Optional Practical Training for students in qualifying STEM fields. The Optional Practical Training extension was included in the rule-change commonly referred to as the H-1B Cap-Gap Regulations. The OPT extension only benefits foreign STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, or Mathematics) students and is not available to foreign students of other disciplines. The 17-month work-authorization extension allows the foreign STEM student to work up to 29 months in total on the student visa, allowing the STEM student multiple years to obtain an H-1B visa. To be eligible for the 12-month work-permit, any bachelor's degree in any field of study is valid. For the 17-month OPT extension, a student must have received a STEM degree in one of the approved majors listed on the USCIS website. The STEM extension can be combined with the cap-gap extension. The cap-gap extension was also created in 2008 and allows a STEM OPT worker who has a pending or approved H-1B visa to remain in the U.S until the H-1B visa begins. The 2010 Neufeld Memo On January 8, 2010, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services issued a memorandum stating that there must be a clear employee-employer relationship between the petitioner (employer) and the beneficiary (prospective visa holder). The memorandum outlines what the employer must do to be considered in compliance as well as putting forth the documentation requirements to back up the employer's assertion that a valid relationship exists. An employer must maintain a valid employee-employer relationship throughout the period of the worker's stay in the United States. The employer must have actual control or the right to control the employee and to be able to decide when, where, and how the employee will be employed and performs work. A valid employee-employer relationship typically includes many of the following: supervising the worker on- and off-site; maintaining such supervision through calls, reports, or visits; having a right to control the work on a day-to-day basis if such control is required; providing the worker with the tools and equipment needed for the job; having the ability to hire, pay, and terminate the worker's job; evaluating the worker's products, progress, and performance; provision of some type of employee benefits; allowing the worker to use the employer's proprietary information when performing work; assigning work to the worker that produces an end-product related to the employer's business; and having the ability to control the manner and means in which the worker accomplishes tasks. The memorandum further states that "common law is flexible about how these factors are to be weighed". Third-party placement firms and staffing firms do not qualify for H-1B status because they fail the control test. The Tech Serve Alliance filed a lawsuit against implementing the memo. Senator John Cornyn brokered a meeting between a coalition of IT outsourcing firms and USCIS, which stopped the implementation of the Neufeld Memo. 2015 H-1B dependent work authorization In 2015, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security issued a rule that allowed certain spouses of H-1B workers to be eligible for work authorization. Under the rule, the H-1B worker must either be the principal beneficiary of an approved Immigrant Petition for Alien Worker (Form I-140) or have H-1B status under the American Competitiveness in the Twenty-first Century Act of 2000, as amended by the 21st Century Department of Justice Appropriations Authorization Act, and the spouse must be in the United States with H-4 status. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security stated that it issued the rule in order to ease the financial burden that these families may experience as they transition from nonimmigrant to lawfully permanent resident status. The rule also reduces disincentives for H-1B workers to leave the United States, which disrupts the United States businesses employing these workers. 2015 work site guidance change In 2015, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services issued final guidance stating that if an H-1B worker whose work site location changes to a different metropolitan area, its material change that requires the employer to certify a new Labor Condition Application to the Department of Homeland Security. Temporary work site changed do not require a new LCA. Examples include when a H-1B worker attends a training session, a seminar, or a conference of a short duration or when the H-1B worker is temporarily moved to a short-term placement of less than 30 days. If the amended H-1B petition is disapproved but the original petition remains valid, then the H-1B worker retains their H-1B status as long as they return to work at the original work site. 2016 H-1B maximum stay clarification On December 5, 2016, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services issued a memorandum to provide guidance regarding periods of admissions for an individual in H-1B status. The memorandum stated that time spent as either an H-4 dependent or an L-2 dependent does not reduce the maximum allowable period of stay available to individuals in H-1B status. 2017 employment termination grace period rule On November 18, 2017, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services released a rule that affects individuals in H-1B status whose employment ends. In these cases, the individual has a grace period of 60 days to leave the United States or change to another legal status that allows them to remain in the United States. 2017 H-4 victims of domestic violence work authorization In 2005, the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 allowed work authorization for victims of domestic violence who are in H-4 status. On February 17, 2017, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services instituted a process for these victims to apply for work authorization. Eligible individuals include current H-1B visa spouses, and individuals whose marriage ended because of battery or extreme cruelty perpetrated by the individual's former spouse. The individual must also have entered the United States in an H status, must continue to be in H-4 status, and were themselves or their child battered or subjected to extreme cruelty perpetrated by the H-1B spouse. The spouse's application must include evidence of the abuse. Before this policy was implemented, an abused spouse in H-4 status would be required to leave the United States the date the person divorced the abusive spouse. The divorced spouse now has a way to legally remain in the United States and legally work in the United States after the divorce is finalized or pending. If approved, the authorization is valid for two years. 2017 computer-programming position memo A memorandum from December 22, 2000, stated that, because most computer-programming positions required a bachelor's degree, computer programming was considered a specialty occupation that qualified for an H-1B visa. On March 31, 2017, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services released a memorandum stating that computer programming would no longer be automatically considered a specialty occupation, partly because a bachelor's degree was no longer typically required of these positions. An application for an H-1B visa for a computer programmer must sufficiently describe the duties and the level of experience and responsibilities of the position in order to demonstrate how the position is a senior, complex, specialized, or unique computer-programming position rather than an entry-level position in order to qualify for an H-1B visa. In addition, the United States Department of Justice warned employers not to discriminate against U.S. workers by showing a preference for hiring H-1B workers. 2017 Buy American, Hire American executive order On April 18, 2017, President Trump signed an executive order that directed federal agencies to implement a "Buy American, Hire American" strategy, a key pledge during the campaign. At a press briefing, the executive order directed federal agencies such as the Department of Labor, Department of Justice, Department of Homeland Security, and Department of State to implement a new system that favors higher-skilled, higher-paid applicants. The executive order is intended to order federal agencies to review and propose reforms to the H-1B visa system. Furthermore, these departments will "fill in the details with reports and recommendations about what the administration can legally do." Trump stated that the executive would "end the theft of American prosperity," which he said had been brought on by low-wage immigrant labor. On January 9, 2018, the USCIS said that it was not considering any proposal that would force H-1B visa holders to leave the United States during the green-card process. USCIS said an employer could request extensions in one-year increments under section 106(a)–(b) of the American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act instead. 2018 extension rejection rule On June 28, 2018, the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services announced that, when a person's request for a visa extension is rejected, the person will be deported from the United States. The Trump administration said they are not considering any proposal that would force H-1B visa holders to leave the country. 2020 H-1B entry suspension On April 22, 2020, President Donald Trump signed a presidential proclamation that temporarily suspended the entry of people with non-immigrant visas, including H-1B visas. On June 22, 2020, President Trump extended the suspension for H-1B visa holders until December 31, 2020. On December 31, 2020, President Trump issued a presidential proclamation extending the suspension of entry until March 31, 2021, because they would pose "a risk of displacing and disadvantaging United States workers during the economic recovery following the COVID-19 outbreak". 2020 H-1B lottery rule On October 28, 2020, a new rule to reform the H-1B lottery by prioritizing workers with the highest wage was approved. 2021 H-1B entry suspension expiration President Joe Biden allowed the suspension to expire on March 31, 2021, which allowed H-1B visa holders to enter the U.S. beginning on April 1, 2021. General history 2015 spotlight on H-1B visas There was extensive reporting in 2015 on problems with the existing H-1B visa programs. Journalists reported that many prominent companies such as Disney and Southern California Edison were replacing American workers using the H-1B visa program. Disney used H-1B outsourcing firm Cognizant to replace its American IT workers. The company required these workers to train their replacements in order to receive severance. The New York Times editorial board, speaking in June 2015, loopholes and lax enforcement of the H-1B visa program has resulted in exploitation of both visa holders and American workers. In June 2015, ten Senators requested the U.S. Department of Labor open an investigation of outsourcing of technical tasks by Southern California Edison to Tata Consultancy Services and Infosys then laying off 500 technology workers. After a ten-month investigation, the U.S. Department of Labor determined that no charges should be filed against any of the firms. In 2015 and 2016, the Senate Judiciary Committee held hearings on problems with the H-1B visa. On March 17, 2015, Chairman Chuck Grassley of the Senate Judiciary Committee held a hearing on "Immigration Reforms Needed to Protect Skilled American Workers". On February 25, 2016, Immigration Subcommittee Chairman Jeff Sessions held a hearing on "The Impact of "High-Skilled" Immigration on U.S. Workers. These hearings' witnesses included AFL-CIO President Richard Trumka, Howard University Associate Professor Ron Hira, American Immigration Council Benjamin Johnson, Washington Alliance of Technology Workers Attorney John Miano, former Disney IT Engineer Leo Perrero, Colgate University Associate Professor of Economics Chad Sparber, and Rutgers University Professor Hal Salzman. Senator Chuck Grassley of Iowa, chairman of the committee commented on the H-1B visa during the March 17th hearing: 2016 election policy issue The H-1B visa became an issue in the 2016 United States presidential election. According to Computerworld, candidate Donald Trump took a stance to "pause" and re-write the H-1B system. Additionally, he invited guest speakers to raise awareness of the hundreds of IT workers displaced by H-1B guest workers during his rallies. Candidate Donald Trump stated his policy position and solution on H-1Bs in his campaign website on immigration policy: "Increase prevailing wage for H-1Bs. We graduate two times more Americans with STEM degrees each year than find STEM jobs, yet as much as two-thirds of entry-level hiring for IT jobs is accomplished through the H-1B program. More than half of H-1B visas are issued for the program's lowest allowable wage level, and more than eighty percent for its bottom two. Raising the prevailing wage paid to H-1Bs will force companies to give these coveted entry-level jobs to the existing domestic pool of unemployed native and immigrant workers in the U.S., instead of flying in cheaper workers from overseas. This will improve the number of black, Hispanic and female workers in Silicon Valley who have been passed over in favor of the H-1B program. Mark Zuckerberg’s personal Senator, Marco Rubio, has a bill to triple H-1Bs that would decimate women and minorities. Requirement to hire American workers first. Too many visas, like the H-1B, have no such requirement. In the year 2015, with 92 million Americans outside the workforce and incomes collapsing, we need companies to hire from the domestic pool of unemployed. Petitions for workers should be mailed to the unemployment office, not USCIS." Candidate Hillary Clinton spoke negatively of H-1B workers being hired because they are less expensive and since they are reliant on the employer, more likely to be compliant during abuse. Clinton said that she was unlikely to consider the H-1B system individually and only would look towards reforms as part of a comprehensive immigration reform. Presidential candidate Bernie Sanders opposed guest worker programs and was also skeptical about skilled immigrant (H-1B) visas, saying, "Last year, the top 10 employers of H-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries." In an interview with Vox he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as: ...a right-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States...you're doing away with the concept of a nation-state. What right-wing people in this country would love is an open-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs. 2019 H-1B data In 2019, USCIS unveiled a H-1B employer data hub which provides information on employee H-1B visa petitions starting from fiscal year 2009. In 2019, the USCIS Office of Policy and Strategy released the latest population estimate of H-1B visa workers in the United States. As of September 30, 2019, there were 583,420 people authorized to work on an H-1B visa. First, the agency estimated the number of approved H-1B petitions. The estimated number of approved unique beneficiaries numbered 619,327 people. USCIS estimated the number of foreign nationals denied by the State Department subtracting 2,100 visas. Furthermore, USCIS subtracted out the number of H-1B workers who adjusted to legal permanent residency status (estimated at 32,332) and those who requested another non-immigration status (estimated at 1,475). 2021 electronic registration system In 2021, USCIS rolled out its first electronic registration system for the H-1B lottery. Economic impact There is a divide between economists and academics about the impact H-1B visas have on innovation, the effect on U.S. workers, and overall benefits to the U.S. economy. Studies have shown that H-1B visas have welfare-improving effects for Americans, leading to significant wage gains, lower consumer prices, greater innovation, and greater total factor productivity growth. H-1B visas have led to lower prices for consumers, greater output, and improved performance by companies. A study found that H-1B visa holders have been associated with greater innovation and economic performance. Meanwhile, other studies have shown the exact opposite. A National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) paper concluded that firms who received H-1B visas do innovate or grow faster, nor patent more than firms who do not. Economists have also found that H-1B visas lead to lower wages and employment for competing U.S. workers. A paper by George J. Borjas for the National Bureau of Economic Research found that "a 10 percent immigration-induced increase in the supply of doctorates lowers the wage of competing workers by about 3 to 4 percent." A 2016 study found that H-1B visas kept wages for U.S. computer scientists 2.6% to 5.1% lower, and employment in computer science for U.S. workers 6.1% to 10.8% lower, but resulted in greater production efficiency, lowered the prices of IT products, raised the output of IT products and caused substantially higher profits for IT firms. The same study also found that for every 100 foreign computer science workers who enter the U.S., they crowd out 33 to 61 domestic computer science workers. Criticism Corporate labor subsidy Critics of the H-1B visa program say it is a government labor subsidy for corporations. Paul Donnelly, in a 2002 article in Computerworld, cited Milton Friedman as stating that the H-1B program acts as a subsidy for corporations. Others holding this view include Norman Matloff, who testified to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee Subcommittee on Immigration on the H-1B subject. Professor Matloff describes four types of labor savings for corporations and employers. Type I labor savings is where employers pay H-1Bs less than similarly qualified American workers. Type II labor savings are where employers hire younger H-1Bs in lieu of older and more expensive American workers. Type III labor savings are where employers force H-1B workers to work longer hours. Type IV labor savings are when the oversaturation of H-1B workers suppresses wages in the labor market. American technology companies benefit most from Type II labor savings, where these firms hire a 25-year-old H-1B worker instead of a 50-year-old American programmer. Compliant workforce Critics say that employers exercise outsized control over H-1B workers since the visa ties the workers to the employer. Additionally, these workers are less likely to complain about poor working conditions for fear of visa revocation and deportation. No STEM labor shortage Academic researchers have found no labor shortage in STEM, undercutting the primary reason for the H-1B visa's existence. Researchers carried out studies from the 1990s through 2022 from multiple universities and non-profit organizations which found there is no STEM shortage and that the U.S. produced sufficient numbers of willing and able STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) workers. The following are those universities and non-profit organizations: Columbia University, Computing Research Association (CRA), Duke U, Georgetown U, Harvard U, Howard U, National Research Council of the NAS, RAND Corporation, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rutgers U, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Stanford U, SUNY Buffalo, UC Davis, UPenn Wharton School, Urban Institute, and U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Education Research & Improvement. In 2022, Howard University public policy professor Ron Hira found there was no shortage in STEM due to stagnant wages in IT and a seven percent decline in real wages for engineers. In the past, he has called the IT talent shortage "imaginary," a front for companies that want to hire cheaper foreign guest workers. Studies from Rutgers University professor Hal Salzman, and co-authors B. Lindsay Lowell and Daniel Kuehn, have concluded that the U.S. has been employing only 30% to 50% of its newly degreed able and willing STEM workers to work in STEM fields. A 2012 IEEE announcement of a conference on STEM education funding and job markets stated "only about half of those with under-graduate STEM degrees actually work in the STEM-related fields after college, and after 10 years, only some 8% still do." Rutgers University Public Policy Professor Hal Salzman points to simultaneous industry layoffs, when industry claims labor shortage. In his Senate Judiciary testimony, he states that between 2006 and 2016, the IT industry (the predominant user of the H-1B visa) laid off on average 97,000 workers per year, more than the number of 74,000 H-1B workers brought for the IT industry. UC Davis Professor Norman Matloff's University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform paper claims that there has been no shortage of qualified American citizens to fill American computer-related jobs, and that the data offered as evidence of American corporations needing H-1B visas to address labor shortages was erroneous. The United States General Accounting Office found in a report in 2000 that controls on the H-1B program lacked effectiveness. The GAO report's recommendations were subsequently implemented. High-tech companies often cite a tech-worker shortage when asking Congress to raise the annual cap on H-1B visas, and have succeeded in getting various exemptions passed. The American Immigration Lawyers Association (AILA), described the situation as a crisis, and the situation was reported on by the Wall Street Journal, BusinessWeek and Washington Post. Employers applied pressure on Congress. Microsoft chairman Bill Gates testified in 2007 on behalf of the expanded visa program on Capitol Hill, "warning of dangers to the U.S. economy if employers can't import skilled workers to fill job gaps." Congress considered a bill to address the claims of shortfall but in the end did not revise the program. According to a study conducted by John Miano and the Center for Immigration Studies, there is no empirical data to support a claim of employee worker shortage. Citing studies from Duke, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Georgetown University and others, critics have also argued that in some years, the number of foreign programmers and engineers imported outnumbered the number of jobs created by the industry. Hire Americans First has also posted hundreds of first hand accounts of H-1B visa harm reports directly from individuals negatively impacted by the program, many of whom are willing to speak with the media. Guestworker influx and wage depression Wage depression as a result of an increased supply of discounted guest workers is a chronic complaint critics have about the H-1B program. In the 21st century, labor experts have found that guest workers are abundantly available in times of wage decline and weak workforce demand. The Economic Policy Institute found that sixty percent of certified H-1B positions were below the local median wage. In Washington D.C, companies hiring a level 1 entry-level H-1B software developer received a discount of 36%, or $41,746. For level II workers, companies received a discount of 18%, or $20,863. In 2014, The Department of Homeland Security annual report indicates that H-1B workers in the field of Computer Science are paid a mean salary of $75,000 annually, almost 25,000 dollars below the average annual income for software developers and studies have found that H-1B workers are paid significantly less than U.S. workers. It is claimed that the H-1B program is primarily used as a source of cheap labor. LCA and employer attestation problems The Labor Condition Application (LCA) included in the H-1B petition is supposed to ensure that H-1B workers are paid the prevailing wage in the labor market, or the employer's actual average wage (whichever is higher), but evidence exists that some employers get around these provisions and avoid paying the actual prevailing wage despite stiff penalties for abusers. Theoretically, the LCA process appears to offer protection to both U.S. and H-1B workers. However, according to the U.S. General Accounting Office, enforcement limitations and procedural problems render these protections ineffective. Ultimately, the employer, not the Department of Labor, determines what sources determine the prevailing wage for an offered position, and it may choose among a variety of competing surveys, including its own wage surveys, provided that such surveys follow certain defined rules and regulations. The law specifically restricts the Department of Labor's approval process of LCAs to checking for "completeness and obvious inaccuracies." In FY 2005, only about 800 LCAs were rejected out of over 300,000 submitted. Hire American First has posted several hundred first hand accounts of individuals negatively impacted by the program. According to attorney John Miano, the H-1B prevailing wage requirement is "rife" with loopholes. Internal "brain drain" Opponents of the H-1B visa program says that an influx of guest workers in STEM causes young American college graduates to stop pursuing these fields. For example, bachelor's degree enrollment in computer science fell 50% from 2002 to 2007 as students shied away. Discrimination against Americans Critics of the H-1B visa program say the program enables Silicon Valley to employ age discrimination against U.S. citizens and permanent residents. In 2021, Facebook settled a claim with the Department of Justice that it discriminated against U.S. workers in favor of temporary visa holders. The company paid a $4.75 million civil penalty and set aside $9.5 million for eligible victims. Age discrimination Critics of the H-1B visa program say the program enables Silicon Valley to employ age discrimination against older workers. Indentured servitude Critics contend that H-1B holders is a modern-day form of high-tech indentured servants, Guest workers on H-1B visas in the IT sector have limited employer mobility compared to U.S. workers. Although immigration generally requires short- and long-term visitors to disavow any ambition to seek the green card (permanent residency), H-1B visa holders are an important exception, in that the H-1B is legally acknowledged as a possible step towards a green card under what is called the doctrine of dual intent. Some workers who come to the U.S. on H-1B visas receive poor, unfair, and illegal treatment by brokers who place them with jobs in the US, according to a report published in 2014. The United States Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2013 was passed to help protect the rights of foreign workers in the United States, and the U.S. Department of State distributes pamphlets to inform foreign workers of their rights. Companies have stolen the wages of H-1B workers. Labor researchers found that HCL stole $95 million from its H-1B visa workers annually. Green card sponsorship backlog There is currently a backlog for employer-sponsored green cards. Critics of the H-1B visa program say the reason is in part the American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act and the dual intent nature of the H-1B visa, allowing a temporary non-immigrant to gain an employer-sponsored green card. The law lets foreign nationals waiting for a green card the ability to extend their H-1B visa past the normal six-year limit. Problem with dual intent Dual intent enables a H-1B visa holder the ability to apply for a green card while on a temporary guest worker visa. The issue critics have with dual intent is that it creates a backlog for green cards as non-immigrant temporary guest workers and people who do intend to immigrate both are vying for permanent residency status. The "outsourcing and offshoring" visa Critics of the program take issue with American and outsourcing companies using H-1B visa workers to offshore work abroad. Researchers have found that two thirds of IT jobs are offshorable. The remaining third remains onshore in order to be the conduit between American clients and offshore work teams. Additionally, offshoring weakens the domestic American workforce. The leading users of H-1B visas are Indian outsourcing firms. In 2021, half of the top thirty employers of H-1B visa holders were specifically outsourcing firms. The top 10 H-1B employers in 2014 such as Tata Consultancy, Cognizant, Infosys, Wipro, Accenture, and IBM all used the program to ship jobs offshore. Critics of H-1B use for outsourcing have also noted that more H-1B visas are granted to companies headquartered in India than companies headquartered in the United States. Furthermore, even though these IT outsourcing companies have a physical footprint in the United States, they hire temporary foreign guest workers instead. Senator Dick Durbin stated in a speech on H-1B visa reform: "The H-1B job visa lasts for three years and can be renewed for three years. What happens to those workers after that? Well, they could stay. It is possible. But these new companies have a much better idea for making money. They send the engineers to America to fill spots—and get money to do it—and then after the three to six years, they bring them back to work for the companies that are competing with American companies. They call it their outsourcing visa. They are sending their talented engineers to learn how Americans do business and then bring them back and compete with those American companies."Of all computers systems analysts and programmers on H-1B visas in the U.S., 74 percent were from Asia. Large migration of Asian IT professionals to the United States has been a central component to the emergence of the offshore outsourcing industry. In FY 2009, due to the worldwide recession, applications for H-1B visas by offshore outsourcing firms were significantly lower than in previous years, yet 110,367 H-1B visas were issued, and 117,409 were issued in FY2010. Computerworld and The New York Times have reported on the inordinate share of H-1B visas received by firms that specialize in offshore-outsourcing, the subsequent inability of employers to hire foreign professionals with legitimate technical and language skill combinations, and the outright replacement of American professionals already performing their job functions and being coerced to train their foreign replacements. Replacing Americans and training foreign replacements There have been cases where employers used the program to replace their American employees with H-1B employees, and in some of those cases, the American employees were even ordered to train their replacements. Researchers have found that during the 2022 tech layoffs, companies laid off their U.S. workforce while continuing to bring in more H-1B workers. The top 30 H-1B employers in 2022 laid off at least 85,000 workers, while bringing in 34,000 H-1B workers. Designed to displace Critics contend that the H-1B visa is not being abused. Instead, the program was designed to displace American workers and that companies are using it as designed. Employers can claim anything as the prevailing wage because the Department of Labor only checks for the correctness of form completion. No employer for entrepreneurs and self-employed consultants Entrepreneurs do not qualify for the H-1B visa. The United States immigration system's EB-5 visa program does permit foreign entrepreneurs to apply for a green card if they make a sufficient investment in a commercial enterprise and intend to create 10 or more jobs in the United States. The University of Massachusetts began a program in 2014 allowing entrepreneurs to found U.S. companies while fulfilling visa requirements by teaching and mentoring on campus, with the university as sponsoring employer. Likewise, self-employed consultants have no visa that would allow them to enter the country and perform work independently for unspecified, extended periods (although, note that a B-1 visa would permit temporary travel to the U.S. to consult for specific periods), so consulting companies have been formed for the sole purpose of sponsoring employees on H-1B visas to allow them to perform work for clients, with the company sharing the resulting profit. Fraud The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services "H-1B Benefit Fraud & Compliance Assessment" of September 2008 concluded 21% of H-1B visas granted originate from fraudulent applications or applications with technical violations. Fraud was defined as a willful misrepresentation, falsification, or omission of a material fact. Technical violations, errors, omissions, and failures to comply that are not within the fraud definition were included in the 21% rate. In 2009, federal authorities arrested people for a nationwide H-1B visa scam in which they allegedly submitted false statements and documents in connection with petitions for H-1B visas. Fraud has included acquisition of a fake university degree for the prospective H-1B worker, coaching the worker on lying to consul officials, hiring a worker for which there is no U.S. job, charging the worker money to be hired, benching the worker with no pay, and taking a cut of the worker's U.S. salary. The workers, who have little choice in the matter, are also engaged in fraud, and may be charged, fined, and deported. Visa lottery fraud Critics of the H-1B lottery do not like that the lottery is randomized and does not select for skill or wage. Additionally, outsourcing companies' game the system by filing as many electronic lottery applications as possible (only $10 each) for jobs that do not exist. In 2023, there were 781,000 lottery entries for 85,000 visas. This was partially the result of different companies submitting the same applicant multiple times. USCIS says that there is a high prevalence of fraud with the new electronic registration system. Additional visas Selected listing of non-family preference visas where employment can be or is authorized. Temporary high skill visas H-1B visa (Bachelor's degree or equivalent) H-4 visa (Dependents of H visa—some now authorized for employment ) L-1 visa (Intracompany) O-1 visa (Extraordinary abilities) TN visa (NAFTA) AC21 (Extends H-1B & L-1 visas beyond limitation statutes) Student visas F visa (student visa) J visa (training and misc., employment (FICA exempt)) Optional Practical Training (employment authorization, FICA exempt) Employment based preference (Greencard) EB-1 visa (PhD level) EB-2 visa (Master's degree) EB-3 visa (Bachelor's degree) EB-4 visa (Religious) EB-5 visa (Investor) Various B visa (business and visitor) P visa (athletes and entertainers) H-2A Visa (agriculture) H-2B visa (temporary worker, non agricultural) In addition to H-1B visas, there are a variety of other visa categories that allow foreign workers to come into the U.S. to work for some period of time. L-1 visas are issued to foreign employees of a corporation. Under recent rules, the foreign worker must have worked for the corporation for at least one year in the preceding three years prior to getting the visa. An L-1A visa is for managers or executives who either manage people or an essential function of the company. An L-1B visa is appropriate for non-immigrant workers who are being temporarily transferred to the United States based on their specialized knowledge of the company's techniques and methodologies. There is no requirement to pay prevailing wages for the L-1 visa holders. For Canadian residents, a special L visa category is available. TN-1 visas are part of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and are issued to Canadian and Mexican citizens. TN visas are only available to workers who fall into one of a preset list of occupations determined by the NAFTA treaty. There are specific eligibility requirements for the TN Visa. E-3 visas are issued to citizens of Australia under the Australia free-trade treaty. H-1B1 visas are a sub-set of H-1B issued to residents of Chile and Singapore. H-1B1 visas for residents of Chile was part of the Chile–United States Free Trade Agreement; PL 108-77 Section 402(a)(2)(B), 117 Stat. 909, 940; S 1416, HR 2738, which was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives on July 24, 2003. H-1B1 visas for residents of Singapore was part of the Singapore–United States Free Trade Agreement, PL 108-78 Section 402(2), 117 Stat. 948, 970-971; S 1417, HR 2739, which passed the U.S. House of Representatives on July 24, 2003, passed the U.S. Senate on July 31, 2003, and signed by President George W. Bush on May 6, 2003. According to U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, if there are any unused H-1B1 visas during a particular year, that number is added to the following year's H-1B base quota. One recent trend in work visas is that various countries attempt to get special preference for their nationals as part of treaty negotiations. Another trend is for changes in immigration law to be embedded in large Authorization or Omnibus bills to avoid the controversy that might accompany a separate vote. H-2B visa: The H-2B non-immigrant program permits employers to hire foreign workers to come to the U.S. and perform temporary non-agricultural work, which may be one-time, seasonal, peak load or intermittent. There is a 66,000 per year limit on the number of foreign workers who may receive H-2B status. H-1B visa statistics General statistics The H-1B visa program is the largest guest worker visa program in the United States. The H-1B visa has seen continual growth. The were an estimated 425,000 H-1Bs in 2000. USCIS estimates there are 583,420 foreign nationals on H-1B visas as of September 30, 2019. The number of issued H-1B visas have quadrupled since the first year these visas were issued in 1991. There were 206,002 new and initial H-1B visas issued in 2022, the highest number of H-1B visa issuances in the program's history. Between 2001 and 2015, the U.S. government distributed 1.8 million H-1B visas. Between 2007 and 2016, 60% of H-1B applicants were for computer and mathematical occupations. Universities and colleges, nonprofits and government research institutions account for 10% of H-1B visa applications. 1 in 4 H-1B applications do not require a bachelor’s degree. In 2020, 70% of H-1B visa workers work in computer-related occupations. 9% went to engineering, architecture, ad surveying. H-1B demographic statistics In 2021, 74.1% of H-1B visas were approved to Indian nationals while 12.4% were approved to Chinese nationals. The average age of an H-1B worker is 33. Between 2001-2015, 892,814 H-1B visas or 50.5% of all visas were awarded to Indian nationals. China had 9.7% of H-1Bs with 171,577. Canada is third with 3.8% or 66,582. U.S. geographic statistics The New York metropolitan area had the most H-1B approvals, with between 2010 and 2016. Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan region came in second with 74,000 H-1B visa approvals while the Washington D.C. metropolitan region with 64,800 H-1B visa approvals. Employers in California, New Jersey, Texas, and New York were the biggest users of H-1B visas in 2013. New Jersey has the most H-1B visa workers per capita. 2020 education statistics 7% of H-1B workers had a doctorate. 57% of H-1B workers had a master's degree. 36% of H-1B workers had a bachelor's degree. 2020 salary statistics In 2020, the median salary for all H-1B workers was $101,000. H-1B visa tables and charts Approved H-1B applications H-1B visas issued per year Top H-1B Employers by Visa Approval Notes References United States Citizenship and Immigration Service, "Characteristics of Specialty Occupation Workers (H-1B)," for FY 2004 and FY 2005, November 2006. "Microsoft Cuts 5,000 Jobs as Recession Curbs Growth (Update5)", Bloomberg, 22 Jan 2009 (Microsoft Lays off 5,000 even as they use 3,117 visas in 2006.) Bill Gates, Chairman of Microsoft, Testimony to the U.S. Senate Committee Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. Hearing "Strengthening American Competitiveness for the 21st Century." March 7, 2007 Business Week, Immigration: Google Makes Its Case, 7 Jun 2007. Business Week, Who Gets Temp Work Visas? 7 Jun 2007 (Top 200 H-1B Visa Users Chart) Business Week, Immigration Fight: Tech vs. Tech, 25 May 2007. Business Week, Crackdown on Indian Outsourcing Firms, 15 May 2007. Dr. Norman Matloff, Debunking the Myth of a Desperate Software Labor Shortage , Testimony to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee, April 1998, updated December 2002 CNN, Lou Dobbs, Programmers Guild Interview & Transcript, August 26, 2005 Congressional Record: Illegal Aliens Taking American Jobs, June 18, 2003 (House) Center for Immigration Studies, Backgrounder: The bottom of the pay scale, Wages for H-1B Computer Programmer's, John Milano, 2005. Further reading Pittsburgh law firm's immigration video sparks an Internet firestorm, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 22, 2007 "Lawmakers Request Investigation Into YouTube Video" Sen. Chuck Grassley and Rep. Lamar Smith ask the Labor Department to look into a video they say documents H-1B abuse by companies. Information Week, June 21, 2007 October 2007 study by The Urban Institute – ''Into the Eye of the Storm: Assessing the Evidence on Science and Engineering Education, Quality, and Workforce Demand' B. Lindsay Lowell and Hal Salzman' Guestworkers in the High-Skill U.S. Labor Market: An Analysis of Supply, Employment, and Wage Trends "(2013) Hal Salzman, Daniel Kuehn, B. Lindsay Lowell Economic Policy Institute" External links U.S. Department of State information on H-1B visa U.S. GAO Report on H-1B Problems, PDF format H-1B Quota Updates from USCIS United States visas by type Employment of foreign-born people 1990 introductions
418690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Brunswick%20Liberal%20Association	New Brunswick Liberal Association	The New Brunswick Liberal Association (), more popularly known as the New Brunswick Liberal Party or Liberal Party of New Brunswick, is one of the two major provincial political parties in New Brunswick, Canada. The party descended from both the Confederation Party and the Anti-Confederation Party whose members split into left-wing and right-wing groups following the creation of Canada as a nation in 1867. The current political organization emerged in the 1880s to serve as an organization housing the supporters of Premier Andrew G. Blair and, later, federal Liberal Party of Canada leader Wilfrid Laurier. Today, the New Brunswick Liberal Party follows the centre-left tradition. They compete with the Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick to form the government. The Green Party of New Brunswick is the only other party that has seats in the legislature. The NDP is not currently represented in the legislature. Like its counterparts in the Atlantic Canada provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, the New Brunswick Liberal Association serves both as the provincial chapter of the federal Liberal Party of Canada and as the provincial party. While its leader acts only in the provincial capacity, the party executive organizes for both provincial and federal election campaigns. History Early years and Andrew Blair Prior to Canadian confederation, advocates of responsible government ran under the labels "Reform" or "Liberal", while opponents of responsible government were known as "Conservatives". With the debates over confederation in the 1860s, the party lines which had emerged blurred as Reformers split along pro and anti-Confederation lines, resulting in Confederation and Anti-Confederation Parties. Following 1867, supporters of Confederation generally became known as Liberal-Conservatives, or just Conservatives. Those who had been against confederation regrouped loosely as "Liberals", but did not become a coherent party until Andrew Blair, a supporter of Confederation, became Premier of New Brunswick and forged members of his parliamentary government and their supporters into the New Brunswick Liberal Association in 1883. Blair led a very successful government and served as the Premier of New Brunswick for 13 years. He was New Brunswick's longest serving premier until his tenure was surpassed by Richard Hatfield nearly a century later. Though Blair had not been a candidate in the 1896 federal election, he joined the federal cabinet of Sir Wilfrid Laurier shortly thereafter when Laurier approached a number of Liberal premiers to join his government and address its lack of experience. This move was not expected by the party and, although it remained in government for 12 more years, it went through a rapid succession of leaders. Early 1900s After Blair abruptly left the province to join Wilfrid Laurier's cabinet in 1896, the Liberals had a leadership vacuum. James Mitchell, who had been provincial secretary, served briefly as Premier, but Mitchell soon resigned the post due to ill health. Mitchell was replaced by Henry Emmerson, who showed some promise but lost the confidence of the house when he tried to introduce women's suffrage in 1900. The party was saved electoral disaster when Lemuel J. Tweedie, a federal Conservative, replaced Emmerson, and won two large majorities at general elections. Though women's suffrage could not be introduced in the province, he admitted women into the practice of law in 1906, and began the first major hydroelectric project in New Brunswick at Grand Falls. Tweedie unexpectedly accepted the appointment of Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick in 1907, and the Liberals soon found themselves again in a leadership vacuum. William Pugsley became leader and premier, but left the post after a few months to join the Laurier's government in Ottawa. His replacement, Clifford W. Robinson was able but the electorate grew weary of the ever-changing face at head of their government, and the Conservatives swept to power in 1908. The Conservatives were an easy choice for many New Brunswickers in the 1908 provincial election as they had been led since 1899 by John Douglas Hazen, a man with whom they had become familiar. Hazen served only briefly, leaving in 1911 to join the federal cabinet of Robert Borden, and was replaced by the charismatic and popular James Kidd Flemming. The Liberals were easily defeated by Flemming in the 1912 election, however, after Flemming was forced to resign in 1914 over a fundraising scandal, the Liberals seemed on track to return to government. This likelihood was reinforced by the lackluster administration of George Johnson Clarke who was in ill health throughout his term. The Liberals were victorious in the 1917 provincial election. Dysart and McNair In the midst of the depression, the Liberals made a resurgence in 1935 with Allison Dysart becoming premier. McNair was Dysart's right hand, serving as Attorney General until replacing him as premier in 1940. McNair served until 1952 when he was defeated by Hugh John Flemming. Louis J. Robichaud During the 1960s, the Liberals under Louis Joseph Robichaud were instrumental in bringing Acadians into the mainstream of life in New Brunswick, declaring the province to be officially bilingual. The English and French languages were given equal status. Robichaud's government modernized the province's hospitals and public schools and introduced a wide range of social reforms. The Liberals also passed an act in 1969 making New Brunswick officially bilingual. "Language rights", he said when he introduced the legislation, "are more than legal rights. They are precious cultural rights, going deep into the revered past and touching the historic traditions of all our people." Robichaud also restructured the municipal tax regime, ending the ability of business to play one municipality against another in order to extract the lowest tax rates. He introduced in 1963 the Municipal Capital Borrowing Act and Board, which is designed to act as a brake for spendthrift municipalities. He also expanded the government and sought to ensure that the quality of health care, education and social services was the same across the province—a programme he called Equal Opportunity, which is still a political buzz phrase in New Brunswick. "When I first realized that there was absolutely no equal opportunity, no equality, in New Brunswick," he recalled in the 1980s, "well, I had to come to the conclusion that something had to be done immediately." Opposition in the Hatfield years Following defeat in the 1970 election, the Liberals were largely in disarray. The party's prospects in the 1978 election were good, but it changed leaders on the eve of the election, and, under Joseph Daigle was defeated narrowly by the Progressive Conservatives. The PCs won 30 seats in the Legislative Assembly to the Liberals' 28. The party was reduced to 18 seats in 1982 under new leader Doug Young. Frank McKenna In 1985, the party chose Frank McKenna as leader. McKenna, a young lawyer representing Chatham in the legislature in his first term, ran as the underdog candidate in a leadership campaign against party stalwart Ray Frenette. Frenette had served as interim leader from the disastrous 1982 election until the eve of the 1985 leadership race. McKenna won by significant margin. McKenna immediately set out to prepare the party for returning to government after 15 years in opposition. The momentum was on the side of the Liberals and it seemed inevitable that McKenna would be premier as soon as an election was held. Few expected, though, that the Liberals would sweep the province, winning every seat—the second time this had happened in Canadian history (the first time was in the Prince Edward Island provincial election of 1935). McKenna was regarded as a fiscal conservative and was called by some the "Best Tory Premier New Brunswick never had". Despite this, McKenna was a progressive on many issues. He made considerable cuts to social programs because of the province's dire fiscal situation and cuts to federal equalization payments and other transfers. He also instituted new programs. Notably, McKenna instituted a publicly funded kindergarten program—something that had been promised by the Hatfield-led Progressive Conservatives in the previous four elections. McKenna also launched a home care program called "Extramural Nursing" which has been hailed as the best in Canada. In the 2002 Romanow report on the Future of Healthcare in Canada, New Brunswick's system was specifically cited as a model for homecare in Canada. Despite riding high in the polls, McKenna resigned on October 13, 1997, ten years (to the day) since his first election as premier, fulfilling a promise to serve for only ten years. McKenna was replaced by Frenette, who had served as his right-hand in the legislature throughout his term. Frenette served as premier for the following seven months while the party chose a new leader. Frenette was replaced by Camille Thériault who served as premier until the 1999 election. In the 1999 election, the Liberals suffered their worst ever defeat, winning only 10 seats despite having begun the campaign with a double-digit lead in opinion polls. The by-election losses were a further blow to Camille Thériault's leadership, and he resigned from the party leadership and the legislature on March 21, 2001. Bernard Richard, who had finished third in the leadership contest against Thériault in 1998, became interim leader. In 2000, Liberal Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) Bernard Thériault resigned to make an unsuccessful bid for the House of Commons of Canada in Acadie-Bathurst, and Edmond Blanchard resigned to accept an appointment to the Federal Court of Canada. The Progressive Conservatives won both of these seats in by-elections in early 2001, reducing the Liberals to eight seats in the legislature. Shawn Graham In the following leadership contest, many candidates appeared briefly but withdrew. Early candidates included former cabinet minister Paul Duffie, former McKenna adviser Francis McGuire, and Moncton lawyer Mike Murphy. McGuire, after briefly considering a bid, declined. Murphy began the formative stages of a campaign, but abruptly withdrew, surprising many of his supporters. This left Duffie largely unchallenged. The only other candidate was former party organizer Jack MacDougall who had abruptly left the party in the midst of the 1999 campaign. Many in the party felt that Duffie, who was close to Thériault, was the wrong choice. Bernard Richard was urged to abandon the interim leadership and contest the race, and began a formative campaign before announcing he would continue as interim leader instead. After the campaign had already begun in earnest, Shawn Graham, a rookie MLA in his early 30s, announced his candidacy in January 2002. Graham took a convincing lead in delegate selection meetings. Duffie withdrew, leaving Graham to face only MacDougall whom he defeated by a 3-to-1 margin. The party chose Shawn Graham as leader on May 12, 2002. Graham nearly won the 2003 election taking 26 of 55 seats in the New Brunswick legislature. Richard, who was re-elected in 2003, accepted a provincial appointment on November 26, 2003. This was viewed as a serious blow to Graham's leadership. Graham led the Liberals to a narrow victory in the 2006 provincial election winning 29 of 55 seats and losing the popular vote 47.2% to 47.5% for the Progressive Conservatives. The Liberals took power on October 3, 2006. They subsequently added three extra seats. Chris Collins captured the seat in the riding of Moncton East on March 5, 2007, which was vacated when former Premier Bernard Lord stepped down as leader of the Progressive Conservatives. Wally Stiles and his wife Joan MacAlpine Stiles, elected as Progressive Conservatives, crossed the floor to join the Liberals the following month, April 17. On September 27, 2010, Shawn Graham lost his bid to be re-elected as Premier (13 to 42) to provincial PC leader David Alward, but remained MLA for Kent riding. He stepped down as leader of the party on November 9, 2010, and Victor Boudreau was selected as the party's interim leader the following day. The Shawn Graham Government was the first one of the province to not get re-elected for a second term. Brian Gallant After a term in Opposition, the Liberals returned to power under Brian Gallant, winning a majority in the 2014 provincial election with Gallant being sworn in as Premier on October 7, 2014. Gallant's first cabinet, of 13 members, was smaller than the outgoing cabinet. During his government's mandate the province's economy and exports grew each year; the unemployment rate which was hovering around 10% was reduced to just over 7%; in 2016 KPMG found that three of the four most cost competitive cities in which to do business in Canada and the United States were in New Brunswick; the province's population grew to a record high surpassing 770,000 people for the first time; one of the most vibrant cybersecurity clusters in North America was developed in New Brunswick's capital city; and the province saw its first budget surplus in a decade. The Gallant government increased the budget for education and early childhood development by 15% over its mandate in order to invest in literacy initiatives, introduce coding in more schools, and reintroduce trades in high schools. The Gallant government created programs to help the middle class with the cost of childcare and to provide free childcare to families which need the most support. The Gallant government also created programs to help the middle class with the cost of tuition and to provide free tuition for those who need the most support. The Gallant government eliminated the unconstitutional two doctor rule that was hindering a women's right to choose for decades in New Brunswick. In 2016, New Brunswick welcomed the most Syrian refugees displaced by the humanitarian crisis per capita of all the provinces in the country. The Gallant government also advanced women's equality by moving pay equity forward to the point of New Brunswick having the second lowest gender wage gap of all the Canadian provinces in 2017; by having over 50% of government appointments to agencies, boards, and commissions go to women; and by providing the first gender parity on New Brunswick's provincial court. Gallant has repeatedly stated that climate change is the greatest challenge facing humanity. With this in mind, the Gallant government took concrete action to protect the environment including by creating the “Transitioning to a Low Carbon Economy” plan which commits to historic measures to fight climate change. The Gallant government also placed a moratorium on hydraulic fracturing and a ban on the disposal of fracked wastewater in municipal systems. In addition to premier, Gallant has served New Brunswick as the Attorney General, the Minister responsible for innovation, the Minister responsible for women's equality, and the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition. The 2018 provincial election resulted in Gallant's Liberals winning only 21 seats compared to Blaine Higgs and the Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick who won 22. Gallant vowed to attempt to remain in power with a minority government and hoped to retain the confidence of the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick either on a vote-by-vote basis or with the agreement of the smaller parties, the Green Party of New Brunswick and the People's Alliance of New Brunswick, each of which won 3 seats in the election. In Opposition (2018–present) On November 2, 2018 Gallant's Liberal minority government was defeated by a confidence vote on its throne speech by a margin of 25 to 23 with the opposition Progressive Conservatives and People's Alliance voting against the government and the Greens voting with the government. Gallant resigned as premier on November 2, 2018 and was replaced by Higgs, leading a Progressive Conservative minority government with support from the People's Alliance. Kevin Vickers was acclaimed as the new Liberal leader in April 2019. He ran in Miramichi in 2020 and lost to incumbent MLA Michelle Conroy.(who later crossed the floor to join the PCNB). He resigned as party leader the same day. In September 2020, Roger Melanson was named interim leader until Susan Holt was elected as party leader on August 6, 2022. Electoral results Current members of the legislature Party leaders since 1867 Andrew George Blair, 1879–1896 James Mitchell, 1896–1897 Henry Emmerson, 1897–1900 Lemuel John Tweedie, 1900–1907 William Pugsley, 1907 Clifford W. Robinson, 1907–1912 Arthur Bliss Copp, 1912 (interim) Louis-Auguste Dugal, 1912–1916 Walter E. Foster, 1916–1923 Peter Veniot, 1923–1926 Allison Dysart, 1926–1930 Wendell P. Jones, 1930–1932 Allison Dysart, 1932–1940 John B. McNair, 1940–1954 Austin Claude Taylor, 1954–1957 Joseph E. Connolly, 1957–1958 (interim) Louis Robichaud, 1958–1971 Robert J. Higgins, 1971–1978 Joseph Daigle, 1978–1981 Doug Young, 1981–1983 Ray Frenette, 1983–1985 (interim) Shirley Dysart, 1985 (interim) Frank McKenna, 1985–1997 Ray Frenette, 1997–1998 (interim) Camille Thériault, 1998–2001 Bernard Richard, 2001–2002 (interim) Shawn Graham, 2002–2010 Victor Boudreau, 2010–2012 (interim) Brian Gallant, 2012–2019 Denis Landry, 2019 (interim) Kevin Vickers, 2019–2020 Roger Melanson, 2020–2022 (interim) Susan Holt, 2022–present Presidents since 1932 John B. McNair (1932–1940) G. Percival Burchill (1941–1953) Harry A. Corey (1953–1959) Wesley Stuart (1960–1963) Daniel A. Riley (1963–1964) (Acting) Hugh Tait (1964–1966) Donald A. McLean (1966–1971) Norbert Thériault (1971–1977) Peter Seheult (1977–1979) Jack Stevens (1979–1983) Sumner Fraser (1983–1986) Aldéa Landry (1986–1988) Mike Murphy (1988–1992) Réginald Léger (1992–2000) Maurice Richard (2000–2002) Jim Mockler (2002–2003) (Acting) Greg Byrne (2003–2006) Marcelle Mersereau (2006–2007) (Acting) J. E. Britt Dysart (2007–2015) Joel Reed (2015–present) See also List of New Brunswick premiers List of political parties in Canada 2002 New Brunswick Liberal Association leadership election 2012 New Brunswick Liberal Association leadership election 2019 New Brunswick Liberal Association leadership election 2022 New Brunswick Liberal Association leadership election New Brunswick Liberal Association leadership elections References External links New Brunswick Liberal Association / Association libérale du Nouveau-Brunswick Provincial political parties in New Brunswick Liberal parties in Canada 1883 establishments in New Brunswick Political parties established in 1883 Organizations based in Fredericton Centrist parties in Canada
418713	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%20cuisine	Polish cuisine	Polish cuisine () is a style of food preparation originating in and widely popular in Poland. Due to Poland's history, Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to be very eclectic, and shares many similarities with other national cuisines. Polish cooking in other cultures is often referred to as à la polonaise, it often involves breadcrumbs fried in butter and poured over cooked vegetables. Polish cuisine is rich in meat, especially pork, chicken and game, in addition to a wide range of vegetables, spices, fungi and mushrooms, and herbs. It is also characterised by its use of various kinds of pasta, cereals, kasha and pulses. In general, Polish cuisine makes extensive use of butter, cream, eggs, and seasoning. Traditional dishes often demand lengthy preparation. Many Poles take time to serve and enjoy their festive meals, especially Christmas Eve dinner () on December 24, or Easter breakfast, both of which could take several days to prepare. Among popular Polish national dishes are , , , (pork loin breaded cutlet), (stuffed cabbage leaves), (roulade), (sour cucumber soup), (mushroom soup), (tomato soup), (meat broth), (sour rye soup), (tripe soup), and red beetroot soup . A traditional Polish dinner is composed of three courses, beginning with a soup like the popular broth or tomato soup. In restaurants, soups are followed by an appetizer such as herring (prepared with either cream, oil, or in aspic), or other cured meats and chopped raw vegetable salads. The main course usually includes meat, such as a roast, breaded pork cutlet, or chicken, with a coleslaw-like (), shredded root vegetables with lemon and sugar (carrot, celeriac, cooked beetroot), sauerkraut, or salad. The side dishes are usually boiled potatoes, , or less commonly, rice. Meals often conclude with a dessert of either a fruit compote, , a poppy seed pastry, mille-feuille, or (cheesecake). Internationally, if a Polish culinary tradition is used in other cuisines, it is referred to as à la polonaise, from the French, meaning 'Polish-style.' In French cuisine, this term is used for techniques like using butter instead of cooking oil; frying vegetables with buttered breadcrumbs; using minced parsley and boiled eggs (Polonaise garnish); and adding horseradish, lemon juice, or sour cream to sauces like velouté. History Middle Ages Polish cuisine in the Middle Ages was based on dishes made of agricultural produce and cereal crops (millet, rye, wheat), meats of wild and farm animals, fruits, forest fungi, berries and game, honey, herbs, and local spices. It was known above all for abundant use of salt from Wieliczka and permanent presence of groats (). A high calorific value of dishes and drinking beer or mead as a basic drink was typical of Middle Ages Polish cuisine. During the Middle Ages Polish cuisine was heavy and spicy. Two main ingredients were meat (both game and beef) and cereal. The latter consisted initially of proso millet, but in the Late Middle Ages other types of cereal became widely used. Most country people did not eat bread but consumed cereals in the form of or various types of flatbread. Some of these (for instance ) are considered traditional recipes even in the 21st century. Apart from cereals, a large portion of the daily diet of mediaeval Poles consisted of pulses, mostly broad beans and peas. As the territory of Poland was densely forested, usage of fungi, forest berries, nuts, and wild honey was also widespread. Among the delicacies of the Polish nobility were honey-braised bear paws served with horseradish-flavoured salad, smoked bear tongue, and bear bacon (bears are now protected in Poland). Owing to close trade relations with Turkey and the countries in the Caucasus, the price of spices (such as black pepper and nutmeg) was much lower in Poland than the rest of Europe, hence spicy sauces became popular. The usage of two basic sauces, the and (meaning "red" and "gray blood" in Old Polish), remained widespread at least until the 18th century. Daily beverages included milk, whey, buttermilk, and various herbal infusions. The most popular alcoholic beverages were beer and mead; however, in the 16th century, upper classes began to import Hungarian and Silesian wines. Mead was so widespread that in the 13th century Prince Leszek I the White explained to the Pope that Polish knights could not participate in a crusade as there was no mead in the Holy Land. Also, vodka became popular, possibly among the lower classes first. There is written evidence suggesting that vodka originated in Poland. The word "vodka" was recorded for the first time ever in 1405 in , the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. At that time, the word (vodka) referred to chemical compounds such as medicines and cosmetic cleansers, while the popular beverage was called (from the Old Polish ). Renaissance The Italian Queen Bona Sforza (second wife of Sigismund I of Poland), brought Italian cooks with her court to Poland after 1518. Although native vegetable foods were an ancient and intrinsic part of Polish cuisine, there began a period in which vegetables like lettuce, leeks, celeriac, cabbage, carrots, onions (cipolla/cebula) and especially, tomatoes (pomo d'oro/pomidory), were introduced. Even today, some of those vegetables are referred to in Polish as , a word derived from , the Polish name of Italy. During this period, the use of spices — which arrived in Poland via Western Asian trade routes was common among those who could afford them, and dishes considered elegant could be very spicy. However, the idea that Queen Bona was the first to introduce vegetables to Poland is false. While her southern cooks may have helped elevate and expand the role of various vegetables in royal Polish cuisine, records show that the court of king Jogaila (, who died in 1434, over 80 years before her reign) enjoyed a variety of vegetables including lettuce, beets, cabbage, turnip, carrots, peas, and cauliflower. Polish-style pickled cucumber () is a variety developed in the northern part of Central Europe. It was exported worldwide and is found in the cuisines of many countries. It is usually preserved in wooden barrels. A cucumber only pickled for a few days is different in taste (less sour) than one pickled for a longer time and is called (). Another kind of pickled gherkin popular in Poland is (), which is preserved with vinegar rather than pickled and uses different spices creating a sweet and sour taste, and well-known in Jewish cuisine. The court of Queen Bona was followed the Italian fashion, because she exclusively employed Italian chefs, some of whom were originally hired to prepare parties for aristocratic families but who were soon serving typical Italian dishes as part of the court's daily menu. Court records show that Queen Bona imported large volumes of southern European, American, and Western Asian fruits (oranges, lemons, pomegranates, olives, figs, tomatoes), vegetables (potatoes and corn), nuts (chestnuts, raisins, and almonds, including marzipan), along with grains (such as rice), cane sugar, and Italian olive oil. The court also imported various herbs and spices including black pepper, fennel, saffron, ginger, nutmeg, cloves, and cinnamon. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Until the Partitions perpetrated by the neighboring empires, Poland was one of the largest countries in the world, and encompassed many regions with its own, distinctive culinary traditions. Two consecutive Polish kings, Władysław IV and John II Casimir () married the same French Duchess, Marie Louise Gonzaga (), daughter of Charles I, Duke of Mantua; she was persecuted by King Louis XIII of France for her affiance to his opponent Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Marie Louise arrived in Warsaw in 1646, was widowed, and married again in 1649. Ludwika brought along with her a court full of Frenchmen including courtiers, secretaries, army officers, physicians, merchants, craftsmen, as well as many cooks. Records show that her visiting guests were entertained with game, fowl (waxwings, fieldfares, snow bunting, hazel grouse, partridges, black grouse, capercaillies), fish and mollusks (loach, various trout, grayling, fresh and smoked salmon, flounder, salted herring, lampreys in vinegar, oysters, snails), and Genoese pâté, not to mention fresh fruit and chestnuts. French and Italian wines were served, as well as mead and local beers. These dishes were made only according to French recipes. The royal court, with all its innovations, exerted a broad influence over the rest of aristocratic residences and noble palaces across Poland. French cuisine was in fashion and many families willingly employed French cooks and patissiers. In the mid-18th century, French champagne appeared on Polish tables. Among the most influential regional cuisines under the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Lithuanian, Jewish, German, and Hungarian cuisine, as well as Armenian cuisine, which arrived in Poland before the 17th century along with many settlers, especially in the south-eastern part of the Commonwealth. Signature dishes of the Western Asia reached Polish tables thanks to the Armenian trade and cultural exchange with Poland's neighbor: the Ottoman Empire. Rare delicacies were brought to royal court as gifts from sultans and royal envoys. The strongest influences were noted in the cities of Lwów, Kraków, Kamieniec Podolski, and Zamość due to many Armenians living there permanently. Also, because of the close contact with the Ottoman Empire, coffee () and boza became popular. With the subsequent decline of Poland, and the grain crisis that followed ``swedish invasion, potatoes began to replace the traditional use of cereals. The oldest surviving Polish cookbook, Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw ("Collection of Dishes") by Stanisław Czerniecki was published in Kraków in 1682. Under the Partitions, the cuisine of Poland became heavily influenced by cuisines of surrounding empires. This included Russian and German cuisines, but also the culinary traditions of most nations of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The 19th century also saw the creation of many Polish cookbooks, by Jan Szyttler, Anna Ciundziewicka, Wincenta Zawadzka, Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa, and others. After World War II After the end of World War II, Poland became a communist country which joined the Warsaw Pact. Some restaurants were nationalized. The communists envisioned a net of lunch rooms called "bufet" for the workers at various companies, and milk bars for the public. The majority of restaurants that survived the 1940s and 1950s were state-owned. Workplace canteens promoted mostly inexpensive meals, including soups, meatballs and pork chops, and staples such as / (potato pancakes), (apple pancakes), (potato gnocchi), (farmer's cheese gnocchi served as a sweet), and pierogi. A typical second course consisted of meat cutlet served with potatoes or buckwheat and (raw, julienned vegetables). The popular Polish is a breaded cutlet similar to the Austrian Wiener schnitzel and the Italian and Spanish Milanesa. With time, the shortage economy led to scarcity of meat, coffee, tea, and other basic ingredients. Many products like chocolate, sugar, and meat were rationed, with a specific limit depending on social class and health requirements. Physical workers and pregnant women were generally entitled to more food products. Imports were restricted, so much of the food supply was domestic. Cuisine became homogeneous, to be a chef was no longer a prestigious profession, and for decades the country became basically disconnected from any foreign cuisine. Tropical fruits (such as citrus, banana, and pineapple) were available during holidays, while local fruits and vegetables were mostly seasonal but were available at private stands. For most of the year, people had to get by with only domestic winter fruit and vegetables: apples, plums, currants, onions, potatoes, cabbage, root vegetables, and frozen products. Other food products (of foreign origins) were seldom available at markets at high prices. This situation led in turn to gradual replacement of traditional Polish cuisine with food prepared from anything available at the time. Among popular dishes introduced by public restaurants were (meatballs), a sort of hamburger often served with beetroot puree and raw carrots. The traditional recipes were mostly observed during the feast (Christmas Eve), for which many families tried to prepare 12 traditional courses. A popular form of fish dish was, and still is, the paprikash () from the port city of Szczecin, usually added to sandwiches as a spread. Modern era With the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, a wave of new restaurants opened, and basic foodstuffs were once again readily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of the rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Among the most notable foods to become commonplace in Poland were cucurbits, zucchini, and many kinds of fish. During communist times, fresh fish was available essentially only in the seaside towns. Recent years have seen the advent of the slow food movement, and a number of TV programmes devoted to cooking, both traditional and modern, have gained in popularity. In 2011, a nostalgic cookbook (written in English) combining a child's memories growing up in the Gierek era with traditional Polish recipes was published in London. American fast food in Poland, often McDonald's, KFC, and Pizza Hut, are in decline as Polish people prefer their own cuisine, including fast food. Meanwhile, doner kebabs are gaining popularity. Nonetheless, in most of Poland one can still get traditional and very popular Polish street food such as the , a pizza-like baguette with cheese, mushrooms, onion, ketchup, and sometimes meat. There are also many small-scale, quick-service restaurants which serve kebabs, hamburgers, hot dogs, and Polish (sausage). In the southern mountainous region, served with cranberry jam is a popular street food. Holiday meals Christmas dishes Traditional Christmas Eve dinner called is meat free, though with fish and usually consists of (borscht) with uszka (small dumplings)—a classic Polish Christmas Eve starter—followed by dishes such as fried carp or cod with apple, leeks and raw salads. Traditionally, carp (fried or Jewish style) provides a main component of the Christmas Eve meal across Poland. Other popular dishes, eaten on ensuing days, include pickled matjas herring, rollmops, pierogi with sauerkraut and forest mushrooms, fish soup, kielbasa, hams, bigos (savory stew of cabbage and meat), and vegetable salads. Among popular desserts are gingerbread, cheesecake, various fruits such as oranges, poppy seed cake, ( in Silesia), fruit kompot, and with poppyseed and gingerbread. Regional dishes include , (in Silesia), and , stuffed dumplings with mushrooms or meat from the eastern regions. Fat Thursday , or "Fat Thursday", is a Polish culinary custom on the last Thursday before Lent, equivalent to Pancake Day. Traditionally, it is an occasion to enjoy sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day. The most popular sweetmeats on 'Fat Thursday' are , Polish doughnuts, and (sometimes called ), equivalent to the French beignets. Traditional Polish doughnuts are filled with rose petal jam, plum jam, or stewed apple and covered with icing with orange peel or powdered with icing sugar. Fat Thursday used to mark the beginning of a "Fat Week", a period of great gluttony during which Polish ancestors consumed dishes served with (lard), bacon, and all kinds of meat. The original doughnuts, popular until the 16th century, were made of the same dough as bread, and would be filled with pork and fried on . Only later were they made as patisserie. Easter breakfast A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beetroot salads, breads, bigos, żurek, kiełbasa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, ćwikła, carrot, apple, potato, parsley, and mayonnaise), coffee, tea and cakes (such as chocolate cake), , , and . Regional cuisines Poland has a number of unique regional cuisines with differences in preparation and ingredients. For an extensive list of the dishes typical of Galicia, Kresy, Podlachia, Masovia (including Warsaw), Masuria, Pomerania, Silesia, Lesser Poland, the Tatra mountains, and Greater Poland, see the List of Polish cuisine dishes. Greater Poland Typical for Greater Poland are various dishes using potatoes – especially pyry z gzikiem (potatoes with quark cheese mixed with sour cream, onions and chieves). Popular are also poultry dishes like kaczka po poznańsku (duck meat with red cabbage and steam-cooked dumplings), czernina (duck blood soup) and goose meat eaten on the Saint Martin's Day. Other famous specialities include rogale świętomarcińskie (croissants filled with white poppy seeds), fried cheese and a beer Grodziskie/Grätzer (made from oak-smoked wheat malt and with a low alcohol content). Lesser Poland The city of Kraków is famous for its sausage kiełbasa krakowska and meat sandwich maczanka krakowska. Typical are also some Austrian influences due to the fact, that the city belonged in the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century to Austria-Hungary. They include Pischinger cake and pork cutlet kotlet schabowy (today popular in the whole Poland). Popular street foods are bagels obwarzanki and baked sandwiches zapiekanki sold on the Plac Nowy square. The area near Nowy Sącz and Limanowa is rich in quality plums; popular are prunes called suska sechlońska and plum brandy slivovitz. The mountain areas of Lesser Poland, especially Podhale, are famous for its sheep milk cheeses like bundz, creamy bryndza or smoked oscypek. Other popular dishes include a milk drink żętyca, a sauerkraut soup kwaśnica, placek po zbójnicku (potato pancakes with goulash on top) and a góral tea (tea with alcohol). Lubelszczyzna Many dishes in Lublin cuisine have Jewish roots, like cebularz (flatbread topped with onion and poppy seads) and forszmak (soup with various types of meat). Important local ingredient is groat – typical dish consisting of it is a pie called pieróg biłgorajski. Kashubia and Pomerania Because of the proximity to the sea, typical for the region are various forms of fish dishes like śledź po kaszubsku (herring in tomato marinade with onion) and fried cod or flounder. Other famous specialties include kashubian strawberry (kaszëbskô malëna), gingerbreads from Toruń and alcohol beverages from Gdańsk: Goldwasser (herbal liqueur with flakes of gold leaf) and machandel (juniper vodka). In Szczecin, typical regional products are paszteciki (pastries with meat or vegetarian filling) and fish spread paprykarz szczeciński. Besides, in the resort towns along the westpomeranian Baltic coast, popular street foods are sandwiches with herring, similar to German Fischbrötchen. Masovia Modern Warsaw, as a capital, has a very cosmopolitan cuisine combining various international foods. However, there are also some typical traditional dishes like Warsaw tripe, pyzy z mięsem (potato dumpling with meat) and pork knuckles in jelly (popular as a vodka chaser). Famous are many desserts of Warsaw origin, like chocolate cream cake wuzetka (probably named after the Warsaw W-Z Route), ptasie mleczko (chocolate covered marshmallows) and pańska skórka (candies sold traditionally at cemeteries during the All Saints' Day). Out of Warsaw, typical regional products include apples from Grójec and piwo kozicowe from Kurpie region (low-alcohol juniper beverage). Podlachia Podlachian cuisine has many Lithuanian, Belarusian and Tatar influences. Popular dishes, also known from the aforementioned cuisines, include kartacze (potato dumplings with meat), babka ziemniaczana (potato pie) and pierekaczewnik (meat pie). In addition, famous are the cold beetroot or cucumber soup chłodnik, cheese koryciński and desserts: sękacz (simnal cake) and (layered cake with cream). Podlasie is also known from high-quality alcoholic beverages like vodka with bison grass żubrówka and home-made strong vodka duch puszczy. Silesia Silesian cuisine combines Polish, German, Czech and Austrian influences. The most iconic dish is rolada – rolled beef patty usually served with silesian dumplings and red cabbage. Other popular foods are sourdough soup żur śląski, meatballs karminadle and blood sausage krupniok. Typical desserts are cakes like the kołocz śląski, candies kopalnioki and wafers oblaty śląskie. Traditional dishes from Lower Silesia include śląskie niebo (pork with dried fruits and spices), herbal liqueur Echt Stonsdorfer (today produced in Germany, but similar product known as Likier Karkonoski is produced in Poland) and modern fast-food from Wrocław – knysza. Warmia–Masuria The cuisine of Warmia–Masuria connects German and Eastern influences (especially from the former Eastern Borderlands; thus it has some similarities to the Podlachian cuisine). Due to many lakes and forests, it is also rich in fishes, mushrooms, and honey. Typical traditional dishes include kartacze (potato dumplings with meat), dzyndzałki (dumplings filled with buckwheat groats), klopsy królewieckie (meatballs with caper sauce), sękacz (spit cake) and a honey liqueur niedźwiedziówka. Soups All soups have fresh stock—made from chicken, beef, pork ribs, vegetables, or a combination of several root vegetables. Meat is either chopped and eaten with soup, used to make the next dish, or eaten with bread. It is common to eat two dishes during dinner: (1) a soup, and (2) a side (potato, rice, groats, pasta) with meat, stews, or sweet dishes. Although cream or purée soups are not common or traditional in Poland, they are still prepared because of the influence of other countries' cuisine. Often soups are whitened by adding a splash of sour or double cream. Thin tomato soup made with tomato purée, root vegetables, and stock, usually served with pasta or rice; sour cream is often added. Potato soup with root vegetables. (or )Duck soup made with duck broth or duck blood, the latter giving the soup a dark, almost black, colour. Recipes vary widely, but often sweet and sour ingredients are added, typically vinegar and often sugar, fruit juice, or fruit such as prunes or pears. It is usually served with the duck meat and Kluski-style noodles. Nowadays, it is not commonly eaten. Cold soup made of soured milk or sour cream, young beet leaves, cucumbers, and chopped fresh dill. Sometimes chives and radishes are added. Beet leaves soup with potatoes and root vegetables, served hot. (red borscht)Clear beetroot soup made out of stock, beetroots, and beetroot sourdough; served with uszka, krokiet made from naleśniki, pasztecik, pierogi, and rarely with white beans, red kidney beans, or mashed potatoes. It is a very important dish during Christmas Eve. Beetroot soup with grated beetroots, cubed potatoes, and root vegetables. Sometimes it is called "red borscht", like the one cooked during Christmas Eve, even though it does not contain beetroot sourdough. It is slightly sweet but not sour. (Ukrainian borscht)Beetroot soup with addition of sliced white cabbage, white or red kidney beans, and diced or puréed tomatoes. In Ukraine, beans are not used in this dish. Sorrel soup made of sorrel leaves and rice, served with hard-boiled egg. (or )Beef or pork tripe stew with marjoram and spices. Vegetarians make this soup with oyster mushrooms. Clear chicken soup served with noodles, usually short vermicelli. The stock is made of root vegetables and whole chicken, beef, or both. Mushroom soup made of white or wild mushrooms with potatoes or pasta. During Christmas Eve it is instead served with łazanki pasta or uszka. A sour cucumber soup made of sour, salted cucumbers. Fermented cereal soup made of wholemeal rye sourdough, although oat sourdough is used in Lesser Poland and Podlachia, and buckwheat sourdough is used in Lublin Voivodeship. Like and , it is served with mashed potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, cooked and smoked bacon, and biała kiełbasa (white kielbasa). Fermented cereal soup, more delicate than because it is made of wheat flour sourdough. Colloquially (but improperly) it is often called (white bortscht). (rye soup)Fermented cereal soup made with sour rye. Served with sliced smoked pork sausage, cooked and smoked bacon, and separately cooked and diced potatoes. Fermented cereal soup made with wheat flour. Traditionally, cabbage sourdough (sauerkraut juice) or cucumber sourdough (sour pickled cucumbers juice) is used. Still, they can be replaced by using citric acid. Pea soup with split peas, potato, carrot, parsley root, kielbasa or fried bacon, and marjoram. Sauerkraut soup with potatoes, root vegetables (parsley root, carrots, celery root), bacon, and pork ribs. Sauerkraut soup with potatoes and ribs. Similar to , but omits other vegetables and tastes sourer. Pork or beef, smoked bacon, white mushrooms, sour pickled cucumbers, red bell pepper, tomato puree, spices, onion, and garlic. Cold soup made of raw, partially blended, or cooked and chilled vegetables with yoghurt or sour cream (such as cucumber or tomato ). Often served with cooked potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, or both. (bean soup)Made with white beans, root vegetables, smoked sausage (kielbasa), fried bacon, and marjoram. (cabbage soup)Made with stock, chopped white cabbage, root vegetables, tomato puree and potatoes. (vegetable soup)Made with potatoes, green beans, root vegetables, cauliflower, peas, and sometimes brussels sprouts. (rice soup)Made with rice, potatoes, and root vegetables with chicken. (dill soup)Made with chicken stock, root vegetables, a big amount of dill, spring onion, potatoes or baby potatoes, and sometimes with sour or double cream. (horseradish soup)Made with white kielbasa, smoked bacon or pork ribs, sour cream, horseradish, garlic, potatoes, and root vegetables for stock; can be served with hard-boiled eggs. Soup with minced meat, cabbage, tomato puree, tomatoes, rice, and spices. (cauliflower soup)Made with stock, potatoes, cauliflower florets, and root vegetables. (broccoli soup)Made with stock, potatoes, broccoli florets, and root vegetables. (goulash soup)Made with pork, beef, potatoes, onion or leek, passata, tomato puree, paprika, and red bell pepper. It is similar to Hungarian goulash, whilst Polish goulash is similar to . (or ) (lentil soup)Made with green or red lentils, garlic, tomatoes, tomato puree, onion, and double or sour cream. May be served with pasta or potatoes. (fruit soup)Served cold with different fruits and pasta during hot summer. Meat and fish Roasted, stewed, or grilled mutton. Stew of mainly sauerkraut, cabbage, and meats such as smoked kielbasa and bacon. Also contains mushrooms, onions, and sometimes tomato puree. It is known as a "hunter's stew" due to the addition of game and scraps of other meats. Thin slices of beef braised with mushrooms. Thin slices of pork in gravy, braised with onions. Stewed pork knuckle or hock. Cabbage rolls with ground meat and rice or groats, served with mushroom, dill, or tomato sauce. For Christmas Eve, meat may be substituted with mushrooms. A variety with mushroom and potato filling is mostly found in Eastern Poland due to influence from Ukraine. Cabbage leaves used are from savoy cabbage or white cabbage. Rarely, it can be made with red cabbage or sauerkraut leaves. Modern versions include use of chinese cabbage or filling wrapped in zucchini slices. This dish is either cooked or baked. ( without wrapping)Large meatballs filled with chopped cabbage, onion and rice. Meat stew originated from Hungarian with onions, tomatoes, red bell peppers, and paprika. Pork neck, roasted, grilled, or braised with onions. Sausage, smoked or boiled, usually made with pork. It is a staple of Polish cuisine and comes in dozens of varieties. Minced meat (pork, pork-beef, or turkey) patty made with egg, breadcrumbs, chopped onions, wet bread, and spices, often rolled in breadcrumbs. Sometimes filled with cheese, mushrooms, or both. Thinly pounded pork loin cutlet coated in breadcrumbs. It is a variation of schnitzel. Roasted chicken. Roasted veal. Roasted pork in wine gravy. Braised beef sirloin slices. Polish style meatballs in tomato, mushroom, or dill sauce. Minced meat roulade with mushrooms. Stuffed pork loin. Roasted beef. Thin beef fillets rolled and filled with bacon, mushrooms, mustard, gherkins, and onions. Thin pork/chicken fillets rolled with filling including version with cheese. Smoked spare ribs. Cod fillet with or without batter. Can be steam cooked or baked. Steamed or baked salmon fillet. Poached or baked trout. Rolled pickled herring fillets stuffed with pickled onion or cucumbers. Fried breaded fish fillet. Herring marinated in oil or vinegar with onions. Herring marinated in sour cream with onions. Sour pickled cucumbers, apples, and mushrooms can also be added. Polish savoury jelly based on bone broth made from pork legs and served with chopped meat and vegetables, like peas or carrots. Served with a drizzle of vinegar or lemon juice. Dish originates from Jewish cuisine. If using meat other than pork leg, it is called . Flour or potato-based Half-moon-shaped dumplings with various fillings. Savoury pierogi may be filled with sauerkraut and mushrooms, potato, quark and fried onion (, Ruthenian ), minced meat, or buckwheat groats and quark or mushrooms. Sweet pierogi can be made with sweet quark or with fruits such as blueberries, strawberries, cherries, plums, raspberries, apples, or even chocolate. Tiny dumplings traditionally filled only with mushrooms and onions. Other fillings used are mushrooms with sauerkraut or rarely cooked and minced meat with onions. When filled with meat, they are served with clear borscht, clear mushroom soup, or broth. Stuffed dumplings with raw minced beef and mutton, beef dripping, fried onions, and spices. Potato is a different dish from Subcarpathia made from potato dough filled with (quark), potatoes, and onions. Potato pancakes with grated potatoes, onions, eggs, wheat flour, and marjoram. Potato dumplings made with raw, grated potatoes, egg, flour, and sometimes filled with minced meat; then cooked. Potato dumplings made with cooked potatoes and starch. Usually filled with fruits, most popular being plums and strawberries. Hoof-shaped potato dumplings made of cooked potatoes, egg, and flour. Often served with breadcrumbs, sugar, and melted butter or fried bacon. Hoof-shaped dumplings made of flour or potatoes, eggs, and quark. Dumplings in small donut-like shape made with boiled potatoes and potato starch. Often served with gravy or meat stew. Dumplings black or gray in colour, made of raw grated potatoes and potato starch. Steamed yeast wheat flour dumplings served with fruit yoghurt or jam. They can be also served savoury with gravy or filled with chocolate. (laid dumplings)Dumplings made of thick batter with flour and eggs laid in boiling water. (poured dumplings)Dumplings made of thin batter with flour, milk, and eggs, usually poured straight into soup. (grated dumplings)Grated or chopped dough into tiny balls and cooked. Thicker and plumper version of crêpes, served with sweet or savoury filling. (croquettes)In Poland, they are made of , often filled with either sauerkraut and mushrooms or ham and cheese, then folded like a burrito, breaded, and fried. Commonly served with clear borscht. Yeast pancakes often stuffed with apples and served with powdered sugar or jam. Pasta shaped like small squares. This Polish version is served with sauerkraut, onion, and fried kielbasa or fried bacon. Open faced sandwich made from a veka roll sliced in half and topped with tomato sauce, mushrooms, and cheese. can also be anything baked in casserole dish with added egg and cream mixture, so it holds together when removed. It usually involves meats, vegetables with potatoes or pasta, and melted cheese on top. A baked Polish fast food. Polish fast food with yeast bread roll filled with red and white cabbage, tomato, cucumber, pickled cucumber, onion, fried onion, corn, and sometimes fried chicken with garlic mayonnaise sauce. It originated in Wrocław. Fried slices of potatoes (often previously cooked) usually (1) eaten with a fried egg, (2) mixed in scrambled eggs, onions, and grilled, or (3) mixed with fried, sliced kielbasa. Whole dish and serving with eggs () or sausage () comes from Germany. In Poland, it is often eaten with a glass of sour buttermilk or kefir. Fried (cooked) pasta with fried onions, scrambled eggs, and butter; sometimes cheese, bacon, or ham can be added. It is a version of Italian spaghetti carbonara (). Side dishes and salads Cooked groats; most popular are groats of buckwheat, barley, millet, and wheat. Traditional Polish salad made with sliced cucumbers, sour cream, and spices; served as a side. Carrot salad made with peeled and grated carrots, apples, oil, and lemon juice. Salad made with cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, and oil or sour cream. Simple boiled potatoes sprinkled with dill. Mashed potatoes. Salad with shredded cabbage, carrots, and spices, often with grated apples. Salad with sauerkraut, carrots, parsley, apples, and lemon juice. or Salad of cooked vegetables such as parsley root, carrot, potatoes, celery root, pickled cucumbers in brine, and hard-cooked eggs in mayonnaise and mustard. Also often contains corn, peas, apple, onion, leek, or even red kidney beans. A traditional Polish side dish. Sauerkraut or white cabbage pan-fried with onions and spices, often with fried bacon. Braised white cabbage with onions, dill, and double cream. Any salad made of raw vegetables with drizzle of vinegar, oil, sour cream, or yoghurt. Any salad made of cooked vegetables, usually with mayonnaise. Cooked and grated beetroot salad; can be made warm or cold. Cooked and grated beetroots with horseradish paste and lemon juice. Green beans with garlic and butter or oil; originated in Italy. Cooked cauliflower, green beans, or Brussels sprouts with a polonaise sauce made of fried breadcrumbs in butter. Cooked broccoli or cauliflower with a garlic sauce. Polish pickled cucumber, fermented in brine consisting of dill and dill flower, garlic, salt, and spices. Pickled cucumber in vinegar, which is rather sweet and vinegary in taste. Marinated mushrooms. Preserved salad made with cucumbers, onions, carrots, vinegar, and spices. Potato salad made with cooked potatoes, onions, pickled cucumbers, dill, and mayonnaise; sometimes with added smoked bacon or herring fillets marinated in oil or vinegar. Originally from Germany. Marinated herring salad with pickled cucumbers, onions, and sour cream; sometimes eggs and apples are added. Bread Bread () and bread rolls ( (bread roll), , , ) have been an essential part of Polish cuisine and tradition for centuries. Today, bread remains one of the most important foods in the Polish cuisine. The main ingredient for Polish bread is rye or wheat. Traditional bread has a crunchy crust, a soft interior, and an unforgettable aroma. Such bread is made with sourdough, which lends it a distinctive taste. It can be stored for a week or so without getting too hard and is not crumbly when cut. In Poland, welcoming with bread and salt ("") is often associated with the traditional hospitality ("") of the Polish nobility (), who prided themselves on their hospitality. A 17th-century Polish poet, Wespazjan Kochowski, wrote in 1674: "O good bread, when it is given to guests with salt and good will!" Another poet, Wacław Potocki, mentioned this custom. The custom was, however, not limited to the nobility, as Polish people of all classes observed this tradition, reflected in old Polish proverbs. Nowadays, the tradition is mainly observed on wedding days, when newlyweds are greeted with bread and salt by their parents on returning from the church wedding. Desserts and sweets Type of sweet meringue in biscuit form, occasionally with topping. Sweet poppy-seed swiss roll, with raisins, dried fruits, and walnuts. Closed donuts filled with rose petal jam, other fruit conserves, custard, chocolate, or quark with sugar. Soft gingerbread biscuit forms of , unfilled or filled with marmalade of different fruit flavours, and sometimes covered with chocolate. (cheesecake)One of the most popular desserts in Poland. It is a cake made primarily of , a type of fresh cheese similar to quark. It can be baked or refrigerated. It might be flavoured with vanilla, lemon peel, or orange peel. Sometimes raisins or various fresh fruits are added. Commonly topped with a chocolate topping or sprinkled with coconut-flakes or nuts. It is very popular to garnish it with a sweet jelly topping with a variety of fresh fruits when it is unbaked. Pie baked particularly at Christmas Eve and Easter, made with shortcrust pastry. There are variations with different fillings, such as walnut paste, dulce de leche or ganache with dried fruits, candied fruit, and nuts. Sweet white wheat bread of Jewish origin (). (eggnog)Made from egg yolks, sugar, and flavourings such as honey, vanilla, or cocoa. Traditional for Polish Jews. Polish fudge; soft milk toffee candies. Polish type of cream pie made of two layers of puff pastry, filled with vanilla pastry cream, usually sprinkled with powdered sugar. A close relative of the French millefeuille. An alternative but less popular version is , often filled with whipped cream instead of custard cream. Cake with candied and dried fruit. Polish version of a pound cake, made with or without yeast. It is served with powdered sugar or icing. Can be made as a marble cake. Layered honey cake filled with vanilla pastry cream and ganache on top. Layered nut cake filled with vanilla pastry cream and , topped with chopped nuts. Carrot cake with added nuts and honey, sometimes layered with whipped cream. Various types of unbaked and refrigerated cakes made of biscuits, ladyfingers, crackers, or sponge cake with vanilla, whipped cream, coconut, jelly, mascarpone, semolina, or poppy seed filling. Often topped with ganache. Cream pie made of two layers of choux pastry filled with vanilla pastry cream. Layered chocolate sponge cake filled with jam and whipped cream, associated with Warsaw. Chocolate-covered candy filled with soft meringue (or milk soufflé). Clear, jelly-like sweet fruit liquid, made with starch, sugar, and fruits or fruit juice. Pudding that usually comes in many different flavours, such as sweet cream, vanilla, chocolate, cherry, and more. Light fried pastry covered with powdered sugar. , Hard taffy sold at cemeteries during and at (Old Town) in Warsaw. Grain dish made with wheat, poppy seeds, nuts, raisins, and honey. Not traditionally Polish, but served during Christmas in the eastern regions like Białystok and Podlachia. - Polish chocolate bar. Assorted chocolate covered candy. Large, circular, chocolate covered wafer with hand-made decorations. Chocolate bar with a flavoured filling, most popular contains advocaat. Chocolate-covered prune. Type of a rice pudding baked or cooked with apples and cinnamon. Beverages Alcohol Traditional Polish alcoholic beverages include mead, beer, vodka (Old Polish: , ), and to a lesser extent, wine. In recent decades, beer has become very common: popular are both traditional Polish beer styles like Baltic porter and oak-smoked Grodziskie and also many other styles brewed by many small craft breweries. Wine is less frequently drunk, however, in recent years, the consumption of wine has risen along with increasing production of local grape wines in small vineyards in Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, Silesia, and West Pomerania regions. Among alcoholic beverages, Polish vodka—traditionally prepared from grain or potatoes—has essentially displaced the formerly widespread mead. Some sources suggest that the first production of vodka took place in Poland as early as the 8th century, becoming more widespread in the 11th century. The world's first written mention of the drink and of the word "vodka" was in 1405 from recorder of deeds, the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. Vodka production on a much larger scale began in Poland at the end of the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish vodka was known in the Netherlands, Denmark, England, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, and the Black Sea basin. Vodka was the most popular alcoholic drink in Poland until 1998, when it was surpassed by beer. Beside clear vodkas, flavoured vodka (known as nalewka) and liqueurs are also popular. The most important are Żubrówka (vodka with bison grass from Podlasie), herbal Żołądkowa Gorzka, aged , plum brandy (especially from Łącko), honey liqueur , as well as Goldwasser (herbal liqueur with flakes of gold leaf) and juniper vodka , both originating from Gdańsk. Non-alcoholic drinks Traditionally, kvass () was a fermented beverage first popular among the peasantry, but it later spread to the szlachta and become a universal Polish drink by the 14th-15th centuries. It is typically made from rye bread, usually known as black bread, and is not classified as an alcoholic beverage in Poland, as its alcohol content usually ranges from 0% to 2%. There are many commercial and family variations of the beverage; however, traditional Polish recipes still exist. Despite its production on an industrial scale in Poland during the interbellum, it began to lose popularity to mass-produced soft drinks and carbonated water in the 20th century. It remained known primarily in rural areas of eastern Poland. However, kvass started making a comeback in the 21st century, with many new Polish brands being started. Since the turn of the century, tea is perhaps the most popular beverage, usually served with a slice of lemon and sweetened with either sugar or honey. Tea came to Poland from England shortly after its appearance in Western Europe, mainly due to the Dutch merchants. However, its prevalence is attributed to the Russians in the 19th century – at this time samovars imported from Russia become commonplace in Polish homes. Tea with milk is called (). Coffee has been widely drunk since the 18th century, when Poland bordered the Ottoman Empire. Other frequently consumed beverages include buttermilk, kefir, soured milk, instant coffee, various mineral waters, juices, and numerous brands of soft drinks. A considerable number of Poles enjoy carbonated water, and customers in restaurants are always offered both still and sparkling (carbonated) water to drink. Lists of common Polish dishes found on a national level List of common Polish soups Common main courses Common desserts Common beverages Common folk medicine See also List of Polish desserts List of Polish dishes References External links Polish traditional meals with video recipes Short summary of the Polish Cuisine Polish Cuisine on Culture.pl
418718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20World%20%28Australia%29	Sea World (Australia)	Sea World is a marine mammal park, oceanarium, and theme park located on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. It offers attractions such as rides and animal exhibits and promotes conservation through education and the rescue and rehabilitation of sick, injured or orphaned wildlife. The park is commercially linked to Warner Bros. Movie World and Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast as part of the theme park division of Village Roadshow. The park has no affiliation with an American park chain of a similar name. History Park history Sea World was founded by Keith Williams as the Surfers Paradise Ski Gardens. The main attractions were "water ski shows that combined SOS, aqua ballet and action". In 1971, the Surfers Paradise Ski Gardens moved to land on The Spit. Major dredging works were required to build the new ski lake. A year later, the Surfers Paradise Ski Gardens became known as Sea World with the introduction of dolphins, marine displays, a replica of the Endeavour, a swimming pool, a licensed restaurant and a gift shop. Additions over the next decade included the purchasing of the competitor marine park, Marineland, and the transfer of animals and exhibits to Sea World, as well as more shops and food outlets. SeaWorld was repeatedly rated as Australia's best tourist attraction by the Australian Tourism Awards through the 1980s. In 1984, Keith Williams sold the park to property development group Pivot Leisure. In 1988, Pivot built the 402-room Sea World Nara Resort, a joint development between SeaWorld Property Trust and Nara Hotels Japan. In 1991, Pivot Leisure, Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow jointly developed and opened Warner Bros. Movie World, a Hollywood theme action park, at Oxenford on the Gold Coast. That year, Pivot also purchased the Wet n' Wild Water park located next to the site of Warner Bros. Movie World. In 1993, Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow jointly acquired Pivot Leisure's interest in Warner Bros. Movie World, Sea World and the adjoining Sea World Nara Resort. Attraction history In 1975, the Sea World train opened. "The train is a two-third scale replica of Queensland's famous number 6A10, which is now on display at the Queensland Railway Museum. The ride was designed and built by Sea World." In 1978, the first major ride was added to Sea World. The Viking's Revenge Flume Ride opened. This ride was custom-built at a cost of $350,000. In 1981, the park's first roller-coaster opened. Originally known as the Wild Wave Rollercoaster, it was accompanied by the Pirate Ship and Carousel. The Wild Wave Roller-coaster changed its name to the Thrillseeker and closed in 2002. In 1982, the Corkscrew roller-coaster opened. The ride is an Arrow Dynamics Sit-down Looper and features three inversions. In 1986, Australia's first monorail opened, the Sea World Monorail System. This ride features three stations throughout the park. In 1987, Sea World welcomed the Water Park and Lassiter's Lost Mine ride. Lassiter's Lost Mine ride was the second water ride for the park and was made in-house. In 1989, the Sky High Skyway opened. It featured a unique bird's eye view of the park. In 1991, a Sea World helicopter flipped over mid-air and crashed on an island beach. All seven occupants on board were killed. In 1993, Sea World is taken over jointly by Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow. In 1994, Bermuda Triangle opened and replaced Lassiter's Lost Mine ride. It used the same ride system but featured updated ride theming. Sea World opened the 3D theatre Sea Dream. In 1996, Dolphin Cove opens. In 1998, Pirates 3D Adventure debuted at the 3D theatre. The film uses "a series of special effects that enables the audience to feel part of the adventure". In 1999, Cartoon Network Cartoon Beach opened, featuring five children's rides and an interactive water fountain. In 2000, Polar Bear Shores opens with a pair of bears from Beijing Zoo and Reid Park Zoo. In 2003, Pirates in 3D was replaced with Planet SOS in 4-D. This film features an environmental message presenting the issues of global warming, ocean habitat destruction, and deforestation. In 2004, the park opened "Shark Bay". This system of artificial lagoons allowed sharks to be viewed from both above water and underwater. Sharks exhibited include large and potentially dangerous tiger sharks and bull sharks. In 2005, the ski show received a makeover and became Water Ski Wipeout. The water park was renovated, with the relocation of The Plunge from Wet'n'Wild Water World. In 2006, the Sea World Eye was introduced for a limited time. Swiss manufacturer CWA Constructions built the 60-metre high wheel which featured 42 air-conditioned gondolas. In 2007, Sea World introduced Sesame Street Beach. Sesame Street Beach replaced Cartoon Network Cartoon Beach with the addition of a new stage show and a new ride. In 2008, Jet Rescue opened. Jet Rescue is a motorbike launch coaster made by Intamin which features jet-ski cars. It is themed to a sea-lion rescue. 'Ray Reef' opened featuring over 100 rays 'flying and gliding' under the water. It is Sea World's first new wildlife exhibit since 2004. In 2009, Sea World updated and renewed several things. In early 2009, the Pirate Ship attraction closed and was removed from the park. Waterski Wipeout performed its last show on 20 July 2009. Pirates Unleashed opened on Boxing Day as a replacement. In September, Sea World announced the opening of Ocean Rescue, a new film for their theatre replacing Planet SOS in 4-D. A new educational exhibit also opened in 2009 titled Shark Attack which replaced Dugong Discovery. The Corkscrew roller-coaster was re-themed and renamed to become the Sea Viper. In 2010, the park closed Shark Attack, the Sea World Aquarium, Ocean Rescue, Bermuda Triangle and part of the Water Park to construct new attractions. In September, Castaway Bay opened in the former location of the water park. It is a children's area featuring Sky Fortress (a climbing structure), Sky Climb (a set of high ropes) and Battle Sails (a water battle). In September, Ocean Rescue was replaced by the Happy Feet 3D Experience. In October, Sea World closed the Bermuda Triangle for routine maintenance before closing the ride permanently. Its replacement was expected to be open by late 2011, but ultimately was replaced in 2013 by the Storm Coaster. Sea World also opened Penguin Encounter, an Antarctic penguin exhibit where Shark Attack And Sea World Aquarium once stood on 26 December 2010. During the summer school holidays, Sea World ran Jet Stunt Extreme as a temporary jet-ski-based stunt show located on the Sea World lake. It operated for a limited season until 23 January 2011. Sea World has noted that it could become a permanent addition depending on the overall success of the show. In 2011, Pirates Unleashed had its final performance on 20 July. Jet Stunt Extreme returned on 17 September 2011. On 16 August 2011, Sea World announced a partnership with Nickelodeon which would see characters like SpongeBob SquarePants and Dora the Explorer appear in park shows from Christmas 2011. SpongeBob ParadePants and Dora's Best Friends Adventure began on 17 December 2011. Towards the end of the year, Happy Feet 3-D Experience was replaced with SpongeBob SquarePants 3-D. Sesame Street Beach was replaced with Beach Break Bay. In 2012, Sea World announced that they would be launching Dinosaur Island, an interactive dinosaur exhibit. The exhibit opened to the public on 16 June 2012. In December 2012, Sea World announced a "wild" attraction, set for a 2014 opening. Although the attraction was initially promoted in-park and construction began, Sea World has since removed all promotion of the attraction. A 2013 report in the Gold Coast Bulletin suggested the attraction would be a multimillion-dollar African jungle exhibit, including gorillas, hippos, and crocodiles. In 2013, the park officially opened Seal Harbour, a seal and sea lion exhibit, originally scheduled to open in December 2012. A water-powered jet pack was also added to Jet Stunt Extreme. In December, Sea World opened Storm Coaster, a Mack Rides Water Coaster, replacing the former Bermuda Triangle ride. In 2014, Sea Viper and Dinosaur Island were closed. In 2015, Sky High Skyway was closed, and Beach Break Bay was replaced with Nickelodeon Land. In 2016, Viking's Revenge Flume Ride was closed permanently. In 2017, Dora's Best Friends Adventure was replaced with Paw Patrol on Holiday. In May 2019, Sea World announced The New Atlantis precinct, which will feature three new rides: Vortex is an HUSS Top Spin and was originally projected to open in December 2019. Due to delays associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, the ride opened to the public on 2 December 2022. Leviathan is a wooden roller coaster manufactured by Martin & Vleminckx and designed by The Gravity Group; in a world-first, its Timberliner trains will feature two backwards-facing seats. It is projected to feature approximately of track, and reach a maximum height of and top speed of . Vertical construction of the coaster began in September 2020, and opened on 2 December 2022, alongside the Vortex and the Trident. Trident is a SBF Visa Swing Tower and opened in Late 2022 alongside the Vortex and Leviathan rollercoasters. The park Rides and attractions Storm Coaster is a Mack Rides Water Coaster. The ride soft opened on 2 December 2013 as a replacement for the Bermuda Triangle which closed in 2010. Nickelodeon Land is a themed zone featuring several rides specifically designed for children. The area was originally themed to Cartoon Network when it opened in 1999 before being re-themed to Sesame Street in 2007. In late 2011, it was re-themed to have the generic theme of Beach Break Bay. The area features 6 attractions including the Carousel and Beach Ball Bounce. In 2015 it was refurbished into Nickelodeon Land adding a Zamperla roller coaster and 4 new rides. Castaway Bay opened in September 2010. It contains a new children's area featuring Sky Fortress (a climbing structure), Sky Climb (a set of high ropes) and Battle Boats (formerly Battle Sails, an interactive water battle). It is located at the northern half of the water park. The Reef opened in December 2017. It is a splash zone expansion to Castaway Bay with over 80 water cannons, spouts and an array of oversized marine animal sculptures. Jet Rescue is a launched steel roller coaster that opened in December 2008. The ride is themed around the journey of a Sea World Rescue Team on a mission to save marine life. Riders board a jet ski and race at speeds of up to around a highly twisted and banked track. Sea World Monorail System was the first monorail system in Australia. It allowed guests to travel between three stations throughout the park. , the monorail carriages have been dismantled and scrapped. It is unclear whether the monorail system will be decommissioned. Vortex is a Top Spin ride from Hungary-based HUSS Park Attractions. It was announced in May 2019 as the first phase of The New Atlantis project, and flips riders at speeds of . The attraction was originally slated to open in December 2019, but various constructions issues and the COVID-19 pandemic delayed the attraction's opening until a full year later, in December 2020. Leviathan is a wooden coaster designed by The Gravity Group and the first wooden coaster to open in Australia in 35 years. The ride opened on 2 December 2022. Shows Paw Patrol on Holiday is a live stage show featuring Chase and Marshall from Paw Patrol at the Nickelodeon Stage. It began in December 2017. Affinity is the latest incarnation of Sea World's dolphin show. The show features similar tricks to previous shows with only the storyline and music changing. The show is set in Dolphin Beach which is the largest sandy bottom lagoon ever built for dolphins containing five different pools and more than 17 million litres of water. Each show caters to 2,500 guests. Jet Stunt Extreme is a live jet-ski-based stunt show located on the Sea World lake. It previously operated for a limited season over the summer of 2010–2011. Due to the success of the show, it replaced Pirates Unleashed and became a permanent addition from September 2011 onwards. Seal Guardians is the latest incarnation of the sea lion presentation, which began showing twice daily in early 2018. Turtle Power is a live show shown on a stage adjacent to Nickelodeon Land featuring the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles characters. Our World of the Dolphin is an educational presentation on Sea World's dolphins and conservation and rehabilitation efforts. This show takes place at the front dolphin pools of Sea World daily. Marine attractions Dolphin Nursery Pool is part of Sea World's highly successful dolphin breeding program which has resulted in dolphin births. The exhibit allows guests to see young dolphins develop under the protective watch of their mothers. Penguin Encounter is a Antarctic penguin exhibit featuring a pool with under and above water viewing. Penguin Point is an exhibit featuring little penguins. Unlike Penguins on Parade, the previous penguin exhibit at Sea World, Penguin Point has a larger, more open style. It contains a variety of substrates including gravel, rock and grass as well as a large pool. The exhibit can house up to 60 penguins. Polar Bear Shores is Australia's only polar bear exhibit. It was one of the most technologically advanced exhibits for polar bears when it opened in 2000. Guests can view the polar bears from three viewing platforms: ground level, underwater and above ground. there are three polar bears in Polar Bear Shores: Hudson, Nelson and Mishka. Ray Reef allows guests to meet, feed and learn about one of the ocean's most misunderstood inhabitants. The exhibit features over 100 rays. Rescue Point Lighthouse showcases the achievements of Sea World's Research and Rescue Foundation. Seabird Rehabilitation Aviary is designed to house birds under care and rehabilitation. According to the official website, "many of the sea birds housed in this area will never return to the wild due to severe disabilities which have been caused mostly by mans' ignorance and careless ways. For example, we have received pelicans that have had a broken wing from being caught in fishing line. Their wings have since been amputated. Those that recover from their injuries are free to leave at any time." Seal Harbour is a seal and sea lion exhibit which opened in January 2013. The exhibit has the capacity to feature up to 20 animals including Australian sea lions, California sea lions, New Zealand fur seals, and subantarctic fur seals. Shark Bay is the world's largest man-made lagoon system for sharks. The exhibit consists of four zones allowing for viewing and interaction. The zones include a touch pool, an inter-tidal zone, a reef lagoon and a shark lagoon. Four 10 x 3-metre windows allows all guests to see the sea life featured in these pools. Upcharges Animal Adventures: for an additional fee, guests can take part in Animal Adventures where they can swim with Sea World's marine life. Sea World Books is Sea World's latest franchise. The franchise offers educational children's books about various marine animals. Sea World Cruises and Sea World Whale Watch make use of Sea World's "luxurious cruiser". During the winter months (when whales are travelling up and down the Gold Coast), Sea World operates whale watching tours. For the rest of the year, Sea World takes guests on a ride around the calm canals of the Gold Coast. Sea World Helicopters allow guests to choose between 5 different tours of the Gold Coast ranging from 5 minutes to 30 minutes. For a further additional charge, guests can purchase a souvenir DVD of their flight. Sirens of the Sea Photography is available during the run of the Sirens of the Sea show in the 2017-2018 Summer school holiday season. This up-charge allows you to get up close and personal with the mermaids, and have photography taken with Sea World's mermaids 5 times a day after their show times. Sea World Resort and Water Park As the name suggests, Sea World Resort and Water Park is an adjoining Resort and Water Park to Sea World. The resort underwent a large-scale refurbishment in 2007. In 2008, the Sea World Water Park became part of the resort with regular park guests having to pay an additional fee to make use of the water park. In 2010, part of the Water Park was demolished to make way for Castaway Bay. Television Television series filmed at Sea World include the Australian children's programmes Dolphin Cove, Camp Orange, Toasted TV (since early 2007), H2O: Just Add Water, and its spin-off Mako Mermaids. Accidents and incidents Several accidents or incidents have occurred at or near the Sea World theme park. 1991 Gold Coast helicopter collision with terrain On 3 March 1991 at 1:58pm, six passengers and the pilot on board a Bell 206L-1 LongRanger II were killed during a joy-flight departing from Sea World. The helicopter climbed steeply with its nose facing almost vertically upwards. It then fell backwards, resulting in the tail boom being severed by the main rotor blades, causing the helicopter to crash on a South Stradbroke Island beach. The investigation found the helicopter was airworthy and there was no evidence of the pilot attempting a deliberate manoeuvre such as a torque turn. Although the pilot was unknowingly suffering from myocarditis, which could result in loss of consciousness or death, the reason for the loss of control could not be established. 2023 Gold Coast helicopter mid-air collision On 2 January 2023 at 1:59pm, two helicopters operated by Sea World Helicopters (a separate company from Sea World) collided near the resort. The departing helicopter (containing seven occupants) fell to the ground and crashed, killing four people and critically injuring three. The arriving helicopter (containing six occupants) landed safely, with five of the occupants suffering relatively minor injuries, mostly from glass shards from the broken windshield. See also Animal sanctuary Marine park Wildlife refuge References External links Nature Works – Zoos and Animals – including at Sea World 1971 establishments in Australia Amusement parks in Queensland Amusement parks opened in 1971 Aquaria in Australia Oceanaria * Southport, Queensland Tourist attractions on the Gold Coast, Queensland Zoos in Queensland
418732	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaWorld	SeaWorld	SeaWorld is an American theme park chain with headquarters in Orlando, Florida. It is a proprietor of marine mammal parks, oceanariums, animal theme parks, and rehabilitation centers owned by SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment (one park will be owned and operated by Miral under a license). The parks feature orcas, sea lion, and dolphin shows and zoological displays featuring various other marine animals. The parks also feature thrill rides, including roller coasters like Kraken, Mako and Manta at SeaWorld Orlando, and Steel Eel and The Great White at SeaWorld San Antonio. Journey to Atlantis, a combination roller coaster and splashdown ride, can be found at all three parks. There are operations located within the United States in Orlando, Florida; San Diego, California; San Antonio, Texas; later outside the United States such as Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; and previously Aurora, Ohio. On March 5, 2007, SeaWorld Orlando announced addition of the Aquatica water park to its adventure park, which already includes SeaWorld and Discovery Cove. The parks were bought in 1989 by Busch Entertainment Corp., the family entertainment division of Anheuser-Busch, which is best known for brewing beer. In 2009, Busch Entertainment was sold to the Blackstone Group and subsequently renamed SeaWorld Entertainment. In 2013, Blackstone sold 37% of SeaWorld Entertainment in an initial public offering and sold its remaining 21% holding to Zhonghong Zhuoye in 2017. It is a major theme park competitor to Six Flags, Cedar Fair, Disney Parks, Experiences and Products and Universal Destinations & Experiences. The parks' marine mammal collections have been the subject of public debate and criticism over the years, with critics saying that the park's practices entail animal abuse. The 2013 documentary film Blackfish, produced after a SeaWorld Orlando trainer was killed by one of the park's orcas, led to initial decreases in attendance, profits and the company's share price. In 2018, SeaWorld's attendance and revenue began to recover with the addition of new rides, shows, and animal exhibits at its parks, as well as increased marketing about the parks' conservation and rescue efforts. In 2016, SeaWorld announced that they would end their in-park orca breeding program and eventually phase out their theatrical orca shows altogether (due to state legislation in California that banned shows using orcas) starting in San Diego. It was announced later in the same year, that SeaWorld would build their first park without killer whales and outside of the United States in Abu Dhabi. However, in 2020, SeaWorld reversed course and started introducing new orca live shows to guests. History SeaWorld was founded in 1964 by Milton C. Shedd, Ken Norris, David Demott and George Millay. The four graduates of UCLA originally set out to build an underwater restaurant and marine life show. When the underwater restaurant concept was deemed unfeasible, they scrapped those plans and decided to build a park instead, and SeaWorld San Diego was opened on March 21, 1964. With only a few dolphins, sea lions, 6 attractions and , the park proved to be a success and more than 400,000 guests visited in the first 12 months. After considering other locations in the midwest, including the Lake Milton/Newton Falls area west of Youngstown, Ohio, it was decided that Aurora, Ohio would be the new home of a SeaWorld. The park opened on May 29, 1970. The Aurora site was approximately northwest of the Lake Milton site and southeast of Cleveland. By this time, the founders of the company had captured a few more species of animals, including a killer whale that was brought to the new facility. The harsh winter climate permitted the park to be open only from mid-May until mid-September. The Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida opened near the end of the second operating season of SeaWorld Ohio. The success of Disney in Orlando provided a location that was already popular with tourists. SeaWorld Orlando opened in 1973. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. (HBJ) purchased the company in 1976 and 12 years later they built a new park in Texas. In 1988, SeaWorld San Antonio opened just a few miles outside of San Antonio. Growth has pushed the city outwards and now SeaWorld San Antonio lies in the Westover Hills community in West San Antonio. The park was open year-round like its sister parks in California and Florida in 1988 and 1989, then went to a seasonal schedule. In May of 1987, Robert Maxwell's British Printing and Communication Corporation (BPCC) made an unsolicited bid to acquire HBJ. HBJ defended itself from the hostile takeover attempt by going deeply into debt to make large cash payments to shareholders. The strain of the debt from fighting off the takeover, as well as a strategic decision to re-focus on HBJ's core publishing and insurance businesses, were factors in HBJ's decision to sell its theme park holdings in 1989. The Anheuser-Busch Company made an offer to purchase the SeaWorld parks. HBJ also owned and operated two other parks, Cypress Gardens and Boardwalk and Baseball, and out of fear of not being able to find a buyer for the two other parks, HBJ refused to sell the parks individually. Despite a long negotiation, Anheuser-Busch bought all six parks in 1989: SeaWorld in San Diego, Aurora, Orlando and San Antonio as well as Cypress Gardens in Winter Haven and Boardwalk and Baseball in Haines City. Soon after the sale was final, Busch sold Cypress Gardens to the park's management and closed Boardwalk and Baseball. Anheuser-Busch put millions of dollars back into the parks to revive and prolong their longevity. SeaWorld is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA). In July 2008, Anheuser-Busch was purchased by Belgian-Brazilian brewer InBev. InBev had a reputation as a cost-cutting company that would not be interested in holding non-beverage businesses. In 2009, the combined AB InBev sold its Busch Entertainment division to the Blackstone Group. The company was renamed SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment in December 2009. In 2013, Blackstone sold 37% of SEAS in an initial public offering. In 2016, SeaWorld admitted that it had been sending its employees to pose as activists to spy on animal rights organization PETA. Following an investigation by an outside law firm, SeaWorld's Board of Directors directed management to end the practice. Locations SeaWorld San Diego SeaWorld San Diego, the first SeaWorld park, opened on March 21, 1964. The park features shows such as Sea Lions Live, a comedic show with sea lions and otters, Dolphin Days, a dolphin show, and Orca Encounter, an educational show about killer whales and their behavior in the wild. There are also many seasonal shows which are featured in the summer, notability Cirque Electrique. Rides include Shipwreck Rapids, a water raft ride, Manta and Electric Eel, roller coasters, Journey to Atlantis, a splashdown ride that also has characteristics of a roller coaster, and a new B&M dive coaster, Emperor, opened in 2022. Electric Ocean is the park's nightly summer event featuring pop and electronic style music with lights and seasonal shows, Sea Lions Tonite (a nighttime Sea Lion show featuring spoofs of other SeaWorld shows and attractions), Atlantis Ignites (a tesla coil and projection show), and Cirque Electrique (a Cirque du Soleil-style show on the water that is an electric remaster of the original Cirque de la Mer show). SeaWorld Orlando SeaWorld Orlando opened on December 15, 1973. One Ocean, a killer whale show that premiered April 22, 2011, was hosted here, before being replaced with "Orca Encounter", along with, Dolphin Days, the park's dolphin show, and, a new show that made its debut on June 14, 2015, Clyde and Seamore's Sea Lion High. This show was recently changed to Sea Lion & Otter Spotlight in mid 2021. The park contains 3 main roller coasters, with a fourth opening in 2022, joined by one junior coaster. They are Kraken, a floorless coaster based on the mythical sea creature, Manta, a coaster designed to simulate how manta rays move, and Mako, a hyper coaster themed to the fastest shark in the ocean. All 3 are built by the manufacturer B&M, while Super Grover's Box Car Derby, a coaster oriented to kids located in the Sesame Street themed area of the park, is built by Zierer. SeaWorld Orlando's recent coaster is Ice Breaker, which opened in 2022, containing the steepest drop of all main SeaWorld Orlando coasters, and being built by Premier Rides. The Orlando park is also home to the original Journey to Atlantis, a intricately themed water coaster by Mack Rides. SeaWorld's Electric Ocean is SeaWorld Orlando's night program, featuring the fireworks show Ignite, a sea lion show Sea Lions Tonite, a dolphin show Touch The Sky and killer whale show Shamu's Celebration: Light Up the Night. SeaWorld San Antonio SeaWorld San Antonio opened on May 27, 1988. Its formal opening over Memorial Day Weekend 1988 held about 75,000 people. 3.3 million people visited SeaWorld San Antonio during its first year, 10% more than what was originally projected. The park shows "Orca Encounter", an educational killer whale show; Ocean Discovery an educational show featuring dolphins and beluga whales; and Sea Lion & Otter Spotlight, a sea lion show following the sea lions Clyde and Seamore touring a marine conservation center. Parks rides include Wave Breaker: The Rescue Coaster, a double launch roller coaster, The Great White, an inverted roller coaster, Steel Eel, a roller coaster reaching a height of 150 feet, and Journey to Atlantis, a water roller coaster into the mythical land of Atlantis and Texas Stingray a wooden steel hybrid Coaster. SeaWorld Abu Dhabi In 2008, Busch Entertainment had previously announced plans to open a fourth SeaWorld park in Dubai, UAE, but those plans were abandoned amidst the international financial crisis. In May 2014, SeaWorld announced renewed plans to build a park in the Middle East, but did not specify a timeline or specific location. On December 13, 2016, SeaWorld announced that it would open its first overseas theme park on Yas Island in Abu Dhabi, UAE in 2022. It would also be the first franchised SeaWorld park. SeaWorld had announced that in October 2022, the park was 90% completed and was almost open. Finally, on May 24, 2023, SeaWorld Abu Dhabi opened to the public. SeaWorld Ohio sale, rebirth, and eventual transition In February 2001, Anheuser-Busch sold the SeaWorld Ohio park to Six Flags, Inc., operators of neighboring Six Flags Ohio (initially Geauga Lake until 2000). Upon completion of the sale, the two parks were combined in spring 2001 as the so-called "mega-park" "Six Flags Worlds of Adventure", which boasted its "three parks in one" uniqueness: a waterpark, an amusement park, and a wildlife animal park, all included in one price of admission. SeaWorld executives replied that their park was sold because of the short season of the animal park, Northeastern Ohio's cold winter months, and also because they were not able to get the necessary permits to build roller coasters like the other SeaWorld properties had been able to. In March 2004, Six Flags announced that it had sold Six Flags Worlds of Adventure to Cedar Fair Entertainment Company, operators of the Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio. Cedar Fair took the park back to its original Geauga Lake name and stripped the park itself of all Looney Tunes and DC Comics branding, including walk around character costumes pertaining to either franchise, since the company did not have licensing rights. Since Six Flags retained ownership of the animals, the majority of the animal portion of the park, including all of the exhibits and animal stadiums, was either emptied or fenced off for the 2004 season. After a nearly season-long wait, the Cedar Fair company announced its plans for the non-operational side. That entire portion of the land would become an immense waterpark, Wildwater Kingdom, opening in two phases, with the first phase in 2005, followed by the second phase in 2006. This decision marked the end of the marine-life park permanently. All of the animal stadiums and buildings were next torn down or converted into other venues. Some of the SeaWorld property remained intact, albeit hidden or modified. What remained included the former seal and sea lion area, the Ski Stadium (to be used in a Lumberjack show in 2006), the aquarium (to be used for unknown purposes), and two movie theater houses/simulators, once housing 3D/4D movies. The Ski Stadium was removed in 2008 to make way for Coconut Cove, a refreshment station/observation area. All of these, except for Wildwater Kingdom, closed in 2007. In 2016, Wildwater Kingdom announced they would close after the 2016 season. Orcas SeaWorld's main attraction is its killer whales, several of which are housed in tanks (equivalent to nine Olympic sized swimming pools) that are each known as Shamu Stadium. Shamu was the name of the first killer whale brought to SeaWorld San Diego in the 1960s from the Seattle Marine Aquarium. 'Shamu' is now used as a stage name for killer whales in performances at SeaWorld parks. Currently, SeaWorld houses 19 killer whales in its three parks. Eight killer whales live at SeaWorld San Diego: Corky, Ulises, Orkid, Ikaika, Kalia, Keet, Shouka, and Makani. Five killer whales live at SeaWorld Orlando: Makaio, Malia, Trua, Katina, and Nalani Five killer whales live at SeaWorld San Antonio: Kyuquot, Takara, Sakari, Tuar and Kamea. Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society campaign against the captivity of dolphins and killer whales; SeaWorld, which holds most of the world's captive killer whales, is cited for its role. Killer whale captivity is a widely debated topic. Regarding anatomy, captive killer whales can exhibit collapsed dorsal fins. However, this trait has been witnessed in the wild and a prominent theory proposes this phenomenon can occur when any orcas live in relatively warmer conditions. Though, since captive orcas are more likely to breach, rising up to warmer waters, captivity itself can increase the temperature in which these whales live. Some evidence has shown that the condition can manifest in individuals after a month in captivity. Some argue that aggression among captive killer whales is common, whilst others claim that this also occurs in the wild. In August 1989, a dominant female killer whale, Kandu V, attempted to rake a newcomer whale, Corky II, with her mouth during a live show and smashed her head into a wall. Kandu V broke her jaw, which severed an artery, and then bled to death. In November 2006, a dominant female killer whale, Kasatka, repeatedly dragged experienced trainer, Ken Peters, to the bottom of the stadium pool during a show after hearing her calf crying for her in the back pools. In February 2010, an experienced female trainer at SeaWorld Orlando, Dawn Brancheau, was killed by killer whale Tilikum shortly after a show in Shamu Stadium. The whale had been associated with the deaths of two people previously. In May 2012, administrative law judge Ken Welsch upheld two Occupational Safety and Health Administration citations after Dawn Brancheau's death, including one directly related to her death, and fined the company a total of $12,000. Trainers were banned from making close contact with the whales. In April 2014 the US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia denied an appeal by SeaWorld. On December 22, 2015, an 18-year old SeaWorld orca, Unna, died from a fungal infection at the SeaWorld Park in San Antonio, Texas. Blackfish In 2013, SeaWorld's treatment of killer whales in captivity was the basis of the film Blackfish, which documents the history of Tilikum, a killer whale captured by SeaLand of the Pacific, later rescued by SeaWorld Orlando who has been involved in the deaths of three people. In the aftermath of the release of the film, Martina McBride, 38 Special, REO Speedwagon, Cheap Trick, Heart, Barenaked Ladies, Trisha Yearwood and Willie Nelson canceled scheduled concerts at SeaWorld parks. SeaWorld disputes the accuracy of the film, calling it "propaganda" and "emotionally manipulative". It has spent $15 million on an advertising campaign countering the allegations and emphasizing its contributions to the study of whales and their conservation. In August 2014, SeaWorld announced it planned to build new killer whale tanks that would be almost double the size of the existing ones to provide more space for its whales, scheduled for completion in 2018. The company maintained the move was not in response to the release of the Blackfish documentary. Wild killer whales may travel up to 160 kilometres (100 mi) in a day and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity. In 2016 it was announced by SeaWorld that they no longer had plans to complete the expansion project. PETA, which opposes whales being kept in captivity has proposed the theme park operator base its whales in seaside sanctuaries. The company also pledged $10 million in matching funds for killer whale research. The plans to increase the size of the tanks in San Diego were put on hold in October 2015 after the California Coastal Commission ruled that the work could only go ahead if they banned captive breeding, which would eventually lead to end of killer whale shows at the park. On March 17, 2016, SeaWorld announced the end of their breeding program, which signifies the last generation of orcas in captivity in their care, though Takara was still pregnant at the time. Theatrical orca shows ended at SeaWorld San Diego in 2017 and ended in Orlando and San Antonio in 2019. In November 2014, SeaWorld announced that attendance at the parks had dropped 5.2% from the previous year and profits had fallen 28% over that quarter. As of November 2014, the company's stock was down 50% from the previous year. From 2014 to 2015, net income in the second quarter fell 84% from $37.4 million to $5.8 million, while revenue fell from $405 million to $392 million. In February 2020, SeaWorld announced a $65 million settlement with investors who alleged that the company had deceived them about the documentary's effect on park attendance. Animal rescue and rehabilitation program SeaWorld operates its conservation program in cooperation with the Department of the Interior, National Marine Fisheries Service and state agencies; its rescue and rehabilitation program was developed to comply with the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Since its inception SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment has rescued or helped more than 33,000 animals, including ill, orphaned or abandoned and injured manatees, dolphins, pilot whales, sea turtles, and birds. As part of its animal rehabilitation program, SeaWorld has claimed the first birth of a killer whale in captivity, the first birth of a marine mammal via artificial insemination and the first hatching of captive green sea turtles. While acknowledging the value of these programs, critics and animal rights advocates have questioned SeaWorld's balance of conservation and education alongside the commercial activities of its theme parks. In 1998, SeaWorld, with the help of the US Coast Guard, released the gray whale J.J. after the whale was rehabilitated at SeaWorld San Diego for 14 months. Groups concerned for the health and safety of SeaWorld's captive killer whale population have asked for the animals to be released. SeaWorld has defended their decision to keep the animals by citing their inability to survive in the wild after years of captivity. Response to drive hunt capture allegations In response to claims leveled at SeaWorld and other marine parks by the movie The Cove which accuses them of obtaining dolphins taken in drive hunts, SeaWorld spokesperson Fred Jacobs stated that, "We think we're being unfairly criticized for something we're opposed to." It is illegal to bring drive hunt animals into the United States. He adds that, "SeaWorld opposes the dolphin hunts documented in The Cove. We do not purchase any animals from these hunts. More than 80 percent of the marine mammals in our care were born in our parks. We haven't collected a dolphin from the wild in decades." Since 1993, there have been no permits issued to facilities in the United States to import dolphins acquired through drive hunt methods. Marilee Menard, the executive director of the Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums, has also stated that she believes that The Cove filmmakers are "misrepresenting that the majority of zoos and aquariums with dolphins around the world are taking these animals. " See also Incidents at SeaWorld parks Captive killer whales References External links 1964 establishments in California Oceanaria in the United States SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment Zoos established in 1964
418740	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belinda%20Stronach	Belinda Stronach	Belinda Caroline Stronach (born May 2, 1966) is a Canadian businesswoman and philanthropist, and was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada from 2004 to 2008. Originally elected as a Conservative, she later crossed the floor to join the Liberals. From May 17, 2005, to February 6, 2006, Stronach was the Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development and Minister responsible for Democratic Renewal in the government of Paul Martin. After leaving politics, she served as the executive vice-chairman of Magna International, Canada's largest automotive parts manufacturer, until December 31, 2010. Stronach is the Chairman, Chief Executive Officer and President of The Stronach Group and the founder and chair of The Belinda Stronach Foundation, a Canadian charitable organization. She also co-founded Acasta Enterprises and served as its director until 2017, when she resigned from the board. In the early 2000s, Stronach was highlighted by the World Economic Forum and by media outlets National Post and Fortune Magazine as a promising future leader. Background Stronach was born in Newmarket, Ontario, Canada, as the daughter of Austrian parents: Elfriede Sallmutter, and Magna International founder and chairman Frank Stronach. She graduated from Newmarket High School and attended York University, Toronto, Canada, in 1985, where she studied business and economics, but dropped out after one year to work at Magna. Business career Stronach was a member of the board of directors of Magna from 1988 until 2004. She became a vice-president of the company in 1995 and executive vice-president in 1999, until her appointment as president and chief executive officer. She has chaired the boards of Decoma International Inc., Tesma International Inc., and Intier Automotive Inc., all in the auto parts sector. She was a founding member of the Canadian Automotive Partnership Council and served on the Ontario Task Force on Productivity, Competitiveness and Economic Progress. She previously served as a director of the Yves Landry Foundation, which furthers technological education and skills training in the manufacturing sector. In February 2001, she was appointed chief executive officer of Magna, succeeding Donald J. Walker (who became CEO of Magna spinoff Intier Automotive Inc.), and in January 2002, she also became its president. While CEO, the company added 3,000 jobs in Canada, 1,000 of them being in the Newmarket-Aurora area she would later represent in Parliament. Under her leadership Magna had record sales and profits each year. Though he held no formal operational role during that time, Frank Stronach remained as chairman of the board. As a CEO, Stronach was widely viewed as more conciliatory to organized labour than her father, who was noted for his strong opposition to unions at Magna. While head of Magna, she ceased fighting the United Auto Workers in a dispute before the National Labor Relations Board, and the union organized numerous Magna workers in the United States. In December 2010, Stronach resigned her position as executive vice-chairman and her position as board member at Magna International Inc. in what the Toronto Star called "a surprise move that reflects a shift in boardroom power", after the Stronach family gave up control earlier in 2010. After leaving Magna, together with her father, they created The Stronach Group in mid-2011. The Stronach Group is a horse racing, entertainment and pari-mutuel wagering technology company. The Stronach Group horse racing industry brands include; Santa Anita Park, "The Great Race Place"; Pimlico Race Course, home of the Preakness Stakes; Gulfstream Park, one of Florida's entertainment destination centres, and home to the $16-million Pegasus World Cup Invitational, the world's richest Thoroughbred horse race; Laurel Park; Golden Gate Fields; Portland Meadows; and Rosecroft Raceway. The Stronach Group is in pari-mutuel technology through its subsidiaries AmTote and Xpressbet and is a distributor of horse racing content to audiences through Monarch Content Management. Stronach, as Chairman, Chief Executive Officer and President of The Stronach Group, has led initiatives for industry wide horse racing reforms focused on horse and rider safety and welfare. In May 2012, Anthony Melman and Stronach announced a partnership and established Acasta Capital Inc. Stronach stepped away from Acasta in July 2017. In February 2016, together with business partners Holly Fennell, and Canadian marketing executive Beverley Hammond, Stronach launched Age Quencher Solutions, a line of all-natural beauty products. Belinda Stronach divested of her shares in Age Quencher Solutions in late 2017. On October 1, 2018, Frank Stronach and his wife filed a lawsuit against their daughter Belinda, her children Frank and Nicole, and Alon Ossip for non-compliance with commitments regarding the management of The Stronach Group (TSG), from which Frank Stronach resigned as trustee in 2013 when he ran for office in Austria. The settlement to the lawsuit was announced on August 13, 2020. As part of the settlement, Belinda Stronach retains full control of The Stronach Group's horse racing, gaming, real estate and related assets. Philanthropy and honours On November 9, 2006, she co-chaired the Millennium Promise Convention in Montreal with Canadian television personality Rick Mercer. This event was a national campaign to enlist Canadians to help protect children in Africa from the effects of malaria. Together, Stronach and Mercer co-founded Spread the Net, a grassroots organization that raises money to buy insecticide-treated bed nets for families in Africa, reducing the risk of getting malaria by a mosquito bite. For her efforts, Stronach received an honorary degree from Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario in 2009. In addition to Spread the Net, Stronach founded The Belinda Stronach Foundation in 2008. The foundation was established to support, develop and incubate socially innovative projects and events confronting challenges related to youth, girls and women, development, and health. The foundation established project-based partnerships with The Tony Blair Faith Foundation, The Clinton Global Initiative, ONE, The Canadian Club of Toronto, The Economic Club of Canada, Malaria No More, and several other domestic and international organizations. In 2010, The Belinda Stronach Foundation brought the One Laptop Per Child Program to Canada. Now a standalone program, One Laptop Per Child Canada has delivered education technology to 9,000 Aboriginal students in 60+ communities in 9 provinces and 2 territories. That same year, The Belinda Stronach Foundation developed and hosted the G(irls)20 Summit. Modeled after the G(20) Summit, The G(irls)20 Summit solicited grassroots ideas on how to reach the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that most impact girls and women. The G(irls)20 Summit was launched in Toronto in 2010, followed by Paris, France in 2011. Each was attended by one girl from each of the G20 countries, as well as a representative from the African Union. Delegates engaged in a conversation about the economic prowess of girls and women, culminating in the development of a communiqué outlining their recommendations on how to empower and engage girls and women globally. In France, the communiqué was received in person by Mme. Consuelo Remmert, aide to President Nicolas Sarkozy, with a promise to hand-deliver to the President's attention. The communiqué suggested that, if provided with the right platform, the voices of girls and women around the world could indeed be heard. After two successful summits, Toronto 2010 and France 2011, the G(irls)20 Summit became its own entity, separate from the foundation, and it continues to thrive today as an organization known as G(irls)20. Recognizing a growing concern in her home community and surrounding municipalities, Stronach, together with Newmarket Mayor Tony Van Bynen, established Belinda's Place, an organization that works to provide hope for women without a home. Opened in November 2015, Belinda's Place is the first emergency and transitional housing facility for single homeless women in York Region. It provides potentially life-changing services that aim to promote dignity, stability and self-reliance. On November 20, 2014, Stronach co-chaired Covenant House Toronto's Executive Sleep Out 2014 Edition with Tim Lieweke (MLSE President & CEO). Stronach, along with more than 80 other community and business leaders, spent the night sleeping outside to raise awareness and critical funds to support the programs and services that help youth transition from a life on the streets to a life of opportunity. The 2014 Sleep Out was the most successful in the three-year history, raising more than $939,000. Personal life Stronach is twice divorced; her first husband was former Magna CEO Donald J. Walker, and her second was Norwegian speed skater Johann Olav Koss. She has two children from her first marriage, Frank and Nicole Walker. Frank is a DJ performing as Frank Walker while Nicole is a world champion equestrian. Jane Taber, writing in The Globe and Mail, reported that a party Stronach hosted was where the adult Justin Trudeau became re-acquainted with his future wife, Sophie Grégoire. Cancer diagnosis On June 23, 2007, the Toronto Star reported that Stronach had been diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ, a form of breast cancer, in April 2007, and had undergone a mastectomy on June 19 in an undisclosed Toronto hospital. According to a September 14, 2007, article from CTV News, Stronach travelled to the United States for breast cancer surgery in June 2007. Stronach raised over a million dollars in funds for the Belinda Stronach Chair in Breast Cancer Reconstructive Surgery, at the University of Toronto, following her own breast surgery. Political career Early political career In the 2000 Canadian Alliance leadership election, she supported Preston Manning. In his memoir Think Big, Manning recalls Stronach at his second-ballot campaign launch in Toronto delivering "a substantive introduction in which she clearly explained why she wanted the Alliance and my candidacy to succeed", and he later thanked her for "unflagging support" in that campaign. Magna Budget In 2003, Ontario Premier Ernie Eves had his Minister of Finance, Janet Ecker present the government's budget at a televised press conference at Magna's headquarters rather than before the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, as was the tradition. The "Magna Budget" resulted in accusations that the government was trying to avoid the scrutiny of the legislature and was flouting centuries of parliamentary tradition in favour of a PR stunt. Furthermore, the expense of this move was condemned as a waste of money considering that the legislative chamber was already equipped with video equipment for televised coverage. Speaker Gary Carr, himself a Tory, ruled that by not presenting the budget before the legislature, the Eves government was prima facie in contempt of the legislature—a ruling that was later overturned by the full chamber. The episode was a factor in the Tories' defeat in the provincial election held later that year. Conservative leadership bid Throughout the summer and into the fall of 2003, talks were undertaken by officials of the Canadian Alliance and Progressive Conservatives with respect to a merger of those parties. Vote-splitting between the two right-wing parties had enabled the Liberals to dominate Canadian politics for a decade. Meetings between the parties were overseen by a facilitator, who was later revealed to have been Stronach. She was among many who had called for PC leader Peter MacKay and Canadian Alliance leader Stephen Harper to undertake the merger talks in the first place. In 2004, Stronach contested the leadership of the newly formed Conservative Party. As a candidate for leadership of the new party, she drew a great deal of publicity to the race. However, many in the media saw her first foray into politics as sophomoric. Some critics accused her of being a "manufactured candidate", dependent on a high-priced network of professional campaign staff and Magna associates. Some of the media reaction to Stronach's candidacy was criticized. Casting Stronach as an "heiress" with a "coddled career" — to the point of joking comparisons to Paris Hilton— and the attention paid to her physical appearance and personal life, was described by a commentator as patronizing and sexist. Supporters touted her youth and style, corporate experience, private life as a "soccer mom", and her potential to win new and swing voters, especially moderate, socially progressive voters in the province of Ontario. On February 11, 2004, she declined to participate in a debate between the Conservative party candidates, leaving Tony Clement and Stephen Harper to debate each other on a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast. She later also skipped a March 14 debate on the Global Television Network. She argued that she ought only to participate in party-sponsored debates, rather than picking and choosing among those organized by outside sponsors. Critics saw this as her way of avoiding a debate with the other two candidates. In her major speech at the leadership convention on March 19, 2004, she promised to serve only two terms if she became prime minister and to draw no salary. She made a major gesture of "throwing away the script", but then undercut this when she was seen referring to cue cards. On March 20, 2004, she finished second to Harper with 35% of the vote. In the 2004 federal election, she was narrowly elected as the MP for Newmarket—Aurora by a margin of 689 votes over Liberal Martha Hall Findlay. She was appointed the International Trade critic in the Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet. Political positions as an MP Before crossing the floor of the House of Commons, Stronach represented the socially progressive face of the Conservative Party. Along with Peter MacKay, she was seen as giving the Conservatives a more moderate image. Stronach was generally to the left of her Conservative caucus colleagues, supporting abortion rights, gun control and same-sex marriage. During her Conservative leadership campaign, she called for a free vote in parliament, with votes cast individually and not along party lines, on same-sex marriage. She spoke and voted in favour of same-sex marriage when the issue came before the House of Commons in 2005; a position she re-affirmed as a Liberal in 2006. Social conservative elements in Canada were critical of Stronach, calling her a "Red Tory". During Stronach's leadership campaign, REAL Women of Canada said: "If Ms. Stronach is elected as leader of the Conservative Party, social conservatives will no longer have a voice in Canada." Stronach, for her part, promised after the leadership race that she would do her best to keep the party from moving too far to the right. She cited discomfort with Stephen Harper and the Conservatives' policies as one of her reasons for crossing the floor. Stronach supported trade with the United States but said she would like to re-examine and review parts of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) to ensure, in her view, that Canadians can stand on a more equal footing with U.S. competitors. During her leadership campaign she said the country needed to consider changes to the Medicare system that would respect the principles of the Canada Health Act "as our standard, not our straitjacket". In May 2005, Stronach suggested publicly that forcing an early election, especially before passing that year's federal budget, was risky and could backfire on the Tories. Harper wanted to force an early election in the wake of testimony at the Gomery Commission damaging to the Liberals. The Tories planned to bring down the government by voting against an amendment to the budget that the Liberals had made to gain New Democratic Party (NDP) support. Since this would be a loss of supply, it would have brought down the government. However, on May 17, 2005, two days before the crucial vote, Stronach announced that she was crossing the floor and joining the Liberal Party. Her decision to join the Liberals was facilitated by former Ontario Liberal Premier David Peterson. Stronach immediately joined the cabinet as Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development and Minister responsible for Democratic Renewal. In the latter portfolio, she was charged with overseeing the implementation of the Gomery Inquiry recommendations, upon their release. She championed the one-member, one-vote policy officially adopted by the Liberal Party of Canada in 2009 in an effort to democratize the Party's leadership election process. Stronach is a strong advocate of women's issues. She was elected chair of the Liberal Women's Caucus and spearheaded the development of The Pink Book, a policy framework that advocated a series of proposals to deal with the most pressing social and economic issues facing Canadian women. In 2005, she won the "In Celebration of Women: Achievements and Initiatives" award, and in 2010 she received the EVE award from Equal Voice in recognition of her philanthropic and political contributions to the promotion of women in public life. Her decision to quit the Conservative Party came after an uneasy relationship with Stephen Harper. In a press conference after leaving the party, she said that Harper was not sensitive to the needs of all parts of the country, and was jeopardizing national unity by allying himself with the Bloc Québécois to bring down the government. She also stated that the party was too focused on Western Canada and "Western alienation" instead of having a broader and more inclusive focus. She had other concerns about the Conservative attitude to Indigenous issues and that Stephen Harper was abandoning the historic Kelowna Accord negotiated by Paul Martin with First Nations' leaders and that Harper did not support an "urban agenda" that would recognize the challenges faced by Canada's Big Cities. Her dislike for Harper was obvious in her press conference with Martin; she never once referred to him by name, only as "the leader of the Conservative Party." Stronach's move shifted the balance of power in Parliament and allowed Martin's Liberal minority government to survive for the time being. On May 19, 2005, two crucial confidence motions were voted on in the House of Commons. The first vote, on Bill C-43, the original budget proposal approved by all parties, was passed as expected, with 250 for and 54 against. The second vote was on a new budget amendment (Bill C-48) that included C$4.6 billion in additional spending the Liberals negotiated with NDP leader Jack Layton, to secure the support of NDP MPs. It was on this amendment that the Conservative/Bloc alliance planned to bring down the government. However, the vote resulted in a 152–152 tie. It then fell to the Speaker, Peter Milliken, to cast the deciding vote, which he cast in favour of continuing debate, resulting in the survival of the government. The vote carried with a final count of 153 for and 152 against. The Liberals used Stronach's defection to paint the Conservative Party as being too extreme for moderate voters in Ontario. The Liberals enjoyed a modest upswing in the polls after earlier being damaged by testimony from Gomery Commission. Some political pundits suggested that shortly after Stronach's defection would have been the ideal time for the Liberals to call the election, as Stephen Harper had lost some of his momentum after narrowly failing to bring down the government. Instead, the Liberals were forced into an election when they were brought down by a vote of non-confidence later that year, after revelations from the Gomery Inquiry damaged their popularity. Columnist Andrew Coyne suggested that while her defection helped the Liberals in the short-run to stay in power, it also made Martin appear as a "grasping conniver willing to do and say anything to hang onto power". Reaction to Stronach's move Stronach's party switch mere days before the confidence vote made her the target of criticism within the Conservative Party and in the media in general. Many were cynical about her reasons for leaving and believed that her move to the Liberals was motivated more by ambition than by moral or political principles. In a press conference following the announcement, Harper speculated that Stronach had left the party simply to further her own career. At the same time, others praised Stronach for having the courage to leave a party in which she no longer felt comfortable. Considerable media attention was paid to Peter MacKay, MP, and the deputy leader of the Conservative Party, with whom Stronach had a relationship of several months. Interviewed the day after Stronach's departure from his party, he stated that he had learned of her intention to cross the floor mere hours before the public announcement. In an interview conducted at his father's farm, MacKay showed discernible emotion. The day after Stronach crossed the floor, the reaction in Newmarket—Aurora was mixed. Some of her constituents were upset and expressed a sense of betrayal. Protesters picketed her riding office for several days, demanding a by-election. However some of her constituents supported her move because they did not want an election and supported the budget. Stronach's move to the Liberal Party and the speed with which she was given a senior-level cabinet position renewed calls from both parliamentarians and the general public for legislation to prevent such "party-hopping." One month after Stronach crossed the floor, a private member's bill was tabled that would require a by-election to be held within thirty-five days of a member of parliament quitting a party. According to this proposed legislation, the MP would have to sit as an independent until the by-election. The legislation never became law. NDP MP Pat Martin requested an investigation of Stronach, speculating that she had been promised a senior cabinet post in return for her defection. The Ethics Commissioner of Canada, Bernard Shapiro, refused to investigate her floor-crossing, citing that it was a constitutional right of a prime minister to appoint opposition members to Cabinet. The Conservatives targeted Stronach for defeat in the 2006 election as part of their larger goal of a breakthrough in Ontario, especially in the Toronto suburbs (popularly known as the 905s). However, while the Conservatives won a minority government, Stronach defeated her Conservative challenger, Lois Brown, by an eight-point margin. Characterisation in the media Some of the criticism of Stronach's party switching also came under fire. Political scientist Linda Trimble has argued that the reaction to Stronach's defection to the Liberals was "offensive and sexist", referring to the comments of two provincial legislature members Ontario PC MPP Bob Runciman and Alberta PC Tony Abbott. Runciman told the Toronto radio station CFRB that, "She sort of defined herself as something of a dipstick, an attractive one, but still a dipstick." He apologized for his comments and later elaborated, saying that Stronach failed to adequately express her reasons for defecting from the Conservative Party. Abbott said that Stronach had "whored herself out for power." He apologized for the statement the next day saying that the term "whoring" had been misunderstood from context, and noting that it could be equally used for men and women. Women's groups argued that the media also unfairly characterized the transition. The National Post used the front-page headline "Blonde Bombshell", and political cartoonists made reference to Stronach prostituting herself to the Liberal party. Stronach's critics downplayed the sexism of their remarks and accused the Liberals of politicizing the issue to legitimize her crossing the floor. She had defeated Lois Brown in the Conservative nomination election and barely won her seat in an extremely tight race against Martha Hall Findlay. Stronach's switch to the Liberals meant that Hall Findlay had to forfeit contesting the nomination process, while Lucienne Robillard lost one of her portfolios to Stronach. Since she started her career in politics, Stronach has made several television appearances poking fun at herself. This includes appearances on the CBC television comedy This Hour Has 22 Minutes and a skate on the Rideau Canal with Rick Mercer for his series Rick Mercer Report. She also played a political reporter in the television mini-series H2O:The Last Prime Minister. In November 2005, she appeared on an episode of This Hour Has 22 Minutes. At one point in the show, she remarked "You know, I recommended to Stephen [Harper] once that to rise in his polls he should take a little Viagra but the pill got stuck in his throat and all he got was a stiff neck." As a Liberal MP Although the Liberals lost the 2006 federal election, Stronach won re-election as a Liberal candidate by a greater margin than she had in the 2004 election as a Conservative. Following the Liberals' defeat in the 2006 election, Paul Martin announced that he would be stepping down as party leader. It was widely speculated that Stronach would seek the Liberal leadership at the 2006 leadership convention, having been endorsed by such Liberals as Reg Alcock and Brigitte Legault, who was head of the Quebec party's youth wing. However, on April 6, 2006, she announced that she would not seek the leadership, citing her objections to the delegate-based selection process. "I could have raised the money, I was working on my French, but I realized that I was not going to be free to speak my mind on party renewal", said Stronach. She said that renewal would involve giving all party members a direct vote on its direction and leadership, among other things. "If there was a one-member, one-vote system, I would run." However, a report by CTV reporter Robert Fife suggested that her candidacy was hampered by her weak grasp of French, one of Canada's two official languages, and the fact that she believed the Liberals would be defeated in the next election. Several Liberal Party officials had also warned that they would enforce the new rules, which placed limits on donations and spending by contenders, which would have nullified Stronach's largest advantage over other potential rivals. Not seeking re-election On April 11, 2007, Stronach announced that she would not seek re-election, and would instead return to Magna International as executive vice-chairman. This decision came at a time when Magna was in the midst of teaming up with Onex Corporation to consider a bid to buy Chrysler. Stronach further cited her wish to spend more time with her growing children, and the creation of a personal foundation to end poverty and disease in Africa. She retained her seat in Parliament until the federal election in the fall of 2008. On December 21, 2010, it was reported that Stronach was leaving Magna effective December 31 of that year. References Publication External links 1966 births Living people Businesspeople from Ontario Canadian corporate directors Canadian people of Austrian descent Canadian women business executives Canadian socialites Women members of the House of Commons of Canada Conservative Party of Canada MPs Liberal Party of Canada MPs Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada People from Newmarket, Ontario Women in Ontario politics Members of the 27th Canadian Ministry 21st-century Canadian women politicians Women government ministers of Canada
418746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hawkwood	John Hawkwood	Sir John Hawkwood ( 1323 – 17 March 1394) was an English soldier who served as a mercenary leader or condottiero in Italy. As his name was difficult to pronounce for non-English-speaking contemporaries, there are many variations of it in the historical record. He often referred to himself as Haukevvod and in Italy, he was known as Giovanni Acuto, literally meaning "John Sharp" (or "John the Astute") in reference to his "cleverness or cunning". His name was Latinised as Johannes Acutus ("John Sharp"). Other recorded forms are Aucgunctur, Haughd, Hauvod, Hankelvode, Augudh, Auchevud, Haukwode and Haucod. His exploits made him a man shrouded in myth in both England and Italy. Much of his enduring fame results from the surviving large and prominent fresco portrait of him in the Duomo, Florence, made in 1436 by Paolo Uccello, seen every year by 4½ million tourists. Early life Hawkwood is believed to have been born in about 1323 at Sible Hedingham in Essex, the second son of Gilbert Hawkwood. Modern accounts often incorrectly portray him as living in poverty as a child, but Gilbert Hawkwood was, in reality, a tanner and minor landowner of "considerable wealth". His father had property in both Sible Hedingham and Finchingfield. Other sources state that his father was a tailor, but this was likely a mistranslation from his Italianized name, Acuto (or sharp, as in needles). Lack of information has created many myths about his childhood. For example, the Florentine chronicler Filippo Villani claimed that the reason his last name was "Hawkwood" was because when his mother was in labour she demanded to give birth in a forest. However, he did not reside at his parental home for long, and he moved to London to be apprenticed to a tailor. Career Hawkwood began his career in the Hundred Years' War in France under King Edward III as a longbowman. It has been argued that he participated in both the Battle of Crécy in 1346 and the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. After Poitiers, he joined the White Company, an infamous band of mercenaries, with whom he crossed into Italy in 1361 and became its captain in 1363. Although Hawkwood was knighted, there is no clear evidence by whom or where. Some sources say he was knighted by the Black Prince after the Battle of Poitiers, but there is no historical record of this. In Italy, however, all major condottieri were classified as knights. After arriving in Italy he fought for numerous factions such as the Pope, Milan and Florence for the rest of his life, ending his career in Florence. During Hawkwood's career he was usually paid in gold florins, the most widely used currency of the time. In the 30 years that he served as a captain, Hawkwood's earnings ranged between 6,000 and 80,000 florins annually (in comparison, a skilled Florentine craftsman at the same time earned 30 florins a year). Mercenary in France After the Treaty of Brétigny on 8 May 1360, many free companies began to form. The largest, the Great Company (later popularly known as the White Company or the English Company), was formed in eastern France. Hawkwood joined this and eventually rose to be its commander. During his time, the band moved to Champagne, Burgundy, and eventually Avignon. The company seized Pont-Saint-Esprit near Avignon for three months on the night of 28/29 December 1360. This blocked the collection point for taxes to pay for the ransom of King John, who was taken in the Battle of Poitiers. Initially, Pope Innocent VI wrote to the group seeking peace, in a letter which identified Hawkwood as its leader. The group was unresponsive to the Pope's plea and continued to harass the fort, which resulted in the company's excommunication. In March 1361, the company and the Pope made peace through a deal to contract them to fight for him "across the Pyrenees in Spain and across the Alps in Italy", with the promise of guaranteed military service, thus splitting the group. Hawkwood joined the group travelling to Italy. However, before the company arrived in Italy under papal orders, it joined the Marquis of Montferrat and his war against Amadeus VI, ruling count of Savoy. It successfully attacked Savigliano and Rivarolo, and remained in Savoyan territory for a year. Amadeus made his last stand in 1362 in Lanzo and lost to the company. This victory motivated the Marquis of Montferrat to sign a contract with the company on 22 November, stating they would now fight the Visconti under him. Serving Italian factions Hawkwood and his company arrived in Italy during the power vacuum following the Great Schism of the papacy, and many different political figures were vying for power. The Pisan–Florentine War was the beginning of Hawkwood's military career there, as he assumed command of the Pisan army in the winter of 1364–65, at the age of almost forty. The Battle of Cascina determined the war. Before the war, John Hawkwood and the Pisan army had met at Malatesta. Hawkwood's tactics in this battle are what distinguished him as a military commander, even though he lost it. He took account of the terrain and conditions of the battlefield and positioned his army accordingly. However, the turning point came when the opposing commander ordered an enveloping move that cut Hawkwood off from the rest of his army. Hawkwood ordered his army to retreat. The modern perception of the battle is romanticised, as it is claimed as a heroic stand against great odds. Yet the defeat is likely to have been due to young, undisciplined soldiers fighting on Hawkwood's side. The second telling battle in Hawkwood's career was Rubiera on 2 June 1372, fought between papal forces and Bernabò Visconti. Both sides had concluded a formal truce, but in reality, they were gathering more troops. Hawkwood and Visconti commanded a force of a thousand lancers with no infantry. The papal forces were larger: 1,200 lancers as well as infantry. Hawkwood outflanked and outmanoeuvred his enemy and took most of the high-ranking officers captive. The victory shows Hawkwood's ability as a commander, although it had no significant political results and ended in a truce between the Visconti and the Pope. One of Hawkwood's more important roles was in the Great Raid on Tuscany, which shows the connections of the condottiere and the political prosperity of the Italian states. The raid led directly to war between Florence and Gregory XI and boosted Hawkwood's career in fame and wealth. Frustrated by not being paid by the Pope, Hawkwood marched along the Via Emilia towards Tuscany and Florence. Two Tuscan ambassadors met him to conclude a truce, for which they paid him 130,000 florins. He continued to march through various territories, such as Pisa, Siena and Arezzo, where he continually pressed for money. Many believed these raids were under orders from the Pope, and so they led to a defensive league between Florence and Milan. Siena, Pisa, Lucca, Arezzo and Queen Joanna I of Naples soon followed and joined the defensive league against the company and the Pope. No matter who was responsible for the raid, Hawkwood's raid proved the casus belli, which eventually led to the War of Eight Saints. In the War of Eight Saints in 1375, Hawkwood and his company began fighting for Pope Gregory XI against Florence. In December, he went to Città di Castello on orders to put down a rebellion, but ended up capturing the city, which was not what the frustrated Pope had intended, but Hawkwood did so in an attempt to extract payment from the Pope. As a result, Gregory "had little choice but to formally invest him with it, in return for uncompensated services." After capturing Città di Castello, Hawkwood rode to Faenza on 12 February 1376, on orders from the papal governor for protection because he feared revolt. While at Faenza, Hawkwood attempted to lay siege to the neighbouring town of Granarola, but was forced to retreat to Faenza. The papal governor opened the gates to Hawkwood, who once he had entered demanded that the inhabitants surrender their arms. Being unpaid by the Pope, they sacked the town instead. On hearing this, the opposing side, Florence, bribed Hawkwood not to fight and offered him a pension, as well as forgiveness for all betrayals and wrongdoings that he had committed against Florence. Yet Hawkwood remained with the Pope. Later he took part in the Massacre at Cesena, to which he was called to help enforce a decree promising forgiveness to citizens who laid down their arms. Thus Hawkwood and his men joined in the attack on the unarmed civilians. This was a turning point in Hawkwood's career, after which he left papal service and began working with Milan, Florence and their allies. Hawkwood would eventually sign a contract with Florence after a quarrel with his father-in-law, Bernabò Visconti. After winning a battle against John Horvatí, Hawkwood and Lutz Landau crossed paths with Horvatí and stole some prey from his hunt. Bernabò was unsettled with this, and consequently stripped Hawkwood of Milanese land received in his wife's dowry. Thereafter Florence hired Hawkwood, the Landau brothers and their company for eight months, but the contract lasted much longer. Last years with Florence By 1385, Hawkwood was over 60 years old, with land holdings in both Italy and England. Although he was officially a citizen of Florence, he never was allowed to enter the city. Most of his duties under Florence were defensive, and he had not fought in a major battle for over a decade. However, in the winter of 1385–86, war broke out between Padua and Verona. The most important engagement in the war was the Battle of Castagnaro, which has been described as Hawkwood's "finest victory and one of the greatest feats of military prowess of the era". During the battle, Hawkwood saw that the Veronese's left flank was exposed and ordered his men to advance, and in this way, secured victory for him and his Paduan allies. The Paduan Chronicle stated that 4,620 fighting men were captured. Hawkwood's role in the 1390–92 war against Milan was his last major military campaign. No new glory was won except for an exceptional and wise retreat while in Milanese territory. His last military deed was to help repulse an opposing mercenary company under Biordo Michelotti, Alberico Broglia di Chieri and "other unemployed soldiers", which he and his men successfully drove back. Personal life Hawkwood had two wives. Little is known of the first, except that she was probably English, and she gave birth to at least one child, a daughter named Antiochia, who married into a prominent English Essex family, the Coggeshales. Through her daughter Alice Coggeshall, Hawkwood is an ancestor of the earls of Inchiquin. His second marriage is well documented. He was married in 1377 to Donnina Visconti, an illegitimate daughter of the great Milanese ruler Bernabò Visconti. It was a political match; she is described as a "forceful character, in the mould of her father and the Visconti women in general". Some sources say that he was almost on equal terms with her which was very uncommon for that period of time, and he even let her run part of his finances. They had four children: Janet, Catherine, Anna and John. It is also clear that Hawkwood had many mistresses and illegitimate children, like many men in his profession. Two of his documented illegitimate sons were John and Thomas Hawkwood. Hawkwood used favours from the Pope to obtain John an ecclesiastical appointment in London, while Thomas was taken hostage in 1376 in Bologna and returned to England, where he started a career as a mercenary captain. Education Some say that Hawkwood could neither read nor write, based on one event in which he had his contract with Florence read aloud to him in 1385. Yet this practice was not uncommon for captains of his status, and it should be suggested that he could read or write. In one correspondence with the Count of Armagnac, the Flemish chronicler, Jean Froissart, wrote that reading matter was either "read or had read to him." Based on this, it is reasonable to claim some education for Hawkwood. Appearance Although descriptions of other condottieri exist, a consistent description of John Hawkwood is never clearly stated. In a modern account by Joseph Jay Deiss, Hawkwood is said to have been a "heavy set sort, a young ox in the shoulders, powerful of arm and hand... His brown eyes were large, calculating and set wide apart under heavy brows. His nose was long, irregular and came to a point... His straight chestnut hair clung carelessly." The only clear source for Hawkwood's appearance is a fresco by Paolo Uccello. The portrait is not a first-hand image, but a copy of an earlier portrayal. A physical description is hard to derive from it, as it shows Hawkwood sitting on a horse in partial armour. Recent scholarship has suggested, "Hawkwood's very pose is suspect... the composition was probably a piece of Florentine propaganda, intended to convey the image of the obedient captain conducting an inspection of troops." Given this information by various authors, there is no reliable description of his physical appearance, and evidence from pictures must be treated with caution. Personality During his life, the main traits used to describe Hawkwood were craft and brutality. Evidence of his craft was seen in his tactics, which included feigned retreats, ambushes and the use of false information. For example, before fleeing Milanese territory in 1391, Hawkwood accepted his opponent's challenge to meet on the battlefield the next morning. However, Hawkwood "picked up camp and quietly escaped through back routes, placing his battle standards and banners high on the trees so that the enemy would assume he was still there. He then detached a contingent of his men and placed them in the woods to entrap the enemy as it pursued [him]." His troops would rape women, murder peasants and dismember their enemies. This has brought Hawkwood's religious faith into question. He was known to sack monasteries and holy places, such as the Abbey of San Galgano. He even harassed the Pope in Avignon, but there is also evidence that he was not completely godless, as he requested a portable altar for Mass while on campaign. Geoffrey Trease gives "fidelity" as his main characteristic, because of his persistent commitment to fulfilling orders from his employers. However, this is untrue, as he often flouted contracts and disobeyed employers. In one case, he abandoned the Milanese army twice. Death Sir John Hawkwood died on 17 March 1394 at his home in Florence before he was able to retire to England. His funeral on 20 March was followed by an elaborate burial ceremony in the Duomo. It is recorded that the town fathers "furnished three banners with the arms of Florence and a helmet with a golden lion holding a lily in its claw as the crest", and his personal brigade sent "fourteen caparisoned warhorses, bearing the Englishmen's personal banner, sword, shield and helmet. As his reputation spread through Europe in his lifetime, even Richard II of England requested that Hawkwood's body be transferred back to his "native land". After his death, most of his wealth disappeared. His wife travelled to England to claim the land he owned, only to find out most of the land registers there had disappeared due to the plague, making it nearly impossible to prove ownership of his land. Memory and monuments Originally, under the Albizzi government, it had been intended to build a marble tomb for Hawkwood, but the money was lacking. In 1436, the Medici hired Paolo Uccello to paint the Duomo. Uccello painted a portrait of Hawkwood that survives today in the third bay of the northern wall. He is seen on a grey-green horse with a commander's baton, dressed in partial armour. Uccello used a technique called terra verde to attempt to emulate a bronze statue in painting. The Latin inscription reads: Ioannes Acutus eques brittanicus dux aetatis suae cautissimus et rei militaris peritissimus habitus est ("John Hawkwood, British knight, most prudent leader of his age and most expert in the art of war"). Hawkwood is also honoured at St Peter's Church, Sible Hedingham, in England. The structure has canopied arches where there is a symbolic painting of a hawk on an arch, under which is a low altar, where there had also been a representative painting, now disappeared, of Hawkwood standing in prayer between his two wives. It had Hawkwood saying, "Son of God, remember me", while the first wife said, "Mother of mine, remember me", and the second wife, "Mother of Christ, remember me". Popular culture Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's 1891 novel The White Company is loosely based on John Hawkwood and his exploits. Marion Polk Angellotti wrote a novel, Sir John Hawkwood: A Tale of the White Company in Italy in 1911, which was followed by eight short stories about Hawkwood which appeared in Adventure magazine between 1911 and 1915. The novel and all eight short stories have recently been collected for the first time. Gordon Dickson wrote a series of several novels called the Childe Cycle making reference to and featuring John Hawkwood as a character. The novels include The Final Encyclopedia (1984) and The Chantry Guild (1988). Hawkwood features in the novel The Red Velvet Turnshoe by Cassandra Clark, published by John Murray in 2009 as part of her 'Abbess of Meaux' series. Jack Ludlow (pen name of David Donachie) wrote the 2016 novel Hawkwood, which incorporates known facts about Hawkwood's life. Tommy Ohtsuka's manga Hawkwood has partly based its protagonist on John Hawkwood, taking his name, profession and grasp of military acumen. Sir John Hawkwood is the hero of an eponymous independently published (2021-2023) series by Griff Hosker. Hubert Cole wrote three novels based on Hawkwood's life. "Hawkwood" (London 1967), "Hawkwood in Paris" (London 1969) and "Hawkwood and the Towers of Pisa" (London 1973). Film The 1985 Paul Verhoeven fictional historical film Flesh and Blood features an English mercenary captain called "Hawkwood" (Jack Thompson), but is set in 1501, more than a century after the real John Hawkwood's death. References Sources Further reading Barbara Tuchman – A Distant Mirror (Chapter 10) Kenneth Fowler – Sir John Hawkwood, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Christopher Starr – Medieval Mercenary: Sir John Hawkwood of Essex, Essex Record Office (2007) External links Castel of Montecchio Vesponi John Hawkwood: An English Captain in Italy, The History Notes website 14th-century condottieri Medieval English knights 14th-century English people 1394 deaths Year of birth uncertain People from Sible Hedingham English mercenaries English emigrants to Italy 14th-century people from the Republic of Florence
418775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial%20digital%20interface	Serial digital interface	Serial digital interface (SDI) is a family of digital video interfaces first standardized by SMPTE (The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) in 1989. For example, ITU-R BT.656 and SMPTE 259M define digital video interfaces used for broadcast-grade video. A related standard, known as high-definition serial digital interface (HD-SDI), is standardized in SMPTE 292M; this provides a nominal data rate of 1.485 Gbit/s. Additional SDI standards have been introduced to support increasing video resolutions (HD, UHD and beyond), frame rates, stereoscopic (3D) video, and color depth. Dual link HD-SDI consists of a pair of SMPTE 292M links, standardized by SMPTE 372M in 1998; this provides a nominal 2.970 Gbit/s interface used in applications (such as digital cinema or HDTV 1080P) that require greater fidelity and resolution than standard HDTV can provide. 3G-SDI (standardized in SMPTE 424M) consists of a single 2.970 Gbit/s serial link that allows replacing dual link HD-SDI. 6G-SDI and 12G-SDI standards were published on March 19, 2015. These standards are used for transmission of uncompressed, unencrypted digital video signals (optionally including embedded audio and time code) within television facilities; they can also be used for packetized data. SDI is used to connect together different pieces of equipment such as recorders, monitors, PCs and vision mixers. Coaxial variants of the specification range in length but are typically less than . Fiber optic variants of the specification such as 297M allow for long-distance transmission limited only by maximum fiber length or repeaters. SDI and HD-SDI are usually available only in professional video equipment because various licensing agreements restrict the use of unencrypted digital interfaces, such as SDI, prohibiting their use in consumer equipment. Several professional video and HD-video capable DSLR cameras and all uncompressed video capable consumer cameras use the HDMI interface, often called clean HDMI. There are various mod kits for existing DVD players and other devices, which allow a user to add a serial digital interface to these devices. Electrical interface The various serial digital interface standards all use (one or more) coaxial cables with BNC connectors, with a nominal impedance of 75 ohms. This is the same type of cable used in analog video setups, which potentially makes for easier upgrades (though higher quality cables may be necessary for long runs at the higher bitrates). The specified signal amplitude at the source is 800 mV (±10%) peak-to-peak; far lower voltages may be measured at the receiver owing to attenuation. Using equalization at the receiver, it is possible to send 270 Mbit/s SDI over without use of repeaters, but shorter lengths are preferred. The HD bitrates have a shorter maximum run length, typically . Uncompressed digital component signals are transmitted. Data is encoded in NRZI format, and a linear feedback shift register is used to scramble the data to reduce the likelihood that long strings of zeroes or ones will be present on the interface. The interface is self-synchronizing and self-clocking. Framing is done by detection of a special synchronization pattern, which appears on the (unscrambled) serial digital signal to be a sequence of ten ones followed by twenty zeroes (twenty ones followed by forty zeroes in HD); this bit pattern is not legal anywhere else within the data payload. Standards Bit rates Several bit rates are used in serial digital video signal: For standard definition applications, as defined by SMPTE 259M, the possible bit rates are 270 Mbit/s, 360 Mbit/s, 143 Mbit/s, and 177 Mbit/s. 270 Mbit/s is by far the most commonly used; though the 360 Mbit/s interface (used for widescreen standard definition) is sometimes encountered. The 143 and 177 Mbit/s interfaces were intended for transmission of composite-encoded (NTSC or PAL) video digitally, and are now considered obsolete. For enhanced definition applications (mainly 525P), there are several 540 Mbit/s interfaces defined, as well as an interface standard for a dual-link 270 Mbit/s interface. These are rarely encountered. For HDTV applications, the serial digital interface is defined by SMPTE 292M. Two bit rates are defined, 1.485 Gbit/s, and 1.485/1.001 Gbit/s. The factor of 1/1.001 is provided to allow SMPTE 292M to support video formats with frame rates of 59.94 Hz, 29.97 Hz, and 23.98 Hz, in order to be compatible with existing NTSC systems. The 1.485 Gbit/s version of the standard supports other frame rates in widespread use, including 60 Hz, 50 Hz, 30 Hz, 25 Hz, and 24 Hz. It is common to collectively refer to both standards as using a nominal bit rate of 1.5 Gbit/s. For very high-definition applications, requiring greater resolution, frame rate, or color fidelity than the HD-SDI interface can provide, the SMPTE 372M standard defines the dual link interface. As the name suggests, this interface consists of two SMPTE 292M interconnects operating in parallel. In particular, the dual link interface supports 10-bit, 4:2:2, 1080P formats at frame rates of 60 Hz, 59.94 Hz, and 50 Hz, as well as 12-bit color depth, RGB encoding, and 4:4:4 colour sampling. A nominal 3 Gbit/s interface (more accurately, 2.97 Gbit/s, but commonly referred to as "3 gig") was standardized by SMPTE as 424M in 2006. Revised in 2012 as SMPTE ST 424:2012, it supports all of the features supported by the dual 1.485 Gbit/s interface, but requires only one cable rather than two. Other interfaces SMPTE 297-2006 defines an optical fiber system for transmitting bit-serial digital signals It is intended for transmitting SMPTE ST 259 signals (143 through 360 Mbit/s), SMPTE ST 344 signals (540 Mbit/s), SMPTE ST 292-1/-2 signals (1.485 Gbit/s and 1.485/1.001 Gbit/s) and SMPTE ST 424 signals (2.970 Gbit/s and 2.970/1.001 Gbit/s). In addition to optical specification, ST 297 also mandates laser safety testing and that all optical interfaces are labelled to indicate safety compliance, application and interoperability. An 8-bit parallel digital interface is defined by ITU-R Rec. 601; this is obsolete (however, many clauses in the various standards accommodate the possibility of an 8-bit interface). Data format In SD and ED applications, the serial data format is defined to 10 bits wide, whereas in HD applications, it is 20 bits wide, divided into two parallel 10-bit datastreams (known as Y and C). The SD datastream is arranged like this: whereas the HD datastreams are arranged like this: Y C For all serial digital interfaces (excluding the obsolete composite encodings), the native color encoding is 4:2:2 YCbCr format. The luminance channel (Y) is encoded at full bandwidth (13.5 MHz in 270 Mbit/s SD, ~75 MHz in HD), and the two chrominance channels (Cb and Cr) are subsampled horizontally, and encoded at half bandwidth (6.75 MHz or 37.5 MHz). The Y, Cr, and Cb samples are co-sited (acquired at the same instance in time), and the Y' sample is acquired at the time halfway between two adjacent Y samples. In the above, Y refers to luminance samples, and C to chrominance samples. Cr and Cb further refer to the red and blue "color difference" channels; see Component video for more information. This section only discusses the native color encoding of SDI; other color encodings are possible by treating the interface as a generic 10-bit data channel. The use of other colorimetry encodings, and the conversion to and from RGB colorspace, is discussed below. Video payload (as well as ancillary data payload) may use any 10-bit word in the range 4 to 1,019 (004 to 3FB) inclusive; the values 0–3 and 1,020–1,023 (3FC–3FF) are reserved and may not appear anywhere in the payload. These reserved words have two purposes; they are used both for Synchronization packets and for Ancillary data headers. Synchronization packets A synchronization packet (commonly known as the timing reference signal or TRS) occurs immediately before the first active sample on every line, and immediately after the last active sample (and before the start of the horizontal blanking region). The synchronization packet consists of four 10-bit words, the first three words are always the same—0x3FF, 0, 0; the fourth consists of 3 flag bits, along with an error correcting code. As a result, there are 8 different synchronization packets possible. In the HD-SDI and dual link interfaces, synchronization packets must occur simultaneously in both the Y and C datastreams. (Some delay between the two cables in a dual link interface is permissible; equipment which supports dual link is expected to buffer the leading link in order to allow the other link to catch up). In SD-SDI and enhanced definition interfaces, there is only one datastream, and thus only one synchronization packet at a time. Other than the issue of how many packets appear, their format is the same in all versions of the serial-digital interface. The flags bits found in the fourth word (commonly known as the XYZ word) are known as H, F, and V. The H bit indicates the start of horizontal blank; and synchronization bits immediately preceding the horizontal blanking region must have H set to one. Such packets are commonly referred to as End of Active Video, or EAV packets. Likewise, the packet appearing immediately before the start of the active video has H set to 0; this is the Start of Active Video or SAV packet. Likewise, the V bit is used to indicate the start of the vertical blanking region; an EAV packet with V=1 indicates the following line (lines are deemed to start at EAV) is part of the vertical interval, an EAV packet with V=0 indicates the following line is part of the active picture. The F bit is used in interlaced and segmented-frame formats to indicate whether the line comes from the first or second field (or segment). In progressive scan formats, the F bit is always set to zero. Line counter and CRC In the high definition serial digital interface (and in dual-link HD), additional check words are provided to increase the robustness of the interface. In these formats, the four samples immediately following the EAV packets (but not the SAV packets) contain a cyclic redundancy check field, and a line count indicator. The CRC field provides a CRC of the preceding line (CRCs are computed independently for the Y and C streams), and can be used to detect bit errors in the interface. The line count field indicates the line number of the current line. The CRC and line counts are not provided in the SD and ED interfaces. Instead, a special ancillary data packet known as an EDH packet may be optionally used to provide a CRC check on the data. Line and sample numbering Each sample within a given datastream is assigned a unique line and sample number. In all formats, the first sample immediately following the SAV packet is assigned sample number 0; the next sample is sample 1; all the way up to the XYZ word in the following SAV packet. In SD interfaces, where there is only one datastream, the 0th sample is a Cb sample; the 1st sample a Y sample, the 2nd sample a Cr sample, and the third sample is the Y' sample; the pattern repeats from there. In HD interfaces, each datastream has its own sample numbering—so the 0th sample of the Y datastream is the Y sample, the next sample the Y' sample, etc. Likewise, the first sample in the C datastream is Cb, followed by Cr, followed by Cb again. Lines are numbered sequentially, starting from 1, up to the number of lines per frame of the indicated format (typically 525, 625, 750, or 1125 (Sony HDVS)). Determination of line 1 is somewhat arbitrary; however it is unambiguously specified by the relevant standards. In 525-line systems, the first line of vertical blank is line 1, whereas in other interlaced systems (625 and 1125-line), the first line after the F bit transitions to zero is line 1. Note that lines are deemed to start at EAV, whereas sample zero is the sample following SAV. This produces the somewhat confusing result that the first sample in a given line of 1080i video is sample number 1920 (the first EAV sample in that format), and the line ends at the following sample 1919 (the last active sample in that format). Note that this behavior differs somewhat from analog video interfaces, where the line transition is deemed to occur at the sync pulse, which occurs roughly halfway through the horizontal blanking region. Link numbering Link numbering is only an issue in multi-link interfaces. The first link (the primary link), is assigned a link number of 1, subsequent links are assigned increasing link numbers; so the second (secondary) link in a dual-link system is link 2. The link number of a given interface is indicated by a VPID packet located in the vertical ancillary data space. Note that the data layout in dual link is designed so that the primary link can be fed into a single-link interface, and still produce usable (though somewhat degraded) video. The secondary link generally contains things like additional LSBs (in 12-bit formats), non-cosited samples in 4:4:4 sampled video (so that the primary link is still valid 4:2:2), and alpha or data channels. If the second link of a 1080P dual link configuration is absent, the first link still contains a valid 1080i signal. In the case of 1080p60, 59.94, or 50 Hz video over a dual link; each link contains a valid 1080i signal at the same field rate. The first link contains the 1st, 3rd, and 5th lines of odd fields and the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc. lines of even fields, and the second link contains the even lines on the odd fields, and the odd lines on the even fields. When the two links are combined, the result is a progressive-scan picture at the higher frame rate. Ancillary data Like SMPTE 259M, SMPTE 292M supports the SMPTE 291M standard for ancillary data. Ancillary data is provided as a standardized transport for non-video payload within a serial digital signal; it is used for things such as embedded audio, closed captions, timecode, and other sorts of metadata. Ancillary data is indicated by a 3-word packet consisting of 0, 3FF, 3FF (the opposite of the synchronization packet header), followed by a two-word identification code, a data count word (indicating 0–255 words of payload), the actual payload, and a one-word checksum. Other than in their use in the header, the codes prohibited to video payload are also prohibited to ancillary data payload. Specific applications of ancillary data include embedded audio, EDH, VPID and SDTI. In dual link applications; ancillary data is mostly found on the primary link; the secondary link is to be used for ancillary data only if there is no room on the primary link. One exception to this rule is the VPID packet; both links must have a valid VPID packet present. Embedded audio Both the HD and SD serial interfaces provide for 16 channels of embedded audio. The two interfaces use different audio encapsulation methods — SD uses the SMPTE 272M standard, whereas HD uses the SMPTE 299M standard. In either case, an SDI signal may contain up to sixteen audio channels (8 pairs) embedded 48 kHz, 24-bit audio channels along with the video. Typically, 48 kHz, 24-bit (20-bit in SD, but extendable to 24 bit) PCM audio is stored, in a manner directly compatible with the AES3 digital audio interface. These are placed in the (horizontal) blanking periods, when the SDI signal carries nothing useful, since the receiver generates its own blanking signals from the TRS. In dual-link applications, 32 channels of audio are available, as each link may carry 16 channels. SMPTE ST 299-2:2010 extends the 3G SDI interface to be able to transmit 32 audio channels (16 pairs) on a single link. EDH As the standard definition interface carries no checksum, CRC, or other data integrity check, an EDH (Error Detection and Handling) packet may be optionally placed in the vertical interval of the video signal. This packet includes CRC values for both the active picture, and the entire field (excluding those lines at which switching may occur, and which should contain no useful data); equipment can compute their own CRC and compare it with the received CRC in order to detect errors. EDH is typically only used with the standard definition interface; the presence of CRC words in the HD interface make EDH packets unnecessary. VPID VPID (or video payload identifier) packets are increasingly used to describe the video format. In early versions of the serial digital interface, it was always possible to uniquely determine the video format by counting the number of lines and samples between H and V transitions in the TRS. With the introduction of dual link interfaces, and segmented-frame standards, this is no longer possible; thus the VPID standard (defined by SMPTE 352M) provides a way to uniquely and unambiguously identify the format of the video payload. Video payload and blanking The active portion of the video signal is defined to be those samples which follow an SAV packet, and precede the next EAV packet; where the corresponding EAV and SAV packets have the V bit set to zero. It is in the active portion that the actual image information is stored. Color encoding Several color encodings are possible in the serial digital interface. The default (and most common case) is 10-bit linearly sampled video data encoded as 4:2:2 YCbCr. (YCbCr is a digital representation of the YPbPr colorspace). Samples of video are stored as described above. Data words correspond to signal levels of the respective video components, as follows: The luma (Y) channel is defined such that a signal level of 0 mV is assigned the codeword 64 (40 hex), and 700 millivolts (full scale) is assigned the codeword 940 (3AC hex) . For the chroma channels, 0 mV is assigned the code word 512 (200 hex), −350 mV is assigned a code word of 64 (40 hex), and +350 mV is assigned a code word of 960 (3C0 hex). Note that the scaling of the luma and chroma channels is not identical. The minimum and maximum of these ranges represent the preferred signal limits, though the video payload may venture outside these ranges (providing that the reserved code words of 0–3 and 1020–1023 are never used for video payload). In addition, the corresponding analog signal may have excursions further outside of this range. Colorimetry As YPbPr (and YCbCr) are both derived from the RGB colorspace, a means of converting is required. There are three colorimetries typically used with digital video: SD and ED applications typically use a colorimetry matrix specified in ITU-R Rec. 601. Most HD, dual link, and 3 Gbit/s applications use a different matrix, specified in ITU-R Rec. 709. The 1035-line MUSE HD standards specified by SMPTE 260M (primarily used in Japan and now largely considered obsolete), used a colorimetry matrix specified by SMPTE 240M. This colorimetry is nowadays rarely used, as the 1035-line formats have been superseded by 1080-line formats. Other color encodings The dual-link and 3 Gbit/s interfaces additionally support other color encodings besides 4:2:2 YCbCr, namely: 4:2:2 and 4:4:4 YCbCr, with an optional alpha (used for linear keying, a.k.a. alpha compositing) or data (used for non-video payload) channel 4:4:4 RGB, also with an optional alpha or data channel 4:2:2 YCbCr, 4:4:4 YCbCr, and 4:4:4 RGB, with 12 bits of color information per sample, rather than 10. Note that the interface itself is still 10 bit; the additional 2 bits per channel are multiplexed into an additional 10-bit channel on the second link. If an RGB encoding is used, the three primaries are all encoded in the same fashion as the Y channel; a value of 64 (40 hex) corresponds to 0 mV, and 940 (3AC hex) corresponds to 700 mV. 12-bit applications are scaled in a similar fashion to their 10-bit counterparts; the additional two bits are considered to be LSBs. Vertical and horizontal blanking regions For portions of the vertical and horizontal blanking regions which are not used for ancillary data, it is recommended that the luma samples be assigned the code word 64 (40 hex), and the chroma samples be assigned 512 (200 hex); both of which correspond to 0 mV. It is permissible to encode analog vertical interval information (such as vertical interval timecode or vertical interval test signals) without breaking the interface, but such usage is nonstandard (and ancillary data is the preferred means for transmitting metadata). Conversion of analog sync and burst signals into digital, however, is not recommended—and neither is necessary in the digital interface. Different picture formats have different requirements for digital blanking, for example all so called 1080 line HD formats have 1080 active lines, but 1125 total lines, with the remainder being vertical blanking. Supported video formats The various versions of the serial digital interface support numerous video formats. The 270 Mbit/s interface supports 525-line, interlaced video at a 59.94 Hz field rate (29.97 Hz frame rate), and 625-line, 50 Hz interlaced video. These formats are highly compatible with NTSC and PAL-B/G/D/K/I systems respectively; and the terms NTSC and PAL are often (incorrectly) used to refer to these formats. (PAL is a composite color encoding scheme, and the term does not define the line-standard, though it is most usually encountered with 625i) while the serial digital interface— other than the obsolete 143 Mbit/s and 177 Mbit/s forms- is a component standard. The 360 Mbit/s interface supports 525i and 625i widescreen. It can also be used to support 525p, if 4:2:0 sampling is used. The various 540 Mbit/s interfaces support 525p and 625p formats. The nominal 1.49 Gbit/s interfaces support most high-definition video formats. Supported formats include 1080/60i, 1080/59.94i, 1080/50i, 1080/30p, 1080/29.97p, 1080/25p, 1080/24p, 1080/23.98p, 720/60p, 720/59.94p, and 720/50p. In addition, there are several 1035i formats (an obsolete Japanese television standard), half-bandwidth 720p standards such as 720/24p (used in some film conversion applications, and unusual because it has an odd number of samples per line), and various 1080psf (progressive, segmented frame) formats. Progressive Segmented frames formats appear as interlace video but contain video which is progressively scanned. This is done to support analog monitors and televisions, many of which are incapable of locking to low field rates such as 30 Hz and 24 Hz. The 2.97 Gbit/s dual link HD interface supports 1080/60p, 1080/59.94p, and 1080/50p, as well as 4:4:4 encoding, greater color depth, RGB encoding, alpha channels, and nonstandard resolutions (often encountered in computer graphics or digital cinema). A quad link interface of 3G-SDI supports UHDTV-1 resolution 2160/60p Related interfaces In addition to the regular serial digital interface described here, there are several other similar interfaces which are similar to, or are contained within, a serial digital interface. SDTI There is an expanded specification called SDTI (Serial Data Transport Interface), which allows compressed (i.e. DV, MPEG and others) video streams to be transported over an SDI line. This allows for multiple video streams in one cable or faster-than-realtime (2x, 4x,...) video transmission. A related standard, known as HD-SDTI, provides similar capability over an SMPTE 292M interface. The SDTI interface is specified by SMPTE 305M. The HD-SDTI interface is specified by SMPTE 348M. ASI The asynchronous serial interface (ASI) specification describes how to transport a MPEG Transport Stream (MPEG-TS), containing multiple MPEG video streams, over 75-ohm copper coaxial cable or multi-mode optical fiber. ASI is popular way to transport broadcast programs from the studio to the final transmission equipment before it reaches viewers sitting at home. The ASI standard is part of the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) standard. SMPTE 349M The standard SMPTE 349M: Transport of Alternate Source Image Formats through SMPTE 292M, specifies a means to encapsulate non-standard and lower-bitrate video formats within an HD-SDI interface. This standard allows, for example, several independent standard-definition video signals to be multiplexed onto an HD-SDI interface, and transmitted down one wire. This standard doesn't merely adjust EAV and SAV timing to meet the requirements of the lower-bitrate formats; instead, it provides a means by which an entire SDI format (including synchronization words, ancillary data, and video payload) can be encapsulated and transmitted as ordinary data payload within a 292M stream. HDMI The HDMI interface is a compact audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video data and compressed/uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant device to a compatible computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or digital audio device. It is mainly used in the consumer area, but increasingly used in professional devices including uncompressed video, often called clean HDMI. G.703 The G.703 standard is another high-speed digital interface, originally designed for telephony. HDcctv The HDcctv standard embodies the adaptation of SDI for video surveillance applications, not to be confused with TDI, a similar but different format for video surveillance cameras. CoaXPress The CoaXPress standard is another high-speed digital interface, originally design for industrial camera interfaces. The data rates for CoaXPress go up to 12.5 Gbit/s over a single coaxial cable. A 41 Mbit/s uplink channel and power over coax are also included in the standard. References Sources Standards Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers: SMPTE 274M-2005: Image Sample Structure, Digital Representation and Digital Timing Reference Sequences for Multiple Picture Rates Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers: SMPTE 292M-1998: Bit-Serial Digital Interface for High Definition Television Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers: SMPTE 291M-1998: Ancillary Data Packet and Space Formatting Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers: SMPTE 372M-2002: Dual Link 292M Interface for 1920 x 1080 Picture Raster External links Standards of SMPTE HDcctv Alliance (Security organization supporting SDI for security surveillance) ITU-R recommendations Serial buses Digital display connectors Television technology Audiovisual connectors High-definition television Broadcast engineering Video signal Television terminology
418780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headlamp	Headlamp	A headlamp is a lamp attached to the front of a vehicle to illuminate the road ahead. Headlamps are also often called headlights, but in the most precise usage, headlamp is the term for the device itself and headlight is the term for the beam of light produced and distributed by the device. Headlamp performance has steadily improved throughout the automobile age, spurred by the great disparity between daytime and nighttime traffic fatalities: the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration states that nearly half of all traffic-related fatalities occur in the dark, despite only 25% of traffic travelling during darkness. Other vehicles, such as trains and aircraft, are required to have headlamps. Bicycle headlamps are often used on bicycles, and are required in some jurisdictions. They can be powered by a battery or a small generator like a bottle or hub dynamo. History of automotive headlamps Origins The first horseless carriages used carriage lamps, which proved unsuitable for travel at speed. The earliest lights used candles as the most common type of fuel. Mechanics Acetylene Gas headlamp The earliest headlamps, fuelled by combustible gas such as acetylene gas or oil, operated from the late 1880s. Acetylene gas lamps were popular in 1900s because the flame is resistant to wind and rain. Thick concave mirrors combined with magnifying lenses projected the acetylene flame light. A number of car manufacturers offered Prest-O-Lite calcium carbide acetylene gas generator cylinder with gas feed pipes for lights as standard equipment for 1904 cars. Electric headlamp The first electric headlamps were introduced in 1898 on the Columbia Electric Car from the Electric Vehicle Company of Hartford, Connecticut, and were optional. Two factors limited the widespread use of electric headlamps: the short life of filaments in the harsh automotive environment, and the difficulty of producing dynamos small enough, yet powerful enough to produce sufficient current. Peerless made electric headlamps standard in 1908. A Birmingham, England firm called Pockley Automobile Electric Lighting Syndicate marketed the world's first electric car-lights as a complete set in 1908, which consisted of headlamps, sidelamps, and tail lights that were powered by an eight-volt battery. In 1912 Cadillac integrated their vehicle's Delco electrical ignition and lighting system, forming the modern vehicle electrical system. The Guide Lamp Company introduced "dipping" (low-beam) headlamps in 1915, but the 1917 Cadillac system allowed the light to be dipped using a lever inside the car rather than requiring the driver to stop and get out. The 1924 Bilux bulb was the first modern unit, having the light for both low (dipped) and high (main) beams of a headlamp emitting from a single bulb. A similar design was introduced in 1925 by Guide Lamp called the "Duplo". In 1927 the foot-operated dimmer switch or dip switch was introduced and became standard for much of the century. 1933–1934 Packards featured tri-beam headlamps, the bulbs having three filaments. From highest to lowest, the beams were called "country passing", "country driving" and "city driving". The 1934 Nash also used a three-beam system, although in this case with bulbs of the conventional two-filament type, and the intermediate beam combined low beam on the driver's side with high beam on the passenger's side, so as to maximise the view of the roadside while minimizing glare toward oncoming traffic. The last vehicles with a foot-operated dimmer switch were the 1991 Ford F-Series and E-Series [Econoline] vans. Fog lamps were new for 1938 Cadillacs, and their 1954 "Autronic Eye" system automated the selection of high and low beams. Directional lighting, using a switch and electromagnetically shifted reflector to illuminate the curbside only, was introduced in the rare, one-year-only 1935 Tatra. Steering-linked lighting was featured on the 1947 Tucker Torpedo's center-mounted headlight and was later popularized by the Citroën DS. This made it possible to turn the light in the direction of travel when the steering wheel turned. The standardized round sealed-beam headlamp, one per side, was required for all vehicles sold in the United States from 1940, virtually freezing usable lighting technology in place until the 1970s for Americans. In 1957 the law changed to allow smaller round sealed beams, two per side of the vehicle, and in 1974 rectangular sealed beams were permitted as well. Britain, Australia, and some other Commonwealth countries, as well as Japan and Sweden, also made extensive use of 7-inch sealed beams, though they were not mandated as they were in the United States. This headlamp format was not widely accepted in continental Europe, which found replaceable bulbs and variations in the size and shape of headlamps useful in car design. Technology moved forward in the rest of the world. In 1962 a European consortium of bulb- and headlamp-makers introduced the first halogen lamp for vehicle headlamp use, the H1. Shortly thereafter headlamps using the new light source were introduced in Europe. These were effectively prohibited in the US, where standard-size sealed beam headlamps were mandatory and intensity regulations were low. US lawmakers faced pressure to act, due both to lighting effectiveness and to vehicle aerodynamics/fuel savings. High-beam peak intensity, capped at 140,000 candela per side of the car in Europe, was limited in the United States to 37,500 candela on each side of the car until 1978, when the limit was raised to 75,000. An increase in high-beam intensity to take advantage of the higher allowance could not be achieved without a move to halogen technology, and so sealed-beam headlamps with internal halogen lamps became available for use on 1979 models in the United States. halogen sealed beams dominate the sealed-beam market, which has declined steeply since replaceable-bulb headlamps were permitted in 1983. High-intensity discharge (HID) systems appeared in the early 1990s, first in the BMW 7 Series. 1996's Lincoln Mark VIII was an early American effort at HIDs, and was the only car with DC HIDs. Design and style Beyond the engineering, performance, and regulatory-compliance aspects of headlamps, there is the consideration of the various ways they are designed and arranged on a motor vehicle. Headlamps were round for many years because that is the native shape of a parabolic reflector. Using principles of reflection, the simple symmetric round reflective surface projects light and helps focus the beam. Headlamp styling outside the United States, pre-1983 There was no requirement in Europe for headlamps of standardized size or shape, and lamps could be designed in any shape and size, as long as the lamps met the engineering and performance requirements contained in the applicable European safety standards. Rectangular headlamps were first used in 1960, developed by Hella for the German Ford Taunus P3 and by Cibié for the Citroën Ami 6. They were prohibited in the United States where round lamps were required until 1975. Another early headlamp styling concept involved conventional round lamps faired into the car's bodywork with aerodynamic glass covers, such as those on the 1961 Jaguar E-Type, and on pre-1967 VW Beetles. Headlamp styling in the United States, 1940–1983 Headlight design in the U.S. changed very little from 1940 to 1983. In 1940, a consortium of state motor vehicle administrators standardized upon a system of two round sealed beam headlamps on all vehicles—the only system allowed for 17 years. This requirement eliminated problems of tarnished reflectors by sealing them together with the bulbs. It also made aiming the headlight beams simpler and eliminated non-standard bulbs and lamps. The Tucker 48 included a defining "cyclops-eye" feature: a third center-mounted headlight connected to the car's steering mechanism. It only illuminated if the steering was moved more than ten degrees off center and the high beams were turned on. A system of four round lamps, rather than two, one high/low and one high-beam sealed beam on each side of the vehicle, was introduced on some 1957 Cadillac, Chrysler, DeSoto, and Nash models in states that permitted the new system. Separate low and high beam lamps eliminated the need for compromise in lens design and filament positioning required in a single unit. Other cars followed suit when all states permitted the new lamps by the time the 1958 models were brought to market. The four-lamp system permitted more design flexibility and improved low and high beam performance. Auto stylists such as Virgil Exner carried out design studies with the low beams in their conventional outboard location, and the high beams vertically stacked at the centerline of the car, but no such designs reached volume production. An example arrangement includes the stacking of two headlamps on each side, with low beams above high beams. The Nash Ambassador used this arrangement in the 1957 model year. Pontiac used this design starting in the 1963 model year; American Motors, Ford, Cadillac, and Chrysler followed two years later. Also in the 1965 model year, the Buick Riviera had concealable stacked headlamps. Various Mercedes models sold in America used this arrangement because their home-market replaceable-bulb headlamps were illegal in the US. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, some Lincoln, Buick, and Chrysler cars had the headlamps arranged diagonally with the low-beam lamps outboard and above the high-beam lamps. British cars including the Gordon-Keeble, Jensen CV8, Triumph Vitesse, and Bentley S3 Continental used such an arrangement as well. In 1968, the newly initiated Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 required all vehicles to have either the twin or quad round sealed beam headlamp system and prohibited any decorative or protective element in front of an operating headlamp. Glass-covered headlamps like those used on the Jaguar E-Type, pre-1968 VW Beetle, 1965 Chrysler and Imperial models, Porsche 356, Citroën DS, and Ferrari Daytona were no longer permitted, and vehicles had to be equipped with uncovered headlamps for the US market. This made it difficult for vehicles with headlamp configurations designed for good aerodynamic performance to achieve it in their US-market configurations. The FMVSS 108 was amended in 1974 to permit rectangular sealed-beam headlamps. This allowed manufacturers flexibility to lower the hoods on new cars. These could be placed in horizontal arrays or in vertically stacked pairs. As previously with round lamps, the US permitted only two standardized sizes of rectangular sealed-beam lamp: A system of two high/low beam units corresponding to the existing 7-inch round format, or a system of four units, two high/low and two high-beam. corresponding to the existing round format. The rectangular headlamp design became so prevalent in U.S.-made cars that only a few models continued using round headlamps by 1979. International headlamp styling, 1983–present In 1983, granting a 1981 petition from Ford Motor Company, the US headlamp regulations were amended to allow replaceable-bulb, nonstandard-shape, architectural headlamps with aerodynamic lenses that could for the first time be made of hard-coated polycarbonate. This allowed the first US-market car since 1939 with replaceable bulb headlamps: the 1984 Lincoln Mark VII. These composite headlamps were sometimes referred to as "Euro" headlamps since aerodynamic headlamps were common in Europe. Though conceptually similar to European headlamps with non-standardized shape and replaceable-bulb construction, these headlamps conform to the headlamp design, construction, and performance specifications of US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 rather than the internationalized European safety standards used outside North America. Nevertheless, this change to US regulations made it possible for headlamp styling in the US market to move closer to that in Europe. Hidden headlamps Hidden headlamps were introduced in 1936, on the Cord 810/812. They were mounted in the front fenders, which were smooth until the lights were cranked out—each with its own small dash-mounted crank—by the operator. They aided aerodynamics when the headlamps were not in use and were among the Cord's signature design features. Later hidden headlamps require one or more vacuum-operated servos and reservoirs, with associated plumbing and linkage, or electric motors, geartrains and linkages to raise the lamps to an exact position to assure correct aiming despite ice, snow, and age. Some hidden headlamp designs, such as those on the Saab Sonett III, used a lever-operated mechanical linkage to raise the headlamps into position. During the 1960s and 1970s, many notable sports cars used this feature such as the Chevrolet Corvette (C3), Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer and Lamborghini Countach as they allowed low bonnet lines but raised the lights to the required height, but since 2004 no modern volume-produced car models use hidden headlamps because they present difficulties in complying with pedestrian-protection provisions added to international auto safety regulations regarding protuberances on car bodies to minimize injury to pedestrians struck by cars. Some hidden headlamps themselves do not move, but rather are covered when not in use by panels designed to blend in with the car's styling. When the lamps are switched on, the covers are swung out of the way, usually downward or upward, for example on the 1992 Jaguar XJ220. The door mechanism may be actuated by vacuum pots, as on some Ford vehicles of the late 1960s through early 1980s such as the 1967–1970 Mercury Cougar, or by an electric motor as on various Chrysler products of the middle 1960s through late 1970s such as the 1966–1967 Dodge Charger. Regulations and requirements Modern headlamps are electrically operated, positioned in pairs, one or two on each side of the front of a vehicle. A headlamp system is required to produce a low and a high beam, which may be produced by multiple pairs of single-beam lamps or by a pair of dual-beam lamps, or a mix of single-beam and dual-beam lamps. High beams cast most of their light straight ahead, maximizing seeing distance but producing too much glare for safe use when other vehicles are present on the road. Because there is no special control of upward light, high beams also cause backdazzle from fog, rain and snow due to the retroreflection of the water droplets. Low beams have stricter control of upward light, and direct most of their light downward and either rightward (in right-traffic countries) or leftward (in left-traffic countries), to provide forward visibility without excessive glare or backdazzle. Low beam Low beam (dipped beam, passing beam, meeting beam) headlamps provide a distribution of light designed to provide forward and lateral illumination, with limits on light directed towards the eyes of other road users to control glare. This beam is intended for use whenever other vehicles are present ahead, whether oncoming or being overtaken. The international ECE Regulations for filament headlamps and for high-intensity discharge headlamps specify a beam with a sharp, asymmetric cutoff preventing significant amounts of light from being cast into the eyes of drivers of preceding or oncoming cars. Control of glare is less strict in the North American SAE beam standard contained in FMVSS / CMVSS 108. High beam High beam (main beam, driving beam, full beam) headlamps provide a bright, center-weighted distribution of light with no particular control of light directed towards other road users' eyes. As such, they are only suitable for use when alone on the road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other drivers. International ECE Regulations permit higher-intensity high-beam headlamps than are allowed under North American regulations. Compatibility with traffic directionality Most low-beam headlamps are specifically designed for use on only one side of the road. Headlamps for use in left-traffic countries have low-beam headlamps that "dip to the left"; the light is distributed with a downward/leftward bias to show the driver the road and signs ahead without blinding oncoming traffic. Headlamps for right-traffic countries have low beams that "dip to the right", with most of their light directed downward/rightward. Within Europe, when driving a vehicle with right-traffic headlamps in a left-traffic country or vice versa for a limited time (as for example on vacation or in transit), it is a legal requirement to adjust the headlamps temporarily so that their wrong-side beam distribution does not dazzle oncoming drivers. This may be achieved by methods including adhering opaque decals or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens. Some projector-type headlamps can be made to produce a proper left- or right-traffic beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Many tungsten (pre-halogen) European-code headlamps made in France by Cibié, Marchal, and Ducellier could be adjusted to produce either a left- or a right-traffic low beam by means of a two-position bulb holder. Because wrong-side-of-road headlamps blind oncoming drivers and do not adequately light the driver's way, and blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, some countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic-handedness. North American vehicle owners sometimes privately import and install Japanese-market (JDM) headlamps on their car in the mistaken belief that the beam performance will be better, when in fact such misapplication is quite hazardous and illegal. Adequacy Vehicle headlamps have been found unable to illuminate an assured clear distance ahead at speeds above 60 km/h (40 mph). It may be unsafe and, in a few areas, illegal to drive above this speed at night. Use in daytime Some countries require automobiles to be equipped with daytime running lights (DRL) to increase the conspicuity of vehicles in motion during the daytime. Regional regulations govern how the DRL function may be provided. In Canada, the DRL function required on vehicles made or imported since 1990 can be provided by the headlamps, the fog lamps, steady-lit operation of the front turn signals, or by special daytime running lamps. Functionally dedicated daytime running lamps not involving the headlamps are required on all new cars first sold in the European Union since February 2011. In addition to the EU and Canada, countries requiring DRL include Albania, Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Colombia (no more from Aug/2011), Iceland, Israel, Macedonia, Norway, Moldova, Russia, Serbia, and Uruguay. Construction, performance, and aim There are two different beam pattern and headlamp construction standards in use in the world: The ECE standard, which is allowed or required in virtually all industrialized countries except the United States, and the SAE standard that is mandatory only in the US. Japan formerly had bespoke lighting regulations similar to the US standards, but for the left side of the road. However, Japan now adheres to the ECE standard. The differences between the SAE and ECE headlamp standards are primarily in the amount of glare permitted toward other drivers on low beam (SAE permits much more glare), the minimum amount of light required to be thrown straight down the road (SAE requires more), and the specific locations within the beam at which minimum and maximum light levels are specified. ECE low beams are characterized by a distinct horizontal "cutoff" line at the top of the beam. Below the line is bright, and above is dark. On the side of the beam facing away from oncoming traffic (right in right-traffic countries, left in left-traffic countries), this cutoff sweeps or steps upward to direct light to road signs and pedestrians. SAE low beams may or may not have a cutoff, and if a cutoff is present, it may be of two different general types: VOL, which is conceptually similar to the ECE beam in that the cutoff is located at the top of the left side of the beam and aimed slightly below horizontal, or VOR, which has the cutoff at the top of the right side of the beam and aimed at the horizon. Proponents of each headlamp system decry the other as inadequate and unsafe: US proponents of the SAE system claim that the ECE low beam cutoff gives short seeing distances and inadequate illumination for overhead road signs, while international proponents of the ECE system claim that the SAE system produces too much glare. Comparative studies have repeatedly shown that there is little or no overall safety advantage to either SAE or ECE beams; the two systems' acceptance and rejection by various countries is based primarily on which system is already in use. In North America, the design, performance, and installation of all motor vehicle lighting devices are regulated by Federal and Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, which incorporates SAE technical standards. Elsewhere in the world, ECE internationalized regulations are in force either by reference or by incorporation in individual countries' vehicular codes. US laws required sealed beam headlamps on all vehicles between 1940 and 1983, and other countries such as Japan, United Kingdom, and Australia also made extensive use of sealed beams. In most other countries, and in the US since 1984, replaceable-bulb headlamps predominate. Headlamps must be kept in proper aim. Regulations for aim vary from country to country and from beam specification to beam specification. In the US, SAE standard headlamps are aimed without regard to headlamp mounting height. This gives vehicles with high-mounted headlamps a seeing distance advantage, at the cost of increased glare to drivers in lower vehicles. By contrast, ECE headlamp aim angle is linked to headlamp mounting height, to give all vehicles roughly equal seeing distance and all drivers roughly equal glare. Light colour White Headlamps are generally required to produce white light, according to both ECE and SAE standards. ECE Regulation 48 currently requires new vehicles to be equipped with headlamps emitting white light. Different headlamp technologies produce different characteristic types of white light; the white specification is quite large and permits a wide range of apparent colour from warm white (with a brown-orange-amber-yellow cast) to cold white (with a blue-violet cast). Selective yellow Previous ECE regulations also permitted selective yellow light. A research experiment done in the UK in 1968 using tungsten (non-halogen) lamps found that visual acuity is about 3% better with selective yellow headlamps than with white ones of equal intensity. Research done in the Netherlands in 1976 concluded that yellow and white headlamps are equivalent as regards traffic safety, though yellow light causes less discomfort glare than white light. Researchers note that tungsten filament lamps emit only a small amount of the blue light blocked by a selective-yellow filter, so such filtration makes only a small difference in the characteristics of the light output, and suggest that headlamps using newer kinds of sources such as metal halide (HID) bulbs may, through filtration, give off less visually distracting light while still having greater light output than halogen ones. Selective yellow headlamps are no longer common, but are permitted in various countries throughout Europe as well as in non-European locales such as South Korea, Japan and New Zealand. In Iceland, yellow headlamps are allowed and the vehicle regulations in Monaco still officially require selective yellow light from all vehicles' low beam and high beam headlamps, and fog lamps if present. In France, a statute passed in November 1936 based on advice from the Central Commission for Automobiles and for Traffic in General, required selective yellow headlights to be fitted. The mandate for yellow headlamps was enacted to reduce driver fatigue from discomfort glare. The requirement initially applied to vehicles registered for road use after April 1937, but was intended to extend to all vehicles through retrofitting of selective yellow lights on older vehicles, from the start of 1939. Later stages of the implementation were disrupted in September 1939 by the outbreak of war. The French yellow-light mandate was based on observations by the French Academy of Sciences in 1934, when the academy recorded that the selective yellow light was less dazzling than white light and that the light diffused less in fog than green or blue lights. Yellow light was obtained by dint of yellow glass for the headlight bulb or lens, a yellow coating on a colourless bulb, lens, or reflector, or a yellow filter between the bulb and the lens. Filtration losses reduced the emitted light intensity by about 18 percent, which might have contributed to the reduced glare. The mandate was in effect until December 1992, so for many years yellow headlights visually marked French-registered cars wherever they were seen, though some French drivers are said to have switched to white headlamps despite the requirement for yellow ones. The requirement was criticised as a trade barrier in the automobile sector; French politician Jean-Claude Martinez described it as a protectionist law. Formal research found, at best, a small improvement in visual acuity with yellow rather than white headlights, and French automaker Peugeot estimated that white headlamps produce 20 to 30 percent more light—though without explaining why this estimate was larger than the 15% to 18% value measured in formal research—and wanted drivers of their cars to get the benefits of extra illumination. More generally, country-specific vehicle technical regulations in Europe were regarded as a costly nuisance. In a survey published in 1988, automakers gave a range of responses when asked what it cost to supply a car with yellow headlamps for France. General Motors and Lotus said there was no additional cost, Rover said the additional cost was marginal, and Volkswagen said yellow headlamps added 28 Deutsche Marks to the cost of vehicle production. Addressing the French requirement for yellow lights (among other country-specific lighting requirements) was undertaken as part of an effort toward common vehicle technical standards throughout the European Community. A provision in EU Council Directive 91/663, issued on 10 December 1991, specified white headlamps for all new vehicle type-approvals granted by the EC after 1 January 1993 and stipulated that from that date EC (later EU) member states would not be permitted to refuse entry of a vehicle meeting the lighting standards contained in the amended document—so France would no longer be able to refuse entry to a vehicle with white headlights. The directive was adopted unanimously by the council, and hence with France's vote. Though no longer required in France, selective yellow headlamps remain legal there; the current regulation stipulates that "every motor vehicle must be equipped, at the front, with two or four lights, creating in a forward direction selective yellow or white light permitting efficient illumination of the road at night for a distance, in clear conditions, of 100 metres". Optical systems Reflector lamps Lens optics A light source (filament or arc) is placed at or near the focus of a reflector, which may be parabolic or of non-parabolic complex shape. Fresnel and prism optics moulded into the headlamp lens refract (shift) parts of the light laterally and vertically to provide the required light distribution pattern. Most sealed-beam headlamps have lens optics. Reflector optics Starting in the 1980s, headlamp reflectors began to evolve beyond the simple stamped steel parabola. The 1983 Austin Maestro was the first vehicle equipped with Lucas-Carello's homofocal reflectors, which comprised parabolic sections of different focal length to improve the efficiency of light collection and distribution. CAD technology allowed the development of reflector headlamps with nonparabolic, complex-shape reflectors. First commercialised by Valeo under their Cibié brand, these headlamps would revolutionise automobile design. The 1987 US-market Dodge Monaco/Eagle Premier twins and European Citroën XM were the first cars with complex-reflector headlamps with faceted optic lenses. General Motors' Guide Lamp division in America had experimented with clear-lens complex-reflector lamps in the early 1970s and achieved promising results, but the US-market 1990 Honda Accord was first with clear-lens multi-reflector headlamps; these were developed by Stanley in Japan. The optics to distribute the light in the desired pattern are designed into the reflector itself, rather than into the lens. Depending on the development tools and techniques in use, the reflector may be engineered from the start as a bespoke shape, or it may start as a parabola standing in for the size and shape of the completed package. In the latter case, the entire surface area is modified so as to produce individual segments of specifically calculated, complex contours. The shape of each segment is designed such that their cumulative effect produces the required light distribution pattern. Modern reflectors are commonly made of compression-moulded or injection moulded plastic, though glass and metal optic reflectors also exist. The reflective surface is vapour deposited aluminum, with a clear overcoating to prevent the extremely thin aluminium from oxidizing. Extremely tight tolerances must be maintained in the design and production of complex-reflector headlamps. Dual-beam reflector headlamps Night driving is difficult and dangerous due to the blinding glare of headlights from oncoming traffic. Headlamps that satisfactorily illuminate the road ahead without causing glare have long been sought. The first solutions involved resistance-type dimming circuits, which decreased the intensity of the headlamps. This yielded to tilting reflectors, and later to dual-filament bulbs with a high and a low beam. In a two-filament headlamp, there can only be one filament exactly at the focal point of the reflector. There are two primary means of producing two different beams from a two-filament bulb in a single reflector. American system One filament is located at the focal point of the reflector. The other filament is shifted axially and radially away from the focal point. In most 2-filament sealed beams and in 2-filament replaceable bulbs of type 9004, 9007, and H13, the high-beam filament is at the focal point and the low-beam filament is off focus. For use in right-traffic countries, the low-beam filament is positioned slightly upward, forward, and leftward of the focal point, so that when it is energized, the beam is widened and shifted slightly downward and rightward of the headlamp axis. Transverse-filament bulbs such as the 9004 can only be used with the filaments horizontal, but axial-filament bulbs can be rotated or "clocked" by the headlamp designer to optimize the beam pattern or to affect the traffic-handedness of the low beam. The latter is accomplished by clocking the low-beam filament in an upward-forward-leftward position to produce a right-traffic low beam, or in an upward-forward-rightward position to produce a left-traffic low beam. The opposite tactic has also been employed in certain two-filament sealed beams. Placing the low beam filament at the focal point to maximize light collection by the reflector, and positioning the high beam filament slightly rearward-rightward-downward of the focal point. The relative directional shift between the two beams is the same with either technique – in a right-traffic country, the low beam is slightly downward-rightward and the high beam is slightly upward-leftward, relative to one another – but the lens optics must be matched to the filament placements selected. European system The traditional European method of achieving low and high beams from a single bulb involves two filaments along the axis of the reflector. The high beam filament is on the focal point, while the low beam filament is approximately 1 cm forward of the focal point and 3 mm above the axis. Below the low beam filament is a cup-shaped shield (called a "Graves shield") spanning an arc of 165°. When the low beam filament is illuminated, this shield casts a shadow on the corresponding lower area of the reflector, blocking downward light rays that would otherwise strike the reflector and be cast above the horizon. The bulb is rotated (or "clocked") within the headlamp to position the Graves shield so as to allow light to strike a 15° wedge of the lower half of the reflector. This is used to create the upsweep or upstep characteristic of ECE low beam light distributions. The bulb's rotative position within the reflector depends on the type of beam pattern to be produced and the traffic directionality of the market for which the headlamp is intended. This system was first used with the tungsten incandescent Bilux/Duplo R2 bulb of 1954, and later with the halogen H4 bulb of 1971. In 1992, US regulations were amended to permit the use of H4 bulbs redesignated HB2 and 9003, and with slightly different production tolerances stipulated. These are physically and electrically interchangeable with H4 bulbs. Similar optical techniques are used, but with different reflector or lens optics to create a US beam pattern rather than a European one. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. The American system historically permitted a greater overall amount of light within the low beam, since the entire reflector and lens area is used, but at the same time, the American system has traditionally offered much less control over upward light that causes glare, and for that reason has been largely rejected outside the US. In addition, the American system makes it difficult to create markedly different low and high beam light distributions. The high beam is usually a rough copy of the low beam, shifted slightly upward and leftward. The European system traditionally produced low beams containing less overall light, because only 60% of the reflector's surface area is used to create the low beam. However, low beam focus and glare control are easier to achieve. In addition, the lower 40% of the reflector and lens are reserved for high beam formation, which facilitates the optimization of both low and high beams. Developments in the 1990s and 2000s Complex-reflector technology in combination with new bulb designs such as H13 is enabling the creation of European-type low and high beam patterns without the use of a Graves Shield, while the 1992 US approval of the H4 bulb has made traditionally European 60% / 40% optical area divisions for low and high beam common in the US. Therefore, the difference in active optical area and overall beam light content no longer necessarily exists between US and ECE beams. Dual-beam HID headlamps employing reflector technology have been made using adaptations of both techniques. Projector (polyellipsoidal) lamps In this system a filament is located at one focus of an ellipsoidal reflector and has a condenser lens at the front of the lamp. A shade is located at the image plane, between the reflector and lens, and the projection of the top edge of this shade provides the low-beam cutoff. The shape of the shade edge and its exact position in the optical system determine the shape and sharpness of the cutoff. The shade may be lowered by a solenoid actuated pivot to provide a low beam, and removed from the light path for the high beam. Such optics are known as BiXenon or BiHalogen projectors. If the cutoff shade is fixed in the light path, separate high-beam lamps are required. The condenser lens may have slight fresnel rings or other surface treatments to reduce cutoff sharpness. Modern condenser lenses incorporate optical features specifically designed to direct some light upward towards the locations of retroreflective overhead road signs. Hella introduced ellipsoidal optics for acetylene headlamps in 1911, but following the electrification of vehicle lighting, this optical technique wasn't used for many decades. The first modern polyellipsoidal (projector) automotive lamp was the Super-Lite, an auxiliary headlamp produced in a joint venture between Chrysler Corporation and Sylvania and optionally installed in 1969 and 1970 full-size Dodge automobiles. It used an 85-watt transverse-filament tungsten-halogen bulb and was intended as a mid-beam, to extend the reach of the low beams during turnpike travel when low beams alone were inadequate but high beams would produce excessive glare. Projector main headlamps appeared in 1981 on the Audi Quartz, a concept car designed by Pininfarina for Geneva Auto Salon. Developed more or less simultaneously in Germany by Hella and Bosch and in France by Cibié, the projector low beam permitted accurate beam focus and a much smaller-diameter optical package, though a much deeper one, for any given beam output. The 1986 BMW 7 Series (E32) was the first volume-production car to use polyellipsoidal low beam headlamps. The main disadvantage of this type of headlamp is the need to accommodate the physical depth of the assembly, which may extend far back into the engine compartment. Light sources Tungsten The first electric headlamp light source was the tungsten filament, operating in a vacuum or inert-gas atmosphere inside the headlamp bulb or sealed beam. Compared to newer-technology light sources, tungsten filaments give off small amounts of light relative to the power they consume. Also, during the normal operation of such lamps, tungsten boils off the surface of the filament and condenses on the bulb glass, blackening it. This reduces the light output of the filament and blocks some of the light that would pass through an unblackened bulb glass, though blackening was less of a problem in sealed beam units; their large interior surface area minimized the thickness of the tungsten accumulation. For these reasons, plain tungsten filaments are all but obsolete in automotive headlamp service. Tungsten-halogen Tungsten-halogen technology (also called "quartz-halogen", "quartz-iodine", "iodine cycle", etc.) increases the effective luminous efficacy of a tungsten filament: when operating at a higher filament temperature which results in more lumens output per watt input, a tungsten-halogen lamp has a much longer brightness lifetime than similar filaments operating without the halogen regeneration cycle. At equal luminosity, the halogen-cycle bulbs also have longer lifetimes. European-designed halogen headlamp light sources are generally configured to provide more light at the same power consumption as their lower-output plain tungsten counterparts. By contrast, many US-based designs are configured to reduce or minimize the power consumption while keeping light output above the legal minimum requirements; some US tungsten-halogen headlamp light sources produce less initial light than their non-halogen counterparts. A slight theoretical fuel economy benefit and reduced vehicle construction cost through lower wire and switch ratings were the claimed benefits when American industry first chose how to implement tungsten-halogen technology. There was an improvement in seeing distance with US halogen high beams, which were permitted for the first time to produce 150,000 candela (cd) per vehicle, double the non-halogen limit of 75,000 cd but still well shy of the international European limit of 225,000 cd. After replaceable halogen bulbs were permitted in US headlamps in 1983, the development of US bulbs continued to favor long bulb life and low power consumption, while European designs continued to prioritise optical precision and maximum output. The H1 lamp was the first tungsten-halogen headlamp light source. It was introduced in 1962 by a consortium of European bulb and headlamp makers. This bulb has a single axial filament that consumes 55 watts at 12.0 volts, and produces 1550 lumens ±15% when operated at 13.2 V. H2 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1820 lm @ 13.2 V) followed in 1964, and the transverse-filament H3 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1450 lm ±15%) in 1966. H1 still sees wide use in low beams, high beams and auxiliary fog and driving lamps, as does H3. The H2 is no longer a current type, since it requires an intricate bulb holder interface to the lamp, has a short life and is difficult to handle. For those reasons, H2 was withdrawn from ECE Regulation 37 for use in new lamp designs (though H2 bulbs are still manufactured for replacement purposes in existing lamps), but H1 and H3 remain current and these two bulbs were legalised in the United States in 1993. More recent single-filament bulb designs include the H7 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1500 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), H8 (35 W @ 12.0 V, 800 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), H9 (65 W @ 12.0 V, 2100 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), and H11 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1350 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V). 24-volt versions of many bulb types are available for use in trucks, buses, and other commercial and military vehicles. The first dual-filament halogen bulb to produce both a low and a high beam, the H4 (60/55 W @ 12 V, 1650/1000 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), was released in 1971 and quickly became the predominant headlamp bulb throughout the world except in the United States, where the H4 is still not legal for automotive use. In 1989, the Americans created their own standard for a bulb called HB2: almost identical to H4 except with more stringent constraints on filament geometry and positional variance, and power consumption and light output expressed at the US test voltage of 12.8V. The first US halogen headlamp bulb, introduced in 1983, was the HB1/9004. It is a 12.8-volt, transverse dual-filament design that produces 700 lumens on low beam and 1200 lumens on high beam. The 9004 is rated for 65 watts (high beam) and 45 watts (low beam) at 12.8 volts. Other US approved halogen bulbs include the HB3 (65 W, 12.8 V), HB4 (55 W, 12.8 V), and HB5 (65/55 watts, 12.8 V). All of the European-designed and internationally approved bulbs except H4 are presently approved for use in headlamps complying with US requirements. Halogen infrared reflective (HIR) A further development of the tungsten-halogen bulb has a dichroic coating that passes visible light and reflects infrared radiation. The glass in such a bulb may be spherical or tubular. The reflected infrared radiation strikes the filament located at the center of the glass envelope, heating the filament to a greater degree than can be achieved through resistive heating alone. The superheated filament emits more light without an increase in power consumption. High-intensity discharge (HID) High-intensity discharge lamps (HID) produce light with an electric arc rather than a glowing filament. The high intensity of the arc comes from metallic salts that are vaporized within the arc chamber. These lamps have a higher efficacy than tungsten lamps. Because of the increased amounts of light available from HID lamps relative to halogen bulbs, HID headlamps producing a given beam pattern can be made smaller than halogen headlamps producing a comparable beam pattern. Alternatively, the larger size can be retained, in which case the HID headlamp can produce a more robust beam pattern. Automotive HID may be generically called "xenon headlamps", though they are actually metal-halide lamps that contain xenon gas. The xenon gas allows the lamps to produce minimally adequate light immediately upon start, and shortens the run-up time. The usage of argon, as is commonly done in street lights and other stationary metal-halide lamp applications, causes lamps to take several minutes to reach their full output. The light from HID headlamps can exhibit a distinct bluish tint when compared with tungsten-filament headlamps. Retrofitment When a halogen headlamp is retrofitted with an HID bulb, light distribution and output are altered. In the United States, vehicle lighting that does not conform to FMVSS 108 is not street legal. Glare will be produced and the headlamp's type approval or certification becomes invalid with the altered light distribution, so the headlamp is no longer street-legal in some locales. In the US, suppliers, importers and vendors that offer non-compliant kits are subject to civil fines. By October 2004, the NHTSA had investigated 24 suppliers and all resulted in termination of sale or recalls. In Europe and the many non-European countries applying ECE Regulations, even HID headlamps designed as such must be equipped with lens cleaning and automatic self-leveling systems, except on motorcycles. These systems are usually absent on vehicles not originally equipped with HID lamps. History In 1992 the first production low beam HID headlamps were manufactured by Hella and Bosch beginning in 1992 for optional availability on the BMW 7 Series. This first system uses a built-in, non-replaceable bulb without a UV-blocking glass shield or touch-sensitive electrical safety cutout, designated D1 – a designation that would be recycled years later for a wholly different type of lamp. The AC ballast is about the size of a building brick. In 1996 the first American-made effort at HID headlamps was on the 1996–98 Lincoln Mark VIII, which uses reflector headlamps with an unmasked, integral-ignitor lamp made by Sylvania and designated Type 9500. This was the only system to operate on DC, since reliability proved inferior to the AC systems. The Type 9500 system was not used on any other models, and was discontinued after Osram's takeover of Sylvania in 1997. All HID headlamps worldwide presently use the standardized AC-operated bulbs and ballasts. In 1999 the first worldwide HID headlights for both low and high beam were introduced on the Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215). Operation HID headlamp bulbs do not run on low-voltage DC current, so they require a ballast with either an internal or external ignitor. The ignitor is integrated into the bulb in D1 and D3 systems, and is either a separate unit or part of the ballast in D2 and D4 systems. The ballast controls the current to the bulb. The ignition and ballast operation proceeds in three stages: Ignition: a high voltage pulse is used to produce an electrical arc – in a manner similar to a spark plug – which ionizes the xenon gas, creating a conducting channel between the tungsten electrodes. Electrical resistance is reduced within the channel, and current flows between the electrodes. Initial phase: the bulb is driven with controlled overload. Because the arc is operated at high power, the temperature in the capsule rises quickly. The metallic salts vaporize, and the arc is intensified and made spectrally more complete. The resistance between the electrodes also falls; the electronic ballast control gear registers this and automatically switches to continuous operation. Continuous operation: all metal salts are in the vapor phase, the arc has attained its stable shape, and the luminous efficacy has attained its nominal value. The ballast now supplies stable electrical power so the arc will not flicker. Stable operating voltage is 85 volts AC in D1 and D2 systems, 42 volts AC in D3 and D4 systems. The frequency of the square-wave alternating current is typically 400 hertz or higher. The command is often near the steering wheel and a specific indicator is shown on the dashboard. Bulb types HID headlamps produce between 2,800 and 3,500 lumens from between 35 and 38 watts of electrical power, while halogen filament headlamp bulbs produce between 700 and 2,100 lumens from between 40 and 72 watts at 12.8 V. Current-production bulb categories are D1S, D1R, D2S, D2R, D3S, D3R, D4S, and D4R. The D stands for discharge, and the number is the type designator. The final letter describes the outer shield. The arc within an HID headlamp bulb generates considerable short-wave ultraviolet (UV) light, but none of it escapes the bulb, for a UV-absorbing hard glass shield is incorporated around the bulb's arc tube. This is important to prevent degradation of UV-sensitive components and materials in headlamps, such as polycarbonate lenses and reflector hardcoats. "S" lamps – D1S, D2S, D3S, and D4S – have a plain glass shield and are primarily used in projector-type optics. "R" lamps – D1R, D2R, D3R, and D4R – are designed for use in reflector-type headlamp optics. They have an opaque mask covering specific portions of the shield, which facilitates the optical creation of the light-dark boundary (cutoff) near the top of a low-beam light distribution. Automotive HID lamps emit considerable near-UV light, despite the shield. Color The correlated color temperature of factory installed automotive HID headlamps is between 4200K while tungsten-halogen lamps are at 3000K to 3550K. The spectral power distribution (SPD) of an automotive HID headlamp is discontinuous and spikey while the SPD of a filament lamp, like that of the sun, is a continuous curve. Moreover, the color rendering index (CRI) of tungsten-halogen headlamps (98) is much closer than that of HID headlamps (~75) to standardized sunlight (100). Studies have shown no significant safety effect of this degree of CRI variation in headlighting. Advantages Increased safety Automotive HID lamps offer about 3000 lumens and 90 Mcd/m2 versus 1400 lumens and 30 Mcd/m2 offered by halogen lamps. In a headlamp optic designed for use with an HID lamp, it produces more usable light. Studies have demonstrated drivers react faster and more accurately to roadway obstacles with good HID headlamps compared to halogen ones. Hence, good HID headlamps contribute to driving safety. The contrary argument is that glare from HID headlamps can reduce traffic safety by interfering with other drivers' vision. Efficacy and output Luminous efficacy is the measure of how much light is produced versus how much energy is consumed. HID lamps give higher efficacy than halogen lamps. The highest-intensity halogen lamps, H9 and HIR1, produce 2100 to 2530 lumens from approximately 70 watts at 13.2 volts. A D2S HID bulb produces 3200 lumens from approximately 42 watts during stable operation. The reduced power consumption means less fuel consumption, with resultant less emission per vehicle fitted with HID lighting (1.3 g/km assuming that 30% of an engine running time is with the lights on). Longevity The average service life of an HID bulb is 2000 hours, compared to between 450 and 1000 hours for a halogen lamp. Disadvantages Glare Vehicles equipped with HID headlamps (except motorcycles) are required by ECE regulation 48 also to be equipped with headlamp lens cleaning systems and automatic beam leveling control. Both of these measures are intended to reduce the tendency for high-output headlamps to cause high levels of glare to other road users. In North America, ECE R48 does not apply and while lens cleaners and beam levelers are permitted, they are not required; HID headlamps are markedly less prevalent in the US, where they have produced significant glare complaints. Scientific study of headlamp glare has shown that for any given intensity level, the light from HID headlamps is 40% more glaring than the light from tungsten-halogen headlamps. Mercury content HID headlamp bulb types D1R, D1S, D2R, D2S and 9500 contain the toxic heavy metal mercury. The disposal of mercury-containing vehicle parts is increasingly regulated throughout the world, for example under US EPA regulations. Newer HID bulb designs D3R, D3S, D4R, and D4S which are in production since 2004 contain no mercury, but are not electrically or physically compatible with headlamps designed for previous bulb types. Cost HID headlamps are significantly more costly to produce, install, purchase, and repair. The extra cost of the HID lights may exceed the fuel cost savings through their reduced power consumption, though some of this cost disadvantage is offset by the longer lifespan of the HID bulb relative to halogen bulbs. LED Timeline Automotive headlamp applications using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been undergoing development since 2004. In 2006 the first series-production LED low beams were factory-installed on the Lexus LS 600h / LS 600h L. The high beam and turn signal functions used filament bulbs. The headlamp was supplied by Koito Industries Ltd. In 2007 the first headlamps with all functions provided by LEDs, supplied by AL-Automotive Lighting, were introduced on the V10 Audi R8 sports car (except in North America). In 2009 Hella headlamps on the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Platinum became the first all-LED headlamps for the North American market. In 2010 the first all-LED headlamps with adaptive high beam and what Mercedes called the "Intelligent Light System" were introduced on the 2011 Mercedes CLS. In 2013 the first digitally controlled full-LED glare-free "Matrix LED" adaptive headlamps were introduced by Audi on the facelifted A8, with 25 individual LED segments. The system dims the light that would shine directly onto oncoming and preceding vehicles, but continues to cast its full light on the zones between and beside them. This works because the LED high beams are split into numerous individual light-emitting diodes. High-beam LEDs in both headlights are arranged in a matrix and adapt fully electronically to the surroundings in milliseconds. They are activated and deactivated or dimmed individually by a control unit. In addition, the headlights also function as a cornering light. Using predictive route data supplied by the MMI navigation plus, the focus of the beam is shifted towards the bend even before the driver turns the steering wheel. In 2014: Mercedes-Benz introduced a similar technology on the facelifted CLS-Class in 2014, called Multibeam LED, with 24 individual segments. As of 2010, LED headlamps such as those available on the Toyota Prius were providing output between halogen and HID headlamps, with system power consumption slightly lower than other headlamps, longer lifespans, and more flexible design possibilities. As LED technology continues to evolve, the performance of LED headlamps was predicted to improve to approach, meet, and perhaps one day surpass that of HID headlamps. That occurred by mid-2013, when the Mercedes S-Class came with LED headlamps giving higher performance than comparable HID setups. Cold lenses Before LEDs, all light sources used in headlamps (tungsten, halogen, HID) emitted infrared energy that can thaw built-up snow and ice off a headlamp lens and prevent further accumulation. LEDs do not. Some LED headlamps move heat from the heat sink on the back of the LEDs to the inner face of the front lens to warm it up, while on others no provision is made for lens thawing. Laser A laser lamp uses mirrors to direct a laser on to a phosphor that then emits a light. Laser lamps use half as much power as LED lamps. They were first developed by Audi for use as headlamps in the 24 Hours of Le Mans. In 2014, the BMW i8 became the first production car to be sold with an auxiliary high-beam lamp based on this technology. The limited-production Audi R8 LMX uses lasers for its spot lamp feature, providing illumination for high-speed driving in low-light conditions. The Rolls-Royce Phantom VIII employs laser headlights with a high beam range of over 600 meters. Automatic headlamps Automatic systems for activating the headlamps have been available since the mid-1950s, originally only on luxury American models such as Cadillac's Twilight Sentinel, Lincoln, and Imperial. Basic implementations turn the headlights on at dusk and off at dawn. Modern implementations use sensors to detect the amount of exterior light. UN R48 has mandated the installation of automatic headlamps since 30 July 2016. With a daytime running lamp equipped and operated, the dipped beam headlamp should automatically turn on if the car is driving in less than 1,000 lux ambient conditions such as in a tunnel and in dark environments. While in such situations, a daytime running lamp would make glare more evident to the upcoming vehicle driver, which in turn would influence the upcoming vehicle driver's eyesight, such that, by automatically switching the daytime running lamp to the dipped-beam headlamp, the inherent safety defect could be solved and safety benefit ensured. Beam aim control Headlamp leveling systems The 1948 Citroën 2CV was launched in France with a manual headlamp leveling system, controlled by the driver with a knob through a mechanical rod linkage. This allowed the driver to adjust the vertical aim of the headlamps to compensate for the passenger and cargo load in the vehicle. In 1954, Cibié introduced an automatic headlamp leveling system linked to the vehicle's suspension system to keep the headlamps correctly aimed regardless of vehicle load, without driver intervention. The first vehicle to be so equipped was the Panhard Dyna Z. Beginning in the 1970s, Germany and some other European countries began requiring remote-control headlamp leveling systems that permit the driver to lower the lamps' aim by means of a dashboard control lever or knob if the rear of the vehicle is weighted down with passengers or cargo, which would tend to raise the lamps' aim angle and create glare. Such systems typically use stepper motors at the headlamp and a rotary switch on the dash marked "0", "1", "2", "3" for different beam heights, "0" being the "normal" (and highest) position for when the car is lightly loaded. Internationalized ECE Regulation 48, in force in most of the world outside North America, currently specifies a limited range within which the vertical aim of the headlamps must be maintained under various vehicle load conditions; if the vehicle isn't equipped with an adaptive suspension sufficient to keep the headlamps aimed correctly regardless of load, a headlamp leveling system is required. The regulation stipulates a more stringent version of this anti-glare measure if the vehicle has headlamps with low beam light source(s) that produce more than 2,000 lumens – xenon bulbs and certain high-power halogens, for example. Such vehicles must be equipped with headlamp self-leveling systems that sense the vehicle's degree of squat due to cargo load and road inclination, and automatically adjust the headlamps' vertical aim to keep the beam correctly oriented without any action required by the driver. Leveling systems are not required by the North American regulations. A 2007 study, however, suggests automatic levelers on all headlamps, not just those with high-power light sources, would give drivers substantial safety benefits of better seeing and less glare. Directional headlamps These provide improved lighting for cornering. Some automobiles have their headlamps connected to the steering mechanism so the lights will follow the movement of the front wheels. Czechoslovak Tatra was an early implementer of such a technique, producing in the 1930s a vehicle with a central directional headlamp. The American 1948 Tucker Sedan was likewise equipped with a third central headlamp connected mechanically to the steering system. The 1967 French Citroën DS and 1970 Citroën SM were equipped with an elaborate dynamic headlamp positioning system that adjusted the inboard headlamps' horizontal and vertical position in response to inputs from the vehicle's steering and suspension systems. At that time US regulations required this system to be removed from those models sold in the U.S. The D series cars equipped with the system used cables connecting the long-range headlamps to a lever on the steering relay while the inner long-range headlamps on the SM used a sealed hydraulic system using a glycerin-based fluid instead of mechanical cables. Both these systems were of the same design as their respective cars' headlamp leveling systems. The cables of the D system tended to rust in the cable sheaths while the SM system gradually leaked fluid, causing the long-range lamps to turn inward, looking "cross-eyed." A manual adjustment was provided but once it was to the end of its travel the system required refilling with fluid or replacement of the tubes and dashpots. Citroën SM non-US market vehicles were equipped with heating of the headlamp cover glasses, this heat supplied by ducts carrying warm air from the radiator exhaust to the space between the headlamp lenses and the cover glasses. This provided demisting/defogging of the entire interior of the cover glasses, keeping the glass clear of mist/fog over the entire surface. The glasses have thin stripes on their surfaces that are heated by the headlight beams; however, the ducted warm air provides demisting when the headlamps are not turned on. The glasses' stripes on both D and SM cars appear similar to rear windshield glass electric defogger heating strips, but they are passive, not electrified. Advanced front-lighting system (AFS) Beginning in the 2000s, there was a resurgence in interest in the idea of moving or optimizing the headlight beam in response not only to vehicular steering and suspension dynamics, but also to ambient weather and visibility conditions, vehicle speed, and road curvature and contour. A task force under the EUREKA organization, composed primarily of European automakers, lighting companies and regulators began working to develop design and performance specifications for what is known as Adaptive Front-Lighting Systems, commonly AFS. Manufacturers such as BMW, Toyota, Škoda, and Vauxhall/Opel have released vehicles equipped with AFS since 2003. Rather than the mechanical linkages employed in earlier directional-headlamp systems, AFS relies on electronic sensors, transducers, and actuators. Other AFS techniques include special auxiliary optical systems within a vehicle's headlamp housings. These auxiliary systems may be switched on and off as the vehicle and operating conditions call for light or darkness at the angles covered by the beam the auxiliary optics produce. A typical system measures steering angle and vehicle speed to swivel the headlamps. The most advanced AFS systems use GPS signals to anticipate changes in road curvature, rather than simply reacting to them. Automatic beam switching Even when conditions would warrant the use of high-beam headlamps, drivers often do not use them. There have long been efforts, particularly in America, to devise an effective automatic beam selection system to relieve the driver of the need to select and activate the correct beam as traffic, weather, and road conditions change. General Motors introduced the first automatic headlight dimmer called the 'Autronic Eye' in 1952 on their Cadillac, Buick, and Oldsmobile models; the feature was offered in other GM vehicles starting in 1953. The system's phototube and associated circuitry were housed in a gunsight-like tube atop the dashboard. An amplifier module was located in the engine compartment that controlled the headlight relay using signals from the dashboard-mounted tube unit. This pioneering setup gave way in 1958 to a system called 'GuideMatic' in reference to GM's Guide lighting division. The GuideMatic had a more compact dashtop housing and a control knob that allowed the driver to adjust the system's sensitivity threshold to determine when the headlamps would be dipped from high to low beam in response to an oncoming vehicle. By the early 1970s, this option was withdrawn from all GM models except Cadillac, on which GuideMatic was available through 1988. The photosensor for this system used an amber lens, and the adoption of retro-reflective yellow road signs, such as for oncoming curves, caused them to dim prematurely - possibly leading to their discontinuation. Ford- and Chrysler-built vehicles were also available with the GM-made dimmers from the 1950s through the 1980s. A system called 'AutoDim' was offered on several Lincoln models starting in the mid-1950s, and eventually the Ford Thunderbird and some Mercury models offered it as well. Premium Chrysler and Imperial models offered a system called Automatic Beam Control throughout the 1960s and early 1970s. Rabinow dimmer Though the systems based on photoresistors evolved, growing more compact and moving from the dashboard to a less conspicuous location behind the radiator grill, they were still unable to reliably discern headlamps from non-vehicular light sources such as streetlights. They also did not dip to low beam when the driver approached a vehicle from behind, and they would spuriously dip to low beam in response to road sign reflections of the vehicle's own high beam headlamps. American inventor Jacob Rabinow devised and refined a scanning automatic dimmer system impervious to streetlights and reflections, but no automaker purchased the rights, and the problematic photoresistor type remained on the market through the late 1980s. Bone-Midland lamps In 1956, the inventor Even P. Bone developed a system where a vane in front of each headlight moved automatically and caused a shadow in front of the approaching vehicle, allowing for high beam use without glare for the approaching driver. The system, called "Bone-Midland Lamps," was never taken up by any car manufacturer. Camera-based dimmer Present systems based on imaging CMOS cameras can detect and respond appropriately to leading and oncoming vehicles while disregarding streetlights, road signs, and other spurious signals. Camera-based beam selection was first released in 2005 on the Jeep Grand Cherokee and has since then been incorporated into comprehensive driver assistance systems by automakers worldwide. The headlights will dim when a bright reflection bounces off of a street sign. Intelligent Light System Intelligent Light System is a headlamp beam control system introduced in 2006 on the Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W211) which offers five different bi-xenon light functions, each of which is suited to typical driving or weather conditions: Country mode Motorway mode Enhanced fog lamps Active light function (Advanced front-lighting system (AFS)) Cornering light function Adaptive highbeam Adaptive Highbeam Assist is Mercedes-Benz' marketing name for a headlight control strategy that continuously automatically tailors the headlamp range so the beam just reaches other vehicles ahead, thus always ensuring maximum possible seeing range without glaring other road users. It was first launched in the Mercedes E-class in 2009. It provides a continuous range of beam reach from a low-aimed low beam to a high-aimed high beam, rather than the traditional binary choice between low and high beams. The range of the beam can vary between 65 and 300 meters, depending on traffic conditions. In traffic, the low beam cutoff position is adjusted vertically to maximise seeing range while keeping glare out of leading and oncoming drivers' eyes. When no traffic is close enough for glare to be a problem, the system provides full high beam. Headlamps are adjusted every 40 milliseconds by a camera on the inside of the front windscreen which can determine distance to other vehicles. The S-Class, CLS-Class and C-Class also offer this technology. In the CLS, the adaptive high beam is realised with LED headlamps - the first vehicle producing all adaptive light functions with LEDs. Since 2010 some Audi models with Xenon headlamps are offering a similar system: adaptive light with variable headlight range control. In Japan, the Toyota Crown, Toyota Crown Majesta, Nissan Fuga and Nissan Cima offer the technology on top level models. Until Feb 2022, this technology had been illegal in the US, as FMVSS 108 specifically stated that headlamps must have dedicated high and low beams to be deemed road-legal. An infrastructure bill enacted in November 2021 included language that directs the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to amend FMVSS 108 to allow the use of this technology, and set a two-year deadline for implementing this change. In Feb 2022, the NHTSA amended FMVSS 108 allowing adaptive headlights for use in the US. Glare-free high beam and pixel light A glare-free high beam is a camera-driven dynamic lighting control strategy that selectively shades spots and slices out of the high beam pattern to protect other road users from glare, while continuously providing the driver with maximum seeing range. The area surrounding other road users is constantly illuminated at high beam intensity, but without the glare that would typically result from using uncontrolled high beams in traffic. This constantly changing beam pattern requires complex sensors, microprocessors, and actuators because the vehicles which must be shadowed out of the beam are constantly moving. The dynamic shadowing can be achieved with movable shadow masks shifted within the light path inside the headlamp. Or, the effect can be achieved by selectively darkening addressable LED emitters or reflector elements, a technique known as pixel light. The first mechanically controlled (non-LED), glare-free high beam was Volkswagen's "Dynamic Light Assist" package, which was introduced in 2010 on the Volkswagen Touareg, Phaeton, and Passat. In 2012, the facelifted Lexus LS (XF40) introduced an identical bi-xenon system: "Adaptive High-beam System". The first mechanically controlled LED glare-free headlamps were introduced in 2012 on BMW 7 Series: "Selective Beam" (anti-dazzle high-beam assistant). In 2013 Mercedes-Benz introduced the same LED system: "Adaptive Highbeam Assist Plus". The first digitally controlled LED glare-free headlamps were introduced in 2013 on Audi A8. See LED section. Care Headlamp systems require periodic maintenance. Sealed beam headlamps are modular; when the filament burns out, the entire sealed beam is replaced. Most vehicles in North America made since the late 1980s use headlamp lens-reflector assemblies that are considered a part of the car, and just the bulb is replaced when it fails. Manufacturers vary the means by which the bulb is accessed and replaced. Headlamp aim must be properly checked and adjusted frequently, for misaimed lamps are dangerous and ineffective. Over time, the headlamp lens can deteriorate. It can become pitted due to abrasion of road sand and pebbles and can crack, admitting water into the headlamp. "Plastic" (polycarbonate) lenses can become cloudy and discoloured. This is due to oxidation of the painted-on lens hardcoat by ultraviolet light from the sun and the headlamp bulbs. If it is minor, it can be polished out using a reputable brand of a car polish that is intended for restoring the shine to chalked paint. In more advanced stages, the deterioration extends through the actual plastic material, rendering the headlamp useless and necessitating complete replacement. Sanding or aggressively polishing the lenses, or plastic headlight restoration, can buy some time, but doing so removes the protective coating from the lens, which when so stripped will deteriorate faster and more severely. Kits for a quality repair are available that allow the lens to be polished with progressively finer abrasives, and then be sprayed with an aerosol of ultra violet resistant clear coating. The reflector, made out of vaporized aluminum deposited in an extremely thin layer on a metal, glass, or plastic substrate, can become dirty, oxidised, or burnt, and lose its specularity. This can happen if water enters the headlamp, if bulbs of higher than specified wattage are installed, or simply with age and use. Reflectors thus degraded, if they cannot be cleaned, must be replaced. Lens cleaners Dirt buildup on headlamp lenses increases glare to other road users, even at levels too low to reduce seeing performance significantly for the driver. Therefore, headlamp lens cleaners are required by UN Regulation 48 on vehicles equipped with low-beam headlamps using light sources that have a reference luminous flux of 2,000 lumens or more. This includes all HID headlamps and some high-power halogen units. Some cars have lens cleaners fitted even where the regulations do not require them. North America, for example, does not use UN regulations, and FMVSS 108 does not require lens cleaners on any headlamps, though they are permitted. Lens cleaning systems come in two main varieties: a small motor-driven rubber wiper or brush conceptually similar to windshield wipers, or a fixed or telescopic high-pressure sprayer which cleans the lenses with a spray of windshield washer fluid. Most recent lens cleaning systems are of the spray type because UN regulations do not permit mechanical cleaning systems (wipers) to be used with plastic-lens headlamps, and most recent headlamps have plastic lenses. Some cars with retractable headlamps, such as the original Mazda MX-5, have a squeegee at the front of the lamp recess which automatically wipes the lenses as they are raised or lowered, although it does not provide washer fluid. See also Automotive lamp types Automotive lighting Automotive night vision Headlamp tester Headlamp (outdoor) Headlight flashing ISIRI 6672 Lighting-up time Train lights Twilight Sentinel World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations References External links Articles containing video clips Automotive lamps
418801	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Progressive%20Party%20%28Puerto%20Rico%29	New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)	The New Progressive Party (, PNP) is a political party in Puerto Rico that advocates statehood. The PNP is one of the two major parties in Puerto Rico with significant political strength and currently holds both the seat of the governor and of the resident commissioner. The party is primarily contrasted by two other political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), which advocates maintaining the current colonial political status of Puerto Rico as that of an unincorporated territory of the United States with self-government, and the smaller Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP), which advocates for the independence of Puerto Rico. In national/mainland politics, members are split, with some party members affiliating with the Republican Party and some with the Democratic Party, although the PNP tends to be seen as slightly more conservative than the PPD overall. The party traces its history back to 1967. In that year, the Partido Estadista Republicano instructed its members to not participate in a referendum on statehood held that year. Unhappy with the mandate, several dissidents left the Statehood Party and founded the PNP afterwards. History Foundation The party traces its beginnings to an August, 1967 assembly in a sports complex (which is now known as el Estadio Country Club) in the sector of Country Club, San Juan, Puerto Rico. On January 5, 1968, the party was belatedly certified as an official political group by the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. The party had roots in a prior pro-statehood party led by Miguel Angel García Méndez. The incipient party campaigned unsuccessfully in favor of statehood in the Puerto Rico status referendum of 1967, even though the historical pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party decided to boycott that plebiscite. Main party founder, president, and former statehood Republican Party standard-bearer Luis A. Ferré categorized the New Progressive Party as one which would not be aligned to any of the two major U.S. national parties. Under Luis A. Ferré, the NPP came to power in January 1969, after defeating Luis Negrón López, the gubernatorial candidate from the Popular Democratic Party (PDP) in the November 1968 elections. Smaller vote totals were obtained by the Partido del Pueblo led by Governor Roberto Sánchez Vilella and the candidate from the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP), Antonio González. The governing party was saddled by Sánchez Vilella's break-away candidacy, who had feuded with the PPD founder and former Governor Luis Muñoz Marín. 1970s Four years later, in 1972, Ferré lost to the reunified PDP's candidate, Senate President Rafael Hernández Colón, by the biggest percentual margin since the NPP's founding (7.3%); however, in 1976, under the leadership of San Juan Mayor Carlos Romero Barceló, the NPP returned to power. Romero Barceló would face Hernández Colón three times for the governorship. 1980s In the 1980 general elections, Carlos A. Romero Barceló won reelection by a narrow margin of approximately 3,000 votes. A prominent event during Romero Barceló's term, the Cerro Maravilla incident, would end up overshadowing Romero Barceló's governorship. The incident involved the killing of two young men who had gone to Cerro Maravilla, site of a major communications facility for the island, with the intention of sabotaging the facilities. After arriving at Cerro Maravilla the two men were ambushed and killed by the state police. Initially, it was reported that the two young men had been shot because they resisted arrest; as the investigation progressed, however, it became clear the men had been shot, execution style, while under police custody. The opposition party, the PDP (which was in control of the legislature at the time), organized hearings in which they attempted to prove the whole incident was planned by the administration of Gov. Romero Barceló. Further scandals erupted when it became known that an undercover police agent who was with the two men had actually engineered the whole plan. This, combined with the fact that the then-mayor of San Juan, Hernán Padilla, left the party to form his own party (Partido Renovación Puertorriqueña, PRP), helped Hernández Colón get elected to a second non-consecutive term in 1984. In 1988, San Juan Mayor and former Resident Commissioner Baltasar Corrada del Río ran as the NPP candidate for governor but lost the race to Hernández Colón, who won a third term. 1990s The NPP came back to power in 1993 when Pedro Rosselló, a pediatric surgeon who had been its unsuccessful congressional candidate in 1988, became governor by defeating Luis Muñoz Marín's daughter, Senator Victoria Muñoz Mendoza, the PDP candidate for governor. Rosselló launched an anti-crime campaign known as "Mano dura contra el crimen" ("Strong hand against crime") in which the Puerto Rico National Guard was used to assist the Island police force. During Pedro J. Rosselló's term, a number of large-scale infrastructure projects were undertaken, including the "Tren Urbano" (Metro Rail System), the "Superaqueduct", the construction of the Puerto Rico Convention Center and the Puerto Rico Coliseum. His policies also included a push toward privatization of public entities and free health care for the poor. He led the NPP in a campaign for Puerto Rican statehood in 1993, in which locally enacted plebiscites were held to consult the Puerto Rican public on their position regarding the political status of the island with the United States. He supported the proposal for a referendum in Puerto Rico to define the political status of the island. However, the bill died in committee in the U.S. Senate. Nevertheless, Rosselló carried out another plebiscite in 1998 which gave electors four options plus a fifth one, "None of the Above". The opposing Popular Democratic Party led a campaign to boycott the plebiscite, charging it was structured to favor the ruling NPP party's statehood goals, and called the electorate to vote for the "None of the Above" option. The boycott was successful, as the None of the Above column garnered more votes than all of the other options. Rosselló, however, argued before Congress that statehood had obtained more votes than any of the other political status options in the plebiscite as he claimed that the fifth option ("None of the Above") was an undefined vote in terms of status. In the 1996 elections, the NPP candidate, Rosselló, defeated opponent Héctor Luis Acevedo (PDP), the mayor of San Juan at the time, and Representative David Noriega (PIP), for a second term, after obtaining more than one million votes and the largest landslide of any gubernatorial candidate since 1964. In 1998, the sale of the state-owned Puerto Rico Telephone Company (PRTC) to GTE for $1.9 billion led to a general strike organized by labor unions and backed by opposition forces. Rosselló's popularity along with the NPP's took a hit due to the backlash, as well as to several major corruption cases. 2000s Rosselló stepped down as governor after eight years in power in 2001. His period as governor was marked by the Vieques protests and major economic growth due to the coincidence of the emerging Internet. In 2000, Carlos I. Pesquera, Secretary of Transportation under Rosselló, ran for governor. Pre-election polls had him at a considerable advantage over his PDP opponent, San Juan mayor Sila María Calderón. As the election grew closer, Calderón closed the gap as Pesquera's image was harmed by a PDP campaign focusing on corruption under Rosselló's tenure. It also did not help Pesquera that the Acting US District Attorney Guillermo Gil said in June 2000 (three months before the November 2000 election) "corruption has a name and it is called the New Progressive Party" while announcing a grand jury indictment. The grand jury had accused 18 people — including two mayors from Rosselló's NPP — of running an extortion scheme that skimmed $800,000 in kickbacks from a $56 million government contract. During a news conference, Gil told journalists that the extorted money had ended up in the coffers of the NPP. This and other actions by Gil were object of many ethics complaints to the US Department of Justice by NPP leaders. In this environment, the NPP lost the 2000 election, losing the Governor's seat, the Resident Commissioner, and the state legislature. This was the first election since its creation that the NPP suffered a vote reduction. Leo Díaz assumed the NPP Presidency, but it was short-lived as Pesquera returned to occupy the position after defeating Díaz. Turmoil consumed the NPP during the first two years of the 2001–2005 term. The Secretary of Education, under the Rossello's administration, Víctor Fajardo, was charged and convicted by federal agencies of appropriating millions of federal funds directed to the Education Department. The former House Speaker and Republican National Committee Man, Edison Misla Aldarondo was also charged with extortion by the US Attorney's Office, and was forced to resign. In an ironic turn of events, NPP figures charged with federal corruption crimes were also charged with corruption by the Puerto Rico Justice Department using new anti-corruption state laws that the NPP had enacted. In 2001, Calderon named a Blue Ribbon Committee that was dedicated to investigate government transactions under Rossello's two terms. 2003 NPP primaries for Governor In July 2002, several of the party's leaders were involved in an incident at the Office of Women's Affairs. Pesquera led a group of pro-statehood advocates and the press into the government office whose administrator had refused to display the American flag alongside the flag of Puerto Rico, as required by law. A jury acquitted Pesquera and other followers of any wrongdoing. In March 2003, Rosselló, who had been living in the Commonwealth of Virginia, returned to the island, responding to the many calls and visits he received from prominent citizens and politicians. Rosselló subsequently defeated Pesquera in the NPP primary for the gubernatorial nomination. 2004 General Elections Rosselló's prior administration was repeatedly painted as corrupt, while his PDP opponent (Calderón chose not to run for re-election), Resident Commissioner Aníbal Acevedo Vilá (PDP) was initially behind in the polls. After his performance in televised debates, Acevedo's campaign gained momentum, aided in part by the favorable press he received from the island media outlets. In pre-election polls, Rosselló led by double digits, but ultimately Rosselló lost by some 3,000 votes (1,200 votes went as write-in for Carlos Pesquera) proving that once again that corruption matters to Puerto Rican voters. Rosselló challenged the electoral results alleging that split ticket votes, which had always been counted before, were now illegal. After a lengthy court battle decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, Acevedo Vila was certified as governor. Senate conflict As 2005 began, Rosselló became a Senator for the Arecibo district after Senator Víctor Loubriel resigned from the seat to which he'd been elected, effectively gaining a seat for which he did not run. Thus started a struggle between Senate President Kenneth McClintock and Rosselló for control of the Senate Presidency. The dispute ended in a stalemate as McClintock refused to leave the position, a stance respected by the PDP minority senators and five other NPP senators. This led to the expulsion from the party of McClintock as well as two of the NPP senators who backed him, a matter which led McClintock to file suit in San Juan Superior Court, winning the case, which was confirmed by the Puerto Rico Supreme Court in a 5-1 ruling. The infighting ended when Rosselló was defeated in the 2008 primary and when McClintock co-chaired Sen. Hillary Clinton's successful Democratic primary campaign and helped lead her to a record-setting 68-32% victory in the waning days of her bid for the Democratic nomination. 2008 NPP primaries for Governor On March 7, 2007, Rosselló stated that he was no longer interested in the Senate Presidency and then focused his attention in preventing Resident Commissioner Luis Fortuño from winning the March 2008 gubernatorial primary, and allowed his name to be placed in nomination for the party's gubernatorial primary. McClintock and four other senators won in San Juan Superior Court a suit to nullify the sanctions and expulsions that the party leadership has levied against them. The Puerto Rico Supreme Court confirmed the lower court decision by a 5-to-1 vote. As a result, McClintock and his supporters were recognized as NPP members and free to run under the party banner. Shortly after the primary polls closed on March 9, 2008, Pedro Rosselló conceded the victory to Luis Fortuño after a large margin of votes in favor of his opponent in the NPP party primaries for the presidency of the party and gubernatorial nomination. Rosselló admitted defeat even before the votes were completely tallied claiming Fortuño as the next candidate of the PNP party. On March 10, 2008, Rosselló sent the media a written statement regarding his future in which he confirmed he will be retiring from active politics and will not be campaigning for any candidate, however he would finish his term as senator for the Arecibo District, which he did. Primary backlash Most of Rosselló's supporters were elected in the primary and endorsed Fortuño as their candidate for governor. However, several prominent NPP members demonstrated strong opposition to Fortuño's candidacy and victory. Ramírez was a candidate for Resident Commissioner in the primaries and was openly supporting Rosselló. She lost to Fortuño's candidate, Pedro Pierluisi, and to another Rosselló supporter who was also defeated, former Senate President, Charlie Rodríguez. When Ramírez was asked by the media if she will vote for Fortuño, she replied "My vote is secret". Another strong voice against Fortuño was NPP former President Leo Díaz. Díaz accused Fortuño and his wife of having ties to PDP law firms and to colonialist interests. At a November 4, 2007, rally called "Con Fuerza para Vencer" (With the Strength to Win), Díaz said, "In this primary the life of this party is in jeopardy. The other candidate, Fortuño, isn't a real statehood defender! He should explain why he has ties with PDP's law firms and why the colonialist special interests are financing his campaign[...]". He has since rejoined party activities and chairs Santini's 2012 reelection efforts. San Juan mayor Jorge Santini also made strong statements against Fortuño during the primary campaign, as he supported Rosselló. He said that Fortuño wasn't a "full-time leader" and that he "made arrangements with other causes". He subsequently campaigned for Fortuño, both in 2008 as well as 2012. 2008 elections On November 4, 2008, the NPP retained and expanded super-majorities in the Legislative Assembly, and won both the Resident Commissioner and Governor race by a landslide. 2010s 2012 election and plebiscite While Gov. Fortuño failed to win reelection on Nov. 6, 2012, his running mate Pedro R. Pierluisi Urrutia became Puerto Rico's top vote-getter. In a separate matter, in 2012, the NPP won by wide margins the two questions posed in a separate political status plebiscite ballot. Fifty-four percent rejected the continuation of the current territorial political relationship with the United States while 61% of those choosing another political status voted for statehood. 2016 election On November 8, 2016, the NPP's gubernatorial candidate Ricardo Rosselló beat the PDP's candidate, former Secretary of State David Bernier, to become the Governor of Puerto Rico. In the same election, Jenniffer González became the new, and first female, Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico. The New Progressive Party became the majority in the Legislative Assembly by winning 21 seats of the Senate and 34 seats of the House of Representatives. However, the PDP retained a majority of the mayoralty races in the island, with a total of 45 out of 78 municipalities. The New Progressive Party (PNP) won a total of 33. 2020s 2020 election On September 24, 2020, Jorge Báez Pagán became the first openly gay member of the House of Representatives in the island's history. In January 2021, the new delegation of 21 PNP elected officials pledged to not increase taxes citing an unemployment rate of 14% in Puerto Rico. Instead governor Pierluisi opted for cuts in pensions to balance the budget, which was received with protests from 18 unions in Puerto Rico. The protestors rather favoured Bill 120, proposed by PNP representative Lourdes Ramos, to guarantee a "dignified retirement". Electoral history In legislative elections Gubernatorial Elections Resident Commissioner Elections Affiliation with national parties Three NPP gubernatorial candidates registered nationally as Republicans (Luis A. Ferré, Baltasar Corrada and Luis G. Fortuño) while four NPP gubernatorial candidates registered nationally as Democrats (Carlos Romero Barceló, Carlos Pesquera, Pedro Rosselló and Ricardo Rosselló). When Fortuño was governor, his top administration officials were also split in national politics. His last chief of staff, Miguel Romero, and his Secretary of State (and first in line of succession), Kenneth McClintock, are Democrats, while his last Attorney General, Guillermo Somoza, is a Republican. House NPP Leader Jenniffer González and Senate Minority Leader Larry Seilhamer are Republicans. Party logo The party is strongly associated with the color blue in Puerto Rico because of its logo. Since the logo features a palm tree, many Puerto Ricans call the NPP "La Palma". The use of the coconut palm tree as a symbol by the PNP persists to this day. The logo's original version consisted of a light blue palm tree, partially encircled by words in a semicircle (the exact color hue for the logo being that of the United Nations flag, as a result of a personal request from party founder Luis A. Ferré). The original logo had the party's name surrounding it; eventually, the words "estadidad, seguridad, progreso" ("statehood, security, progress" in English) substituted the party name. The logo later enclosed the palm tree in a blue oval and reversed its colors. The tonality of blue used in the newer logo was eventually changed to a deep navy blue, as to liken it to that of the canton of the United States' flag. In 2014, the party approved the new logo, which now includes the word "Igualdad" (equality). Party leaders Party presidents Gubernatorial nominees See also List of political parties in Puerto Rico Politics of Puerto Rico 51-star flag Notes References External links 1967 establishments in Puerto Rico Political history of Puerto Rico Political parties established in 1967 Political parties in Puerto Rico Statehood movement in Puerto Rico Political parties in insular areas of the United States
418807	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cracked%20%28magazine%29	Cracked (magazine)	Cracked was an American humor magazine. Founded in 1958, Cracked proved to be the most durable of the many publications to be launched in the wake of Mad magazine. In print, Cracked conspicuously copied Mads layouts and style, and even featured a simpleminded, wide-cheeked mascot, a janitor named Sylvester P. Smythe on its covers, in a manner similar to Mads Alfred E. Neuman. Unlike Neuman, who appears primarily on covers, Smythe sometimes spoke and was frequently seen inside the magazine, interacting with parody subjects and other regular characters. A 1998 reader contest led to Smythe finally getting a full middle name: "Phooey." An article on Cracked.com, the website which adopted Crackeds name after the magazine ceased publication, joked that the magazine was "created as a knock-off of Mad magazine just over 50 years ago", and it "spent nearly half a century with a fan base primarily people who got to the store after Mad sold out." Crackeds publication frequency was reduced in the 1990s, and was erratic in the 2000s. In 2006, the magazine was revived with a new editorial formula that represented a significant departure from its prior Mad style. The new format was more akin to "lad" magazines like Maxim and FHM. The new formula, however, was unsuccessful and Cracked again canceled its print magazine in February 2007 after three issues. Later that year, the brand was carried over to a website, Cracked.com, now owned by Literally Media. Early staff The magazine's first editor was Sol Brodsky, who was better known as a journeyman artist and later production manager and a publishing vice president at Marvel Comics. Crackeds original publisher, Robert C. Sproul's Major Publications, often imitated other companies' successes in various genres, such as westerns, men's adventure, and the Warren Publications mid-1960s revival of horror comics. Editor Terry Bisson later recalled, "The whole company was about lowball imitations. The publisher, Robert Sproul, wanted to put out some imitations of western, romance and astrology mags, and I was hired (at about age 27) to put them together because of my romance mag experience... The pseudomags did pretty well (this was a very low end market)." Many of the Cracked contributors would also work on these titles. A number of monster-themed issues were printed under the Cracked umbrella, capitalizing on such publications as Fangoria and Famous Monsters of Filmland. Sproul published Cracked into the 1980s. However, even as the company chased publishing trends, its long-running flagship title was Cracked Magazine—or Cracked Mazagine''', as its cover often read, deliberately misspelling "magazine". (In the same vein, the magazine's website Cracked.com originally referred to itself as a ".") Artists Some notable artists provided art for Cracked, in particular John Severin. Severin was one of the original artists on Mad, and worked heavily on EC Comics' war books. He was also one of the pre-eminent artists in Western comics. He would eventually come to be best known as Crackeds house cartoonist. For almost 40 years, he was the magazine's mainstay artist, frequently illustrating multiple articles in the same issue, and virtually all of its covers. Reacting to his own company's obituary of Severin in 2012, Fantagraphics co-publisher Kim Thompson wrote, "I don't think I'm [alone] in thinking of Cracked for most of its run as 'a bunch of crap, and John Severin. The magazine also regularly featured good girl artist Bill Ward, comic book stalwart Howard Nostrand, and gag cartoonists Don Orehek and Charles Rodrigues. In later years, the magazine was a useful training ground for such future independent comic book creators as Rick Altergott, Dan Clowes, and Peter Bagge. Clowes would later discuss his childhood ambivalence for the magazine with an interviewer: "No one was ever a fan of Cracked. We would buy Mad every month, but about two weeks later we would get anxious for new material. We would tell ourselves, 'OK, we are not going to buy Cracked. Never again!' And we'd hold out for a while, but then as the month dragged on it just became, 'OK, I guess I'll buy Cracked.' Then you'd bring it home, and immediately you'd remember, 'Oh yeah, I hate Cracked! Other name artists who contributed at least once to Cracked include such Mad veterans as Jack Davis, Will Elder, Al Jaffee, Don Martin, and Basil Wolverton, and such future Mad contributors as Jack Rickard, Angelo Torres, Bill Wray, Greg Theakston, Dennis Snee, Mike Snider, Dean Norman, Charlie Kadau, May Sakami and Tom Richmond. Others included Marvel Comics regulars Steve Ditko and Gene Colan. Jack Kirby contributed once in 1960. In its later days, Cracked found it difficult to attract and retain the level of talent that the better-paying, better-selling Mad could. Richmond, who drew four articles for Cracked, reported on his webpage that he was paid just $100 for a finished page, a small fraction of what he earned for his first Mad assignment. Richmond also wrote about the bad feeling caused by his short tenure at Cracked: "[Editor Dick Kulpa] was very upset about my leaving Cracked for Mad, but let's be real ... not doing so would have been the same as a minor league Triple-A shortstop refusing a call up to the majors. That was no decision at all." Mike Snider had been submitting to both publications, and made the move to Mad after it accepted an article that had already been okayed by Cracked; Snider was obliged to rescind his submission to the lower-paying magazine. One publisher who looked into buying the Cracked operation felt that Mad was "in a class by itself" and that "Cracked couldn't top Mad's lineup". Articles and features A typical issue of Cracked included two TV or movie parodies illustrated by Severin. The magazine also published "interview" articles featuring the recurring character Nanny Dickering (Nancy Dickerson was then an investigative newscaster). One of the magazine's longest-running features was "Shut-Ups", which were two-panel gags in which a character would make an observation or excuse in the first panel, and then be told to "SHUT UP" in the second, as the true situation was visually revealed. "Hudd & Dini" by Vic Martin, a gag strip about two convicts' failed schemes to escape prison, also ran frequently, as did John Severin's Western strip "Sagebrush." Other recurring features included "Ye Hang-Ups", "The Talking Blob", "Spies vs. Sabs" (originally "Saboteurs & Investigators") and, in the 1980s, "the Uggly Family" by Daniel Clowes. Titles MagazinesCrackedBiggest Greatest Cracked Cracked Blockbuster Cracked Collector's Edition Cracked Digest Cracked Monster Party Cracked Party Pack Cracked Shut-Ups Cracked Spaced Out Cracked Stocking Stuffer Cracked Summer Special Extra Special Cracked For Monsters Only Giant Cracked King-Sized Cracked Super CrackedSuper Cracked Vol. 2 / Cracked SuperBooks Ace Books Ace Books published four Cracked collections, The Cracked Reader (K-111 NA, 1960), More Cracked, Completely Cracked and Cracked Again (M-146, 1965). Sproul was listed as editor of the 1960 book. Dell Books Dell Publishing produced six collections; Get Me Cracked, Half-Cracked, Cracked Up, Your Cracked, Cracked in the Saddle and It's a Cracked World. International editions In the mid-1970s, Cracked moved into foreign markets. In Great Britain, they produced Cracked British Edition, which consisted entirely of reprinted material from the American magazine edited to localize spelling and pop-culture references. In Germany, there were three publications that included Cracked reprints. First was Kaputt, which ran from 1974 to 1983; it was followed by Stupid, which ran from 1983 to 1984, and, finally, Panic. All magazines used original material in addition to the translated Cracked reprints. Articles were often colorized, particularly in Stupid, or printed in black and white with a single added color. Covers were original, but were often reworkings of previous Cracked covers. It was published in Brazil under the name Pancada by Editora Abril, from 1977 to 1980. The content was translated from the English original and adapted to the Brazilian reality of the time (the Democratic and Republican parties were substituted respectively by ARENA and MDB, political parties of that era), and football jokes were made into soccer jokes. Most covers were reused from the original American magazine, but some were made by local artists. Two attempts were made in the 1990s to launch the magazine in Australia. Mad raid In 1985, Mort Todd became editor of Cracked magazine at age 23. In 1987, Cracked made waves in the comic industry by seemingly raiding cartoonist Don Martin from rival Mad, after Martin's 32-year career there."Don Martin Moves to Cracked," The Comics Journal #118 (Dec. 1987), pp. 12–13. Martin had left Mad months earlier due to a business dispute. Martin worked for Cracked for about six years, and the magazine, in a tweak at its rival, billed him as "Crackeds Crackedest Artist". Crackeds concurrent attempt to sign Mads caricaturist Mort Drucker was unsuccessful, but the magazine did acquire longtime Mad contributor Lou Silverstone as editor and writer. Former Mad associate editor Jerry DeFuccio also worked at Cracked for a short period. Though sales of Cracked always lagged far behind those of Mad, Cracked endured for more than four decades through low pay rates and overhead, and by being part of large publishing groups that could bundle Cracked in with its other magazines as a package arrangement for distributors. Cracked also appeared monthly during the period when Mad was being published just 8 times a year, thus picking up readership from Mad fans that couldn't wait out the six weeks for their next "comedy fix." The magazine would sometimes include attention-grabbing giveaways inside its pages, such as iron-ons, stickers or postcards. In the 1990s, Cracked also benefited from the collapse of the National Lampoon, picking up Andy Simmons as an editor, as well as such former Lampoon contributors as Ron Barrett, Randy Jones, and Ed Subitzky. In 1995, Greg Grabianski began his career as a writer and associate editor at Cracked before going on to write for TV and film projects including Beavis & Butthead and the Scary Movie franchise. Rise and decline At its height, Crackeds circulation might have been a third of Mads, with the overall total generally rising or falling along with the bigger magazine's fortunes. But at its nadir in the 2000s, this sales figure plunged to around 25,000–35,000 per bi-monthly issue, or about one-eighth of Mads monthly circulation, which had also plummeted from its mid-1970s peak of over 2 million per issue. In late 1999, Crackeds then-parent company, Globe Communications (publisher of the national tabloid The Globe), was sold to American Media, Inc., the company that publishes the tabloids The National Enquirer and the Weekly World News. American Media's primary interest in the deal was in acquiring its rival, The Globe, but Cracked came along as part of the transaction. Writer/editor Barry Dutter said, "One thing you have to realize is that AMI never wanted Cracked; it was just part of a package they bought from Globe Communications." American Media moved Globe Communications' New York City operations to Florida, where American Media was headquartered. As a result, Crackeds offices moved to Florida as well. Most of the magazine's long-term editors and writers did not move to Florida, leading to a large turnover in Crackeds staff. Published reports indicate that American Media never had an interest in supporting the magazine, which was only selling in the high five figures, compared with AMI's multi-million-selling line of tabloids. Crackeds distribution under American Media grew increasingly sporadic. In 2000, American Media sold Cracked to one of its former Weekly World News employees, Dick Kulpa, who became both Publisher and Editor-in-Chief of Cracked. Under Kulpa, Cracked suffered from a lack of financing. Combined with Crackeds weakened distribution, circulation continued to drop precipitously, and Kulpa was forced to turn the magazine into a bi-monthly. Dark Horse Star Wars comic editor Peet Janes briefly joined the staff, but financial difficulties at the magazine ended his tenure very quickly. Later, after being offered a substantial pay cut, signature artist John Severin parted company with the magazine.Cracked was near the center of the 2001 anthrax scare. An anonymous letter containing anthrax powder was sent to American Media Inc. in September 2001, killing one employee. Crackeds offices were still in the same building, and thus the magazine was among the publications that had to be evacuated. As a consequence, the company's archives, containing the magazine's original photographic prints of issues from 1958–2000, had to be destroyed due to contamination. The attack caused Kulpa to put out only four issues that year. In 2004, Kulpa, new editors Scott Gosar and Marten Jallad, and now Promotions Editor Mark Van Woert, who had been with the magazine since 2000 as its webmaster, attempted one last resuscitation of the original title. In an effort to generate publicity, Cheap Trick guitarist Rick Nielsen was named as the magazine's new "publisher," but this failed to spark interest. The 365th and final issue featured an "Election Year" cover by science fiction artist Frank Kelly Freas, who had provided many of Mad magazine's covers from 1958–62. Sale and rebirth as Cracked.com In early 2005, Kulpa sold Cracked to Teshkeel Media Group, a federation of Arab, Asian, and American investors, who announced plans to revive Cracked with a new editorial focus and redesign. Its first steps included naming entrepreneur Monty Sarhan as both CEO and publisher. Writer Neal Pollack was named "editor-at-large", and former editor Mort Todd was named a contributing editor. However, Todd quickly departed, complaining to The Comics Journal about low pay rates and work-for-hire issues of copyright. Todd said, "With each visit to the offices I got more dispirited as I saw the direction the magazine was taking. As has been well publicized, Cracked was, instead of ripping off MAD, going to rip off Maxim... A lot of 'revolutionary' humor ideas they've come up with are ones that have been overplayed for decades and ones I rejected for good reason 20 years ago [as Cracked's editor]". Publisher Sarhan responded: My impression of Mort was that he was stuck in a time warp, wanted to relive his personal "glory days" when he edited CRACKED and didn’t get what we were trying to do.... A Contributing Editor is a freelancer with whom we have a relationship with. That is all that the title means here at CRACKED. He's a person who is a regular contributor to the magazine, but he is not on staff ... Mort quit as a Contributing Editor because, he said, he had a few TV projects in development. My personal opinion is that he was stuck in the Cracked of the past and that he didn't like being a freelancer, answering to editors far younger than him here at Cracked and having his ideas regularly rejected. If your work isn't going to get published, it makes no sense to stay ... Anyone who has spent five minutes on this website knows that we are not a Maxim clone. It's a ridiculous assertion. We focus on comedy and humor, not women in bikinis. Yes, it's true that we look to MAXIM as a guide for some things. After all, since it's [sic] launch over eight years ago, it has gone on to become one of the most successful magazine titles ever. Who wouldn't want to emulate that success? On August 15, 2006, the revamped Cracked magazine finally appeared. The first issue was a significant departure from Crackeds previous incarnation, notably in its sharp reduction of comics and illustrated content. The new format was more text-heavy, and was overtly indebted to modern "lad mags" like Maxim, Stuff and FHM, although the media website Gawker.com wrote, "Very little remains of the old Cracked – a Mad ripoff that had tread water in various incarnations for almost half a century. Much was made of the new direction now ripping off Maxim instead, but aside from a "look and feel" resemblance in terms of layout, the much more obvious (attempted) homage runs to Spy."The Washington Posts Peter Carlson harshly reviewed the debut, listing some of the issue's contents and then adding, "Are you chuckling yet? Me neither." Carlson quoted Cracked's Michael J. Nelson, who'd contributed a short guide to the worst comedy movies ever, saying "Bad comedies are worse than anything else in the whole of human history." Carlson commented, "Reading Cracked, you understand exactly what he means." After three poor-selling issues, the failing magazine was canceled in February 2007. Citing distribution problems for its demise, editor Jay Pinkerton claimed that the remaining staff would be focusing its energies toward the Cracked website, as well as unspecified book projects. The company's website, Cracked.com, continued on and has become known for its humorous lists and compilations, such as "6 Most Ridiculous Things People Claimed to Legally Own". A book collection in that vein, You Might be a Zombie, and Other Bad News, was published in 2010. A two-volume history of the magazine, If You're Cracked, You're Happy, written by Mark Arnold, was published in June 2011. See also List of satirical magazines List of satirical news websites List of satirical television news programs National Lampoon magazine Mad magazine References Further reading Marvel Age'' #22 (Jan. 1985): "Sol Brodsky Remembered", p. 15 (offline) External links Associated Press: In Comeback, Cracked Vows Crass Comedy Three panels from the Cracked parody of Planet of the Apes (1968 film). Art by John Severin. 1958 comics debuts 1958 establishments in the United States 2007 comics endings Comics magazines published in the United States Monthly magazines published in the United States Satirical magazines published in the United States Black comedy comics American comedy websites Defunct magazines published in the United States Magazines disestablished in 2007 Magazines established in 1958 Online magazines with defunct print editions Parody comics Satirical comics Comedy franchises
418820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical%20Turk	Mechanical Turk	The Mechanical Turk, also known as the Automaton Chess Player (, ; ), or simply The Turk, was a fraudulent chess-playing machine constructed in 1770, which appeared to be able to play a strong game of chess against a human opponent. For 84 years, it was exhibited on tours by various owners as an automaton. The machine survived and continued giving occasional exhibitions until 1854, when a fire swept through the museum where it was kept, destroying the machine. Afterwards, articles were published by a son of the machine's owner revealing its secrets to the public: that it was an elaborate hoax, suspected by some, but never proven in public while it still existed. Constructed and unveiled in 1770 by Wolfgang von Kempelen (1734–1804) to impress Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, the mechanism appeared to be able to play a strong game of chess against a human opponent, as well as perform the knight's tour, a puzzle that requires the player to move a knight to occupy every square of a chessboard exactly once. The Turk was in fact a mechanical illusion that allowed a human chess master hiding inside to operate the machine. With a skilled operator, the Turk won most of the games played during its demonstrations around Europe and the Americas for nearly 84 years, playing and defeating many challengers including statesmen such as Napoleon Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin. The device was later purchased in 1804 and exhibited by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel. The chessmasters who secretly operated it included Johann Allgaier, Boncourt, Aaron Alexandre, William Lewis, Jacques Mouret, and William Schlumberger, but the operators within the mechanism during Kempelen's original tour remain unknown. Construction Kempelen was inspired to build the Turk following his attendance at the court of Maria Theresa of Austria at Schönbrunn Palace, where François Pelletier was performing an illusion act. An exchange afterward resulted in Kempelen promising to return to the Palace with an invention that would top the illusions. The result of the challenge was the Automaton Chess-player, known in modern times as the Turk. The machine consisted of a life-sized model of a human head and torso, with a black beard and grey eyes, and dressed in Ottoman robes and a turban—"the traditional costume", according to journalist and author Tom Standage, "of an oriental sorcerer". Its left arm held a long Ottoman smoking pipe while at rest, while its right lay on the top of a large cabinet that measured about long, wide, and high. Placed on the top of the cabinet was a chessboard, which measured on each side. The front of the cabinet consisted of three doors, an opening, and a drawer, which could be opened to reveal a red and white ivory chess set. The interior of the machine was very complicated and designed to mislead those who observed it. When opened on the left, the front doors of the cabinet exposed a number of gears and cogs similar to clockwork. The section was designed so that if the back doors of the cabinet were open at the same time one could see through the machine. The other side of the cabinet did not house machinery; instead it contained a red cushion and some removable parts, as well as brass structures. This area was also designed to provide a clear line of vision through the machine. Underneath the robes of the Ottoman model, two other doors were hidden. These also exposed clockwork machinery and provided a similarly unobstructed view through the machine. The design allowed the presenter of the machine to open every available door to the public, to maintain the illusion. Neither the clockwork visible to the left side of the machine nor the drawer that housed the chess set extended fully to the rear of the cabinet; they instead went only one third of the way. A sliding seat was also installed, allowing the operator inside to slide from place to place and thus evade observation as the presenter opened various doors. The sliding of the seat caused dummy machinery to slide into its place to further conceal the person inside the cabinet. The chessboard on the top of the cabinet was thin enough to allow for a magnetic linkage. Each piece in the chess set had a small, strong magnet attached to its base, and when they were placed on the board the pieces would attract a magnet attached to a string under their specific places on the board. This allowed the operator inside the machine to see which pieces moved where on the chess board. The bottom of the chessboard had corresponding numbers, 1–64, allowing the operator to see which places on the board were affected by a player's move. The internal magnets were positioned in a way that outside magnetic forces did not influence them, and Kempelen would often allow a large magnet to sit at the side of the board in an attempt to show that the machine was not influenced by magnetism. As a further means of misdirection, the Turk came with a small wooden coffin-like box that the presenter would place on the top of the cabinet. While Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, a later owner of the machine, did not use the box, Kempelen often peered into the box during play, suggesting that the box controlled some aspect of the machine. The box was believed by some to have supernatural power; Karl Gottlieb von Windisch wrote in his 1784 book Inanimate Reason that "[o]ne old lady, in particular, who had not forgotten the tales she had been told in her youth ... went and hid herself in a window seat, as distant as she could from the evil spirit, which she firmly believed possessed the machine." The interior also contained a pegboard chess board connected to a pantograph-style series of levers that controlled the model's left arm. The metal pointer on the pantograph moved over the interior chessboard, and would simultaneously move the arm of the Turk over the chessboard on the cabinet. The range of motion allowed the operator to move the Turk's arm up and down, and turning the lever would open and close the Turk's hand, allowing it to grasp the pieces on the board. All of this was made visible to the operator by using a simple candle, which had a ventilation system through the model. Other parts of the machinery allowed for a clockwork-type sound to be played when the Turk made a move, further adding to the machinery illusion, and for the Turk to make various facial expressions. A voice box was added following the Turk's acquisition by Mälzel, allowing the machine to say (French for "check") during matches. An operator inside the machine also had tools to assist in communicating with the presenter outside. Two brass discs equipped with numbers were positioned opposite each other on the inside and outside of the cabinet. A rod could rotate the discs to the desired number, which acted as a code between the two. Exhibition The Turk made its debut in 1770 at Schönbrunn Palace, about six months after Pelletier's act. Kempelen addressed the court, presenting what he had built, and began the demonstration of the machine and its parts. With every showing of the Turk, Kempelen began by opening the doors and drawers of the cabinet, allowing members of the audience to inspect the machine. Following this display, Kempelen would announce that the machine was ready for a challenger. Kempelen would inform the player that the Turk would use the white pieces and have the first move. Between moves the Turk kept its left arm on the cushion. The Turk could nod twice if it threatened its opponent's queen, and three times upon placing the king in check. If an opponent made an illegal move, the Turk would shake its head, move the piece back and make its own move, thus forcing a forfeit of its opponent's move. Louis Dutens, a traveller who observed a showing of the Turk, attempted to trick the machine "by giving the Queen the move of a Knight, but my mechanic opponent was not to be so imposed upon; he took up my Queen and replaced her in the square from which I had moved her". Kempelen made it a point to traverse the room during the match, and invited observers to bring magnets, irons, and lodestones to the cabinet to test whether the machine was run by a form of magnetism or weights. The first person to play against the Turk was Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, an Austrian courtier at the palace. Along with other challengers that day, he was quickly defeated, with observers of the match stating that the machine played aggressively, and typically beat its opponents within thirty minutes. Another part of the machine's exhibition was the completion of the knight's tour, a famed chess puzzle. The puzzle requires the player to move a knight around a chessboard, touching each square once along the way. While most experienced chess players of the time still struggled with the puzzle, the Turk was capable of completing the tour without any difficulty from any starting point via a pegboard used by the operator with a mapping of the puzzle laid out. The Turk also had the ability to converse with spectators using a letter board. The operator, whose identity during the period when Kempelen presented the machine at Schönbrunn Palace is unknown, was able to do this in English, French, and German. Carl Friedrich Hindenburg, a university mathematician, kept a record of the conversations during the Turk's time in Leipzig and published it in 1789 as (or On the Chessplayer of Mr. von Kempelen And Its Replica). Topics of questions put to and answered by the Turk included its age, marital status, and its secret workings. Tour of Europe Following word of its debut, interest in the machine grew across Europe. Kempelen, however, was more interested in his other projects and avoided exhibiting the Turk, often lying about the machine's repair status to prospective challengers. Von Windisch wrote at one point that Kempelen "refused the entreaties of his friends, and a crowd of curious persons from all countries, the satisfaction of seeing this far-famed machine". In the decade following its debut at Schönbrunn Palace the Turk only played one opponent, Sir Robert Murray Keith, a Scottish noble, and Kempelen went as far as dismantling the Turk entirely following the match. Kempelen was quoted as referring to the invention as a "mere bagatelle", as he was not pleased with its popularity and would rather continue work on steam engines and machines that replicated human speech. In 1781, Kempelen was ordered by Emperor Joseph II to reconstruct the Turk and deliver it to Vienna for a state visit from Grand Duke Paul of Russia and his wife. The appearance was so successful that Grand Duke Paul suggested a tour of Europe for the Turk, a request to which Kempelen reluctantly agreed. The Turk began its European tour in 1783, beginning with an appearance in France in April. A stop at Versailles beginning on April 17, preceded an exhibition in Paris, where the Turk lost a match to Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne, the Duc de Bouillon. Upon arrival in Paris in May 1783, it was displayed to the public and played a variety of opponents, including a lawyer named Mr. Bernard who was a second rank in chess ability. Following the sessions at Versailles, demands increased for a match with François-André Danican Philidor, who was considered the best chess player of his time. Moving to the Café de la Régence, the machine played many of the most skilled players, often losing (e.g. against Bernard and Verdoni), until securing a match with Philidor at the Académie des Sciences. While Philidor won his match with the Turk, Philidor's son noted that his father called it "his most fatiguing game of chess ever!" The Turk's final game in Paris was against Benjamin Franklin, who was serving as ambassador to France from the United States. Franklin reportedly enjoyed the game with the Turk and was interested in the machine for the rest of his life, keeping a copy of Philip Thicknesse's book The Speaking Figure and the Automaton Chess Player, Exposed and Detected in his personal library. Following his tour of Paris, Kempelen moved the Turk to London, where it was exhibited daily for five shillings. Thicknesse, known in his time as a skeptic, sought out the Turk in an attempt to expose the inner workings of the machine. While he respected Kempelen as "a very ingenious man", he asserted that the Turk was an elaborate hoax with a small child inside the machine, describing the machine as "a complicated piece of clockwork ... which is nothing more, than one, of many other ingenious devices, to misguide and delude the observers". After a year in London, Kempelen and the Turk travelled to Leipzig, stopping in various European cities along the way. From Leipzig, it went to Dresden, where Joseph Friedrich Freiherr von Racknitz viewed the Turk and published his findings in , along with illustrations showing his beliefs about how the machine operated. It then moved to Amsterdam, after which Kempelen is said to have accepted an invitation to the Sanssouci palace in Potsdam of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia. The story goes that Frederick enjoyed the Turk so much that he paid a large sum of money to Kempelen in exchange for the Turk's secrets. Frederick never gave the secret away, but was reportedly disappointed to learn how the machine worked. This story is almost certainly apocryphal; there is no evidence of the Turk's encounter with Frederick, the first mention of which comes in the early 19th century, by which time the Turk was also incorrectly said to have played against George III of Great Britain. It seems most likely that the machine stayed dormant at Schönbrunn Palace for over two decades, although Kempelen attempted unsuccessfully to sell it in his final years. Kempelen died at the age of 70 on 26 March 1804. Mälzel and the machine Following the death of Kempelen, the Turk remained unexhibited until 1805 when Kempelen's son decided to sell it to Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, a Bavarian musician with an interest in various machines and devices. Mälzel, whose successes included patenting a form of metronome, had tried to purchase the Turk once previously, before Kempelen's death. The original attempt had failed, owing to Kempelen's asking price of 20,000 francs; Kempelen's son sold the machine to Mälzel for half this sum. Upon acquiring the Turk, Mälzel had to learn its secrets and make some repairs to get it back in working order. His stated goal was to make explaining the Turk a greater challenge. While the completion of this goal took ten years, the Turk still made appearances, most notably with Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1809, Napoleon I of France arrived at Schönbrunn Palace to play the Turk. According to an eyewitness report, Mälzel took responsibility for the construction of the machine while preparing the game, and the Turk (Johann Baptist Allgaier) saluted Napoleon before the start of the match. The details of the match have been published over the years in numerous accounts, many of them contradictory. According to Bradley Ewart, it is believed that the Turk sat at its cabinet, and Napoleon sat at a separate chess table. Napoleon's table was in a roped-off area and he was not allowed to cross into the Turk's area, with Mälzel crossing back and forth to make each player's move and allowing a clear view for the spectators. In a surprise move, Napoleon took the first turn instead of allowing the Turk to make the first move, as was usual; but Mälzel allowed the game to continue. Shortly thereafter, Napoleon attempted an illegal move. Upon noticing the move, the Turk returned the piece to its original spot and continued the game. Napoleon attempted the illegal move a second time, and the Turk responded by removing the piece from the board entirely and taking its turn. Napoleon then attempted the move a third time, the Turk responding with a sweep of its arm, knocking all the pieces off the board. Napoleon was reportedly amused, and then played a real game with the machine, completing nineteen moves before tipping over his king in surrender. Alternate versions of the story include Napoleon being unhappy about losing to the machine, playing the machine at a later time, playing one match with a magnet on the board, and playing a match with a shawl around the head and body of the Turk in an attempt to obscure its vision. In 1811, Mälzel brought the Turk to Milan for a performance with Eugène de Beauharnais, the Prince of Venice and Viceroy of Italy. Beauharnais enjoyed the machine so much that he offered to purchase it from Mälzel. After some serious bargaining, Beauharnais acquired the Turk for 30,000 francs—three times what Mälzel had paid—and kept it for four years. In 1815, Mälzel returned to Beauharnais in Munich and asked to buy the Turk back. There exist two versions of how much he had to pay, eventually working out an agreement. One version appeared in the French periodical . The complete story does not make a lot of sense since Mälzel visited Paris again, and he also could import his "Conflagration of Moscow". Following the repurchase, Mälzel brought the Turk back to Paris, where he made acquaintances of many of the leading chess players at Café de la Régence. Mälzel stayed in France with the machine until 1818, when he moved to London and held a number of performances with the Turk and many of his other machines. In London, Mälzel and his act received a large amount of press, and he continued improving the machine, ultimately installing a voice box so the machine could say when placing a player in check. In 1819, Mälzel took the Turk on a tour of the United Kingdom. There were several new developments in the act, such as allowing the opponent the first move and eliminating the king's bishop's pawn from the Turk's pieces. This pawn handicap created further interest in the Turk, and spawned a book by W. J. Hunneman chronicling the matches played with this handicap. Despite the handicap, the Turk (operated by Mouret at the time) ended up with forty-five victories, three losses, and two stalemates. Mälzel in North America The appearances of the Turk were profitable for Mälzel, and he continued by taking it and his other machines to the United States. In 1826, he opened an exhibition in New York City that slowly grew in popularity, giving rise to many newspaper stories and anonymous threats of exposure of the secret. Mälzel's problem was finding a proper operator for the machine, having trained an unknown woman in France before coming to the United States. He ended up recalling a former operator, William Schlumberger, from Alsace in Europe to come to America and work for him again once Mälzel was able to provide the money for Schlumberger's transport. Upon Schlumberger's arrival, the Turk debuted in Boston, Mälzel spinning a story that the New York chess players could not handle full games and that the Boston players were much better opponents. This was a success for many weeks, and the tour moved to Philadelphia for three months. Following Philadelphia, the Turk moved to Baltimore, where it played for a number of months, including losing a match against Charles Carroll, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The exhibition in Baltimore brought news that two brothers had constructed their own machine, the Walker Chess-player. Mälzel viewed the competing machine and attempted to buy it, but the offer was declined and the duplicate machine toured for a number of years, never receiving the fame that Mälzel's machine did and eventually falling into obscurity. Mälzel continued with exhibitions around the United States until 1828, when he took some time off and visited Europe, returning in 1829. Throughout the 1830s, he continued to tour the United States, exhibiting the machine as far west as the Mississippi River and visiting Canada. In Richmond, Virginia, the Turk was observed by Edgar Allan Poe, who was writing for the Southern Literary Messenger. Poe's essay "Maelzel's Chess Player" was published in April 1836 and is the most famous essay on the Turk, even though many of Poe's hypotheses were incorrect (such as that a chess-playing machine must always win). Mälzel eventually took the Turk on his second tour to Havana, Cuba. In Cuba, Schlumberger died of yellow fever in February 1838, leaving Mälzel without an operator for his machine. Dejected, Mälzel died at sea in July 1838 at the age of 65 during his return trip, leaving his machinery with the ship captain. Final years and beyond When the ship on which Mälzel died returned, his various machines, including the Turk, fell into the hands of Mälzel's friend, the businessman John Ohl. He attempted to auction off the Turk, but owing to low bidding ultimately bought it himself for $400. Only when John Kearsley Mitchell from Philadelphia, Edgar Allan Poe's personal physician and an admirer of the Turk, approached Ohl did the Turk change hands again. Mitchell formed a restoration club and went about the business of repairing the Turk for public appearances, completing the restoration in 1840. As interest in the Turk outgrew its location, Mitchell and his club chose to donate the machine to the Chinese Museum of Charles Willson Peale. While the Turk still occasionally gave performances, it was eventually relegated to the corners of the museum and forgotten about until 5 July 1854, when a fire that started at the National Theater in Philadelphia reached the Museum and destroyed the Turk. Mitchell believed he had heard "through the struggling flames ... the last words of our departed friend, the sternly whispered, oft repeated syllables, 'echec! echec!! John Gaughan, an American manufacturer of equipment for magicians based in Los Angeles, spent $120,000 building his own version of Kempelen's machine over a five-year period from 1984. The machine uses the original chessboard, which was stored separately from the original Turk and was not destroyed in the fire. The first public display of Gaughan's Turk was in November 1989 at a history of magic conference. The machine was presented much as Kempelen presented the original, except that the opponent was replaced by a computer running a chess program. Revealing the secrets While many books and articles were written during the Turk's life about how it worked, most were inaccurate, drawing incorrect inferences from external observation. The first articles on the mechanism were published in a French magazine entitled Le Magasin pittoresque in 1834. It was not until Silas Mitchell's series of articles for The Chess Monthly that the secret was fully revealed. Mitchell, son of the final private owner of the Turk, wrote that "no secret was ever kept as the Turk's has been. Guessed at, in part, many times, no one of the several explanations ... ever solved this amusing puzzle". As the Turk was lost to fire at the time of this publication, Silas Mitchell felt that there were "no longer any reasons for concealing from the amateurs of chess, the solution to this ancient enigma". The most important biographical history about the Chess-player and Mälzel was presented in The Book of the First American Chess Congress, published by Daniel Willard Fiske in 1857. The account, "The Automaton Chess-Player in America", was written by Professor George Allen of Philadelphia, in the form of a letter to William Lewis, one of the former operators of the chess automaton. In 1859, a letter published in the Philadelphia Sunday Dispatch by William F. Kummer, who worked as an operator under John Mitchell, revealed another piece of the secret: a candle inside the cabinet. A series of tubes led from the lamp to the turban of the Turk for ventilation. The smoke rising from the turban would be disguised by the smoke coming from the other candelabra in the area where the game was played. Later in 1859, an uncredited article appeared in Littell's Living Age that purported to be the story of the Turk from French magician Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin. This was rife with errors ranging from dates of events to a story of a Polish officer whose legs were amputated, but ended up being rescued by Kempelen and smuggled back to Russia inside the machine. A new article about the Turk did not turn up until 1899, when The American Chess Magazine published an account of the Turk's match with Napoleon Bonaparte. The story was basically a review of previous accounts, and a substantive published account would not appear until 1947, when Chess Review published articles by Kenneth Harkness and Jack Straley Battell that amounted to a comprehensive history and description of the Turk, complete with new diagrams that synthesized information from previous publications. Another article written in 1960 for American Heritage by Ernest Wittenberg provided new diagrams describing how the operator sat inside the cabinet. In Henry A. Davidson's 1945 publication A Short History of Chess, significant weight is given to Poe's essay which erroneously suggested that the player sat inside the Turk figure, rather than on a moving seat inside the cabinet. A similar error would occur in Alex G. Bell's 1978 book The Machine Plays Chess, which falsely asserted that "the operator was a trained boy (or very small adult) who followed the directions of the chess player who was hidden elsewhere on stage or in the theater..." More books were published about the Turk toward the end of the 20th century. Along with Bell's book, Charles Michael Carroll's The Great Chess Automaton (1975) focused more on the studies of the Turk. Bradley Ewart's Chess: Man vs. Machine (1980) discussed the Turk as well as other purported chess-playing automatons. It was not until the creation of Deep Blue, IBM's attempt at a computer that could challenge the world's best players, that interest increased again, and two more books were published: Gerald M. Levitt's The Turk, Chess Automaton (2000), and Tom Standage's The Turk: The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth-Century Chess-Playing Machine, published in 2002. The Turk was used as a personification of Deep Blue in the 2003 documentary Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine. Legacy and popular culture Owing to the Turk's popularity and mystery, its construction inspired a number of inventions and imitations, including Ajeeb, or "The Egyptian", an American imitation built by Charles Hopper that President Grover Cleveland played in 1885, and Mephisto, the self-described "most famous" machine, of which little is known. The first imitation was made while Mälzel was in Baltimore. Created by the Brothers Walker, the "American Chess Player" made its debut in May 1827 in New York. El Ajedrecista was built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres Quevedo as a chess-playing automaton and made its public debut during the Paris World Fair of 1914. Capable of playing rook and king versus king endgames using electromagnets, it was the first true chess-playing automaton, and a precursor of sorts to Deep Blue. The Turk was visited in London by Rev. Edmund Cartwright in 1784. He was so intrigued by the Turk that he would later question whether "it is more difficult to construct a machine that shall weave than one which shall make all the variety of moves required in that complicated game". Cartwright would patent the prototype for a power loom within the year. Sir Charles Wheatstone, an inventor, saw a later appearance of the Turk while it was owned by Mälzel. He also saw some of Mälzel's speaking machines, and Mälzel later presented a demonstration of the speaking machines to the researcher and his teenage son. Alexander Graham Bell obtained a copy of a book by Wolfgang von Kempelen on speaking machines after being inspired by seeing a similar machine built by Wheatstone; Bell went on to file the first successful patent for the telephone. A play, The Automaton Chess Player, was presented in New York City in 1845. The advertising, as well as an article that appeared in The Illustrated London News, claimed that the play featured Kempelen's Turk, but it was in fact a copy of the Turk created by J. Walker, who had earlier presented the Walker Chess-player. Raymond Bernard's silent feature film The Chess Player (1927) weaves elements from the real story of the Turk into an adventure tale set in the aftermath of the first of the Partitions of Poland in 1772. The film's "Baron von Kempelen" helps a dashing young Polish nationalist on the run from the occupying Russians, who also happens to be an expert chess player, by hiding him inside a chess playing automaton called the Turk, closely based on the real Kempelen model. Just as they are about to escape over the border, the Baron is summoned to Saint Petersburg to present the Turk to the empress Catherine II. In an echo of the Napoleon incident, Catherine attempts to cheat the Turk, who wipes all the pieces from the board in response. The Turk has also inspired works of literary fiction. In 1849, just a few years before the Turk was destroyed, Edgar Allan Poe published a tale "Von Kempelen and His Discovery". Ambrose Bierce's short story "Moxon's Master", published in 1909, is a morbid tale about a chess-playing automaton that resembles the Turk. In 1938, John Dickson Carr published The Crooked Hinge, a locked-room mystery in his line of Dr. Gideon Fell detective novels. Among the puzzles presented included an automaton that operates in a way that is unexplainable to the characters. Gene Wolfe's 1977 science fiction short story "The Marvellous Brass Chessplaying Automaton" also features a device very similar to the Turk. Robert Loehr's 2007 novel The Chess Machine (published in the UK as The Secrets of the Chess Machine) focuses on the man inside the machine. F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre's 2007 story "The Clockwork Horror" reconstructs Edgar Allan Poe's original encounter with Mälzel's chess-player, and also establishes (from contemporary advertisements in a Richmond newspaper) precisely when and where this encounter took place. In 2023, the story "Alone Together" from the Tales from the Pizzaplex book series, itself a part of the Five Nights at Freddy's franchise, features a Mechanical Turk as a school project. Walter Benjamin alludes to the Mechanical Turk in the first thesis of his Theses on the Philosophy of History (), written in 1940. Notes Citations References External links History of chess Chess automatons 18th century in chess Hoaxes in science Hungarian inventions Historical robots 18th-century robots 18th-century hoaxes
418836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Missouri	List of people from Missouri	The following are people who were either born, raised, or have lived for a significant period of time in the U.S. state of Missouri. Art and literature Helen Andelin (1920–2009), author of Fascinating Womanhood Maya Angelou (1928–2014), author and poet Thomas P. Barnett (1870–1929), architect and impressionist painter Thomas Hart Benton (1889–1975), painter George Caleb Bingham (1811–1879), artist (born in Virginia but moved to central Missouri) Edward McKendree Bounds (1835–1913), author and theologian Mark Bowden (born 1951), author, journalist William S. Burroughs (1914–1997), author (Naked Lunch) Kate Chopin (1851–1904), author (The Awakening) and early feminist Guy Anthony De Marco (born 1963), author of speculative fiction Lester Dent (1904–1959), author of Doc Savage novels Michele Dunaway (born 1965), author of romantic novels Suzette Haden Elgin (1936–2015), science-fiction author and linguist T. S. Eliot (1888–1965), poet, dramatist and literary critic Mary Engelbreit (born 1952), graphic artist, children's book illustrator Michael Evans (1944–2005), photographer Eugene Field (1850–1895), writer and poet Gillian Flynn (born 1971), novelist, television critic Martha Gellhorn (1908–1998), novelist, travel writer and journalist Steve Gerber (1947–2008), comic book writer and co-creator of Howard the Duck David L. Harrison (born 1937), children's author, poet, recipient of the Missourian Award (2006) William Least Heat-Moon (born 1939), author Robert A. Heinlein (1907–1988), science fiction author Frederick Hibbard (1881–1950), sculptor known for his works of famous 19th-century figures Langston Hughes (1902–1967), African-American poet, novelist and playwright William W. Johnstone (1938–2004), author of western, horror and survivalist novels Donald Judd (1928–1994), artist Oliver Lee Jackson (born 1935), painter, sculptor, draftsman, and printmaker Jim Lee (born 1964), comic book artist and writer David Limbaugh (born 1952), columnist, author, political commentator Bernarr Macfadden (1868–1955), founder of Macfadden Publications, bodybuilding advocate Cornelia F. Maury (1866–1942), pastel artist Dennis L. McKiernan (born 1932), author Marianne Moore (1887–1972), poet and writer Archie Musick (1902–1978), painter and illustrator, associated with the Regionalist movement John R. Musick (1849–1901), author and poet, known for the Columbian Historical novels Ruth Ann Musick (1897–1974), author and folklorist H. Richard Niebuhr (1894–1962), author, theologian Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971), author, theologian, political commentator Isabel Richey (1858–1910), writer, poet John Ross (born 1957), author Charles Marion Russell (1864–1926), artist Clay Shirky (born 1964), writer, consultant, lecturer, author of Here Comes Everybody Kimora Lee Simmons (born 1975), fashion model, author, actress Minnetta Theodora Taylor (1860–1911), poet, lyricist, writer Sara Teasdale (1884–1933), poet Kay Thompson (1909–1998), creator of Eloise children's books Ernest Trova (1927–2009), sculptor, surrealist and pop art painter best known for The Falling Man Margaret Truman (1924–2008), novelist and non-fiction author Mark Twain (1835–1910), born Samuel Clemens, iconic humorist, author and creator of Huckleberry Finn and Tom Sawyer Rosa Kershaw Walker (1840s-1909), author, journalist, newspaper editor Laura Ingalls Wilder (1867–1957), writer and author of Little House series Tennessee Williams (1911–1983), playwright (born in Mississippi, grew up in St. Louis) Bertha M. Wilson (1874–1936), dramatist Daniel Woodrell (born 1953), author of crime fiction Sportspeople Auto racing Paul Dana (1975–2006), IndyCar Series driver Lloyd Dane (1925–2015), NASCAR driver Russ Dugger (born 1975), NASCAR driver, Camping World Truck Series Carl Edwards (born 1979), NASCAR driver, 2007 NASCAR Busch Series champion James Ince (born c. 1969), NASCAR crew chief Justin Jennings (born 1992), NASCAR driver Cody Lane (born 1996), NASCAR driver, Camping World Truck Series Justin Marks (born 1981), NASCAR driver Jamie McMurray (born 1976), NASCAR driver, Daytona 500 winner Larry Phillips (1942–2004), NASCAR driver Tony Roper (1964–2000), NASCAR driver Ken Schrader (born 1955), NASCAR driver Dorsey Schroeder (born 1953), retired NASCAR driver, Speed Channel color analyst Ramo Stott (born 1934), retired NASCAR driver Chrissy Wallace (born 1988), NASCAR driver Kenny Wallace (born 1963), NASCAR driver, broadcaster Mike Wallace (born 1959), NASCAR driver Rusty Wallace (born 1956), NASCAR driver, 1989 NASCAR Winston Cup champion Baseball A–M Bob Allison (1934–1995), MLB outfielder, 3-time All-Star Jake Arrieta (born 1986), Chicago Cubs pitcher, Cy Young Award winner Alan Ashby (born 1951), MLB catcher, commentator George Baker (1857–1915), MLB catcher Jake Beckley (1867–1919), infielder in Hall of Fame James "Cool Papa" Bell (1903–1991), Baseball Hall of Fame center fielder Yogi Berra (1925–2015), Hall of Fame catcher, manager, aphorist Ken Berry (born 1941), MLB outfielder Brian Boehringer (born 1969), MLB pitcher Clete Boyer (1937–2007), MLB third baseman, 2-time World Series winner Ken Boyer (1931–1982), MLB third baseman, 11-time All-Star, coach and manager Jack Brennan (1862–1914), MLB catcher Harry Bright (1929–2000), MLB infielder Mark Buehrle (born 1979), MLB pitcher, 5-time All-Star Bobby Byrne (1884–1964), MLB infielder Scott Carroll (born 1984), MLB relief pitcher Nate Colbert (1946–2023), MLB first baseman, 3-time All-Star David Cone (born 1963), Cy Young-winning MLB pitcher Joe Crede (born 1978), MLB third baseman Bob Dernier (born 1957), MLB outfielder Ross Detwiler (born 1986), MLB relief pitcher Blake DeWitt (born 1985), MLB infielder John Donaldson (1891–1970), Negro league baseball pitcher Scott Elbert (born 1985), MLB relief pitcher A. J. Ellis (born 1981), catcher for Miami Marlins Hoot Evers (1921–1991), MLB outfielder, 2-time All-Star David Freese (born 1983), MLB third baseman, 2011 World Series MVP with St. Louis Cardinals Gabe Gabler (1930–2014), MLB player Joe Garagiola, Sr. (1926–2016), MLB catcher, broadcaster, television personality Jeff Gray (born 1981), MLB pitcher Charlie Grimm (1898–1993), MLB player and manager Dick Hall (born 1930), MLB pitcher, 2-time World Series winner Lucas Harrell (born 1985), starting pitcher for Toronto Blue Jays Tom Henke (born 1957), two-time All-Star pitcher Bobby Hofman (1925–1994), MLB outfielder Solly Hofman (1882–1956), MLB outfielder Al Hollingsworth (1908–1996), MLB pitcher Ken Holtzman (born 1945), two-time All-Star baseball pitcher Tommy Hottovy (born 1981), MLB relief pitcher Elston Howard (1929–1980), Negro league and MLB catcher, 12-time All-Star, six World Series titles Ryan Howard (born 1979), MLB first baseman, 3-time All-Star Carl Hubbell (1903–1988), Hall of Fame pitcher, 2-time NL MVP Eric Hurley (born 1985), MLB pitcher Ron Hunt (born 1941), MLB infielder, 2-time All-Star Vern Kennedy (1907–1993), MLB pitcher Bob Keppel (born 1982), MLB pitcher Charlie Kerfeld (born 1963), MLB relief pitcher, primarily with Houston Astros Johnny Kling (1875–1947), MLB catcher, 2-time World Series winner Darold Knowles (born 1941), MLB pitcher, first to pitch in all seven games of a World Series Ron Kulpa (born 1968), umpire Tito Landrum (born 1954), MLB outfielder Tommy Layne (born 1984), MLB relief pitcher Sam LeCure (born 1984), MLB pitcher Dale Long (1926–1991), MLB outfielder Jerry Lumpe (1933–2014), MLB infielder Shaun Marcum (born 1981), MLB pitcher Jay Marshall (born 1983), MLB pitcher Bake McBride (born 1949), MLB outfielder, 1974 Rookie of Year Paul Menhart (born 1969), MLB pitcher and pitching coach Bob Miller (1939–1993), MLB pitcher, 3-time World Series winner Zach Miner (born 1982), relief pitcher for Seattle Mariners Logan Morrison (born 1987), outfielder for Tampa Bay Rays Carl Morton (1944–1983), MLB pitcher, 1970 Rookie of Year Bill Mueller (born 1971), MLB infielder, 2003 AL batting champ Don Mueller (1927–2011), MLB infielder, 2-time All-Star Stan Musial (1920–2013), MLB Hall of Famer, played entire career for St. Louis Cardinals N–Z Dave Nicholson (1939–2023), MLB outfielder Al Nipper (born 1959), MLB pitcher and scout Darren Oliver (born 1970), MLB relief pitcher Mickey O'Neil (1900–1964), MLB catcher Mickey Owen (1916–2005), MLB catcher, 4-time All-Star Josh Outman (born 1984), MLB pitcher Barney Pelty (1880–1939), MLB pitcher David Phelps (born 1986), starting pitcher for Miami Marlins Albert Pujols (born 1980), MLB first baseman with Los Angeles Angels, 10-time All-Star Pete Reiser (1919–1981), MLB outfielder, 3-time All-Star Steve Rogers (born 1949), MLB pitcher, 5-time All-Star Trevor Rosenthal (born 1990), pitcher for St. Louis Cardinals Bob Scheffing (1913–1985), MLB player and manager Max Scherzer (born 1984), starting pitcher for Washington Nationals Art Shamsky (born 1941), MLB outfielder and Israel Baseball League manager Mike Shannon (1939–2023), MLB player and sportscaster for St. Louis Cardinals, 2-time World Series winner Sonny Siebert (born 1937), MLB pitcher, 2-time All-Star Dave Silvestri (born 1967), MLB infielder Shae Simmons (born 1990), MLB pitcher Roy Smalley Jr. (1926–2011), MLB infielder Al Smith (1928–2002), MLB outfielder Paul Splittorff (1946–2011), pitcher for Kansas City Royals, broadcaster Casey Stengel (1890–1975), Baseball Hall of Fame manager Mel Stottlemyre (1941–2019), MLB pitcher, 5-time All-Star, pitching coach Rick Sutcliffe (born 1956), MLB pitcher, 3-time All-Star, TV commentator Nick Tepesch (born 1988), MLB pitcher Jacob Turner (born 1991), MLB pitcher Scott Van Slyke (born 1986), outfielder, Los Angeles Dodgers; son of Andy Van Slyke Luke Voit (born 1991), MLB first baseman Earl Weaver (1930–2013), Hall of Fame manager for Baltimore Orioles Mack Wheat (1893–1979), MLB catcher with Brooklyn Robins and Philadelphia Phillies Zack Wheat (1888–1972), MLB Hall of Fame left fielder for Brooklyn, Philadelphia Athletics; brother of Mack Wheat Dick Williams (1929–2011), MLB player and Hall of Fame manager Lefty Williams (1893–1959), MLB pitcher Smoky Joe Wood (1889–1995), MLB pitcher, 3-time World Series winner Glenn Wright (1901–1984), MLB infielder for 1925 World Series champion Pittsburgh Pirates Basketball Forrest Clare "Phog" Allen (1885–1974), Hall of Fame college basketball coach OG Anunoby (born 1997), small forward for Toronto Raptors Bradley Beal (born 1993), NBA player for the Washington Wizards Bill Bradley (born 1943), Basketball Hall of Famer, U.S. Senator Alec Burks (born 1991), shooting guard for Golden State Warriors Chris Carr (born 1974), shooting guard for six NBA teams Napheesa Collier (born 1996), WNBA player and Olympic gold medalist Ben Hansbrough (born 1987), guard for Indiana Pacers Tyler Hansbrough (born 1985), NBA player and international player, NCAA champion at North Carolina Josh Harrellson (born 1989), center for New York Knicks Larry Hughes (born 1979), shooting guard for eight NBA teams David Lee (born 1983), power forward and center for San Antonio Spurs Tyronn Lue (born 1977), NBA player, head coach of Cleveland Cavaliers Patrick McCaw (born 1995), shooting guard for Toronto Raptors Dan Pippin (1926–1965), Olympic gold medalist in 1952, played at Mizzou Brandon Rush (born 1985), shooting guard for Golden State Warriors Kareem Rush (born 1980), shooting guard for L.A. Clippers Scott Sims (born 1955), guard for San Antonio Spurs Norm Stewart (born 1935), pro basketball player, longtime Mizzou coach, College Basketball Hall of Fame Jayson Tatum (born 1998), pro basketball player, former member of the Duke Blue Devils and small forward for the Boston Celtics David Thirdkill (born 1960), NBA basketball player, 1993 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP Anthony Tolliver (born 1985), power forward for Minnesota Timberwolves Alex Tyus (born 1988), American-Israeli professional basketball player, also plays for the Israeli national basketball team Football Maurice Alexander (born 1991), defensive back for St. Louis Rams Steve Atwater (born 1966), safety for the Denver Broncos and New York Jets Allen Barbre (born 1984), offensive guard for Philadelphia Eagles Tim Barnes (born 1988), center for St. Louis Rams David Bass (born 1990), defensive end for Chicago Bears Justin Britt (born 1991), offensive tackle for Seattle Seahawks Jason Brookins (born 1976), running back, Baltimore Ravens Colin Brown (born 1985), offensive tackle for Buffalo Bills Jairus Byrd (born 1986), free safety for New Orleans Saints Paul Christman (1918–1970), quarterback, College Football Hall of Fame; sportscaster Adrian Clayborn (born 1988), defensive end for Atlanta Falcons Chase Coffman (born 1986), tight end for Atlanta Falcons Jalen Collins (born 1993), cornerback for Atlanta Falcons Maliek Collins (born 1995), defensive tackle for Dallas Cowboys Dan Connolly (born 1982), offensive lineman for New England Patriots Jimmy Conzelman (1898–1970), former NFL halfback and coach, member of Pro Football Hall of Fame Dan Dierdorf (born 1949), offensive tackle in Pro Football Hall of Fame, sportscaster Herb Donaldson (born 1985), running back for Dallas Cowboys Robert Douglas (born 1982), NFL fullback Kony Ealy (born 1991), defensive end for Carolina Panthers Ezekiel Elliott (born 1995), NFL running back for Dallas Cowboys Lenvil Elliott (1951–2008), NFL running back Don Faurot (1902–1995), College Football Hall of Fame coach, inventor of Split-T formation Brian Folkerts (born 1990), center for Carolina Panthers Josh Freeman (born 1988), NFL quarterback Blaine Gabbert (born 1989), quarterback for Arizona Cardinals Justin Gage (born 1981), wide receiver for Tennessee Titans E. J. Gaines (born 1992), cornerback for St. Louis Rams Tony Galbreath (born 1954), NFL running back Markus Golden (born 1991), NFL outside linebacker Conrad Goode (born 1962), NFL offensive lineman Mark Herzlich (born 1987), linebacker for New York Giants Cal Hubbard (1900–1977), only person in both Baseball Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame Brandon Joyce (1984–2010), offensive lineman, CFL and NFL Terry Joyce (1954–2011), college All-American, NFL punter Howard Kindig (born 1941), defensive end, 10-year NFL career Ryan Lilja (born 1981), guard for Kansas City Chiefs Brandon Lloyd (born 1981), wide receiver for San Francisco 49ers Jeremy Maclin (born 1988), wide receiver for Kansas City Chiefs Marvin McNutt (born 1989), wide receiver for Philadelphia Eagles Eric Moore (born 1965), NFL guard William Moore (born 1985), safety for Atlanta Falcons C. J. Mosley (born 1983), defensive tackle for Miami Dolphins Eddie Moss, special teams for St. Louis Cardinals Jim Musick (1910–1992), running back, Boston Redskins Neil Rackers (born 1976), placekicker for Houston Texans Shane Ray (born 1993), outside linebacker for Denver Broncos Sheldon Richardson (born 1990), defensive end for New York Jets Gijon Robinson (born 1984), tight end for Indianapolis Colts Martin Rucker (born 1985), tight end for Dallas Cowboys Mike Rucker (born 1975), defensive end for Carolina Panthers Aldon Smith (born 1989), linebacker for Oakland Raiders Justin Smith (born 1979), defensive end for San Francisco 49ers Bill Snyder (born 1939), Current Kansas State University head coach and College Football Hall of Fame Donald Stephenson (born 1988), offensive tackle for Kansas City Chiefs Roger Wehrli (born 1947), Hall of Fame cornerback with St. Louis Cardinals James Wilder Sr. (born 1958), 10-year NFL running back Brandon Williams (born 1989), nose tackle for Baltimore Ravens Gregg Williams (born 1958), NFL coach, defensive coordinator Sylvester Williams (born 1988), nose tackle for Denver Broncos Kellen Winslow (born 1957), Hall of Fame tight end with San Diego Chargers Golf Amy Alcott (born 1956), professional golfer, World Golf Hall of Fame Brandel Chamblee (born 1962), PGA Tour golfer Jay Haas (born 1953), PGA Tour golfer Hale Irwin (born 1945), golfer; oldest person (45) to win US Open (1990) Jeff Maggert (born 1964), PGA Tour golfer Tom Pernice Jr. (born 1959), PGA Tour golfer Judy Rankin (born 1945), professional golfer, World Golf Hall of Fame Johnny Revolta (1911–1991), winner of 1935 PGA Championship Cathy Reynolds (born 1957), LPGA Tour golfer Horton Smith (1908–1963), winner of first Masters, World Golf Hall of Fame Payne Stewart (1957–1999), golfer, 2-time US Open champion Tom Watson (born 1949), 8-time major champion, 1990 Ryder Cup captain, World Golf Hall of Fame Larry Ziegler (born 1939), PGA Tour golfer Ice hockey Ben Bishop (born 1986), NHL Dallas Stars Chris Wideman (born 1990), NHL Ottawa Senators Michael Davies (born 1986), AHL Chicago Wolves Cam Janssen (born 1984), EIHL Nottingham Panthers Luke Kunin (born 1997), NHL hockey player Pat LaFontaine (born 1965), NHL Buffalo Sabres, New York Islanders, New York Rangers Patrick Maroon (born 1988), NHL Tampa Bay Lightning Mike McKenna (born 1983), AHL Portland Pirates Paul Stastny (born 1985), NHL St. Louis Blues Travis Turnbull (born 1986), DEL Düsseldorfer EG Joe Vitale (born 1985), NHL Arizona Coyotes Landon Wilson (born 1975), AHL Texas Stars Professional wrestling Freddie Blassie (1918–2003), wrestler and manager "Bulldog" Bob Brown (1938–1997), wrestler and booker Bob Geigel (1924–2014), retired wrestler, promoter, and former NWA President Glenn Jacobs (born 1967), ring name "Kane"; also an actor Rufus R. Jones (1933–1993), NWA wrestler and businessman Matthew Korklan (born 1983), ring names "Matt Sydal" and "Evan Bourne" Sam Muchnick (1905–1998), founder of St. Louis Wrestling Club and co-founder of the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) Trevor Murdoch (born 1978), WWE tag team champion Matt Murphy (born 1979), wrestler and author Barry Orton, wrestler "Cowboy" Bob Orton (born 1950), wrestler and member of WWE Hall of Fame; father of Randy Orton Randy Orton (born 1980), third-generation pro wrestler Harley Race (1943–2019), 8-time NWA World Heavyweight Champion; member of the WWE Hall of Fameand Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame Butch Reed (1954–2021), NWA and WCW Tag Team Champion Lou Thesz (1916–2002), superstar of professional wrestling's "Golden Age" Miscellaneous sports Virgil Akins (1928–2011), welterweight boxing champion Devon Alexander (born 1987), boxer, WBC and IBF Light Welterweight champion Henry Armstrong (1912–1988), boxer (born in Mississippi but grew up in St. Louis) Butch Buchholz (born 1940), Hall of Fame tennis player Christian Cantwell (born 1980), Olympian, world champion shot putter John Coughlin (1985–2019), figure skater, committed suicide J'den Cox (born 1995), Olympic bronze medalist freestyle wrestler and two-time World Champion Michael Chandler (born 1986), UFC fighter Kim Chizevsky-Nicholls (born 1968), IFBB pro bodybuilder Dwight F. Davis (1879–1945), tennis player, founder of the Davis Cup Lori Endicott (born 1967), volleyball player and Olympian Doris Hart (1925–2015), Hall of Fame tennis player, winner of six Grand Slam singles titles Sammie Henson (born 1971), Olympic silver medalist and World Champion in freestyle wrestling Bud Houser (1901–1994), three-time Olympic gold medalist in shot put and discus Ben A. Jones (1882–1961), thoroughbred horse trainer Horace A. "Jimmy" Jones (1906–2001), thoroughbred horse trainer Lesa Lewis (born 1967), IFBB professional bodybuilder Conn McCreary (1921–1979), Hall of Fame jockey, winner of 1944 and 1951 Kentucky Derby Chuck McKinley (1941–1986), Hall of Fame tennis player, 1963 Wimbledon champion Josh Prenot (born 1995), swimmer, Olympic silver medalist (200m breaststroke), NCAA champion (400m individual medley), and American record holder (200m breaststroke) DeAnna Price (born 1993), record holder in hammer throw, competed at two Olympic Summer Games Helen Stephens (1918–1994), two-time gold medalist in track and field at 1936 Summer Olympics Scott Touzinsky (born 1982), volleyball player and coach Jacarra Winchester (born 1992), Olympic freestyle wrestler, world champion in 2019 Alex White (born 1988), mixed martial artist Soccer Daryl Doran (born 1963), professional soccer player Jack Jewsbury (born 1981), professional soccer player Lucas Bartlett (born 1997), MLS St. Louis City John Klein (born 1999), MLS St. Louis City Tim Ream (born 1987),EPL Fulham Becky Sauerbrunn (born 1985), National Women's Soccer League and USWNT player (FC Kansas City); Defender of the Year 2013, 2014; 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup winner Aviation and aerospace Thomas Akers (born 1953), scientist and NASA astronaut on four Space Shuttle missions Bill Lear (1902–1978), founder of Lear Jet Charles Lindbergh (1902–1974), aviator, first solo non-stop trans-Atlantic flight in 1927 (born in Detroit, Michigan but lived in St. Louis) James Smith McDonnell (1899–1980), founder of McDonnell Aircraft Corporation (later McDonnell Douglas) Business William Henry Ashley (1778–1838), founder of Rocky Mountain Fur Company, politician Charles S. L. Baker (1859–1926), African-American businessman and inventor Henry W. Bloch (1922–2019), co-founder of H&R Block tax services Richard Bloch (1926–2004), co-founder of H&R Block tax services Adolphus Busch (1839–1913), founder of Anheuser-Busch (the world's largest brewer) August "Gussie" Busch (1899–1989), owned Anheuser-Busch (the world's largest brewer), and St. Louis Cardinals baseball team Jim Crane, businessman, owner of the Houston Astros William H. Danforth (1870–1955), founder of Ralston Purina Company John Doerr (born 1951), venture capitalist at Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers James Buchanan Eads (1820–1887), civil engineer and inventor Charles Eames (1907–1978), designer and architect David Glass (1935–2020), former president and CEO of Wal-Mart, owner of Kansas City Royals baseball team Joyce Hall (1891–1982), founder of Hallmark Cards William Preston Hall (1864–1932), circus empresario and animal broker Howard R. Hughes, Sr. (1869–1924), oil drill bit and tool inventor; father of Howard Hughes, reclusive billionaire George M. Keller (1923–2008), chairman of Standard Oil Company of California in the 1980s R. Crosby Kemper Jr. (1927–2014), chairman emeritus UMB Financial Corporation, philanthropist William Thornton Kemper, Sr. (1866–1938), patriarch of Kemper family railroad and banking empire which included Commerce Bancshares and United Missouri Bank Ewing Kauffman (1916–1993), pharmaceutical magnate, philanthropist and founder of the Kansas City Royals baseball team Stan Kroenke (born 1947), owner of Kroenke Sports Enterprises Rebecca Mark-Jusbasche (born 1954), former head of Enron International N. O. Nelson (1844–1922), founder of the N. O. Nelson Manufacturing Company Thomas F. O'Neil, chairman of RKO General Studios, brought movies to television J. C. Penney (1875–1971), businessman and entrepreneur Rex Sinquefield (born 1944), financial executive who created Standard & Poor's first index fund, supporter of conservative political causes John Sperling (1921–2014), businessman and founder of the University of Phoenix Gerard Swope (1872–1957), president of General Electric Jack C. Taylor (1922–2016), founder of Enterprise Rent-A-Car, billionaire philanthropist Sam Walton (1918–1992), founder of Wal-Mart Robert E. Wood (1879–1969), vice-president of Sears Roebuck Criminals and outlaws Anthony Brancato (1913–1951), freelance Mafia gunman, half of "The Two Tonys" portrayed in the movie L.A. Confidential Ray and Faye Copeland (1914–1993, 1921–2003), serial killers, oldest couple ever sentenced to death in the United States Egan's Rats, early crime family in St. Louis Leo Vincent Brothers (1899–1950), low-level member; later moved to Chicago and became part of Al Capone's organization Fred Burke (1893–1940), gunman for Egan's Rats; suspected of participating in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre William "Dint" Colbeck (1890–1943), assumed leadership of Egan's Rats after the assassination of Willie Egan Walter Costello (1889–1917), bodyguard to Willie Egan, killer of Harry Dunn Harry "Cherries" Dunn (1892–1916) Thomas Egan (1874–1919), organizer of Egan's Rats Willie Egan (1884–1921), brother and right-hand man of gang founder Tom Egan; led the gang after Tom's death Max Greenberg (1883–1933), one of the few Jewish members of the mostly Irish Egan gang; associate/friend of Meyer Lansky Frank Hackethal (1891–1954), robber and resort owner/money launderer for Egan's Rats Thomas "Snake" Kinney (1868–1912), Missouri State Senator and co-founder of Egan's Rats David "Chippy" Robinson (1897–1967), bank robber and enforcer for Egan's Rats William "Skippy" Rohan (1871–1916) Roy Gardner (1884–1940), arms smuggler and notorious 1920s bank robber Tom Horn (1860–1903), Old West lawman, army scout, outlaw and assassin Kansas City crime family Charles Binaggio (1909–1950), killed along with Charles Gargotta at the First Ward Democratic Club in downtown Kansas City Anthony Brancato (1913–1951) William "Willie Rat" Cammisano (1914–1995), enforcer for the K.C. mob Charles Carrollo (1902–1979), led the Kansas City mob after Johnny Lazia's assassination Anthony Civella (1930–2006), led the K.C. crime family in the 1980s and 1990s; son of Carl Civella and nephew of Nicholas Civella Carl "Cork" Civella (1910–1994), brother of Nicholas Civella and a top lieutenant in the crime family; father of Anthony Civella Nicholas Civella (1912–1983), led the Kansas City crime family from the 1950s through the 1970s Carl "Tuffy" DeLuna (1927–2008), underboss of the Kansas City crime family; brother-in-law of Anthony Civella Charles "Pretty Boy" Floyd (1904–1934), took part in the Union Station Massacre Charles "Mad Dog" Gargotta (1900–1950), top enforcer of the KC crime family Anthony Gizzo (1902–1953), led Kansas City crime family in the early 1950s John Lazia (1896–1934), leader of the Kansas City crime family in the 1920s and early 1930s Kenneth Lay (1942–2006), chairman and CEO of Enron, convicted of securities fraud Little Britches (1879 – year of death unknown), female bandit associated with Cattle Annie and the Doolin gang James Earl Ray (1928–1998), assassin of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.; escapee from the Missouri State Penitentiary James-Younger Gang: Frank James (1843–1915), outlaw Jesse James (1847–1882), outlaw Cole Younger (1844–1916), outlaw John Younger (1851–1874), outlaw Bob Younger (1853–1899), outlaw Jim Younger (1848–1902), outlaw Bob Ford (1862–1892), outlaw who gunned down Jesse James Tom Pendergast (1873–1945), long-time political boss of Kansas City and western Missouri; responsible for the political rise of Harry S. Truman; imprisoned for tax evasion Belle Starr (1848–1889), female outlaw of the Old West St. Louis crime family Anthony Giordano (1914–1980), leader of the St. Louis crime family in the 1960s and 1970s Matthew Trupiano (1938–1997), nephew of Anthony Giordano, crime family boss in the 1980s John Vitale (1909–1982), crime family boss in the early 1980s Entertainment Film, television and theater A–C Goodman Ace (1899–1982), television writer, radio host and comedian Jane Ace (1897–1974), radio actress and host Zoë Akins (1886–1958), Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright, poet Robert Altman (1925–2006), film director, MASH, Nashville, Gosford Park Ed Asner (1929–2021), Emmy Award-winning actor, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Lou Grant; Up, Elf Scott Bakula (born 1954), actor, Quantum Leap, Star Trek: Enterprise, NCIS: New Orleans Josephine Baker (1906–1975), dancer, singer, actress Tisha Terrasini Banker (born 1973), actress Ryan Michelle Bathe (born 1976), actress, Boston Legal, Army Wives, Retired at 35 Anne Bauchens (1882–1967), Oscar-winning film editor John Beal (1909–1997), actor, Les Misérables, Alimony Gerry Becker (born 1951), actor Noah Beery (1882–1946), actor, The Mark of Zorro Wallace Beery (1885–1949), Oscar-winning actor, The Champ, Min and Bill, Viva Villa! Rob Benedict (born 1970), actor, Felicity, Head Case, Threshold Bob Bergen (born 1964), voice actor Fred Berry (1951–2003), actor, What's Happening!! Linda Blair (born 1959), actress, The Exorcist, Airport 1975 Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, screenwriter, Designing Women, Evening Shade Matt Bomer (born 1977), actor, White Collar Johnny Yong Bosch (born 1976), singer, Eyeshine; actor, Trigun, Power Rangers Jeff Branson (born 1977), actor Diane Brewster (1931–1991), actress Brent Briscoe (born 1961), actor, Yes Man, National Treasure: Book of Secrets, Spider-Man 2 Kent Broadhurst (born 1940), actor Edgar Buchanan (1903–1979), actor, Petticoat Junction Norbert Leo Butz (born 1967), Tony Award-winning stage actor Christy Cabanne (1888–1950), director, Jane Eyre Jessica Capshaw (born 1976), actress, The Practice Morris Carnovsky (1897–1992), actor, Edge of Darkness, Dead Reckoning Don Cheadle (born 1964), actor, Hotel Rwanda, Traffic, Boogie Nights, Ocean's Eleven, The Rat Pack Marguerite Churchill (1910–2000), actress, The Big Trail, The Walking Dead Anthony Cistaro (born 1963), actor, Charmed, Witchblade Sarah Clarke (born 1972), actress, Nina Myers on 24 Andy Cohen (born 1968), author, producer, and television personality, Watch What Happens Live Lynn Cohen (1933–2020), actress, Law & Order, Sex and the City Frank Converse (born 1938), actor, Movin' On, N.Y.P.D. Bert Convy (1933–1991), actor and TV personality, Semi-Tough Chris Cooper (born 1951), Oscar-winning actor, Lonesome Dove, The Bourne Identity, American Beauty, Breach Joan Crawford (1905–1977), Oscar-winning actress, Mildred Pierce, The Women, What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? Greg Cromer (born 1971), actor Robert Cummings (1908–1990), actor, Kings Row, Saboteur, Love That Bob, Dial M for Murder D–G Erin Daniels (born 1973), actress, The L Word Nathan Darrow (born 1976), actor, House of Cards Don S. Davis (1942–2008), actor, Stargate SG-1, Twin Peaks Kurt Deutsch, actor, Models Inc. Walt Disney (1901–1966), iconic film and television producer, studio mogul, director, screenwriter, voice actor and animator Mary Alice Dwyer-Dobbin, television producer Dale Dye (born 1944), actor, Saving Private Ryan, Mission: Impossible, Band of Brothers Cliff Edwards (1895–1971), actor, musician; the voice of Jiminy Cricket Frank Faylen (1905–1985), actor, It's a Wonderful Life, Detective Story, Dobie Gillis Hala Finley (born 2009), actress Jenna Fischer (born 1974), actress, The Office, Hall Pass, Blades of Glory (born in Fort Wayne, Indiana, grew up in St. Louis) Henderson Forsythe (1917–2006), actor, As the World Turns James Franciscus (1934–1991), actor, Mr. Novak, Naked City, Marooned, Beneath the Planet of the Apes Phyllis Fraser (1915–2006), actress, journalist, children's book publisher, wife of Bennett Cerf and Robert F. Wagner Jr. Friz Freleng (1905–1995), film producer, director, screenwriter, and animator, Looney Tunes, Merrie Melodies Bob Gale (born 1951), screenwriter, the Back to the Future trilogy Betty Garrett (1919–2011), actress, On the Town, Take Me Out to the Ball Game, Laverne & Shirley Heather Goldenhersh (born 1973), actress, The Class, School of Rock John Goodman (born 1952), actor, Monsters, Inc., Roseanne, The Babe, Barton Fink, O Brother, Where Art Thou?, The Big Lebowski Lucas Grabeel (born 1984), actor, High School Musical, Milk Betty Grable (1916–1973), actress, singer and World War II pin-up girl, Moon Over Miami, How to Marry a Millionaire Bryan Greenberg (born 1978), actor, musician, One Tree Hill, October Road, How to Make It in America Dabbs Greer (1917–2007), actor, Little House on the Prairie, Gunsmoke, The Green Mile Eddie Griffin (born 1968), actor, comedian, Undercover Brother, Norbit Davis Guggenheim (born 1963), director, producer Robert Guillaume (1927–2017), actor, Benson, Soap, The Lion King, Sports Night James Gunn (born 1970), film director and screenwriter Moses Gunn (1929–1993), actor, Father Murphy, The Cowboys, Shaft, Ragtime, Heartbreak Ridge Sean Gunn (born 1974), actor, Gilmore Girls, October Road H–M Jon Hamm (born 1971), actor, Mad Men, The Town, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, Baby Driver Tess Harper (born 1950), actress, Breaking Bad, No Country for Old Men, Crimes of the Heart Jean Harlow (1911–1937), actress and sex symbol George Hearn (born 1934), actor, primarily Broadway and musical theatre George Hickenlooper (1965–2010), documentary filmmaker, Hearts of Darkness, Dogtown Dennis Hopper (1936–2010), actor, filmmaker, artist, Easy Rider, Apocalypse Now, Speed, Hoosiers Arliss Howard (born 1954), actor, writer and director, Full Metal Jacket, Wilder Napalm, Moneyball Rupert Hughes (1872–1956), film director, composer; uncle of reclusive billionaire Howard Hughes John Huston (1906–1987), actor and Oscar-winning film director, The Maltese Falcon, Key Largo, The African Queen Don Johnson (born 1949), actor, Miami Vice, Nash Bridges, Guilty as Sin, Tin Cup, Django Unchained Jay Johnson (born 1977), actor, The Young and the Restless, Scrubs Janet Jones (born 1961), actress, dancer, wife of hockey's Wayne Gretzky Neal Jones (born 1960), actor, Dirty Dancing, G.I. Jane Brenda Joyce (1917–2009), actress, Little Tokyo, U.S.A., Tarzan movies in the 1940s Andreas Katsulas (1946–2006), actor, Babylon 5, Star Trek: The Next Generation Ellie Kemper (born 1980), actress, The Office, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt Edward Kerr (born 1966), actor, seaQuest DSV, What I Like About You Lincoln Kilpatrick (1932–2004), actor Kevin Kline (born 1947), Oscar-winning actor, Sophie's Choice, The Big Chill, A Fish Called Wanda, Last Vegas Evalyn Knapp (1906–1981), actress, Perils of Pauline, In Old Santa Fe David Koechner (born 1962), actor and comedian, Saturday Night Live, Anchorman Laura La Plante (1904–1996), actress in silent films Kasi Lemmons (born 1961), actress and director, Eve's Bayou, Talk to Me Angela Lindvall (born 1979), actress Mark Linn-Baker (born 1954), actor, My Favorite Year, Larry Appleton on Perfect Strangers Robert Lowery (1913–1971), actor, Batman in 1940s serial Oliver T. Marsh (1892-1941), cinematographer Marsha Mason (born 1942), actress, Sibs, The Goodbye Girl, Only When I Laugh, Chapter Two, Frasier Michael Massee (1952–2016), actor, 24, Seven, The Crow Wendell Mayes (1919–1992), screenwriter, The Spirit of St. Louis, North to Alaska, Von Ryan's Express Virginia Mayo (1920–2005), actress, The Best Years of Our Lives, White Heat, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty Edie McClurg (born 1951), actress, Ferris Bueller's Day Off, 7th Heaven Frank McGrath (1903–1967), actor, Wagon Train Steve McQueen (1930–1980), actor, The Sand Pebbles, The Great Escape, The Towering Inferno, Bullitt John Milius (born 1944), screenwriter, director, producer, Red Dawn, The Hunt for Red October, Conan the Barbarian Wendy Moniz (born 1969), actress, The Guardian, Guiding Light, Nash Bridges, Betrayal Mircea Monroe, actress, model, Cellular, Episodes N–Z Dustin Nguyen (born 1962), actor, 21 Jump Street, V.I.P. Kathleen Nolan (born 1933), actress, The Real McCoys Eva Novak (1898–1988), actress of the silent film era, The King of the Kitchen Jane Novak (1896–1990), actress of the silent film era, Treat'Em Rough, Redskin Dan O'Bannon (1946–2009), film director and screenwriter, Heavy Metal, Dark Star, Total Recall Denis O'Hare (born 1962), actor, Brothers & Sisters, Sweet Charity, True Blood Kevin O'Morrison (1916–2016), actor and playwright Timothy Omundson (born 1969), actor, Psych, Judging Amy Diana Ossana, screenwriter, Brokeback Mountain, Pretty Boy Floyd Geraldine Page (1924–1987), Oscar-winning actress, Summer and Smoke, Sweet Bird of Youth, The Trip to Bountiful Carlos PenaVega (born 1989), actor, singer, and dancer, Big Time Rush Evan Peters (born 1987), actor, American Horror Story, Invasion, Kick-Ass Julie Piekarski (born 1963), actress, The Facts of Life Brad Pitt (born 1963), actor and producer, Thelma & Louise, 12 Monkeys, Seven, Moneyball, World War Z William Powell (1892–1984), actor, The Thin Man, Life with Father, My Man Godfrey, Mister Roberts Vincent Price (1911–1993), actor, Laura, House of Wax, The Fly, The Ten Commandments, Edward Scissorhands Sally Rand (1904–1979), burlesque dancer, actress Doris Roberts (1925–2016), actress, Everybody Loves Raymond Leonard Roberts (born 1972), actor, Heroes, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Ginger Rogers (1911–1995), Oscar-winning actress, dance partner of Fred Astaire Paul Rudd (born 1969), actor, comedian, writer, and producer, I Love You, Man, Ant-Man Sol Smith Russell (1848–1902), 19th-century stage actor Jacqueline Scott (1931–2020), actress, Charley Varrick Martha Scott (1912–2003), actress, The Ten Commandments, Ben-Hur Sara Shane (1928–2022), actress, Magnificent Obsession, The King and Four Queens, Tarzan's Greatest Adventure Phyllis Smith (born 1951), actress, The Office Kelly Stables (born 1978), actress, The Exes, W.I.T.C.H., Two and a Half Men Craig Stevens (1918–2000), actor, State Trooper, Peter Gunn Christian Stolte (born 1962), actor, Prison Break Skyler Stone (born 1979), actor, Raising Hope, The Island Eric Stonestreet (born 1971), actor, Modern Family Betty Thomas (born 1948), actress and director, Hill Street Blues, The Brady Bunch Movie, Dr. Dolittle, Private Parts Kay Thompson (1909–1998), actress, Funny Face Sidney Toler (1874–1947), actor, Charlie Chan films William Traylor (1930–1989), actor, Fletch; founder of The Loft Studio/acting school Kathleen Turner (born 1954), actress, Body Heat, Romancing the Stone, Prizzi's Honor, Serial Mom Stephen Barker Turner (born 1968), actor Dick Van Dyke (born 1925), actor, The Dick Van Dyke Show, Mary Poppins, Diagnosis: Murder Jerry Van Dyke (1931–2018), actor, Coach, McLintock!, The Courtship of Eddie's Father Jack Wagner (born 1959), actor/singer Melrose Place, General Hospital Virgil Ward (1911–2004), professional fisherman and host of Championship Fishing Ruth Warrick (1916–2005), actress, Citizen Kane, All My Children Dennis Weaver (1924–2006), actor, Gunsmoke, McCloud William White (1921–1985), actor, producer and director Mary Wickes (1910–1995), actress, White Christmas, Sister Act Dianne Wiest (born 1948), 2-time Oscar-winning actress Jason Wiles (born 1970), actor, Third Watch, Persons Unknown Mykelti Williamson (born 1960), actor, Forrest Gump, Fences Lanford Wilson (April 13, 1937 – March 24, 2011), playwright, director, Lemon Sky, Redwood Curtain, Hallmark Hall of Fame Shelley Winters (1920–2006), 2-time Oscar-winning actress Jane Wyman (1917–2007), Oscar-winning actress; former wife of Ronald Reagan Comedians Cedric The Entertainer (born 1964), actor, comedian Jo Firestone, actress, comedian, writer Redd Foxx (1922–1991), comedian, starred in Sanford and Son Dick Gregory (1932–2017), comedian, social activist Craig Kilborn (born 1962), comedian, actor, former talk show host Kathleen Madigan (born 1965), comedian Kevin Nealon (born 1953), actor, comedian Randy and Jason Sklar (born 1972), identical twin comedians, hosts of ESPN Classic's Cheap Seats Guy Torry (born 1969), actor, comedian Joe Torry (born 1965), actor, comedian Cartoonists Ralph Barton (1891–1931), cartoonist George Booth (1926–2022), cartoonist for The New Yorker Lee Falk (1911–1999), cartoonist, The Phantom, Mandrake the Magician Al Hirschfeld (1903–2003), caricaturist and cartoonist known for drawing celebrities Fred Lasswell (1916–2001), cartoonist, Barney Google and Snuffy Smith Glenn McCoy (born 1965), cartoonist, The Duplex, The Flying McCoys George McManus (1884–1954), cartoonist, Maggie and Jiggs Mike Peters (born 1943), cartoonist, Mother Goose & Grimm Dan Piraro (born 1958), cartoonist, Bizarro Mort Walker (1923–2018), cartoonist, Beetle Bailey Magicians and mentalists Morgan Strebler (born 1976), magician and mentalist; Las Vegas award-winning performer Music Bluegrass and country Lennie Aleshire (1890–1987), country-bluegrass pioneer and vaudeville act Connie Cato (born 1955), country music singer Shirley Collie Nelson (1931–2010), American country music and rockabilly singer, yodeler, guitarist and songwriter Helen Cornelius (born 1941), country singer best known for duets with Jim Ed Brown Rusty Draper (1923–2003), country and rockabilly singer/guitarist The Duke of Paducah (1901–1986), Grand Ole Opry comedian and member of the Country Music Hall of Fame Sara Evans (born 1971), country music star Tyler Farr, country music singer Narvel Felts, (born 1938), country music singer Bob Ferguson (1927–2001), country music songwriter and producer Teea Goans, American country music singer John Hartford (1937–2001), country and bluegrass music composer and performer Jan Howard (1929–2020), country music singer and member of the Grand Ole Opry Ferlin Husky (1925–2011), singer and member of the Country Music Hall of Fame, former member of the Grand Ole Opry Brett James, country music singer-songwriter and record producer Chris Janson, (born 1986), American country music singer-songwriter The Kendalls, Grammy-winning country duo from the 1970s and 1980s Speck Rhodes, (1915–2000), country music comedian and entertainer Tom Shapiro, country music songwriter and record producer Jack Shook (1910–1986), American guitarist and a Grand Ole Opry star Tim Spencer, (1908–1974), American singer-songwriter, actor, member of the Original Sons of the Pioneers, member of the Country Music Hall of Fame Tate Stevens, country music singer and 2012 winner of The X Factor Wynn Stewart (1934–1985), country music singer, progenitor of the Bakersfield sound Billy Swan (born 1942), American country singer-songwriter Trent Tomlinson (born 1975), country singer-songwriter Leroy Van Dyke (born 1929), country singer best known for "The Auctioneer" and "Walk on By", former member of the Grand Ole Opry Darrin Vincent (born 1970), half of the Grammy-nominated bluegrass group Dailey & Vincent; record producer Rhonda Vincent (born 1962), bluegrass singer and musician, seven-time IMBA Female Vocalist of the Year Porter Wagoner (1927–2007), country music singer-songwriter and Grand Ole Opry member. Member of the Country Music Hall of Fame Jerry Wallace (1928–2008), American country and pop singer Dallas Wayne, Austin, Texas-based singer-songwriter, voice-over artist and on-air radio personality for Sirius Satellite Radio Speedy West, (1923–2003), American pedal steel guitarist and record producer Onie Wheeler (1921–1984), country and bluegrass musician Leona Williams (born 1943), American country music singer Chely Wright (born 1970), American country music singer and activist Billy Yates (born 1963), American country music artist and songwriter Reggie Young (1936–2019), American session musician Jazz Oleta Adams (born 1953), soul, jazz and gospel singer Ahmad Alaadeen (1934–2010), jazz saxophonist and composer Norman Brown (born 1970), smooth jazz musician Jimmy Forrest (1920–1980), jazz tenor saxophonist Grant Green (1935–1979), jazz guitarist Coleman Hawkins (1904–1969), jazz tenor saxophonist Bob James (born 1939), smooth jazz musician Scott Joplin (1867–1917), ragtime musician and composer Pat Metheny (born 1954), jazz guitarist and musician Oliver Nelson (1932-1975), jazz saxophonist, clarinetist, arranger, composer and bandleader Lennie Niehaus (1929–2020), alto saxophonist, arranger, and composer Charlie "Bird" Parker (1920–1955), jazz saxophonist and composer David Sanborn (born 1945), smooth jazz musician Wilbur Sweatman (1882–1961), Dixieland jazz and ragtime composer and bandleader Bob Brookmeyer (1929-2011), valve trombonist and composer Clark Terry (1920–2015), swing and bebop trumpet and flugelhorn player Rhythm & blues, pop, rap and hip-hop Akon (born 1977), rhythm and blues musician, music producer Fontella Bass (1940–2012), singer best known for 1965 hit Rescue Me Chingy (born 1980), rapper, actor Eminem (born 1972), rap musician (grew up partly in St. Joseph) Nelly (born 1974), rap musician (born in Texas and raised in St. Louis) David Peaston (1957–2012), R&B and Gospel singer St. Lunatics, hip hop, best known for collaborations with Nelly Tech N9ne (born 1971), rapper Kimberly Wyatt, singer and dancer, Pussycat Dolls SZA (born 1989), American singer-songwriter, born in St. Louis Rock & roll Chuck Berry (1926–2017), guitarist, musician, singer, songwriter, pioneer of rock & roll, in Rock & Roll Hall of Fame The Bottle Rockets (formed 1992), rock, alt-country, roots rock T Bone Burnett (born 1948), musician, songwriter, and soundtrack and record producer Cavo, hard rock band (formed in St. Louis) David Cook (born 1982), 2008 American Idol winner from Blue Springs Sheryl Crow (born 1962), Grammy-winning singer-songwriter Gravity Kills, industrial rock band, formed in Jefferson City Johnnie Johnson (1924–2005), early rock & roll and blues piano player; member of Rock & Roll Hall of Fame King's X, hard rock, progressive metal band, formed in Springfield Michael McDonald (born 1952), singer, former Doobie Brothers frontman Missouri, band known for classic rock song "Movin' On", formed in Kansas City Ozark Mountain Daredevils, rock band known for the hits "Jackie Blue" and "If You Wanna Get To Heaven", formed in Springfield Louise Post, founder, lead singer and guitarist of alternative rock band Veruca Salt Puddle of Mudd, rock band, formed in Kansas City The Rainmakers, rock band, formed in Kansas City Jay Reatard (1980–2010), garage punk musician, born in Lilbourn Wes Scantlin (born 1972), lead singer and guitarist of post-grunge band Puddle of Mudd Shooting Star, 1970s and 1980s rock band, from Kansas City Story of the Year, emo rock band, formed in St. Louis The Urge, rock band, formed in St. Louis Bob Walkenhorst, founder and lead singer of alternative rock band The Rainmakers Story of the Year, rock band, formed in St. Louis Steve Walsh (born 1951), lead vocalist, songwriter and keyboardist for the progressive rock group Kansas and Streets Other music Doris Akers (1923–1995), gospel music singer and composer Martha Bass (1921–1998), gospel singer with Clara Ward Singers and solo career Burt Bacharach (born 1928), pianist, composer Neal E. Boyd (1975–2018), opera vocalist, winner of 2008 America's Got Talent competition Grace Bumbry (born 1937), opera soprano Sarah Caldwell (1924–2006), opera conductor Sara Groves (born 1972), Contemporary Christian singer, record producer, author Dan Landrum (born 1961), hammer dulcimer player, featured instrumentalist with Yanni Basil Poledouris (1945–2006), film soundtrack composer H. Owen Reed (1910–2014), composer and conductor Willie Mae Ford Smith (1904–1994), Gospel singer Virgil Thomson (1896–1989), composer and critic Helen Traubel (1899–1972), opera vocalist Grace VanderWaal (born 2004), singer-songwriter, ukuleleist, winner of America's Got Talent season 11 Radio and television Bob Barker (born 1923), television game show host Jim Bohannon (born 1944), radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh (1951–2021), radio talk show host Dana Loesch (born 1978), radio talk show host and television host at TheBlaze Melanie Morgan (born 1956), radio personality with KSFO in San Francisco Erich "Mancow" Muller (born 1966), radio and TV personality, Mancow's Morning Madhouse Marlin Perkins (1905–1986), zoologist and host of Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom April Scott (born 1979), model, Deal or No Deal and SOAPnet's Soap Talk Scott Shannon (born 1947), disc jockey for many radio stations across the country, hosted radio show America's Greatest Hits Chris Stigall (born 1977), talk radio personality for Philadelphia's WPHT Beauty pageant titleholders Debbye Turner (born 1965), Miss America 1990 Shandi Finnessey (born 1978), Miss USA 2004 Journalism Jabari Asim (born 1962), author, journalist Bob Broeg (1918–2005), St. Louis sportswriter Joe Buck (born 1969), sportscaster for Fox Sports Harry Caray (1914–1998), Hall of Fame baseball broadcaster Walter Cronkite (1916–2009), television journalist Walker Evans (1903–1975), photojournalist best known for photos taken during the Great Depression Clay Felker (1925–2008), editor, journalist, founder of New York magazine Joe Garagiola, Sr. (1926–2016), MLB catcher, baseball broadcaster, and television host (The Today Show) Dave Garroway (1913–1982), first host of NBC's Today show Jane Grant (1892–1972), journalist, co-founder of The New Yorker Michael Kim (born 1964), sports broadcaster for ESPN Carol Platt Liebau, attorney, political analyst and social conservative commentator Mary Margaret McBride (1899–1976), female radio pioneer Joe McGuff (1926–2006), Kansas City sportswriter Dan McLaughlin (born 1974), sportscaster for Fox Sports Midwest Russ Mitchell (born 1960), TV journalist, CBS Evening News Lisa Myers (born 1951), TV journalist, NBC Nightly News Stone Phillips (born 1954), TV journalist, Dateline NBC Joseph Pulitzer (1847–1911), Hungarian journalist, creator of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the Pulitzer Prize Howard Rushmore (1913–1958), journalist for The Daily Worker, New York Journal-American and Confidential magazine Elaine Viets, St. Louis columnist and author Military William T. Anderson (1838–1864), a.k.a. "Bloody Bill" Anderson; Confederate guerrilla leader in the Civil War Charles D. Barger (1892–1936), earned the Medal of Honor in World War I John L. Barkley (1895–1966), earned the Medal of Honor in World War I Frederick Benteen (1834–1898), best known for the role under George Custer at the Battle of the Little Bighorn Omar Bradley (1893–1981), World War II general, from Clark, Missouri Robert Coontz (1864–1935), US Navy Admiral, former Chief of Naval Operations John V. Cox (born 1930), United States Marine Corps Major General; flew over 200 combat missions during the Vietnam War Enoch Crowder (1859–1932), US Army General and reformer of the military justice system Randall "Duke" Cunningham, only U.S. Navy Ace in the Vietnam War; later a U.S. Congressman from California James Phillip Fleming (born 1943), USAF pilot; awarded the Medal of Honor for actions during the Vietnam War John C. Frémont (1813–1890), Western explorer; Union Civil War general; first Republican candidate for U.S. President Frederick Dent Grant (1850–1912), U.S. Army major general and diplomat; son of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant Martin E. Green (1815–1863), Confederate Army brigadier general; killed at Siege of Vicksburg John McNeil (1813–1891), Union Army brigadier general during the American Civil War; known as "The Butcher of Palmyra" Wayne E. Meyer (1926–2009), U.S. Navy rear admiral; "father of the Aegis weapons system" David Moore (1817–1893), Mexican–American War officer and Union Civil War Brigadier General Edward O'Hare (1914–1943), "Butch" O'Hare, U.S. Navy Medal of Honor recipient, namesake of Chicago's O'Hare International Airport John Henry Parker (1866–1942), "Gatling Gun Parker"; a hero in the Spanish–American War; only U.S. soldier to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross four times in World War I Floyd B. Parks (1911–1942), U.S. Marine aviator who earned the Navy Cross posthumously for his actions leading Marine fighter squadron VMF-221 during the Battle of Midway John J. Pershing (1860–1948), soldier, General of the Armies; born in Laclede, Missouri Sterling Price, Confederate States Army, General of the Missouri State Guard during the Civil War William Quantrill (1837–1865), Confederate guerrilla leader (Quantrill's Raiders) in the Civil War John H. Quick (1870–1922), U.S. Marine awarded the Medal of Honor in the Spanish–American War, awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the Navy Cross in World War I James E. Rieger (1874–1951), Colonel Missouri National Guard; awarded Distinguished Service Cross and Croix de Guerre in World War I Roscoe Robinson, U.S. Army General Jared Schmitz, USMC Lance Cpl.; one of 13 of the last military members to be killed in the War on Terror extraction from Afghanistan Maxwell D. Taylor (1901–1987), U.S. Army general, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Stephen W. Thompson (1894–1977), first U.S. military pilot to ever shoot down an enemy in aerial combat (1918) Harry H. Vaughan (1893–1981), U.S. Army Reserve general, Aide to the President of the United States from 1945 to 1953 George Allison Whiteman (1919–1941), first United States Army Air Corps pilot killed in World War II; awarded the Silver Star posthumously for after being shot down in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor Arthur L. Willard (1870–1935), United States Navy Vice Admiral, winner of Navy Cross, French Legion of Honour, and Belgian Order of Leopold; first man to plant the American flag on Cuban soil in the Spanish–American War Public office A–K Orland K. Armstrong (1893–1987), U.S. Representative, journalist and social activist John Ashcroft (born 1942), governor of Missouri (1985–1993), U.S. Senator from Missouri (1995–2001), United States Attorney General (2001–2005) Rex Barnett (born 1938), politician, and former officer of the Missouri State Highway Patrol Thomas Hart Benton (1782–1858), U.S. Senator Richard P. Bland (1835–1899), U.S. Representative for 23 years, Democratic candidate for U.S. president in 1896 Roy Blunt (born 1950), seven-term U.S. Representative for Missouri's 7th congressional district; House Minority Whip, U.S. Senator Christopher S. "Kit" Bond (born 1939), governor, U.S. Senator of Missouri Leonard Boswell (1934–2018), U.S. Representative for Iowa's 3rd congressional district Bill Bradley (born 1943), U.S. Senator for New Jersey, NBA Hall of Famer; born and reared in Missouri Karilyn Brown (born c. 1947), member of the Arkansas House of Representatives for Pulaski County; born in Cape Girardeau Clarence Cannon (1879–1964), U.S. Representative 1923–1964, House Appropriations Committee chairman Albert Sidney Johnson Carnahan (1897–1968), U.S. Representative, US Ambassador to Sierra Leone; father of Governor Mel Carnahan Jean Carnahan (born 1933), first Missouri woman to become a U.S. Senator, matriarch of Carnahan political family Mel Carnahan (1924–2000), governor, posthumous U.S. Senator (died in plane crash three weeks before he was elected), patriarch of Carnahan political family Robin Carnahan (born 1961), Missouri Secretary of State Russ Carnahan (born 1958), U.S. House of Representatives Francis M. Cockrell (1834–1915) U.S. Senator and general in the Confederate States Army Steven Chu (born 1948), U.S. Secretary of Energy John Danforth (born 1936), U.S. Senator and United States Ambassador to the United Nations Thomas Eagleton (1929–2007), U.S. Senator from Missouri (1968–1987); 1972 Democratic vice presidential nominee Josh Earnest (born 1977), White House Press Secretary to President Barack Obama David R. Francis (1850–1927), U.S. Secretary of the Interior (1896–1897), U.S. Ambassador to Russia (1916–1917) J. William Fulbright (1905–1995), U.S. Senator, established the Fulbright Fellowships Dick Gephardt (born 1941), U.S. Representative from Missouri's 3rd congressional district (1977–2005); Democratic House Majority Leader (1989–1995); candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in the 2004 election Michael Gerson (born 1964), chief speechwriter for George W. Bush (2001–2006) Ulysses S. Grant, (1822–1885), 18th President of the United States Michael Harrington (1928–1989), founder Democratic Socialists of America George Hearst (1820–1891), U.S. Senator for California (1887–1891) Martin Heinrich (born 1971), former Congressman and current U.S. Senator from New Mexico Arthur M. Hyde (1877–1947), U.S. Secretary of Agriculture 1929–33, Governor of Missouri 1921–25 Alphonso Jackson (born 1945), 13th U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development James Jones (born 1943), U.S. National Security Advisor under Barack Obama and retired USMC four-star general Tim Kaine (born 1958), former Governor and current U.S. Senator from Virginia since 2013; 2016 Democratic nominee for vice president under Hillary Clinton L–Z Jerry Litton (1937–1976), two-term U.S. Representative; Democratic nominee for U.S. Senate in 1976; killed in plane crash before general election Breckinridge Long (1881–1958), U.S. Ambassador to Italy and Assistant United States Secretary of State under President Franklin D. Roosevelt Claire McCaskill, State Auditor of Missouri (1999–2007); U.S. Senator (2007–2019); first woman elected U.S. senator from Missouri James Benton Parsons (1911–1993), federal judge Clarke Reed (born 1928), Mississippi Republican state chairman, 1966 to 1976; instrumental in the nomination of Gerald R. Ford Jr. at the 1976 Republican National Convention; reared in Caruthersville, Missouri, and attended the University of Missouri Nellie Tayloe Ross (1876–1977), governor of Wyoming (1925–1927); director of the United States Mint (1933–1953); first woman to serve as a state governor Mel Sembler (born 1930), U.S. Ambassador to Italy (2001–2005) and Australia (1989–1993) Jeanne Shaheen (born 1947), U.S. Senator for New Hampshire Ike Skelton (1931–2013), U.S. Congressman for the Missouri 4th District (1977–2011), chairman U.S. House Armed Services Committee Stuart Symington, first Air Force Secretary and U.S. Senator from Missouri Larry Thompson (born 1945), United States Deputy Attorney General under George W. Bush Harry S. Truman (1884–1972), vice president and 33rd President of the United States George Turner (1850–1932), U.S. Senator and international arbitrator David King Udall (1851–1938), served in Arizona Legislature, progenitor of the Udall political family Harold Volkmer (1931–2011), 20-year member of U.S. House of Representatives for northeast Missouri Jim Webb (born 1946), U.S. Senator for Virginia and United States Secretary of the Navy Charles A. Williams Jr. (born 1950), Assistant Secretary of the United States Navy (2020-2021), U.S. Navy Rear Admiral, Ret. (2005) Pete Wilson (born 1933), mayor of San Diego, 36th Governor of California, U.S. Senator (1983–1991) Robert Coldwell Wood (1923–2005), Secretary of Housing and Urban Development under Lyndon B. Johnson Science and medicine Augie Auer (1940–2007), atmospheric scientist and meteorologist William F. Baker (born 1953), structural engineer Jean Bartik (1924–2011), early computer programmer and designer Gordon Bell (born 1934), computer engineer and microcomputer pioneer Herbert Blumer (1900–1987), sociologist, developer of symbolic interactionism Martin Stanislaus Brennan (1845–1927), scientist and priest George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), botanist Steven Chu (born 1948), Nobel Laureate in Physics, U.S. Secretary of Energy Robert H. Dicke (1916–1997), astronomer and physicist Charles Stark Draper (1901–1987), inventor David F. Duncan (born 1947), psychologist and epidemiologist James P. Eisenstein (born 1952), physicist Meta Given (1888–1981), home economist scientist, dietician, author Edward T. Hall (1914–2009), anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher Edwin Hubble (1889–1953), astronomer Mark Johnson (born 1949), philosopher John Johnson (astronomer) (born 1977), astronomer and physicist Virginia Eshelman Johnson (1925–2013), psychology researcher Jack Kilby (1923–2005), inventor of the integrated circuit, Nobel Prize winner Roger Kornberg (born 1947), biochemist, Nobel Prize winner Harry Laughlin (1880–1943), eugenicist J. C. R. Licklider (1915–1990), psychologist, computer scientist Pauline Gracia Beery Mack (1891–1974), chemist Ernest Manheim (1900–2002), sociologist William Howell Masters (1915–2001), gynecologist Orval Hobart Mowrer (1907–1982), psychologist Michael Rosbash (born 1944), Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Keith Schwab (born 1968), physicist Richard Smalley (1943–2005), Nobel Prize-winning chemist, discovered buckminsterfullerene Harlow Shapley (1885–1972), astronomer William Jasper Spillman (1863–1931), plant geneticist, a founder of agricultural economics Lewis Stadler (1896–1954), aka L.J. Stadler, maize geneticist Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917), physician and founder of osteopathic medicine Thomas H. Stix (1924–2001), plasma physicist Norbert Wiener (1894–1964), mathematician Miscellaneous famous Missourians William Becknell (1787–1856), soldier, businessman, founder of the Santa Fe Trail Johnny Behan (1844–1912), sheriff of Tombstone, Arizona, during the gunfight at the O.K. Corral Susan Blow (1843–1916), educator, "the mother of kindergarten" Sylvia Browne (1936–2013), author who claimed to be a medium and to have psychic abilities Nelle G. Burger (1869–1957), president for 34 years of the Missouri State Woman's Christian Temperance Union Calamity Jane (c. 1852–1903), Indian fighter and frontierswoman Alfred Caldwell (1903–1998), architect Dale Carnegie (1888–1955), public and motivational speaker Mike Caro (born 1944), professional poker player James E. Cofer (born 1949), president of Missouri State University, 2010–2011; professor of business at MSU Brad Daugherty (born 1951), professional poker player Moses Dickson (1824–1901), African-American abolitionist, soldier, minister and founder of the secret organization the Knights of Liberty Matt Dillahunty (born 1969), public speaker, internet personality, atheist activist Timothy M. Dolan (born 1950), Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of New York Ella Ewing (1872–1913), "The Missouri Giantess", world's tallest woman (of her era) Hugh Ferriss (1889–1962), delineator and architect Julia Greeley (c. 1833–1918), ex-slave, Roman Catholic candidate for canonization Bobby Greenlease (1947–1953), kidnap-murder victim in case that drew national attention Phoebe Hearst (1842–1919), philanthropist, feminist and suffragist Raelynn Hillhouse, national security and intelligence community analyst, Cold War smuggler, spy novelist Helen Viola Jackson (1919–2020); last living wife of a Civil War Veteran Frances C. Jenkins (1826–1915), evangelist, Quaker minister, and social reformer Mary Ranken Jordan (1869–1962), philanthropist and community advocate Terry Karl (born 1947), professor of Latin American Studies at Stanford University Emmett Kelly (1898–1979), circus clown Karlie Kloss (born 1992), model and ballet dancer Alice Moyer Wing (1866–1937), American writer and suffragist Carrie Nation (1846–1911), advocate for the temperance movement Rose O'Neill (1874–1944), author, illustrator and creator of the Kewpie doll Walter J. Ong (1912–2003), Jesuit priest, cultural and religious historian and philosopher Homer G. Phillips, (1880-1931), prominent lawyer and civil rights advocate Phyllis Schlafly (1924–2016), conservative political activist and author Dred Scott, slave and litigant in U.S. Supreme Court Dred Scott decision George Thampy (born 1987), Scripps National Spelling Bee champion 2000, staff member 2006 Conrad Tillard (born 1964), politician, Baptist minister, radio host, author, and activist Faye Wattleton (born 1943), feminist activist Brian Wesbury (born 1958), economist Halbert White (1950–2012), economics professor at UC San Diego Roy Wilkins (1901–1981), civil rights activist See also List of Hall of Famous Missourians inductees List of Missouri suffragists List of people from Columbia, Missouri List of people from Kansas City, Missouri List of people from Sedalia, Missouri List of people from Springfield, Missouri List of people from St. Joseph, Missouri List of people from St. Louis Lists of Americans Missouri Wall of Fame References
418853	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20Cambodia-related%20articles	Index of Cambodia-related articles	Articles (arranged alphabetically) related to Cambodia and Cambodian culture include: 0-9 25th Tokyo International Film Festival 2003 Phnom Penh riots, anti-Thai riots over Angkor Wat 2008 Cambodian-Thai border dispute 2012 Cambodian Senate election 2013–2014 Cambodian protests 2015 AFF U-16 Youth Championship 2016 AFF U-16 Youth Championship 2017 Cambodian communal elections 2018 Cambodian Senate election 2023 Southeast Asian Games A Abul Kasame Accreditation Committee of Cambodia, national higher education quality and assessment body Achar (Buddhism) ACLEDA Bank, privately owned bank based in Phnom Penh ADHOC, human rights organisation, founded in 1991 Administrative divisions of Cambodia Aek Phnum District Aekakpheap Agence Kampuchea Press AH1 AH11 Air Cambodge Air Dream Ak Yum Aki Ra Al Rockoff Al-Serkal Mosque Am Rong An Ambition Reduced to Ashes, a 1995 Cambodian short film drama directed by Norodom Sihanouk American University of Phnom Penh Amleang Ampil Pram Daeum commune Ampil Tuk village Ampor Tevi Ancient Khmer Highway Andaeuk Haeb commune Andoung Meas District, Ratanakiri Province Ang Chan I Ang Chan II Ang Choulean Ang Duong Ang Em Ang Em (prince) Ang Mey Ang Nan Ang Snguon (prince) Ang Tong Ang Tong Reachea Ang Trapaing Thmor Angk Kaev Commune, a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Angk Khnor Commune, a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Angk Prasat Commune, a commune in Kiri Vong District, Takéo Province Angk Snuol Angk Snuol District Angk Ta Saom Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Angkanh Commune, a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Angkor Angkor Airways Angkor Ban commune Angkor Beer Angkor Borei, Takeo Province Angkor Borei and Phnom Da, Takeo Province Angkor Borei Commune, a commune in Angkor Borei District, Takéo Province Angkor Borei District, a district in Takéo Province Angkor Chey District Angkor Chum District Angkor EV Angkor Extra Stout Angkor Hospital for Children Angkor International Airport Angkor National Youth Orchestra Angkor Thom Angkor Thom District Angkor University Angkor Wat Angkouch Aṅgulimāla Anlong Run Anlong Veng Anlong Veng District, Oddar Meanchey Province Anlong Vil Annamite Range Anthem of the People's Republic of Kampuchea António da Madalena ANZ Royal Bank, joint venture of ANZ and Royal Group Aok Sokunkanha Aoral District Apostolic Prefecture of Battambang Apostolic Prefecture of Kompong Cham Apostolic Vicariate of Phnom Penh APSARA Apsara International Air Apsaras Architecture of Cambodia Norodom Arunrasmy Asia Emergency Response Facility Asia Euro United Asia Euro University Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union Association of Southeast Asian Nations Asura (Buddhism) Auddhatya Aun Pornmoniroth Australia–Cambodia relations Auto rickshaw Autogenocide Av Pak B Bai pong moan Ba Phnum District, Prey Veng Province Ba Srae Commune, a commune in Angkor Borei District, Takéo Province Bakan District, Pursat Province Bakong Baksei Chamkrong, temple Baksey Cham Krong, rock band in pre-Khmer Rouge Bamboo Island, Cambodia Ban Kam Commune Banan District, Battambang Province Banan District Bangkok Plot Bank for Investment and Development of Cambodia Banlung Banlung Municipality, Ratanakiri Province Bansay Traeng Banteay Ampil District, Oddar Meanchey Province Banteay Chhmar Banteay Kdei Banteay Meanchey Banteay Meanchey (National Assembly constituency) Banteay Meanchey Province Banteay Meas District Banteay Neang Banteay Prey Nokor Banteay Samré Banteay Srei Banteay Srei District Banteay Srey Butterfly Centre Baphuon Bar Kaev District, Ratanakiri Province Bar Kham Baraminreachea Barang (Khmer word) Barang Thleak Baray Sangkat Baray, sangkat in Doun Kaev Municipality, Takéo Province Baray District Baribour District, Kampong Chhnang Barom Reachea II Barom Reachea III Barom Reachea V Barom Reameathibtei Basedth District Bassac River Bassaka Air Bat Chum, temple Bat Doeng Bat Trang (khum of Cambodia) Batheay District, a district of Kampong Cham Province Bati District, Takeo Province Batom Reachea Battambang Battambang (National Assembly constituency) Battambang Airport Battambang Municipality Battambang Province Battambang Province (Thailand) Battambang Provincial Museum Battambang River Battambang Royal railway station Battle of Kampot Battle of Kompong Speu Battle of Svay Rieng Bavel (commune) Bavel District Bavet Municipality Bay Damram, commune Bay of Kompong Som Bayap Zoo Bayon Bayon Beer Bayon Television Beat Richner Beehive Radio Beehive Social Democratic Party Before the Fall (2015 film) Ben Kiernan Beng Mealea Bhante Dharmawara Bhavavarman I The Big Durian (sculpture) Bin Chhin Black Panther Premium Stout Black Virgin Mountain Blood in Dispute Boeng Beng Boeng Keng Kang, Khan ~, khan in Phnom Penh Boeng Per Wildlife Sanctuary Boeng Pring Boeng Tonle Chhmar Boeng Tranh Khang Cheung Commune, a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Boeng Tranh Khang Tboung Commune, a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Boeung Kak Bok l'hong Bokator Bokor Hill Station Bon Dalien Bon Om Touk Borei O’Svay Sen Chey District, Stung Treng Province Boribo River Bos Sbov Botum Sakor District Botum Sakor National Park Bour Kry Supreme Patriarch of the Dhammayuttika Order Bourei Cholsar Commune, a commune in Bourei Cholsar District, Takéo Province Bourei Cholsar District, a district in Takéo Province Bou Sra Waterfall Boys' Brigade Learning Centre, Cambodia Brigade 70 (B-70) Buddhism in Cambodia Buddhist Institute Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party Build Bright University Bun Rany Bunong people BVB (Cambodia) C Cà Mau Province Cabinet of Cambodia Cabinet of Hun Sen Calmette Hospital Cambodge Soir Cambodia Cambodia's Got Talent Cambodia's Got Talent (season 1) Cambodia's Next Top Model Cambodia's Next Top Model (season 1) Cambodia, Pol Pot, and the United States Cambodia: A Book For People Who Find Television too Slow, a book of short stories by Brian Fawcett Cambodia: Between War and Peace Cambodia (song) Cambodia Adventist School Cambodia Adventist School – Kantrok Cambodia Airlines Cambodia Airways Cambodia and the International Monetary Fund Cambodia and the World Bank Cambodia Angkor Air Cambodia Asia Bank Cambodia at the 1956 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 1964 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 1972 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 1996 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 2000 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 2000 Summer Paralympics Cambodia at the 2004 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 2004 Summer Paralympics Cambodia at the 2005 Southeast Asian Games Cambodia at the 2007 Southeast Asian Games Cambodia at the 2008 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 2008 Summer Paralympics Cambodia at the 2009 Southeast Asian Games Cambodia at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics Cambodia at the 2010 Asian Games Cambodia at the 2010 Asian Para Games Cambodia at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics Cambodia at the 2011 Southeast Asian Games Cambodia at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships Cambodia at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics Cambodia at the 2012 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics Cambodia at the 2013 Southeast Asian Games Cambodia at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships Cambodia at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics Cambodia at the 2014 Asian Beach Games Cambodia at the 2014 Asian Games Cambodia at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics Cambodia at the 2015 Southeast Asian Games Cambodia at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships Cambodia at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics Cambodia at the 2016 Summer Olympics Cambodia at the 2016 Summer Paralympics Cambodia at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games Cambodia at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships Cambodia at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics Cambodia at the 2018 Asian Games Cambodia at the 2018 Asian Para Games Cambodia at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics Cambodia at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships Cambodia at the 2019 World Athletics Championships Cambodia at the AFC Asian Cup Cambodia at the Asian Games Cambodia at the Olympics Cambodia at the Paralympics Cambodia at the Southeast Asian Games Cambodia Baptist Union Cambodia Bay Cycling Tour Cambodia Bayon Airlines Cambodia–Canada relations Cambodia–China relations Cambodia Commercial Bank Cambodia Constituent Assembly Cambodia Daily Cambodia Davis Cup team Cambodia Democratic Movement of National Rescue Cambodia–Denmark relations Cambodia Development Cooperation Forum Cambodia–France relations Cambodia–India relations Cambodia–Indonesia relations Cambodia–Israel relations Cambodia–Japan relations Cambodia–Malaysia relations Cambodia National and Provincial Resources Data Bank Cambodia national baseball team Cambodia national basketball team Cambodia national cricket team Cambodia national football team Cambodia national football team results Cambodia national futsal team Cambodia National Rescue Movement Cambodia National Rescue Party Cambodia national rugby union team Cambodia national under-17 football team Cambodia national under-21 football team Cambodia national under-23 football team Cambodia–Pakistan relations Cambodia–Philippines relations Cambodia–Russia relations Cambodia Scouts Cambodia Securities Exchange Cambodia–Serbia relations Cambodia–Singapore relations Cambodia–Spain relations Cambodia–Thailand relations Cambodia Town, Long Beach, California Cambodia Tribunal Cambodia under Pol Pot (1975-1979) Cambodia under Sihanouk (1954-1970) Cambodia–United Kingdom relations Cambodia–United States relations Cambodia University of Specialties Cambodia-Vietnam Friendship Monument Cambodia–Vietnam relations Cambodia women's national football team Cambodia women's national volleyball team Cambodian, disambiguation page Cambodian Americans Cambodian Americans in Los Angeles Cambodian art Cambodian Association of Illinois Cambodian Australians Cambodian Braille Cambodian Campaign Cambodian Canadians Cambodian Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area Cambodian Center for Human Rights Cambodian Center for Study and Development in Agriculture Cambodian Children's Fund Cambodian Civil War Cambodian coup of 1970 Cambodian cuisine Cambodian Cultural Village Cambodian culture Cambodian diplomatic missions Cambodian–Dutch War Cambodian franc Cambodian Football Federation Cambodian Freedom Fighters Cambodian French (disambiguation) Cambodian French (linguistics) Cambodian French (people) Cambodian genocide Cambodian genocide denial Cambodian Hokkien Cambodian humanitarian crisis Cambodian Idol Cambodian Idol (season 1) Cambodian Idol (season 2) Cambodian jungle girl Cambodian Landmine Museum Cambodian language Cambodian laughingthrush Cambodian League Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights Cambodian Liberty Party Cambodian literature Cambodian logsucker Cambodian Marine Corps Cambodian Mekong University Cambodian Midget Fighting League Cambodian name Cambodian National Insurance Company Cambodian National Sustaining Party Cambodian National Unity Party Cambodian Navy SEALs Cambodian New Year Cambodian Para-Commando Battalion 2003 Cambodian parliamentary election 2008 Cambodian parliamentary election Cambodian passport Cambodian People's Party Cambodian Premier League Cambodian Public Bank Cambodian rebellion (1811–12) Cambodian rebellion (1820) Cambodian rebellion (1840) Cambodian Red Cross Cambodian riel Cambodian rock (1960s–1970s) Cambodian Rocks Cambodian Royal Chronicles Cambodian Second League Cambodian Self Help Demining Cambodian SingMeng Telemedia Cambodian Son Cambodian–Spanish War Cambodian striped squirrel Cambodian tailorbird Cambodian Television Network Cambodian–Thai border dispute Cambodian tical Cambodian units of measurement Cambodian-Vietnamese War Cambodian Youth Party Cambodians in France CamEd Business School Camko City Camnet Internet Service Canadia Bank Candlelight Party Cardamom Mountains Cardamom Mountains rain forests Catholic Church in Cambodia Central Cardamom Mountains Central Market, Phnom Penh Central Market BRT station Cha Ung Cha'ung Dai Ovpuk Chaeng Mean Chey Chakhe Chakraval Daily Chakrei Cham Cham am Cham people Cham Prasidh Cham script Chambak Commune (Bati District), a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Chamkar Leu (town), the district capital of Chamkar Leu District Chamkar Leu District, a district of Kampong Cham Province Chamkar Mon Section Chamkar Samraong Chamkarmon Chamnaom Champa Champa Commune, a commune in Prey Kabbas District, Takéo Province Champei Commune (Bati District), a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Chamrieng Samai Chan (commune) Chan Nak Chan Sarun Chan Sy Chang kben Changha Chankiri Tree Channel 3 (Cambodia) Chanthou Oeur Cambodian painter Chantrea District, Svay Rieng Province Chaophraya Aphaiphubet (Baen) Chap (instrument) Chapei dang veng Char Commune, a commune in Prey Kabbas District, Takéo Province Châu Đốc River Chau Say Tevoda Chau Seng Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum Chbar Ampov Section Chbar Mon (district) Chbar Mon (town) Chbar Mon Municipality Che Bong Nga Chea Chea Sim Chea Sophara Chea Soth Chea Vichea Cheam Channy Cheam Entry Kmao Cheam Yeab Cheang Tong Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Chek Deth Chem Widhya Cheng Heng Chenla Chenla I Chenla II Chetr Borei District Cheung Kuon Commune, a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Cheung Prey District Chey Chettha II Chey Chettha III Chey Chettha V Chey Chouk Commune, a commune in Bourei Cholsar District, Takéo Province Chey Saen District, Preah Vihear Province Chhaeb District, Preah Vihear Province Chhay Tan Chhayam, a traditional Khmer musical dance Chhean Vam Chhep Wildlife Sanctuary Chhet Sovan Panha Chheu Teal, commune Chhim Sothy, Cambodian painter Chhloung District Chhnal Moan Chhoen Rithy, Cambodian artist Chhom Nimol Chhouk District Chhouk Rin Chhun Yasith Chi Khma Commune, a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Chi Kraeng District Chikreng River Chinary Ung Chinese Cambodian Ching Ching (instrument) Chinit River Chi-Phat Chnuor Mean Chey Choam Ksan Choam Khsant District, Preah Vihear Province Chob Vari Choeng Chum Choeung Ek Chok Chey Chol Kiri District Chompa Toung Chomrieng Et Preang Tuok Chong Kal District, Oddar Meanchey Province Chong Khneas Catholic Church Chou Bun Eng Chong language Choun Nath Chrey, Moung Ruessei Chrey, Thma Koul Chrey Seima Chrieng Brunh Chroy Changva Bridge Chrouy Changvar Section Chrouy Sdau Chula Sakarat Chum Kiri District Chum Mey, one of the seven survivors of S-21 Chumreah Pen Commune, a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Chuon Nath Chut Wutty Chutema, Kep Cinema of Cambodia Cinnamomum cambodianum Cinnamomum parthenoxylon City of Ghosts (2002 film) City University, Cambodia Civilizing mission Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea Cochinchina Colonial Cambodia Comin Asia Commando Blindé du Cambodge Committee to Defend His Majesty's Neutrality Policy Commune council Communes of Cambodia Communications in Cambodia Communist Party of Kampuchea Communist Youth League of Kampuchea Community of Royalist People's Party Concerts for the People of Kampuchea Cooper-Church Amendment Cuisine of Cambodia Culture of Cambodia D Dăm Thnăm Dambae Dambaer District, Tboung Khmum Province Damkhat Reachea Damnak Chang'aeur District Dâmrei Mountains Dana Stone Dance in Cambodia Dang Tong District Dangkao Section Dangkor Dângrêk Mountains Dâmrei Mountains Dap Prampi Mesa Chokchey Daun Penh Dav Bakdong Meas Davy Chou Death and state funeral of Norodom Sihanouk Deforestation in Cambodia Degar refugees in Cambodia Democratic Kampuchea Democratic Movement of Change Democratic Party (Cambodia) Demographics of Cambodia Department of Media and Communication (RUPP) Deportation of Cambodian Americans Deputy Presidents of the State Presidium of Kampuchea Dhammayietra Dhammayuttika Nikaya, Theravada Buddhist monastic order in Cambodia Dharanindravarman I Dharanindravarman II Bhante Dharmawara Dien Del Digital Divide Data Districts and Sections of Cambodia Dith Pran Donchee Dong Peng, a protected area in Koh Kong Province Don't Think I've Forgotten Doun Ba Doun Kaev (town) Doun Kaev District, former district of Takeo Province Doun Kaev Municipality, in Takéo Province Doun Penh Section Doung Commune (Bati District), a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Doung Khpos Commune, a commune in Bourei Cholsar District, Takéo Province Dum Duong Sam Ol Duong Saree, Cambodian artist Dy Saveth, Cambodian actress E Early history of Cambodia East Baray East Mebon Economic history of Cambodia Economy of Cambodia Education in Cambodia Eh Phoutong Ek Yi Oun Ek Phnom District Elections in Cambodia Electricity Authority of Cambodia Elizabeth Becker Embassy of Cambodia in Moscow Emory C. Swank Eng Chhai Eang Ethnic groups in Cambodia Étienne Aymonier Expressways of Cambodia Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, a joint court established to try senior members of the Khmer Rouge F Family tree of Cambodian monarchs FCU UNTAC Fish amok First Cambodia Airlines First Indochina War First They Killed My Father First They Killed My Father (film) Flag of Cambodia Football Federation of Cambodia Foreign Correspondents' Club, Phnom Penh Foreign relations of Cambodia Francis Garnier François Bizot Free Trade Union of Workers of the Kingdom of Cambodia Freedom Park (Cambodia) French Indochina French Indochinese piastre French language in Cambodia French protectorate of Cambodia Fried spider Funan Funcinpec G Gambling in Cambodia General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea Geography of Cambodia George Chigas, Associate Director of the Cambodian Genocide Program at Yale University Geraldine Cox German Apsara Conservation Project Ghosananda, Preah Maha Girl Guides Association of Cambodia GMS Environment Operations Center Gordon Vuong Grand Order of National Merit Grassroots Democratic Party (Cambodia) Greater Mekong Subregion Green papaya salad GRUNK Gulf of Thailand H Hà Tiên Province Principality of Hà Tiên Haing S. Ngor Hak Chhay Hok Hang Chuon Naron Hang Dara Democratic Movement Party Hang Meas HDTV Hang Thun Hak Hariharalaya Harshavarman I Harshavarman II Harshavarman III Hat Pak, commune Health in Cambodia Hello United Hem Chieu Hem Heng Hen Sophal, Cambodian artist Heng Pov Heng Samrin Henri Mouhot Him Sivorn History of Buddhism in Cambodia History of Cambodia Ho Chi Minh City Hok Lundy Home of English International Honda, Keisuke Hope Stevens Hor Nambora, Ambassador to the United Kingdom since 2004 Hor Namhong, Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation since 1998 Hotel Cambodiana Hou Yuon Hu Nim Human rights in Cambodia Human Rights Party (Cambodia) Hun Manith Hun Many Hun Neang Hun Phoeung Hun Sen Huot Tat Huoy Meas I ISO 3166-2:KH Ieng Mouly Ieng Sary Ieng Thirith Ieu Koeus Ieu Pannakar, Cambodian film director and senator IIC University of Technology Im Sothy Im Suosdey In Tam In Vichet Independence Day of Cambodia Independence Monument, Phnom Penh Indochina Indochina Media Memorial Foundation Indochina refugee crisis Indochina Wars Indradevi Indrapura (Khmer) Indrajayavarman Indravarman I Indravarman II Indravarman III Ing Kuntha Phavi Institute of Foreign Languages Institute of Technology of Cambodia InterContinental Phnom Penh International Finance Complex International Institute of Cambodia International School of Phnom Penh International University, Cambodia Isanapura Ishanavarman II Islam in Cambodia ISO 3166-2:KH J Jamrieng samai Japanese occupation of Cambodia Jarai people Jayarajadevi Jayavarman I Jayavarman II Jayavarman III Jayavarman IV Jayavarman V Jayavarman VI Jayavarman VII Jayavarman VIII JC International Airlines JC Royal Joannès Rivière John Dawson Dewhirst Johnnie Walker Cambodian Open Jombok Hoas Jon Swain K .kh K5 Plan Ka Choun Ka Choung Kabalromih Kaev Hua I Kaev Hua II Kaev Seima District Kah Bpow River Kak Commune, Bar Kaev District Kakaoh Kalai, Cambodia Kambojas and Kambodia Kamboul, Khan ~, khan in Phnom Penh Kamchay Mear District, Prey Veng Province Kamnab Commune, a commune in Kiri Vong District, Takéo Province Kampeaeng Commune (Kiri Vong District), a commune in Kiri Vong District, Takéo Province Kampeaeng Commune (Prey Kabbas District), a commune in Prey Kabbas District, Takéo Province Kampong Cham (city) Kampong Cham (National Assembly constituency) Kampong Cham Airport Kampong Cham Municipality Kampong Cham Province Kampong Chhnang (city) Kampong Chhnang (National Assembly constituency) Kampong Chhnang (town) Kampong Chhnang Airport Kampong Chhnang District Kampong Chhnang Municipality Kampong Chhnang Province Kampong Krasang Commune, a commune in Bourei Cholsar District, Takéo Province Kampong Leaeng District Kampong Leav District, Prey Veng Province Kampong Lpou, commune Kampong Luong Kampong Phluk Kampong Preah, commune Kampong Prieng, commune Kampong Reab Commune (Prey Kabbas District), a commune in Prey Kabbas District, Takéo Province Kampong Rou Kampong Rou District, Svay Rieng Province 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District, Takéo Province Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral, Battambang Outey I Outey II Outline of Cambodia OVCs, Orphans and Vulnerable Children P Pa Hal, village Pa Kalan, commune Pa Socheatvong Pailin Pailin District Pailin Province Pak Nhai, commune Pang Khat Pan Sorasak Paññāsāstra University of Cambodia Paragon International University, former Zaman University Paris Peace Agreements Parliament of Cambodia Parliament of the Khmer Republic Parrot's Beak, Cambodia Party of Democratic Kampuchea Pate, Cambodia, commune Pathya Vat Patricia Hy-Boulais Patriotic and Democratic Front of the Great National Union of Kampuchea Pchum Ben Pea Ream Commune, a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Pea Reang District, Prey Veng Province Peace Palace, Phnom Penh Peacock dance Peam Aek, commune Peam Bang Peam Chor District Peam Kaoh Sna, commune Peam Krasop Wildlife Sanctuary Peam Ro District, Prey Veng Province Pear people Pearic languages Pech Chenda, commune Pech Sar Commune, a commune in 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and Economics Royal University of Phnom Penh Royal University of Phnom Penh BRT station Rovieng Commune, a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Rovieng District, Preah Vihear Province Ruessei Krang, commune Ruessei Kraok, commune Rukhak Kiri District Rumduol District, Svay Rieng Province Rung Chrey, commune Rural Khmer house Russey Keo Russey Keo Section S S-21: The Khmer Rouge Killing Machine S'ang S'ang District Sa Kaeo Refugee Camp Sabai Sabai Sesame Saigon River Sala (Thai architecture) Sala Baï Hotel and Restaurant School Sala Krau District, Pailin Province Saloth Chhay Samai Distillery Sam-Ang Sam Sam Bunthoeun Sambor Prei Kuk Sambuor, commune Sambuor Commune (Treang District), a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Sambour District Sameakki, commune Sameakki Mean Chey District Phnom Samkos Samlar kako Samlar machu Samlaut Multiple Use Area Samleng Yuvachun Samlout District Sampeah Sampho Samphor Sampot Sampov Lun, commune Sampov Loun District Sampov Meas (district) Sam Rainsy Sam Rainsy Party Samraong, Banteay Meanchey (commune) Samraong (town) Samraong Commune (Samraong District), a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Samraong Commune (Tram Kak District), a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Samraŏng District, a district in Takéo Province Samraong Knong, commune Samraong Municipality, Oddar Meanchey Province Samraong Tong District Samrong Sen Sam Sary Samudra manthan San Yun Sandan District Sanghapala Sangharaja Sangkat Sangkat Baray (Doun Kaev Municipality) Sangkat Roka Knong Sangkat Roka Krau Sangkae District Sangkae River Sangkum Sangkum Banh Loloke Sangkum Jatiniyum Front Party Sangkum Thmei District, Preah Vihear Province Sangrama Sanlong Commune (Treang District), a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Santebal Santepheap, commune Santuk District Santuk Silk Farm SAO Cambodia Saob Leu, village Saom Commune, a commune in Kiri Vong District, Takéo Province Saom Vansodany Sar Kheng Sarongk, commune Satha I Satha II Saukam Khoy Say Sam Al Sbai Scouting in Cambodia Sdach Domrei Sor Sdach Korn, King of Cambodia from 1498 to 1505 Sdau, commune Sdok Kak Thom Se San River Sean Flynn See Angkor and Die, 1993 Cambodian romantic drama directed by Norodom Sihanouk Sen-Ranariddh Coalition Sen Sok Section Senate of Cambodia Seng Sothea Senmonorom Senmonorom Municipality Sepak takraw Serei Mean Chey, commune Serei Saophoan (city) Serei Saophoan Municipality Serei Sophon River Serge Thion Sesan District, Stung Treng Province Sesan Commune Sesan River Si Votha Siam Nakhon Province Siem Bouk District, Stung Treng Province Siem Pang District, Stung Treng Province Siem Pang Protected Forest Siem Reap Siem Reap Airways Siem Reap Airways International Siem Reap International Airport Siem Reap Municipality Siem Reap Province Siem Reap River Norodom Sihamoni Norodom Sihanouk Death and state funeral of Norodom Sihanouk Sihanouk Boulevard Sihanouk International Airport Sihanouk Trail Sihanoukism Sihanoukville Sihanoukville Autonomous Port Sihanoukville International Airport Sihanoukville Province Sikhoraphum Silver Pagoda, Phnom Penh Sim Var Sinn Sisamouth Sinn Sisamouth discography Sino-French War Sisophon Sisophon Province Sisowath Kossamak Sisowath Monipong Sisowath Monireth Sisowath Monivong Sisowath of Cambodia Sisowath Quay Sisowath Ritharavong Sisowath Sirik Matak Sisowath Watchayavong Sisowath Youtevong Site Two Refugee Camp Sithean Reachea Sithor Kandal District, Prey Veng Province Skor chhaiyam Skor daey Skor sang na Skor yeam Skor yike Skuon Sky Angkor Airlines Sla Commune, a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Sla Kaet, commune Sla Kram, commune Slek Small Planet Airlines (Cambodia) Smaong Commune, a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Smot (chanting) Snao Commune, a commune in Prey Kabbas District, Takéo Province Sneng Snoeng, commune Snuol District Snuol Wildlife Sanctuary So Savoeun Social Republican Party Society of Justice Party Soea, commune Soengh commune Soengh Commune (Samraong District), a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Sok An Sok Sovan Sok Sreymom Sokhom So, Vice President of the Cambodian Freedom Fighters. Sokimex Sokun Nisa Soma Norodom Somaly Mam Sombai Somlenh Polokor, a Cambodian journal published during the 1960s Sompoan Yuvakok Son Ngoc Minh Son Ngoc Thanh Son Sann Son Sen Song of the Khmer Republic Sophat Sophea Duch Sophiline Cheam Shapiro, a choreographer, dancer and vocalist Sorya Shopping Center Sosthene Fernandez Soth Polin Souphi, commune Sour Phi Commune, a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Sourn Serey Ratha Southern Cardamom National Park Soutr Nikom District Sovann Pancha Sovannahong Spean Praptis Spean Sraeng, commune Spean Thma Sphaerocoryne affinis Srae Ambel District Srae Ronoung Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Srah Chik, commune Srah Reang, commune Srah Srang Sralai Sralanh Khmer Srangae Commune (Treang District), a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Sre Ambel Srei Snam District Srei Soriyopear Sreng River Srepok River Srey Santhor Srey Santhor District Sri Jayarajacudamani SS Columbia Eagle incident SS Mayagüez State institutions of Cambodia State Secretariat of Civil Aviation Staying Single When Steamed curry Steung Saen Municipality Steung Saen River Steung Trang District Stung Treng Airport Sticky rice in bamboo Stieng language Stoung District Stoung River Stueng Hav District, Sihanoukville Province Stueng Trang Stung Pouthisat River Stung Sen Wildlife Sanctuary Stung Treng Stung Treng Airport Stung Treng Bridge Stung Treng Municipality Stung Treng Province Stupas in Cambodia Sun Chanthol Sung, Cambodia, commune Suong Suong Municipality, Tboung Khmum Province Supreme Council of Consultants Supreme Court of Cambodia Supreme Patriarch of Cambodia Norodom Suramarit Surin Province Suryavarman I Suryavarman II Suvannamaccha Suvarnabhumi Suttantaprija ind Suy Sem Svay Chek (commune) Svay Chek District Svay Chek River Svay Chrum District, Svay Rieng Province Svay Don Kêv Svay Leu District Svay Pak Svay Pao, commune Svay Rieng Svay Rieng (town) Svay Rieng Municipality Svay Rieng Province Svay Teab District, Svay Rieng Province Jon Swain Swimming to Cambodia Sydney Schanberg T Ta Baen, commune Ta Keo Ta Khmao BRT station Ta Khmau Ta Khmau Municipality Ta Khwai Ta Kong Ta Kream Ta Krei Ta Lam Ta Loas Ta Meun Ta Mok Ta Muen Thom Ta Nei Ta Our Commune, a commune in Kiri Vong District, Takéo Province Ta Phem Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Ta Phou Ta Pon Ta Prohm Ta Pung Ta Saen Ta Sanh Ta Sda Ta Som Ta Taok Ta Veaeng District, Ratanakiri Province Tabitha Cambodia Takéo Takéo Province Takhmao Bridge Talou Sen Chey District Tampuan language Tampuan people Tang Doung Commune, a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Tang Yab Commune, a commune in Prey Kabbas District, Takéo Province Tbaeng Meanchey District, Preah Vihear Province Tbeng Meanchey Airport Tboung Khmum District Tboung Khmum Province Tea Banh Teav Aek Telecom Cambodia Telephone numbers in Cambodia Tean Kam Teng Bunma Tep Pranam Tep Rindaro Tep Sodachan Tep Sothy Tep Vong Terrace of the Elephants Terrace of the Leper King Thai numerals Thala Barivat District, Stung Treng Province Thavory meas bong The Burnt Theatre French-Cambodian docudrama directed and co-written by Rithy Panh. The Cambodia Daily The Cambodia Project The Killing Fields The Killing Fields, film The Last Days of Colonel Savath, film by Norodom Sihanouk The People of Angkor The Snake King's Child, 2001 Cambodian-Thai horror film Theatre of Cambodia Theavy Mok Theravada Buddhism Thiounn Prasith Thlea Prachum Commune, a commune in Kaoh Andaet District, Takéo Province Thlok Commune (Treang District), a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Thma Bang District Thma Koul District Thma Puok (commune) Thma Puok District Thneap Thommanon Thommo Reachea II Thommo Reachea IV Thong (surname) Thpong District Thongvan Fanmuong Tida Sok Puos Tim Page (photographer) Timeline of Cambodian history Tith Dina Tioulong Saumura Tnaot Commune (Bati District), a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Tonle Bassac (commune) Tonle Bati Tonlé San Tonlé Sap Tonlé Sap Biosphere Reserve TonleSap Airlines Tou Samouth Toul Kork Traditional Cambodian musical instruments Traeng Tralach Commune, a commune in Treang District, Takéo Province Tram Kak Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Tram Kak District, Takeo Province Tramung Chrum Trang (commune) Transport in Cambodia Transport in Phnom Penh Trapeang Kranhung Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Trapeang Krasang Commune, a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Trapeang Prasat District, Oddar Meanchey Province Trapeang Sab Commune, a commune in Bati District, Takéo Province Trapeang Thum Khang Cheung Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Trapeang Thum Khang Tboung Commune, a commune in Tram Kak District, Takéo Province Trea Commune (Samraong District), a commune in Samraŏng District, Takéo Province Treang District, Takeo Province Treas Tro (instrument) Tro Khmer Tro sau toch Tro sau thom Tro u Tropeang Peay Truong Cang Trương Minh Giảng Tuek Chhou District Tuek Chhu Falls Tuek Chour Tuek Phos (town) Tuek Phos District Tuek Thla, Banteay Meanchey Tuek Thla, Phnom Penh Tum Teav, the classic Cambodian love story Tumnob Rolok Tung Krahom Tung Padevat Toul Kok TVK BRT station Tuol Kouk Section Tuol Pongro Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Tuol Ta Aek TV5 Cambodia Twilight (1969 film) U Udayadityavarman II Udomkate Khmer Um Sereyroth Ung Hong Sath Ung Huot Union of Cambodian Democrats United Issarak Front United Nations Border Relief Operation United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia University of Cambodia University of Health Sciences (Cambodia) University of Puthisastra Uparaja V Vandy Kaonn Vann Nath, Cambodian painter Vann Molyvann Vann Vannak Variin District Vassa Vassa candle Vat Phou Vattanac Bank Veal Veng District, Pursat Province Vehicle registration plates of Cambodia Veng Sakhon Vesak Veun Sai (commune) Veun Sai District, Ratanakiri Province Vice President of the State Council of Cambodia Vichara Dany Vietnam Railways 231 Class Vihear Villa Horror Vĩnh Tế Canal Vireakchey National Park Visa policy of Cambodia Voat Kor Voat Ta Muem The Voice of Cambodia The Voice of Khmer Youth Vorn Vet Vorvong and Sorvong Vyadhapura W Wat Wat Athvea Wat Bakan, an ancient pagoda in Bakan district, Pursat province Wat Banan Wat Botum Wat Ek Phnom Wat Langka Wat Moha Montrey Wat Nokor Wat Ounalom Wat Phnom Wat Phnom Airlines Wat Phnom Daily Wat Preah Yesu Wat Saravan Water festival Water supply and sanitation in Cambodia West Baray West Mebon Western Khmer dialect Weapons of the Cambodian Civil War Western International School of Phnom Penh Western Stadium Who Am I? (2009 film) Wildlife of Cambodia Wildlife of Ratanakiri William Shawcross Women in Cambodia Women's Media Centre of Cambodia World Assistance for Cambodia Y Ya Tung Yantra tattooing Yasodharapura Yasovarman I Yasovarman II Yat Hwaidi Yeak Laom, commune (Lake) Yeak Laom Year Zero (political notion) Yeay Mao Yem Ponhearith Yem Sambaur Yeun Savuth Yike Yim Sovann Ynav Bosseba Yol Aularong Yos Por Yos Son You Hokry You Khin Yun Yat Z Zaman International School Zhou Daguan See also Outline of Cambodia Cambodia
418880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol%20Sleng%20Genocide%20Museum	Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum	The Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum () or simply Tuol Sleng (, ; lit. "Hill of the Poisonous Trees" or "Strychnine Hill") is a museum chronicling the Cambodian genocide. Located in Phnom Penh, the site is a former secondary school which was used as Security Prison 21 (S-21; ) by the Khmer Rouge regime from 1975 until its fall in 1979. From 1976 to 1979, an estimated 20,000 people were imprisoned at Tuol Sleng and it was one of between 150 and 196 torture and execution centers established by the Khmer Rouge and the secret police known as the Santebal (literally "keeper of peace"). On 26 July 2010, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia convicted the prison's chief, Kang Kek Iew, for crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions. He died on 2 September 2020 while serving a life sentence. History To accommodate the victims of purges that were important enough for the attention of the Khmer Rouge, a new detention center was planned in the building that was formerly known as Tuol Svay Prey High School, named after a royal ancestor of King Norodom Sihanouk, the five buildings of the complex were converted in March or April 1976 into a prison and an interrogation center. Before, other buildings in town were used already as prison S-21. The Khmer Rouge renamed the complex "Security Prison 21" (S-21) and construction began to adapt the prison for the inmates: the buildings were enclosed in electrified barbed wire, the classrooms converted into tiny prison and torture chambers, and all windows were covered with iron bars and barbed wire to prevent escapes and suicides. From 1976 to 1979, an estimated 20,000 people were imprisoned at Tuol Sleng (the real number is unknown). At any one time, the prison held between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners. They were repeatedly tortured and coerced into naming family members and close associates, who were in turn arrested, tortured and killed. In the early months of S-21's existence, most of the victims were from the previous Lon Nol regime and included soldiers, government officials, as well as academics, doctors, teachers, students, factory workers, monks, engineers, etc. Later, the party leadership's paranoia turned on its own ranks and purges throughout the country saw thousands of party activists and their families brought to Tuol Sleng and murdered. Those arrested included some of the highest ranking politicians such as Khoy Thoun, Vorn Vet and Hu Nim. Although the official reason for their arrest was "espionage", these men may have been viewed by Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot as potential leaders of a coup against him. Prisoners' families were sometimes brought en masse to be interrogated and later executed at the Choeung Ek extermination center. In 1979, the prison was uncovered by the invading Vietnamese army. At some point between 1979 and 1980 the prison was reopened by the government of the People's Republic of Kampuchea as a historical museum memorializing the actions of the Khmer Rouge regime. Routine Upon arrival at the prison, prisoners were photographed and required to give detailed autobiographies, beginning with their childhood and ending with their arrest. After that, they were forced to strip to their underwear, and their possessions were confiscated. The prisoners were then taken to their cells. Those taken to the smaller cells were shackled to the walls or the concrete floor. Those who were held in the large mass cells were collectively shackled to long pieces of iron bar. The shackles were fixed to alternating bars; the prisoners slept with their heads in opposite directions. They slept on the floor without mats, mosquito nets, or blankets. They were forbidden to talk to each other. The day began in the prison at 4:30 a.m. when prisoners were ordered to strip for inspection. The guards checked to see if the shackles were loose or if the prisoners had hidden objects they could use to commit suicide. Over the years, several prisoners managed to kill themselves, so the guards were very careful in checking the shackles and cells. The prisoners received four small spoonfuls of rice porridge and a watery soup of leaves twice a day. Drinking water without asking the guards for permission resulted in serious beatings. The inmates were hosed down every four days. The prison had very strict regulations, and severe beatings were inflicted upon any prisoner who disobeyed. Almost every action had to be approved by one of the prison's guards. The prisoners were sometimes forced to eat human feces and drink human urine. The unhygienic living conditions in the prison caused skin diseases, lice, rashes, ringworm and other ailments. The prison's medical staff were untrained and offered treatment only to sustain prisoners' lives after they had been injured during interrogation. When prisoners were taken from one place to another for interrogation, they were blindfolded. Guards and prisoners were not allowed to converse. Moreover, within the prison, people who were in different groups were not allowed to have contact with one another. Torture and extermination Most prisoners at S-21 were held there for two to three months. However, several high-ranking Khmer Rouge cadres were held longer. Within two or three days after they were brought to S-21, all prisoners were taken for interrogation. The torture system at Tuol Sleng was designed to make prisoners confess to whatever crimes they were charged with by their captors. Prisoners were routinely beaten and tortured with electric shocks, searing hot metal instruments and hanging, as well as through the use of various other devices. Some prisoners were cut with knives or suffocated with plastic bags. Other methods for generating confessions included pulling out fingernails while pouring alcohol on the wounds, holding prisoners' heads under water, and the use of the waterboarding technique. Women were sometimes raped by the interrogators, even though sexual abuse was against Democratic Kampuchea (DK) policy. The perpetrators who were found out were executed. Although many prisoners died from this kind of abuse, killing them outright was discouraged, since the Khmer Rouge needed their confessions. The "Medical Unit" at Tuol Sleng, however, did kill at least 100 prisoners by bleeding them to death. It is proven that medical experiments were performed on certain prisoners. There is clear evidence that patients in Cambodia were sliced open and had organs removed with no anesthetic. The camp's director, Kang Kek Iew, has acknowledged that "live prisoners were used for surgical study and training. Draining blood was also done." In their confessions, the prisoners were asked to describe their personal background. If they were party members, they had to say when they joined the revolution and describe their work assignments in DK. Then the prisoners would relate their supposed treasonous activities in chronological order. The third section of the confession text described prisoners' thwarted conspiracies and supposed treasonous conversations. At the end, the confessions would list a string of traitors who were the prisoners' friends, colleagues, or acquaintances. Some lists contained over a hundred names. People whose names were in the confession list were often called in for interrogation. Typical confessions ran into thousands of words in which the prisoner would interweave true events in their lives with imaginary accounts of their espionage activities for the CIA, the KGB, or Vietnam. Physical torture was combined with sleep deprivation and deliberate neglect of the prisoners. The torture implements are on display in the museum. It is believed that the vast majority of prisoners were innocent of the charges against them and that the torture produced false confessions. For the first year of S-21's existence, corpses were buried near the prison. However, by the end of 1976, cadres ran out of burial spaces, and the prisoner and family members were taken to the Boeung Choeung Ek ("Crow's Feet Pond") extermination centre, fifteen kilometers from Phnom Penh. There, they were killed by a group of teenagers led by a Comrade Teng, being battered to death with iron bars, pickaxes, machetes and many other makeshift weapons owing to the scarcity and cost of ammunition. After the prisoners were executed, the soldiers who had accompanied them from S-21 buried them in graves that held between as few as 6 and as many as 100 bodies. Non-Cambodian prisoners Almost all non-Cambodians had left the country by early May 1975, following an overland evacuation of the French Embassy in trucks. The few who remained were seen as a security risk. Though most of the foreign victims were either Vietnamese or Thai, a number of Western prisoners, many picked up at sea by Khmer Rouge patrol boats, also passed through S-21 between April 1976 and December 1978. No foreign prisoners survived captivity in S-21. Even though the vast majority of the victims were Cambodian, some were foreigners, including 488 Vietnamese, 31 Thai, four French, two Americans, two Australians, one Laotian, one Arab, one Briton, one Canadian, one New Zealander, and one Indonesian. Khmers of Indian and Pakistani descent were also victims. Two Franco-Vietnamese brothers named Rovin and Harad Bernard were detained in April 1976 after they were transferred from Siem Reap, where they had worked tending cattle. Another Frenchman named Andre Gaston Courtigne, a 30-year-old clerk and typist at the French embassy, was arrested the same month along with his Khmer wife in Siem Reap. It is possible that a handful of French nationals who went missing after the 1975 evacuation of Phnom Penh also passed through S-21. Two Americans were captured under similar circumstances. James Clark and Lance McNamara in April 1978 were sailing when their boat drifted off course and sailed into Cambodian waters. They were arrested by Khmer patrol boats, taken ashore, where they were blindfolded, placed on trucks, and taken to the then-deserted Phnom Penh. Twenty-six-year-old John D. Dewhirst, a British tourist, was one of the youngest foreigners to die in the prison. He was sailing with his New Zealand companion, Kerry Hamill, and their Canadian friend Stuart Glass when their boat drifted into Cambodian territory and was intercepted by Khmer patrol boats on August 13, 1978. Glass was killed during the arrest, while Dewhirst and Hamill were captured, blindfolded, and taken to shore. Both were executed after having been tortured for several months at Tuol Sleng. Witnesses reported that a foreigner was burned alive; initially, it was suggested that this might have been John Dewhirst, but a survivor would later identify Kerry Hamill as the victim of this particular act of brutality. Robert Hamill, his brother and a champion Atlantic rower, would years later make a documentary, Brother Number One, about his brother's incarceration. One of the last foreign prisoners to die was twenty-nine-year-old American Michael S. Deeds, who was captured with his friend Christopher E. DeLance on November 24, 1978, while sailing from Singapore to Hawaii. His confession was signed a week before the Vietnamese army invaded Cambodia and ousted the Khmer Rouge. In 1989, Deeds' brother, Karl Deeds, traveled to Cambodia in attempts to find his brother's remains, but was unsuccessful. On September 3, 2012, DeLance's photograph was identified among the caches of inmate portraits. As of 1999, there were a total of 79 foreign victims on record, but former Tuol Sleng Khmer Rouge photographer Nim Im claims that the records are not complete. On top of that, there is also an eyewitness account of a Filipino, a Cuban and a Swiss who passed through the prison, though no official records of either are shown. Survivors Out of an estimated 20,000 people imprisoned at Tuol Sleng, there were only twelve known survivors: seven adults and five children. One child died shortly after the liberation. As of mid-September 2011, only three of the adults and four children are thought to still be alive: Chum Mey, Bou Meng, and Chim Meth. All three said they were kept alive because they had skills their captors judged to be useful. Bou Meng, whose wife was killed in the prison, is an artist. Chum Mey was kept alive because of his skills in repairing machinery. Chim Meth was held in S-21 for 2 weeks and transferred to the nearby Prey Sar prison. She may have been spared because she was from Stoeung district in Kampong Thom where Comrade Duch was born. She intentionally distinguished herself by emphasising her provincial accent during her interrogations. Vann Nath, who was spared because of his ability to paint, died on September 5, 2011. Norng Chan Phal, one of the surviving children, published his story in 2018. The Documentation Center of Cambodia has recently estimated that, in fact, at least 179 prisoners were freed from S-21 between 1975 and 1979 and approximately 23 prisoners (including 5 children, two of them siblings Norng Chanphal and Norng Chanly) survived when the prison was liberated in January 1979. One child died shortly thereafter. Of the 179 prisoners who were released, most disappeared and only a few are known to have survived after 1979. It was found that at least 60 persons (out of the DC Cam list) who are listed as having survived were first released but later rearrested and executed. Staff The prison had a staff of 1,720 people throughout the whole period. Of those, approximately 300 were office staff, internal workforce and interrogators. The other 1,400 were general workers, including people who grew food for the prison. Several of these workers were children taken from the prisoner families. The chief of the prison was Khang Khek Ieu (also known as Comrade Duch), a former mathematics teacher who worked closely with Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot. Other leading figures of S-21 were Kim Vat aka Ho (deputy chief of S-21), Peng (chief of guards), Mam Nai aka Chan (chief of the Interrogation Unit), and Tang Sin Hean aka Pon (interrogator). Pon was the person who interrogated important people such as Keo Meas, Nay Sarann, Ho Nim, Tiv Ol, and Phok Chhay. The documentation unit was responsible for transcribing tape recorded confessions, typing the handwritten notes from prisoners' confessions, preparing summaries of confessions, and maintaining files. In the photography sub-unit, workers took mug shots of prisoners when they arrived, pictures of prisoners who had died while in detention, and pictures of important prisoners after they were executed. Thousands of photographs have survived, but thousands are still missing. The defense unit was the largest unit in S-21. The guards in this unit were mostly teenagers. Many guards found the unit's strict rules hard to obey. Guards were not allowed to talk to prisoners, to learn their names, or to beat them. They were also forbidden to observe or eavesdrop on interrogations, and they were expected to obey 30 regulations, which barred them from such things as taking naps, sitting down or leaning against a wall while on duty. They had to walk, guard, and examine everything carefully. Guards who made serious mistakes were arrested, interrogated, jailed and put to death. Most of the people employed at S-21 were terrified of making mistakes and feared being tortured and killed. The interrogation unit was split into three separate groups: Krom Noyobai or the political unit, Krom Kdao or the hot unit and Krom Angkiem, or the chewing unit. The hot unit (sometimes called the cruel unit) was allowed to use torture. In contrast, the cold unit (sometimes called the gentle unit) was prohibited from using torture to obtain confessions. If they could not make prisoners confess, they would transfer them to the hot unit. The chewing unit dealt with tough and important cases. Those who worked as interrogators were literate and usually in their 20s. Some of the staff who worked in Tuol Sleng also ended up as prisoners. They confessed to being lazy in preparing documents, to having damaged machines and various equipment, and to having beaten prisoners to death without permission when assisting with interrogations. Security regulations When prisoners were first brought to Tuol Sleng, they were made aware of ten rules that they were to follow during their incarceration. What follows is what is posted today at the Tuol Sleng Museum; the imperfect grammar is a result of faulty translation from the original Khmer: During testimony at the Khmer Rouge Tribunal on April 27, 2009, Duch claimed the 10 security regulations were a fabrication of the Vietnamese officials that first set up the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum. Discovery In 1979, Hồ Văn Tây, a Vietnamese combat photographer, was the first journalist to document Tuol Sleng to the world. Hồ and his colleagues followed the stench of rotting corpses to the gates of Tuol Sleng. The photos of Hồ documenting what he saw when he entered the site are exhibited in Tuol Sleng today. The Khmer Rouge required that the prison staff make a detailed dossier for each prisoner. Included in the documentation was a photograph. Since the original negatives and photographs were separated from the dossiers in the 1979–1980 period, most of the photographs remain anonymous to this day. Description The buildings at Tuol Sleng are preserved, with some rooms still appearing just as they were when the Khmer Rouge were driven out in 1979. The regime kept extensive records, including thousands of photographs. Several rooms of the museum are now lined, floor to ceiling, with black and white photographs of some of the estimated 20,000 prisoners who passed through the prison. The site has four main buildings, known as BuildingA, B, C, and D. BuildingA holds the large cells in which the bodies of the last victims were discovered. BuildingB holds galleries of photographs. BuildingC holds the rooms subdivided into small cells for prisoners. BuildingD holds other memorabilia including instruments of torture. Other rooms contain only a rusting iron bedframe, beneath a black and white photograph showing the room as it was found by the Vietnamese. In each photograph, the mutilated body of a prisoner is chained to the bed, killed by his fleeing captors only hours before the prison was captured. Other rooms preserve leg-irons and instruments of torture. They are accompanied by paintings by former inmate Vann Nath showing people being tortured, which were added by the post-Khmer Rouge regime installed by the Vietnamese in 1979. The museum is open to the public from 8:00a.m. to 5:00p.m. On weekdays, visitors have the opportunity of viewing a 'survivor testimony' from 2:30p.m. to 3:00p.m. Along with the Choeung Ek Memorial (the Killing Fields), the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum is included as a point of interest for those visiting Cambodia. Tuol Sleng also remains an important educational site as well as memorial for Cambodians. Since 2010, the ECCC brings Cambodians on a 'study tour' consisting of the Tuol Sleng, followed by the Choeung Ek, and finishing at the ECCC complex. The tour drew approximately 27,000 visitors in 2010. In popular culture S-21: The Khmer Rouge Killing Machine is a 2003 film by Rithy Panh, a Cambodian-born, French-trained filmmaker who lost his family when he was 11. The film features two Tuol Sleng survivors, Vann Nath and Chum Mey, confronting their former Khmer Rouge captors, including guards, interrogators, a doctor and a photographer. The focus of the film is the difference between the feelings of the survivors, who want to understand what happened at Tuol Sleng to warn future generations, and the former jailers, who cannot escape the horror of the genocide they helped create. A number of images from Tuol Sleng are featured in the 1992 Ron Fricke film Baraka. Notes See also Enemies of the People (film) References Further reading Vann Nath: A Cambodian Prison Portrait. One Year in the Khmer Rouge's S-21. White Lotus Co. Ltd., Bangkok 1998, (An eyewitness report. The author's paintings of many scenes from the prison are on display in the Tuol Sleng museum today.) Chandler, David: Voices from S-21. Terror and history inside Pol Pot's secret prison. University of California Press, 1999. (A general account of S-21 drawing heavily from the documentation maintained by the prison's staff.) Dunlop, Nic: "The Lost Executioner: A Story of the Khmer Rouge". Walker & Company, 2006. (A first-person encounter with Comrade Duch, who ran S-21. The author's discovery of Duch led to the latter's arrest, and imprisonment.) Douglas Niven & Chris Riley: "The Killing Fields". Twin Palms Press, 1996. (Original photographs from S-21 prison, printed from original negatives by two American photographers.) Piergiorgio Pescali: "S-21 Nella prigione di Pol Pot". La Ponga Edizioni, Milan, 2015. External links Photographs from S-21 – The original prisoner photographs from Tuol Sleng (S-21). The horrors of Tuol Sleng Cambodia Tribunal Monitor Photographic archive of S-21 prisoners - University of Minnesota 1980 establishments in Asia Cambodian genocide Defunct high schools Defunct prisons in Cambodia Genocide museums Internment camps Memory of the World Register Museums established in 1980 Museums in Phnom Penh People's Republic of Kampuchea Prison museums in Asia Reportedly haunted locations Torture Torture in Cambodia
418884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto%20Rican%20Socialist%20Party	Puerto Rican Socialist Party	The Puerto Rican Socialist Party (, PSP) was a Marxist and pro-independence political party in Puerto Rico seeking the end of United States of America control on the Hispanic and Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. It proposed a "democratic workers' republic". History The PSP originated as the Movimiento Pro-Independencia (MPI), founded on January 11, 1959, in the city of Mayagüez. The MPI was formed by a group of dissidents from the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP), former militants of the Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico and the Communist Party of Puerto Rico, and university students, some of them members of the Federación de Universitarios Pro Independencia (FUPI), including such figures as Lidia Barreto, Rafael Cancel Rodríguez, Loida Figueroa Mercado, Juan Mari Brás and Santiago Mari Pesquera, among others. The MPI was greatly influenced by the Cuban Revolution. During the 1964 and 1968 elections, and the 1967 plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico, the MPI promoted a boycott. Throughout the decade the MPI campaigned against the presence of big US corporations denouncing they hindered the island's development, destroyed native industries and agriculture, and exploited the workers. The MPI gathered sympathies among students, workers, intellectuals and poor communities, and advocated civil disobedience and resistance. Opposition amongst the youth and students to compulsory military service in the US Army (in which Puerto Ricans had to serve since 1917); to the presence of the ROTC at the University of Puerto Rico; to aggressive US military policies in the Caribbean, Latin America, Southeast Asia and elsewhere; and to American military installations on the island fueled the activity of the MPI and this in its turn created a perspective of a possible decolonization. The MPI proposed independence for Puerto Rico had to be conquered through popular mobilization, and judged that an independent Puerto Rico would have to explore non-capitalist routes of development. Both the MPI and PSP made thorough Marxist analyses of Puerto Rican society, politics and economy in their programs and declarations. At its Eighth General Assembly on November 28, 1971, the MPI transformed itself into the Puerto Rican Socialist Party. Juan Mari Brás was named the PSP's general secretary, and Carlos Gallisá Bisbal later became party president. The party gained a following in the labor movement, student movement, and community organizations. The PSP was also an observer organization at the Non-Aligned Movement. It claimed an internationalist ideology and saw the struggle of Puerto Rico as a part of the struggle for national liberation and against capitalism of the oppressed, colonial and neocolonial countries especially in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Americas. The PSP maintained it was the first attempt to unify the social and economic struggles of the working class, traditionally channeled by pro-annexation forces favoring total integration of Puerto Rico into the US, and the independence struggle, traditionally channeled by middle class and bourgeois nationalist groups. The working classes had to be the leading force if national liberation was to come about, and independence had to mean a higher stage of social and economic life for the majorities and a true democracy, enjoying a working class government. The flag of the PSP was red with a white five-point star at the upper left corner. The MPI flag had had the same design except that the bottom half of the flag was black. The emblem of the PSP was a clenched fist inside an industrial gear-wheel. The Internationale anthem was often sung in its rallies and mass meetings, as well as the Puerto Rican national anthem, La Borinqueña, with its revolutionary lyrics. The PSP further developed Claridad, the newspaper created by the MPI, and made it a news and analysis paper with considerable impact on the rest of the media and the general public. Claridad was first a weekly, later on it came out twice a week, and between 1974 and 1976 it was a daily. It featured scoops on corruption, on the links between private interests and the politicians and bureaucrats, and on the intrigues regarding the unsolved question of the status of Puerto Rico. It ran stories of human interest on local problems, unemployment, poverty, environment, communities, schools, health, migration, and other topics. Claridad featured also sections of literature and the arts, and sports, and stressed themes on Puerto Rican history such as past stages of the independence movement, and the resistance of the Taino Indians and the Black slaves. The party had a political education system for its militants and sympathizers and a bookshop, and promoted popular local papers and newsletters. It managed to record and launch protest and patriotic singers and musicians, some of which later have gained wider audiences and become a part of the Latin American Nueva Trova musical trend, such as Roy Brown, Noel Hernandez, Antonio Caban-Vale "El topo", Pepe y Flora, Andres Jimenez "El jibaro", and the Frank Ferrer band. The PSP also had links with theatre groups, like Anamu. Development The socialist movement in Puerto Rico grew in the 1960s and 1970s despite police repression and terrorist activities from right-wing Cuban exiles, pro-Statehood, and pro-Commonwealth Puerto Ricans. The movement included a diversity of groups, ranging from socialist Christians to clandestine armed organizations. The PSP was prominent within this movement. The MPI and PSP launched campaigns against US military bases on the island, including campaigns against bombing drills by the US Navy on Vieques and Culebra, and against environmental destruction. The MPI-PSP demanded freedom for Puerto Rican Nationalist political prisoners incarcerated in the US for armed actions in Washington, DC, in 1950 and 1954 denouncing US colonial rule in Puerto Rico. In the United Nations it repeatedly denounced US colonialism in Puerto Rico. The MPI and PSP continued the tradition set in the 1930s by Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos of holding a massive rally commemorating the 1868 anticolonial uprising against Spanish rule at the small mountain town of Lares each 23 September. Puerto Rico had been a Spanish colonial possession from 1493 to 1898, when it was taken by the US after the Spanish–American War. "La alternativa socialista", the 1974 political thesis of the PSP, maintained that a workers' power was necessary to provoke a crisis of the colonial system in Puerto Rico; independence would emerge from this crisis. The party realized that a patient political work of the party among the working class at mass and educational levels would be necessary for this, as well as armed resistance. Alternative social and political structures of power would also have to be created parallel to the colonial and capitalist structures of power. Independence would be a result of the revolutionary organization of the people: it did not have to wait for some decision from the American government allowing it. The document maintained that the Puerto Rican people had a right to independence; to take back its social and natural resources; to socialize the means of production, and to use all forms of struggle available to achieve these ends. The growth and strength of a workers' party with a collective leadership, acute theory, mass influence, and a policy of alliances with other social groups was indispensable for this strategy. The party had to be constructed with both practical flexibility and ideological unity, and would become the vanguard of the working people only by the people recognizing it as such, not by self-designation. Branches in the mainland PSP branches emerged in the United States, most prominently among the Puerto Rican communities in the zones of New York City and Chicago. The PSP was primarily responsible for a pro-independence rally that drew 20,000 people to Madison Square Garden on October 27, 1974, and was broadcast on television. PSP members were also active in the movement against the Vietnam War. The PSP saw the Puerto Rican struggle as a part of the struggle of Latin America against US imperialism. FBI interference The PSP faced disruption from the FBI's COINTELPRO program and attacks from anticommunist forces on the island. Mari Brás's son, Santiago Mari Pesquera, was murdered mysteriously in March 1976, and the offices and printing press of the PSP newspaper Claridad were bombed. Several party members narrowly escaped murder attempts. Other party members were accused of possessing weapons and explosives but the prosecution's case failed to progress. Police kept files of tens of thousands of sympathizers of the PSP and other groups. 1970s A few years after its foundation, the PSP had gained influence on sections of the island's work force. PSP committees emerged among workers of state infrastructure enterprises such as those producing electricity and services of water and telephone, as well as government and hospital employees, and teachers. A worker of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) and leader of the latter's labor union UTIER, Luis Lausell Hernández, would be in 1980 the PSP candidate for governor. Socialist activity coincided with the flourishing of new trade union movements on the island, which in some cases accused big labor unions of the US operating in Puerto Rico of promoting a "colonialist trade unionism". The PSP had following also among university and secondary school students, and professions like lawyers, doctors, and professors. The PSP proposed a revolutionary struggle and went into electoral politics as a tactical means to broadcast its message, participating in the island's 1976 and 1980 elections. In 1976 Mari Brás was candidate for governor. He and the party's insignia obtained 10,728 votes, whereas socialist veteran labor leader Pedro Grant, running for the island's Senate, obtained more than 20,000 votes, and Gallisá, running for the House of Representatives, gathered more than 80,000. The votes for the PSP amounted to 0.7 per cent of the total. Socialist activity from 1971 onwards and PSP electoral participation in 1976 contributed indirectly to a hike in the votes for the Puerto Rican Independence Party, although both organizations rarely unified efforts. In 1972 the PIP's program was influenced by socialism, its title being "Arriba los de abajo!" Votes for the PIP in 1972 were 5.4 per cent of the total, more than in 1968, when it reached 3.5 per cent. In 1976 the PIP took 5.7 per cent of the votes. After the 1976 election PSP leaders claimed that many votes for the party were not counted by the main parties, which had representatives in every electoral college while the PSP did not, being a smaller organization. The votes in 1976 were not enough for the PSP to remain registered as an electoral franchise, and it had to collect signatures once more in order to compete in 1980. In 1977, internal disagreements took place within the PSP, one being over what priority the organization would give to guerrilla warfare and strategic preparation for politico-military struggle. Other debates were on how to promote national independence and socialism in a US territory where, unlike colonial regimes in Africa or Asia, the colonial establishment was a part of modern capitalism and managed to relatively satisfy social and economic needs of the popular classes, skilled labor and high wages were common, wide health and school systems existed, and commerce and financial activity were extensive given the gradual integration of Puerto Rico into the economy of the United States. The party adopted a new program in 1978 proposing a more modern form of politics that recognized the "democratic-bourgeois" modernizing aspects of US presence on the island. The new program indirectly criticized practices of nationalist desperation and Stalinism. It reassured the concept of the Leninist vanguard party while assigning importance to civil society, grass-roots movements, alliances, and mass politics. The 1978 program reflected influence of the theories of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci. It also reassured both revolutionary armed action and electoral politics, given the electoral culture of Puerto Ricans since the early 20th century. 1980s Nevertheless, the activity of the party lessened in the following years. In 1980, 5,224 votes were accounted for the PSP governor candidacy of Lausell Hernández, or 0.3 per cent of the total, while PIP votes accounted for 5.4 per cent. But PSP Senate candidate Mari Brás took more than 50,000 votes, and Gallisá, running again for the local House, obtained around 90,000. As with the 1976 PSP electoral participation, some claimed the 1980 votes were too few, while others argued the electoral experiences had to be seen as part of a long-run process of building a mass workers' party and that the overwhelming US propaganda, ideological control and political repression had to be taken into account. In 1982, a new rift took place between the traditional nationalist-oriented leadership, led by Mari Brás and Gallisá, and a group of militants who claimed the leadership was not taking seriously the tasks of building a working class party and implementing the 1978 program. The debate was sparked by the resignation of Wilfredo Mattos Cintrón, member of the Political Commission, secretary of political education, and a leading figure in the drafting of the 1978 program as well as previous programs and theses. A fraction of the party denounced the leadership for concealing from the base a plan to give up the strategy of building a workers' party. Some of its members were journalist Héctor Meléndez Lugo, organizer Wilfredo López Montañez, and San Juan party secretary Marta E. Fernández. The group was defeated by a large majority loyal to Mari Brás and Gallisá and with rather nationalistic leanings. A part of the opposition fraction left the party that same year. In their turn, Mari Brás and Gallisá did not deny they were giving up the creation of a workers' party. They said the priority should be to create a wide and pluralist national liberation movement, which they did not clearly define. The opposition group claimed that a working class party did not contradict a wide anticolonial front of alliances, and, in fact, the latter would be more probable if a workers' party existed and influenced the relation of forces on the island. The 1982 split manifested a latent conflict between nationalism and socialism. Similar tensions had surfaced during the MPI stage, in a disagreement in 1970 between Mari Brás and another leader of the organization, Marxist journalist and novelist César Andreu Iglesias. In the 1970s Mattos Cintrón had written that within the PSP coexisted a "radicalized nationalist petite bourgeois" wing along with the socialist tendency, although for a previous phase this coexistence played a positive role. Mattos Cintrón and the 1982 opposition argued that the absence of a strong left-wing in the island would weaken the cause for independence and other attempts of sovereignty for Puerto Rico. The national struggle, they said, grew only in close relation with the popular and working classes. Demise The PSP name was maintained during the 1980s but the organization ceased political activity among the working class. The PSP was formally disbanded in 1993. Mari Brás and other former PSP leaders later became involved in the Hostosian National Independence Movement (MINH), a smaller organization. Gallisá became active in a radio program of political discussion. Legacy The PSP militancy left a legacy that contributed to change Puerto Rican culture. A wider general consciousness of class and race divisions, and of the contradictions between the state and the social and popular interests still exists in Puerto Rico, largely as a result of the PSP's public influence in the 1970s and 80s. Protest and patriotic singers, literary authors and graphic artists whose works became popular by means of socialist recording and editorial production, spectacles, book shops, local publications, demonstrations and rallies, later on have gained general recognition, thus strengthening Puerto Rican national identity and popular culture. Activities defiant to authorities and demanding rights now common among the island's poor and in the Puerto Rican community in New York and other urban areas of the US, were made popular by the MPI and PSP. The tradition among the general public to set up pickets, street rallies, protest strikes and mass demonstrations also comes largely from the influence of the PSP and the other anticolonial and socialist groups. The new social and cultural space created back then has continued to the present in different forms, despite the crisis of the left. The spreading of the ideas that Puerto Rico is a distinct nation and the present political system is a colonial one, is largely due to the PSP. Claridad, which became a daily newspaper between 1974 and 1977, cleared the way for incisive journalism revealing scandals of corruption and links between private interests and the island's government, and reporting on the problems and claims of the downtrodden and the poor. Recent events Claridad continues to be published as a weekly newspaper, though it has a limited circulation and is no longer the news and research paper it was in the 1960s through the 1980s. On May 5, 2007, at Hostos Community College in the Bronx, NY, former members of the PSP, now working under the name of the "October 27 Committee", held a small conference titled "Desde Las Entrañas, 30 Years Later: Implications for the Independence Movement." Desde Las Entrañas was the political declaration of the First Congress of the United States Branch of the Puerto Rican Socialist Party, approved on April 1, 1973. This 77-page document examined "the nature of Puerto Rican immigration to this country; its present composition, its attitudes and behavior, its experience within the system of exploitation imposed by the ruling class of this country, the relationship between its working class and the exploited countries of the Third World, the super-exploited sectors of this country and their role; the nature of national liberation struggles and their relation to the class struggles of the United States working class; the future that this system assigns to our youth and, finally, the present situation of the left in the United States." (1976 translation) Organized by José "Che" Velázquez, speakers at this 2007 conference included Andrés Torres, Raquel Rivera, and Angelo Falcón. Further reading Andrés Torres and José E. Velázquez (eds.), The Puerto Rican Movement: Voices from the Diaspora (Temple University Press, 1998) Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals turn to Lenin, Mao and Che (Verso, 2002) Manuel Maldonado-Denis, "Prospects for Latin American Nationalism: The Case of Puerto Rico," Latin American Perspectives 3:3 (Summer 1976). José Luis González, The Four-Storeyed Country and other essays (Markus Wiener, Princeton and New York, 1993) César J. Ayala and R. Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American century. A history since 1898 (The University of North Carolina Press, 2007) Angel G. Quintero Rivera, Workers' Struggle in Puerto Rico (Monthly Review Press, New York, 1977) Edwin Meléndez and Edgardo Meléndez, eds., Colonial Dilemma: Critical perspectives on contemporary Puerto Rico (South End Press, Boston, 1993) César Andreu Iglesias, ed., Memoirs of Bernardo Vega (Monthly Review Press, New York, 1984) Frances Negrón-Muntaner and R. Grosfoguel, eds., Puerto Rican Jam. Rethinking colonialism and nationalism (University opf Minnesota Press, 2008) Juan Flores, From Bomba to Hip-hop. Puerto Rican Culture and Latino Identity (Columbia University Press, 2000) Gail Cueto, R. Fernández and S. Méndez, Puerto Rico Past and Present: An Encyclopedia (Greenwood, 1998) Liliana Cotto-Morales, Desalambrar; orígenes de los rescates de terrenos en Puerto Rico (Ed. Tal Cual, San Juan, 2006) James L. Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico (Princeton University Press, 1987) José Trías Monge, Puerto Rico; the trials of the oldest colony in the world (Yale University Press, 1999) Juan Mari Brás, Selección de obra periodística 1959-1994 (Editorial Ateneo Puertorriqueño, San Juan, 1997) Juan Mari Brás, Memorias de un ciudadano (Ediciones Barco de Papel, San Juan, 2006) Sherrie L. Baver, The Political Economy of Colonialism: The State and Industrialization in Puerto Rico (Praeger Publishers, 1993) Ronald Fernández, The Disenchanted Island. Puerto Rico and the United States in the Twentieth Century (Preager, 1996) Arturo Morales Carrión, Puerto Rico. A Political and Cultural History (W.W. Norton, New York, 1983) Jorge Duany, The Puerto Rican nation on the move. Identities on the Island and in the United States (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 2002) Luisa Hernández Angueira, Mujeres puertorriqueñas, 'welfare' y globalización; desconstruyendo el estigma (Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, 2001) Héctor Meléndez, "Historia ambigua: inercia de la nación cultural", Revista de Ciencias Sociales, University of Puerto Rico, Num 5, 1998 Juan Carlos Albors, Nation within a nation. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Ediciones Cordillera, San Juan, 2011) Carlos Gallisá, Desde Lares (CG Editores, San Juan, 2010) Aarón Ramos Bonilla, Las ideas anexionistas en Puerto Rico bajo la dominación norteamericana (Ediciones Huracán, San Juan, 1987) Erick Pérez Velasco and D. Baronov, Bibliografía sobre el movimiento obrero de Puerto Rico 1873-1996 (Ediciones Cildes, San Juan, 1996) César J. Ayala, "La formación de capital local en Puerto Rico, 1947 al presente", Revista de Ciencias Sociales, University of Puerto Rico, Num. 18, 2008 Pedro Juan Rúa, Bolívar ante Marx y otros ensayos (Ediciones Huracán, San Juan, 1978) Gervasio García y A.G. Quintero Rivera, Desafío y solidaridad. Breve historia del movimiento obrero puertorriqueño (Huracán, San Juan, 1982) Taller de Formación Política, La cuestión nacional. El Partido Nacionalista y el movimiento obrero puertorriqueño (aspectos de las luchas económicas y políticas de la década de 1930-1940) (Huracán, 1982) José "Che" Paralitici, La represión contra el independentismo puertorriqueño 1960-2010 (Publicaciones Gaviota, San Juan, 2011) Ramón Arbona Martínez and A. Núñez Miranda, Pedro Grant. Memorias de un líder sindical (Ediciones Callejón, San Juan, 2005) Ronald Fernández, Los Macheteros: The Wells Fargo robbery and the violent struggle for Puerto Rican independence (Simon and Schuster, 1987) Frances Negrón Muntaner, ed, None of the above. Puerto Ricans in the global era (new directions in Latino American cultures) (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) Wilfredo Mattos Cintrón, La política y lo político en Puerto Rico (ERA, Mexico, 1980) Wilfredo Mattos Cintrón, "La hegemonía de Estados Unidos en Puerto Rico". El Caribe Contemporáneo 16 (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, 1988) ISSN 0185-2426 Joan Moore and Harry Pachon, Hispanics in the United States (Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1985) James M. Blaut, The National Question. Decolonising the theory of nationalism (Zed Books, London and New Jersey, 1987) Juan Antonio Corretjer, Pedro Albizu Campos, el líder de la desesperación (San Juan, 1972, 1978) Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rico. Freedom and Power in the Caribbean (Monthly Review Press, New York and London, 1963) Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 63-20065 Angel I. Rivera and A. Ramos, Islands at the Crossroads: Politics in the Non-Independent Caribbean (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 2001) Juan Manuel Carrión, et al, La nación puertorriqueña; ensayos en torno a Pedro Albizu Campos (Editorial Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, 1993) Antonio A. Santucci, Antonio Gramsci (Monthly Review Press, 2010) Angel G. Quintero Rivera, Conflictos de clase y política en Puerto Rico (Huracán, San Juan, 1977) Linda Colón Reyes, Sobrevivencia, pobreza y mantengo. La política asistencialista estadounidense en Puerto Rico: el PAN y el TANF (Callejón, San Juan, 2011) J. Benjamín Torres, ed., Pedro Albizu Campos. Obras Escogidas 1923-1936 (dos tomos) (Editorial Jelofe, San Juan, 1975) Fidel Castro, "Segunda Declaración de La Habana", Antología mínima (Ocean Sur, Mexico, 2008) Ramón Medina Ramírez, El movimiento libertador en la historia de Puerto Rico (San Juan, 1965) Edgardo Meléndez, Partidos, política pública y status en Puerto Rico (Nueva Aurora, San Juan, 1998) Eduardo Rivera Medina and R. Ramírez, Del cañaveral a la fábrica. Cambio social en Puerto Rico (Huracán, 1985) Heriberto Marín Torres, Coabey, el valle heroico (Ediciones Patria, San Juan, 1995, 2011) Jesús Colón, A Puerto Rican in New York and other sketches (International Publishers, New York, 1982) Luis Nieves Falcón, ed., Violation of Human Rights in Puerto Rico by the United States (Ediciones Puerto, San Juan, 2002) Luis Nieves Falcón, Can't jail the spirit. Political prisoners in the U.S.A. Collection of Biographies (El Coquí Publishers, 1988) Héctor Meléndez, "La identidad ausente: Puerto Rico y sus intelectuales en el fin de siglo", La identidad ausente; credos, pueblos, capital, siglo (Ediciones La Sierra, San Juan, 1996) Luis A. Ferrao, Pedro Albizu Campos y el nacionalismo puertorriqueño 1930-1939 (Editorial Cultural, San Juan, 1990) Arlene Dávila, Sponsored identities. Cultural politics in Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Studies) (Temple University Press, 1997) Roland Perusse, The United States and Puerto Rico; the struggle for equality (Robert Krieger Publishing, Florida, 1990) References External links Claridad web site Portraits of Notable Individuals in the Struggle for Puerto Rican Independence COINTELPRO targets Defunct political parties in Puerto Rico Political parties established in 1971 Socialist parties in North America Political parties disestablished in 1993 1971 establishments in Puerto Rico 1993 disestablishments in Puerto Rico
418889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20New%20Jersey	List of people from New Jersey	The following is a list of notable people born, raised, or closely associated with the U.S. state of New Jersey. Born and raised in New Jersey A–F Brenden Aaronson (born 2000), professional soccer playing for Leeds United and the United States men's national soccer team (Medford) Bud Abbott (1895–1974), actor and comedian (Asbury Park) Isa Abdul-Quddus (born 1988), safety for the Detroit Lions (Union) Joseph Alexander Adams (1803–1880), engraver (born in New Germantown) Mike Adams (born 1981), safety for the Houston Texans (Paterson) Timothy Adams (born 1967), actor, Sunset Beach, Ocean Ave. (Belleville) Charles Addams (1912–1988), cartoonist; creator of The Addams Family (Westfield) Ryan Adeleye (born 1985), Israeli-American professional soccer defender who has played for Hapoel Ashkelon Charlie Adler (born 1956), voice actor; the Transformers movies (Paterson) Howard H. Aiken (1900–1973), physicist and a pioneer in computing, original conceptual designer behind IBM's Harvard Mark I computer (Hoboken) Monica Aksamit (born 1990), saber fencer; won a bronze medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics in the Women's Saber Team competition Jordan Alan (born 1967), filmmaker (Bayonne) Mitch Albom (born 1958), writer, broadcaster, and musician (Passaic) Buzz Aldrin (born 1930), NASA astronaut, second man to walk on the Moon (born in Glen Ridge, grew up in Montclair) Jason Alexander (born 1959), actor, George Costanza on Seinfeld, Hugo in The Hunchback of Notre Dame (Newark, raised in Livingston) Jay Alford (born 1983), former NFL defensive tackle (Orange) Samuel Alito (born 1950) U.S. Supreme Court Justice (Trenton, raised in Hamilton) Livingston Allen (born 1991) Hip Hop YouTuber better known as DJ Akademiks and host for Spotify and Complex Malik Allen (born 1978), NBA player (Willingboro) Emma B. Alrich (1845-1925), journalist, writer, educator (Cape May County) Enzo Amore (born 1986), professional wrestler (Hackensack, raised in Waldwick) Harold Amos (1919–2003), microbiologist and Harvard Medical School professor (Pennsauken) John Amos (born 1939), actor, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Good Times, The West Wing (Newark) Richard Anderson (1926–2016), actor, The Six Million Dollar Man, Kung Fu, The Bionic Woman (Long Branch) Jack Antonoff (born 1984), musician, guitarist for the band Fun (Bergenfield) Kristina Apgar (born 1985), actress, Privileged (Morristown) Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), obstetrical anesthesiologist, inventor of the Apgar score (Westfield) Billy Ard (born 1959), NFL player for New York Giants and Green Bay Packers (East Orange, raised in Watchung) Chris Argyris (1923–2013), business theorist, Professor Emeritus at Harvard Business School, and a Thought Leader at Monitor Group (Newark) Bruce Arians (born 1952), head coach for Arizona Cardinals (Paterson) Allan Arkush (born 1948), film and television director (Jersey City) Jillian Armenante (born 1968), actress, Judging Amy (Paterson) Rich Attonito (born 1977), mixed martial artist (Elizabeth) Paul Auster (born 1947), author, screenwriter (born in Newark, grew up in South Orange) Miles Austin (born 1984), wide receiver for the Philadelphia Eagles (born in Summit, grew up in Garfield) Jackie Autry (born 1941), Major League Baseball executive (Newark) Yael Averbuch (born 1986), soccer player Dan Avidan (born 1979), lead singer of Ninja Sex Party and Starbomb, and co-host of Game Grumps (Springfield Township) Robert Ayers (born 1985), defensive end for the New York Giants (Jersey City) Melissa Bacelar (born 1979), actress and scream queen (Piscataway) Bret Baier (born 1970), news anchor for the Fox News Channel, Special Report with Bret Baier (Rumson) Andrew Bailey (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Los Angeles Angels (Haddon Heights) David Bailey (1933–2004), actor, Another World (Voorhees) Sean Baker (born 1971), director, Tangerine, The Florida Project (Summit) Esther E. Baldwin (1840-1910), missionary, teacher, writer (Marlton) Wade Baldwin IV (born 1996), basketball player for Maccabi Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League. Amiri Baraka (1934–2014), poet (Newark) Michael Barkann (born 1960), radio talk show host, television host (East Brunswick) James J. Barry Jr. (born 1946), politician (Orange, raised in New Vernon) Rick Barry (born 1944), NBA and ABA small forward and Hall of Fame inductee (Elizabeth, grew up in Roselle Park) James Barton (1890–1962), actor (Gloucester City) Danny Basavich (born 1978), professional pool player (Manalapan) Dana Bash (born 1971), CNN reporter and anchorwoman (Montvale) Count Basie (1904–1984), jazz pianist, organist, bandleader (Red Bank) Ellen Bass (born 1947), professor, poet, and author (raised in Pleasantville and Ventnor City) Bruce Baumgartner (born 1961), freestyle wrestler, two-time Olympic champion, four-time Olympic medalist, three-time World champion, nine-time World medalist (Haledon) Beetlejuice, a.k.a. Lester Green (born 1968), entertainer, guest on The Howard Stern Show (Jersey City) Bo Belinsky (1936–2001), Major League Baseball player Amir Bell (born 1996), basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League Emma Bell (born 1986), actress (Woodstown) Madeline Bell (born 1942), soul singer (Newark) Bill Bellamy (born 1965), actor, comedian (Newark) Regina Belle (born 1963), singer (Englewood) Stephen Benkovic (born 1938), chemist, National Academy of Sciences inductee (Orange) Joan Bennett (1910–1990), actress (Palisades Park) Kafi Benz (born 1941), writer and conservationist (Chatham) Jay Berger (born 1966), tennis player; highest world ranking #7 Xander Berkeley (born 1955), actor (Mendham) Adam Bernstein (born 1960), video director and producer (Princeton) Alessandra Biaggi (born 1986), New York State Senator. Mike Bibby (born 1978), NBA player (Cherry Hill) Jack Bicknell Jr. (born 1963), offensive line coach for the Kansas City Chiefs (North Plainfield) Bam Bam Bigelow (1961–2007), professional wrestler (Asbury Park) Jason Biggs (born 1978), actor, American Pie, American Pie 2, American Wedding, American Reunion (Hasbrouck Heights) Mary Birdsong (born 1968), actress, comedian Reno 911! (Long Beach Island) Roger Birnbaum (born ), film producer, Four Christmases, 27 Dresses, Eight Below, Mr. 3000, Six Days Seven Nights (Teaneck) Sofia Black-D'Elia (born 1991), actress, All My Children, Skins, The Messengers (Clifton) Vivian Blaine (1921–1995), actress and singer, Guys and Dolls (Newark) Betsy Blair (1923–2009), actress, Marty (Cliffside Park) Tammy Blanchard (born 1976), actress (Bayonne) Carol Blazejowski (born 1956), Hall of Fame basketball player (Elizabeth) Al Blozis (1919–1945), New York Giants tackle, died as a soldier in combat during World War II (Garfield) Mark Blum (1950–2020), actor (Newark) Judy Blume (born 1938), author (Elizabeth) Peter Boettke (born 1960), economist of the Austrian School (Rahway) Tim Bogert (1944–2021), bass guitarist and vocalist for Vanilla Fudge, Cactus, and Beck, Bogert & Appice (Ridgefield) Clint Bolick (born 1957), attorney and prominent school choice advocate (Elizabeth) Jon Bon Jovi (born 1962), musician (Sayreville; born in Perth Amboy) Denise Borino (1964–2010), actress, Ginny Sacramoni on The Sopranos (Roseland) Joe Borowski (born 1971), former MLB pitcher, current sportscaster for the Arizona Diamondbacks (Bayonne) Philip Bosco (1930–2018), actor (Jersey City) Emma Bourne (1846-1924), president, New Jersey Woman's Christian Temperance Union Dennis Boutsikaris (born 1952), actor (Newark) Katrina Bowden (born 1988), actress, Cerie on 30 Rock (Wyckoff) Todd Bowles (born 1963), former head coach of the New York Jets of (Elizabeth) Brad Brach (born 1986), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves (Freehold) Gary Brackett (born 1980), middle linebacker for the Indianapolis Colts (Glassboro) Zach Braff (born 1975), actor, Scrubs, Chicken Little (South Orange) Debbie Bramwell-Washington (born 1966), IFBB professional bodybuilder John Brennan (born 1954), Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (North Bergen) William J. Brennan Jr. (1906–1997), U.S. Supreme Court justice (Newark) David Brewster, publisher and journalist (Newark) Ralph L. Brinster (born 1932), geneticist (Montclair, raised in Cedar Grove) Kenny Britt (born 1988), wide receiver for the New England Patriots (Bayonne) Tal Brody (born 1943), American-Israeli basketball player Betty Bronson (1906–1971), actress, Peter Pan (Trenton) Jacqueline Brookes (1930–2013), actress (Montclair) Dave Brown (born 1970), quarterback for the New York Giants and Arizona Cardinals (Summit) Donald Brown (born 1987), running back for the Indianapolis Colts (Atlantic Highlands) Ella Barksdale Brown, journalist, educator (Jersey City) Roscoe Lee Browne (1925–2007), actor, The Cowboys, The Mambo Kings (Woodbury) Lou Brutus (born 1972), radio host, musician, photographer (Newark, raised in Englistown) David Bryan (born 1962), musician (Perth Amboy) Mark Bryant (born 1965), NBA player, assistant coach (Glen Ridge, raised in South Orange) John D. Bulkeley (1911–1996), vice admiral in United States Navy, Medal of Honor recipient King Kong Bundy (1955–2019), professional wrestler, stand-up comedian, actor (Atlantic City) Jake Burbage (born 1992), actor Grounded for Life (Willingboro) Richard Burgi (born 1958), actor Desperate Housewives, The Sentinel (Montclair) Aaron Burr (1756–1836), third Vice President of the United States (Newark) Jordan Burroughs (born 1988), freestyle wrestler, Olympic gold medalist, four-time World Champion (Sicklerville) Glen Burtnik (born 1955), musician (North Brunswick) Da'Sean Butler (born 1987), basketball player for Hapoel Be'er Sheva of the Israeli Premier League Nicholas Murray Butler (1862–1947), Nobel Prize-winning philosopher, diplomat, and educator (Elizabeth) Greg Buttle (born 1954), linebacker for the New York Jets (Atlantic City, raised in Linwood) Andrew Bynum (born 1987), center for the Philadelphia 76ers (Plainsboro) Brendan Byrne (1924–2018), Governor of New Jersey (West Orange) P. J. Byrne (born 1974), actor, The Game (South Orange) Michael Cade (born 1972), actor, California Dreams (Elmwood Park) Joseph Caldwell (1773–1835), mathematician, first president of the University of North Carolina (Lamington) Alisyn Camerota (born 1969), news anchor for CNN (Shrewsbury) Alyssa Campanella (born 1990), Miss USA 2011, 1st runner-up Miss Teen USA 2007, model, blogger (New Brunswick) John W. Campbell (1910–1971), science fiction writer and editor, Analog Science Fiction and Fact (Newark) William Campbell (1923–2011), actor (Newark) Bobby Cannavale (born 1971), actor, Bobby Caffey on Third Watch (Union City) Philip Carey (1925–2009), actor, One Life to Live (Hackensack) Ron Carey (1935–2007), actor, Barney Miller (Newark) Julie Carmen (born 1954), actress (Millburn) Thomas Carpenter (1752–1847), a patriot of the American Revolutionary War; born in Salem, died in Carpenter's Landing Rosalind Cash (1938–1995), actress (Atlantic City) Jonathan Casillas (born 1987), linebacker for the New York Giants (New Brunswick) David Cassidy (1950–2017), actor/singer, star of the 1970s television show The Partridge Family (West Orange) Joanna Cassidy (born 1945), actress, Blade Runner, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Six Feet Under (Haddonfield) Iván Castro (born 1967), U.S. Army captain serving on active duty in the Special Forces despite losing his eyesight (Hoboken) Sean Chandler (born 1996), safety for New York Giants (Camden) Michael Chang (born 1972), professional tennis player (Hoboken) Cheryl Chase (born 1958), voice actress, Angelica Pickles on Rugrats (Manville) Jeff Chase (born 1968), actor (Paterson) Mike Chernoff (born ), general manager of the Cleveland Indians (Livingston) Michael Chertoff (born 1953), U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security under President George W. Bush (Elizabeth) Aneesh Chopra (born 1972), chief technology officer under Barack Obama (Trenton, raised in Princeton Junction) Chris Christie (born 1962), 55th governor of New Jersey (Newark) Jack Ciattarelli (born 1961), politician (Hillsborough) Vinny Ciurciu (born 1980), National Football League linebacker (Hackensack) Earl Clark (born 1988), forward for the Los Angeles Lakers (Plainfield) Harlan Coben (born 1962), author of mystery novels and thrillers (Newark, raised in Livingston) Robert Coello (born 1984), pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays (Bayonne) Willie Cole (born 1955), sculptor (Newark) Ross Colton, (born 1996), ice hockey center for the Tampa Bay Lightning, (Robbinsville) Mattea Conforti (born 2006), actress Kristen Connolly (born 1980), actress, As the World Turns, House of Cards, Zoo (Montclair) Richard Conte (1910–1975), actor, The Godfather (Jersey City) Kellyanne Conway (born 1967), campaign manager for Donald Trump, Counselor to the President (Camden, raised in Hammonton) Greg Coolidge (born 1972), actor, screenwriter, director (Red Bank) David Copperfield (born 1956), illusionist (Metuchen) Sam Coppola (1932–2012), actor (Jersey City) Barbara Corcoran (born 1949), businesswoman, investor, and television personality (Edgewater) Joseph Cortese (born 1949), actor (Paterson) Phil Costa (born 1987), center and guard for the Dallas Cowboys (Moorestown) Blake Costanzo (born 1984), linebacker for the Chicago Bears (Franklin Lakes) Lou Costello (1906–1959), comedian, actor, Abbott and Costello films and television series (Paterson) Bob Cottingham (born 1966), Olympic sabre fencer, 1988 and 1992 Jonathan Townley Crane (1819–1880), clergyman, author, abolitionist (Union Township) Stephen Crane (1871–1900), novelist, short story writer, poet, journalist (Newark) Michael Cristofer (born 1945), Pulitzer Prize and Tony Award-winning playwright; screenwriter; actor; director (Trenton) Joseph Cross (born 1986), actor, Running with Scissors, Flags of Our Fathers (New Brunswick) Crowbar (born 1974), professional wrestler (Rutherford) Valerie Cruz (born 1976), actress, Nip/Tuck, The Dresden Files, Dexter (Elizabeth) Victor Cruz (born 1986), wide receiver for the New York Giants (Paterson) Ken Cuccinelli (born 1968), Attorney General of Virginia (Edison) John T. Cunningham (1915–2012), journalist, writer, and historian (Newark, raised in Brookside) Vincent Curatola (born 1953), actor, Johnny Sack on The Sopranos (Englewood) Vinny Curry (born 1988), defensive end for the Philadelphia Eagles (Neptune) Brian Cushing (born 1987), outside linebacker for the Houston Texans (Park Ridge) Jack Cust (born 1979), designated hitter and outfielder for the New York Yankees (Flemington) Tawny Cypress (born 1976), actress, K-Ville, Heroes (Point Pleasant) Mike Daniels (born 1989), defensive end for the Green Bay Packers (Stratford) Joe Dante (born 1946), film director, Gremlins (Morristown) Glenn Danzig (born 1955), Misfits and Danzig frontman (Lodi) Jeff Datz (born 1959), third base coach for the Seattle Mariners (Camden) Dov Davidoff, comedian, actor (Englishtown) Anthony Davis (born 1989), offensive tackle for the San Francisco 49ers (Piscataway) Brett Davis (born 1988), comedian (Roxbury) Hope Davis (born 1964), actress, About Schmidt, American Splendor, The Hoax (Englewood) Lanny Davis (born 1946), Special Counsel to the President to Bill Clinton (Jersey City) Ida Wharton Dawson (1860-1928), President, New Jersey State Federation of Women's Clubs Sandra Dee (1942–2005), actress, Gidget, A Summer Place (Bayonne) Robert De Grasse (1900–1971), cinematographer (Maplewood) Dean DeLeo (born 1961), guitarist for Stone Temple Pilots, Talk Show, Army of Anyone, Laughter Train (Montclair) Mark Delavan (born 1958), operatic bass-baritone (born in Princeton, lives in Chatham) Martina Deignan, soap opera actress, Santa Barbara, As the World Turns (East Orange) Mary R. Denman (1823-1899), first president of the New Jersey Woman's Christian Temperance Union Mark DeRosa (born 1975), utility player for the Washington Nationals (Passaic) Beatie Deutsch (née Rabin; born 1989), ultra-Orthodox Jewish American-Israeli marathon runner Danny DeVito (born 1944), actor and director, Taxi, Hoffa, War of the Roses, Get Shorty, Batman Returns, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (Neptune City) Tommy DeVito (1928–2020), musician and singer; lead guitarist of The Four Seasons (Belleville) Khigh Dhiegh (1910–1991), actor, Wo Fat on Hawaii Five-O (Spring Lake) Ernest Dickerson (born 1951), film and television director (Newark) John DiMaggio (born 1968), voice actor, Bender on Futurama (North Plainfield) Pat DiNizio (1955–2017), singer, The Smithereens (Scotch Plains) Peter Dinklage (born 1969), actor, Elf, Game of Thrones (Morristown, raised in Mendham Township) Peter Dobson (born 1964), actor, Cover Me (Red Bank) The Dolan Twins (born 1999), comedians, (Long Valley region of Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey) Franklin D'Olier (1877–1953), businessman; first National Commander of the American Legion (1919–1920) Tate Donovan (born 1963), actor, Damages, The O.C., Hercules (Tenafly) Jamie Donnelly (born 1947), actress (Teaneck) Ruth Donnelly (1896–1982), actress (Trenton) Michael Douglas (born 1944), Academy Award-winning actor, producer (New Brunswick) Jim Dowd (born 1968), professional ice hockey player (Brick Township) Doyle Wolfgang von Frankenstein (born 1964), guitarist, The Misfits (Lodi) Al Downing (born 1941), professional baseball pitcher New York Yankees, Oakland A's, Milwaukee Brewers, Los Angeles Dodgers, NL Comeback Player of the Year 1971 (Trenton) Dylan Dreyer (born 1981), meteorologist for the Today Show (Manalapan) Derek Drymon (born 1965), cartoon producer, SpongeBob SquarePants (Morristown) Thomas F. Duffy (born 1955), actor (Woodbridge) Tom Dugan (born 1961), one-person show actor, writer and director (Rahway) Tabitha D'umo (born 1973), dance teacher, choreographer, and creative director (Galloway) Jancee Dunn (born 1966), journalist, author, and former VJ for MTV2 (Chatham) Ashley Alexandra Dupré (born 1985), prostitute, singer (Beachwood) Asher Brown Durand (1796–1886), artist (Maplewood) Lou Duva (1922–2017), boxing trainer and sports personality (Paterson) Andrea Dworkin (1946–2005), radical feminist and activist (Camden) Frederick Eberhardt (1868–1946), engineer, philanthropist, university administrator and businessman (Newark) Daniel Edelman (born 2003), midfielder for Major League Soccer club New York Red Bulls Randy Edelman (born 1947), film and TV score composer (Paterson) Frankie Edgar (born 1981), mixed martial artist (Toms River) Geoff Edwards (1931–2014), actor, radio and television personality (Westfield) Todd Edwards (born 1972), music producer (Bloomfield) Róisín Egenton (born 1977), 2000 International Rose of Tralee (Fanwood) Hallie Kate Eisenberg (born 1992), teen actress (East Brunswick) Pablo Eisenberg (born 1932), scholar, social justice advocate, and tennis player Hy Eisman (born 1927), cartoonist, Katy Keene, Little Iodine, Katzenjammer Kids, Popeye (Paterson) Robert Ellenstein (1923–2010), actor (Newark) Linda Emond (born 1959), actress, Julie & Julia (New Brunswick) Alecko Eskandarian (born 1982), soccer player (Montvale) Janet Evanovich (born 1943), novelist (South River) Bill Evans (1929–1980), jazz pianist and composer (Plainfield) Josh Evans (born 1991), safety for the Jacksonville Jaguars (Irvington) Charles Evered (born 1964), writer, director (Passaic, grew up in Rutherford) Greg Evigan (born 1953), actor, B. J. and the Bear, My Two Dads (South Amboy) Donald Fagen (born 1948), musician (Steely Dan) (South Brunswick) Joseph Farah (born 1954), journalist and editor-in-chief of WorldNetDaily (Paterson) Tali Farhadian (born 1974/1975), former US federal prosecutor (Englewood Cliffs) Kenneth Faried (born 1989), power forward for the Denver Nuggets (Newark) Taissa Farmiga (born 1994), actress, American Horror Story, The Bling Ring (Readington) Vera Farmiga (born 1973), actress, The Departed, Up in the Air (Clifton) John Farrell (born 1962), manager for the Boston Red Sox (Monmouth Beach) Warren Farrell (born 1943), educator, gender equality activist and author Edward Feigenbaum (born 1936), computer scientist known as "the father of expert systems" (Weehawken) Fetty Wap, real name Willie Maxwell II (born 1991), singer, rapper (Paterson) Joan Field (1915–1988), violinist (Long Branch) Joe Fields (born 1953), NFL center, primarily with the New York Jets (Woodbury) Nic Fink (born 1993), Olympic swimmer (Morristown) Anthony Firkser (born 1995), football tight end for the New England Patriots of the National Football League Dale S. Fischer (born 1951), US district court judge Gail Fisher (1935–2000), actress, Mannix (Orange) Leo Fitzpatrick (born 1978), actor, Johnny Weeks on The Wire (West Orange) Joe Flacco (born 1985), quarterback for the Baltimore Ravens (Audubon) Harris Flanagin (1817–1874), 7th Governor of Arkansas Susan Flannery (born 1939), soap opera actress (Jersey City) Josh Flitter (born 1994), child actor (Ridgewood) Mary Florentine (born 1950), psychoacoustics researcher (Nutley) Richard Florida (born 1957), urban studies theorist, author of Who's Your City? (Newark) Jehyve Floyd (born 1997), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Rick Folbaum (born 1969), news anchor and correspondent for Fox News (Cherry Hill) Dick Foran (1910–1979), Western film actor (Flemington) Malcolm Forbes (1919–1990), entrepreneur, publisher, New Jersey State Senator (Englewood/Far Hills) Steve Forbes (born 1947), editor-in-chief of Forbes magazine; president and CEO of Forbes, Inc. (Morristown) Darren Ford (born 1985), outfielder for the Pittsburgh Pirates (Vineland) Mike Ford (born 1992), first baseman for the New York Yankees (Belle Mead) Gerard J. Foschini (born 1940), telecommunications engineer (Jersey City) Preston Foster (1900–1970), actor (Ocean City) Beth Fowler (born 1940), actress, singer (Jersey City) Randy Foye (born 1983), shooting guard/point guard for the Utah Jazz (Newark) Connie Francis (born 1938), pop singer (Newark) Genie Francis (born 1962), actress, General Hospital (Englewood) Barney Frank (born 1940), openly gay Massachusetts member of Congress (Bayonne) Waldo Frank (1889–1967), novelist, historian, literary critic (Long Branch) Todd Frazier (born 1986), infielder for the New York Yankees, previously Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox (Point Pleasant) Dean Friedman (born 1955), singer-songwriter (Paramus) Lennie Friedman (born 1976), NFL offensive lineman (Livingston) Chad Frye (born 1972), cartoonist and illustrator (Florham Park) Greg Fulginiti (born 1951), recording and mastering engineer (Wildwood) Melissa Fumero (born 1982), actress, Brooklyn Nine-Nine (North Bergen) G–S Alice Gainer (born 1982), anchorwoman for WCBS-TV (Wayne) Natasha Gajewski, founder of Symple Health (Princeton) Tony Galento (1910–1979), heavyweight boxer and actor, On the Waterfront (Orange) James Gandolfini (1961–2013), actor, starred in The Sopranos (Park Ridge) Antonio Garay (born 1979), defensive tackle for the San Diego Chargers (Rahway) Allen Garfield (1939–2020), actor (Newark) Lee Garlington (born 1953), actress (Teaneck) David Garrison (born 1952), actor, Married... with Children, It's Your Move (Long Branch) Willie Garson (1964-2021), actor, Sex and the City (Highland Park) Bob Gaudio (born 1942), singer, songwriter, musician and record producer; keyboardist/backing vocalist for The Four Seasons Johnny Gaudreau (born 1993), ice hockey left winger for the Calgary Flames (Salem) Gloria Gaynor (born 1949), singer (Newark) Michael V. Gazzo (1923–1995), playwright and actor, Frank Pentangeli in The Godfather Part II (Hillside) Brian Geraghty (born 1974), actor (Toms River) Michael Giacchino (born 1967), Oscar-winning composer (Riverside, grew up in Edgewater Park) Elizabeth Gillies (born 1993), actress, singer, dancer (Haworth) Justin Gimelstob (born 1977), tennis player (Livingston) Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), poet (Paterson) Bob Giraldi (born 1939), film, TV and music video director (Paterson) Kid Gleason (1866–1933), baseball player (Camden) Savion Glover (born 1973), actor, tap dancer and choreographer (Newark) Judy Gold (born 1962), stand-up comic (Newark) Al Golden (born 1969), head football coach for the University of Miami (Colts Neck) Joshua Gomez (born 1975), actor, Chuck, Without a Trace (Bayonne) Rick Gomez (born 1972), actor, Band of Brothers (Bayonne) Frances Goodrich (1890–1984), screenwriter, It's a Wonderful Life, The Thin Man (Belleville) Hedwig Gorski (born 1949), poet Goose Goslin (1900–1971), Hall of Fame baseball infielder (Salem) Dwayne Gratz (born 1990), cornerback for the Jacksonville Jaguars (Piscataway) Kerri Green (born 1967), actress (Fort Lee) Bob Greene (born 1958), fitness guru, author (Cherry Hill) Khaseem Greene (born 1989), linebacker for the Chicago Bears (Elizabeth) Peter Greene (born 1965), actor, Zed from Pulp Fiction (Montclair) Shonn Greene (born 1985), running back for the New York Jets (Sicklerville) Zach Grenier (born 1954), actor, Touching Evil (Englewood) Hezekiah Griggs, III (1988–2016), entrepreneur, philanthropist, investor Christina Grimmie (1994–2016), singer–songwriter, contestant on The Voice (Marlton) Robert Griswold (born 1996), swimmer Jay Gruen (born 1974), TV Host "Unplugged Nation" (Paterson) Dan Grunfeld (born 1984), professional basketball player (Franklin Lakes) Tom Guiry (born 1981), actor, The Black Donnellys (Trenton) Alen Hadzic (born 1991), fencer banned for life due to sexual misconduct Marvelous Marvin Hagler (1954–2021), boxer (Newark) Alison Haislip (born 1981), actress, TV correspondent, Attack of the Show!, The Voice, Battleground (Tewksbury Township) Halsey, real name Ashley Frangipane (born 1994), singer-songwriter (Edison) Rusty Hamer (1947–1990), child actor, Make Room for Daddy (Tenafly) David Hand (1900–1986), animator, director, Walt Disney Productions, Gaumont-British, Alexander Film Company (Plainfield) Chelsea Handler (born 1975), stand-up comedian, actress, host of Chelsea Lately (Livingston) Henry Janeway Hardenbergh (1847–1918), architect (New Brunswick) John Harkes (born 1967), soccer player (Kearny) Jess Harnell (born 1963), voice actor, Animaniacs, Up, the Transformers movies (Teaneck) Al Harrington (born 1980), player for the Orlando Magic (Orange) Ed Harris (born 1950), actor, Pollock, The Truman Show, The Right Stuff, Apollo 13, Game Change (born in Englewood, raised in Tenafly) Franco Harris (born 1950), Hall of Fame fullback with the Pittsburgh Steelers (Fort Dix) Roxanne Hart (born 1952), actress, Chicago Hope (Trenton) Dwayne Haskins (1997–2022), football player (Highland Park) Tobin Heath (born 1988), forward for the USWNT and Portland Thorns FC (Morristown) Robert Hegyes (1951–2012), actor, Welcome Back, Kotter (Perth Amboy) Grace Helbig (born 1985), actress, comedian, Camp Takota (Woodbury, raised in Woodbury Heights) Mark Helias (born 1950), jazz musician (New Brunswick) Gerald Henderson Jr. (born 1987), shooting guard for the Charlotte Bobcats (Caldwell) Al Herpin (1862–1947), insomniac (Trenton) Frank Herrmann (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Cleveland Indians (Rutherford) Robert Hess (1938–1994), President of Brooklyn College Jon-Erik Hexum (1957–1984), actor, model, Voyagers! (Englewood, raised in Tenafly) Richard X. Heyman (born 1951), singer-songwriter, musician, original member of The Doughboys (Plainfield) Shana Hiatt (born 1975), model, presenter (Tabernacle Township) Beatrice Hicks (1919–1979), engineer, co-founder, and first president of the Society of Women Engineers (Orange) Michele Hicks (born 1973), actress, Mara Vendrell on The Shield (Essex County) Brian Hill (born 1947), assistant coach for the Detroit Pistons (East Orange) Dulé Hill (born 1975), actor, Psych (East Brunswick, raised in Sayreville) Lauryn Hill (born 1975), singer, rapper, songwriter (South Orange) Mary G. Hill (1803-1884), first of president the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of Newark Garret Hobart (1844–1899), 24th Vice President of the United States (Long Branch) Chris Hogan (born 1988), wide receiver for the New England Patriots (Wyckoff) Jesse Holley (born 1984), wide receiver for the Dallas Cowboys (Roselle) Richard Hooker (1924–1997), writer, surgeon, author of the novel MASH (Trenton) Jermaine 'Huggy' Hopkins (born 1973), actor (Newark) Neil Hopkins (born 1977), actor (Trenton) Wil Horneff (born 1979), actor (born in Englewood, raised in Saddle River) Dennis Horner (born 1988), forward for the Artland Dragons (Linwood) Adam "Ad-Rock" Horovitz (born 1966), member of the Beastie Boys (South Orange) Cissy Houston (born 1933), singer (Newark) Whitney Houston (1963–2012), singer and actress (Newark, grew up in East Orange) Tim Howard (born 1979), soccer player (North Brunswick) Thomas Hutchins (1730–1789), military engineer, cartographer, geographer and surveyor (Monmouth County) Paul Iacono (born 1988), actor, stars in The Hard Times of RJ Berger (Secaucus) Frank Iero (born 1981), rhythm guitarist of My Chemical Romance (Belleville) Sonny Igoe (1923–2012), jazz and big band drummer (Jersey City) Mark Ingram II (born 1989), running back for the New Orleans Saints (Hackensack) Ryan Izzo (born 1995), tight end for the New England Patriots (Highland Lakes) Michael Jace (born 1965), actor, Officer Julien Lowe on The Shield (Paterson) Leonard Jeffries (born 1937), controversial professor of Black Studies at the City University of New York (Newark) Malcolm Jenkins (born 1987), safety for the Philadelphia Eagles (East Orange) Rodney Jerkins (born 1977), songwriter, record producer, musician (Pleasantville) Dontae Johnson (born 1991), cornerback for the San Francisco 49ers (Pennington) Enoch "Nucky" Johnson (1883–1968), Atlantic City political boss and racketeer, basis for Boardwalk Empire's Nucky Thompson (Galloway Township) James P. Johnson (1894–1955), stride jazz pianist (New Brunswick) J. Seward Johnson Jr. (1930–2020), sculptor Leavander Johnson (1969–2005), world champion boxer (Atlantic City) Robert Wood Johnson II (1893–1968), businessman, Chairman of the Board of Johnson & Johnson (New Brunswick) Soterios Johnson, host on public radio station WNYC (Highland Park) Frankie Jonas (born 2000), child actor, Jonas (Ridgewood) Kevin Jonas (born 1987), singer, guitarist, member of the Jonas Brothers (Teaneck, raised in Wyckoff) Dahntay Jones (born 1980), player for the Indiana Pacers (Trenton, raised in Hamilton Square) Donald Jones (born 1987), wide receiver for the Buffalo Bills (Plainfield) Keith Jones (born 1985), broadcaster (New Egypt) Linda Jones (1944–1972), soul singer (Newark) Maxine Jones (born 1965), singer (Paterson) Michael Jones (born 1987), voice actor, actor, YouTube personality (Woodbridge) Nate Jones (born 1982), NFL cornerback (Newark) Ben Jorgensen (born 1983), musician (Teaneck) Just Blaze, rap musician (Paterson) Yaki Kadafi (1977–1996), rapper and member of Tupac Shakur's group Outlawz (Irvington) Jerome Kagan (1929–2021), pioneer in the field of developmental psychology (Newark) Herman Kahn (1922–1983), preeminent nuclear scientist of the 20th century from Bayonne Stanley Kamel (1943–2008), actor, Monk, Melrose Place (South River) Ira Kaplan, musician, co-founder of Yo La Tengo (Hoboken) Myq Kaplan (born 1978), stand-up comedian (Livingston) Eric Karros (born 1967), MLB first baseman, TV color commentator for (Hackensack) Danny Kass (born 1982), pro snowboarder (Vernon Valley) Thomas Kean (born 1935), governor, 9/11 Commission chairman (Bedminster) Brian Keith (1921–1997), actor, The Parent Trap, Nevada Smith, Family Affair, The Wind and the Lion (Bayonne) Daniel Hugh Kelly (born 1952), actor (Elizabeth) Mark Kelly (born 1964), astronaut, husband of Congresswoman Gabby Giffords, twin brother of Scott Kelly (Orange) Scott Kelly (born 1964), astronaut, Commander of International Space Station Expedition 26, twin brother of Mark Kelly (Orange) Victor J. Kemper (born 1927), cinematographer (Newark) Stacey Kent (born 1965), singer (South Orange) Walter Kidde (1877–1943), founder of the Kidde company (Hoboken) Tom Kiesche (born 1967), actor (Hackensack) Jim Kiick (1946–2020), NFL running back, primarily for the Miami Dolphins (Lincoln Park) Victor Kilian (1891–1979), actor (Jersey City) Joyce Kilmer (1886–1918), poet (New Brunswick) Zalman King (1941–2012), actor, director, writer, Body Language (Trenton) Alfred Kinsey (1894–1956), zoologist and sexologist (Hoboken) Michael E. Knight (born 1959), actor (Princeton) Ann McLaughlin Korologos (born 1941), Secretary of Labor from 1987 to 1989 (Chatham) Ernie Kovacs (1919–1962), comedian and actor (Trenton) Stephen Kovacs (1972–2022), saber fencer and fencing coach, charged with sexual assault, died in prison Dennis Kozlowski (born 1946), CEO of Tyco International, convicted in 2005 (Newark) Jane Krakowski (born 1969), actress, 30 Rock (Parsippany) Barbara Kruger (born 1945), conceptual artist (Newark) Larry Kudlow (born 1947), economist, TV personality, syndicated columnist (Englewood) Richard Kuklinski (1935–2006), murderer of over 100 people in mob-related instances (Jersey City) Jared Kushner (born 1981), Senior Advisor to President Donald Trump (Livingston) William Labov (born 1927), linguist (Rutherford) Christian Lambertsen (1917–2011), environmental medicine and diving medicine specialist (Westfield) Nathan Lane (born 1956), Tony Award-winning actor (Jersey City) Artie Lange (born 1967), actor, comedian, radio personality (Livingston, raised in Union) Frank Langella (born 1938), actor, Dracula, Superman Returns, Frost/Nixon, Draft Day (Bayonne) Jack Langer (born 1948/1949), basketball player and investment banker Mike Largey (born 1960), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Tara LaRosa (born 1978), mixed martial artist (Woodstown) Ali Larter (born 1976), actress, Niki Sanders on Heroes (Cherry Hill) Vincent Larusso (born 1978), actor, The Mighty Ducks trilogy (Livingston) Jonathan Last (born 1974), author, senior writer at The Weekly Standard (born in Camden, raised in Woodbury and Moorestown) Tommy La Stella (born 1989), second baseman for the Chicago Cubs (Closter) Queen Latifah (born 1970), singer, actress, TV personality (Newark) Jack Lawless (born 1987), drummer of the Jonas Brothers (Middletown) Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000), artist (Atlantic City) Paul Le Mat (born 1946), actor, American Graffiti, Melvin and Howard (Rahway) Nicole Leach (born 1979), actress (Montclair) Fran Lebowitz (born 1950), author (Morristown) Beverly Lee (born 1941), singer with The Shirelles (Passaic) Al Leiter (born 1965), MLB starting pitcher, TV commentator (Toms River) Stephanie Lemelin (born 1979), actress, Young Justice (Sewell) Arthur Lenk (born 1964), Israeli diplomat (Paterson) Robert Sean Leonard (born 1969), actor, House, Dead Poets Society (born in Westwood, raised in Ridgewood) Michael Lerner (born 1943), left-wing activist and rabbi (Newark) Jerry Levine (born 1957), actor, director, Going Places, Will & Grace (New Brunswick) Diane Lewis (c. 1953–2007), journalist East Orange) Jerry Lewis (1926–2017), actor, comedian, director, telethon host, Academy Award honoree (Newark) Bob Ley (born 1955), ESPN sports anchor (Newark) Judith Light (born 1949), actress, Emmy Award winner, Who's the Boss?, Ugly Betty, Law & Order: SVU (Trenton) Damon Lindelof (born 1973), television and film producer, Lost, Crossing Jordan, Star Trek (Teaneck) Ray Liotta (1955–2022), actor, Goodfellas, The Rat Pack, Cop Land, Hannibal (born in Newark, raised in Union Township) Sean Lissemore (born 1987), defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys (Teaneck) Carli Lloyd (born 1982), Soccer Player, two-time FIFA Women World Player of the Year, two-time Olympic gold medalist, FIFA Women's World Cup gold and silver medalist, plays for the United States women's national soccer team (Delran Township) Norman Lloyd (1914–2021), actor, director, producer, St. Elsewhere (Jersey City) Amy Locane (born 1971), actress (Trenton) Kurt Loder (born 1945), film critic, author, columnist, TV personality (Ocean City) Jim Lord (born 1948), singer-songwriter Faizon Love (born 1968), actor (Newark) Derek Luke (born 1974), actor (Jersey City) Martha MacCallum (born 1964), news anchor for the Fox News Channel (Wyckoff) Bob MacDonald (born 1965), MLB pitcher (East Orange) Elliott Maddox (born 1947), Major League Baseball player (East Orange) Leonard Maltin (born 1950), film critic, film historian, author (Teaneck) Steve Maneri (born 1988), tight end for the Chicago Bears (Saddle Brook) Greg Mankiw (born 1958), macroeconomist and chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers under President George W. Bush (Trenton) David Marciano (born 1960), actor (Newark) Bernie Marcus (born 1929), founder and first CEO of The Home Depot (Newark) Lisa Marie (born 1968), model and actress (Piscataway) John Marin (1870–1953), artist (Rutherford) Robert Markowitz (born 1935), film and TV director (Irvington) Marc Maron (born 1963), stand-up comedian (Jersey City) George R. R. Martin (born 1948), novelist, short story writer, author of A Song of Ice and Fire (Bayonne) Soraida Martinez (born 1956), artist, designer and social activist known for creating the art style of Verdadism.[198] Nick Massi (1927–2000), bass singer and bass guitarist for The Four Seasons (Newark) Terry Matalas (born 1975), television writer, director, executive producer Ronald F. Maxwell (born 1949), film director, screenwriter (Clifton) Vin Mazzaro (born 1986), relief pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates (Hackensack, raised in Rutherford) Matt McAndrew (born 1990), singer-songwriter, contestant from The Voice season 7 (Barnegat Light) Turk McBride (born 1985), defensive end for the New Orleans Saints (Camden) Andrew McCarthy (born 1962), actor, Less than Zero, Pretty in Pink, Weekend at Bernie's (Westfield) Beth McCarthy-Miller (born 1963), TV director, Saturday Night Live, 30 Rock, The Marriage Ref (Elizabeth) Tom McCarthy (born 1966), actor, writer, director, Scott Templeton on The Wire (New Providence) Heather McComb (born 1977), actor, Profiler, Party of Five (Barnegat Township) Mary McCormack (born 1969), actress, In Plain Sight, The West Wing, Murder One (Plainfield) Warren Sturgis McCulloch (1898–1969), neurophysiologist and cybernetician (Orange) Don McGahn (born 1968), White House Counsel to President Donald Trump (Atlantic City) Tom McGowan (born 1959), actor, Frasier, Down the Shore, Everybody Loves Raymond (Belmar) Kareem McKenzie (born 1979), former offensive tackle for the New York Giants (Trenton) Bryant McKinnie (born 1979), offensive tackle for the Baltimore Ravens (Woodbury) Christopher McQuarrie (born 1968), Academy Award-winning screenwriter, director (Princeton Junction) Joe Medwick (1911–1975), Hall of Fame baseball player (Carteret) George Mehnert (1881–1948), freestyle wrestler, two-time Olympic gold medalist (Newark) Tony Meola (born 1969), soccer player (Kearny) Lee Meredith (born 1947), actress, The Producers (River Edge) Frank Messina (born 1968), poet Otto Messmer (1892–1983), animator, co-created Felix the Cat (Union City) Jason Mewes (born 1974), actor, Clerks, Mallrats, Chasing Amy, Dogma (Highlands) Dan Meyer (born 1981), relief pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates (Woodbury) Jeromy Miles (born 1987), safety for the Baltimore Ravens (Voorhees) Cristin Milioti (born 1985), actress, How I Met Your Mother, Fargo, The Wolf of Wall Street (Cherry Hill) Bea Miller (born 1999), singer (Maplewood) E. Spencer Miller (1817–1879), Dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School (Princeton) Ezra Miller (born 1992), actor (Wyckoff) John Milnor (born 1931), mathematician, notable in the fields of exotic spheres and mathematical economics (Orange) Kelly Jo Minter (born 1966), actress (Trenton) Susan Misner (born 1971), actress (Paterson, grew up in Pequannock Township) Dorian Missick (born 1976), actor (East Orange) Thomas Mitchell (1892–1962), Oscar-winning actor (Elizabeth) Jay Mohr (born 1970), actor, comedian, radio personality (Verona) Frank Molinaro (born 1988), freestyle wrestler for the USA Olympics (Middletown) Steve Monarque (born 1959), actor, Friday the 13th: The Series (Pompton Lakes) Raymond Rocco Monto (born 1960), orthopedic surgeon, researcher (Newark]) Eugene Monroe (born 1987), offensive tackle for the Baltimore Ravens (Plainfield) John J. Mooney (1930–2020), chemical engineer, co-inventor of the three-way catalytic converter (Paterson) Trevor Moore (1980–2021), actor, comedian, writer, The Whitest Kids U' Know (Montclair) Brit Morgan (born 1987), actress, True Blood, The Middleman (Marlton) Liv Morgan (born 1994) WWE wrestler (Elmwood Park) Knowshon Moreno (born 1987), professional football player (Middletown Township) Dezman Moses (born 1989), linebacker for the Kansas City Chiefs (Willingboro) Kevin Mulvey (born 1985), MLB starting pitcher (Parlin) Xavier Munford (born 1992), basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Frankie Muniz (born 1985), actor, Malcolm in the Middle (Wood-Ridge) Ed Murawinski (born 1951), artist, New York Daily News (Jersey City) Eric Murdock (born 1968), professional basketball player (Somerville) Joseph S. Murphy (1933–1998), President of Queens College, President of Bennington College, and Chancellor of the City University of New York Troy Murphy (born 1980), power forward and center for the Los Angeles Lakers (Morristown) Tom Murro (born 1966), journalist, columnist, TV personality (Franklin Lakes) Ira B. Nadel (born 1943), biographer, literary critic Vince Naimoli (1937–2019), owner of the Tampa Bay Rays (Paterson) Andrew Napolitano (born 1950), Fox News Channel analyst, author, talk radio host (ewark) Naturi Naughton (born 1984), singer and actress (East Orange) Ozzie Nelson (1906–1975), actor, bandleader and TV personality (born in Jersey City, raised in Ridgefield Park) Ricky Nelson (1940–1985), singer and actor (Teaneck) Bebe Neuwirth (born 1958), Tony Award-winning actress (Princeton) David Newsom (born 1962), actor, photographer, Homefront (North Caldwell) Rebecca S. Nichols (1819-1903), poet (Greenwich) Jack Nicholson (born 1937), Oscar-winning actor (Neptune City) Kathleen Noone (born 1945), Emmy-winning actress, Sunset Beach, Knots Landing, All My Children (Hillsdale) Jeffrey Nordling (born 1962), actor, Once and Again, 24, Dirt (born in Ridgewood, raised in Washington Township) Jim Norton (born 1968), comedian, radio personality, actor, author (Bayonne) Joseph Nye (born 1937), international relations scholar and co-founder of the neoliberalism school of thought (South Orange) Imani Oakley (born 1990), 2022 candidate for Congress in New Jersey's 10th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives, former legislative director for New Jersey branch of the Working Families Party and political organizer (Montclair, New Jersey) Liam O'Brien (born 1976), voice actor, Monster, Ghost in the Shell (Weehawken) Daniel Och (born 1961), chairman and CEO of Och-Ziff Capital Management Group (Maplewood) Jodi Lyn O'Keefe (born 1978), actress (Cliffwood Beach) Criss Oliva (1963–1993), lead guitarist for metal band Savatage (Pompton Plains) Greg Olsen (born 1985), tight end for the Carolina Panthers (Wayne) T. J. O'Malley (1915–2009), aerospace engineer (Montclair) Henry O'Neill (1891–1961), actor (Orange) Jerry Only (born 1959), musician, bassist for The Misfits (Lodi) Peter Onorati (born 1954), actor, Civil Wars, Joe's Life, Cop Rock (Boonton) Heather O'Reilly (born 1985), three-time Olympic gold medalist and professional soccer player (East Brunswick) Claudette Ortiz (born 1981), R&B and Hip-Hop singer (Willingboro) David Packer (born 1962), actor (Passaic) John Panelli (1926–2012), NFL linebacker and running back (Morristown) Franklin Pangborn (1889–1958), character actor (Newark) Joe Pantoliano (born 1951), actor, The Matrix, Memento, The Fugitive, Bound, The Sopranos (Hoboken) Tom Papa (born 1968), comedian, actor, and writer (Passaic, raised in Woodcliff Lake) Bill Parcells (born 1941), NFL coach and Hall of Famer, TV commentator (Englewood) Robert Pastorelli (1954–2004), actor, Murphy Brown, Cracker, Eraser (New Brunswick) Alice Paul (1885–1977), suffragist (Mount Laurel) Elizabeth Peña (1959–2014), actress, The Incredibles, Rush Hour (Elizabeth) Irving Penn (1917–2009), photographer (Plainfield) Kal Penn (born 1977), actor (Montclair) Caroline Pennell (born 1996), singer-songwriter, contestant from The Voice season 5 (Saddle River) Jabrill Peppers (born 1995), strong safety and return specialist for the New York Giants (East Orange) Fernando Perez (born 1983), former MLB outfielder, baseball analyst for MLB.com (Elizabeth, raised in West Windsor) Millie Perkins (born 1938), actress (Passaic, raised in Fair Lawn) Jim Perry (1933–2015), U.S. and Canadian game show host (Camden) Joe Pesci (born 1943), Oscar-winning actor, Goodfellas, Raging Bull, Casino, JFK, Home Alone (Newark) Ralph Peterson Jr. (1962–2021), jazz drummer and bandleader (Pleasantville) Thomas R. Pickering (born 1931), diplomat (Orange) Jimmy Pinchak (born 1996), teen actor, Family Affair (Point Pleasant) Gregory Pincus (1903–1967), biologist and researcher who co-invented the combined oral contraceptive pill (Woodbine) Danny Pintauro (born 1976), actor, Who's the Boss? (Milltown) Joe Piscopo (born 1951), actor and comedian, Saturday Night Live, Wise Guys, 100 Deeds for Eddie McDowd (Passaic) Mahlon Pitney (1858–1924), U.S. Supreme Court justice (Morristown) Michael Pitt (born 1981), actor, Dawson's Creek, Boardwalk Empire, The Village (West Orange) Michael J. Pollard (1939–2019), actor, Bonnie and Clyde (Passaic) Rick Porcello (born 1988), starting pitcher for the Boston Red Sox (Morristown) Laura Prepon (born 1980), actress (Watchung) Molly Price (born 1966), actress (North Plainfield) Lou Taylor Pucci (born 1985), actor (Seaside Heights, raised in Keansburg) Keshia Knight Pulliam (born 1979), actress, The Cosby Show (Newark) Charlie Puth (born 1991), singer (Rumson) Matthew Quick (born 1973), author of young adult and fiction novels (Oaklyn) Phil Radford (born 1976), Greenpeace Executive Director (New Brunswick) Rah Digga (born 1970), rap musician (Newark) Ronald T. Raines (born 1958), scientist, educator, and entrepreneur (Montclair) Bill Raisch (1905-1984), actor, One-Armed Man on The Fugitive (North Bergen) Anthony Ranaudo (born 1989), pitcher for the Texas Rangers (Freehold Township) Melissa Rauch (born 1980), actress, comedian, Bernadette Rostenkowski on The Big Bang Theory (Marlboro) Nate Ravitz (born 1987), radio personality, Fantasy Focus (Brick) Redman (born 1970), rap musician (Newark) Isaac Redman (born 1984), running back for the Pittsburgh Steelers (Paulsboro) Melissa Reeves (born 1967), soap opera actress, Days of Our Lives, Santa Barbara (Eatontown) Tara Reid (born 1975), actress, American Pie, American Pie 2, American Reunion (Wyckoff) Juliette Reilly (born 1993), singer-songwriter and YouTuber (Berkeley Heights) Claudio Reyna (born 1973), soccer player (Livingston) Herb Rich (1928–2008), two-time All-Pro NFL football player Nelson Riddle (1921–1985), arranger, composer, bandleader and orchestrator (Oradell, raised in Ridgewood) Jesse Ridgway (born 1992) YouTuber better known as McJuggerNuggets (Elmer) Jim Ringo (1931–2007), NFL Hall of Fame center and head coach (Orange) Kelly Ripa (born 1970), actress and television personality (Berlin) Paul Robeson (1898–1976), singer, actor, Civil Rights Movement activist (Princeton) Buddy Rogers (1921–1992), pro wrestler and the first ever WWE champion (Camden) Emma Winner Rogers (1855-1922), writer, suffragist (Plainfield) Seth Roland (born 1957), soccer player and coach James Rolfe (born 1980), filmmaker and internet personality, star and creator of the Angry Video Game Nerd web series (Haddonfield) Danielle Rose Russell (born 1999), actress, Hope Mikaelson in Legacies (Pequannock Township, raised in West Milford) Alan Rosenberg (born 1950), actor, Cybill, The Guardian, Civil Wars (Passaic) Jeff Ross (born 1965), comedian (Springfield) Wilbur Ross (born 1937), U.S. Secretary of Commerce under President Donald Trump (Weehawken) Giuseppe Rossi (born 1987), soccer player (Teaneck) Philip Roth (1933–2018), author (Newark) Joan Roughgarden (born 1946), ecologist and evolutionary biologist (Paterson) Richard Ruccolo (born 1972), actor, Two Guys and a Girl, Rita Rocks (Marlton) Mark Rudd (born 1947), left-wing activist, founding member of the Weather Underground (Maplewood) Paul Rudd (born 1969), actor, Clueless (Passaic) Tom Ruegger (born 1956), producer, creator of The Animaniacs (Metuchen) Deborah Rush (born 1954), actress, Strangers with Candy, Family Business, You've Got Mail (Chatham) Bob Ryan (born 1946), sportswriter (Trenton) Bobby Ryan (born 1987), ice hockey winger for the Ottawa Senators (Cherry Hill) Logan Ryan (born 1991), cornerback for the New England Patriots (Berlin) Peter Sagal (born 1965), NPR host (born and raised Berkeley Heights) Katie Sagona (born 1989), actress (Westwood) Eva Marie Saint (born 1924), Academy Award-winning actress (Newark) Richie Sambora (born 1959), guitarist for rock band Bon Jovi (Perth Amboy, raised in Woodbridge Township) Ajai Sanders (born 1967), actress, A Different World (Trenton) Laura San Giacomo (born 1962), actress, Just Shoot Me! (Denville) Caitlin Sanchez (born 1996), actress (Englewood) Hector Santiago (born 1987), pitcher for the Los Angeles Angels (Newark) Mohamed Sanu (born 1989), wide receiver for the Atlanta Falcons (Sayreville, raised in Dayton) Dick Savitt (born 1927), tennis player, ranked No. 2 in the world in 1951 (Bayonne) Natalie Schafer (1900–1991), actress, Mrs. Howell on Gilligan's Island (Red Bank) Tom Scharpling (born 1969), comedian (Newbridge) Roy Scheider (1932–2008), actor, Jaws, The French Connection, All That Jazz (Orange) Greg Schiano (born 1966), head coach Tampa Bay Buccaneers, former head football coach Rutgers University (Wyckoff) Wally Schirra (1923–2007), Navy officer and test pilot (Hackensack) Sarah Schkeeper (born 1981), guard for the New York Sharks (Livingston) Steve Schmidt (born 1970), campaign strategist and advisor to the 2008 presidential campaign of Senator John McCain (North Plainfield) Scott Schoeneweis (born 1973), former MLB relief pitcher (Long Branch, raised in Mount Laurel) Frank D. Schroth (1884–1974), publisher of the Brooklyn Eagle (Trenton) Thomas N. Schroth (1920–2009), journalist, specializing in Inside the Beltway politics (Trenton) Norton Schwartz (born 1951), US Air Force general and Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force (Toms River) Sherwood Schwartz (1916–2011), television producer (Passaic) Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. (1934–2012), U.S. general, led coalition forces in the Gulf War (Trenton) Rusty Schweickart (born 1935), aeronautical engineer, NASA astronaut, research scientist (Neptune) Patti Scialfa (born 1953), singer-songwriter, musician, member of the E Street Band (Deal) Debralee Scott (1953–2005), actress, Angie (Elizabeth) Doc Searls (born 1947), journalist, columnist, blogger, author (Jersey City) Henry Selick (born 1952), stop motion director, producer, writer, The Nightmare Before Christmas, James and the Giant Peach, Coraline (Glen Ridge, raised in Rumson) Ivan Sergei (born 1971), actor, Jack & Jill, Once a Thief, Crossing Jordan (Hawthorne) Matt Servitto (born 1965), actor, Agent Harris on The Sopranos (Teaneck) Marc Shaiman (born 1959), composer, lyricist, arranger, and performer (Newark) Christian Sharps (1810–1874), inventor of first successful breech-loading rifle (Washington) Ed Shaughnessy (1929–2013), swing and bebop drummer best known for his 29 years on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (Jersey City) Duncan Sheik (born 1969), singer-songwriter and composer (Montclair) Cindy Sherman (born 1954), artist and photographer (Glen Ridge) Jonathan Marc Sherman (born 1968), playwright (Morristown, grew up in Livingston) Sheetal Sheth (born 1976), actress (Phillipsburg) Armin Shimerman (born 1949), actor, Star Trek: DS9, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Beauty and the Beast (Lakewood) Everett Shinn (1876–1953), artist (Woodstown) David K. Shipler (born 1942), author (Chatham) The Shirelles, iconic and seminal girl group of the 1960s and 1970s (Passaic) Joseph Shivers (1920–2014), textile chemist (Marlton) Michael Showalter (born 1970), actor/comedian (Princeton) Joel Silver (born 1952), film and television producer, the Matrix Trilogy, the Lethal Weapon movies, Die Hard, Predator (South Orange) Bill Simon (born 1951), businessman, California politician (Neptune Township) Jimmi Simpson (born 1975), actor, House of Cards, Westworld, Date Night (Hackettstown) Frank Sinatra (1915–1998), iconic singer and Academy Award-winning actor (Hoboken) Frank Sinatra Jr. (1944–2016), singer, songwriter, conductor (Jersey City) Nancy Sinatra (born 1940), singer, actress (Jersey City) Tony Siragusa (born 1967), football player and TV commentator (Kenilworth) Jeremy Slate (1926–2006), actor (Atlantic City) Devin Smeltzer (born 1995), starting pitcher for the Minnesota Twins (Voorhees) Jennifer Schwalbach Smith (born 1971), actress (Newark) J. R. Smith (born 1985), shooting guard for the New York Knicks (Freehold) Kevin Smith (born 1970), filmmaker, Clerks, Dogma, Red State (Highlands) Tasha Smith (born 1971), actress, Boston Common, Tyler Perry's For Better or Worse (Camden) Chris Snee (born 1982), guard for the New York Giants (Edison) Jason Snelling (born 1983), running back for the Atlanta Falcons (Toms River) Todd Solondz (born 1959), filmmaker (Newark) Soraya (1969–2006), singer–songwriter (Point Pleasant) Mira Sorvino (born 1967), Oscar-winning actress (Tenafly) Arthur Space (1908–1983), actor, Lassie (New Brunswick) Charles Speziale (1948–1999), scientist who had worked in Langley Research Center (Newark) Bruce Springsteen (born 1949), iconic singer-songwriter (Long Branch, raised in Freehold) Pamela Springsteen (born 1962), actress and photographer (Freehold) Amos Alonzo Stagg (1862–1965), athlete and pioneering college coach in multiple sports, primarily football (West Orange) Cody Stashak (born 1994), relief pitcher for the Minnesota Twins (Somers Point) Mark Stein (born 1947), rock musician, composer, and arranger (Bayonne) Victor J. Stenger (1935–2014), particle physicist, atheist, author (Bayonne) Mindy Sterling (born 1953), actress, Frau Farbissina in the Austin Powers movies (Paterson) Robert Sternberg (born 1949), psychologist and psychometrician (Newark) Martha Stewart (born 1941), lifestyle guide, entrepreneur, TV personality (Jersey City, grew up in Nutley) Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946), photographer (Hoboken) Rod Streater (born 1988), wide receiver for the Oakland Raiders (Burlington) Meryl Streep (born 1949), Academy Award-winning actress (Summit) Julian M. Sturtevant (1908-2005), professor of biochemistry, Yale University William Graham Sumner (1840–1910), prominent sociologist, educator, academic (Paterson) Josh Sussman (born 1983), actor, Glee, Warren the Ape (Teaneck) Loretta Swit (born 1937), actress, Margaret Houlihan on MAS*H (Passaic) Tammy Lynn Sytch (born 1972), professional wrestling valet (Fort Monmouth) T–Z Michael Taccetta (born 1947), high-ranking member of the Lucchese crime family (Newark) Julian Talley (born 1989), wide receiver for the New York Giants (Stratford) Danny Tamberelli (born 1982), actor (Wyckoff) Kathryn Tappen (born 1981), NBC sportscaster (Morristown) Glenn Taranto (born 1959), actor, Gomez in The New Addams Family (Hackensack) Frank Tashlin (1913–1972), animator, screenwriter, and film director (Weehawken) Giselle Tavera (born 1993), singer (Cherry Hill) John Taylor (1836–1909), businessman, politician, creator of Taylor brand pork roll Eileen Tell (born 1966), tennis player Jon Tenney (born 1961), actor, The Closer, Get Real, Scandal (Princeton) Jack Terricloth (1970–2021), lead singer of The World/Inferno Friendship Society (Bridgewater) Joe Theismann (born 1949), quarterback for Notre Dame and the Washington Redskins, TV color commentator (New Brunswick, raised in South River) Tim Thomas (born 1977), NBA forward (Paterson) Jason Thompson (born 1986), forward and center for the Sacramento Kings (Mount Laurel) Steve Tisch (born 1949), chairman and executive vice president for the New York Giants; also a film and television producer (Lakewood) Ashley Tisdale (born 1985), actress, High School Musical, The Suite Life of Zack and Cody, Phineas and Ferb and singer (Ocean Township) Ray Toro (born 1977), lead guitarist of My Chemical Romance (Kearny) Karl-Anthony Towns (born 1995), NBA player (Edison) Justin Trattou (born 1988), defensive end for the Minnesota Vikings (Maywood) Ellen Travolta (born 1940), actress, Charles in Charge, Joanie Loves Chachi (Englewood) John Travolta (born 1954), actor, Saturday Night Fever, Grease, Pulp Fiction (Englewood) Linda Tripp (1949–2020), central figure in Clinton–Lewinsky scandal of 1998 and 1999 (Jersey City) Mike Trout (born 1991), outfielder for the Los Angeles Angels (Millville) Martin Truex Jr. (born 1980), NASCAR driver (Englishtown) Eddie Trunk (born 1964), music historian, radio personality, author (Madison) Louise Tunison (1872–1899), composer Rahshon Turner (born 1975), basketball player David Tyree (born 1980), former NFL wide receiver and special teamer, primarily with the New York Giants (Livingston, raised in Montclair) Laura Tyson (born 1947), economist, Director of the National Economic Council under Bill Clinton (Bayonne) Tiquan Underwood (born 1987), wide receiver for the New England Patriots (North Brunswick) James Urbaniak (born 1963), actor, voice actor, The Venture Bros. (Bayonne) Michael Uslan, producer of the Batman movies (born in Bayonne, has lived in Cedar Grove) Alfred Vail (1807–1859), machinist, inventor, helped develop and commercialize the telegraph (Morristown) Buddy Valastro (born 1977), reality television star, Cake Boss (Hoboken) Frankie Valli (born 1934), lead singer, The Four Seasons (Newark) Lee Van Cleef (1925–1989), actor, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, Escape from New York (Somerville) Rudy Van Gelder (1924–2016), Blue Note Records recording engineer (Jersey City) Jeff Van Note (born 1946), center for the Atlanta Falcons (South Orange) James Van Riemsdyk (born 1989), NHL player (Middletown) Johnny Vander Meer (1918–1997), baseball pitcher who threw two consecutive no-hitters for Reds in 1938 (Prospect Park) Sarah Vaughan (1924–1990), singer (Newark) Tom Verducci, sportswriter for Sports Illustrated and si.com, commentator MLB Tonight (East Orange, raised in Glen Ridge) Tom Verlaine (born 1949), television guitarist (Denville) Alex Vincent (born 1981), child actor (Newark, raised in Maywood) Dick Vitale (born 1939), sportscaster (Passaic) Vitamin C (born 1969), pop singer (Old Bridge Township) Floyd Vivino (born 1951), actor (Paterson) Frank Vogel (born 1973), head coach for the Indiana Pacers (Wildwood) Paul Volcker (1927–2019), economist, chairman of the Economic Recovery Advisory Board under President Barack Obama (Cape May, raised in Teaneck) Frederica Von Stade (born 1945), operatic mezzo-soprano (Somerville) Rich Vos (born 1957), stand-up comic (Plainfield) Jersey Joe Walcott (1914–1994), heavyweight champion (Merchantville, New Jersey) Tracey Walter (born 1947), character actor (Jersey City) Patrick Warburton (born 1964), actor (Paterson) Travis Warech (born 1991), American-German-Israeli basketball player for Israeli team Hapoel Be'er Sheva Malcolm Jamal Warner (born 1970), actor (Jersey City) Dionne Warwick (born 1940), R&B singer, actress (East Orange) Rebecca Watson (born 1980), skeptical blogger and podcast host who founded the Skepchick blog Vernee Watson-Johnson (born 1954), actress (Trenton) Gerard Way (born 1977), lead singer of My Chemical Romance (Summit) Mikey Way (born 1980), bass guitarist of My Chemical Romance (Newark) Charlie Weis (born 1956), head football coach for University of Kansas (Middlesex) Shaun Weiss (born 1978), actor, The Mighty Ducks movies (Montvale) Spencer Weisz (born 1995), American-Israeli professional basketball player for Hapoel Haifa of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Richard Wenk (born 1956), film director and screenwriter (Metchun) Paul Wesley (born 1982), actor in The Vampire Diaries, (New Brunswick), grew up in (Marlboro) David West (born 1980), power forward for the Indiana Pacers (Teaneck) Stylez G. White (born 1979), NFL defensive end (Newark) Tahir Whitehead (born 1990), linebacker for the Detroit Lions (Jersey City, raised in Newark) Muhammad Wilkerson (born 1989), Defensive end for the New York Jets (Linden, New Jersey) C. K. Williams (1936–2015), poet, critic and translator (Newark) Gary Williams (born 1945), basketball coach for University of Maryland, current Big Ten Network analyst (Collingswood) J. D. Williams (born 1981), actor (Newark) Malinda Williams (born 1975), actress, Tracy "Bird" Van Adams on Soul Food (Elizabeth, raised in Westfield) Nick Williams (born 1990), wide receiver for the Atlanta Falcons (Hightstown, raised in East Windsor) Wendy Williams, radio and TV personality (born in Asbury Park, grew up in Ocean Township) Flip Wilson (1933–1998), comedian and actor (Jersey City) Frank Winters (born 1964), NFL center, primarily for the Green Bay Packers (Hoboken) Henry Wittenberg (1918–2010), freestyle wrestler, Olympic champion, two-time Olympic medalist (Jersey City) Alex Wojciechowicz (1915–1992), Hall of Fame NFL center and linebacker (South River) Sam Woodyard (1925–1988), big band drummer with Duke Ellington and others (Elizabeth) Beulah Woolston (1828-1886), teacher, translator, editor (Vincentown) Corey Wootton (born 1987), defensive end for the Chicago Bears (Rutherford) Jason Worilds (born 1988), outside linebacker for the Pittsburgh Steelers (Rahway, raised in Carteret) Bernie Worrell (1944–2016), keyboards, Parliament-Funkadelic, Talking Heads (Long Branch/Clinton) Chris Wragge (born 1970), sports journalist and presenter for WCBS-TV (Hackensack) Kelly Wright (born 1987), artist, radio host on WPIR Pratt Radio (Maywood) Robert Wuhl (born 1951), actor, writer, comedian, Batman, Cobb, Arliss (Union) Chris Wylde (born 1976), actor, comedian, Strip Mall (Hackettstown) Zakk Wylde (born 1967), guitarist for Ozzy Osbourne and Black Label Society (Bayonne, raised in Jackson Township) Emmanuel Yarborough (1964–2015), amateur sumo wrestler, mixed martial arts competitor (Rahway) Maury Yeston (born 1945), classical and Broadway composer, lyricist,and musicologist, (Jersey City) Aaron Yoo (born 1979), actor, Disturbia (East Brunswick) Albert Young (born 1985), running back for the Pittsburgh Steelers (Moorestown) Karen Young (born 1958), actress, Agent Robyn Sanseverino on The Sopranos (Pequannock) Larry Young (1940–1978), hard bop jazz organist (Newark) David Zabriskie (born 1986), retired amateur wrestler and current wrestling coach (Branchville) Pia Zadora (born 1954), actress and singer (Hoboken) Stuart Zagnit (born 1952), actor (New Brunswick) Rachel Zegler (born 2001), actress, West Side Story (Hackensack) Jackie Zeman (born 1967), actress, General Hospital (Englewood) Ian Ziering (born 1964), actor, Beverly Hills, 90210 (Newark, raised in West Orange) Vanessa Zima (born 1986), actress (Phillipsburg) Yvonne Zima (born 1989), actress, The Young and the Restless, ER (Phillipsburg) Jeremy Zuttah (born 1986), offensive lineman for the Baltimore Ravens (Edison) Abner Zwillman, Jewish American mob boss (Newark) Shack 1234567890 Born in New Jersey, raised elsewhere Jack Abramoff (born 1958), former lobbyist and businessman convicted of fraud, conspiracy, and tax evasion (Atlantic City, moved to Beverly Hills, California, at age 9) Lavoy Allen (born 1989), power forward for the Philadelphia 76ers (Trenton, moved to Pennsylvania) Jozy Altidore (born 1989), soccer player (Livingston, raised in Boca Raton, Florida) Priscilla Barnes (born 1955), actress, Terri Alden on Three's Company (Fort Dix, raised in California) Jeffrey Bewkes (born 1952), CEO and Chairman of Time Warner (Paterson, raised in Darien, Connecticut) Robert Blake (born 1933), actor, Baretta (born in Nutley, raised in Los Angeles) Elizabeth Bogush (born 1977), actress, Titans (Perth Amboy, raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and Hingham, Massachusetts) Phil Bredesen (born 1943), Governor of Tennessee (Oceanport, grew up in different parts of the country) Marshon Brooks (born 1989), player with the New Jersey Nets (Long Branch, raised in Tucker, Georgia) Michael R. Burns (born 1958), Vice Chairman of Lions Gate Entertainment (born in Long Branch, raised in New Canaan, Connecticut) Mary Chapin Carpenter (born 1958), Grammy-winning folk and country singer (born in Princeton; moved to Japan, then Washington, D.C.) Sean Casey (born 1974), former MLB All-Star first baseman, current color commentator for the Cincinnati Reds (Willingboro, moved to Pittsburgh) Paul Cushing Child (1902–1994), husband of celebrity chef Julia Child (Montclair, raised in Boston) Grover Cleveland (1837–1908), 22nd and 24th President of the United States (Caldwell, raised in western New York) Jason Cook (born 1980), actor, Days of Our Lives, General Hospital (Somerdale, raised in California) James Fenimore Cooper (1789–1851), writer (Burlington, raised in Cooperstown) Brian De Palma (born 1940), film director (born in Newark, raised in Philadelphia and New Hampshire) Brian Delate (born 1949), actor (Trenton, raised in Bucks County, Pennsylvania) Kirsten Dunst (born 1982), actress, Mary Jane Watson in the Spider-Man trilogy (Point Pleasant, raised in Los Angeles) Sylvia Earle (born 1935), marine biologist, explorer, author (Gibbstown, raised in Florida) Eric Ebron (born 1993), tight end for the Detroit Lions (Newark, moved to North Carolina) Mel Ferrer (1917–2008), actor, director, Falcon Crest (Elberon, raised in New York and Connecticut) John Forsythe (1918–2010), actor, Dynasty, Charlie's Angels, Bachelor Father (Penns Grove, raised in Brooklyn, New York) Kate French (born 1985), actress, Wicked Wicked Games, The L Word (Flemington, raised in Long Island, New York) Kevin Friedland (born 1981), soccer player Dana Fuchs (born 1976), singer/songwriter (born in New Jersey, raised in Wildwood, Florida) Janeane Garofalo (born 1964), comedian, actress, left-wing activist (born in Newton, raised in California and Texas) David Garrard (born 1978), quarterback for the Jacksonville Jaguars (Plainfield, raised in Durham, North Carolina) Paul Gleason (1939–2006), actor, The Breakfast Club (Jersey City, raised in Florida) Mike Goodson (born 1987), running back for the Oakland Raiders (born in Irvington, raised in Texas) Chuck Greenberg (born 1961), former owner of the Texas Rangers (Englewood, raised in Pittsburgh) Robert David Hall (born 1947), actor, CSI (East Orange, moved to California) Sterling Hayden (1916–1986), actor (born in Upper Montclair; as a child, moved to New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, D.C., and Maine) Pepe Hern (1927–2009), actor raised in California Jason Heyward (born 1989), right fielder for the Chicago Cubs (Ridgewood, raised in Georgia) Debra Hill (1950–2005), screenwriter, producer (Haddonfield, grew up in Philadelphia) Linda Hunt (born 1945), Oscar-winning actress (Morristown, raised in Westport, Connecticut) Ice-T (born 1958), rapper and actor (Newark, moved to Los Angeles) Richie Incognito (born 1983), guard for the Buffalo Bills (Englewood, grew up in Glendale, Arizona) Derek Jeter (born 1974), shortstop for the New York Yankees (born in Pequannock, but raised primarily in Kalamazoo, Michigan) Richard Kind (born 1956), actor, Mad About You, Spin City (Trenton, raised in Pennsylvania) Bobby Korecky (born 1979), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays (Hillside, moved to Michigan) Alfred L. Kroeber (1876–1960), cultural anthropologist (Hoboken, grew up in New York) Scott LaFaro (1936–1961), jazz double bassist (Irvington, grew up in Geneva, New York) Lila Lee (1905–1973), silent and early sound film actress from Union City, grew up in New York City Sue Ane Langdon (born 1936), actress, Arnie, Bachelor Father (Paterson, raised in New York, Michigan, and Oregon) Joshua Lederberg (1925–2008), Nobel Prize–winning molecular biologist (Montclair, raised in Manhattan) Gordon MacRae (1921–1986), actor, singer (East Orange, raised in Massachusetts and New York) Norman Mailer (1923–2007), Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist, essayist, poet (Long Branch, raised in Brooklyn) Camryn Manheim (born 1961), Emmy-winning actress & left-wing activist, The Practice, Ghost Whisperer, The L Word (West Caldwell, grew up in Peoria, Illinois) Marc Maron (born 1963), comedian, actor, podcaster (born in Jersey City, raised in Wayne, Alaska and Albuquerque) Richard Matheson (1926–2013), sci-fi and fantasy author and screenwriter (Allendale, raised in Brooklyn) Lindsey McKeon (born 1982), actress, Saved by the Bell: The New Class, Guiding Light (Summit, raised in Los Angeles) Kate Micucci (born 1980), actress, comedian, and singer-songwriter (born in NJ, raised in Nazareth, Pennsylvania) Bob Milacki (born 1964), former MLB pitcher, primarily with the Baltimore Orioles (Trenton, raised in Lake Havasu City, Arizona) Christina Milian (born 1981), R&B and pop singer-songwriter, dancer, actress, and model (Jersey City, grew up in Waldorf, Maryland, moved to Los Angeles) Eric Millegan (born 1974), actor, Zack Addy on Bones (Hackettstown, raised in Springfield, Oregon) Susan Mikula, artist and photographer (raised in New Hampshire) Philip Morrison (1915–2005), prominent physicist (Somerville, grew up in Pittsburgh) Charlie Morton (born 1983), starting pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays (Flemington, raised in Trumbull, Connecticut) Montell Owens (born 1984), fullback for the Jacksonville Jaguars (Plainfield, moved to Delaware) Daniel Pearl (1963–2002), journalist who was kidnapped and killed by Al-Qaeda (Princeton, grew up in Los Angeles) A. J. Price (born 1986), point guard for the Indiana Pacers (Orange, raised in East Massapequa, New York) Dana Reeve (1961–2006), actress, singer, widow of Christopher Reeve (born in Teaneck, raised in Greenburgh, New York) Dennis Rodman (born 1961), former NBA forward, who played primarily with the Detroit Pistons and the Chicago Bulls (Trenton, grew up in Dallas, Texas) Joe Rogan (born 1967), comedian, actor, UFC color commentator (born in Bridgewater, raised in Newton, Massachusetts) Paul Rudd (born 1969), actor, Knocked Up, The 40-Year-Old Virgin, Friends (born in Passaic, raised in Overland Park, Kansas) Zoe Saldana (born 1978), actress, Avatar, Pirates of the Caribbean, Star Trek (Passaic, raised in Queens, New York) Antonin Scalia (1936–2016), associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (Trenton, raised in Queens, New York) Cindy Sherman (born 1954), photographer (born in Glen Ridge, raised in Huntington, New York) Paul Simon (born 1941), musician, composer (born in Newark, grew up in Queens, New York) T. O'Conor Sloane III (1912–2003), Doubleday editor (born in South Orange, grew up in Brooklyn) Shaquille O'Neal (born 1972), basketball Hall of Famer, 15-time NBA All-Star center (Newark) Kevin Spacey (born 1959), actor (born in South Orange, grew up in Southern California) J. Michael Straczynski (born 1954), writer, producer, creator of Babylon 5 and its spin-off (born in Paterson, grew up in different parts of the country) Red Strader (1902–1956), AAFC and NFL head coach (Newton, raised in Modesto, California) Dave Thomas (1932–2002), founder of the Wendy's fast food restaurant chain (born in Atlantic City, grew up in different parts of the country) Jack Warden (1920–2006), Emmy-winning actor, N.Y.P.D., The Bad News Bears, Crazy Like a Fox (Newark, grew up in Louisville, Kentucky) Liza Weil (born 1977), actress, Paris Geller on Gilmore Girls (born in NJ, raised in Lansdale, Pennsylvania) William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), poet (Rutherford), grew up in Dominican Republic Jane Wyatt (1910–2006), three-time Emmy-winning actress, Father Knows Best (Mahwah, raised in New York City) Nick Zano (born 1978), actor, What I Like About You, Beverly Hills Chihuahua (Nutley, grew up in Wellington, Florida) Born elsewhere, raised in New Jersey Soren Sorensen Adams (1878–1963), inventor of the Joy buzzer (born Aarhus, Denmark, grew up Perth Amboy, died Asbury Park) Juan Agudelo (born 1992), soccer player for the New York Red Bulls and the U.S. men's national team (born in Colombia, raised in Barnegat) Akon (born 1973), platinum R&B singer (born in St. Louis, Missouri, partly raised in Senegal, then moved to Jersey City) Carlo Alban (born 1979), actor, Prison Break (born in Ecuador, grew up in Sayreville) Jeff Anderson (born 1970), actor, Randal Graves in Kevin Smith's View Askewniverse (born in Connecticut, raised in Atlantic Highlands) Mark Attanasio, owner of the Milwaukee Brewers (The Bronx, raised in Tenafly) Trey Anastasio (born 1964), guitarist, composer, and vocalist for the rock band Phish (Fort Worth, Texas, raised in Princeton) Kyle Anderson (born 1993), forward for the San Antonio Spurs (New York City, raised in North Bergen and Fairview) Ben Bailey (born 1970), comedian, former host of Cash Cab (Bowling Green, Kentucky, grew up in Chatham) Oxiris Barbot, Commissioner of Health of the City of New York John Basilone (1916–1945), Marine, Medal of Honor recipient (Buffalo, New York, grew up in Raritan) Joe Bastardi (born 1955), weather forecaster (Providence, Rhode Island, partly raised in Somers Point) Laura Benanti (born 1979), Tony Award-winning Broadway actress (New York City, grew up in Kinnelon) Guy Benson (born 1985), journalist, pundit, Fox News contributor (Saudi Arabia, raised in Ridgewood) Moe Berg (1902–1972), MLB catcher and spy during World War II (New York City, raised in Newark) Steve Berman (born 1968), author (Philadelphia, raised in Cherry Hill) Bonnie Bernstein (born 1970), television and radio sportscaster (Brooklyn, raised in Howell) Ahmed Best (born 1973), voice actor, Jar Jar Binks in the Star Wars prequel trilogy (New York City, raised in Maplewood) Michael Ian Black (born 1971), comedian, actor, Ed, The State, Viva Variety (Chicago, raised in Hillsborough) Cory Booker (born 1969), politician, former mayor of Newark; current United States Senator (born in Washington, D.C., raised in Harrington Park) Anthony Bourdain (1956–2018), chef, author and television personality (New York City, grew up in Leonia) James L. Brooks (born 1940), film and television producer and director (Brooklyn, grew up in North Bergen) Joe Budden (born 1980), rap musician (Spanish Harlem, raised in Jersey City) Tisha Campbell-Martin (born 1968), actress (Oklahoma City, raised in Newark) Johnny Cannizzaro, actor, Jersey Boys, writer, producer (Brooklyn, New York, raised in Holmdel) John Carlson (born 1990), NHL defenseman (Natick, Massachusetts, raised in Colonia) Luis Castillo (born 1983), NFL defensive end, formerly of the San Diego Chargers (Brooklyn, raised in Garfield) Kevin Chamberlin (born 1963), actor, Road to Perdition, Die Hard with a Vengeance (Baltimore, Maryland, raised in Moorestown) Mona Charen (born 1957), columnist, political analyst, author (New York City, raised in Livingston) David Chase (born 1945), creator, The Sopranos (Mount Vernon, New York, grew up in Clifton and North Caldwell) Chino XL (born 1971), rapper, actor (Bronx, grew up in East Orange) Lauren Cohan (born 1982), actress, Maggie Greene on The Walking Dead (Philadelphia, partially raised in Cherry Hill) Rhys Coiro (born 1979), actor, Billy Walsh on Entourage (Calabria, Italy, moved to Princeton) Judith Ortiz Cofer (1952–2016), author (Hormigueros, Puerto Rico, raised in Paterson) Doris Coley (1941–2000), later known as Doris Coley-Kenner and then Doris Kenner-Jackson, singer with The Shirelles James Comey (born 1960), Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (Yonkers, New York, grew up in Allendale) Monica Crowley (born 1968), radio and television commentator (born in Arizona, raised in Warren Township) Tom Cruise (born 1962), actor (Syracuse, New York, grew up in Glen Ridge) Michael Cudlitz (born 1964), actor, Southland, The Walking Dead, Standoff (Long Island, New York, raised in Lakewood) David Curtiss (born 2002), competitive swimmer (Yardley, Pennsylvania, raised in Pennington and Hamilton) David DeJesus (born 1979), Major League Baseball outfielder (Brooklyn, grew up in Manalapan Township) Kat DeLuna (born 1987), pop and R&B singer (Bronx, New York, partly raised in Newark) William Demarest (1892–1983), character actor (St. Paul, Minnesota, grew up in New Bridge in Bergen County) Rosemarie DeWitt (born 1974), actress, United States of Tara, Standoff (Queens, New York, raised in Hanover Township) Joey Diaz (born 1963), stand-up comedian, actor (Havana, Cuba, raised in North Bergen) Sean Doolittle (born 1986), relief pitcher for the Washington Nationals (Rapid City, South Dakota, grew up in Tabernacle) Sarah Jane Corson Downs (1822-1891), president, New Jersey Woman's Christian Temperance Union (Philadelphia; raised in Pennington, New Jersey) Karen Duffy (born 1961), model and actress (New York City, grew up in Park Ridge) Tyler Ennis (born 1994), point guard for the Houston Rockets (Brampton, Ontario, raised in Newark) Tali Farhadian (born 1974 or 1975), former US federal prosecutor (Englewood Cliffs) Andrew Fastow (born 1961), CFO at Enron, convicted felon (Washington, D.C., grew up in New Providence) Linda Fiorentino (born 1958), actress (Philadelphia, grew up in Turnersville) Oscar Fraley (1914–1994), co-author of Eliot Ness's memoir, The Untouchables (Philadelphia, grew up in Woodbury) Lawrence Frank (born 1970), professional basketball coach (New York City, raised in Teaneck) Milton Friedman (1912–2006), Nobel Prize-winning economist, statistician, and public intellectual (Brooklyn, grew up in Rahway) Daisy Fuentes (born 1966), model and TV personality (Havana, Cuba, grew up in Newark and Harrison) Junior Galette (born 1988), defensive end and linebacker for the New Orleans Saints (Port-au-Prince, Haiti, grew up in Montvale) Jim Gary (1939–2006), sculptor (born in Sebastian, Florida, grew up from infancy in Colts Neck and resided in New Jersey for the rest of his life) Camille Grammer (born 1963), cast member on The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills (Newport Beach, California, raised in Jersey City) Bob Guccione (1930–2010), founder and publisher of Penthouse magazine (Brooklyn, raised in Bergenfield) Vida Guerra (born 1980), model (Havana, raised in Perth Amboy) Valerie Harper (1939–2019), actress (Suffern, raised in Jersey City) Debbie Harry (born 1945), singer and actress (Miami, raised in Hawthorne) Anne Hathaway (born 1982), actress (born in Brooklyn, raised in Millburn) Ethan Hawke (born 1970), actor (Austin, Texas, partly raised in West Windsor) Bob Herbert (born 1945), op-ed columnist for The New York Times (Brooklyn, raised in Montclair) Orel Hershiser (born 1958), Cy Young-winning baseball pitcher and ESPN baseball analyst (Buffalo, New York, raised in Cherry Hill) Will Hill (born 1990), safety for the Baltimore Ravens (Jacksonville, Florida, raised in West Orange) Lloyd Huck (1922–2012), business executive and philanthropist (Brooklyn, raised in Nutley) Harold L. Humes (1926–1992), novelist, co-founder of The Paris Review (Douglas, Arizona, raised in Princeton) Toomas Hendrik Ilves (born 1953), President of Estonia (Stockholm, Sweden, raised in Leonia) Monte Irvin (1919–2016), HOF baseball player (Haleburg, Alabama, grew up in Orange) Kyrie Irving (born 1992) point guard for the Brooklyn Nets (born in Australia, raised in West Orange) Sheena Iyengar (born 1969), professor at Columbia Business School, specializing in research on choice (born in Toronto, grew up in Flushing, Queens, and Elmwood Park) Millie Jackson (born 1944), R&B/soul singer-songwriter (Thomson, Georgia, raised in Newark and Brooklyn) Sharpe James (born 1936), former New Jersey State Senator and mayor of Newark, convicted criminal (born in Jacksonville, grew up in Newark) Chris Jent (born 1970), NBA player, assistant coach for the Cleveland Cavaliers (Orange, California, grew up in Sparta) Joe Jonas (born 1989), singer, member of the Jonas Brothers (Casa Grande, Arizona, grew up in Wyckoff) Nick Jonas (born 1992), singer, member of the Jonas Brothers (Dallas, grew up in Wyckoff) Brian Joo (born 1981), Korean singer (Los Angeles, raised in Absecon) Michael B. Jordan (born 1987), actor (Santa Ana, California, grew up in Newark) Ryan Kalish (born 1988), outfielder with the Chicago Cubs (Los Angeles, raised in Shrewsbury) Kevin Kelly (born 1952), founding executive editor of Wired magazine (born in Pennsylvania, grew up in Westfield) Michael Kidd-Gilchrist (born 1993), small forward for the Charlotte Hornets (Philadelphia, grew up in Somerdale) Ezra Koenig (born 1984), musician, Vampire Weekend (New York City, raised in Northern New Jersey) Michael Landon (1936–1991), actor, Bonanza, Little House on the Prairie (Queens, New York raised in Collingswood) Ailee, real name Amy Lee (born 1989), Korean singer (Denver, Colorado, grew up in Palisades Park and Leonia) Ted Leo (born 1970), indie rock musician (South Bend, Indiana, raised in Bloomfield) A. Leo Levin (1919–2015), law professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School Samm Levine (born 1982), actor, Freaks and Geeks, Inglourious Basterds (Chicago, raised in Fort Lee) Carl Lewis (born 1961), track and field legend, nine-time Olympic gold medalist (born in Birmingham, Alabama, grew up in Willingboro) Richard Lewis (born 1947), comedian, actor, Anything but Love, Curb Your Enthusiasm (Brooklyn, raised in Englewood) G. Gordon Liddy (1930–2021), chief operative for the White House Plumbers unit under the Nixon administration (Brooklyn, raised in Hoboken and West Caldwell) Naomi Cornelia Long Madgett (1923–2020), poet (Norfolk, Virginia, partly raised in East Orange) Bill Maher (born 1956), comedian, actor, TV personality, left wing pundit, Real Time with Bill Maher (New York City, grew up in River Vale) Michelle Malkin (born 1970), conservative pundit (Philadelphia, grew up in Absecon) Constantine Maroulis (born 1975), singer (New York City, grew up in Wyckoff) Gene Mayer (born 1956), tennis player (Queens, grew up in Wayne) Page McConnell (born 1963), songwriter and keyboardist with the rock band Phish (Philadelphia, raised in Basking Ridge) Devin McCourty (born 1987), free safety for the New England Patriots (Nyack, New York, raised in Montvale) John C. McGinley (born 1959), actor, Perry Cox on Scrubs (New York City, grew up in Millburn) Lea Michele (born 1986), actress, Rachel Berry on Glee (Bronx, raised in Tenafly) Natalia Alexandra Mitsuoka (born 1988), Argentinian figure skater (born in Argentina, raised in New Providence) Matt Mulhern (born 1960), actor, filmmaker, Major Dad (Philadelphia, raised in Montvale) Brittany Murphy (1977–2009), actress, King of the Hill, Happy Feet, 8 Mile (Atlanta, grew up in Edison and Burbank, California) Jim Nantz (born 1959), sportscaster for CBS Sports (Charlotte, North Carolina, grew up in Colts Neck Township) J. J. North, actress (Philadelphia, raised in New Jersey) Karen O (born 1978), lead singer of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs (born in South Korea, raised in Englewood) Christine O'Donnell (born 1969), 2010 Republican candidate for Senator of Delaware (Philadelphia, grew up in Moorestown) Brian O'Halloran (born 1969), actor in Kevin Smith's View Askewniverse (Manhattan, partly raised in Old Bridge) Shaun O'Hara (born 1977), former center for the Cleveland Browns and New York Giants (Chicago, grew up in Hillsborough Township) Rick Overton (born 1954), actor, comedian (Forest Hills, raised in Englewood) Kyle Palmieri (born 1991), hockey player (Smithtown, New York, grew up in Montvale) Scott Patterson (born 1958), actor, Gilmore Girls, The Event, Aliens in America (Philadelphia, raised in Haddonfield) Piper Perabo (born 1976), actress, Cheaper by the Dozen (Dallas, grew up in Toms River) Fernando Perez (born 1983), former Tampa Bay Rays outfielder, current San Francisco Giants coach Maxwell Perkins (1884–1947), editor for Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Thomas Wolfe (New York City, grew up in Plainfield) Clarke Peters (born 1952), actor, Det. Lester Freamon on The Wire (New York City, grew up in Englewood) Shaun Phillips (born 1981), outside linebacker for the San Diego Chargers (Philadelphia, raised in Willingboro Township) Maria Pitillo (born 1965), actress, Providence, Partners, Godzilla (Elmira, NY, raised in Mahwah) Carol Potter (born 1948), actress, Beverly Hills, 90210, Sunset Beach (New York City, grew up in Tenafly) Dwight Muhammad Qawi (born 1953), former world boxing champion and Boxing Hall of Famer (Baltimore, grew up in Camden) Becky Quick (born 1972), co-anchorwoman of CNBC's Squawk Box (born in Minneapolis, raised in Medford) Anna Quindlen (born 1953), author, journalist, and Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist (Philadelphia, graduated from South Brunswick High School in South Brunswick) B. J. Raji (born 1986), nose tackle for the Green Bay Packers (New York City, raised in Washington Township) Christopher Reeve (1952–2004), actor (New York City, grew up in Princeton) Shirley Alston-Reeves (born Shirley Owens, 1941), lead singer of The Shirelles (grew up in Passaic) Christina Ricci (born 1980), actress (Santa Monica, California, grew up in Montclair) Cameron Richardson (born 1979), actress and model, Cover Me, Point Pleasant, Alvin and the Chipmunks (Baton Rouge, Louisiana, raised in Old Bridge Township) Dennis Ritchie (1941–2011), computer scientist who created the C programming language and co-created Unix (Bronxville, NY, raised in Summit) Ian Roberts (born 1965), actor, comedian, Upright Citizens Brigade, Reno 911! (Queens, New York, raised in Secaucus) Michelle Rodriguez (born 1978), actress, Avatar, the Fast and the Furious movies, S.W.A.T. (Bexar County, Texas, partly raised in Jersey City) Julie Roginsky (born 1973), Democratic Party strategist and Fox News contributor (Moscow, Russia, partially raised in Plainsboro) Howie Roseman (born 1975), general manager for the Philadelphia Eagles (Brooklyn, raised in Marlboro) Jeffrey Rosen, billionaire businessman Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, astrochemist and author (Ithaca, New York, grew up in Rahway) Samardo Samuels (born 1989), player for the Cleveland Cavaliers (Trelawny, Jamaica, raised in Newark) Gabe Saporta (born 1979), singer and musician, currently for the pop rock band Cobra Starship (Montevideo, Uruguay, grew up in Springfield Township) Susan Sarandon (born 1946), actress (New York City, grew up in Edison) Jessica Savitch (1947–1983), television journalist (Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, partly raised in Margate City) Adam Schlesinger (1967–2020), musician (Fountains of Wayne), songwriter, producer, arranger (Manhattan, grew up in Montclair) Jon Seda (born 1970), actor, Homicide: Life on the Street, Kevin Hill, Close to Home (New York City, grew up in Clifton) Richie Scheinblum (1942–2021), Major League Baseball All Star outfielder (South Bronx, New York City, grew up in Englewood) Gene Shalit (born 1926), film critic of NBC's Today (New York City, raised in Morristown) Brooke Shields (born 1965), actress, Suddenly Susan (New York City, grew up in Englewood) Andrew Shue (born 1967), actor, Melrose Place (Wilmington, Delaware, raised in South Orange) Elisabeth Shue (born 1963), actress, Back to the Future Part II (Wilmington, Delaware, raised in South Orange) George P. Shultz (1920–2021). Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Director of the Office of Management and Budget, and Secretary of Labor (New York City, grew up in Englewood) Bryan Singer (born 1965), film director (New York City, grew up in Princeton Junction) Kiki Smith (born 1954), artist and sculptor; her father was the sculptor Tony Smith (born in West Germany, raised in South Orange from infancy to high school) Patti Smith (born 1946), rock musician (Chicago, grew up in Woodbury) David Smukler (1914–1971), NFL football player John Spencer (1946–2005), actor, The West Wing, L.A. Law, The Rock (New York City, grew up in Totowa) Steven Spielberg (born 1946), legendary Hollywood director and producer (Cincinnati, partly raised in Haddon Township) David Stern (1942–2020), NBA commissioner, member of the Basketball Hall of Fame (New York City, raised in Teaneck) Jon Stewart (born 1962), comedian, actor and television personality (New York City, grew up in Lawrence Township) SZA, real name Solana Rowe (born 1989), PBR&B singer-songwriter, signed to Top Dawg Entertainment (St. Louis, Missouri, raised in Maplewood) Jack Tatum (1948–2010), NFL safety primarily with the Oakland Raiders (Cherryville, North Carolina, grew up in Passaic) Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr. (born 1941), Nobel Prize-winning astrophysicist (Philadelphia, raised in Cinnaminson) Lance Thomas (born 1988), player for the New Orleans Hornets (Brooklyn, New York, raised in Scotch Plains) Roger Y. Tsien (1952–2016), Nobel Prize–winning biochemist (New York City, grew up in Livingston) Steven Van Zandt (born 1950), rock musician, actor, The Sopranos (Winthrop, Massachusetts, grew up in Middletown) Alan Veingrad (born 1963), NFL football player (Brooklyn, New York, grew up in Elizabeth) Bruce Vilanch (born 1948), comedy writer (New York City, raised in Paterson) Frank Vincent (1937–2017), actor (North Adams, Massachusetts, grew up in Jersey City) Voltaire (born 1967), musician (Havana, Cuba) Rodney Wallace (born 1981), mixed martial artist (Bamberg, South Carolina, raised in Passaic) Carl B. Weinberg, economist, founder of High Frequency Economics (Bronx, raised in Teaneck) John C. Whitehead (1922–2015), banker, civil servant, chairman of the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (Evanston, Illinois, raised in Montclair) Brian Williams (born 1959), disgraced anchor of NBC Nightly News (Elmira, New York, partly raised in Middletown) Bruce Willis (born 1955), actor (Idar-Oberstein, born in Germany, grew up in Penns Grove) Scott Wolf (born 1968), actor, Party of Five, Everwood, The Nine (Boston, raised in West Orange) Teresa Wright (1918–2005), Oscar-winning actress, The Best Years of Our Lives, The Pride of the Yankees (New York City, grew up in Maplewood) Born and raised elsewhere, live(d) in New Jersey Danny Aiello (born New York City), lived in Saddle River Alan Alda (born New York City), lives in Leonia Muhammad Ali (born Louisville, Kentucky), lived in Cherry Hill Paul Anka (born Ottawa, Ontario, Canada), lives in Tenafly AZ (born New York City), lives in Englewood Brian Baldinger (born Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), lives in Cherry Hill Jesse Barfield (born Joliet, Illinois), lives in Tenafly Yogi Berra (born St. Louis, Missouri), lived in Montclair George Benson (born Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), lives in Englewood Mary J. Blige (born New York City), lives in Cresskill Shmuley Boteach (born Los Angeles), lives in Englewood Andre Braugher (born Chicago, Illinois), lives in South Orange Jim Bunning (born Southgate, Kentucky), lives in Cherry Hill Jim Byrnes (born St. Louis, Missouri), lives in Allendale Harriet Frances Carpenter (born Lyons, Iowa), lived in Millington Harry Carson (born Florence, South Carolina), lives in Franklin Lakes Vince Carter (born Daytona Beach, Florida), lives in Saddle River Sarah Chang (born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), lives in Cherry Hill Connie Chung (born Washington, D.C.), lives in Middletown Mary Higgins Clark (born New York City), lives in Saddle River Bobby Clarke (born Flin Flon, Manitoba), lives in Cherry Hill Alon Cohen (born Israel), lives in Tenafly Stephen Colbert (born Charleston, South Carolina), lives in Montclair Sean Combs ("Diddy") (born New York City), lives in Alpine Lotta Crabtree (1847–1924), actress, comedian, philanthropist (born New York City), lived in Hopatcong Peter Criss (born Brooklyn, New York), lives in Wall Township Celia Cruz (born Havana, Cuba), lived in Fort Lee Johnny Damon (born Fort Riley, Kansas), lives in Ridgewood Damon Dash (born New York City), lives in Alpine Darryl Dawkins (born Orlando, Florida), lives in Marlboro Lou Dobbs (born Texas, lives in Wantage) Steve Doocy (born Algona, Iowa), lives in Wyckoff Thomas Edison (born Milan, Ohio), lived in Newark and West Orange Albert Einstein (born Ulm, Germany), lived in Princeton Halim El-Dabh (born Cairo, Egypt), lives in Cresskill Missy Elliott, real name Melissa Elliott (born Portsmouth, Virginia), lives in Kinnelon Jeff Feagles (born Anaheim, California), lives in Ridgewood Althea Gibson (born Clarendon County, South Carolina), lived in East Orange Lior Haramaty (born Israel), lives in Tenafly Bobby Hebb (born Nashville, Tennessee), lives in Cresskill Celeste Holm (1917–2012), Oscar-winning actress (born in Manhattan, lived in Long Valley) Sam Huff (born Morgantown, West Virginia), lives in Franklin Lakes Jay-Z (born New York City), lives in Alpine Tommy John (born Terre Haute, Indiana), lives in Franklin Lakes Michael Johns (born Allentown, Pennsylvania), lives in Deptford Jim Jones (born New York City), rapper, lives in Fair Lawn Zab Judah (born New York City), lives in Teaneck Kitty Kallen (born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), lives in Englewood Jevon Kearse (born Fort Myers, Florida), lives in Moorestown Jason Kidd (born San Francisco, California), lives in Saddle River Lil' Kim (born New York City), lives in Alpine Bernard King (born New York City), lives in Franklin Lakes Michael Landon (born Queens, New York City), lived in Collingswood Phoebe Laub (born New York City), lives in Teaneck Bettye LaVette (born Muskegon, Michigan), lives in West Orange Shulem Lemmer (born Borough Park, Brooklyn, New York City), lives in Toms River, singer Heather Locklear (born Westwood, Los Angeles), lives in Wayne Mario (born Baltimore, Maryland), lives in Teaneck Tino Martinez (born Tampa, Florida), lives in Tenafly Fred Mascherino (born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), lives in Union Don Mattingly (born Evansville, Indiana), lives in Tenafly Darryl "D.M.C." McDaniels (born New York City), lives in Wayne Bob McGrath (born Ottawa, Illinois), lives in Teaneck Donovan McNabb (born Chicago, Illinois), lives in Moorestown Bob Menne, born and lives in Demarest Eddie Murphy (born New York City), lives in Englewood Thomas Nast (1840–1902), caricaturist, editorial cartoonist (born in Kingdom of Bavaria, lived in Morristown) Clarence Charles Newcomer (1923–2005), US District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, lived in Stone Harbor Richard Milhous Nixon (born Yorba Linda, California), lived in Saddle River Edward Mosberg (1926-2022), Polish-American Holocaust survivor, educator, and philanthropist Tina Nordström (born Valluv, Skåne County in Sweden), lives in Englewood Cliffs Mehmet Oz (born Cleveland), lived in, and continues to maintain a presence in Cliffside Park, New Jersey, now lives in Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania. Randal Pinkett (born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), lives in Somerset Maury Povich (born Washington, D.C.), lives in Middletown Aidan Quinn (born Rockford, Illinois), lives in Englewood Willie Randolph (born Holly Hill, South Carolina), lives in Franklin Lakes William P. Richardson (1864–1945), co-founder and first Dean of Brooklyn Law School, lived in Morristown Geraldo Rivera (born New York City), lived in Middletown Sylvia Robinson (born New York City), lives in Englewood Chris Rock (born Andrews, South Carolina), lives in Alpine Jeremy Roenick (born Boston, Massachusetts), lives in Moorestown Jimmy Rollins (born Oakland, California), lives in Woolwich Township Ja Rule (born New York City), lives in Saddle River Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd (1891–1948), socialite, mistress of Franklin D. Roosevelt (born in Washington, DC, lived in Allamuchy) CC Sabathia (born Vallejo, California), lives in Alpine Tito Santana, professional wrestler, (born Mission, Texas), lives in Roxbury Gary Sheffield (born Tampa, Florida), lives in Alpine Lito Sheppard (born Jacksonville, Florida), lives in Moorestown Brooke Shields (born New York City), lives in Englewood Joseph Simmons (born New York City), lives in Saddle River Kimora Lee Simmons (born St. Louis, Missouri), lives in Saddle River Russell Simmons (born New York City), lives in Saddle River Phil Simms (born Lebanon, Kentucky), lives in Franklin Lakes T. O'Conor Sloane (1851–1940), scientist, inventor, author, editor, educator, and linguist (born New York City), lived in South Orange T. O'Conor Sloane Jr. (1879–1963), photographer (born Brooklyn), lived in South Orange Wesley Snipes (born Orlando, Florida), lives in Alpine Luis Sojo (born Miranda State, Venezuela), lives in Saddle Brook Paul Sorvino (born New York City), lived in Tenafly James "J.T." Taylor (born Laurens, South Carolina), lives in Franklin Lakes Mitch Williams (born Santa Ana, California), lives in Medford Woodrow Wilson (born Staunton, Virginia), 28th President of the United States, Governor of New Jersey, lived in Princeton Dave Winfield (born Saint Paul, Minnesota), lives in Teaneck Stevie Wonder (born Saginaw, Michigan), lives in Alpine Feng Yun (born Liaoning, China), lives in New Jersey Shou-Wu Zhang (born Hexian, Anhui, China), lives in Tenafly See also List of colonial governors of New Jersey List of governors of New Jersey List of New Jersey suffragists List of Kean University people List of Lawrenceville School alumni List of New Brunswick Theological Seminary people List of people from Englewood, New Jersey List of people from Hoboken, New Jersey List of people from Jersey City, New Jersey List of justices of the Supreme Court of New Jersey List of people from Montclair, New Jersey List of people from Newark, New Jersey List of people from South Orange, New Jersey List of people from Teaneck, New Jersey List of people from Union City, New Jersey List of Princeton University people List of Rutgers University people List of Upsala College people List of United States representatives from New Jersey List of United States senators from New Jersey Lists of Americans New Jersey Hall of Fame References
418891	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Iowa	List of people from Iowa	This is a list of notable people who were born in or closely associated with the American state of Iowa. People not born in Iowa are marked with §. A Dudley W. Adams, horticulturalist John T. Adams, former Republican committee head Julie Adams, actress Trev Alberts, football player Bess Streeter Aldrich, author James Allen, engineer Fran Allison, television personality William B. Allison, politician Betty Baxter Anderson, author Lew Anderson, actor Rudolph Martin Anderson, explorer Marc Andreessen, software engineer Pat Angerer, football player Cap Anson, baseball player Brynild Anundsen, publisher Appanoose, 19th-century Meskwaki chief Lloyd Appleton, Olympic freestyle wrestler Samuel Z. Arkoff, film producer Herbert W. Armstrong, religious leader Tom Arnold, actor Matthew Ashford, actor Winifred Asprey, mathematician John Vincent Atanasoff, § inventor Jim Aton, jazz musician, composer, singer Mike Ritland, Navy SEAL, Dog Trainer, Interviewer B John Babcock, Olympic freestyle wrestler Michele Bachmann, politician Oliver Baez Bendorf, poet Stan Bahnsen, baseball player John O. Bailey, judge Bil Baird, puppeteer Betsy Baker, actress Nathaniel B. Baker, politician Alvin Baldus, politician Charlie Bales, soccer player Brad Banks, athlete Hal C. Banks, labor leader Jill Banner, actress Antonine Barada, folk hero Roger Barkley, broadcaster Harrison Barnes, athlete Bob Barr, politician Douglas Barr, actor, writer, and director David Barrett, football player Steve Bartkowski, football player Robert Bartley, editor of The Wall Street Journal Clint Barton, fictional character Theodore J. Bauer, scientist Lansing Hoskins Beach, Army officer Bennett Bean, artist Carl L. Becker, historian Bix Beiderbecke, jazz musician William W. Belknap Brian Bell, musician Alfred S. Bennett, Army general and U.S. Secretary of War Duane Benson, athlete Matt Bentley, professional wrestler Christian Beranek, writer, actor, and producer Leo Beranek, acoustician Bill Bergan, coach Eddie Berlin, athlete Dan Bern, musician Jennie Iowa Berry, clubwoman S. Torriano Berry, film producer, writer, director Jay Berwanger, football player Stanley Biber, physician Greg Biekert, football player Leo Binz, § Roman Catholic archbishop Joe Bisenius, athlete Richard Pike Bissell, author Nate Bjorkgren, basketball coach Black Hawk, § Native American chief Casey Blake, baseball player Gordon Blake, military general Donald G. Bloesch, theologian Isabel Bloom, artist Scott Bloomquist, auto racer Mike Blouin, politician Lisa Bluder, coach Mike Boddicker, baseball player Bill Bogaard, politician Tommy Bolin, musician Norman Borlaug, agricultural scientist and Nobel Laureate Rob Borsellino, writer Ryan Bowen, athlete Thomas M. Bowen, politician Charles Bowers, cartoonist and comic actor Lara Flynn Boyle, actress Eleanor Hoyt Brainerd, author Glen Brand, Olympic freestyle wrestler Neville Brand, actor Terry Brands, Olympic freestyle wrestler, wrestling coach Tom Brands, Olympic freestyle wrestler, wrestling coach Terry E. Branstad, politician Aaron Brant, athlete Charles Wesley Brashares, Methodist bishop Titus Bronson, founder of Kalamazoo, Michigan Greg Brown, folk musician Mace Brown, athlete Shannon Brown, country music singer Bruce Brubaker, pianist, record producer Rob Bruggeman, athlete Bill Bryson, author Oliver E. Buckley, electrical engineer Matt Bullard, athlete Ambrose Burke, priest, college president Jerry Burke, musician Tim Burke, football coach Joseph A. A. Burnquist, politician Martin Burns, athlete Joe Burrow, Heisman Trophy winner Jim Burt, sportscaster Marion LeRoy Burton, college president Harlan J. Bushfield, politician Mike Butcher, baseball player Frank M. Byrne, politician Robert Byrne, author C Samuel Calvin, geologist Marjorie Cameron, actress and occultist Branden Campbell, bassist for Neon Trees Donald L. Campbell, chemist Macdonald Carey, actor Chris Carney, politician Wallace Carothers, chemist Allan Carpenter, author Sabin Carr, athlete Tommy Carroll, criminal Johnny Carson, television personality Jordan Carstens, athlete Louise Carver, actress Thomas Nixon Carver, economics professor Frank T. Cary, businessman Landon Cassill, auto racer Carrie Chapman Catt, suffragette Thomas Cech, chemist and Nobel Laureate Matt Chatham, football player The Cherry Sisters, vaudevillians Norton P. Chipman, politician, judge Tom Churchill, broadcaster Bernard A. Clarey, admiral Dallas Clark, § football player Laurel Blair Salton Clark, astronaut Rush Clark, politician Fred Clarke, baseball Hall of Famer Frederick G. Clausen, architect Jeff Clement, athlete Ron Clements, director and producer Scott Clemmensen, athlete Buffalo Bill Cody, Wild West showman Samuel Cody, aviator Harris Coggeshall, athlete Danielle Colby, reality TV personality King Cole, athlete Ada Langworthy Collier, poet, writer Chris Collins, hockey player Max Allan Collins, mystery writer Stephen Collins, actor Nick Collison, basketball player John W. Colloton, healthcare executive Steven Colloton, federal judge Martin Cone, college president Edwin H. Conger, diplomat Maurice Connolly, politician Paul Conrad, political cartoonist Ed Conroy, athlete George Cram Cook, author Marv Cook, football player Jack Coombs, athlete Eric Cooper, baseball umpire Barclay and Edwin Coppock, followers of John Brown Frank Cordaro, activist Sarah Corpstein, beauty queen John M. Corse, Army general Ernie Courtney, athlete Paul Coverdell, politician Thomas Jefferson Cowie, admiral Ryan Cownie, stand-up comedian Shawn Crahan, musician Roger Craig, football player Joe Crail, politician Coe I. Crawford, politician Francis X. Cretzmeyer, coach Joel Crisman, football player Jim Crotty, athlete Julee Cruise, singer and actress Frank Cuhel, athlete Mariclare Culver, political figure Henry J. B. Cummings, politician Billy Cundiff, athlete Jack Cunningham, screenwriter D Janet Dailey, author Bill Daily, actor Dick Dale, musician Muriel Frances Dana, actress Jack Daniels, politician Diane D'Aquila, actress Sarah Darling, musician Geof Darrow, artist Dana Davis, actress Barry Davis, Olympic freestyle wrestler Rebecca Fjelland Davis, author Stuart Davis, musician Laura Dawn, activist, singer-songwriter, director/producer Bud Day, war hero Walter Day, businessman Darren Daye, athlete Lee De Forest, inventor Jordan De Jong, athlete Henry Clay Dean, preacher, lawyer Don DeFore, actor W. Edwards Deming, statistician Don Denkinger, baseball umpire Dave Despain, sports journalist Adam Devine, actor Aubrey Devine, athlete Lester J. Dickinson, politician Justin Diercks, auto racer Charles Hall Dillon, politician, judge Thomas Disch, author James Dixon, orchestra conductor David M. Dobson, game creator Claire Dodd, actress Tim Dodd, YouTuber Grenville M. Dodge, railroad executive Ralph Edward Dodge, religious leader Angela Dohrmann, actress Ellen Dolan, actress Steve Doocy, television journalist Russell S. Doughten, filmmaker Nicholas Downs, actor Joel Dreessen, football player Kevin Dresser, collegiate wrestling head coach Leanna Field Driftmier, radio personality Bobby Driscoll, actor Fred Duesenberg, automobile manufacturer Randy Duncan, football player Francis John Dunn, religious leader Lloyd Dunn Samuel Grace Dunn, journalist Kenneth W. Durant, decorated sailor John Durbin, actor Tim Dwight, football player E Morgan Earp, Wild West lawman Warren Earp, brother of Wyatt Earp Abastenia St. Leger Eberle, sculptor Zales Ecton, politician Paul Eells, sportscaster Mamie Eisenhower, former First Lady of the United States Cal Eldred, athlete Jane Elliott, schoolteacher and activist James Ellison, actor Eugene Burton Ely, aviator Paul Emerick, International rugby player, and coach Hope Emerson, actress Michael Emerson, actor Femi Emiola, actress Norman A. Erbe, politician Joni Ernst, United States Senator for Iowa Jane Espenson, TV producer and writer Simon Estes, opera singer Linda Evans, political activist Frank F. Everest, general Barton Warren Evermann, ichthyologist F Randy Florke, writer/publisher of interior design book Urban Clarence "Red" Faber, baseball player Tom Fadden, actor Carole Farley, soprano singer Art Farmer, jazz musician Sharon Farrell, actress Terry Farrell, actress James Fee, photographer Victor Feguer, convicted murderer Chris Fehn, musician Margaret Feldner, university president Bob Feller, baseball player Mary Fels, philanthropist, suffragist, Georgist James Ferentz, football player Jeremy Ferguson, musician Susan Frances Nelson Ferree, journalist, activist, suffragist Susan Fessenden, activist, social reformer Al Feuerbach, track and field athlete Romaine Fielding, actor Margarita Fischer, actress Matt Fish, basketball player Freddie Fisher, musician Bill Fitch, basketball coach Joseph Fitz, naval veteran Bridget Flanery, actress John Flannagan, priest Jack Fleck, golfer Frank Jack Fletcher, admiral Robert Fletcher, costume designer Rich Folkers, baseball player Bradbury Foote, screenwriter Ben Foster, actor Jon Foster, musician Judith Ellen Foster, lawyer Farrah Franklin, singer William Frawley, actor John T. Frederick, scholar Tanna Frederick, actress Joan Freeman, actress Bruce French, actor George B. French, actor Joe Frisco, vaudeville performer Virgil Frye, actor, boxer G Dan Gable, Olympic freestyle wrestler, wrestling coach Jetseta Gage, kidnap victim Robert Gallery, football player George Horace Gallup, founder of Gallup Poll Viola Garfield, anthropologist Jim Garrison, lawyer, judge David Garst, farmer, seed manufacturer Roswell Garst, farmer, seed manufacturer Michael Gartner, journalist Joey Gase, NASCAR driver Harry Gaspar, baseball player James Lorraine Geddes, soldier John Getz, actor Dick Gibbs, basketball player Edward H. Gillette, politician Thomas Gilman, Olympic freestyle wrestler Owen Gingerich, astronomer Annabeth Gish, actress Salvatore Giunta, Congressional Medal of Honor recipient Fred Glade, baseball player Susan Glaspell, playwright Dan Goldie, tennis player Johnny Gosch, kidnap victim Frank Gotch, professional wrestler Al Gould, baseball player Rick Graf, football player Fred Grandy, actor, politician Chuck Grassley, Iowa senator Paul Gray, musician Dick Green, baseball player George Greene, Supreme Court justice Edna Griffin, civil rights activist James W. Grimes, Iowa governor and senator Dan Grimm, football player Harold R. Gross, politician Danai Gurira, actress Janet Guthrie, auto racer H Charlie Haden, musician Mike Haight, football player Leslie Hall, rapper Jack Halloran, composer Scot Halpin, musician Halston, fashion designer Adam Haluska, basketball player Andy Haman, professional bodybuilder Jack Hamilton, baseball player Milo Hamilton, baseball broadcaster Edward Hammatt, architect Ryan Hannam, football player Joel Hanrahan, baseball player Bob Hansen, basketball player James Hansen, professor Juanita Hansen, actress Niels Ebbesen Hansen, botanist Robert Hansen, convicted murderer Haldor Johan Hanson, hymn composer William L. Harding, former governor of Iowa Tom Harkin, Iowa senator Bob Harlan, pro football executive James Harlan, politician Graham Harman, professor Hill Harper, actor Frank Hatton, politician Tim Hauff, jazz musician Eva Lund Haugen, author James H. Hawley, Idaho politician Merle Hay, World War I soldier Frank Hayes, unionist Peter Hedges, writer Alan J. Heeger, Nobel Prize laureate in chemistry Jeremy Hellickson, baseball player Stephen P. Hempstead, former governor of Iowa John Hench, associate of Walt Disney David B. Henderson, politician, Speaker of the House Dorothy Hennessey, nun, activist Gwen Hennessey, nun, activist John Hennessy, religious leader Chad Hennings, football player William Peters Hepburn, Civil War officer, politician Francis J. Herron, Civil War general Daniel Hess, inventor Phil Hester, comic book artist James C. Hickman, actuary David Anthony Higgins, actor Steve Higgins, writer, comedian, actor, and announcer on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon Harriet Hilliard, actress David C. Hilmers, astronaut A. J. Hinch, baseball player, manager Kirk Hinrich, basketball player Herbert E. Hitchcock, South Dakota politician J.B.E. Hittle, decorated intelligence officer, author and writer Tami Hoag, novelist Terry Hoage, football player Thomas M. Hoenig, financier Bill Hoffer, baseball player Fred Hoiberg, basketball player, coach Judd Holdren, actor Ducky Holmes, baseball player Lizzie Holmes, educator, anarchist Elmer G. Homrighausen, theologian Herbert Hoover, 31st President of the United States Lou Henry Hoover, First Lady Harry Hopkins, presidential adviser Frank O. Horton, politician Austin Howard, football player Walter Howey, journalist Jerome Clarke Hunsaker, zeppelin authority Mary Beth Hurt, actress Toby Huss, actor Dick Hutcherson, auto racer Libbie Hyman, zoologist I Jim Inhofe, politician Inkpaduta, Native American chief Arnold J. Isbell, aviator J Jacob Jaacks, basketball player Fred Jackman, cinematographer Selmer Jackson, actor Kip Janvrin, athlete N. K. Jemisin, science fiction/fantasy author Frank Jenks, actor Dan Jennings, baseball player Roger Jepsen, politician Jake Johannsen, comedian Donald Johanos, symphony conductor Bryce Johnson, actor Dorothy M. Johnson, author Edwin S. Johnson, politician Georgann Johnson, actress Lulu Johnson, historian Nicholas Johnson, FCC commissioner Royal C. Johnson, politician Shawn Johnson, gymnast Zach Johnson, golfer Peter Jok, § basketball player Craig Jones, musician George Wallace Jones Gordon Jones, actor James Jones, football player Lolo Jones, athlete Kathryn Joosten, actress Joey Jordison, musician Duane Josephson, baseball player Patty Judge, politician Jerry Junkins, CEO of Texas Instruments K Nate Kaeding, football placekicker Danielle Kahle, figure skater Jacqui Kalin (born 1989), American-Israeli professional basketball player Aaron Kampman, football player MacKinlay Kantor, journalist, author Gail Karp, cantor Bradley Kasal, decorated U.S. Marine John A. Kasson, politician Hazel Keener, actress James M. Kelly, astronaut Percy R. Kelly, judge Keokuk, Sauk chief John H. Kemble, professor Charles Reuben Keyes, archaeologist Charles Rollin Keyes, geologist Hugh Kidder, decorated U.S. Marine Kerry Killinger, banker Angela Jia Kim, classical pianist Mitch King, football player Rebecca Ann King, 1974 Miss America Steve King, politician Dallas Kinney, journalist Nile Kinnick, football player James T. Kirk, fictional character Samuel J. Kirkwood, § governor, senator, U.S. Secretary of the Interior Philip J. Klass, UFO researcher Stephen Kline, artist Bradford Knapp, university president Corina Knoll, journalist Ruth Kobart, performer Matt Koch, baseball player Bonnie Koloc, singer Jon Koncak, basketball player Ted Kooser, poet Dan Koppen, football player Kyle Korver, basketball player Joseph Kosinski, commercial director Mitch Krebs, television journalist Gary Kroeger, actor Josh Kroeger, baseball player Matt Kroul, football player Ashton Kutcher, actor L Jerry Lacy, actor Perry Lafferty, television producer Doug La Follette, politician Raef LaFrentz, basketball player Roswell Lamson, Civil War officer Ann Landers, advice columnist The Lane Sisters, singers, actresses Harry Langdon, comedian Frank Lanning, actor Jeff Larish, baseball player Patty Larkin, singer Robert Larsen, founder and director of Des Moines Metro Opera and professor emeritus of music at Simpson College Alan Larson (born 1949), diplomat and ambassador Mauricio Lasansky, graphic artist Tomas Lasansky, visual artist Joe Laws, basketball player Elmer Layden, football player, coach Jim Leach, politician Cloris Leachman, actress Frederick Leadbetter, financier William Daniel Leahy, naval officer William P. Leahy, university president Frances Lee, actress Gerald Leeman, Olympic freestyle wrestler Laura Leighton, actress Josh Lenz, football player Aldo Leopold, environmentalist Amy Leslie, opera singer Alexander Levi, religious leader Jack Lewis, screenwriter John Lewis, labor leader Jon Lieber, baseball player Thurlow Lieurance, composer Joe Lillard, athlete Edward Lindberg, athlete Everett Franklin Lindquist, educator Everett Lindsay, football player Margaret Lindsay, actress Ron Livingston, actor Bob Locker, baseball player Al Lohman, radio personality Babe London, comedian Chuck Long, football player, coach Nia Long, § actress Mathias Loras, religious leader Tyler Lorenzen, football player Kevin Love, auto racer Phyllis Love, actress Herschel C. Loveless, governor Robert Lucas, politician Larry Lujack, radio personality Tiny Lund, auto racer Mike Lynch, cartoonist Raymond J. Lynch, judge Emmett Lynn, actor Sue Lyon, actress M Larry Mac Duff, football coach Archer MacMackin, film director Hanford MacNider, diplomat, U.S. Army general Cletus Madsen, religious leader Joe Magrane, baseball player Maryann Mahaffey, politician Ryan Mahaffey, football player Mahaska, Native American chief Dennis Mahony, 19th-century journalist Anna Malle, § adult film actress Jessie Wilson Manning, writer, lecturer Arabella Mansfield, lawyer Stuart Margolin, actor Beth Marion, actress Glenn Martin, aviator Bernard Masterson, athlete Jerry Mathers, actor James Matheson, composer David Maxwell, university president Elsa Maxwell, columnist Marilyn Maxwell, actress Jesse May, poker professional Wiley Mayne, politician F. L. Maytag, founder of Maytag corporation Rita McBride, sculptor C. W. McCall, singer and politician Dan McCarney, football coach The McCaughey septuplets Tim McClelland, baseball umpire Al McCoy, announcer Greg McDermott, basketball coach William John McGee, geologist George McGill, politician Charles McGraw, actor Keli McGregor, baseball executive Pat McLaughlin, singer Sean McLaughlin, meteorologist William H. McMaster, former governor of South Dakota Cal McVey, baseball player Stu Mead, painter Carl Meinberg, priest John Melcher, former senator of Montana Michael Joseph Melloy, judge Denis Menke, baseball player Sebastian Menke, priest William Menster, priest Iris Meredith, actress Frank Merriam, former governor of California Russel Merrill, aviator Samuel Merrill, former governor of Iowa Nancy Metcalf, volleyball player Bernard F. Meyer, missionary Loren Meyer, basketball player Julia Michaels, singer-songwriter Brandon Middleton, football player Pat Miletich, MMA fighter, member of the UFC Hall of Fame Hugh Millen, football player Glenn Miller, musician, bandleader, World War II officer Samuel Freeman Miller, Supreme Court justice Robert Millikan, physicist Jason Momoa, § actor Ted Monachino, football coach Michelle Monaghan, actress Jordan Monroe, model Constance Moore, actress Frank A. Moore, judge Hap Moran, football player Peggy Moran, actress Karen Morley, actress Carol Morris, Miss Universe 1956 Mike Morris, football player Phil Morris, actor Allie Morrison, Olympic freestyle wrestler Honoré Willsie Morrow, author, editor Karen Morrow, actress John Mosher, jazz musician and composer Michael Mosley, actor Dow Mossman, writer John Mott, YMCA leader, Nobel Prize winner Marvin Mottet, priest Kate Mulgrew, actress Richard L. Murphy, former Iowa senator Charles Murray, political scientist Brandon Myers, football player Virginia A. Myers, inventor N Nancy Naeve, television journalist Conrad Nagel, actor Neapope, Sauk leader Sharon Needles, drag performer Brad Nelson, baseball player George Nelson, NASA astronaut Harriet Nelson, actress, television personality Larry Nemmers, football official Carman A. Newcomb, politician Jim Nicholson, politician Bruce Nissen, professor Ken Nordine, voice-over artist Lance Norris, actor Bill Northey, politician Robert Noyce, inventor Michael Nunn, boxer Nick Nurse, basketball head coach O Randi Oakes, actress, fashion model Dick Oatts, musician Wes Obermueller, baseball player Patrick O'Bryant, basketball player Brian O'Connor, § baseball coach Dennis O'Keefe, actor Gerald Francis O'Keefe, religious leader Bob Oldis, baseball player, coach, scout George Olmsted, military officer Eric Christian Olsen, actor Zoe Ann Olsen-Jensen, Olympic diver James Bradley Orman, former governor of Colorado Kay A. Orr, former governor of Nebraska Kyle Orton, football player Charles Osborne, "hiccup" man Vivienne Osborne, actress Beverley Owen, actress P Stephen Paddock, mass murderer Daniel David Palmer, chiropractic medicine pioneer Francis W. Palmer, publisher Rose Marie Pangborn, scientist Oran Pape, law enforcement officer Ralph Parcaut, professional wrestler Sara Paretsky, novelist Charles Fox Parham, evangelist Anthony Parker, basketball player Clair Cameron Patterson, geochemist Neva Patterson, actress Allen E. Paulson, thoroughbred breeder Bryce Paup, football player Claude Payton, actor Maria Pearson, Dakota activist Sally Pederson, former lieutenant governor Paul Peek, politician Mary Beth Peil, actress Nat Pendleton, athlete, actor Arthur D. Pennington, baseball player Tom Pepper, computer programmer Don Perkins, football player Edwin Perkins, inventor Roger Perry, actor Pete Peterson, combat pilot, ambassador Roger Peterson, pilot Joseph M. Petrick, screenwriter Lori Petty, actress James Philbrook, actor John Robinson Pierce, engineer Mark Pinter, actor Chris Pirillo, video host, blogger Ed Podolak, football player Carl Pohlad, financier, Minnesota Twins owner George Pomutz, Civil War general Maddie Poppe, musician and winner of American Idol season 16 Scott Pose, baseball player Dante Powell, stand-up comedian Gordon Prange, historian Beatrice Prentice, actress Hiram Price, railroad president, politician Richard Proenneke, naturalist Stanley Prusiner, neurologist, biochemist Tom Purtzer, golfer Q Quashquame, Sauk chief John Herbert Quick, author Howard 'Howdy' Quicksell, musician Linnea Quigley, actress R David Rabe, playwright Frances Rafferty, actress Max Rafferty, writer, politician John F. Rague, architect Randy Rahe, basketball coach Josh Rand, musician Robert D. Ray, governor of Iowa (1969–1983) who served several consecutive terms Harry Reasoner, television journalist David Reed, football player Donna Reed, actress Dani Reeves, Miss Iowa 2007 George Reeves, actor Allen Reisner, football player George C. Remey, Civil War admiral Walter E. Reno, World War II naval officer Kevin Rhomberg, baseball player Alfred C. Richmond, admiral Doug Riesenberg, football player William H. Riker, political scientist Bill Riley Sr., entertainer Chad Rinehart, football player The Ringling brothers, circus moguls Clifford Roberts, chairman of Masters golf tournament James B. A. Robertson, judge, Governor of Oklahoma Billy Robinson, aviator Shawna Robinson, auto racer Reggie Roby, football player Otto Frederick Rohwedder, inventor Seth Rollins, WWE professional wrestler Christine Romans, television journalist James Root, musician Jim Root, musician Raymond Roseliep, poet Sage Rosenfels, football player Joseph Rosenfield, lawyer Lawrence Sullivan Ross, Civil War general, governor of Texas Brandon Routh, actor Coleen Rowley, FBI agent, politician J. Craig Ruby, basketball coach Nate Ruess, singer Alexander Rummler, painter Nicholas J. Rusch, Civil War officer, politician Arthur Russell, musician Charles Edward Russell, journalist Lillian Russell, actress Paul Rust, comedian George Ryan, former governor of Illinois S George Saling, athlete Mark Salter, political speechwriter Josh Samman, mixed martial artist Ezekiel S. Sampson, Civil War officer, politician Cael Sanderson, § Olympic freestyle wrestler, wrestling coach Tyler Sash, football player Sauganash, fur trader A. J. Schable, football player Daniel Schaefer, politician Peter Schickele, parodist Ron Schipper, football coach Aloysius Schmitt, Navy chaplain Ernest B. Schoedsack, filmmaker Robert H. Schuller, religious leader Aloysius Schulte, college president Dick Schultz, NCAA and US Olympic Committee executive Jean Seberg, actress Brad Seely, football coach Edward Robert Sellstrom, pilot Phil Shafer, auto racer William Shannahan, priest Harrison Sheckler, pianist Kenny Shedd, football player Kate Shelley, railroad official Gene Sherman, sportscaster Randy Shilts, journalist Paul Shorey, scholar Loren Shriver, astronaut Lee Paul Sieg, university president Hal Skelly, actor Bill Smith, § Olympic freestyle wrestler Brian Smith, photographer Gerald W. Smith, author Hiram Y. Smith, politician Jerry Smith, golfer Mary Louise Smith, politician Neal Smith, politician Riley Smith, actor Virginia Smith, politician Warren Allen Smith, gay rights advocate Clement Smyth, religious leader William Smyth, politician Neta Snook, aviator Jamie Solinger, Miss Teen USA Harvey Sollberger, composer Phyllis Somerville, actress Hartzell Spence, military journalist Tracie Spencer, singer Kirk Speraw, basketball coach Darren Sproles, football player Josh Stamer, football player Edwin O. Stanard, politician Denise Stapley, Survivor champion, therapist Bradley Steffens, author William G. Steiner, child advocate Mark Steines, television personality Keith H. Steinkraus, food scientist Frank Steunenberg, Idaho governor Bill Stewart, jazz musician George F. Stewart, food scientist Kiah Stokes, basketball player George Stone (1876–1945), Major League Baseball left fielder; 1906 American League batting champion Ramo Stott, auto racer Terry Stotts, basketball coach George L. Stout, art historian, "Monuments Man" Russell Stover, candy manufacturer Alvin Straight, lawn-mower rider Chris Street, basketball player Jeff Streeter, auto racer Stephen Stucker, actor Bob Stull, football player Scott Swisher, legislator The Sullivan Brothers, combat veterans Billy Sunday, baseball player, evangelist Roderick Dhu Sutherland, politician Al Swearengen, Wild West saloonkeeper Ryan Sweeney, baseball player Quinn Sypniewski, football player Brett Szabo, basketball player T Joseph Taggart, politician Taimah, Native American chief Michael Talbott, actor Kevin Tapani, baseball player Lawrie Tatum, U.S. "Indian Agent" Corey Taylor, musician Morgan Taylor, athlete Richard R. Taylor, Surgeon-General of the U.S. Army Sara Taylor, political public-relations professional Ashley Tesoro, actress, singer Kenneth W. Thompson, academic Sada Thompson, actress William Thompson, politician William George Thompson, politician Mick Thomson, musician Adam Timmerman, football player Matt Tobin, football player John Tomkins, criminal Alice Bellvadore Sams Turner, physician, writer U James Ulmer, journalist Jarrod Uthoff, basketball player Sarah Utterback, actress V James Van Allen, scientist Mike Van Arsdale, MMA fighter, wrestler Dennis Van Roekel, labor leader Carl Van Vechten, writer, photographer Kyle Vanden Bosch, athlete Bob Vander Plaats, politician, activist Julian Vandervelde, athlete William Vandever, politician Oswald Veblen, mathematician Ross Verba, athlete Michelle Vieth, actress Zach Villa, actor, singer Phil Vischer, animator Krista Voda, sportscaster Nedra Volz, actress W Michael Wacha (born 1991), baseball player for the San Diego Padres John Henry Waddell, painter and sculptor Hynden Walch, actress Nellie Walker, sculptor Joseph Frazier Wall, historian Henry A. Wallace, politician and presidential candidate Marcia Wallace, actress Will Walling, actor Adam Walsh, football player and coach Chile Walsh, football player, coach, and executive Mark Walter, financier, chairman of Los Angeles Dodgers Rick Wanamaker, track and field athlete and basketball player Brian Wansink, scientist and professor Dedric Ward, football player, coach Everett Warner, painter and printmaker Kurt Warner (born 1971), football quarterback in the NFL Fitz Henry Warren, politician, Civil War general Kiersten Warren, actress Pierre Watkin, actor Watseka (c. 1810–1878), Native Iowan James F. Watson, judge Tony Watson (born 1985), pitcher in MLB John Wayne, actor James B. Weaver, politician Randy Weaver, survivalist involved in Ruby Ridge incident Irving Weber, businessman Joseph Welch, attorney Elmarie Wendel, actress Susan Werner, singer-songwriter Emily West, singer-songwriter Brooks Wheelan, actor, comedian Matthew Whitaker, district attorney John White, labor leader, president of the United Mine Workers Jim Whitesell, college basketball coach Peggy Whitson, astronaut, scientist Casey Wiegmann, football player in the NFL Doreen Wilber, archer Tom Wilkinson, football player Andy Williams, singer Gregory Alan Williams, actor, author Roy Lee Williams, labor leader William Appleman Williams, historian William Williamson, politician Meredith Willson, composer James Falconer Wilson, politician JoAnn Wilson, murdered wife of Canadian politician Mortimer Wilson, composer Sid Wilson, disc jockey Wally Wingert, actor Keaton Winn (born 1998), pitcher for the San Francisco Giants Charles E. Winter, politician Sidney G. Winter (born 1935), economist Johannes B. Wist, journalist, editor William P. Wolf, politician Elijah Wood (born 1981), actor Grant Wood, painter Joey Woody, athlete Hank Worden, actor Carleton H. Wright, U.S. Navy admiral Frank Wykoff, Olympic champion athlete Y Marshal Yanda, athlete Harry E. Yarnell, U.S. Navy admiral David Yost, actor and producer Ed Yost, inventor Jessie Young, radio host Nancy Youngblut, actor Z Luke Zeller, basketball player Maurice Zimm, writer for screen and radio Larry Zox, painter and printmaker See also List of Iowa Hawkeyes football honorees List of Iowa State University people List of Iowa suffragists References
418892	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20South%20Carolina	List of people from South Carolina	The following is a list of prominent people who were born in the U.S. state of South Carolina, lived in South Carolina, or for whom South Carolina is a significant part of their identity. A–B John Abraham (born 1978), born in Timmonsville; NFL defensive end for the Arizona Cardinals Rick Adair (born 1958), born in Spartanburg; pitching coach for the Baltimore Orioles Kimberly Aiken (born 1975), born in Columbia; Miss America 1994 Jaimie Alexander (born 1984), born in Greenville; actress, Kyle XY, Blindspot, the Thor movies Ray Allen (born 1975), lived in Dalzell; NBA star for the Miami Heat Bill Anderson (born 1937), born in Columbia; country music singer and songwriter, nicknamed "Whisperin' Bill" Ike Anderson (born 1957), born in Columbia; Greco-Roman wrestler who competed at 1988 Summer Olympics Olanda Anderson (born 1972), born in Sumter; former boxer, member of the 2000 United States Olympics team Aziz Ansari (born 1983), born in Columbia; actor and comedian Norman C. Armitage (1907–1972), Olympic medalist saber fencer Robert Ayers (born 1985), raised in Clio; defensive end for the New York Giants Annie Maria Barnes (1857 – unknown), born in Columbia; journalist, editor, and author Alex Barron (born 1982), born in Orangeburg; left tackle for the Dallas Cowboys Frances Elizabeth Barrow (1822–1894), born in Charleston; children's writer Bernard Baruch (1870–1965), born in Camden; financier, philanthropist, statesman, and adviser to President Woodrow Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt Tyler Bass (born 1997), from Columbia; kicker for the Buffalo Bills Samuel Beam (born 1974), born in Columbia; singer-songwriter under the stage name Iron & Wine Paul Benjamin (1938–2019), born in Pelion; actor Shelton Benjamin (born 1976), from Orangeburg; professional wrestler and former amateur wrestler Charles Dantonja Bennett (born 1983), born in Camden; football player for Clemson University and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Ben Bernanke (born 1953), graduated from high school in Dillon in 1971, former chairman of the Federal Reserve The Big Show (born Paul Donald Wight), professional wrestler and actor, born in Aiken Blue Sky (born 1938), born in Columbia and lived there for the majority of his life, painter and sculptor Alfred W. Bethea (1916–1999), former member of the South Carolina House of Representatives from Dillon; the 1970 gubernatorial nominee of the American Independent Party Mary McLeod Bethune (1875–1955), from Mayesville; civil rights leader and groundbreaking educator Doc Blanchard (1924–2009), born in McColl, raised in Bishopville; college football player who became the first ever junior to win the Heisman Trophy Charles F. Bolden Jr. (born 1946), born in Columbia; NASA astronaut, United States Marine Corps major general, administrator of NASA James Butler Bonham (1807–1836), from Red Bank (now Saluda); lawyer, soldier, and defender of the Alamo Chadwick Boseman (1976–2020), born in Anderson; actor, known for his role as Black Panther in Captain America: Civil War and in the 2018 film of the same name Peter Boulware (born 1974), born in Columbia; former linebacker for the Baltimore Ravens Zackary Bowman (born 1984), born in Columbia; cornerback for the Chicago Bears Jarrell Brantley (born 1996), basketball player Rick Brewer, former administrator at Charleston Southern University in North Charleston, and current president of Louisiana College in Pineville, Louisiana Lee Brice (born 1980), born in Sumter; country artist, co-wrote the Garth Brooks song More Than a Memory Danielle Brooks (born 1989), raised in Simpsonville; actress Preston Brooks (1819-1857), born in Edgefield; advocate of slavery and states' rights before the American Civil War Robert Brooks (born 1970), born in Greenwood; former wide receiver for the Green Bay Packers and the Denver Broncos J. Anthony Brown, born in Columbia; actor, comedian and radio personality James Brown (1933–2006), born in Barnwell; singer, songwriter, musician, and recording artist dubbed the "godfather of soul" Kwame Brown (born 1982), born in Charleston; center for the Golden State Warriors Omar Brown (born 1988), born in Moncks Corner; free safety for the Baltimore Ravens Sheldon Brown (born 1979), born in Lancaster; cornerback for the Cleveland Browns Martavis Bryant (born 1991), born in Calhoun Falls; wide receiver for the Pittsburgh Steelers Peabo Bryson (born 1951), born in Greenville; R&B singer-songwriter Jared Burton (born 1981), born in Westminster; relief pitcher for the Minnesota Twins Rafael Bush (born 1987), born in Williston; safety for the New Orleans Saints James F. Byrnes (1882–1972), born in Charleston; U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, Justice of the Supreme Court, Secretary of State, and 104th governor of South Carolina. C–D Pat Caddell (1950–2019), born in Rock Hill; public opinion pollster, political film consultant Tommy Caldwell (1949–1980), born in Spartanburg; bassist for the Marshall Tucker Band Toy Caldwell (1947–1993), born in Spartanburg; lead guitarist and vocalist for the Marshall Tucker Band Floride Calhoun (1792–1866), born in Charleston; Second Lady of the United States John Caldwell Calhoun (1782–1850), born in Abbeville County; U.S. Senator, Secretary of State, Secretary of War, and the 7th Vice-President of the U.S. Anna Camp (born 1982), born in Aiken; actress, The Help Carroll A. Campbell Jr. (1940–2005), born in Greenville; South Carolina Governor and U.S. Congressman John Tucker Campbell (1912–1991), born in Calhoun Falls; Secretary of State 1978–1991, Mayor of Columbia 1970–1978, city councilman, drugstore owner Marion Campbell (1929–2016), born in Chester; NFL defensive lineman and head coach Shane Carruth (born 1972), born in Myrtle Beach; filmmaker Harry Carson (born 1953), born in Florence; football player, inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame 2006 Wilson Casey (born 1954), born in Woodruff; "Trivia" Guinness World Record holder, nationally syndicated trivia newspaper columnist Chandler Catanzaro (born 1991), born in Greenville; placekicker for the Arizona Cardinals Charlamagne Tha God (born 1980), born in Moncks Corner; radio and TV personality Essie B. Cheesborough (1826-1905), born in Charleston; writer Chubby Checker (born 1941 as Ernest Evans), born in Spring Gulley (Andrews); singer Alice Childress (1920–1994), born in Charleston; playwright who wrote about the struggles of poverty and racism Kelsey Chow (born 1991), born and raised in Columbia; actress Jim Clyburn (born 1940), born in Sumter; U.S. congressman Dave Cockrum (1943–2006), died in Belton; comic book artist Landon Cohen (born 1986), born in Spartanburg; defensive tackle for the Seattle Seahawks Stephen Colbert (born 1964), born in Washington, D.C. but grew up in Charleston; comedian, anchor, political analyst, television personality, former host of The Colbert Report and current host of the television show The Late Show with Stephen Colbert Catherine Coleman (born 1960), born in Charleston; chemist, former U.S. Air Force officer, current NASA astronaut Monique Coleman (born 1980), born in Orangeburg; actress Mike Colter (born 1976), born in Columbia, raised in St. Matthews; actor, Ringer O'Neal Compton (1951–2019), born in Sumter; character actor Pat Conroy (1945–2016), grew up in Beaufort, attended Beaufort High School and The Citadel; novelist Angell Conwell (born 1983), born in Orangeburg and raised in Columbia; actress Tyrone Corbin (born 1962), born in Columbia; NBA player and coach James S. Cothran (1830–1897), born in Abbeville County; U.S. House of Representatives for South Carolina's 3rd congressional district Torrey Craig (born 1990), born in Columbia; NBA player Charles Craven (1682–1754); governor of colonial South Carolina during the Tuscarora War and Yamasee War Shawn Crawford (born 1978), born in Van Wyck; gold medalist in 2004 Athens Olympics 200 meters, silver in 2008 Beijing Olympics Madelyn Cline (born 1997), born in Goose Creek; actress Robert Houston Curry (1842–1892), born near Winnsboro; member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Bossier Parish, wounded Confederate Army veteran at Second Battle of Manassas Esther Dale (1885–1961), born in Beaufort; actress Beth Daniel (born 1956), born in Charleston; golfer, member of World Golf Hall of Fame George B. Daniels (born 1953), born in Allendale; federal judge Gary Davis (1896–1972), born in Clinton; blues and gospel songwriter and innovative guitarist Kristin Davis (born 1965), early in her childhood, she and her parents moved to Columbia; actress known for role as Charlotte York in Sex and the City Mary Elizabeth Moragne Davis (1815–1903), born in Oakwood, Abbeville District; diarist and author Mendel Jackson Davis (1942–2007), born in North Charleston; United States Representative from South Carolina Richard C. Davis (born 1963), from Charleston; real estate broker and television personality Viola Davis (born 1965), born in St. Matthews; actress, The Help Katon Dawson (born 1956), born in Columbia; former chairman of the South Carolina Republican Party Manish Dayal (born 1983), born in Orangeburg; actor, 90210 Robert C. De Large (1842–1874), born in Aiken; member of United States House of Representatives from South Carolina Will Demps (born 1963), born in Charleston; football safety for the Baltimore Ravens and others Andy Dick (born 1965), born in Charleston; actor and comedian best known for his roles on sitcoms James Dickey (1923–1997); professor at University of South Carolina at Columbia, poet and novelist Samuel Henry Dickson (1798–1872), born in Charleston; poet, physician, writer and educator Anna Peyre Dinnies (1805–1886), born in Georgetown; poet and writer Julius Dixson (1913–2004), born in Barnwell; songwriter and record company executive Larry Doby (1923–2003), born in Camden; baseball player in Negro leagues and Major League Baseball, first black player in American League, later manager of Chicago White Sox, Hall of Fame inductee Stanley Donen (1924–2019), born in Columbia; film director and choreographer Ulysses Dove (1947–1996), born in Columbia; choreographer David Drake (c.1800–c.1870s), from Edgefield; potter Steven Duggar (born 1993), born in Spartanburg and raised in Moore; baseball player for the San Francisco Giants Charles Duke (born 1935), raised in Lancaster; engineer, retired U.S. Air Force officer, test pilot, former astronaut Watson B. Duncan III (1915–1991), born in Charleston; college professor William Wallace Duncan (1839–1908), died in Spartanburg; bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South Justin Durant (born 1985), born in Florence; linebacker for the Atlanta Falcons E–F Ainsley Earhardt (born 1976), grew up in Columbia, correspondent for Fox News John B. Earle (1766–1836), died in Anderson County, U.S. Representative from South Carolina Samuel Earle (1760–1833), died in Pendleton District, United States Representative from South Carolina Marian Wright Edelman (born 1939), born in Bennettsville, activist for the rights of children Armanti Edwards (born 1988), born in Greenwood, Pro football player for the Carolina Panthers and Cleveland Browns Carl Edwards Jr. (born 1991), born in Prosperity, relief pitcher for the Chicago Cubs Eddie Edwards (born 1954), born in Sumter, former defensive end for the Cincinnati Bengals football team John Edwards (born 1953), born in Seneca, former U.S. Senator from North Carolina (1999–2005), 2004 Democratic nominee for Vice President under John Kerry Leslie Jean Egnot (born 1963), born in Greenville, Olympic yachtswoman for New Zealand Frederick J. Eikerenkoetter II, Reverend Ike (1935–2009), born in Ridgeland, minister and electronic evangelist Andre Ellington (born 1989), born in Moncks Corner, running back for the Arizona Cardinals Bruce Ellington (born 1991), born in Moncks Corner, wide receiver for the San Francisco 49ers Shaun Ellis (born 1977), born in Anderson, defensive end for the New England Patriots football team Lilian Ellison (1923–2007), born in Kershaw County, female professional wrestler better known as the Fabulous Moolah Edward C. Elmore (1826–1873), born in Columbia, Treasurer of the Confederate States of America Frank Emanuel (born 1942), born in Clio, former football linebacker for Miami Dolphins and the New Orleans Saints Alex English (born 1954), born in Columbia, basketball player, member of the Basketball Hall of Fame Joe Arnold Erwin (born 1956), born in Florence, entrepreneur and politician, former chairman of the South Carolina Democratic Party Esquerita (1935–1986), born in Greenville, singer, songwriter and pianist, original name Eskew Reeder Jr. Leomont Evans (born 1974), born in Abbeville, former American football safety in the National Football League for the Washington Redskins Ralph B. Everett (born 1951), born in Orangeburg, lobbyist and political staffer Richard Evonitz (1963–2002), born in Columbia, serial killer Shepard Fairey (born 1970), born in Charleston, artist who created the Barack Obama "Hope" poster James Farrow (1827–1892), born in Laurens, politician in Confederate Congress, elected to U.S. House of Representatives William G. Farrow (1918–1942), born in Darlington, captured and executed by the Japanese military following the Doolittle Raid Shannon Faulkner (born 1975), born in Powdersville, the first female cadet to enter The Citadel Charles Fernley Fawcett (1915–2008), grew up in Greenville, co-founder of the International Medical Corps Raymond Felton (born 1984), born in Marion, professional basketball player Eugene Figg (1936–2002), born in Charleston, structural engineer who made numerous contributions to the field of structural engineering David E. Finley Jr. (1890–1977), born in York, art executive, first director of the National Gallery of Art, founding chairman of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and chairman of the United States Commission of Fine Arts Kirkman George Finlay (1877–1938), born in Greenville, first bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Upper South Carolina Michael Flessas (born 1959), attended college and lived in South Carolina, actor, best known for his role in the film Dancer in the Dark Tyler Florence (born 1971), born in Greenville, television chef Rickey Foggie (born 1966), born in Laurens, former quarterback in the Canadian Football League and the Arena Football League James Dudley Fooshe (1844–1940), born in Abbeville District (now Greenwood County), soldier, author, farmer, philosopher, and Methodist churchman Joe Frazier (1944–2011), born in Beaufort, boxer, 1964 Olympic heavyweight champion and the world heavyweight champ 1970–73 Nancy Friday (1933–2017), grew up in Charleston, author, specializing in topics of female sexuality and liberation Pearl Fryar (born 1940), topiary artist living in Bishopville Steven Furtick (born 1980) born in Moncks Corner, founder and lead pastor of Elevation Church G–I Samkon Gado (born 1982), attended Ben Lippen High School in Columbia, running back in the National Football League David du Bose Gaillard (1859–1913), born in Manning, U.S. Army engineer instrumental in the construction of the Panama Canal John Gaillard (1765–1826), born in St. Stephen's district, U.S. Senator Brett Gardner (born 1983), born in Holly Hill, left fielder for the New York Yankees Kevin Garnett (born 1976), born in Mauldin, retired professional basketball player for the Minnesota Timberwolves, Boston Celtics, and Brooklyn Nets Leeza Gibbons (born 1957), born in Hartsville, talk show host of Entertainment Tonight and other Hollywood news shows Althea Gibson (1927–2003), born in Silver, Clarendon County, first African-American player to win Wimbledon and U.S. National tennis championships Thomas Gibson (born 1962), born in Charleston, actor, Criminal Minds William Gibson (born 1948), born in Conway, author, credited as the father of the Cyberpunk genre of science fiction Dizzy Gillespie (1917–1993), born in Cheraw, African-American jazz trumpeter, bandleader, singer and composer Stephon Gilmore (born 1990), born in Rock Hill, cornerback for the New England Patriots Gordon Glisson (1930–1997), born in Winnsboro, thoroughbred horse racing jockey Candice Glover (born 1989), born in Beaufort, American Idol (season 12) winner Joseph L. Goldstein (born 1940), born in Kingstree, Nobel Prize-winning biochemist and geneticist André Goodman (born 1978), born in Greenville, cornerback for the Denver Broncos A. J. Green (born 1988), born in Summerville, wide receiver for the Cincinnati Bengals Zack Godley (born 1990), born in Bamberg, starting pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks Malliciah Goodman (born 1990), born in Florence, defensive end for the Atlanta Falcons B. J. Goodson (born 1993), born in Lamar, linebacker for the New York Giants Jonathan Goodwin (born 1978), born in Columbia, offensive lineman in the National Football League K. Lee Graham (born 1997), from Chapin, won the Miss Teen USA 2014 pageant Lindsey Graham (born 1955), from Central, politician, lawyer, long-time South Carolina Senator since 2003, and unsuccessful 2016 presidential candidate Boyce Green (born 1960), born in Beaufort, former running back in the National Football League Chad Green (born 1991), born in Greenville, relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Alvin Greene (born 1977), born in Florence, 2010 Democratic nominee for United States Senator Maxcy Gregg (1814–1862), born in Columbia, lawyer, and brigadier general in the Confederate States Army Fred Griffith (born 1964), born in Spartanburg, actor and producer James Grimsley Jr. (1921–2013), born in Florence, major general U.S. Army and president of The Citadel Michael Hackett (born 1960), basketball player, Liga Profesional de Baloncesto MVP in 1984, and Israeli League Top Scorer in 1991 Johnson Hagood (1828–1898), Confederate general and governor of South Carolina Nikki Haley (born 1972), born and raised in Bamberg, Indian-American politician, former Governor of South Carolina (2010–2017), and United States Ambassador to the United Nations since 2017 Trevor Hall (born 1986), from Hilton Head, musician Jakar Hamilton (born 1989), from Johnston, safety for the Dallas Cowboys Michael Hamlin (born 1985), from Lamar, safety for the Jacksonville Jaguars Jason Hammel (born 1982), from Greenville, starting pitcher for the Kansas City Royals James Henry Hammond (1807–1864), US congressman, senator and governor of South Carolina Shanola Hampton (born 1977), from Charleston, actress, on Showtime series Shameless Wade Hampton I (1752–1835), U.S. Congressman from South Carolina, born in Virginia Wade Hampton II (1791–1858), born in Columbia, plantation owner and soldier Wade Hampton III (1818–1902), born in Charleston, Confederate general, governor, United States Senator Ken "The Hawk" Harrelson (born 1941), born in Woodruff, television broadcast announcer for the Chicago White Sox Albert Haynesworth (born 1981), from Hartsville, defensive tackle for the Tennessee Titans Matt Hazel (born 1992), from North Augusta, wide receiver for the Miami Dolphins Josh Head, from Rock Hill, rhythm guitarist for the band Emery Heath Hembree (born 1989), from Cowpens, relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox DuBose Heyward (1885–1940), born in Charleston, playwright and poet, wrote the novel "Porgy" and its stage incarnations "Porgy" and "Porgy and Bess" Thomas Heyward Jr. (1746–1809), signer of the Declaration of Independence Jordan Hill (born 1987), from Newberry, National Basketball Association player Lauren Michelle Hill (born 1979), from Columbia, model, actress, Playboy Playmate Thomas Hitchcock Jr. (1900–1944), polo player Vonnie Holliday (born 1975), from Camden, defensive lineman for the Washington Redskins Chris Hope (born 1980), from Rock Hill, safety for the Atlanta Falcons Bo Hopkins (1942–2022), from Greenville, actor DeAndre Hopkins (born 1992), from Central, South Carolina, NFL wide receiver Corinne Stocker Horton (1871–1947), born in Orangeburg, elocutionist, journalist, and newspaper editor Todd Howard (born 1965), from Spartanburg, entrepreneur and public figure Orlando Hudson (born 1977), from Darlington, Gold Glove-winning Major League Baseball player Josephine Humphreys (born 1945), from Charleston, author Fiona Hutchison (born 1960), raised in Columbia and attended Clemson University, soap opera actress J. B. Hutto (1926–1983), born in Blackville, blues musician Lauren Hutton (born 1943), from Charleston, supermodel, actress Dontrelle Inman (born 1989), from Charleston, NFL and Canadian Football League wide receiver Madison Iseman (born 1997), from Myrtle Beach, actress George Izard (1776–1828), an American general in War of 1812, and 2nd Governor of Arkansas Territory J–L Andrew Jackson (1765–1845), 7th President of the United States Jesse Jackson (born 1941), born in Greenville, politician and civil rights activist 'Shoeless' Joe Jackson (1887–1951), former outfielder for Chicago White Sox John G. Jackson (1907–1993), from Aiken, Pan-Africanist historian, lecturer, teacher and writer James Jamerson (1938–1983), from Edisto Island, bass player Anthony James (1942–2020), from Myrtle Beach, actor, Unforgiven Young Jeezy (born 1977 as Jay Wayne Jenkins), born in Columbia, rap and hip-hop performer Sylvia Jefferies (born 1969), born in Greenwood, actress, Nashville Alshon Jeffery (born 1990), born in St. Matthews, wide receiver for the Philadelphia Eagles Willie Jeffries (born 1937), born in Union, former player and head football coach of South Carolina State University, first African American head coach of an NCAA Division I-A football program at a predominantly White college, member of the College Football Hall of Fame Jarvis Jenkins (born 1988), born in Clemson, defensive end for the Washington Redskins Tim Jennings (born 1983), born in Orangeburg, cornerback for the Chicago Bears Caroline Howard Jervey (1823–1877), born in Charleston, author and poet Jasper Johns (born 1933), grew up in Allendale, painter and printmaker Anthony Johnson (born 1974), born in Charleston, professional basketball player Dustin Johnson (born 1984), born in Columbia, professional golfer T. J. Johnson (born 1990), born in Aynor, former NFL center for the Cincinnati Bengals William H Johnson (1901–1970), from Florence, artist Christopher Jones (born 1982), born in Myrtle Beach, actor and dancer Greg Jones (born 1981), born in Beaufort, fullback for the Jacksonville Jaguars Orlando Jones (born 1968), attended high school in Mauldin, comedian and actor Alexis Jordan (born 1992), born in Columbia, R&B and pop singer Robert Jordan (1948–2007), fantasy author Joseph B. Kershaw (1822–1894), slave owner and Confederate general who served as a Division Commander, Army of Northern Virginia, State Senator, Circuit Court Judge Spencer Kieboom (born 1991), born in Mount Pleasant, catcher for the Washington Nationals Terry Kinard (born 1959), from Sumter, former safety for the New York Giants and Houston Oilers Betsy King (born 1955), from Spartanburg, golfer, member of World Golf Hall of Fame Lane Kirkland (1922–1999), labor union leader and president of the AFL–CIO, 1979–1995 Richard Rowland Kirkland (1843–1863), Confederate soldier Eartha Kitt (1927–2008), actress, singer, and cabaret star Michael Kohn (born 1986), from Camden, former relief pitcher for the Los Angeles Angels Carlos Knight (born 1993), from Columbia, television actor Noah O. Knight (1929–1951), soldier in the United States Army during the Korean War, posthumously received the Medal of Honor Sterling Knight (born 1989), from Hilton Head Island, actor, singer-songwriter, musician Matt William Knowles (born 1985), from Greenville, actor. Sallie Krawcheck (born 1964), from Charleston, former chairman and chief executive officer of Citi Global Wealth Management John Laurens (1754–1782), soldier and statesman from South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War Lance Laury (born 1982), from Hopkins, football player, linebacker for the New York Jets DeMarcus Lawrence (born 1992), from Aiken, defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys Andy Lee (born 1982), from Westminster, football player, punter for the San Francisco 49ers Mary Elizabeth Lee (1813–1849), born in Charleston, writer Hyman Isaac Long (born 18th century), born in Jamaica, Freemason Terry Long (1959–2005), guard for the Pittsburgh Steelers James "Pete" Longstreet (1821–1904), Confederate general, commander of the 1st Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia Harry B. Luthi (1933–2019), from Greenville, former mayor and retired businessman Jordan Lyles (born 1990), from Hartsville, baseball player, starting pitcher for the Colorado Rockies Thomas Lynch Jr. (1749–1779), signer of the Declaration of Independence M–O Andie MacDowell (born 1958), born in Gaffney, model and actress Barton MacLane (1902–1969), born in Columbia, actor, playwright, and screenwriter James Robert Mann (1920–2010), born in Greenville, soldier, lawyer and a United States Representative Francis Marion (c. 1732–1795), born in Winyah (Winyah Bay), a.k.a. the Swamp Fox, strategic fighter against the British during the War of Independence Logan Marshall-Green (born 1976), born in Charleston, actor, Dark Blue George Martin (born 1953), from Greenville, former defensive end for the New York Giants Cliff Matthews (born 1989), born in Cheraw, defensive end for the Atlanta Falcons Byron Maxwell (born 1988), born in North Charleston, cornerback for the Philadelphia Eagles Anthuan Maybank (born 1969), born in Georgetown, Olympic gold medalist 4x400 Edwin McCain (born 1970), born in Greenville, musician and songwriter Johnathan McClain (born 1970), born in Myrtle Beach, actor and writer Annie Virginia McCracken (1868–?), born in Charleston; published a magazine while living in Summerville Tony McDaniel (born 1985), born in Hartsville, defensive tackle for the Seattle Seahawks Rocky McIntosh (born 1982), grew up in Gaffney, linebacker for the Washington Redskins Marian McKnight (born 1936), born in Manning, Miss America 1957, actress, producer and writer Tre McLean (born 1993), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Henry McMaster (born 1947), born in Columbia, Governor of South Carolina since 2017 Ronald McNair (1950–1986), born in Lake City, astronaut killed in the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger Walter Russell Mead (born 1952), born in Columbia, journalist, editor-at-large of The American Interest magazine Dave Meggett (born 1966), born in Charleston, former NFL running back, primarily with the New York Giants Craig Melvin (born 1979), from Columbia, NBC News anchor Jamon Meredith (born 1986), born in Simpsonville, professional football player, offensive tackle for the New York Giants Arthur Middleton (1742–1787), born in Charleston, signer of the Declaration of Independence, Governor (1810–1812), Representative (1815–1819), and Minister to Russia (1820–1830) William Ephraim Mikell (1868–1944), born in Sumter, Dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School Patina Miller (born 1984), born in Pageland, actress, singer, Madam Secretary, All My Children, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay films Robert Mills (1781–1855), born in Charleston, architect, designed the Washington Monument and many public buildings Adam Minarovich (born 1977), from Anderson, actor Vanessa Minnillo (born 1980), from Charleston, television personality on Entertainment Tonight Jordan Montgomery (born 1992), from Sumter, starting pitcher for the New York Yankees Tim Montgomery (born 1975), from Gaffney, Olympic athlete, and ESPY AWARD winner Darla Moore (born 1954), born in Lake City, financial executive D. 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Marshal Zion Williamson (born 2000), raised in Spartanburg; No.1 pick in NBA Draft, NBA player for New Orleans Pelicans A'ja Wilson (born 1996), born in Hopkins; basketball player for the Las Vegas Aces, 2x WNBA MVP Mookie Wilson (born 1956), from Bamberg; former center fielder for the New York Mets and Toronto Blue Jays Rod Wilson (born 1981), from Cross; linebacker for the Chicago Bears Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), 28th President of the United States; lived in Columbia in his teenage years DeWayne Wise (born 1978), from Columbia; outfielder for the Chicago White Sox Rosa Louise Woodberry (1869–1932), journalist, educator; born in Barnwell County, South Carolina; lived in, Williston, South Carolina Chad Wolf (born 1976), from Charleston; lead vocalist in band "Carolina Liar" Henry Woodward (1646–1690), an early colonist of South Carolina who was instrumental in establishing contact with Native Americans and setting up a trading system Bill Workman (1940–2019), born in Charleston, mayor of Greenville 1983–1995, retired economic development specialist; resident of Walterboro W. D. Workman Jr. (1914–1990), newspaper and radio journalist, author;Republican nominee for the U.S. Senate in 1962 and for governor of South Carolina in 1982 Isaac Wright Jr. (born 1962), lawyer; born in Moncks Corner Mike Wright (born 1990), from Bennettsville; pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles Samuel E. 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418894	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate%20Atlantis	Stargate Atlantis	Stargate Atlantis (usually stylized in all caps and often abbreviated SGA) is an adventure and military science fiction television series and part of MGM's Stargate franchise. The show was created by Brad Wright and Robert C. Cooper as a spin-off series of Stargate SG-1, which was created by Wright and Jonathan Glassner and was itself based on the feature film Stargate (1994). All five seasons of Stargate Atlantis were broadcast by the Sci-Fi Channel in the United States and The Movie Network in Canada. The show premiered on July 16, 2004; its final episode aired on January 9, 2009. The series was filmed in and around Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The story of Stargate Atlantis follows the events of Stargate SG-1'''s seventh season finale episode "Lost City" and eighth season premiere episode "New Order", in which the cast of that series discovered an Antarctic outpost created by the alien race known as the Ancients. In the pilot episode "Rising", Dr. Daniel Jackson discovers the location of Atlantis, the legendary city created by the Ancients, and Stargate Command sends an international team to investigate it. The series was a ratings success for the Sci Fi Channel, and was particularly popular in Europe and Australia. Although it received a little critical response, Stargate Atlantis was honored with numerous awards and award nominations in its five-season run. Merchandise for Stargate Atlantis includes games and toys, print media, and an original audio series. With the cancellation of Stargate Universe, the intended direct-to-DVD Stargate Atlantis movie, entitled Stargate: Extinction, was cancelled. Series overviewStargate Atlantis follows the present-day adventures of Major John Sheppard and his military team from Earth that, along with two dozen other teams, explore distant planets in the Pegasus Galaxy. They use an alien device known as a Stargate that was built millions of years ago by an advanced race of humans known as the Ancients. The expedition is based in the Lost City of Atlantis on the planet "Lantea". The city was built millions of years ago and abandoned 10,000 years ago by the Ancients. Five to ten million years ago, due to a plague in the Milky Way Galaxy, they were forced to flee to the Pegasus Galaxy, and there they seeded life on hundreds of worlds as they had done to Earth in the Milky Way. After encountering a powerful enemy known as the Wraith and going to war with them for one hundred years, the Ancients ultimately lost and were forced to submerge their city beneath Lantea's ocean, which, in the Stargate universe, is the source of the Greek myth of the Lost City of Atlantis.Stargate: Atlantis episodes feature a self-contained story that also contributes to the larger storyline of the war against the Wraith and the Atlantis residents' search for the means to destroy their enemy. Each season has also featured a two-part episode, and some episodes that, while not technically two-parters, feature direct continuity with the story of the previous episode (for example, season 3 "Progeny" and "The Real World"). Each episode begins with a cold open, sometimes preceded by a recap of events relevant to the upcoming narrative. The opening credits feature an original theme by Joel Goldsmith. Though they were cut at the start of season 2, the full credits were recovered after the mid-season two-parter. They were again cut short in the 5th season. Episodes Seasons 1–3 Season one began airing in the United States on July 16, 2004. The Atlantis expedition, led by Dr. Elizabeth Weir, arrives at Atlantis, the city of the Ancients. The expedition quickly finds itself in a dire situation that forces them to seek new friends, the Athosians, but they also acquire a powerful new enemy: the Wraith. Due to the power requirements for reaching Lantea, they are unable to contact Earth. The expedition must survive in a new galaxy, while deciphering the Ancients' technology in order to find a way to destroy the Wraith and to acquire important new knowledge. Major Sheppard puts together a team consisting of himself, Dr. Rodney McKay, Lt. Ford and the Athosian leader Teyla Emmagan, who serve as Atlantis' first contact team. In one of their first missions, they make another enemy, the Genii, a human militaristic civilization with a 1950s level of technology. After several more revelations about the Wraith are made, the expedition prepares to evacuate. Just before they do, a military contingent from Earth arrives to help defend the city against the impending Wraith attack long enough for Earth's latest battleship to arrive. The season ends with a cliffhanger, while the city is still under siege by the Wraith. Season two began airing in the United States on July 15, 2005, and it picked up where Season 1 ended. The Atlantis expedition successfully avoids being culled by the Wraith by making them believe Atlantis had been destroyed, and they recover semi-regular contact with Earth, thanks to the starship Daedalus and power from a new Zero Point Module (ZPM) recovered by SG-1. Sheppard is promoted to Lt. Colonel and as Lt. Ford, who went missing in action (MIA) at the end of the battle with the Wraith, is replaced by Ronon Dex a human freed from the Wraith. The central plot of the second season is the development of Dr. Beckett's retrovirus, which can, theoretically, turn a Wraith into a human. While an incomplete version makes a young Wraith girl lose all her humanity and almost turns Sheppard into an Iratus bug, a more developed version is tested on a living Wraith, "Michael", with mixed results. Michael's Wraith faction proposes an alliance with Atlantis, but they betray the team. The season closes again with a cliffhanger—the Wraith are heading for the rich feeding grounds of Earth. Season three premiered in the United States on July 14, 2006, picking up where season 2 ended. Having stopped the Wraith from reaching Earth and having failed to develop a working Wraith retrovirus, the expedition faces its third year in the Pegasus galaxy with the Wraith still a threat and a new, powerful enemy bent on destroying the expedition and Atlantis: the Asurans, self-replicating nanobots, also known as Replicators. The situation becomes complicated when an experiment gone awry drains their only ZPM, leaving them without a power source for the city's shields. Soon thereafter, they find a lost Ancient vessel and unwillingly turn over the city of Atlantis to its crew. The SGC sends General O'Neill and Richard Woolsey to try to negotiate an agreement between Earth and the Ancients to allow the expedition to return to Atlantis. The Ancients are then subsequently killed by an invading Asuran force while O'Neill and Woolsey send off a distress call to Earth and go into hiding. The main members of the Atlantis expedition on Earth disobey their orders and go back to the city, rescue O'Neill and Woolsey, and repel the Asuran invasion. The season finale begins with Earth launching a first strike against the Asurans, who are building an armada to attack Earth. The Asurans counterattack by attacking Atlantis with a powerful beam weapon fired through a satellite housing a Stargate. As a last resort, the Atlantis team fires up the city's stardrive and escapes into space. The finale ends when the hyperdrive malfunctions, leaving the city flying through uncharted space with a day's worth of energy left in their sole ZPM and Dr. Weir critically injured. Seasons 4–5 Season four premiered in the USA on September 28, 2007, and in the UK on October 9, 2007. The writers stated that season 4 would take the series in a new direction. As the 4th season begins where season 3 ended, the future seems bleak: Weir is incapacitated and the senior members of the expedition have suffered multiple injuries. With the city damaged, running out of power and drifting in space, cut off from Earth, the Atlantis expedition raids Asuras to obtain a ZPM and is able to travel to a nearby planet. Weir is captured by the Asurans and Colonel Samantha Carter joins as a regular and acts as the expedition leader. She appears in the episode "Lifeline" after helping to find and land Atlantis on its new home planet; she is then ordered back to the SGC. In episode 3, under the IOA's orders, Carter returns to Atlantis as the new leader of the expedition after Atlantis lands. The season focuses on the main antagonists: the Asurans and the Wraith, as well as the pregnancy of Teyla Emmagan. The Asuran base code is reprogrammed by McKay, leading the nanobots to fulfill the purpose for which the Ancients created them: to wipe out the Wraith. Midway through the season, they are seemingly destroyed, and the remaining episodes concentrate mainly on Michael's efforts against both humans and the other Wraith. In the fifth season, Richard Woolsey replaces Carter as the leader of the expedition. Teyla, who was held captive by Michael, gives birth to Torren John and escapes with her team, before they are able to cripple Michael. Eventually, he invades Atlantis with a commandeered Puddle Jumper to take Torren and destroy Atlantis but, thanks to the efforts of Sheppard, Teyla, and McKay, Michael is finally killed. The season also introduces a group of rogue Asgard, who unlike their Ida counterparts, actually experiment on humans to prolong their lives, and steal a device known as "The Attero device" to destroy the Wraith, though the side effect is that any Stargate activated after the device has been turned on will explode. The device is eventually destroyed. With the Attero device, Michael and the Hoffan drug, the Wraith have become weakened, and are no longer the power of the galaxy they once were; this gives the humans of the Pegasus galaxy freedom enough to establish a coalition. McKay falls in love with Keller, who eventually reciprocates his feelings, and they become romantically involved. In the season finale (also the series finale), "Enemy at the Gate", Todd the Wraith alerts Atlantis to the fact that an underling wraith possesses a Hive Ship powered by a ZPM. In the process of trying to retrieve the ZPM and disable the Hive, the Daedalus is crippled, and the hive suddenly jumps away without destroying the Daedalus. The Atlantis team discovers the reason for this was a communication sent from an alternate reality giving away Earth's location. The Hive disables both the battleships Sun Tzu and the Apollo en route to Earth. With a full set of ZPMs turned over by Todd, the expedition takes the city itself to defend Earth. The Hive ship is then destroyed in the subsequent battle and Atlantis lands in the Pacific Ocean near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Cast Note Joe Flanigan as John Sheppard: a United States Air Force Major recruited to the Atlantis Expedition due to his intuitive mastery over Ancient technology. He becomes the de facto commander of Atlantis' military contingent after the original mission commander, Colonel Marshall Sumner, is killed. His position is made official in season 2 after Atlantis re-establishes contact with Earth, and he is promoted to lieutenant colonel. Torri Higginson as Elizabeth Weir (main seasons 1–3, recurring season 4): a diplomat and expert in international politics, who leads the initial Atlantis Expedition after briefly serving as the head of Stargate Command in Stargate SG-1. She is a main character in seasons 1-3; in the season 3 finale she is critically wounded by a Replicator attack. She is a recurring character in season 4, having been captured by the Replicators. Rachel Luttrell as Teyla Emmagan: the leader of the Athosians, a race of humans native to the Pegasus galaxy. She befriends Sheppard when he visits her homeworld and joins his team in order to fight the Wraith. She has the ability to sense the presence of the Wraith. Rainbow Sun Francks as Aiden Ford (main season 1, recurring season 2, guest season 5): a young first lieutenant in the US Marine Corps, who is a member of Sheppard's team in season 1. In season 2, he becomes mentally unstable due to an overdose of Wraith feeding enzyme and abandons Atlantis. David Hewlett as Rodney McKay: a brilliant scientist who is a member of Sheppard's team and the head of the Science and Research Departments on Atlantis. One of the foremost experts on Ancient technology, he was first introduced as a professional rival of Samantha Carter in the fifth season of Stargate SG-1. Jason Momoa as Ronon Dex (main seasons 2–5): A military specialist from the Planet Sateda. After his home was culled by the Wraith, he spent the next seven years running from the Wraith, who implanted a tracker on his spine and hunted him for sport. In the beginning of Season 2, he meets up with Sheppard and the team, who help him remove the tracker that the Wraith installed, and he becomes the fourth member and replacement for Lt. Ford on Sheppard's team. Paul McGillion as Carson Beckett (main seasons 2–3, recurring seasons 1, 4–5): the Chief of Medicine of Atlantis in seasons 1-3. In the season 3 episode "Sunday", he is killed in an explosion caused by Ancient technology. A clone of him created by the rogue Wraith "Michael" appears as a recurring character in seasons 4 and 5. Amanda Tapping as Samantha "Sam" Carter (main season 4, guest seasons 1–3, recurring season 5): an astrophysicist and United States Air Force Lieutenant Colonel, who was a main character for the entire run of Stargate SG-1. In season 4, she is promoted to Colonel and given command of the Atlantis Expedition. Jewel Staite as Jennifer Keller (main season 5, recurring season 4, guest season 3): the Chief of Medicine on Atlantis, who replaces Dr. Beckett in the third-season finale. She is listed as a main character after Carson Beckett's death. Robert Picardo as Richard Woolsey (main season 5, recurring seasons 3–4): a representative of the International Oversight Advisory, who first appeared as an agent of the NID in season 7 of Stargate SG-1. In season 5, he replaces Samantha Carter as commander of Atlantis. Guest starring: Richard Dean Anderson, Michael Shanks, Christopher Judge, Beau Bridges, Robert Davi, Kari Wuhrer, Danny Trejo, Mark Dacascos, Mitch Pileggi, Colm Meaney, Connor Trinneer and others. Production Development When producers Brad Wright and Robert C. Cooper thought the original Stargate SG-1 series was going to be cancelled after season five, due to Showtime's announcement that they were canceling the show, they came up with the idea of making a new feature film. However, as the ratings on its new home at the Sci Fi Channel were quite good, the idea was pushed to season six and then to season seven. Wright had initially intended to set the new show in Antarctica under the ice. It would have replaced Stargate Command (SGC) as Earth's conduit to other worlds. Late in season seven of SG-1, talks began of a spin-off series and the producers were left with a serious dilemma, since the seventh season of Stargate SG-1 had been planned to lead up to the great discovery of the lost city of the Ancients, Atlantis. The Stargate SG-1 seventh season ended in a two-part episode, "Lost City", which was supposed to be a bridge between Stargate SG-1 and the new spin-off, either a show or a movie, and was not planned to run at the same time as Stargate SG-1. Wright and Cooper rewrote the script as the two-part season seven finale and moved the setting of the story. The city of Atlantis, originally planned to be on Earth under Antarctica in place of the SGC, was moved to the Pegasus Galaxy. This change not only addressed the problem of fans wondering why the SGC would not be coming to the aid of the Atlantis Expedition with each episode, but it also gave the producers a chance to start afresh with new ideas instead of having an identical copy of the original show. The series received the green light on November 17, 2003, started shooting in February 2004, and premiered on July 16, 2004. From the start, Wright and Cooper ruled out casting "star names", on the basis of the financial pressures they were already experiencing with "star names" on Stargate SG-1. The casting was made more complicated because Atlantis got the go-ahead in November and had to compete with other networks during pilot season. Disaster geophysicist Mika McKinnon acted as a science consultant for the series starting in 2008, and served as a consultant through Stargate Atlantis and Stargate Universe. Casting and cast changes The character most difficult to cast was the then-called Dr. Ingram, an unexcitable scientist expert on the Stargate. As the first day of shooting drew nearer and they were unable to find the right actor, they came to realize they had brought in the wrong character. Longtime Stargate director Martin Wood and Brad Wright thought it should be Dr. Rodney McKay, who had already appeared in a guest role in three episodes of Stargate SG-1. Actor David Hewlett was contacted and arrived at the set the day after filming had started. Dr. Ingram had already been written into the pilot episode of the show and so the same script was used and the character's name simply changed to McKay. Later scripts were written with Dr. McKay in mind. The creators found themselves with a problem with the character of Lt. Aiden Ford (Rainbow Sun Francks) in season two, a first season regular that the producers, and the actor himself, felt had not worked as intended and was highly underused as a result. Unwilling to write him out, the writers came up with an idea to make the character more important, but that downgraded him to recurring. To replace him, they created Ronon Dex as a sidekick for Lt. Col. John Sheppard, but finding an actor with the physical presence and the acting ability necessary was not easy until they saw Jason Momoa's tape. X-files veteran Mitch Pileggi and Kavan Smith were added to the cast in the recurring roles of Col. Steven Caldwell and Maj. Evan Lorne. Paul McGillion's character, Dr. Carson Beckett, became a regular in season two. Seasons three and four changed the cast lineup again. Paul McGillion's Dr. Carson Beckett was killed in the season three episode "Sunday", then brought back at the end of season four as a recurring character. The new medical chief was Jennifer Keller, played by Jewel Staite, who was introduced in the Season 3 finale, was a recurring character in Season 4, and became a regular in Season 5. Jewel Staite had already played a guest role in Season 2 as Ellia, a female Wraith, and the producers agreed they wanted her for a more important role. Amanda Tapping's Samantha Carter crossed from Stargate SG-1 for 14 episodes in Season four, as the new leader of the expedition, while Torri Higginson's Elizabeth Weir became a recurring character in season four instead of a regular. Robert Picardo became a regular in season five as Richard Woolsey replaced Samantha Carter as the commander of the Atlantis Expedition. Higginson declined to appear as a guest star; instead, her character Weir was portrayed by Michelle Morgan. Filming and visual effectsStargate Atlantis was shot at Bridge studios in Vancouver and on location in several places in British Columbia. The Pemberton Glacier doubled for Antarctica during the opening flying sequence in series premiere "Rising". Lynn Valley Canyon was, for example, where the episode "Instinct" was filmed. At the end of the season, filming had become more expensive because of the financial crisis, which again led to the decline of the American dollar and rise of the Canadian dollar. When tasked with moving the Stargate sets from Vancouver to Los Angeles, Robert C. Cooper said he couldn't since all the "infrastructure" was in Vancouver, which would have made the move nearly impossible. Rachel Luttrell (portraying Teyla Emmagan in the series) used her time during the Stargate Atlantis season one hiatus to be trained in the martial arts by science fiction veteran Ray Park.Stargate Atlantis inherited Blade: Trinity's effects stage. The Blade: Trinity production gave the set to Stargate Atlantis to save the high cost of dismantling the massive construct. The set has appeared several times. For example, the walkway Sheppard walks in "The Storm" is the topmost part of the Blade: Trinity set. The majority of episodes used James Bamford as a stunt coordinator. MusicStargate Atlantis features a symphonic orchestra soundtrack composed by Joel Goldsmith. Goldsmith's first task for the series was to compose the main title song, which was nominated in the category Outstanding Main Title Theme Music in the Primetime Emmy Awards in 2005. When composing the music, Goldsmith went for a more pastoral, European and American approach, while keeping the adventurous, symphonic approach the producers wanted. Goldsmith's score for season 2 episode "Grace Under Pressure" was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition For A Series (Dramatic Underscore) in 2006. Broadcast and release International syndicationStargate Atlantis started as a spin off from the fellow American military science fiction series, Stargate SG-1. The pilot episode of Atlantis first aired on July 16 on American television broadcasting networks. The pilot episode, entitled "Rising" reached a Nielsen rating of 3.2, a height never surpassed by any other Atlantis episodes. "Rising" is also the strongest rated episode and most watched episode ever broadcast by Sci Fi Channel, gathering over 4 million viewers in the United States according to Variety. In the United Kingdom, it was viewed by 1.28 million people, placing it first in the most viewed shows in Sky One for the week. "Rising" was nominated for several awards. The follow-up episode to "Rising", earned a Nielsen Rating of 2.5, a drastic decline from the debut episode. The average viewership of Atlantis first ten episode in the United States were around 3 million according to ABC TV Group analysis, there after the viewership declined until the second half of the last season, at this time the average viewer rating was around 2.1 million. Each season of Stargate Atlantis featured 20 episodes, and in the United States they are broadcast in two series of 10 episodes. The first 10 episodes air from mid-July to September in the United States, ending in the cliffhanger of a two-parter episode. The second half airs first in Canada, from November to January, ending also with a cliffhanger. In the United States, the second half aired from January to March during seasons 1 and 2, but season 3 aired from April to June 2007. Because of the offset, the show has often been bootlegged by American viewers. Season four chalked up a viewer average of 1.8 million in the United States, beating the average Sci Fi Channel show. The final episode, "Enemy at the Gate" got a Nielsen Rating of 1.5, which was also the highest rating in season 5. "Enemy at the Gate" was viewed by 2.02 million people in the US, including 973,000 in the 18 to 49 demographic, and 1.12 million age 25 to 54. In the UK, the finale was viewed by 633,000, placing Stargate Atlantis third in the top ten for Sky 1 in that week, behind The Simpsons and season seven premiere of 24. Cancellation and future After the announcement on August 20, 2008, that Season 5 of Atlantis would be its last, it was announced the following day that the series would be continued with at least one 2-hour direct-to-DVD movie. The show's co-creator Brad Wright explained that the decision to cancel Stargate Atlantis when there was still a lot of interest in the show was to ensure the success of the movies. More movies were expected to follow in the Atlantis series if the first movie was to be successful. Executive producer Joseph Mallozzi has said that the rise of the Canadian dollar and the decline of the American dollar has made life harder for Canadian television since it has become more expensive. He further stated "Both MGM and Sci Fi have been great supporters of the show and, if you go by SG-1s example, fans can be assured that the end of the series will not be the end of Atlantis." Mallozzi called the Atlantis film Project Twilight, until the title of the first Atlantis film was revealed as Stargate: Extinction in late May 2009. Paul Mullie and Joseph Mallozzi completed the scripting of the movie in May 2009. Andy Mikita was going to direct the first Atlantis film. The tentative shoot-date of the movie was bound for late 2009. As of May 2009, the confirmed actors were to be Amanda Tapping as Samantha Carter, David Hewlett as Rodney McKay, Joe Flanigan as John Sheppard, Paul McGillion as Carson Beckett, Rachel Luttrell as Teyla Emmagan, Jason Momoa as Ronon Dex, Robert Picardo as Richard Woolsey and Christopher Heyerdahl as Todd the Wraith. The script for Stargate: Extinction had been written and was ready to go into production, according to Joseph Mallozzi, "it involved a return mission to Pegasus, the tragic end of one relationship, the beginning of another, and a surprising progression in the alliance between one man and one wraith." The project was on hold due to financial troubles at MGM and in the wider economy, particularly the rise in value of the Canadian dollar. In the meantime, an episode of Stargate Universe featuring Atlantis characters Rodney McKay and Richard Woolsey was filmed. At the Creation Stargate Convention in Vancouver on April 17, 2011, Stargate writer and executive producer Brad Wright confirmed to the audience that the proposed Stargate Atlantis movie has been indefinitely shelved. Speaking at a convention in Edmonton on 28 September 2013, Joe Flanigan stated that a few years prior, he had negotiated with the then boss of MGM about leasing the series in order to produce season 6 of Stargate Atlantis, and potentially more. Flanigan took it upon himself to secure the necessary financing from various investors as MGM would be unable to back the series due to them going through financial difficulties. Securing the needed backing to produce a full 20 episode season, Flanigan and his team began planning out the production itself, with a planned move from MGM studios in Vancouver to a studio in Europe in order to save money. Flanigan's team, their investors and MGM came up with "all the numbers" as well as working out television networks for broadcasting, studios and plans for a 10-year lease of the Stargate franchise. However, MGM filed for bankruptcy in November 2010. The company then reemerged later, but Spyglass Entertainment now held the rights for Stargate, meaning Flanigan had to begin negotiations all over again. Flanigan stated that he believed Spyglass were more interested in working with Roland Emmerich on another feature film, outside of the main continuity of the series. Home media The first and only DVD release of the series from MGM Home Entertainment, was the pilot episode of Stargate Atlantis, "Rising", as a standalone episode. It was released, in North America, on June 7, 2005. The full first season was released, in North America, on November 15, 2005, in new slim line cases. Soon after the release of the first season set Sony received complaints that some Canadian customers bought sets that had the same content on both disk 1 and 5. Sony quickly offered a replacement disc. In early 2006, Sony announced that Stargate Atlantis would become the first TV series released on the next generation Blu-ray platform. In mid-2006 MGM, the producers of both Stargate series, switched DVD distribution companies from Sony to 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The distributor switch led to a delay in the release of the Season 2 box set, which was released on March 6, 2007, in North America. Most DVDs contain behind-the-scenes features, audio commentaries for nearly all episodes beginning with season 1, and production galleries. The box sets of the five seasons were released with slim packaging in all regions, beginning in the United States. A complete series box set for Stargate Atlantis was released on October 6, 2009 in North America, and August 10, 2009 in the UK. Stargate Atlantis: The Complete Series Blu-ray was released in North America in mid-2011. Impact Critical receptionStargate Atlantis garnered mediocre media attention with mixed reviews. Michael Abernethy from PopMatters said "the series has much to offer", and further stated that the program had many unanswered questions, but gave it mostly positive reviews. Jonathan Wright from the British newspaper, The Guardian called the series "fun". The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review reviewer Laura Urbani said that the television series "cleverly" mixed "humor with action" with "political intrigue". Virginia Heffernan from The New York Times called the pilot episode "dull" and further commented that it was a "relic of our own unenlightened time," but said that the show could win fans with its "lavish special effects". David Nusair from Reel Film Reviews reviewing "Rising" said "as a pilot episode, there's no denying that "Rising" gets the job done," commenting to the one episode release of the pilot on DVD format. Critical Myth rated "Adrift" 8 out of 10, praising the direction the writers took with the episode, Sheppard being rather forced to be in command of the city with the incapacitation of Weir, as well as comparing the characters' "chance to prove their mettle through extreme adversity" to "The Siege, Part 2". Marx Pyle of SyFy Portal (since renamed Airlock Alpha) described the episode "The Daedalus Variations" as Atlantis' version of Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Q Who?". It was praised for being a "fun filler" episode, and Pyle enjoyed the scene where the two Sheppards converse, and the space battle, believing only Battlestar Galactica could beat them. Pyle criticised the episode for the absence of Woolsey, and McKay's apparent quick understanding of new technologies including the alternate reality drive, as well as feeling that Sci-Fi gave away too much information from the previews of the episode. When reviewing "Enemy at the Gate", IGN reviewer Tory Ireland Mell has given the episode a "mediocre" score of 5.8 out of 10, where the reviewer felt that everything on the episode was "forced", and felt the final scene was "uninspiring", though the episode was praised for the conversation between Sheppard and Carter. Season one of Stargate Atlantis garnered mixed reviews. John Sinnott from DVDTalk called season one a "very good spinoff," certifying it "highly recommended." Dan Heaton from Digitally Obsessed was positive to the first season, and said the pilot started "in fashion." Reviewer Dan Phelps from DVDFanatic gave the series "thumbs up" and gave the series an A−. Oladotun Ogunsulire from Science Fiction Buzz said the series should be "treasured." June L. from Monsters and Critics (M&C) gave season two of Stargate Atlantis 4 out of 5, and said that it was a "pleasure to watch the stories", compared to other new science fiction shows which depend on "blood and violence." Awards and nominations The show has been nominated 62 times and won 19 awards, less than the sister show, Stargate SG-1, which was nominated 129 times and won 22 awards. Atlantis season one was nominated for two Emmy Awards in 2005 in the following categories, Outstanding Main Title Theme Music and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series. Atlantis would receive two other Emmy nominations in 2006 and 2008 respectively. Television director, David Winning was awarded a Chicago International Film Festival award in 2005 in the category Outstanding Achievement in a Television Drama Direction for "Childhood's End". The New York Film Festival also awarded Winning for his work in "Childhood's End." Atlantis was nominated twenty-seven times for a Leo Award and won only once in the category Best Visual Effects in a Dramatic Series in "The Eye" in 2005. The series won nine Leo Awards in 2009. Merchandise In total, there have been released 12 books and novels about Stargate Atlantis entitled Rising, Reliquary, The Chosen, Halcyon, Exogenesis, Entanglement, Casualties of War, Blood Ties, Mirror Mirror, Nightfall, Angelus and Brimstone. There have been released six short fiction works as a part of the official Stargate franchise. Sharon Gosling has released a book for the first four seasons of the series entitled Stargate Atlantis: The Official Companion Season #, the fifth was never released. Action figures of the Stargate Atlantis cast have been released by Diamond Selected Toys, and included John Sheppard and Rodney McKay figures among others. This is a list of The Stargate Atlantis audiobooks by Big Finish Productions, are each narrated by one of the main Stargate franchise characters and feature a second, guest-star voice along with music and sound effects. Kavan Smith (as Evan Lorne), David Nykl (as Radek Zelenka), Paul McGillion (as Carson Beckett) and Torri Higginson (as Elizabeth Weir) have lent their voices for one Stargate Atlantis audiobook each. In late 2005, Fandemonium Press, which also publishes many books for the Stargate SG-1 series, launched a new series of books based on Stargate Atlantis. These books are available in English-speaking countries and through online bookstores. Additionally, the 'Legacy' series of books have also been added and they begin where the TV series concluded. There are now eight available. They are: 1) Homecoming; Jo Graham & Melissa Scott. 2) The Lost; Jo Graham & Amy Griswold. 3) Allegiance; Melissa Scott and Amy Griswold. 4) The Furies; Jo Graham. 5) Secrets; Jo Graham & Melissa Scott. 6) Inheritors; Jo Graham, Melissa Scott & Amy Griswold. 7) Unascended; Jo Graham & Amy Griswold. 8) Third Path; Melissa Scott & Jo Graham. These novels begin by looking at the events that led to Atlantis returning to the Pegasus Galaxy, including a new war against the powerful Wraith Queen Death, McKay being briefly brainwashed and converted into a Wraith scientist, a confrontation with Queen Death that ends with a new treaty between Atlantis and the Wraith, and the return of Elizabeth Weir and Aiden Ford after their apparent 'deaths'. The official Stargate Magazine, produced by Titan Publishing, began publishing short stories written by Fandemonium authors in their 8th issue. The stories alternate between both SG-1 and Atlantis. In 2006, Avatar Press launched a series of comics based on Stargate Atlantis. Set in season 1, Wraithfall features story by Stewart Moore and art by Mauricio Melo. In this story, the Atlantis team meets the Karrans, a race that has made a bizarre deal with the Wraith. While Stargate Worlds (SGW) was mainly about the story arc to Stargate SG-1, the first expansion pack was planned to be about Stargate Atlantis. Atlantis and the Pegasus Galaxy would have presented much additional content, with all five seasons' worth aired by the time of the game's release. It was ideal for an expansion, and this was what the developers intended for this facet of the Stargate'' franchise at that stage. References External links Official Stargate site at MGM Stargate Atlantis episode guide at GateWorld 2000s American science fiction television series 2004 American television series debuts 2009 American television series endings 2000s Canadian science fiction television series 2004 Canadian television series debuts 2009 Canadian television series endings American adventure drama television series American fantasy drama television series American television spin-offs Atlantis in fiction Canadian adventure drama television series Canadian fantasy drama television series Canadian television spin-offs English-language television shows Fiction about intergalactic travel Syfy original programming Atlantis Television series by MGM Television Television series by Sony Pictures Television Television series set on fictional planets Television shows filmed in Vancouver Fiction about wormholes Space adventure television series Military science fiction television series
418902	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Svolder	Battle of Svolder	The Battle of Svolder (Svold or Swold) was a large naval battle during the Viking age, fought in September 999 or 1000 in the western Baltic Sea between King Olaf of Norway and an alliance of the Kings of Denmark and Sweden and Olaf's enemies in Norway. The backdrop of the battle was the unification of Norway into a single independent state after longstanding Danish efforts to control the country, combined with the spread of Christianity in Scandinavia. King Olaf Tryggvason was sailing to, or home from, an expedition in Wendland (Pomerania), when he was ambushed by an alliance of Svein Forkbeard, King of Denmark, Olof Skötkonung (also known as Olaf Eiríksson or Olaf the Swede), King of Sweden, and Eirik Hákonarson, Jarl of Lade. According to the Saga of King Olaf I Tryggvason, he had 60 warships plus the contribution of 11 warships from the Jomvikings His ships were captured one by one, last of all the Ormen Lange, which Jarl Eirik captured as Olaf threw himself into the sea. After the battle, Norway was ruled by the Jarls of Lade allied (as a suzerain) to both the Danish Crown and the Commonwealth of Uppsala, Sweden. The exact location of the battle is disputed, and depends on which group of sources is preferred: Adam of Bremen places it in Øresund, while Icelandic sources place the battle near an island called Svolder, which is otherwise unknown. The most detailed sources on the battle, the kings' sagas, were written approximately two centuries after it took place. Historically unreliable, they offer an extended literary account describing the battle and the events leading up to it in vivid detail. The sagas ascribe the causes of the battle to Olaf Tryggvason's ill-fated marriage proposal to Sigrid the Haughty and his problematic marriage to Thyri, sister of Svein Forkbeard. As the battle starts Olaf is shown dismissing the Danish and Swedish fleets with ethnic insults and bravado while admitting that Eirik Hákonarson and his men are dangerous because "they are Norwegians like us". The best known episode in the battle is the breaking of Einarr Þambarskelfir's bow, which heralds Olaf's defeat. In later centuries, the saga descriptions of the battle, especially that in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, have inspired a number of ballads and other works of literature. Context In earliest recorded history, Norway was divided into a number of small and sometimes warring petty kingdoms with weak central authority. In traditional historiography the rise of Harald Fairhair in the ninth century started the process of unification of the country and the consolidation of royal power. Harald's descendants, and other claimants to the throne, had to contend with strong regional leaders such as the Jarls of Lade in the north and the rulers of Vingulmark in the east, while the kings of Denmark claimed regions in the south and were eager to acquire Norwegian vassals to increase their influence. The spread of Roman Catholic Christianity had also became an increasingly important political issue in the late tenth century. In the 970s, Haakon Sigurdsson, Jarl of Lade, became the most powerful man in Norway, at first supported by Harald Bluetooth of Denmark and paying tribute to him—though the two later fell out over religious matters. Harald had converted to Christianity and was eager to Christianise Norway, while Haakon remained a staunch pagan. In 995 Haakon was deposed and the young Christian leader Olaf Tryggvason came to the throne. While rejecting Danish authority, Olaf made it his mission to convert Norway and the Norse colonies in the west as quickly and as completely as possible. Proceeding with threats, torture and executions, Olaf broke down pagan resistance and within a few years Norway was, at least nominally, a Christian country. But King Olaf had acquired several enemies during his meteoric rise to power. The most prominent were Eirik Jarl, son of Haakon Jarl, and Svein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, both of whom felt that Olaf had deprived them of their share of Norway. The same interests which clashed in the Battle of Svolder were to divide Norway for decades to come, leading to further major engagements, including the Battle of Nesjar and the Battle of Stiklestad. The resolution came in 1035 with the accession of the Norwegian Magnus the Good to the throne of an independent and Christian Norway. Sources The Battle of Svolder is mentioned in a number of historical sources. The earliest written work is by Adam of Bremen (ca. 1080), who wrote from a Danish point of view as his source was King Svein II of Denmark. The later Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus made use of and expanded Adam of Bremen's account in his Gesta Danorum (ca. 1200). In Norway the three synoptic histories, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium, Historia Norwegie and Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (ca. 1190), all give a short account of the battle. The Icelandic kings' sagas offer a much more extensive treatment, starting with Oddr Snorrason's Saga of Olaf Tryggvason (ca. 1190). Working from skaldic poetry, oral history, learned European examples and an uninhibited imagination, Oddr constructed an elaborate account of the battle. This was taken up by the later Icelandic sagas, Fagrskinna and Heimskringla (ca. 1220), both of which add quotations of skaldic verse. Three Icelandic poems from around 1200 also have some historical interest: Nóregs konungatal, Rekstefja and Óláfs drápa Tryggvasonar. The immense Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta (ca. 1300) combines several of the above sources to form the last, longest and least reliable saga account. Contemporary skaldic poetry which refers to the battle includes a work by Hallfreðr the Troublesome Poet, who was in Olaf Tryggvason's service. Hallfreðr was not present at the battle but gathered information about it afterwards for a eulogy on Olaf. On Jarl Eirik's side, a number of stanzas are preserved by Halldórr the Unchristian, who speaks of the battle as happening "last year" and dwells on the scene of Eirik capturing the Long Serpent. Some verses on the battle are also preserved in Þórðr Kolbeinsson's elegy on Eirik, probably composed around 1015. Finally, Skúli Þórsteinsson fought with Eirik in the battle and spoke of it in verse in his old age. While historians value contemporary skaldic poetry highly as the most accurate source available, it must be remembered that the poems are not preserved independently but as quotations in the kings' sagas. After two centuries of oral preservation, there is often doubt that a verse was accurately remembered and correctly attributed. Furthermore, skaldic poetry did not primarily aim at giving information but at artistically rendering facts already known to the hearers. Historians frequently fall back on the less reliable but more detailed accounts of the sagas. Events leading up to the battle Nothing can be gleaned from the contemporary skaldic poems on the causes of the battle. Adam of Bremen states that Olaf Tryggvason's Danish wife, Thyri, egged him on to make war against Denmark. When Olaf heard that Svein Forkbeard and Olaf the Swede had formed an alliance, he was angered and decided the time had come for an attack. Ágrip and Historia Norwegie have a similar account. Thyri was the sister of Svein Forkbeard, and when Olaf Tryggvason married her, Svein refused to pay her promised dowry. Angered, Olaf launched an expedition to attack Denmark, but he was too impatient to wait for a fleet to assemble from all of Norway, and he set sail for the south with only 11 ships, expecting the rest to follow. When that hope was not realized, he set out for Wendland (Pomerania) to seek allies and on the way was ambushed by Svein and his allies. These accounts are contradicted by a contemporary verse of Halldórr the Unchristian which states that Olaf Tryggvason was travelling from the south when he came to the battle. Oddr Snorrason has an elaborate account of the problems arising from Thyri's marriages. He tells us that she was betrothed and married to the Wendish king Burislav, who received a large dowry for her; but she did not want to be his wife and starved herself after their wedding, so Burislav sent her back to Denmark. She then arranged to have herself married to Olaf Tryggvason, to the displeasure of her brother Svein. Svein's queen, Sigrid the Haughty, a staunch opponent of Olaf, egged Svein to make war on him. Svein then conspired with Jarl Sigvaldi and King Olaf of Sweden to lure Olaf Tryggvason into a trap. Olaf Tryggvason travelled to Wendland to collect Thyri's dowry from King Burislav and while there heard rumours of a planned ambush; but Sigvaldi arrived to tell him these rumours were false. Believing Sigvaldi, Olaf sent most of his fleet home, as his men were impatient. He therefore had only a small fleet left when he was ambushed near Svolder. Fagrskinna and Heimskringla largely follow Oddr's account but simplify it and diverge from it in some respects. According to Heimskringla, Sigvaldi sailed from Wendland with Olaf and a fleet of Wendish ships and led him into the ambush. Whether the above details are accurate or not, it is clear that Svein, Olaf the Swede and Eirik had ample reason to oppose Olaf Tryggvason. Olaf had taken control of Viken in south Norway, an area long under Danish overlordship. Olaf and Svein had been in England together, but Olaf had made peace while Svein kept campaigning. Svein was on friendly terms with Olaf the Swede and connected to him by marriage, so the two were natural allies. Finally, Jarl Eirik had been driven from his patrimony by Olaf Tryggvason, as arguably had his father, Jarl Hakon, whom he may have wished to avenge. From the conflicting accounts of the sources, historians have tried to reconstruct the most likely sequence of events leading up to the battle. It is probable that Olaf Tryggvason was indeed sailing from Wendland to Norway when he was ambushed, though the kings' sagas probably play up the importance of Thyri and her marriages. While it is possible that Olaf was collecting dowry, it seems more probable that he was expecting war and seeking allies in Wendland, but met with little success. The character of Sigvaldi remains enigmatic, though there is evidence from skaldic poetry that he did indeed betray Olaf. Time and location All sources which date the battle agree that it took place in 1000. The oldest source to date it is the meticulous Íslendingabók, written around 1128, which specifies that it took place in the summer. Oddr Snorrason says further that the battle is "memorialized for the fallen men on the Third or Fourth Ides of September", (10 or 11 September). Mesta states that the battle occurred on 9 September, and other sources agree with either date. Since some medieval writers reckoned the end of the year in September, it is possible that the year referred to is in fact the one we know as 999. The location of the battle cannot be identified with any certainty. According to Adam of Bremen, it took place in Oresund. Ágrip and Historia Norwegie also place it off Zealand. Theodoricus says it took place "beside the island which is called Svöldr; and it lies near Slavia". Fagrskinna speaks of "an island off the coast of Vinðland... [t]his island is called Svölðr." Oddr Snorrason and Heimskringla agree on the island's name but do not specify its location. A stanza by Skúli Þórsteinsson speaks of "the mouth of Svolder", suggesting that Svolder could originally have been the name of a river which Norse unfamiliarity with Wendish geography turned into an island. The Danish Annales Ryenses are unique in placing the battle in the Schlei. Modern historians are divided, some locating the confrontation near the German island of Rügen while others prefer Øresund. Composition of the fleets The Norse sources agree that Olaf Tryggvason fought against overwhelming odds in the battle. Fagrskinna, for example, says that he had "only a small force", and that the sea around him was "carpeted with warships" The sources which specify the number of warships all agree that Olaf Tryggvason had 11 vessels but they give various numbers for the allied fleets. Most sources cite the Danish and Swedish forces as equal in size, with the exception of Rekstefja. Though the sagas agree that Olaf Tryggvason had only 11 ships in the battle, some of them quote a verse by Halldórr the Unchristian saying that Olaf had 71 ships when he sailed from the south. The sagas explain the discrepancy by saying that some of the 71 ships belonged to Jarl Sigvaldi, who deserted Olaf, and that others sailed past the trap at Svolder before it was sprung. Ships by name The sagas describe three of the ships in Olaf Tryggvason's fleet. According to Heimskringla, the Crane was a large swift-sailing warship with thirty rowers' benches, high in stem and stern. It was commissioned by King Olaf and used as his flagship for some time. Olaf confiscated the second of his great ships from a pagan he had tortured to death for refusing to convert to Christianity. King Olaf "steered it himself, because it was a much larger and finer ship than the Crane. Its stem had a dragon's head on it, and on its stern, a crook shaped like a tail; and both sides of the neck and all the stern were gilded. That ship the king called the Serpent, because when the sail was hoisted it was to look like the wing of a dragon. That was the finest ship in all Norway." Olaf's third flagship, the Long Serpent, was a legendary vessel mentioned in several anecdotes in the sagas. The only allied ship described is Jarl Eirik's iron clad Járnbarðinn, Old Norse for "The Iron Bardi", barði (definite barðinn) assumed to mean "strakes" or "bow" (cognate with "boards"), alternative the cognate "beard" (possibly referencing the iron plates?), although some have translated it as the "Iron Ram". It is described with a low going "iron beam" (), assumed to be a naval ram. According to Fagrskinna it was "the biggest of all ships", but Heimskringla gives more detail: The leaders assess their opponents It is unlikely that the saga writers had accurate information on details of the battle beyond the sparse accounts in the surviving poems. Nevertheless, starting with Oddr Snorrason, they present an elaborate literary account, depicting the main participants through their words and deeds. Olaf Tryggvason's ships pass the anchorage of his allied enemies in a long column without order, as no attack is expected. Conveniently placed to observe the fleet, Jarl Eirik and the two kings remark upon the passing vessels. Svein and Olaf are eager to join battle, but Eirik is portrayed as more cautious and familiar with the Norwegian forces. As progressively larger vessels appear, the Danes and Swedes think each one is the Long Serpent and want to attack straight away, but Eirik holds them off with informed comments: As Eirik finally consents to attack, King Svein boasts that he will command the Long Serpent "before the sun sets". Eirik makes a remark "so that few men heard him" saying that "with only the Danish army at his disposal, King Sveinn would never command this ship". As the allies set out to attack Olaf Tryggvason, the point of view shifts to the Norwegian fleet. After spotting the enemy, Olaf might have used sail and oar to outrun the ambush and escape, but he refuses to flee and turns to give battle with the eleven ships immediately about him. Seeing the Danish fleet arrayed against him, he comments: "The forest goats will not overcome us, for the Danes have the courage of goats. We will not fear that force because the Danes have never carried off the victory if they fought on ships." Similarly, Olaf writes off the Swedes with a reference to their pagan customs: It is only when Olaf Tryggvason sights Eirik Hákonarson's contingent that he realises he is in for a hard battle, because "they are Norwegians like us". The sagas' emphasis of Eirik's contribution stands in marked contrast to the Danish accounts of Adam of Bremen and Saxo Grammaticus, who portray the battle as a Danish victory over Norwegians, with no mention of Jarl Eirik or his men. The battle is joined The disposition adopted in the battle was one which recurs in many sea-fights of the Middle Ages where a fleet had to fight on the defensive. Olaf lashed his ships side to side, with his own, the Long Serpent, in the middle of the line, where her bows projected beyond the others. The advantages of this arrangement were that it left all hands free to fight, that a barrier could be formed with the oars and yards, and that it limited the enemy's ability to make its superior numbers count. The Long Serpent was the longest ship and so also the tallest—another advantage to the defenders, who could rain down arrows, javelins and other missiles while the enemy would have to shoot upwards. Olaf, in effect, turned his eleven ships into a floating fort. The sagas give all the credit to the Norwegians, praising Eirik Hákonarson for any intelligence and for most of the valour shown by Olaf Tryggvason's opponents. The Danes and Swedes rush at the front of Olaf's line and are repulsed, suffering heavy casualties and loss of ships. Jarl Eirik attacks the flank and forces his vessel, the Járnbarðinn, up against the last ship of Olaf's line, which he clears with a fierce attack and then proceeds onto the next ship. In this way, Olaf's ships were cleared one by one, till the Long Serpent alone was left. Einarr Þambarskelfir One of the best known episodes from the battle involves Einarr Þambarskelfir, an archer in King Olaf's fleet who later became a cunning politician. Heimskringla describes his attempt at killing Jarl Eirik and saving the day for Olaf: The same story is found in Gesta Danorum, though there Einarr is aiming at Svein, rather than Eirik. King Olaf's death At last, the Long Serpent is overpowered and Olaf Tryggvason defeated. The Danish sources report that when all was lost he committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea, "the end befitting his life", according to Adam of Bremen. Saxo Grammaticus says that Olaf preferred suicide to death at the hands of the enemy and jumped overboard in full armour rather than see his foes victorious. The Norwegian and Icelandic accounts are more complex and more favourable to Olaf. Hallfreðr's memorial poem for his lord had already alluded to rumours that Olaf escaped death at Svolder. The sagas offer a variety of possibilities. Ágrip reports: Other sagas suggest that one way or another Olaf made his way to the shore; perhaps by swimming, perhaps with the help of angels, most likely rescued by one of the Wendish ships present. After his escape, Olaf supposedly sought salvation for his soul abroad, perhaps joining a monastery. Mesta describes a series of "sightings" of him in the Holy Land, the last in the 1040s. King Olaf, like Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa and Sebastian of Portugal, is one of those legendary heroic figures whose return was looked for by the people, their deaths never completely accepted. (See King asleep in mountain.) Aftermath After the Battle of Svolder, the victorious leaders split Norway into areas of control. Heimskringla gives the most detailed account of the division, describing it as threefold. Olaf the Swede received four districts in Trondheim as well as Møre, Romsdal and Rånrike. He gave these to Jarl Svein Hákonarson, his son in law, to hold as a vassal. Svein Forkbeard gained possession of the Viken district, where Danish influence had long been strong. The rest of Norway was ruled by Eirik Hákonarson as Svein's vassal. Fagrskinna, in contrast, says that the Swedish part consisted of Oppland and a part of Trondheim. Other sources are less specific. The Jarls Eirik and Svein proved strong, competent rulers, and their reign was prosperous. Most sources say that they adopted Christianity but allowed the people religious freedom, leading to a backlash against Christianity which undid much of Olaf Tryggvason's missionary work. Legacy Several factors combined to make the Battle of Svolder one of the most famous battles of the Viking Age. In Norwegian-Icelandic historiography, King Olaf Tryggvason was held in high regard as the man who brought Christianity to the North. His colourful end in a battle against overwhelming odds therefore makes a fitting narrative. Jarl Eirik's court poets also ensured their lord a fair share of the glory. Mesta says: In Iceland, where the kings' sagas continued to be copied and studied, the battle exercised the imagination of several poets. A 15th century rímur cycle, Svöldrar rímur, chronicles the battle in verse, largely following the account of Oddr Snorrason. Two more rímur cycles on the same topic were composed in the 18th century, one of which is preserved. In the 19th century, the popular poet Sigurður Breiðfjörð composed yet another rímur cycle on the battle, based on the account in Mesta. With the 19th century rise of nationalism and romanticism and the growing number of translations of the sagas, interest in the battle of Svolder increased outside of Iceland. Around 1830, the Faroese poet Jens Christian Djurhuus composed a ballad on the battle titled Ormurin langi, following Snorri's account. The ballad was well received and remains among the most popular and well-known Faroese ballads. In 2002, a heavy metal version by the band Týr gained some following abroad. In Norway, Johan Nordahl Brun's rousing patriotic play Einar Tambarskjelve, written in 1772, is considered a milestone in Norwegian literature. Later Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson wrote a well-known short poem, Olav Trygvason, on the fall of the king. Bjørnson also collaborated with Edvard Grieg on an opera about Olaf Tryggvason, but the two fell out before the work was finished. Ragnar Søderlind has now completed the opera, which premiered in September 2000, 1000 years after the Battle of Svolder. Søderlind introduced fate motifs from Wagner, Beethoven and Liszt in the battle scene. The battle has also inspired art outside of Scandinavia, including a manga volume by the Japanese artist Ryō Azumi. The best known English-language work is probably Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's cycle "The Saga of King Olaf" (from his 1863 collection of poems Tales of a Wayside Inn), much of which is dedicated to the Battle of Svolder, and which includes the verse: Louder the war-horns growl and snarl, Sharper the dragons bite and sting! Eric the son of Hakon Jarl A death-drink salt as the sea Pledges to thee, Olaf the King! Svolder is also the name of a Canadian NSBM band whose lyrics primarily focus on the defamation of Syrian refugees, Islamophobia, and the ZOG conspiracy theory. See also Christianization of Scandinavia Battle of Stiklestad Footnotes References Further reading Adam of Bremen (translated by Francis Joseph Tschan and Timothy Reuter) (2002). History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. Columbia University Press. Baetke, Walter. Christliches Lehngut in der Sagareligion, Das Svoldr-Problem: Zwei Beiträge zur Sagakritik. Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Philologisch-historische Klasse 98.6. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. 1951. Bjarni Aðalbjarnarson (editor) (1941). Íslenzk fornrit XXVI : Heimskringla I. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag. Campbell, Alistair (editor and translator) and Simon Keynes (supplementary introduction) (1998). Encomium Emmae Reginae. Cambridge University Press. Driscoll, M. J. (editor) (1995). Ágrip af Nóregskonungasǫgum. Viking Society for Northern Research. Ekrem, Inger (editor), Lars Boje Mortensen (editor) and Peter Fisher (translator) (2003). Historia Norwegie. Museum Tusculanum Press. Finnur Jónsson (1912–15). Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning. København: Den arnamagnæanske kommission. Finnur Jónsson (1923). Den oldnorske og oldislandske litteraturs historie. København: G.E.C Gads forlag. Finnur Sigmundsson (1966). Rímnatal I. Reykjavík: Rímnafélagið. Finlay, Alison (editor and translator) (2004). Fagrskinna, a Catalogue of the Kings of Norway. Brill Academic Publishers. Kouri, E. I., Torkel Jansson and Knut Helle (2003). The Cambridge History of Scandinavia. Cambridge University Press. Levin, Mona (translated by Virginia Siger) (2002). Saga King Becomes Opera - at Last! Music Information Centre Norway. Retrieved 30 January 2007. Midgaard, John (1963). A Brief History of Norway. Oslo. Naess, Harald S. (1993). A History of Norwegian Literature. University of Nebraska Press. Nicholson, Helen (2003). Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300–1500. Palgrave Macmillan. Oddr Snorrason (translated by Theodore M. Andersson) (2003). The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason. Cornell University Press. Ólafía Einarsdóttir (translated by Helga Kress) (1967). "Árið 1000" in Skírnir. Ólafur Halldórsson (editor) (2006). Íslenzk fornrit XXV : Færeyinga saga, Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar eptir Odd munk Snorrason. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag. Sawyer, Peter (2005). "Scandinavia in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries." In The New Cambridge Medieval History IV. David Luscombe and Jonathan Riley-Smith (eds). Cambridge University Press. . Saxo Grammaticus (edited by J. Olrik and H. Ræder) (1931). Saxonis Gesta Danorum. Hauniæ: Munksgaard. Sephton, J. (translator) (1895). The Saga of King Olaf Tryggwason. London: David Nutt. Snorri Sturluson (translated by Lee M. Hollander). (1991). Heimskringla : History of the Kings of Norway. University of Texas Press. Snorri Sturluson (translated by Samuel Laing and Rasmus Björn Anderson) (1907). Heimskringla: A History of the Norse Kings. London: Norroena Society. Sverrir Jakobsson (2002). "Erindringen om en mægtig personlighed : den norsk-islandske historiske tradisjon om Harald Hårfagre i et kildekristisk perspektiv" in Historisk tidsskrift 2002, vol. 81, pp. 213–230. Theodoricus monachus (translated and annotated by David and Ian McDougall with an introduction by Peter Foote) (1998). The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings. Viking Society for Northern Research. External links Heimskringla account (Starting from 108. Conspiracy Against King Olaf) Svolder Jomsvikings Svolder Svolder Svolder Svolder Svolder Svolder 999 1000 in Europe Denmark–Norway relations Norway–Sweden relations 10th century in Denmark 10th century in Norway 10th century in Sweden Svolder
418918	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruben%20Studdard	Ruben Studdard	Ruben Studdard (born September 12, 1978) is an American singer and actor. He rose to fame as the winner of the second season of American Idol and received a Grammy Award nomination in 2003 for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for his recording of "Superstar". In the years following Idol, Studdard has released seven studio albums, including his platinum-selling debut, Soulful, and the top-selling gospel follow-up, I Need an Angel. He is most well known for his recording career, which has produced hits including "Flying Without Wings", "Sorry 2004", and "Change Me", but he has also segued into television and stage work. Most notably, he starred as Fats Waller in a national tour revival of Ain't Misbehavin', which spawned a Grammy-nominated soundtrack. In 2013, Studdard appeared as a contestant on the fifteenth season of weight-loss competition show The Biggest Loser. He later signed to Verve Records and collaborated with the label's chairman, David Foster, on Studdard's sixth studio album, Unconditional Love, in 2014. That album received strong reviews as a return-to-form and included a tour with Lalah Hathaway. In 2018, Studdard, who has long been compared to R&B singer Luther Vandross, released a cover album called Ruben Sings Luther and launched his Always & Forever national tour. He made his Broadway theater debut in December 2018 in Ruben & Clay’s First Annual Christmas Carol Family Fun Pageant Spectacular Reunion Show (aka Ruben & Clay’s Christmas Show) at the Imperial Theatre. Early life Studdard was born in Frankfurt, West Germany, to American parents, while his father was stationed there with the U.S. Army, and grew up in Birmingham, Alabama. The youngest son of two teachers, at the age of three, he sang for the first time at the Rising Star Baptist Church in his hometown of Birmingham. He continued singing gospel in church, performing solos as a child while his mother sang in the local choir. While at Huffman High School, he played football for which he received a scholarship to Alabama A&M University. While at Alabama A&M, he joined the Omicron Delta chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, the men's music fraternity of America. After growing up listening to his mother's Donny Hathaway albums, Fred Hammond, and gospel music, Studdard began to pursue a career in the music industry, majoring in voice studies at Alabama A&M. He sang with Just a Few Cats, a popular local Birmingham jazz and R&B band founded by members of Ray Reach's UAB Jazz Ensemble, along with other local musicians. Years later, Studdard stated: "A lot of people don't realize how hard I was trying to get into the business before American Idol. I was making demos and just working so hard." A backup singer from Just a Few Cats asked him to accompany her to Nashville, Tennessee for an audition on the 2003 second season of American Idol. American Idol When auditioning, Studdard sang Stevie Wonder's "Ribbon in the Sky". On American Idol, he impressed viewers with his performances of the Leon Russell/Bonnie Bramlett song "Superstar" and the Peabo Bryson/Regina Belle duet "A Whole New World". During his time on the show, Studdard received praise from music legends such as Lionel Richie, Neil Sedaka, Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees, Luther Vandross, and Gladys Knight. During the televised competition, Studdard gained the nickname "Velvet Teddy Bear" and was noted for his shirts printed with "205," the telephone area code of his hometown of Birmingham. He won the contest over runner-up Clay Aiken by only 134,000 votes out of 24,000,000 cast in the May 2003 finale, becoming the second American Idol winner. Alabama Governor Bob Riley declared March 11, 2003, as "Ruben Studdard Day". Performances and results Career 2003–2004: Soulful Studdard released his first single, a cover of Westlife's "Flying Without Wings" (which he had sung on the American Idol finale), produced by The Underdogs and Babyface. Fueled largely by sales, it debuted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. In December 2003, advance orders for his album Soulful topped the one million mark before it was released in stores. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart that month, selling over 400,000 copies in its first week and attaining the second highest first-week sales of any American Idol winner. The single "Sorry 2004" from this album found substantial airplay, reaching number nine in the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Billboard R&B singles chart. Studdard received a Grammy Award nomination in December 2003 for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for "Superstar", nominated alongside his idol Luther Vandross, who ultimately won the category. In March 2004, Ruben won the NAACP Outstanding New Artist award. 2004–2005: I Need an Angel Studdard released the gospel album I Need an Angel on November 23, 2004. The title track and first single "I Need an Angel" was a cover of 2002 single performed by R&B singer Daniel DeBourg and written by R. Kelly. The album sold over 96,000 copies in its first week, entering the Gospel charts at number one and number twenty on the Billboard 200 chart. It since has sold over 500,000 copies, securing Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America. It was also number one on the 2005 Billboard Year-End Gospel Albums Chart. In March 2005, Studdard filed a lawsuit against his godfather and business advisor Ronald Edwards. The suit alleges that Edwards ran up $156,000 on Studdard's credit cards and stole $90,000 from his checking account. Edwards filed a countersuit. On June 15, 2006, Studdard was awarded $500,000 for personal losses and another $1.5 million in punitive damages. Between his second and third albums, Studdard began a diet and fitness program to deal with his weight, out of concern for a family history of diabetes and hypertension, resulting in his losing over 70 pounds on a vegetarian diet. In 2004, Studdard made a cameo in the film Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, singing a cover of Earth, Wind & Fire's "Shining Star". He also made guest appearances on TV shows including Life on a Stick, 8 Simple Rules, One on One, All of Us and Eve. 2006–2008: The Return Studdard's third album, The Return, was released in October 2006. Returning to R&B music on this album, Studdard collaborated with a variety of producers, including Scott Storch, Stargate, and Ne-Yo. Studdard also co-wrote several songs on the album. The Return sold 71,000 copies in its first week to open at number eight on the Billboard 200 album chart. The lead single, "Change Me", reached number one on Billboard's Urban Contemporary chart, while the follow-up track, "Make Ya Feel Beautiful", also made a strong impression on the R&B charts. Studdard continued to tour, saying he would play a variety of music: "Coming out to my show is like coming to my house. I'll play the songs I love. It's like a party. For me, a party has all different types of music happening." Studdard appeared on the finale of American Idol season 6 in May 2007. He spent a few weeks touring with Robin Givens in the comedy-drama Heaven I Need a Hug and prepared to take on the role of Fats Waller in a national tour of Ain't Misbehavin' in 2008. The tour is scheduled to begin November 17, 2008, in Atlanta, GA, and end May 14, 2009, in Syracuse, NY. In December 2007, Studdard had been dropped from his record company, J Records, due to poor sales of The Return and "[falling] short of expectations". He remained under contract with 19 Recordings and was assigned the high-profile position of performing the American Idol season 7 farewell song, a recording of Kenny Loggins' "Celebrate Me Home", in a new version produced by Terry Lewis and Jimmy Jam. Studdard performed "Celebrate Me Home" live on May 20, 2008, at the Nokia Theatre for the first night of the two-night grand finale of American Idol's seventh season. In 2008, Studdard also collaborated with gospel singer Deitrick Haddon and duo Mary Mary on the hit gospel song "Love Him As I Do". 2009–2010: Love Is Studdard announced that his next album, to be released May 19, 2009, would be released on Sony Music offshoot Hickory Records. The new album, entitled Love Is, was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. The album spawned the singles "Together" and "Don't Make 'Em Like U No More". Love Is was released on May 19, 2009, to positive reviews. The album, which features a mix of covers and original songs, sold 15,200 units in its first week to debut at number 36 on the Billboard 200, number five on Independent Albums, and number eight on Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. Studdard appeared with the "David Foster and Friends" ten-city tour beginning October 21, 2009, in Chicago, Illinois, and ending November 8, 2009, in Vancouver, Canada. A compilation album, Playlist: The Very Best of Ruben Studdard was released on January 26, 2010, by Sony's Legacy Recordings. Studdard returned to the American Idol stage on March 31, 2010, to perform "Don't Make 'Em Like U No More". In his on-camera interview with Ryan Seacrest after his performance, he announced that he would be touring with Clay Aiken in the summer. Studdard and Aiken brought their Timeless tour to cities in the US and Canada beginning in Asheville, North Carolina on July 23, 2010, and ending in Biloxi, Mississippi on August 14. Instead of a concert focusing on each singer's recordings, Studdard and Aiken opted for a variety show format covering medleys of songs from the 1960s to the 1990s, with a few solos and interspersed with comedy bits. 2010–2013: Letters from Birmingham In 2011, Studdard signed with Shanachie Entertainment. His first album for the label and fifth studio release overall, Letters from Birmingham, was released in March 2012. A concept album that traces a relationship through a series of romantic letters, Letters from Birmingham received mostly positive reviews, especially for his duet with Chrisette Michele, "Do It Right", which was praised as "sublime" and "tantalizing". The album also included covers of Bobby Brown's "Rock Wit'cha" and "Pure Imagination" from Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, recast as a love song. Since its release, "Letters from Birmingham" has sold 22,000 copies, and the lead single, "June 28 (I'm Single)", which referenced his marriage and subsequent divorce, reached the top 20 of Billboard's urban charts. 2013–2014: The Biggest Loser and Unconditional Love Studdard joined the cast of the fifteenth season of the NBC weight loss competition show The Biggest Loser, and was credited as its first-ever celebrity contestant. At 6'3 and 462 pounds, Studdard had the highest starting weight and BMI of the entire cast. A member of the show's Red Team, Studdard was first eliminated in the fourth week after he failed to make his weight loss goal. However, because opposing coach Jillian Michaels had given her team caffeine pills in violation of the rules, Studdard's elimination was voided and he returned before once again being eliminated during the competition's eighth week. At the show's finale on February 4, 2014 (which coincided with the release of Studdard's newest album, Unconditional Love), it was revealed that he had lost a total of 119 pounds for an ending weight of 343 pounds. Studdard credited the weight loss for improving his ability to perform onstage. During the finale, Studdard also performed his new album's lead single, "Meant to Be", accompanied by the song's co-writer and producer, David Foster, on piano. Unconditional Love is Studdard's sixth studio album and first with his new label, Verve Records. Foster, who has won 16 Grammy Awards, was the executive producer of the disc, which primarily consists of covers of love songs along with two originals, including "Meant to Be". Studdard has called it "the album that everybody expected from me when I won American Idol." The album features collaborations with Stevie Wonder, Lalah Hathaway, and Eric Benet, and includes covers of songs originally performed by artists such as Paul McCartney, Donny Hathaway, Bonnie Raitt, Marvin Gaye, and Peabo Bryson. Since its release, the album has received some of Studdard's best reviews of his career. According to critics, the album "finds Studdard at the top of his game vocally" and he hits his stride, "exuding grace, confidence and class" as he successfully positions himself as a "stylish crooner". Unconditional Love debuted at #46 on the Billboard 200 and #7 on Billboard's R&B Albums chart. Studdard supported the release of Unconditional Love with the national Born Again Tour with his collaborator Lalah Hathaway. 2015–present: Ruben Sings Luther and Broadway debut Studdard continues to appear regularly on American Idol, including mentoring and performing with contestants in its farewell season on Fox. He released a new single, "Can't Nobody Love You", on April 8, 2016, and appeared on several talk shows to promote the song. In 2017, he released a cover of "A Change Is Gonna Come" and guested on Patti LaBelle's holiday album, performing "Your Presence with Me" and "Ave Maria". In 2018, Studdard, who had long been compared to Luther Vandross, released a tribute album, Ruben Sings Luther, on the SEG Music label. He supported the album with the Always & Forever national tour. In an interview with People Magazine, Studdard said that “Since I won American Idol, people have been asking for me to sing Luther songs for a long time. I thought, ‘OK. Do you want to hear it? I might as well do it. I thought it was the perfect time to pay homage to one of the greatest song interpreters of all time.” Both the album and tour received strong reviews, with Variety noting that "Studdard truly took wing and made the music of Vandross his own" on tour and The Philadelphia Inquirer calling the album a "full-on lush-and-funky tribute". Studdard made his Broadway theater debut in December 2018, reuniting with Clay Aiken in Ruben & Clay’s First Annual Christmas Carol Family Fun Pageant Spectacular Reunion Show (aka Ruben & Clay’s Christmas Show) at the Imperial Theatre, with previews beginning December 7 and the show officially opening December 11. The show continued through December 30, with a portion of ticket sales benefitting the National Inclusion Project. Acting Studdard has worked as an actor in several roles, including single-episode appearances on the television series 8 Simple Rules, Life on a Stick, All of Us, Eve, and One on One, as well as a cameo appearance in the film Scooby Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed. He has also appeared in a television commercial for a Birmingham-area Kia dealer. Studdard headlined the revival tour of Ain't Misbehavin', starring alongside fellow American Idol alumni Trenyce and Frenchie Davis. Starring as Fats Waller, Studdard received positive reviews and was part of the cast recording album released by Rhino Records on January 13, 2009. The album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album. Advocacy Studdard's love of music led him to create The Ruben Studdard Foundation for the Advancement of Children in the Music Arts. The foundation's mission statement says its aim is "to promote the essential role of the arts in education through learning initiatives for the development of students in the Greater Birmingham Area." Studdard also signed on as an official spokesperson for "Be Sickle Smart", a nationwide grassroots health-education program aimed at increasing awareness of iron overload among people living with sickle-cell disease. Personal life Studdard met Surata Zuri McCants in October 2006, when he was signing CDs at a Walmart in Atlanta. On June 28, 2008, Studdard married McCants in a short, private ceremony in Mountain Brook, Alabama. On November 16, 2011, Studdard's attorney announced that Studdard was in the process of a divorce. Studdard's divorce was finalized in April 2012. Studdard received an honorary Master of Arts degree from his alma mater of Alabama A&M University, where he received a bachelor's degree in Vocal Studies, at its December 2015 commencement ceremony. He is a member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia fraternity. In 2022, Studdard taught a masterclass for performing arts majors at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. Awards and nominations Discography Studio albums Compilation albums Singles Single certifications Other albums American Idol Season 2: All-Time Classic American Love Songs (2003) "What the World Needs Now" (with Season 2 Finalists) "God Bless the U.S.A. (Proud to Be an American)" (with Season 2 Finalists) "Superstar" American Idol: The Great Holiday Classics (2003) "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" (American Idol Ensemble) "This Christmas" Genius & Friends (2005) "Imagine" with Ray Charles and The Harlem Gospel Singers Revealed (2008) "Love Him Like I Do" with Deitrick Haddon and Mary Mary Ain't Misbehavin': The 30th Anniversary Cast Recording (2009) "Honeysuckle Rose" a duet with Frenchie Davis "The Jitterbug Waltz" with Patrice Covington & Company "Lounging At The Waldorf" with Frenchie Davis, Trenyce Cobbins & Patrice Covington "Your Feet's Too Big" Hit Man Returns: David Foster & Friends (2011) "Home" with David Foster Unbelievable (2011) "Saturday Love" with Keke Wyatt Sing Pray Love, Vol. 1: Sing (2014) "Back 2 Love" with Kelly Price Patti LaBelle Presents: Home for the Holidays with Friends (2017) "Don't Save it All for Christmas" "Your Presence with Me" "Let It Snow" "Ave Maria" Filmography One on One (2004) Scooby Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (2004) 8 Simple Rules (2005) Life on a Stick (2005) All of Us (2005) Natural Born Komics (2006) (direct-to-DVD) Eve (2006) Lifted (2011) The Perfect Gift (2011) See also List of Idols winners References External links Official Foundation site 1978 births Living people Alabama A&M Bulldogs football players American football offensive linemen American gospel singers American Idol winners American male pop singers American contemporary R&B singers Baptists from Alabama Musicians from Birmingham, Alabama Urban contemporary gospel musicians 19 Recordings artists J Records artists Hickory Records artists Shanachie Records artists Verve Records artists 21st-century African-American male singers African-American male actors
418924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Ryan	George Ryan	George Homer Ryan (born February 24, 1934) is an American former politician and convicted felon who served as the 39th governor of Illinois from 1999 to 2003. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as Secretary of State of Illinois from 1991 to 1999 and as lieutenant governor from 1983 to 1991. He was later convicted of federal racketeering, bribery, extortion, money laundering and tax fraud stemming from his time in office. Ryan was elected governor in 1998, narrowly defeating Democratic Congressman Glenn Poshard. He received national attention for his 2000 moratorium on executions in Illinois and for commuting more than 160 death sentences to life sentences in 2003. He chose not to run for reelection in 2002 amid a scandal. He was later convicted of federal corruption charges and spent more than five years in federal prison and seven months of home confinement. He was released from federal prison on July 3, 2013. Early life George Homer Ryan was born in Maquoketa, Iowa to Jeannette (née Bowman) and Thomas Ryan, a pharmacist. Ryan grew up in Kankakee County, Illinois. After serving in the U.S. Army in Korea, he worked for his father's two drugstores. He attended Ferris State College of Pharmacy (now Ferris State University) in Big Rapids, Michigan. Eventually, he built his father's pair of pharmacies into a successful family-run chain (profiting from lucrative government-contract business selling prescription drugs to nursing homes) which he sold in 1990. Ryan was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1954. He served a 13-month tour in Korea, working in a base pharmacy. On June 10, 1956, Ryan married his high school sweetheart, Lura Lynn Lowe (July 5, 1934 – June 27, 2011), whom he had met in a high school English class. She grew up in Aroma Park, where her family (originally from Germany) had lived since 1834. Her father owned one of the first hybrid seed companies in the United States. The couple had five daughters (including a set of triplets); Julie, Joanne, Jeanette, Lynda and Nancy; and one son, George Homer Ryan, Jr. Lura Lowe died of lung cancer at Riverside Hospital in Kankakee on June 27, 2011. Ryan's brother, Tom, was a prominent political figure in Kankakee County. In addition, Ryan's sister Kathleen Dean's former son-in-law, Bruce Clark, is the Kankakee County, Illinois Clerk. Political career Ryan began his political career by serving on the Kankakee County Board from 1968 to 1973 (his brother Tom J. Ryan was Mayor of Kankakee for 20 years from 1965 to 1985). He was then elected to the Illinois House of Representatives, where he served from 1973 to 1983, including two terms as Minority Leader and one term as Speaker. He then spent 20 years in statewide office, as Lieutenant Governor under Governor James R. Thompson (1983–1991), Secretary of State from 1991 to 1999, and as governor from 1999 to 2003. During his first term as Secretary of State, then–State Treasurer Pat Quinn was publicly critical of Ryan. Specifically, he drew attention to special vanity license plates that Ryan's office provided for clout-heavy motorists. This rivalry led Quinn in a failed bid to challenge Ryan in the 1994 general election for Secretary of State. Term as governor Ryan was elected Governor in 1998, defeating his opponent, Glenn Poshard, by a 51–47% margin. Ryan's running mate was first-term state representative Corinne Wood. Ryan outspent Poshard by a 4-to-1 margin. Poshard, a firm believer in campaign finance reform, placed limits on individual donations and refused to accept donations from corporate or special interests. One of Ryan's pet projects as governor was an extensive repair of the Illinois Highway System called "Illinois FIRST". FIRST was an acronym for "Fund for Infrastructure, Roads, Schools, and Transit". Signed into law in May 1999, the law created a $6.3 billion package for use in school and transportation projects. With various matching funds programs, Illinois FIRST provided $2.2 billion for schools, $4.1 billion for public transportation, another $4.1 billion for roads, and $1.6 billion for other projects. He also improved Illinois's technology infrastructure, creating one of the first cabinet-level Offices of Technology in the country and bringing up Illinois's technology ranking in a national magazine from 48th out of the 50 states when he took office to 1st just two years later. Ryan committed record funding to education, including 51% of all new state revenues during his time in office, in addition to the billions spent through Illinois FIRST that built and improved schools and education infrastructure. In 1999, Ryan sparked controversy by becoming the first sitting U.S. Governor to meet with Cuban President Fidel Castro. Ryan's visit led to a $1 million donation of humanitarian aid, but drew criticism from anti-Castro groups. In 2000, Ryan served as a chair of the Midwestern Governors Association. Capital punishment Ryan helped to renew the national debate on capital punishment when, as governor, he declared a moratorium on his state's death penalty on January 31, 2000. This decision was heavily influenced by lawsuits filed by exonerated prisoners who made false confessions as a result of police torture under the direction of a police commander named Jon Burge. "We have now freed more people than we have put to death under our system," he said. "There is a flaw in the system, without question, and it needs to be studied." At the time, Illinois had executed 12 people since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1977, with one execution, that of Ripper Crew member Andrew Kokoraleis, occurring early during Ryan's term. Ryan refused to meet with religious leaders and others regarding "a stay of execution" in light of the impending 'moratorium' and other facts relative to the 'flawed' capital punishment system in Illinois; in fact, under Ryan's governorship, 13 people were released from jail after appealing their convictions based on new evidence. Ryan called for a commission to study the issue, while noting, "I still believe the death penalty is a proper response to heinous crimes ... But I believe that it has to be where we don't put innocent people to death." The issue had garnered the attention of the public when a death row inmate, Anthony Porter, who had spent 15 years on death row, was within two days of being executed when his lawyers won a stay on the grounds that he may have been mentally disabled. He was ultimately exonerated with the help of a group of student journalists at Northwestern University who had uncovered evidence that was used to prove his innocence. In 1999, Porter was released, charges were subsequently dropped, and another person, Alstory Simon, confessed and pleaded guilty to the crime of which Porter had been erroneously convicted. Simon himself was later released after serving fifteen years for the crime, after it was proven that he, too, was wrongfully accused. On January 11, 2003, just two days before leaving office, Ryan commuted (to "life" terms) the sentences of everyone on or waiting to be sent to Illinois' death row — a total of 167 convicts — due to his belief that the death penalty could not be administered fairly. He also pardoned four inmates, Aaron Patterson, Madison Hobley and Leroy Orange (all of whom were interrogated by Burge and released), and Stanley Howard. However, Patterson is currently serving 30 years in prison after being arrested for drug trafficking he committed after his release from death row. Howard remains in prison for armed robbery. Ryan declared in his pardon speech that he would have freed Howard if only his attorney had filed a clemency petition; Ryan then strongly urged investigators to examine Howard's alleged robbery case, because it appeared to be as tainted as his murder conviction. These were four of ten death row inmates known as the "Death Row 10," due to widely reported claims that the confessions that they had given in their respective cases had been coerced through torture. Ryan is not the first state governor to have granted blanket commutations to death row inmates during his final days in office. Arkansas Governor Winthrop Rockefeller also commuted the sentence of every death row inmate in that state as he left office after losing his 1970 bid for a third two-year term, as did New Mexico Governor Toney Anaya before he left office in 1986 and Ohio Governor Dick Celeste before he left office in 1990. Ryan won praise from death penalty opponents: as early as 2001, he received the Mario Cuomo Act of Courage Award from Death Penalty Focus, in 2003 the Rose Elizabeth Bird Commitment to Justice Award from the same organization, and in 2005 he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. On the other side of the Atlantic, Robert Badinter, who had successfully introduced the bill abolishing the death penalty in France in 1981 praised Ryan's decision. Many conservatives, though, were opposed to the commutations, some questioning his motives, which came as a federal corruption investigation closed in on the governor and his closest political allies (see below). Conservative columnist Pat Buchanan called Ryan "pathetic", and suggested the governor was attempting to save his public image in hopes of avoiding prison himself. Buchanan noted "Ryan announced his decision to a wildly cheering crowd at the Northwestern University Law School. Families of the victims of the soon-to-be-reprieved killers were not invited." Scandals, trial, and conviction Ryan's political career was marred by a scandal called "Operation Safe Road", which involved the illegal sale of government licenses, contracts and leases by state employees during his prior service as Secretary of State. In the wake of numerous convictions of his former aides, he chose not to run for reelection in 2002. Seventy-nine former state officials, lobbyists, and others were charged in the investigation, and at least 76 were convicted. The corruption scandal leading to Ryan's downfall began more than a decade earlier during a federal investigation into a deadly crash in Wisconsin. Six children from the Willis family of Chicago, Illinois, were killed; their parents, Rev. Duane and Janet Willis, were severely burned. The investigation revealed a scheme inside Ryan's Secretary of State's office in which unqualified truck drivers obtained licenses through bribes. In March 2003, Scott Fawell, Ryan's former chief of staff and campaign manager, was convicted on federal charges of racketeering and fraud. He was sentenced to six years and six months. Former deputy campaign manager Richard Juliano pleaded guilty to related charges and testified against Fawell at trial. Roger Stanley, a former Republican state representative who was hired by Ryan and testified against Fawell, pleaded guilty to wide-ranging corruption, admitting he paid kickbacks to win state contracts and campaign business, secretly mailed out vicious false attacks on political opponents and helped obtain ghost-payrolling jobs. Indictment The investigation finally reached the former governor, and in December 2003, Ryan and lobbyist Lawrence Warner were named in a 22-count federal indictment. The charges included racketeering, bribery, extortion, money laundering and tax fraud. The indictment alleged that Ryan steered several state contracts to Warner and other friends; disbursed campaign funds to relatives and to pay personal expenses; and obstructed justice by attempting to end the state investigation of the license-for-bribes scandal. He was charged with lying to investigators and accepting cash, gifts and loans in return for his official actions as governor. On September 19, 2005, the case went to trial. Fawell, under pressure from prosecutors, became a key witness against Ryan and Warner. He agreed to a plea deal that cut the prison time for himself and his fiancée, Andrea Coutretsis. Fawell was a controversial witness, not hiding his disdain for prosecutors from the witness stand. According to CBS Chicago political editor Mike Flannery, insiders claimed that Fawell had been "much like a son" to Ryan throughout their careers. At Ryan's trial, Fawell acknowledged that the prosecution had his "head in a vise", and that he found his cooperation with the government against Ryan "the most distasteful thing I've ever done". Nonetheless, he spent several days on the witness stand testifying against Ryan and Warner. Once a tough-talking political strategist, Fawell wept on the witness stand as he acknowledged that his motivation for testifying was to spare Coutretsis a long prison sentence for her role in the conspiracy. The jury was twice sent out of the courtroom so that he could wipe tears from his eyes and regain his composure. Ryan's daughters and a son-in-law, Michael Fairman, were implicated by testimony during the trial. Stipulations agreed upon by the defense and prosecution and submitted to the court included admissions that all five of Ryan's daughters received illegal payments from the Ryan campaign. In addition to Lynda Fairman, who received funds beyond those her husband Michael testified he had received, the stipulations included admissions from the rest of Ryan's daughters that they did little or no work in return for the payments. In addition, Fawell testified that Ryan's mother's housekeeper was illegally paid from campaign funds, and that Ryan's adopted sister, Nancy Ferguson, received campaign funds without performing campaign work. The prosecution took nearly four months to present their case, as a parade of other witnesses (including Juliano) followed Fawell. On April 17, 2006, the jury found Ryan and Warner guilty on all counts. However, when ruling on post-trial motions, the judge dismissed two counts against Ryan for lack of proof. Ryan said that he would appeal the verdict, largely due to the issues with the jury. Patrick Fitzgerald, the federal prosecutor, noted, "Mr. Ryan steered contracts worth millions of dollars to friends and took payments and vacations in return. When he was a sitting governor, he lied to the FBI about this conduct and then he went out and did it again." He charged that one of the most egregious aspects of the corruption was Ryan's action after learning that bribes were being paid for licenses. Instead of ending the practice he tried to end the investigation that had uncovered it, Fitzgerald said, calling the moment "a low-water mark for public service". On September 6, 2006, Ryan was sentenced to six and a half years in prison. He was ordered to go to prison on January 4, 2007, but the appellate court granted an appeal bond, allowing him to remain free pending the outcome of the appeal. His conviction was affirmed by the Court of Appeals of the Seventh Circuit on August 21, 2007, and review by the entire Seventh Circuit was denied on October 25, 2007. The Seventh Circuit then rejected Ryan's bid to remain free while he asked the U.S. Supreme Court to hear his case; the opinion called the evidence of Ryan's guilt "overwhelming". The Supreme Court rejected an extension of his bail, and Ryan reported to the Federal Prison Camp in Oxford, Wisconsin, on November 7, 2007. He was transferred on February 29, 2008, to a medium security facility in Terre Haute, Indiana, after Oxford changed its level of medical care and stopped housing inmates over 70 years old. He was listed as Federal Inmate Number 16627-424 and was released on July 3, 2013. Defense and appeal Ryan's defense was provided pro bono by Winston & Strawn, a law firm managed by former governor Jim Thompson. The defense cost the firm $10 million through mid-November 2005. Estimates of the cost to the firm as of September 2006 ranged as high as $20 million. Ryan served as Thompson's lieutenant governor from 1983 to 1991. After the United States Supreme Court declined to hear Ryan's appeal, Thompson indicated that he would ask then President George W. Bush to commute Ryan's sentence to time served. United States Senator Dick Durbin wrote a letter to Bush dated December 1, 2008, asking him to commute Ryan's sentence, citing Ryan's age and his wife's frail health, saying, "This action would not pardon him of his crimes or remove the record of his conviction, but it would allow him to return to his wife and family for their remaining years." Bush did not commute Ryan's sentence. After his conviction Ryan's annual $197,037 state pension was suspended under state law. Ryan's attorneys litigated the pension matter all the way to the Illinois Supreme Court, which ruled on February 19, 2010, that state law "plainly mandates that none of the benefits provided for under the system shall be paid to Ryan". Ryan was paid $635,000 in pension benefits during the three years between his retirement and his political corruption conviction, plus a refund of the $235,500 in personal contributions he made during his 30 years in public office. Sentencing In 2010, Ryan requested early release, partly because his wife had terminal cancer and was given only six months to live, and partly on the grounds that some of his convictions should be vacated in light of a Supreme Court ruling that was alleged to have affected their legitimacy. On December 21, 2010, U.S. District Court Judge Rebecca Pallmeyer denied Ryan's request. On January 5, 2011, Ryan was taken from his prison cell in Terre Haute, Indiana, to a hospital in Kankakee to visit his dying wife. He was present when she died five months after that visit. Ryan entered a Salvation Army halfway house in Chicago on January 30, 2013. Less than three hours later, he was released back to his home in Kankakee where he remained on home confinement until July 3, 2013. Electoral history References NBC News External links CNN.com: Blanket commutation' empties Illinois death row", January 11, 2003. Biography from site supporting his nomination for a Nobel Peace Prize Chicago Sun-Times archive on The George Ryan Trial Strange Hero: George Ryan and the death penalty \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1934 births American businesspeople in retailing American pharmacists County board members in Illinois Criminals from Illinois Ferris State University alumni Republican Party governors of Illinois Illinois politicians convicted of crimes Republican Party members of the Illinois House of Representatives Lieutenant Governors of Illinois Living people Military personnel from Illinois People from Kankakee, Illinois People from Maquoketa, Iowa Illinois politicians convicted of corruption Politicians convicted of mail and wire fraud Politicians convicted of racketeering Secretaries of State of Illinois Speakers of the Illinois House of Representatives United States Army personnel of the Korean War United States Army soldiers
418925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod%20Blagojevich	Rod Blagojevich	Rod Blagojevich ( , born December 10, 1956), often referred to by his nickname "Blago", is a Serbian-American politician, political commentator, and convicted felon who served as the 40th governor of Illinois from 2003 to 2009. He was impeached, removed from office, convicted, and incarcerated for eight years on federal charges of public corruption. A member of the Democratic Party, Blagojevich previously worked in both the state and federal legislatures. He served as an Illinois state representative from 1993 to 1997, and the U.S. representative from Illinois's 5th district from 1997 to 2003. Born and raised in Chicago, Blagojevich graduated from Northwestern University in 1979 and the Pepperdine University School of Law in 1983. After graduating, he became a criminal prosecutor at the Cook County State's Attorney Office during the late 1980s. Turning to elective politics, he represented the 33rd state house district in the Illinois House of Representatives where he supported mostly law and order policies. Forgoing a third two-year term in the state legislature, he represented for six years, winning re-election twice. He was elected Illinois governor in 2002, the first Democrat to win the office since 1972. There was increased public education funding, infrastructure development, and criminal justice reforms during his first term. A 2006 re-election and his second term led to the passage of a variety of healthcare, gun control, and anti-discrimination bills. Starting in December 2008, a federal investigation and trial found Blagojevich guilty of public corruption after he attempted to sell the U.S. Senate seat vacated by Barack Obama upon his election to the presidency. Blagojevich was impeached, convicted, and removed from office in 2009 by the Illinois General Assembly. He was also subsequently barred by the Illinois Senate from holding public office within the state ever again. For his role in the corruption scandal, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in federal prison. After an appeal for his release, U.S. President Donald Trump formally commuted his sentence in 2020, after Blagojevich had been imprisoned for nearly eight years. In May 2020, Blagojevich launched a politics-themed program called The Lightning Rod on WLS-AM. Early life Rod Blagojevich was born in Chicago, Illinois, the second of two sons of Serb immigrants from FPR Yugoslavia. His father, Rade B. Blagojevich, was an immigrant steel plant laborer from a village near Kragujevac, PR Serbia. His mother, Mila, was a Herzegovinian Serb whose family was originally from Gacko, PR Bosnia and Herzegovina. His parents moved to Chicago in 1947. Blagojevich's older brother Rob worked as a fund-raiser for Blagojevich in his later political career. Blagojevich spent much of his childhood working odd jobs to help the family pay its bills. He was a shoeshiner and pizza delivery boy before working at a meat packing plant. In order to afford university costs, Blagojevich worked for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System as a dishwasher. Blagojevich does not have a middle name, but uses the initial "R" in honor of his deceased father. His nickname in the family was "Milorad", which some have mistakenly thought to be his name at birth. Blagojevich graduated from Chicago's Foreman High School after transferring from Lane Technical High School. He played basketball in high school, and participated in two fights after training as a Golden Gloves boxer. After graduation, he enrolled at the University of Tampa. After two years, he transferred to Northwestern University in suburban Evanston, where he graduated in 1979 with a B.A. in history. He earned his J.D. from the Pepperdine University School of Law in 1983. He later said of the experience: "I went to law school at a place called Pepperdine in Malibu, California, overlooking the Pacific Ocean — a lot of surfing and movie stars and all the rest. I barely knew where that law library was." Blagojevich is married to Patricia Mell, the daughter of former Chicago alderman Richard Mell. Blagojevich voted for Ronald Reagan in 1980 and voted for his re-election in 1984. Amateur boxing career Blagojevich had an amateur boxing career which spanned 13 months and included Golden Gloves competition. He trained under Jerry Marzillo in Chicago's Park District, and he fought some of his matches at the St. Andrews Gym in Chicago's Northside. Early career Prosecutor Blagojevich clerked for Chicago Alderman Edward Vrdolyak. Blagojevich then took a job as Cook County Assistant State's Attorney (assistant prosecutor) under State's Attorney Richard M. Daley, specializing in domestic abuse crimes and felony weapons cases. State and federal legislator In 1992, with the backing of his influential father-in-law, Blagojevich unseated 14-year incumbent Myron Kulas in the Democratic primary for the 33rd state house district, in the Illinois House of Representatives, which includes part of Chicago's North Side. As is the case with most state legislative elections in Chicago, this virtually assured him of election in November. He drew on his experiences as a prosecutor to draft bills that he argued would strengthen the state's judicial system and reduce crime. In 1996, Blagojevich did not seek reelection to the statehouse but instead ran for , based on the North Side. The district had long been represented by Dan Rostenkowski, who served as chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee. Rostenkowski lost reelection in 1994 to Republican Michael Patrick Flanagan after pleading guilty to mail fraud. However, Flanagan was a conservative Republican representing a heavily Democratic district and was regarded as a heavy underdog. Blagojevich soundly defeated Flanagan by a nearly 2-to-1 margin, with support from his father-in-law. He was elected two more times, taking 74% against a nominal Republican challenger in 1998 and having only a Libertarian opponent in 2000. Blagojevich was not known as a particularly active congressman. In the late 1990s, he traveled with Jesse Jackson to Belgrade in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to negotiate with President Slobodan Milošević for the release of American prisoners of war. On October 10, 2002, Blagojevich was one of 81 House Democrats, and one of only two from Illinois (the other being David D. Phelps), who voted in favor of authorizing the invasion of Iraq. Gubernatorial campaigns 2002 election During 2002, Blagojevich campaigned for his party's nomination to become governor. Blagojevich won a close primary campaign against former Illinois Attorney General Roland Burris and Chicago Public Schools Superintendent Paul Vallas, who ran well in the suburban collar counties of Chicago. Blagojevich finished strongly in Southern Illinois, winning 55% of the primary vote downstate, enough to win a primary victory by a thin margin. During the primary, state Senator Barack Obama backed Burris but, at Burris's suggestion, supported Blagojevich after he won the primary, serving as a "top adviser" for the general election. Future Obama senior adviser David Axelrod had previously worked with Blagojevich on congressional campaigns, but did not consider Blagojevich ready to be governor and declined to work for him on this campaign. According to Rahm Emanuel, he, Obama, Blagojevich's campaign co-chair David Wilhelm, and another Blagojevich staffer "were the top strategists of Blagojevich's 2002 gubernatorial victory", meeting weekly to outline campaign strategies. However, Wilhelm has said that Emanuel overstated Obama's role in the sessions, and Emanuel said in December 2008 that Wilhelm was correct and he had been wrong in his earlier 2008 recollection to The New Yorker. In the general election, Blagojevich defeated Republican Illinois Attorney General Jim Ryan. Blagojevich's campaign was helped by his well-connected father-in-law, Chicago alderman Richard Mell. Ethics scandals had plagued the previous administration of Republican George Ryan (no relation to Jim Ryan), and Blagojevich's campaign focused on the theme of "ending business as usual" in state government. Polls prior to the election found that many Illinois voters were confused about the names of George Ryan and Jim Ryan, a fact which Blagojevich used to his advantage. He asked, "How can you replace one Ryan with another Ryan and call that change? You want change? Elect a guy named Blagojevich." Blagojevich won with 52% of the vote over Jim Ryan. On election night, he said: "Tonight, ladies and gentlemen, Illinois has voted for change." 2006 reelection From 2005 to 2006, Blagojevich served as federal liaison for the Democratic Governors Association. In 2005, Blagojevich also served as a Chair of the Midwestern Governors Association. Numerous scandals brought the governor's approval rating as low as 36 percent, with 56 percent disapproving near the end of 2005. By early 2006, five Republicans campaigned in the primary for the right to challenge him in the general election, with state treasurer Judy Baar Topinka eventually winning the nomination. Blagojevich formally began his 2006 reelection campaign for Governor of Illinois on February 19, 2006. He won the Democratic primary on March 21 with 72% of the vote against challenger Edwin Eisendrath, whom Blagojevich would not debate. He convinced Democratic state senator James Meeks not to launch a third-party campaign by promising to attempt to lease out the state lottery to provide education funding. Blagojevich was endorsed by many Democratic leaders (with the notable exception of Attorney General Lisa Madigan, who claimed it was a conflict of interest since her office was investigating him), including then-Illinois Senator Barack Obama, who endorsed the governor in early 2005 and spoke on his behalf at the August 2006 Illinois State Fair. Blagojevich was also endorsed by the state's Sierra Club, the only Illinois governor ever endorsed by the organization. The union American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees declined to endorse Blagojevich for reelection, citing the 500 jobs he eliminated from the Illinois Department of Natural Resources, which left some state parks unsupervised. In 2004, Blagojevich had ordered the Illinois Tollway to erect 32 signs at a cost of $480,000, announcing "Open Road Tolling. Rod R. Blagojevich, Governor." In 2006, the signs were criticized for serving as campaign signs and costing significantly more than the common $200 signs. In the general election, Blagojevich defeated Topinka and the Green Party's Rich Whitney, outspending Topinka $27 million to $6 million. He attempted to tie Topinka to former Republican governor George Ryan's corruption. Topinka ran advertisements detailing Blagojevich's federal investigations and non-endorsements by major state Democrats such as Lisa Madigan. A three-term state treasurer, Topinka said that she had attempted to stop Blagojevich from using money from special funds for general expenditures without approval of the legislature; she said Blagojevich used the funds for projects meant to distract voters from his associates' corruption trials: "This constant giving away of money ... a million here, a million there, it raids our already hamstrung government and deadbeat state." Topinka's spokesman claimed that Blagojevich was the most investigated governor in Illinois history. Topinka lost to Blagojevich by 11%. Governor of Illinois (2003-2009) After the 2002 elections, Democrats had control of the Illinois House, Senate, and all but one statewide office. While in office, Blagojevich signed progressive legislation such as ethics reform, death penalty reform, a state Earned Income Tax Credit, a statewide comprehensive smoking ban and expansions of health programs like KidCare and FamilyCare (FamilyCare was ruled unconstitutional). Blagojevich signed a bill in 2005 that prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, public accommodations, and credit. Blagojevich originally campaigned against pork barrel spending, but eventually used it himself to gain more votes for bills. Soon after taking office in 2003, Blagojevich continued support of a moratorium on executions of death row inmates, even though no such executions are likely to occur for years (his predecessor, George Ryan, commuted all of the death sentences in the state shortly before leaving office in 2003). This support continued through his administration. Another notable action of his term was a strict new ethics law. When campaigning for re-election in 2006, Blagojevich said that if his ethics law had existed when former governor George Ryan had been in office, Ryan's corruption might not have occurred. Blagojevich also signed a comprehensive death penalty reform bill that was written by then-Senator Barack Obama and the late U.S. Senator Paul M. Simon. Organized labor and African Americans were Blagojevich's staunchest political supporters. In 2008, he told a group of African-Americans that he sometimes considered himself the first African American governor of Illinois. Education Blagojevich oversaw record increases in funding for education every year without raising general sales or income taxes. He was criticized by Republicans and many moderate Democrats for using funds from the state pension system in order to fund other spending. Another early 2006 proposal included "PreSchool for All" for all three- and four-year-old children in Illinois. Legislation authorizing the program was adopted as part of the fiscal year 2007 budget. Proposed capital programs On January 10, 2006, Blagojevich announced a proposal for a new $3 billion (US) spending plan for Illinois roads, mass transit, and schools, to be paid for by increased tax revenue and new gambling proposals (such as Keno and lottery games). The proposal met with immediate opposition by members of the Republican Party of Illinois and many Democrats, who viewed it as "an election year ploy". The suggestion to legalize Keno within Illinois was later withdrawn. As of 2008, Blagojevich had been unable for five years to agree to a capital plan that would improve Illinois infrastructure. In March 2008, Blagojevich announced a bipartisan coalition, chaired by former U.S. Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert and Former U.S. Congressman Glenn Poshard, to develop a capital construction plan that could pass the Illinois General Assembly. The Illinois Works Coalition toured the state and developed a compromise $34 billion package that relied on a lease of the Illinois Lottery, road funds, and expanded gambling for funding. The plan passed the Senate but stalled in the Illinois House, with opposition from Democrats. Special sessions Blagojevich called the Illinois General Assembly into special session 36 times while in office, which is half of the total number of special sessions called since 1970. The sessions were blamed for disrupting lawmakers' time off, while Blagojevich himself did not attend the sessions. Relationships with lawmakers Blagojevich disagreed with many state Democrats while in office, with House and Senate Republican leaders Frank Watson and Tom Cross often refereeing among the Democrats. During 2008, Blagojevich even expressed fear that House Democrats would gain more seats and he would face more opposition. Blagojevich's lieutenant governor was Pat Quinn. Quinn and Blagojevich publicly disagreed over Blagojevich's proposed Gross Receipts Tax to increase revenue for schools and other projects within Illinois. Quinn said in December 2008, that he had last spoken to Blagojevich in the summer of 2007. Blagojevich also feuded with Attorney General Lisa Madigan, Comptroller Dan Hynes, Secretary of State Jesse White, and state treasurer Alexi Giannoulias — all of whom are Democrats. Blagojevich was often at odds with members of both parties in the state legislature. Democratic legislator Jack Franks said that the reason Blagojevich had problems passing laws with the cooperation of the General Assembly is that he did not spend enough time with the legislature. "That's a real reason he has such poor relations with the Legislature and can't get any of his agenda passed, because he doesn't talk to anybody." When lawmakers working on a budget during a special session met at 10 am rather than 2 pm, and Blagojevich's attorney threatened that the Governor was considering legal action against the involved representatives, Democratic Rep. Joe Lyons told reporters, "We have a madman. The man is insane." Although Barack Obama served as an adviser to Blagojevich's 2002 gubernatorial campaign, by all accounts, Blagojevich and Obama have been estranged for years. Blagojevich did not endorse Obama in the 2004 United States Senate race, and Obama did not invite Blagojevich to speak at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, as he did Lisa Madigan, Hynes, and Giannoulias. Blagojevich has had a "friendly rapport" with the man who took over his congressional seat, Rahm Emanuel. Blagojevich has also disagreed publicly with then-Democratic Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley; after their dispute over Chicago Transit Authority funding, Daley called Blagojevich "cuckoo" and said he did not want to argue with the Governor since "He's arguing with everybody in America." Blagojevich replied, "I don't think I'm cuckoo." Soon after a meeting of 2007 with Democratic State Senator Mike Jacobs, meant to convince Jacobs to vote for Blagojevich's health insurance proposals, Jacobs emerged telling reporters that the Governor "blew up at him like a 10-year-old child", Blagojevich would not comment on the alleged incident. Jacobs said during 2008: "This is a governor who I don't think has a single ally, except for Senate president Emil Jones — and that's tenuous at best." Jones and Blagojevich sometimes collaborated, while at other times they disagreed on funding for education. During a 2008 Congressional race pitting Democratic state senator Debbie Halvorson against Republican Marty Ozinga, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee ran television advertisements attempting to help Halvorson by linking Republican Ozinga to Blagojevich, asserting that Ozinga had given campaign donations to the Democratic governor. The Daily Show appearances During early February 2006, Blagojevich appeared on The Daily Show to discuss the governor's executive order that pharmacists must dispense any drugs for which a customer had a valid prescription, including birth control pills and Plan B. This measure was being challenged on the show by state legislator Ron Stephens from Greenville, Illinois. Blagojevich was interviewed by Jason Jones, who repeatedly pretended to be unable to pronounce Blagojevich's name and simply called him "Governor Smith". At one point in the interview, Jones, who was acting as if he were against the governor's order, told him, "I'll be in charge of what my listeners hear." This prompted Blagojevich to turn to the camera and ask, "Is he teasing me or is that legit?" Two weeks after the interview, Blagojevich said that he was unaware of the nature of the show. Stephens said he knew beforehand that the show was a comedy show: "I thought the governor was hip enough that he would have known that, too." Stephens later said, "With all due respect to the governor, he knew it was a comedy show. It's general knowledge for people under 90 years of age. It was when he came off looking so silly that he said he thought it was a regular news program. Even assuming he didn't know about it beforehand, we had to sign a release before the interview." Blagojevich made another appearance on The Daily Show on August 23, 2010, after his removal from office. During his time on the show, he vehemently defended himself against host Jon Stewart's critique of things that he had previously said on the show. Stewart focused on how Blagojevich had expressed a great desire to tell his side in court, but then did not. Stewart attempted to get a promise that next time, Blagojevich would testify. Stewart also focused on Blagojevich's previous statement to him, that if one heard the famous "effing golden" statement in context, it would be seen as innocent. Stewart played the additional recording, and asked him how that sounded any different. The former governor had no concrete answers. Political positions State spending Blagojevich was criticized for using what his opponents called "gimmicks" to balance the state budget. Republicans claimed that he was simply passing the state's fiscal problems on to future generations by borrowing his way to balanced budgets. Indeed, the 2005 state budget called for paying the bills by underfunding a state employees' pension fund by $1.2 billion. During 2008, Blagojevich proposed issuing $16 billion in new bonds for the state to meet pension fund requirements. Blagojevich once told a gathering of black ministers on Chicago's South Side that he was "on the side of our Lord" with his budget proposals. Blagojevich proposed a budget for 2008 with a 5% increase from the year before. Budget reductions of some programs caused Blagojevich to attempt to close 11 state parks and 13 state historic sites, with his spokesman saying Blagojevich had never visited any of them. To plug state budget holes, Blagojevich at one point proposed selling the James R. Thompson Center or mortgaging it. Blagojevich was also criticized for his handling of the 2007 state budget. In particular, critics cited his unprecedented use of line-item and reduction vetoes to remove his political opponents' "member initiatives" from the budget bill. During 2003, more than 1,000 Illinois judges began a class action lawsuit against Blagojevich, because Blagojevich had stopped constitutionally-required cost of living pay increases for the judges due to budget reductions. The case was settled in the judges' favor in 2005, with Blagojevich's veto ruled as violating the state's constitution. Health care During a suspected shortage of the flu vaccine in 2004, Blagojevich ordered 260,000 doses from overseas distributors, which the Food and Drug Administration had warned would be barred from entering the United States. Although the vaccine doses had cost the state $2.6 million, the FDA refused to allow them into the country, and a buyer could not be found; they were donated to earthquake survivors in Pakistan a year later. However, the lots had expired, and Pakistan destroyed the vaccines. Also in 2004, Blagojevich's plans to set up a website for Illinois residents to import medication from Canada and the United Kingdom was blocked by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Imported medication would have saved users of the service 25 to 50 percent over domestic drugs. Blagojevich issued an executive order during 2004 requiring pharmacists in the state to dispense "morning-after" birth control, even if they object on moral or religious grounds. This order was legally challenged. Later in 2007, opponents of the governor's executive order reached a settlement with the state in one case, causing partial removal of the order. The settlement, which followed the Illinois Supreme Court's decision in September 2007 to hear an appeal of a lawsuit challenging the executive order, allowed pharmacists to decline to dispense birth control, so long as they provided information to customers about pharmacists who did. In another case, Morr-Fitz v. Blagojevich (later Morr-Fitz v. Quinn), the Illinois Court of Appeals ruled against Blagojevich's order. During October 2005, Blagojevich announced All Kids, his plan to provide access to state-subsidized healthcare for every child in Illinois. Signed into law by Blagojevich in November 2005, All Kids made Illinois the first state in the U.S. to attempt to legally require itself to provide universal affordable and comprehensive healthcare for children, regardless of income and immigration status. During March 2007, Blagojevich announced and campaigned for his universal healthcare plan, Illinois Covered. The plan was debated in the Illinois State Senate, but came one vote short of passing. He proposed to pay for the plan with the largest tax increase in Illinois history. He proposed a gross receipts tax on businesses, a $7.6 billion tax increase, with proceeds earmarked to provide universal healthcare in Illinois, increase education spending by $1.5 billion, fund a $25 billion capital construction plan, and reduce the State's $40 billion pension debt. Illinois House Speaker Michael Madigan called for a vote on a non-binding resolution on whether the state should impose a gross receipts tax. When it became apparent that the resolution would be defeated, Blagojevich announced at the last minute that supporters should vote against it, although the vote was intended to be a test vote to gauge whether the measure had any support. The request was seen by many lawmakers from both parties as an attempt to spin the loss positively. It was defeated by a vote of 107–0, which the Associated Press termed "jaw-dropping". When asked about the vote of the day, Blagojevich said, "Today, I think, was basically an up. ... I feel good about it." Blagojevich also successfully proposed a new tax on businesses that do not provide health insurance to their employees. Lawmakers did not approve another initiative of Blagojevich's, FamilyCare (which would provide healthcare for families of four making up to $82,000), but Blagojevich attempted to implement the plan unilaterally by executive order. In rejecting Blagojevich's executive order, a legislative committee questioned how the state would pay for the program. Blagojevich's decision has been called unconstitutional by two courts, which nullified the plan. However, during October 2008, pharmacies which had followed Blagojevich's directive to dispense drugs under the plan were informed by his administration that they would not be reimbursed and would have payments given under the system deducted from future Medicaid payments. One state lawmaker, Republican Ron Stephens, suggested that Blagojevich should pay the difference out of his own personal account. The Pantagraph agreed with Stephens in an editorial. Associated Press attempted under the Freedom of Information Act to discover how the state planned to pay for the Blagojevich-ordered program, how many people were enrolled, or how much the care had cost the state but were refused the information by state departments. Business After Blagojevich pushed for a law banning sales of certain video games to minors, a federal judge declared the law violated the First Amendment, with the state ordered to pay $520,000 in legal fees. Blagojevich vetoed three bills that would permit trucks to drive 65 mph outside the Chicago area instead of the current 55 mph, stating that one bill "compromises safety". Blagojevich threatened to stop the state's dealings with Bank of America Corp. over a shut-down factory in Chicago. On December 8, 2008, all state agencies were ordered to stop conducting business with Bank of America to pressure the company to make the loans. Blagojevich said the biggest U.S. retail bank would not get any more state business unless it restored credit to Republic Windows and Doors, whose workers were staging a sit-in. John Douglas, a former general counsel for the FDIC and attorney for Bank of America, called Blagojevich's gambit dangerous. Gun control Blagojevich has been described as a "staunch" supporter of gun control. During his February 2006 "State of the State" address, Blagojevich said the state should ban semi-automatic firearms. As a state legislator, Blagojevich proposed raising the price of an Illinois Firearm Owners Identification (FOID) card from $5 to $500. Blagojevich vetoed three gun bills in 2005, which would have: Deleted records in gun database after 90 days Eliminated the waiting period for someone wanting to buy a rifle or shotgun, when trading in a previously owned weapon Overridden local laws regulating transport of firearms. Oprah Winfrey In early 2009, Blagojevich reported being so impressed by Oprah Winfrey's influence on the election of Barack Obama that he considered offering Obama's vacant Senate seat to Winfrey. Blagojevich summarized his reasons for considering Winfrey on various talk shows: Winfrey noted that although she was uninterested, she did feel she could be a senator. Political analyst Chris Matthews praised Blagojevich's idea of making Winfrey a senator, suggesting that in one move it would diversify the Senate and raise its collective IQ. Elaborating further he said: Lynn Sweet of the Chicago Sun Times agreed with Matthews, writing Winfrey would be "terrific" and an "enormously popular pick". Personal style Blagojevich was famed for his flamboyant dress style, such as his taste for Charvet ties. After the Justice Department complaint was made public, Blagojevich's hairstyle became the subject of discussion and jokes for national and local media personalities. Blagojevich insisted his aides always carry a hairbrush for him. He referred to it as "the football", alluding to the term nuclear football, which represents the bomb launch codes never to be out of reach of the president. Impeachment, removal from office, trial After Blagojevich threatened to stop the state's dealings with Bank of America Corp. over a shut-down factory in Chicago, under the direction of U.S. Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald, Governor Blagojevich was arrested at his home by federal agents on December 9, 2008, and charged with corruption. The Justice Department complaint alleged that the governor conspired to commit several "pay to play" schemes, including attempting "to obtain personal gain ... through the corrupt use" of his authority to fill the United States Senate seat vacated by Barack Obama following his election as president, claiming that in wiretapped recordings Blagojevich discussed his desire to get something in exchange for an appointment to the seat. After various outreach efforts, he appointed former state attorney general Roland Burris on New Year's Eve 2008. Burris was seated after some initial opposition in mid-January 2009. A trial was set for June 3, 2010, and U.S. Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald spoke out on the charges, characterizing Blagojevich's actions as trying to auction the open seat off to "the highest bidder". The Illinois House and Senate moved quickly to impeach the governor for abuse of power and corruption. On January 8, the Illinois House voted 114–1 (with three abstentions) to impeach Blagojevich. The charges brought by the House emphasized Blagojevich's alleged abuses of power and his alleged attempts to sell legislative authorizations and/or vetoes, and gubernatorial appointments including that of Obama's vacated Senate seat. Blagojevich was taped by the FBI saying "I've got this thing, and it's fucking golden. I'm just not giving it up for fucking nothing." On January 27, 2009, Blagojevich began a media campaign planned by publicist Glenn Selig. During the two-day campaign, he visited Today, Good Morning America, The Early Show, The View, multiple programs on Fox News Channel, CNN and MSNBC where he proclaimed his innocence and insisted he would be vindicated. On January 29, 2009, Blagojevich was removed from office and prohibited from ever holding public office in the state of Illinois again, by two separate and unanimous votes of 59–0 by the Illinois Senate. His lieutenant governor Patrick Quinn subsequently became governor of Illinois. Blagojevich's impeachment trial and removal from office did not affect his federal indictment in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, since impeachment is a political as opposed to a criminal sanction in addition to being (in this particular case) a punishment imposed at the state level. Post-removal activities After being convicted and removed from office by the Illinois Senate, Blagojevich went on Late Show with David Letterman and The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, where he re-affirmed his innocence and stated that the Illinois legislature's decision to remove him from office was politically motivated, being due to his unwillingness to raise taxes. He has accused his successor, Pat Quinn, of using state funds excessively for personal leisure. A report later released by the Governor's office showed that most of Quinn's transportation fees were paid for by Quinn himself and that Quinn never accepted the $32 meal allowance from the State. Blagojevich attempted to make a deal to star in NBC's 2009 summer reality show I'm a Celebrity ... Get Me out of Here! He made a request with the judge to ease his travel restrictions so that he could travel to Costa Rica to star in the show, saying that his family needed to make money. However, his request was formally rejected by U.S. District Judge James B. Zagel, who was sympathetic to Blagojevich's financial situation, but nevertheless stated, "I don't think this defendant fully understands and I don't think he could understand ... the position he finds himself in." Judge Zagel went on further to note that Blagojevich must prepare for his defense. Despite the ruling, NBC expressed an interest in negotiating with the judge to have Blagojevich as a part of the show. His wife took his place on the show, which began airing June 1, 2009. He told an interviewer he found it difficult to watch his wife eat a dead tarantula on the broadcast, but remarked that her willingness to participate in the show was "an act of love" because she was earning funds to alleviate their adverse financial position. On June 13, 2009, Blagojevich starred in the improv group The Second City's musical Rod Blagojevich Superstar. He performed in order to support the charity Gilda's Club Chicago, which offers support for people living with cancer. On June 30, 2009, Blagojevich's autobiography The Governor: The Truth Behind the Political Scandal That Continues to Rock the Nation was announced for print release on September 8, 2009. The book was also released by Amazon.com for sale as an eBook on the Kindle on the same day as the announcement. On July 19, 2009, Blagojevich began hosting a two-hour weekly radio talk show on 890 WLS, which aired mid-day Sundays. He had previously been a guest host of the "Don Wade and Roma Morning Show" on WLS in March 2009. On June 2, 2010, WLS placed Blagojevich's radio show on hiatus while his corruption trial was ongoing. Blagojevich appeared on season 9 of The Celebrity Apprentice in Spring 2010, asserting that he has the "skill and know-how to get things accomplished" on the series. Series star and producer Donald Trump praised Blagojevich's "tremendous courage and guts", and predicted that he would become one of the show's breakout stars. Trump subsequently fired Blagojevich in the fourth episode of the season, which aired April 4, 2010. In an interview with Esquire in January 2010, Blagojevich said about President Obama, "Everything he's saying's on the teleprompter. I'm blacker than Barack Obama. I shined shoes. I grew up in a five-room apartment. My father had a little laundromat in a black community not far from where he lived. I saw it all growing up." He soon backpedaled from the term "blacker than", saying that he had chosen his words poorly, but he stood by his message that "the frustration is real, and the frustration is still, today, average, ordinary people aren't getting a fair shake." Blagojevich made an appearance at the Wizard World Chicago comic convention in August 2010, conversing with and taking pictures with attendees. He charged $50 for an autograph and $80 for a photo. He also had a humorous televised meeting with Adam West; Blagojevich remarked that he considered The Joker to be the best Batman foil. Comic fandom website Bleeding Cool reported that Blagojevich had met with a mostly positive reception, while Time Out Chicago described it as mixed. Federal trial and conviction Blagojevich was indicted by a federal grand jury in April 2009. Most of the charges were related to attempts to sell the Senate seat vacated by then-President-elect Barack Obama. On August 17, 2010, he was convicted on one of the 24 federal charges, a charge of lying to the FBI, and the jury was hung on 23 other counts. The defense did not call a single witness, claiming that prosecutors did not prove their case. Because the jury could not agree on the remaining charges, a mistrial was ordered for those counts. Within 15 minutes after the mistrial was declared, the prosecution team announced that they would definitely pursue a retrial on the 23 mistrial counts. A post-verdict court date was set for August 23, 2010. Federal prosecutors reduced the number of counts for Blagojevich's retrial, and, on June 27, 2011, he was found guilty of 17 of the 20 remaining charges, not guilty on one, and no verdict was rendered by the jury on two counts. He was found guilty on all charges pertaining to the Senate seat, as well as extortion relating to state funds being directed towards a children's hospital and race track. However, he was acquitted on a charge pertaining to the tollway extortion and avoided a guilty verdict (by split decision) on attempting to extort Rahm Emanuel. He reported to prison on March 15, 2012, at Federal Correctional Institution, Englewood, Colorado. His Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) number was 40892–424. Had his sentence not been commuted by President Donald Trump, under federal rules, Blagojevich would have served at least 85%, or 12 years, of his sentence after which time he may have been eligible for early release in March 2024, based on good behavior. However, President Trump commuted his sentence so he was released on February 18, 2020. While in the federal penitentiary, Blagojevich was the lead singer for prison band called "The Jailhouse Rockers", named after an Elvis Presley song. The band dissolved when the lead guitarist was released. He was the fourth Illinois governor to serve time in federal prison, after Otto Kerner Jr., Dan Walker, and George Ryan. Appeal Blagojevich appealed his conviction, claiming judicial bias and a tainted jury pool. He has also long contended that there was critical evidence the jury never heard, including witness testimony and recorded phone calls that Judge Zagel did not allow to be played during the trial. They have also argued that Blagojevich's own testimony was restricted by Judge Zagel's rulings. In July 2013, Blagojevich filed an appeal with the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago challenging the corruption conviction and the length of his prison term. A three-judge panel of the Seventh Circuit heard arguments in the case in December 2013. In July 2015, the court unanimously vacated five of the corruption convictions, including his convictions for attempting to sell Barack Obama's vacant U.S. Senate seat after he was elected president, but affirmed the rest. The court's decision remanded to the district court. The Seventh Circuit denied Blagojevich's request for rehearing en banc, and in March 2016, the Supreme Court of the United States denied Blagojevich's petition for a writ of certiorari. In August 2016, a resentencing hearing was held in the district court. Judge Zagel re-imposed the same 14-year sentence he had imposed in 2011. Zagel acknowledged the suffering of Blagojevich's family and Blagojevich's good conduct in prison, but found that Blagojevich's corrupt conduct still warranted a 14-year sentence. Blagojevich's attorneys appealed to the 7th Circuit, but failed; then filed another appeal with the U.S. Supreme Court on November 3, 2017. Meanwhile, unrepentant, Blagojevich continued to fight his conviction and sentence in the media. His wife Patti joined him in attracting press attention to his cause and criticism of the federal judiciary. On April 16, 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal, the second time in two years. Commutation President Donald Trump, hours after having pardoned commentator Dinesh D'Souza, told reporters on May 31, 2018, that he was considering commuting Blagojevich's sentence (without pardoning him), as well as pardoning Martha Stewart. Trump called Blagojevich's sentence "unfair", saying that Blagojevich's statements about enriching himself were "stupid", but also the sort of thing "that many other politicians say". Blagojevich filed a petition officially asking President Trump for commutation of sentence on June 5, 2018. In August 2019, Trump commented to reporters that he was "very strongly" considering issuing a commutation. On February 18, 2020, President Trump commuted Blagojevich's 14-year corruption sentence, wiping away the sentence but not the conviction. "I don't know him very well, I've met him a couple of times, he was on for a short time on The Apprentice years ago, seemed like a very nice person, don't know him, but he served eight years in jail, there's a long time to go," Trump said to reporters. Some news sources noted that, in addition to The Apprentice connection, Trump and his organization had made contributions to Blagojevich's political campaigns, including his 2002 gubernatorial campaign. Blagojevich was released from prison that day, and flew home to Chicago that night. Speaking to reporters after his release, he stated, "I'm profoundly grateful to President Trump, and I will be for as long as I live." He said Trump was "a man who's not only tough and outspoken, strong, but he has a kind heart", and proclaimed himself to be a "Trump-ocrat". On February 19, Blagojevich held a press conference at his home in Chicago's Ravenswood neighborhood, where he remained defiant towards his conviction, describing himself as a "political prisoner", and promised to use his experience in prison to fix the broken criminal justice system. Illinois House GOP leader Jim Durkin criticized the President's decision to commute Blagojevich's sentence, stating that Blagojevich was "rogue on steroids" when he "abused the office" and that Trump was "not concerned about the people of Illinois in November." The commutation was satirized by Chicago-based The Wieners Circle. Following the commutation, the Illinois Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission found that Blagojevich had engaged in "a pattern of dishonest and deceptive conduct" and recommended his disbarment to the Illinois Supreme Court. On May 18, 2020, the Supreme Court of Illinois officially disbarred him. In August of the same year, it was announced that Blagojevich would be the featured speaker at a fundraising event to benefit Republican state senate candidate Tom McCullagh. The candidate's campaign stated that "McCullagh is welcoming [Blagojevich] to the table to give us an inside look to help understand the depths of the Madigan machine and how to end corruption in Illinois." Post-political career In May 2020, Blagojevich launched a politics-themed podcast titled The Lightning Rod on WLS-AM 890. The podcast ran through September 2021. Electoral history House of Representatives 1996 Rod Blagojevich, Democratic: 64% Michael Flanagan (inc.), Republican: 36% 1998 Rod Blagojevich (inc.), Democratic: 74% Alan Spitz, Republican: 24% 2000 Rod Blagojevich (inc.), Democratic: 87% Matt Beauchamp, Libertarian: 13% Gubernatorial elections 2002 gubernatorial election, Illinois Rod Blagojevich, Democratic: 1,818,823, 52.0% Jim Ryan, Republican: 1,582,604, 45.2% Cal Skinner, Libertarian: 73,404, 2.1% Marisellis Brown, Independent: 22,803, 0.7% 2006 gubernatorial election, Illinois Rod Blagojevich (inc.), Democratic: 1,736,219, 49.8% Judy Baar Topinka: Republican: 1,368,682, 39.3% Rich Whitney, Green: 361,163, 10.4% Other Write-ins: 1,587, 0.0% References External links Indictment U.S. v. Blagojevich, et al. FindLaw Illinois Gov. Rod R. Blagojevich and his Chief of Staff John Harris Arrested on Federal Corruption Charges Department of Justice, December 9, 2008, press release United States District Court: United States of America v. Rod R. Blagojevich and John Harris, December 9, 2008, copy of 76-page complaint (text version) People of the State of Illinois v. Rod Blagojevich, Governor of Illinois brief, Motion for TRO, Supporting Record TRO Gov. Blagojevich Chicago Sun-Times, ongoing coverage Complete Blagojevich Coverage Chicago Tribune, ongoing coverage United States of America v. Rod Blagojevich, Alonzo Monk, John Harris and Robert Blagojevich Second Superseding Indictment, United States of America v. Rod Blagojevich, Alonzo Monk, John Harris and Robert Blagojevich \|- \|- \|- \|- 1956 births Living people Politicians from Chicago Boxers from Illinois Criminals from Chicago Writers from Chicago Democratic Party governors of Illinois American gun control activists American people of Serbian descent American politicians convicted of fraud American prisoners and detainees American prosecutors Eastern Orthodox Christians from the United States Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois Disbarred American lawyers Illinois lawyers Illinois politicians convicted of crimes Impeached state and territorial governors of the United States removed from office Democratic Party members of the Illinois House of Representatives People convicted of making false statements Illinois politicians convicted of corruption Politicians convicted of extortion under color of official right Politicians convicted of mail and wire fraud Recipients of American presidential clemency The Apprentice (franchise) contestants Participants in American reality television series Northwestern University alumni Pepperdine University School of Law alumni 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American politicians 21st-century American criminals
418931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Peter%20Altgeld	John Peter Altgeld	John Peter Altgeld (December 30, 1847 – March 12, 1902) was an American politician and the 20th Governor of Illinois, serving from 1893 until 1897. He was the first Democrat to govern that state since the 1850s. A leading figure of the Progressive movement, Altgeld signed workplace safety and child labor laws, pardoned three of the men convicted in the Haymarket Affair, and rejected calls in 1894 to break up the Pullman strike by force. In 1896 he was a leader of the progressive wing of the Democratic Party, opposing President Grover Cleveland and the conservative Bourbon Democrats. He was defeated for reelection in 1896 in an intensely fought, bitter campaign. Born in the Duchy of Nassau, Altgeld grew up on a farm in the American Midwest. After a stint in the Union Army as a youth, Altgeld studied law in Missouri, while working as a manual laborer, and became involved in progressive politics. Altgeld eventually opened a law practice in Chicago, and became a real estate developer, and local judge before being elected governor. Often in poor health, he died at the age of 54, while working in the law office of Clarence Darrow. Early life Altgeld was born in the town of Selters in the German Westerwald, the first son of John P. and Mary Altgeld. His parents left Germany when he was three months old, bringing their infant son with them. They settled on a farm near Mansfield, Ohio. He left home at age 16 to join the Union Army; lying about his age, he enlisted in the 164th Ohio (National Guard) Infantry. Altgeld's regiment served in Virginia as a reserve unit, doing labor and reconnaissance, participating in only one skirmish. Altgeld himself nearly died of fever. He then worked on his father's farm, studied in the library of a neighbor and at a private school in Lexington, Ohio, and for two years taught school. After a brief stint in an Ohio seminary, he walked to Missouri and studied to become a lawyer while working on itinerant railroad construction crews. Becoming ill from the climate and the labor, Altgeld wandered to Kansas and Iowa before settling as a teacher and farmhand near Savannah, Missouri. There, he began to read law at a private law firm and was admitted to the Andrew County bar in 1871. He was not educated at any university. The university law school at which he would have studied was not even founded until 1872, one year before Altgeld was admitted to the bar. In Savannah Altgeld first became involved in politics. He served as city attorney and was elected state's attorney, resigning after one year of a two-year term. In 1875, Altgeld moved to Chicago hoping to continue his legal career there. He frequently visited his home in Ohio. He was married to Emma Ford, the daughter of John Ford and Ruth Smith, in 1877 in Richland County, Ohio. Their marriage was a happy one by all accounts but produced no children. Altgeld's practice of law began to show success and he was managing an independent legal practice by 1880. He became wealthy, however, from a series of real estate dealings and development projects, including residential and office properties in Chicago and a streetcar line in Newark, Ohio. His most notable project was the Unity Building (1891), the 16-story office building that was at that time Chicago's tallest building. In January 1890, Altgeld bought a lot at what is now 127 North Dearborn Street in downtown Chicago, and he established the Unity Company to build and manage the future Unity Building. He indiscriminately contributed his own fortune toward the endeavor, and for a while the construction was moving more quickly than expected. However, this led to a $100,000 mistake and much of the framework of the building had to be rebuilt. Altgeld also made an error by trying to borrow $400,000 from John R. Walsh, president of the Jennings Trust Company and of the Chicago National Bank. Technicalities in the contract caused many problems for Altgeld. Eventually, a new contract was signed, but Altgeld was able to borrow only $300,000 from Walsh. He ended up raising the rest of the money himself, and the construction of the Unity Building was completed. In 1893, he declared that the Unity Building had given him the most personal satisfaction of all his achievements. Altgeld became a millionaire, and would, by the time he ran for governor, own six buildings in Chicago. Early political career Altgeld's name, according to historian Philip Dray, "is synonymous with the dawn of the Progressive era." His first public post was city attorney in Savannah, Missouri, in which capacity he rewrote a code of ordinances. In Missouri Altgeld became involved in the Granger movement and the Democratic Party and was elected to be state's attorney for the county in 1874. As Altgeld later wrote, he quickly became disillusioned with the criminal justice system and resigned after just one year. Altgeld decided to run for Congress in 1884 against incumbent George Adams of Illinois's 4th congressional district. That year, he published an essay on penal reform entitled, Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims. His essay argued that rather than reform criminals, incarceration produced hardened criminals. Although this district was heavily Republican, Adams defeated him by just 8 points (54–46%), a better showing than well-known Democrat Lambert Tree had made two years earlier. As a Republican leader recalled, "He (Altgeld) was not elected, but our executive committee was pretty badly frightened by the strong canvass he made." In 1886, he was elected as a Superior Court of Cook County Justice and served on the bench until 1891. Illinois governorship In 1891, he unsuccessfully challenged John M. Palmer in seeking to have the Illinois General Assembly appoint him to the United States Senate. 1892 gubernatorial election He was drafted by the Democrats to run for Governor of Illinois. One of the obstacles in the way of Altgeld receiving the Democratic nomination was Palmer, still bitter over Altgeld challenging him for Senate in 1891. Viewed as an elder statesman of the party, Palmer's opposition to Altgeld would have carried weight. Altgeld supporter Michael C. McDonald made an empty promise to Palmer that, in turn for not opposing Altgeld's candidacy, Cook County Democrats would support him for the party's presidential nomination in the same year's presidential election. Altgeld was popular among his fellow German Americans. The only Chicago newspaper that provided positive coverage of Altgeld was the Chicago Globe, which was run by Michael C. McDonald. Elsewhere in the Chicago press, Altgeld received vilification for his political association with Michael C. McDonald, his liberal sympathies towards the men convicted in the Haymarket Affair, and his alliance with Chicago's Iroquois Club. He was painted as a hazardous radical and a dangerous threat to the state's business and commercial concerns. However, many downstate newspapers provided positive coverage to Altgeld. Also initially seeking the Democratic nomination was John C. Black. Other potential candidates were dissuaded from running. For instance, State Representative James Cockerell was convinced by Clarence Darrow to abandon his plans of running. However, by February 23, it was reported that Black had withdrawn from the race, leaving Altgeld as the only candidate seeking the Democratic nomination. Altgeld won the Democratic nomination on the first ballot at the state convention in Springfield. Altgeld's supporters dubbed him, "the poor man's friend". In the general election he faced popular incumbent Republican governor Joseph W. Fifer. Altgeld traveled across the state to campaign on a vigorous speaking tour. He attacked Fifer's use of prison labor for state projects, and attacked his school reform record. Fifer did not refute Altgeld's allegations against his record, which helped make them stick in the minds of voters. To dampen the negative impact that his association with Altgeld would have on Altgeld's electability, particularly among rural downstate voters, Michael C. McDonald temporarily resigned his role on the Cook County Central Committee a month before the election. Altgeld narrowly defeated Fifer. He was the first Democrat to have been elected governor of Illinois since 1856, the first time a foreign-born citizen had been elected, and the first time a Chicago resident had been elected. Transition Altgeld suffered a nervous breakdown shortly after his victory, and nearly died of a concomitant fever. He managed to appear at his inauguration, but was only able to deliver a brief portion of his speech. Although the General Assembly hall was so warm as to cause several men to faint, Altgeld, clad in a heavy topcoat, was pale and visibly shivering. The clerk of the Assembly delivered the remainder of his speech. Tenure As governor, Altgeld spearheaded the nation's most progressive child labor and occupational safety laws, appointed women to important positions in the state government, and vastly increased state funding for education. Pullman Strike In 1894, the Pullman Rail Strike, led by Eugene V. Debs, took place. Altgeld, however, refused to authorize President Grover Cleveland to send in Federal troops to quell the disturbances. Altgeld wrote to President Cleveland indicating that reports of strike-related violence had been exaggerated and warned that real violence would begin only as a result of sending soldiers. Nevertheless, a federal injunction was issued against the strike, with disruption of U.S. Mail deliveries, a Federal concern, cited as a justification. However, the superintendent of mails, L. L. Troy, stated that no mail had been disrupted. Citing Article IV of the Constitution, which permits federal troops to enter a state only if a condition of insurrection exists, Altgeld argued that there was no legal bearing to a decision to send the military to quell the strike. Finally, he took the occasion to criticize the attorney general's misuse of court injunctions under the Sherman Act, writing: "This decision marks a turning point in our history for it establishes a new form of government never before heard of among men; that is government by injunction. . . . Under this new order of things a federal judge becomes at once a legislator, court and executioner." However, on July 4, 1894, Cleveland went ahead and sent several thousand troops to Chicago without Altgeld's approval, an action later upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. Altgeld's opposition was seen as a highly unusual stance for a state governor at that time. Altgeld may have opposed the use of federal troops but he wielded the state militia to rein in the strike. He sent the militia to eight areas during the strike, including to Mount Olive, where the miners blocked the Chicago, Peoria, and St. Louis railroad from shipping coal. Once there the Governor issued General Order No. 8, which prohibited them from being used "as custodians or guards of private property." Pardons and clemency Historically, Altgeld is remembered chiefly for pardoning the three surviving men convicted in the 1886 Haymarket bombing (four others had already been executed, one committed suicide in prison). After reviewing their cases, he concluded, as have subsequent scholars, that there had been a serious miscarriage of justice in their prosecutions. Altgeld concluded that the trial had taken place in such an atmosphere of prejudice that the convictions were not credible. As a result of his decision to pardon the three surviving men, he came under intense attack. Some argue that in addition to his findings that there had been a miscarriage of justice, Altgeld was also motivated by revenge in his Haymarket pardon. The judge that prosecuted the men, Joseph E. Gary, had upheld a ruling that found Altgeld in contempt of the Cook County Superior Court. Altgeld was known to hold strong grudges. By the end of 1895, he freed eighty-one prisoners, leading newspapers to dub him John "Pardon" Altgeld. In May 1895, mob violence erupted after one of Altgeld's pardons, with farmers lynching two accused rapists in Danville. On his last day in office, he released twenty-six offenders convicted of serious crimes, including seven murderers. In total, he pardoned or commuted sentences of: 75 people convicted of forgery, embezzlement, manslaughter, burglary, or larceny 19 people convicted of murder 8 people convicted of rape, assault, or incest 5 people convicted or armed robbery or arson Unsuccessful 1896 reelection campaign The Pullman incident and the Haymarket pardons were used against Altgeld by his conservative enemies. In 1896, Altgeld was ineligible to run for president (since he was born in Germany), but he led the fight against the Cleveland forces. Altgeld publicly broke from Cleveland and his conservative supporters. Altgeld helped split the Democratic Party during the 1896 presidential election into Free Silver and Bourbon Democrats. He ran for re-election on the same ticket with Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan. Altgeld had not supported Bryan for the nomination and hesitated to support the "Free Silver" plank that was central to Bryan's campaign. Harper's Weekly warned that Bryan would be a puppet of Altgeld, whom it referred to as "the ambitious and unscrupulous Illinois communist." However, Bryan, who was being hurt by Republican charges that he was a stooge for Altgeld, avoided the governor and did not endorse him. Republicans in Illinois focused their attacks on Altgeld. Theodore Roosevelt, before an audience of 13,000 cheering partisans in Chicago, said Altgeld was "one who would connive at wholesale murder," who "condones and encourages the most infamous of murders," and who "would substitute for the government of Washington and Lincoln a red welter of lawlessness and dishonesty as fantastic and vicious as the Paris Commune." Altgeld campaigned energetically despite his failing health, and was defeated by John R. Tanner; Altgeld outpolled his party's presidential candidate, Bryan, by 10,000 votes in Illinois. Chicago mayoral candidacies 1899 Altgeld was a political opponent of Carter H. Harrison, Jr. (1860–1953), who had been elected Mayor of Chicago in 1897. Altgeld believed that Harrison aimed to spearhead conservative forces in the Democratic Party at the national level and that if he were re-elected as mayor Harrison would have the power to hand pick conservative delegates to the 1900 Democratic National Convention. Finding Harrison's prospective opponent, a "Free Silver" Republican, a less offensive option, Altgeld decided to himself run for Mayor – having faint hope of victory himself, but seeking to split away the progressive Democratic vote and thereby send Harrison to defeat. Altgeld charged that Harrison was building a political machine and that his administration was corrupt, publicly claiming in March 1899 that Harrison's administration was complicit in the theft of city funds by political allies in connection with city public works projects. In his final campaign, Altgeld ran for mayor of Chicago as the candidate of the Municipal Ownership Party. He finished third, garnering more than 15% percent of the vote, but was unable to achieve his ulterior motive, the defeat of Mayor Carter Harrison. 1901 In 1901, Altgeld made a quixotic effort to challenge Harrison for the Democratic nomination for mayor. Post-gubernatorial years Sickly since his brush with death in the Civil War, Altgeld had suffered from locomotor ataxia while governor, impairing his ability to walk. He lost all of his property except his heavily mortgaged personal residence, and only the intervention of his friend and former protégé, Clarence Darrow, saved him from complete financial ruin. Death and legacy Altgeld was working as a lawyer in Darrow's law firm when he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage while delivering a speech on behalf of the Boers in Joliet, Illinois in March 1902. He was 54 years old when he died. Thousands filed past his body as it lay in state in the lobby of the Chicago Public Library, and he was eulogized by Darrow and by Hull House founder Jane Addams. Altgeld is buried in Graceland Cemetery in Uptown, Chicago. The governor influenced the design of five castle-like structures in Illinois universities. One is Altgeld Hall at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, which is on the National Register of Historic Places. It is currently home to the Mathematics Department, and had previously housed the College of Law and the University Library. The other four are the eponymous edifices at Southern Illinois University Carbondale and Northern Illinois University, as well as John W. Cook Hall at Illinois State University and Old Main at Eastern Illinois University. Chicago's Altgeld Gardens Homes, one of the first housing projects in the United States, was named after the former governor as well as the street located at 2500 North in Chicago's grid system, Altgeld Street. There is a statue of Altgeld in Lincoln Park in Chicago at the North End of Cannon Drive, just south of Diversey Parkway. See also List of U.S. state governors born outside the United States References Sources Harry Barnard, Eagle Forgotten, the Life of John Peter Altgeld. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. Howard Fast, The American: A Middle Western Legend. New York: Duell, Sloan And Pearce, 1946 Harvey Wish, "Governor Altgeld Pardons the Anarchists," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, vol. 31, no. 4 (Dec. 1938), pp. 424–448. In JSTOR. Harvey Wish, "John Peter Altgeld and the Background of the Campaign of 1896," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 24, no. 4 (March 1938), pp. 503–518. in JSTOR. Harvey Wish, "John Peter Altgeld and the Election of 1896," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, vol. 30, no. 3 (Oct. 1937), pp. 353–384. In JSTOR. External links 1847 births 1902 deaths 19th-century American politicians 19th-century Lutherans American Lutherans Burials at Graceland Cemetery (Chicago) Democratic Party governors of Illinois Immigrants to the United States Labor disputes in the United States Lawyers from Chicago Missouri lawyers People from the Duchy of Nassau People of Ohio in the American Civil War Politicians from Chicago People from Savannah, Missouri Judges of the Superior Court of Cook County 19th-century American judges Union Army soldiers
418934	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wiz	The Wiz	The Wiz: The Super Soul Musical "Wonderful Wizard of Oz" is a musical with music and lyrics by Charlie Smalls (and others) and book by William F. Brown. It is a retelling of L. Frank Baum's children's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) in the context of contemporary African-American culture. It opened on October 21, 1974, at the Morris A. Mechanic Theatre in Baltimore, and moved to Broadway's Majestic Theatre with a new cast on January 5, 1975. The 1975 Broadway production won seven Tony Awards, including Best Musical. It was an early example of Broadway's mainstream acceptance of works with an all-Black cast. It has had revivals in New York, London, San Diego, and the Netherlands, and a limited-run revival was presented by Encores! at New York City Center in June 2009. A big-budget film adaptation of the same name was released in 1978, with Ted Ross and Mabel King reprising their roles. A live television production of the stage version, The Wiz Live!, was broadcast on NBC on December 3, 2015, with an encore presentation on December 19 of the same year. Development and Broadway The idea for the musical originated with producer Ken Harper. He replaced the original director, Gilbert Moses, with Geoffrey Holder in Detroit during out-of-town tryouts. As cast member André De Shields, who played the title role, later wrote, "It was Geoffrey's masterful people skills and embrace of magical realism that metamorphosed The Wiz from caterpillar to butterfly." The original Baltimore cast included Stephanie Mills as Dorothy, Stu Gilliam as the Scarecrow, Tiger Haynes as the Tin Man, Ted Ross as the Cowardly Lion, and Butterfly McQueen as the Queen of the Field Mice, but in a much smaller role. Renee C. Harris stayed on as understudy for the role of Dorothy, as did McQueen for the role of Addaperle. The production was choreographed by George Faison, with scenic designer Tom H. John, costumes by Geoffrey Holder, lighting by Tharon Musser, and orchestrations by Harold Wheeler. Faison and Holder both won Tony Awards for choreography and costume design, respectively in 1975. The show had a pre-Broadway tryout at the Fisher Theatre in Detroit in November 1974, and at the Forrest Theatre in Philadelphia from December 11, 1974, through December 21, 1974. After drawing mixed critical reviews, producer Ken Harper considered closing the musical after its Broadway opening night. One source attributes its turnaround success to a publicity campaign that included a TV commercial featuring the cast singing "Ease On Down the Road," a song that proved so popular that it was released as a single recorded by the disco group Consumer Rapport; The single hit the Billboard Soul Singles chart, peaking at #19 and the Hot 100, peaking at #42. William F. Brown, who wrote the book, gave a more specific explanation in 1993: "20th Century-Fox, the musical's major investor, put in another $100,000 to keep it going and everyone agreed to royalty cuts until the production's cost—about $1.1 million—was recouped....By the eighth week, we were selling out." The Broadway production moved to The Broadway Theatre on May 25, 1977, and closed on January 28, 1979, after four years and 1,672 performances. Along with other musicals including Purlie (1971) and Raisin (1974), The Wiz was a breakthrough for Broadway, a large-scale big-budget musical featuring an all-Black cast. It laid the foundation for later African-American hits such as Bubbling Brown Sugar, Dreamgirls and Duke Ellington's Sophisticated Ladies. National tour and later revival The musical toured the US in 1976 and during the tour, Kenneth Kamal Scott (then billed as "Kamal") replaced Andre DeShields as the Wiz, Renn Woods was cast as Dorothy but departed the tour after playing only a couple of cities because during the show's engagement at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, the 19-year-old performer was recruited for a featured part in the movie production of Hair. Renee C. Harris (who was in her very early 20s) took over as the tour's Dorothy and continued leading that company for a couple of years playing many engagements in cities across the country. At this time, the production also featured Ben Harney as the Tin Man and Ken Prymus as the Lion. Prymus was known to audiences for his featured role in the movie MASH (1970) for singing "Suicide is Painless." Both men were subsequently featured in other Broadway shows and were as replacements in the Broadway production of Ain't Misbehavin. Harney also originated the leading role of Curtis in the Broadway debut of Dreamgirls. When Harris eventually departed the company, the tour continued with Deborah Malone in the role of Dorothy. There was also a second national touring company which was a scaled down production. This second tour opened with Malone reprising her role as Dorothy, who was later replaced by Lillias White. A revival ran on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre from May 24, 1984, through June 3, 1984, closing after 13 performances and 7 previews. Directed by Geoffrey Holder, the cast featured Stephanie Mills as Dorothy. It then ran in London at the Lyric Hammersmith from December 11, 1984, through February 2, 1985. A planned 2004 Broadway revival was not produced. In August 2015, George Faison presented The Wiz: A Celebration in Dance and Music, performances of the original songs and choreography in honor of the Broadway hits 40th Anniversary at Summerstage in New York City. A number of members of the original Broadway cast returned for this celebratory run. Actress Phylicia Rashad, a munchkin and swing in the original production, co-hosted the performance with George Faison. André De Shields reprised his original role as the Wiz; Dee Dee Bridgewater, Tony Award winner for her role as Glinda, reprised this original role; Evelyn Thomas reprised her original role as the Tornado and Ebony Jo-Ann, who played Addaperle in the Broadway revival of the production reprised her role as well. Singer-songwriter Wallace Gary joined the cast as the Scarecrow. Damien L. Sneed acted as the musical director and conductor of The Wiz: A Celebration in Dance and Music. From 1996 to 1997 there was a US concert version tour with Tasha Scott as Dorothy, Grace Jones (Evillene), Peabo Bryson (The Wiz), and CeCe Peniston as Glinda. The cast also featured Tony Terry as the Tin Man. Romelda Benjamin also played Aunt Em. Other productions An Australian production for J. C. Williamson Theatres Limited played in Melbourne and Sydney from January–October 1976; starring Andrea Frierson (Dorothy), Victor Willis (Tin Man), Freddie Paris (Lion), Chuck McKinney (The Wiz) and Robert Ellis (Scarecrow). Upon his return from Australia in late 1976, Victor Willis joined the cast of the original Broadway production. Flymonkey Productions (London, UK) ran two shows. The first one was in 2000 which received great reviews and a second was run the following year in 2001 receiving exceptional reviews from the London press. Both productions were run at the Hackney Empire. The 2001 show was particularly notable because it was the last show to be performed at the Hackney Empire before the theatre closed its doors for refurbishment. Both shows were directed by Jamie Hinde; musical director Steve White (both shows); production manager Andy Barnes (both shows); choreography by Suzannah Howlett (2000) and Juliet Vibert (2001, also appeared as a dancer in both shows). The production starred Tamsier Joof (both shows); Rustie Lee (both shows); Sharon D. Clarke (2000), Victoria Wilson-James (2001), and Kat of MTV (both shows). A production ran at the La Jolla Playhouse, San Diego, from September 26, 2006, through November 12, 2006, receiving good reviews and extending its run by three weeks. It was directed by Des McAnuff, who, with Harold Wheeler, orchestrator of the original Broadway version, revised the musical for contemporary audiences. It starred Nikki M. James (Dorothy), E. Faye Butler (Evelline) and David Alan Grier (The Wiz), and featured sets by Robert Brill. Dodger Productions holds U.S. rights to revive the musical, while Joop Van den Ende's Stage Entertainment holds the European rights. Stage Entertainment mounted a full-scale production at the Beatrix Theater in Utrecht, Netherlands, in 2006. The production was directed by Glenn Casale and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast and featured sets by David Gallo. City Center's Encores! Summer Stars series production ran June 12 through July 5, 2009. The production was directed by Thomas Kail and choreographed by Andy Blankenbuehler. It starred Ashanti as Dorothy, Tichina Arnold as Evillene, Dawnn Lewis as Addapearl, Joshua Henry as the Tin Man, James Monroe Iglehart as the Lion, Orlando Jones (succeeded by Colman Domingo) as The Wiz, and LaChanze as Aunt Em and Glinda. A major British revival of the musical was produced in 2011 by the Birmingham Repertory Theatre (however performed at the New Alexandra Theatre due to The REP's refurbishment) in a co-production with the West Yorkshire Playhouse, re-locating Kansas to present day Birmingham This production was directed by Josette Bushell-Mingo, with choreography by Paul J. Medford. The first German-speaking production was produced in Linz/Austria in the new Musiktheater Linz, directed and choreographed by Kim Duddy. The Fiddlehead Theatre Company, in the historic Strand Theatre in Boston's Dorchester neighborhood, mounted a production, directed by Stacey Stephens, Fiddlehead Theatre Company's Associate Producing Artistic Director, in February 2015. A production ran at The Muny from June 19–25, 2018. It starred Nathan Lee Graham as The Wiz, James T. Lane as Tinman, Darius de Haas as Lion, Demetria McKinney as Glinda, and newcomers Danyel Fulton and Jared Grimes as Dorothy and Scarecrow, respectively. It was directed by Denis Jones and choreographed by Camille A. Brown. The Hope Mill Theatre, Manchester mounted a production that ran from November 24, 2021, until January 16, 2022, with the cast including Tarik Frimpong as The Scarecrow. The production was recorded and streamed as an encore production, and performances from it were broadcast by the BBC as part of Big Night of Musicals by the National Lottery. A North American tour, directed by Schele Williams with new material by Amber Ruffin, launched in the fall of 2023 in Baltimore with plans to transfer to Broadway for a limited engagement in spring 2024. The Broadway revival is scheduled to open at the Marquis Theatre on April 17, 2024 with previews beginning March 29, 2024. A Mexican production is scheduled to run in June 2023 at Teatro Hidalgo in Mexico City. Produced by Juan Torres and directed by Ricardo Díaz. The show is choreographed by Pablo Rodríguez and set design by Oscar Acosta. The show will be led by Mexican young star Lucero Mijares who makes her theatre debut as Dorothy. Plot Prologue Teenaged Dorothy Gale lives with her Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, and dog, Toto, on their farm in Kansas. Though her work there keeps her busy, she often gets distracted in her boredom with farm life, choosing instead to play with Toto and dream of someday seeing far-off lands. Aunt Em, however, has little patience for her daydreaming, believing that dawdling is contrary to their way of life. After an argument, Aunt Em apologizes to her for an unintentionally hurtful remark. She explains that she only scolds because she wants Dorothy to be the best she can be, and fears that she will not be prepared for the responsibilities life will soon put upon her. Aunt Em loves her dearly and hopes they will always be as close as they were when she was younger ("The Feeling We Once Had"). Act I When an approaching storm turns out to be a tornado, Dorothy takes shelter in the farmhouse as Aunt Em and Uncle Henry do so in the storm cellar. As the tornado hits the farm, the house, with Dorothy inside, is lifted into the air and flies for miles, with the wind represented by dancers ("Tornado"). The house finally comes to rest with a bump in the middle of a field covered with flowers. There Dorothy is met by the Munchkins, all of whom are dressed in blue, and Addaperle, the Good Witch of the North, who tells her that she is in the Land of Oz. Furthermore, her house has fallen on Evamean, the Wicked Witch of the East, and killed her, freeing the Munchkins from her evil powers. Dorothy, distressed and confused, wants only to return home. With her magic unable to take Dorothy beyond the country boundaries, Addaperle decides Dorothy's best chance for assistance is to follow the Yellow Brick Road to the Emerald City in the centre of Oz, to see the great and powerful Wizard of Oz, or "The Wiz" for short ("He's the Wizard"). She gives her Evamean's silver shoes, and tells her not to take them off before she reaches home, for they hold a mysterious, but very powerful charm that will keep her safe. Dorothy sets off down the Yellow Brick Road, full of doubt and fear at what lies ahead ("Soon As I Get Home"). Stopping to rest by a cornfield, she is startled when a scarecrow hanging on a pole strikes up a conversation with her ("I Was Born on the Day Before Yesterday"). He tells her of his longing for brains so that he can be like other people, and she invites him to accompany her to see if the Wizard can help him. ("Ease On Down the Road #1"). The Yellow Brick Road leads them into a great forest where they discover a man made of tin, rusted solid. They oil his joints ("Slide Some Oil To Me") and he tells them how Evamean put a spell on his axe so that it began to cut off parts of his body. Each time it happened, a tinsmith replaced each missing part with one made of tin until he was entirely made of it. The one thing the tinsmith forgot was a heart, and he has longed for one ever since. Dorothy and the Scarecrow invite him on their journey to see the Wizard with the hope that he may give him one ("Ease On Down the Road #2"). They continue following the Yellow Brick Road deeper into the forest, where they are attacked by a large lion ("I'm a Mean Ole Lion"). However, he is quickly revealed to be a coward hiding behind bravado as Dorothy stands up for her friends. When he learns where they are going, he apologizes and asks if he may accompany them to ask the Wizard for some courage. They agree and the trio becomes a quartet ("Ease On Down the Road #3"), but face a new danger when they are attacked by an evil gang of witch-like beings called Kalidahs ("Kalidah Battle"). After a great fight and harrowing escape, they stop by the road to rest. The Lion is embarrassed by his cowardice in the battle, but is comforted by Dorothy's kind words ("Be a Lion"). Seeing a green glow in the distance, they continue their journey to the Emerald City, and wander into a field of poppies who blow opium dust on them. Dorothy recalls that Addaperle warned her of these poppies, and runs from the field as fast as she can with the Scarecrow and Tin Man behind her. The Lion is overcome by the dust and begins to hallucinate ("Lion's Dream"). He is dragged from the field and returned to his friends by the Mice Squad who police the area. Marching up to the gates of the Emerald City, they are met by the Gatekeeper who insists they must all be fitted with a pair of green tinted glasses that are locked on to prevent them being blinded by the dazzling sights. They enter the city and look about in awe at the richly dressed people that inhabit it ("Emerald City Ballet"). The haughty and condescending people laugh and ridicule this odd group for wanting to see the Wizard until they see that Dorothy is wearing Evamean's silver shoes. They are promptly shown right into his palace. Once in the throne room, they are assaulted by a great show of lights, smoke, and pyrotechnics as the Wizard appears in several forms before them ("So You Wanted To Meet the Wizard"). They each plead their case to him, the Tin Man doing so in song ("What Would I Do If I Could Feel?"). He agrees on one condition: they must kill Evillene, the Wicked Witch of the West. With their goals seeming further out of reach than ever before, they sink to the floor in tears. Act II Evillene rules over the yellow land of the west, enslaving its people, the Winkies. She is evil, power hungry, and ruthlessly determined to get her hands on her sister's silver shoes, so that she may increase her power and rule over all of Oz ("Don't Nobody Bring Me No Bad News"). Receiving word of Dorothy and her friends approaching, she sends her Winged Monkeys to kill them ("Funky Monkeys"). Catching up to them in the forest surrounding her castle, the monkeys dash the Tin Man against rocks until he falls apart, and rip the straw out of the Scarecrow, leaving both of them helpless. Seeing Dorothy's silver shoes, however, they dare not harm her. Instead, they carry her to Evillene's castle along with the Lion. While searching for a way to get the shoes from Dorothy, Evillene forces her and the Lion to do menial chores around her castle. She takes delight in torturing the Lion before Dorothy, threatening to have him skinned unless she hands over the silver shoes. Angered by this, she picks up a bucket of water and throws it over Evillene, who melts until only her magic golden cap remains. Her spell on the Winkies is lifted, and they show their thanks by restoring the Scarecrow and Tin Man to top condition, and reuniting the group ("Everybody Rejoice/A Brand New Day"). Returning to the Emerald City, they see the Wizard (now a booming voice that seems to come from the very air). He reneges on his promise, and the Lion knocks over a screen in anger. Behind it stands a bewildered man who claims to be the Wizard. He shows them the elaborate mechanical effects used to create his illusions, and tells them that he is really a balloonist from Omaha named Herman Smith who traveled to Oz by accident when his hot air balloon drifted off course. The Ozians had never seen such a sight and proclaimed him Wizard. Not wanting to disappoint them, he assumed the role and had a great city built. He then had everyone in it wear green glasses, and in time, they came to believe it was green. Furious, the group confronts the Wizard on his deceptions ("Who Do You Think You Are?"), but he points out that the Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Lion already have the things they seek as shown in their behavior on the journeys they have made ("Believe In Yourself"). They remain unconvinced, so he creates physical symbols of their desires and they are satisfied. He proposes that Dorothy can return to Kansas the way he came, and offers to pilot her in his hot air balloon. He addresses the citizens of the Emerald City in person for the first time in many years, telling them of his imminent journey, and leaving the Scarecrow in charge ("Y'all Got It!"). Just as his speech reaches its climax, the balloon comes free from its moorings and rises quickly into the air, taking Dorothy's hopes of getting home with it. Just as the group despairs of finding help, Addaperle reappears in a flash of light, suggesting that Dorothy ask Glinda, the Good Witch of the South, for assistance. She transports them to Glinda's castle in the red land of the south, where they are warmly welcomed and invited to rest after their many trials ("A Rested Body Is a Rested Mind"). Glinda is a beautiful and gracious sorceress, surrounded by a court of pretty girls. She tells Dorothy that the silver shoes have always had the power to take her home, but like her friends, she needed to believe in their magic and in herself before it was possible ("If You Believe"). She bids a tearful goodbye to her friends, and as their faces fade into the darkness, she thinks about what she has gained, lost, and learned throughout her journey through Oz ("Home"). Clicking her heels together three times, she finds herself transported back to Kansas in an instant. As an overjoyed Aunt Em and Toto appear, and she runs to hug them, she knows that she is back home at last. Motion picture and television Motown Productions acquired the film rights to The Wiz in 1977 and signed Stephanie Mills in anticipation of having her star as Dorothy in the film adaptation. Motown singer and actress Diana Ross asked Motown CEO Berry Gordy to cast her instead, but he declined, feeling that the then-33-year-old Ross was far too old for the part. However, she contacted Rob Cohen of Universal Pictures, who offered to have them finance the film if she were to play Dorothy, at which point he acquiesced. The resulting film version of The Wiz also starred former Motown star Michael Jackson as the Scarecrow, Nipsey Russell as the Tin Man, Richard Pryor as the Wizard, jazz singer Thelma Carpenter as Miss One (the name "Addapearle" was not used for this production) and Lena Horne as Glinda. Ross and King reprised their roles of the Lion and Evillene from the Broadway production respectively. Sidney Lumet served as director, working with screenwriter Joel Schumacher (who used none of Brown's stage script) and music supervisor Quincy Jones. The film was a critical and commercial failure, performing poorly at the box office and severely panned by critics, who branded the casting of Ross instead of Mills as Dorothy a disastrous blunder. In 1998, following their TV-movie production of Cinderella (1997), producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron began pre-production on a TV-movie adaptation of The Wiz for The Wonderful World of Disney, which was to star a then-unknown Anika Noni Rose as Dorothy. The project fell through due to Universal still having the film rights to adaptations of The Wiz, and the production was shelved. The O.Z., a hip-hop re-adaptation of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz with an all-Black cast that was to use original music rather than adapt The Wiz, was then planned by FOX and director Chris Stokes in the early 2000s. With Brandy, Queen Latifah, Patti LaBelle, Busta Rhymes, and Little Richard among its planned cast, the telefilm ultimately went un-produced; FOX instead became a co-producer on The Muppets' Wizard of Oz (2005), starring Ashanti as Dorothy and Latifah as Aunt Em. Eleven years later, following the production of two live musicals for NBC – The Sound of Music Live! (2013) and Peter Pan Live! (2014) – Zadan and Meron announced The Wiz Live! as their next production (NBC, by this point, having purchased Universal Studios). NBC's live performance of the stage show aired on December 3, 2015. Stephanie Mills, who originated the role of Dorothy on Broadway, played Aunt Em. An open casting call for the role of Dorothy took place on June 6, 2015. In July 2015, Queen Latifah was cast as the Wiz and Mary J. Blige was confirmed to play the role of Evillene. In addition, Beyoncé was offered to play Glinda, but no deal was made. The following month, David Alan Grier was cast as the Cowardly Lion, and newcomer Shanice Williams was chosen to play Dorothy. Uzo Aduba played Glinda and Amber Riley portrayed Addaperle, the Good Witch of the North. Other principal cast-members included Elijah Kelley as the Scarecrow, Ne-Yo as the Tin Man, and Common as the Bouncer, the gatekeeper of the entrance to Emerald City. Instrumentation and chorus The orchestra calls for 2 keyboards, 2 guitars, electric bass, drums, percussion, 2 trumpets, trombone, 2 woodwinds and a 5-piece chorus (4 male and 1 female). The first keyboard is played by the conductor. One guitarist plays lead while the other guitarist plays rhythm. The first woodwind player doubles on tenor and alto saxophones and flute while the second one doubles on tenor, alto and baritone saxophones and flute. Cast Notable principal casts Notable Replacements and Understudies Original Broadway Cast Dorothy: Renée Harris (u/s), Arnetia Walker (u/s) Scarecrow: Gregg Burge Tin Man: Ben Harney, Ralph Wilcox (u/s), Victor Willis (u/s) Lion: Michael Leslie, Ken Page, James Wigfall, Victor Willis (u/s) Aunt Em: Dee Dee Bridgewater (u/s) Glinda: Phylicia Rashad (u/s) The Wiz: Carl Hall, Victor Willis (u/s) Evillene: Theresa Merritt (Aunt Em in the 1978 film), Ella Mitchell, Irene Reid, Tasha Thomas (u/s) Addaperle: Butterfly McQueen (u/s) 1st and 2nd US Tours Dorothy: Sharon Brown (u/s), Renée Harris, Lillias White (2nd Tour) Lion: Ron Taylor Songs Act 1 "Overture" - Orchestra "The Feeling We Once Had" – Aunt Em "Tornado" - Company "He's the Wiz" – Addaperle and Munchkins "Soon as I Get Home" – Dorothy "I Was Born On The Day Before Yesterday" – Scarecrow "Ease on Down the Road #1" – Dorothy and Scarecrow "Slide Some Oil to Me" – Tin Man "Ease on Down the Road #2 " - Dorothy, Scarecrow and Tin Man "Mean Ole Lion" – Lion "Ease on Down the Road #3"- Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man and Lion "Kalidah Battle" - The Company "Be a Lion" – Dorothy and Lion "Lion's Dream" - Lion and Poppies "Emerald City Ballet (Psst)" - Company "So You Wanted to Meet the Wizard" – Wizard "What Would I Do If I Could Feel" - Tin Man Act 2 "Entr'acte" "No Bad News" – Evilene and Winkies "Funky Monkeys" - Company "Wonder Wonder Why" – Dorothy (only appeared in 1984 revival) "Everybody Rejoice/A Brand New Day" – Company "Who Do You Think You Are?" – Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Lion "Believe in Yourself" – Wiz "Y'all Got It!" – Wiz and Company "A Rested Body" – Glinda and Company "Believe in Yourself" (Reprise) – Glinda "Home/Finale" – Dorothy All numbers composed by Charlie Smalls save for the following: "Tornado" is composed by Timothy Graphenreed and Harold Wheeler. "Emerald City Ballet (Psst)" is composed by Graphenreed and George Faison. "Everybody Rejoice/A Brand New Day" is composed by Luther Vandross. The song "Wonder, Wonder, Why" was added for the 1984 Broadway revival, but is not part of the current licensed score. Critical reception In his review of the 1984 revival, Frank Rich wrote: "What made The Wiz surprisingly moving the first time around was that its creators found a connection between Baum's Kansas fantasy and the pride of urban Black Americans. When Glinda, the good witch, musically instructed Dorothy to 'believe in herself,' she seemed to be delivering a broader inspirational message. The Wiz was hardly a great musical in 1975, but it had something to say, and it said it with verve and integrity. It's depressing to watch a once-fervent expression of Black self-respect and talent be spilled on the stage as if it were a trunkload of marked-down, damaged goods." In their review of the 2006 La Jolla production, Variety wrote: "'The Wiz' remains a collage of contemporary slang and imagery, but La Jolla's is a multicultural collage in which Baum's themes speak to the broadest possible audience. Unquestionably, the humor and the heartbeat of the piece remain African-American at their source, but the overall effect is pluralistic and inclusive. In the truest and most positive sense of the phrase, McAnuff's show is color-blind. Every alteration from the 1975 original, inspired by the central multicultural concept, is salutary. Brown's almost wholly rewritten script is tart and funny at last. Smalls' score—supervised by musical director Ron Melrose and original orchestrator Harold Wheeler—sounds fresh and contemporary". As critic Peter Filichia wrote in 2015, "Arguably more impressive is Stephen Sondheim's opinion. Whenever he's asked for a favorite show that he didn't write, he immediately says The Wiz. What?! With all its false rhymes?! 'Because,' he always says, 'it's the one show which makes you feel better when you come out of it than you did when you walked in.'" Recording The Original Cast Recording for The Wiz was released in 1975 on the Atlantic label, produced by Jerry Wexler. While well received, the album omits several key songs from the musical that were not recorded for the album- such as the show's overture, dance and accompaniment music. The "Tornado" instrumental was released as both a 7" single and a 12" extended single, while the show's musical arranger Harold Wheeler co-produced a cover of "Ease on Down the Road" with studio group Consumer Rapport that became a charting single in 1975, peaking at #42 on the Billboard Hot 100. In 2017, the original Broadway cast recording of The Wiz was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant." Track list Side one "Prologue" "The Feeling We Once Had" – Tasha Thomas "Tornado" (instrumental) "He's The Wizard" – Clarice Taylor "Soon As I Get Home" – Stephanie Mills "I Was Born On The Day Before Yesterday" – Hinton Battle "Ease On Down The Road" – Hinton Battle, Stephanie Mills, Ted Ross, Tiger Haynes "Slide Some Oil To Me" – Tiger Haynes "I'm A Mean Ole Lion" – Ted Ross Side two "Be A Lion" – Stephanie Mills, Ted Ross "So You Wanted To See The Wizard" – André DeShields "What Would I Do If I Could Feel" – Tiger Haynes "Don't Nobody Bring Me No Bad News" – Mabel King "Everybody Rejoice" – Stephanie Mills and Company "Y'all Got It!" – Andre De Shields "If You Believe" – Dee Dee Bridgewater "Home (Finale)" – Stephanie Mills Awards and nominations Original Broadway production See also The Wizard of Oz (adaptations)—other adaptations of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz References External links The Wiz: a virtual coffee table book The Wiz plot and production information at GuideToMusicalTheatre.com "Cast members discuss The Wiz, based on L. Frank Baum's Wizard of Oz, an October 20, 1978 episode of WGBH's Slices of Black Theatre The Wiz collection, 1974–1979 Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library. Charlie Smalls scores for The Wiz, 1974 Music Division, The New York Public Library. 1975 musicals African-American musicals All-Black cast Broadway shows Broadway musicals Rock musicals Drama Desk Award-winning musicals Musicals based on novels Musicals based on The Wizard of Oz Tony Award for Best Musical Tony Award-winning musicals United States National Recording Registry recordings Musicals set in Kansas Musicals set in fictional countries
418944	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn%20Beck	Glenn Beck	Glenn Lee Beck (born February 10, 1964) is an American conservative political commentator, radio host, entrepreneur, and television producer. He is the CEO, founder, and owner of Mercury Radio Arts, the parent company of his television and radio network TheBlaze. He hosts the Glenn Beck Radio Program, a talk-radio show nationally syndicated on Premiere Radio Networks. Beck also hosts the Glenn Beck television program, which ran from January 2006 to October 2008 on HLN, from January 2009 to June 2011 on Fox News and now airs on TheBlaze. Beck has authored six New York Times–bestselling books. In April 2011, Beck announced that he would "transition off of his daily program" on Fox News, but would continue to team with Fox. His last daily show on Fox was June 30, 2011. In 2012, The Hollywood Reporter placed Beck on its Digital Power Fifty list. Beck launched TheBlaze in 2011 after leaving Fox News. He hosts an hour-long afternoon program, The Glenn Beck Program, on weekdays, and a three-hour morning radio show; both are broadcast on TheBlaze. Beck is also the producer of TheBlaze's For the Record. Beck has received both praise and criticism, characterized by his supporters as a defender of traditional American values and by his detractors as a demagogue. During Barack Obama's presidency, Beck promoted conspiracy theories about Obama, his administration, George Soros, and others. Early life and education Beck was born in Everett, Washington, the son of Mary Clara (née Janssen) and William Beck, who lived in Mountlake Terrace, Washington, at the time of their son's birth. The family later moved to Mount Vernon, Washington, where they owned and operated a downtown bakery. He is descended from German immigrants who came to the United States in the 19th century. Beck was raised as a Roman Catholic and attended Immaculate Conception Catholic School in Mount Vernon. Beck and his sister moved with their mother to Sumner, Washington, attending a Jesuit school in Puyallup. In 1979, when Beck was 15, his mother drowned in Puget Sound while fishing with a man in Commencement Bay west of Tacoma. Her companion also drowned; police investigators believed that one of the victims may have fallen overboard and the other drowned in a rescue attempt. Beck has called his mother's death a suicide in interviews. After their mother's death, Beck moved to his father's home in Bellingham, where Beck graduated from Sehome High School in 1982. Beck also regularly vacationed with his maternal grandparents, Ed and Clara Janssen, in Iowa. In the aftermath of his mother's death and his stepbrother's subsequent suicide, Beck has said he used "Dr. Jack Daniel's" to cope. At 18, after graduating from high school, he moved to Provo, Utah, and worked at radio station KAYK. Feeling he "didn't fit in", Beck left Utah after six months, taking a job at Washington, D.C.'s WPGC in February 1983. Personal life While working at WPGC, Beck met his first wife, Claire. They married in 1983 and had two daughters, Mary and Hannah. Mary developed cerebral palsy as a result of a series of strokes at birth in 1988. The couple divorced in 1994 amid Beck's struggles with substance abuse. He is a recovering alcoholic and drug addict, and has said he has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). By 1994, Beck was suicidal, and imagined shooting himself to the music of Kurt Cobain. He credits Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) with helping him achieve sobriety. He said he stopped drinking alcohol and smoking cannabis in November 1994, the same month he attended his first AA meeting. Beck later said that he had gotten high every day for the previous 15 years, since the age of 16. In 1996, while working for a New Haven area radio station, Beck took a theology class at Yale University, with a written recommendation from Senator Joe Lieberman, a Yale alumnus who was a fan of Beck's show at the time. Beck enrolled in an "Early Christology" course, but soon withdrew, marking the extent of his post-secondary education. Beck then began a "spiritual quest" in which he "sought out answers in churches and bookstores". As he later recounted in his books and stage performances, Beck's first attempt at self-education involved reading the work of six wide-ranging authors, constituting what Beck jokingly calls "the library of a serial killer": Alan Dershowitz, Pope John Paul II, Adolf Hitler, Billy Graham, Carl Sagan, and Friedrich Nietzsche. During this time, Beck's Mormon friend and former radio partner Pat Gray argued in favor of the "comprehensive worldview" offered by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an offer that Beck rejected until a few years later. (Later, after moving to the New York City area, he had a consultation with Graham, which he said affected him strongly. In 1999, Beck married his second wife, Tania. After they went looking for a faith on a church tour together, they joined the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in October 1999, partly at the urging of his daughter Mary. Beck was baptized by Pat Gray. Beck and Tania have two children together. Until April 2011, the couple lived in New Canaan, Connecticut, with the four children. In July 2010, Beck announced that he had been diagnosed with macular dystrophy, saying, "A couple of weeks ago I went to the doctor because of my eyes. I can't focus my eyes. He did all kinds of tests and he said, 'you have macular dystrophy ... you could go blind in the next year. Or, you might not. The disorder can make it difficult to read, drive or recognize faces. In July 2011, Beck leased a house in the Fort Worth suburb of Westlake, Texas. The Blaze was based in Irving, Texas, a suburb of Dallas, since 2011. On November 10, 2014, Beck announced on TheBlaze that he had been suffering from a severe neurological disorder for at least the last five years. He described many strong and debilitating symptoms that made it difficult for him to work, and also announced that he had "a string of health issues that quite honestly made me look crazy, and quite honestly, I have felt crazy because of them". Beck said that a chiropractor who specializes in "chiropractic neurology", Frederick Carrick, had "diagnosed [him] with several health issues, including an autoimmune disorder, which he didn't name, and adrenal fatigue." Over 10 months he had received a series of treatments and felt better. On January 13, 2022, Beck announced that his second case of COVID-19 was "getting into my lungs". Career In 2002, Beck created the media platform Mercury Radio Arts as the umbrella over his broadcast, publishing, Internet, and live show interests. Beck founded Mercury Radio Arts in 2002, naming it after the Orson Welles' Mercury Theatre, which produced live radio broadcasts during the 1930s. The company produces all of Beck's productions, including his eponymous radio show, books, live stage shows, and his official website. Radio In 1983, Beck moved to Corpus Christi, Texas, to work at radio station KZFM. In mid-1985, he was hired away from KZFM to be the lead DJ for WRKA's morning-drive radio broadcast in Louisville, Kentucky. His four-hour weekday show was called Captain Beck and the A-Team. Beck had a reputation as a "young up-and-comer". The show was not political and included the genre's usual off-color antics: juvenile jokes, pranks, and impersonations. It slipped to third in the market and Beck left abruptly in 1987 amid a dispute with WRKA management. Months later, Beck was hired by Phoenix Top-40 station KOY-FM, then known as Y-95. Beck was partnered with Arizona native Tim Hattrick to co-host a local "morning zoo" program. During his time at Y-95, Beck cultivated a rivalry with local pop radio station KZZP and that station's morning host Bruce Kelly. Through practical jokes and publicity stunts, Beck drew criticism from the staff at Y-95 when the rivalry culminated in Beck telephoning Kelly's wife on the air, mocking her recent miscarriage. In 1989, Beck resigned from Y-95 to accept a job in Houston at KRBE, known as Power 104. He was fired in 1990 due to poor ratings. Beck then moved to Baltimore, Maryland, and the city's leading Top-40 station, WBSB, known as B104. There, he partnered with Pat Gray, a morning DJ. During his tenure at B104, Beck was arrested and jailed for speeding in his DeLorean. According to a former associate, Beck was "completely out of it" when a station manager went to bail him out. After Gray and Beck were fired, they spent six months in Baltimore, planning their next move. In early 1992, they moved to WKCI-FM (KC101), a Top-40 radio station in New Haven, Connecticut. In 1995, WKCI apologized after Beck and Gray mocked a Chinese-American caller on air who felt offended by a comedy segment by playing a gong sound effect and having executive producer Alf Gatineau mock a Chinese accent. That incident led to protests by activist groups. When Gray left the show to move to Salt Lake City, Beck continued with co-host Vinnie Penn. At the end of 1998, Beck was informed that his contract would not be renewed at the end of 1999. The Glenn Beck Program first aired in 2000 on WFLA (AM) in Tampa, and took its afternoon time slot from 18th to first place within a year. In January 2002, Premiere Radio Networks launched the show nationwide on 47 stations. The show then moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, broadcasting from new flagship station WPHT. On November 5, 2007, The New York Times reported that Premiere Radio Networks was extending Beck's contract. By May 2008, it had reached over 280 terrestrial stations as well as XM Satellite. It was ranked fourth in the nation with over 6.5 million listeners. , Beck was tied for fourth in the ratings, behind Rush Limbaugh, Sean Hannity, and Dave Ramsey. Television In January 2006, CNN's Headline News announced that Beck would host a nightly news-commentary show in its new prime-time block Headline Prime. The show, simply called Glenn Beck, aired weeknights. CNN Headline News called the show "an unconventional look at the news of the day featuring his often amusing perspective". At the end of his tenure at CNN-HLN, Beck had the second-largest audience, behind Nancy Grace. In 2008, he won the Marconi Radio Award for Network Syndicated Personality of the Year. In October 2008, it was announced that Beck would join the Fox News Channel, leaving CNN Headline News. After moving to Fox, Beck hosted Glenn Beck, beginning in January 2009, as well as a weekend version. One of his first guests was Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. He also had a regular segment on Fridays, "At Your Beck and Call", on the Fox News Channel program The O'Reilly Factor. , Beck's program drew more viewers than all three competing time-slot shows combined on CNN, MSNBC and HLN. Beck's show's high ratings did not come without controversy. The Washington Posts Howard Kurtz reported that Beck's use of "distorted or inflammatory rhetoric" had complicated the channel's and its journalists' efforts to neutralize White House criticism that Fox is not really a news organization. Television analyst Andrew Tyndall echoed these sentiments, saying that Beck's incendiary style had created "a real crossroads for Fox News", saying, "they're right on the cusp of losing their image as a news organization." In April 2011, Fox News and Mercury Radio Arts, Beck's production company, announced that Beck would "transition off of his daily program" on Fox News in 2011. His last day at Fox was later announced as June 30. FNC and Beck announced that he would team with Fox to produce a slate of projects for Fox News and its digital properties. Fox News head Roger Ailes later referenced Beck's entrepreneurialism and political movement activism, saying, "His [Beck's] goals were different from our goals ... I need people focused on a daily television show." Beck hosted his last daily show on Fox on June 30, 2011, when he recounted the accomplishments of the show and said, "This show has become a movement. It's not a TV show, and that's why it doesn't belong on television anymore. It belongs in your homes. It belongs in your neighborhoods." In response to critics who said he was fired, Beck pointed out that his final show was airing live. Immediately after the show he did an interview on his new GBTV internet television channel. TheBlaze TV (formerly GBTV) Beck's Fox News one-hour show ended on June 30, 2011, and a new two-hour show began his television network, which started as a subscription-based internet TV network, TheBlaze TV, originally called GBTV, on September 12, 2011. Using a subscription model, it was estimated that Beck was on track to generate $27 million in his first year of operation. This was later upgraded to $40 million by The Wall Street Journal when subscriptions topped 300,000. Books Mercury Ink has a co-publishing deal with Simon & Schuster and was founded by Glenn Beck in 2011 as the publishing imprint of Mercury Radio Arts. Started in 2011, Mercury Ink publishes adult and young adult novels and non-fiction titles. Authors signed to Mercury Ink include Beck and New York Times best seller Richard Paul Evans. Beck has reached No. 1 on The New York Times Bestseller List in four separate categories : Hardcover Non-Fiction, Paperback Non-Fiction, Hardcover Fiction, and Children's Picture Books. Beck has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss's book Tools of Titans. Nonfiction An Inconvenient Book:Real Solutions to the World's Biggest Problems, . Glenn Beck's Common Sense:The Case Against an Out-of-Control Government Inspired by Thomas Paine, Threshold Editions, 2009, . Arguing With Idiots: How to Stop Small Minds and Big Government, Threshold Editions, 2009, . Broke: The Plan to Restore Our Trust, Truth and Treasure Threshold Editions, 2010, . The 7: Seven Wonders That Will Change Your Life, co-author Keith Ablow, MD, Threshold Editions, 2011, . The Original Argument: The Federalists' Case for the Constitution, Adapted for the 21st Century, Threshold Editions, 2011, . Being George Washington: The Indispensable Man, as You've Never Seen Him, Threshold Editions, 2011, . Cowards: What Politicians, Radicals, and the Media Refuse to Say, Threshold Editions, 2012, . Control: Exposing the Truth About Guns, Threshold Editions, 2013, . Miracles and Massacres: True and Untold Stories of the Making of America, Threshold Editions, 2013, . Conform: Exposing the Truth About Common Core and Public Education, Threshold Editions, 2014, . Dreamers and Deceivers: True Stories of the Heroes and Villains Who Made America, Threshold Editions, 2015, . It IS About Islam: Exposing the Truth About ISIS, Al Qaeda, Iran and the Caliphate, Threshold Editions, 2015, . Liars: How Progressives Exploit Our Fears For Power and Control Threshold Editions, August 2, 2016, . Addicted to Outrage: How Thinking Like a Recovering Addict Can Heal the Country, Threshold Editions, 2018, . Arguing With Socialist, Threshold Books, 2020, . The Great Reset: Joe Biden and the Rise of Twenty-First-Century Fascism, with Justin Trask Haskins, Forefront Books, 2022, Fiction The Christmas Sweater, Threshold Editions, 2008, . The Overton Window, Threshold Editions, 2010, . The Snow Angel, Threshold Editions, 2011, . Agenda 21, co-author Harriett Parke, Threshold Editions, 2012, . The Eye of Moloch, Threshold Editions, 2013, . Agenda 21:Into the Shadows, co-author Harriett Parke, Threshold Editions, 2015, . The Immortal Nicholas, Mercury Ink, 2015, . Stage shows and speeches Since 2005, Beck has toured American cities twice a year, presenting a one-man stage show. His stage productions are a mix of stand-up comedy and inspirational speaking. In a critique of his live act, Salon magazine's Steve Almond describes Beck as a "wildly imaginative performer, a man who weds the operatic impulses of the demagogue to the grim mutterings of the conspiracy theorist". A show from the Beck '08 Unelectable Tour was shown in around 350 U.S. movie theaters. The finale of 2009's Common Sense Comedy Tour was simulcast in over 440 theaters. The events have drawn 200,000 fans in recent years. In March 2003, Beck ran a series of rallies, which he called Glenn Beck's Rally for America, in support of troops deployed for the upcoming Iraq War. On July 4, 2007, he hosted the 2007 Toyota Tundra "Stadium of Fire" in Provo, Utah. America's Freedom Foundation presents the annual event at LaVell Edwards Stadium at Brigham Young University. In May 2008, Beck gave the keynote speech at the NRA convention in Louisville, Kentucky. In late August 2009, the mayor of Beck's hometown, Mount Vernon, Washington, announced that he would award Beck the Key to the City, designating September 26, 2009, as "Glenn Beck Day". Due to local opposition, the city council voted unanimously to disassociate itself from the award. The key presentation ceremony sold out the 850-seat McIntyre Hall and an estimated 800 detractors and supporters demonstrated outside the building. Earlier that day, approximately 7,000 people attended the Evergreen Freedom Foundation's "Take the Field with Glenn Beck" at Seattle's Safeco Field. In December 2009, Beck produced a one-night special film, The Christmas Sweater: A Return to Redemption. In January and February 2010, he teamed with fellow Fox News host Bill O'Reilly to tour several cities in a live stage show called "The Bold and Fresh Tour 2010". The January 29 show was recorded and broadcast to movie theaters throughout the country. In July 2013, Beck produced and hosted a one-night stage event, Man in the Moon, held at the USANA Amphitheatre in West Valley City, Utah. The amphitheater sold out all 20,000 of its seats and a recording of the event was released on television and DVD in August 2013. The event was a narrative story told from the Moon's point of view, from the beginnings of the Book of Genesis to the first Moon landing. The Moon narrates the story. Philanthropy In 2011, Beck founded the nonprofit organization Mercury One, the mission of which is to "restore the human spirit by encouraging dependence on God, providing humanitarian aid, preserving heritage, and empowering all to stand for truth." In early 2011, he began work toward developing a clothing line to be sold to benefit the charity. In October 2011, Mercury One began selling the upscale clothing line 1791 exclusively at its website, 1791.com. The clothing in the line's 11-piece inaugural offering was manufactured by American Mojo of Lowell, Massachusetts. In July 2014, after tens of thousands of undocumented immigrant children crossed into Texas via the Southern United States border, unaccompanied by parents, Beck announced that he, Senator Mike Lee, and Representative Louie Gohmert would travel to the U.S.-Mexico border with Mercury One. He said they would bring tractor trailers full of food, hot meals, and teddy bears for the unaccompanied minors. While Beck made clear in interviews that they wanted a full repeal of DACA, he also said he believed in the importance of helping these children. "Through no fault of their own, they are caught in political crossfire, and while we continue to put pressure on Washington and change its course of lawlessness, we must also help", Beck said. "It is not either/or. It is both. We have to be active in the political game, and we must open our hearts." As of 2017, Beck's Nazarene Fund had reportedly relocated 10,524 Christian refugees from northern Iraq and Syria to other host countries, including the U.S., Australia, France, Slovakia, Greece, Lebanon, Brazil, and Canada. The fund's website says 1,646 families have been evacuated from the ISIS-ravaged region since its launch in 2014, and 45,000 people have received humanitarian aid as a result of donations to Mercury One. Projects and rallies 9–12 Project and Tea Party protests In March 2009, Beck put together a campaign, the 9-12 Project, named after nine principles and 12 values that he says embody the spirit of the American people on the day after the September 11 attacks. The Colorado 9-12 Project hosted a "Patriot Camp" for kids in grades 1–5, featuring programs on "our Constitution, the Founding Fathers, and the values and principles that are the cornerstones of our nation". Restoring Honor rally Beck promoted and hosted the Restoring Honor rally at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 2010. The rally—which purported to embrace religious faith and patriotism—was co-sponsored by the Special Operations Warrior Foundation, promoted by FreedomWorks, and supported by the Tea Party movement. Attendance was estimated at 87,000 (± 9,000) based on aerial photos. "America's First Christmas" In December 2010, Beck went to Wilmington, Ohio, a town devastated by the late-2000s recession, to host live events to encourage his fans to go to the town to boost the local economy in a project called "America's First Christmas". He hosted an event and his radio and television shows from the local theater. Restoring Courage 2011 international tour Beck headlined his "Restoring Courage" events in Jerusalem, Israel, in August 2011 in a campaign he said was designed to encourage people worldwide "to stand with the Jewish people". After Jerusalem, Beck visited Cape Town, South Africa, and was scheduled to visit Venezuela. 2012 presidential campaign Actively supporting Mitt Romney as "perhaps the best-known Mormon after the Republican presidential candidate and a major influence on evangelical Christians, ... Beck has emerged as an unlikely theological bridge between the first Mormon presidential nominee and a critical electorate [evangelicals]", according to a pre-election article in The New York Times. Along with personal campaign appearances in Ohio and Iowa, Beck directly addressed doctrinal issues between Mormons and evangelical Christians (the latter often consider the former a "cult" rather than Christian) on his radio show in September 2012. During the one-hour show, he asked his audience, "Does Mitt Romney's Mormonism make him too scary or weird to be elected president of the United States?" The article concluded by addressing the "fear of making Mormonism mainstream" as a reason Beck could be acceptable to evangelicals and Romney not be, quoting John C. Green, the author of The Faith Factor: How Religion Influences American Elections: There's a difference between a public figure like Glenn Beck and someone who could be the president of the United States. ... Many evangelicals believe this country was founded by Christian leaders. It is important that the person in the White House be positive about Christianity, if not a devout Christian himself. Restoring Love rally and "Day of Service" In August 2012, Beck held a rally at AT&T Stadium in Irving, Texas. The event's theme was service to one's fellow citizens, and loving each other. The event saw a "Day of Service", which saw Mercury One volunteering to feed homeless and disadvantaged people, doing community-building projects, and mowing lawns. It culminated in a keynote speech by Beck imploring the audience to "commit to each other. Go home and wake up your neighbors." Of serving fellow Americans, Beck said, "Those who count us out are counting on one weekend of action, one weekend of speeches. One weekend. One day. Please, my fellow countrymen, let this be the first of many." Restoring Unity and Never Again Is Now In August 2015, Beck and Mercury Radio Arts organized a rally that saw a little over 20,000 people march through the streets of Birmingham, Alabama, in a statement of unity and support for persecuted Christians in Iraq, a cause Mercury One focuses on, and as a call for unity among the American people. After the march, the Birmingham-Jefferson Convention Complex held a rally featuring speakers including Beck, Ted Cruz, Rafael Cruz, Jon Voight, Alveda King, and David Barton. Political views Beck has called himself a conservative with libertarian leanings. Among his core values, he lists personal responsibility, private charity, the right to life, freedom of religion, limited government, and the family as the cornerstone of society. Beck believes in low national debt, and has said, "A conservative believes that debt creates unhealthy relationships. Everyone, from the government on down, should live within their means and strive for financial independence." He supports individual gun ownership rights, opposes gun control legislation, and supports the NRA and its state chapters. Beck rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. He contests the evidence, and has said, "There is more proof for the resurrection of Jesus than man-made climate change." He views the American Clean Energy and Security Act as a form of wealth redistribution, and he has promoted a petition rejecting the Kyoto Protocol. Although opposed to illegal immigration, Beck announced in 2014 that Mercury One would make efforts to provide food and relief to the large numbers of migrant children. On March 18, 2015, Beck announced that he had left the Republican Party, saying that it had failed to effectively stand against Obamacare and immigration reform, and because of its opposition to lawmakers such as Mike Lee and Ted Cruz. Beck endorsed Cruz for president of the United States in 2016. In October 2016, Beck called opposing Donald Trump a "moral, ethical choice". On the campaign trail in support of Cruz, Beck said, "If Donald Trump wins, it is going to be a snowball to hell." After Cruz dropped out of the race, Beck endorsed independent Evan McMullin. Opposition to progressivism During his 2010 keynote speech to the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC), Beck wrote progressivism on a chalkboard and declared, "This is the disease. This is the disease in America", adding that "progressivism is the cancer in America and it is eating our Constitution!" According to Beck, the progressive ideas of men such as John Dewey, Herbert Croly, and Walter Lippmann, influenced the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, eventually becoming the foundation for President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. Beck has said that such progressivism infects both main political parties and threatens to "destroy America as it was originally conceived". In his book Common Sense, he argues that "progressivism has less to do with the parties and more to do with individuals who seek to redefine, reshape, and rebuild America into a country where individual liberties and personal property mean nothing if they conflict with the plans and goals of the State." A collection of progressives whom Beck has called "Crime Inc." make up what he contends is a clandestine conspiracy to take over and transform the United States. Some of these include Cass Sunstein, Van Jones, Andy Stern, John Podesta, Wade Rathke, Joel Rogers and Francis Fox Piven. Other figures Beck has tied to "Crime Inc." include Al Gore, Franklin Raines, Maurice Strong, George Soros, John Holdren and Barack Obama. According to Beck, these people already have or are surreptitiously working to fulfill their agenda with an array of organizations and corporations such as Goldman Sachs, Fannie Mae, ACORN, Apollo Alliance, Tides Center, Chicago Climate Exchange, Generation Investment Management, Enterprise Community Partners, Petrobras, Center for American Progress, and the SEIU. In his quest to root out these "progressives", Beck has compared himself to Israeli Nazi hunters, vowing on his radio show that "to the day I die I am going to be a progressive-hunter. I'm going to find these people that have done this to our country and expose them. I don't care if they're in nursing homes." Beck compared Al Gore to the Nazis while equating the campaign against global warming to the Nazi campaign against the Jews. According to the book The Philosophy of Conspiracy Theories, Beck "believes in the existence of a large-scale, long-term socialist conspiracy – encompassing elements of both the Democratic and Republican Parties – to deny American citizens their God-given rights to liberty and freedom from taxation." Progressive historian Sean Wilentz has denounced what he calls Beck's progressive-themed conspiracy theories and "gross historical inaccuracies", contending that Beck is merely echoing the decades-old "right-wing extremism" of the John Birch Society. According to Wilentz, Beck's "version of history" places him in a long line of figures who have challenged mainstream political historians and presented an inaccurate opposing view as the truth, stating: Conservative David Frum, a former speechwriter for President George W. Bush, has also alleged Beck's propensity for negationism, remarking, "Beck offers a story about the American past for people who are feeling right now very angry and alienated. It is different enough from the usual story in that he makes them feel like they've got access to secret knowledge." In 2020, Beck argued that the election of Democratic presidential candidate Bernie Sanders could lead to "another Holocaust." Barack Obama and the Obama administration Beck promoted numerous conspiracy theories and falsehoods about President Barack Obama and the Obama administration. He suggested that Obama was building FEMA concentration camps to put opponents in, that Obama was planning to fake a terrorist attack such as the Oklahoma City bombing to boost the administration's popularity, and that Obama was George Soros's "puppet". He often likened Obama and his administration to Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich. Beck falsely claimed that the John Holdren, who led the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the Obama administration, "proposed forcing abortions and putting sterilants in the drinking water to control population." In 2009, Beck argued that Obama had repeatedly shown "a deep-seated hatred for white people or the white culture", saying, "I'm not saying he doesn't like white people. I'm saying he has a problem. This guy is, I believe, a racist." These remarks drew criticism and resulted in a boycott in which at least 57 advertisers requested that their ads be removed from his programming. He later apologized for the remarks, telling Fox News Sunday anchor Chris Wallace that he has a "big fat mouth" and miscast as racism what is actually, as he theorizes, Obama's belief in black theology. In November 2012, Beck attempted to auction a mason jar holding an Obama figurine described as submerged in urine but in fact submerged in beer. Bidding reached $11,000 before eBay decided to remove the auction and cancel all bids. In a 2016 interview with The New Yorker, Beck said of his commentary on Obama: "I did a lot of freaking out about Barack Obama." He added, "Obama made me a better man." Beck said that he regrets calling Obama a racist and supports Black Lives Matter. He said, "There are things unique to the African-American experience that I cannot relate to. I had to listen to them." Van Jones In July 2009, Beck began to focus many episodes on his TV and radio shows on Van Jones, special advisor for Green Jobs at Obama's White House Council on Environmental Quality. Beck called Jones a "self-avowed, radical revolutionary communist". PolitiFact rated Beck's claim "mostly false", noting that Jones, who has been open about his past as a communist during the early 1990s, had since expressed firmly capitalist beliefs. Beck also criticized Jones for his involvement in STORM, a Bay Area radical group with Marxist roots, and his support for death row inmate Mumia Abu-Jamal, who had been convicted of killing a police officer. Beck spotlighted a video of Jones calling Republicans "assholes", and a petition Jones signed suggesting that George W. Bush knowingly let the September 11 attacks happen. Time magazine credited Beck with leading conservatives' attack on Jones. In a move The New York Times called a White House response to the controversies, Jones said that "the agenda of this president was bigger than any one individual" and resigned his position in September 2009. Jones called his opponents' attacks as a "vicious smear campaign" and an effort to use "lies and distortions to distract and divide". Cass Sunstein Cass Sunstein, Administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Obama White House, was a frequent target of Beck's conspiracy theories. Beck led opposition against Sunstein's nomination to the position, calling Sunstein "the most dangerous man in America" and suggesting that Sunstein was plotting ways to "ban" conspiracy theorizing. ACORN In 2009, Beck and other conservative commentators were critical of Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now (ACORN) making multiple claims including voter registration fraud in the 2008 presidential election. In September 2009, he broadcast a series of alleged undercover videos by conservative activists James O'Keefe and Hannah Giles, which portrayed ACORN community organizers offering inappropriate tax and other advice to people who had said they wanted to import "very young" girls from El Salvador to work as child prostitutes. Following the videos' release, the U.S. Census Bureau severed ties with the group while the U.S. House and Senate voted to cut all of its federal funding. On December 7, 2009, the former Massachusetts Attorney General, after an independent internal investigation of ACORN, found the videos that had been released appeared to have been edited, "in some cases substantially". He found no evidence of criminal conduct by ACORN employees, but concluded that ACORN had poor management practices that contributed to unprofessional actions by a number of its low-level employees. On March 1, 2010, the District Attorney's office for Brooklyn determined that the videos were "heavily edited" and concluded that there was no criminal wrongdoing by the ACORN staff in the videos from the Brooklyn ACORN office. On April 1, 2010, an investigation by the California Attorney General found the videos from Los Angeles, San Diego and San Bernardino to be "heavily edited", and the investigation did not find evidence of criminal conduct on the part of ACORN employees. On June 14, 2010, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) released its findings, which showed that ACORN evidenced no sign that it, or any of its related organizations, mishandled any federal money they had received. In March 2010, ACORN announced it would be closing its offices and disbanding due to loss of funding from government and private donors. According to a 2010 study in the journal Perspectives on Politics, Beck played a prominent role in media attacks on ACORN. Satire website In 2009, lawyers for Beck brought a case (Beck v. Eiland-Hall) against the owner of a satirical website named GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com with the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). The claim that the domain name of the website is itself defamatory was described as a first in cyberlaw. Beck's lawyers argued that the site infringed on his trademarked name and that the domain name should be turned over to Beck. The WIPO ruled against Beck, but Eiland-Hall voluntarily transferred the domain to Beck anyway, saying that the First Amendment had been upheld and that he no longer had a use for the domain name. Jewish Funds for Justice In January 2011, in protest against what they saw as inappropriate references to the Holocaust and to Nazis by Beck (and by Roger Ailes of Fox News), four hundred rabbis signed an open letter published as a paid advertisement in The Wall Street Journal. The ad was paid for by Jewish Funds for Justice (JFFJ), which had previously called for Beck's firing. The JFFJ have claimed on their website that Beck seems "to draw his material straight from the anti-Semitic forgery, the Protocols of the Elders of Zion". The letter states that Beck and Fox had "diminish[ed] the memory and meaning of the Holocaust when you use it to discredit any individual or organization you disagree with. That is what Fox News has done in recent weeks." In response, a Fox News executive told Reuters the letter was from a "George Soros-backed leftwing political organization". George Soros conspiracy theories Beck is a prominent proponent of conspiracy theories about George Soros, a Jewish philanthropist. Beck falsely claimed that Soros as a boy helped to "send the Jews to the death camps." Beck frequently referred to Soros as a puppet-master and repeated the unsubstantiated conspiracy theory that Soros caused the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 2010, Beck was accused of being anti-Semitic due to his smears against Soros. The Anti-Defamation League said Beck's remarks about Soros sending Jews to the death camps were "horrific" and "totally off-limits." On February 22, 2011, during a discussion on his radio show about the controversy surrounding his earlier comments about Soros, Beck said "Reform Rabbis are generally political in nature. It's almost like radicalized Islam in a way where it's less about religion than it is about politics." He was quickly criticized by other conservatives, rabbis, and others. The Anti-Defamation League labeled Beck's remarks "bigoted ignorance". On February 24, Beck apologized on air, agreeing that his comments were "ignorant". In 2016, Beck, a friend of actor and director Mel Gibson claimed he and Gibson shared a conversation in which Gibson claimed Jewish people had stolen a copy of The Passion of the Christ before its official theatrical release, and that Jewish people were assaulting him in the streets. 2011 Norway attacks Beck condemned the 2011 Norway attacks, but was condemned for his comparison of murdered and surviving members of the Norwegian Workers' Youth League to the Hitler Youth. He said, "There was a shooting at a political camp which sounds a little like, you know, the Hitler Youth or whatever, you know what I mean. Who does a camp for kids that's all about politics? Disturbing." The statement was ill-received in Norway, prompting political commentator and Labour party member Frank Aarebrot to label Beck as a "vulgar propagandist", a "swine" and a "fascist", and Torbjørn Eriksen, former press secretary to Norway's prime minister Jens Stoltenberg, to describe Beck's comment as "a new low", adding that "Glenn Beck's comments are ignorant, incorrect and extremely hurtful". Commentators pointed out that groups affiliated with the Tea Party movement and the Beck-founded 9–12 Project also sponsor politically oriented camp programs for children. Trump comments and 2016 SIRIUS XM Suspension Beck opposed Donald Trump during his 2016 campaign for president, comparing him to Adolf Hitler and describing him as "an immoral man who is absent decency or dignity." Sirius XM suspended Beck on May 31, 2016, for remarks made during an interview a week earlier. During an interview with author Brad Thor about a hypothetical situation where Trump was abusing his power as president and Congress was unable to stop him, Thor asked "what patriot will step up and [assassinate him] if, if, he oversteps his mandate as president?" Thor and the show's general manager both denied that the comments were a call for his assassination. Beck's radio show was moved from the SIRIUS XM Patriot channel to the Triumph channel soon after. Beck's opposition to Trump did not sit well with many Trump supporters and hurt his businesses and viewership. On May 18, 2018, Beck stated on his radio program that he intended to vote for Trump in the 2020 presidential election, calling Trump's record "pretty damn amazing". Beck said Trump's defeat in the 2020 election would be "the end of the country as we know it." Influences Political and historical An author with ideological influence on Beck is W. Cleon Skousen (1913–2006), a prolific conservative political writer, American constitutionalist and faith based political theorist. As an anti-communist supporter of the John Birch Society, and a limited-government activist, Skousen, who was Mormon, wrote on a wide range of subjects: the Six-Day War, Mormon eschatology, New World Order conspiracies, even parenting. Skousen believed that American political, social, and economic elites were working with communists to foist a world government on the United States. Beck praised Skousen's "words of wisdom" as "divinely inspired", referencing Skousen's The Naked Communist and especially The 5,000 Year Leap (originally published in 1981), which Beck said in 2007 had "changed his life". According to Skousen's nephew, Mark Skousen, Leap reflects Skousen's "passion for the United States Constitution", which he "felt was inspired by God and the reason behind America's success as a nation". The book is recommended by Beck as "required reading" to understand the current American political landscape and become a "September twelfth person". Beck authored a foreword for the 2008 edition of Leap and Beck's on-air recommendations in 2009 propelled the book to number one in the government category on Amazon for several months. In 2010, Matthew Continetti of the conservative Weekly Standard criticized Beck's conspiratorial bent, terming him "a Skousenite". Additionally, Alexander Zaitchik, author of the 2010 book Common Nonsense: Glenn Beck and the Triumph of Ignorance, which features an entire chapter on "The Ghost of Cleon Skousen", refers to Skousen as "Beck's favorite author and biggest influence", while observing he authored four of the 10 books on Beck's 9-12 Project required-reading list. In his discussion of Beck and Skousen, Continetti said that one of Skousen's works "draws on Carroll Quigley's Tragedy and Hope (1966), which argues that the history of the 20th century is the product of secret societies in conflict". He observed in Beck's novel, The Overton Window (which Beck describes as "faction", or fiction based on fact), a character says: "Carroll Quigley laid open the plan in Tragedy and Hope, the only hope to avoid the tragedy of war was to bind together the economies of the world to foster global stability and peace." Beck's views on early-20th-century progressivism are greatly influenced by Ronald J. Pestritto, who teaches at Hillsdale College. The portal page GlennBeck.com for "American Progressivism" uses Pestritto's teachings and links directly to one of his books. Pestritto wrote an article for The Wall Street Journal detailing "Glenn Beck, Progressives and Me". The New York Times observed that Pestritto was a regular guest on Beck's Fox News show, . Princeton University historian Sean Wilentz says that alongside Skousen, John Birch Society founder Robert W. Welch, Jr., is a key ideological foundation of Beck's worldview. According to Wilentz, Beck "has brought neo-Birchite ideas to an audience beyond any that Welch or Skousen might have dreamed of." Other books that Beck regularly cites on his programs are Amity Shlaes's The Forgotten Man, Jonah Goldberg's Liberal Fascism, Larry Schweikart and Michael Allen's A Patriot's History of the United States, and Burton W. Folsom, Jr.'s New Deal or Raw Deal. Beck has also urged his listeners to read The Coming Insurrection, a book by a French Marxist group discussing what they see as the imminent collapse of capitalist culture. On June 4, 2010, Beck endorsed Elizabeth Dilling's 1936 work The Red Network: A Who's Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots, remarking, "this is a book, The Red Network, this came in from 1936. People, [Joseph] McCarthy was absolutely right ... This is, who were the communists in America." Beck was criticized by an array of people, including Menachem Z. Rosensaft and Joe Conason, who said that Dilling was an outspoken anti-Semite and a Nazi sympathizer. Religious Beck has credited God for saving him from drug and alcohol abuse, professional obscurity, and friendlessness. In 2006, he performed an inspirational monologue in Salt Lake City, Utah, detailing how he was transformed by the "healing power of Jesus Christ", which was released as a CD two years later by Deseret Book, a publishing company owned by the LDS Church, entitled An Unlikely Mormon: The Conversion Story of Glenn Beck. Writer Joanna Brooks contends that Beck developed his "amalgamation of anti-communism" and "connect-the-dots conspiracy theorizing" only after his entry into the "deeply insular world of Mormon thought and culture". Brooks theorizes that Beck's calls to fasting and prayer are rooted in Mormon collective fasts to address spiritual challenges, while his "overt sentimentality" and penchant for weeping represent the hallmark of a "distinctly Mormon mode of masculinity" where "appropriately-timed displays of tender emotion are displays of power" and spirituality. Philip Barlow, the Arrington chair of Mormon history and culture at Utah State University, has said that Beck's belief that the U.S. Constitution was an "inspired document" and his calls for limited government and not exiling God from the public sphere "have considerable sympathy in Mormonism". Beck has acknowledged that Mormon "doctrine is different" from traditional Christianity, but said that this was what attracted him to it: "for me some of the things in traditional doctrine just doesn't work." Public reception In 2009, Beck's show was one of the highest rated news commentary programs on cable TV. For a Barbara Walters ABC special, Beck was selected as one of America's "Top 10 Most Fascinating People" of 2009. In 2010, he was selected for Time'''s top 100 most influential people under the "Leaders" category. Beck has called himself an entertainer, a commentator rather than a reporter, and a "rodeo clown". He has said that he identifies with Howard Beale, a character portrayed by Peter Finch in the film Network: "When he came out of the rain and he was like, 'none of this makes any sense'—I am that guy." According to Tampa Bay Times, Beck's supporters have praised him as a constitutional stalwart defending their traditional American values.Time magazine described Beck as "the new populist superstar of Fox News", saying it is easier to see a set of attitudes rather than a specific ideology, noting his criticism of Wall Street, yet defending bonuses to AIG, as well as denouncing conspiracy theories about the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) but warning against indoctrination of children by the AmeriCorps program." (Paul Krugman and Mark Potok, on the other hand, have been among those asserting that Beck helps spread "hate" by covering issues that stir up extremists.) What seems to unite Beck's disparate themes, Time argued, is a sense of siege. An earlier Time cover story called Beck "a gifted storyteller with a knack for stitching seemingly unrelated data points into possible conspiracies", proclaiming that he has "emerged as a virtuoso on the strings" of conservative discontent by mining "the timeless theme of the corrupt Them thwarting a virtuous Us". Beck's shows have been called a "mix of moral lessons, outrage and an apocalyptic view of the future ... capturing the feelings of an alienated class of Americans". One of Beck's Fox News Channel colleagues, Shepard Smith, has jokingly called Beck's studio the "fear chamber", with Beck countering that he preferred the term "doom room". Republican South Carolina U.S. Senator Lindsey Graham criticized Beck as a "cynic" whose show was antithetical to "American values" at The Atlantic's 2009 First Draft of History conference, remarking, "Only in America can you make that much money crying." The progressive watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting's (FAIR) Activism Director, Peter Hart, argues that Beck red-baits political adversaries and promotes a paranoid view of progressive politics. Howard Kurtz, of The Washington Post, has remarked, "Love him or hate him, Beck is a talented, often funny broadcaster, a recovering alcoholic with an unabashedly emotional style." Laura Miller writes in Salon that Beck is a contemporary example of "the paranoid style in American politics" described by historian Richard Hofstader: Beck has acknowledged accusations of being a conspiracy theorist, saying on his show that there is a "concentrated effort now to label me a conspiracy theorist". Particularly as a consequence of Beck's Restoring Honor rally in 2010, the fact that Beck is Mormon caused concern among some politically sympathetic Christian Evangelicals on theological grounds.Posner, Sarah, Evangelicals have "Deep Concerns" about Beck, Religion Dispatches, September 1, 2010"Does it Matter that Glenn Beck is a Mormon?", The Week, Yahoo!, August 31, 2010 Tom Tradup, vice president at Salem Radio Network, which serves more than 2,000 Christian-themed stations, expressed this sentiment after the rally, saying, "Politically, everyone is with it, but theologically, when he says the country should turn back to God, the question is: Which God?" A September 2010 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) and Religion News Service (RNS) found that of those Americans who hold a favorable opinion of Beck, only 45% believe he is the right person to lead a religious movement, with that number further declining to 37% when people are informed he is Mormon. Daniel Cox, director of research for PRRI, summed up this position by stating: Pete Peterson of Pepperdine's Davenport Institute said that Beck's speech at the rally belonged to an American tradition of calls to personal renewal. Peterson wrote: "A Mormon surrounded onstage by priests, pastors, rabbis, and imams, Beck [gave] one of the more ecumenical jeremiads in history." Evangelical pastor Tony Campolo said in 2010 that conservative evangelicals respond to Beck's framing of conservative economic principles, saying that Beck's and ideological fellow travelers' "marriage between evangelicalism and patriotic nationalism is so strong that anybody who is raising questions about loyalty to the old, lassez-faire capitalist system is ex-post facto unpatriotic, un-American, and by association non-Christian." Newsweek religion reporter Lisa Miller, after quoting Campolo, opined, "It's ironic that Beck, a Mormon, would gain acceptance as a leader of a new Christian coalition. ... Beck's gift ... is to articulate God's special plan for America in such broad strokes that they trample no single creed or doctrine while they move millions with their message." Critical biographies In June 2010, investigative reporter Alexander Zaitchik released a critical biography, Common Nonsense: Glenn Beck and the Triumph of Ignorance, with a title mocking Beck's work, Common Sense. In an interview about the book, Zaitchik theorized, "Beck's politics and his insatiable hunger for money and fame are not mutually exclusive", adding: In September 2010, Philadelphia Daily News reporter Will Bunch released The Backlash: Right-Wing Radicals, High-Def Hucksters, and Paranoid Politics in the Age of Obama. One of Bunch's theses is that Beck is nothing more than a morning zoo deejay playing a fictional character as a money-making stunt. Writer Bob Cesca, in a review of Bunch's book, compares Beck to Steve Martin's faith-healer character in the 1992 film Leap of Faith, before describing the "derivative grab bag of other tried and tested personalities" that Bunch contends comprises Beck's persona: In October 2010 a polemical biography by Dana Milbank was released: Tears of a Clown: Glenn Beck and the Tea Bagging of America. Satire, spoof and parody Beck has been the subject of mockery and ridicule by a number of humorists. In response to his animated delivery and views, he was parodied in an impersonation by Jason Sudeikis on Saturday Night Live. The Daily Shows Jon Stewart has spoofed Beck's 9–12 project with his own "11-3 project", consisting of "11 principles and 3 herbs and spices", impersonated Beck's chalk board-related presentation style for an entire show, and quipped about Beck: "finally, a guy who says what people who aren't thinking are thinking". Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report satirized Beck's "war room" by creating his own "doom bunker". Through the character Eric Cartman, South Park parodied Beck's television program and his commentary style in the episode "Dances with Smurfs". The Onion, a satirical periodical and faux news site, ran an Onion News Network video "special report" lamenting that the "victim in a fatal car accident was tragically not Glenn Beck". Meanwhile, the Current TV cartoon SuperNews! ran an animated cartoon feature titled "The Glenn Beck Apocalypse", where Beck is confronted by Jesus Christ, who rebukes him as the equivalent of "Sarah Palin farting into a balloon". Political comedian and satirist Bill Maher has mocked Beck's followers as an "army of diabetic mallwalkers", while The Buffalo Beast named Beck the most loathsome person in America in 2010, declaring, "It's like someone found a manic, doom-prophesying hobo in a sandwich board, shaved him, shot him full of Zoloft and gave him a show." The October 30, 2010, Rally To Restore Sanity and/or Fear in Washington, hosted by Comedy Central personalities Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert, was conceived as a parody of Beck's earlier Rally to Restore Honor, even though Stewart and Colbert said that they came up with the idea of holding a rally in March and Stewart had put down the deposit for the National Mall before Beck announced his rally. Defamation lawsuit and settlement In March 2014, Abdulrahman Alharbi filed suit for defamation in the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts against Beck and his business entities, The Blaze and Mercury Radio Arts, along with his distributor Premiere Radio Networks. Alharbi's defamation claim arose from Beck's repeated broadcasts "identifying Alharbi as an active participant" in the Boston Marathon bombing, even after federal authorities cleared Alharbi, who was injured in the attack, of any wrongdoing and confirmed that he was an innocent victim.Josh Gerstein, Glenn Beck reaches settlement with Saudi student over Boston Marathon accusations, Politico (September 13, 2016). In December 2014, the judge rejected Beck's attempt to have the case dismissed. In September 2016, the suit was settled on confidential terms. See also Beck University Conservative talk radio List of most-listened-to radio programs Works Non-fiction (Audiobook). An Unlikely Mormon: The Conversion Story of Glenn Beck, Deseret Book 2008 (Audiobook). . Arguing with Idiots: How to Stop Small Minds and Big Government, Simon & Schuster 2009. . Glenn Beck's Common Sense: The Case Against an Out-of-Control Government, Simon & Schuster 2009. .Best Sellers: Paperback Nonfiction, The New York Times, October 9, 2009 America's March to Socialism: Why We're One Step Closer to Giant Missile Parades, Simon & Schuster Audio 2009 (Audio CD). . Idiots Unplugged, Simon & Schuster 2010 (Audio CD). . Broke: The Plan to Restore Our Trust, Truth, and Treasure, Simon & Schuster 2010. . The 7: Seven Wonders That Will Change Your Life, Keith Ablow, co-author; Threshold Editions, 2011; . The Original Argument: The Federalists' Case for the Constitution, Adapted for the 21st Century, with Joshua Charles; Threshold Editions, 2011; . Liars: How Progressives Exploit Our Fears for Power and Control, Threshold Editions 2016. Addicted to Outrage: How Thinking Like a Recovering Addict Can Heal the Country, Threshold Editions 2018. The Great Reset: Joe Biden and the Rise of Twenty-First-Century Fascism, Justin Haskins, co-author; Forefront Books, 2021; . Control Series Fiction The Christmas Sweater, Simon & Schuster 2008. . The Overton Window, Threshold Editions J2010. The Eye of Moloch, Threshold Editions June 2013. Agenda 21: Into the Shadows, Threshold Editions 2015. The Immortal Nicholas, Mercury Ink 2015. Children's The Christmas Sweater: A Picture Book, Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing 2009. . Beck authorized a comic book: Political Power: Glenn Beck'', by Jerome Maida, Mark Sparacio (illus.); Bluewater Productions, 2011 References External links Glenn Beck – The 912 Project 1964 births Living people 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers American Christian Zionists American conspiracy theorists American entertainment industry businesspeople Latter Day Saints from Washington (state) American anti-communists American libertarians American magazine founders American people of German descent American political commentators American political writers American television talk show hosts Blaze Media people American conservative talk radio hosts Converts to Mormonism from Roman Catholicism Fox News people Male critics of feminism People from Everett, Washington People from Westlake, Texas Radio personalities from Arizona Radio personalities from Tampa, Florida Tea Party movement activists Texas Independents Washington (state) Republicans Writers from Bellingham, Washington Latter Day Saints from Texas 20th-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers American male non-fiction writers People with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder American activists with disabilities
418945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%2C%20Staffordshire	Stone, Staffordshire	Stone is a market town and civil parish in Staffordshire, England, situated approximately 7 miles (11 km) north of the county town of Stafford, 7 miles (11 km) south of Stoke-on-Trent, and 15 miles (24 km) north of Rugeley. As a notable canal town, Stone is recognised for its rich history, originating from the early Bronze Age and continuing through the Industrial Revolution, with the introduction of the Trent and Mersey Canal shaping the town's development and local industry. Originally governed as an urban district council and a rural district council, Stone became part of the Borough of Stafford in 1974. Over the years, the town has seen a steady growth in its population, which was recorded as 12,305 in the 1991 census, 14,555 in 2001, and 16,385 in 2011. Etymology The place-name's meaning is exactly what is stated, a "stone, rock", from the Old English stān (stone). The local story is that the town was named after the pile of stones taken from the River Trent raised on the graves of the two princes, Ruffin and Wulfad, killed in AD 665 by their father, King Wulfhere of Mercia, because of their conversion to Christianity. However, this legend is unlikely to be true. Wulfhere was already a Christian when he became king, and the story on which it is probably based is set by Bede in another part of the country over ten years after Wulfhere's death. More recent research points to older, though no less interesting nor tangible, possibilities regarding its name and founding. Around Stone lie several Romano British sites and it is not inconceivable that the stone remains of a bridge or milestone, perhaps continuing the Roman road from Rocester to Blyth Bridge and then potentially through Stone, is alluded to in the name. The settlement of Walton (which now forms a suburb) is ancient Brythonic (Celtic/ancient Briton place name). The most likely derivation for most places called Stone is from a prehistoric megalith, Roman milestone, a natural boulder or rock formation, or from 'a place where stone was obtained' and a Keuper sandstone outcrop on the north side of Stone, long quarried for building materials, may be the topographical feature from which the place was named. It may also be noted that a huge stone or erratic is recorded on Common Plot and in that respect it is unclear whether Stone Field here, one of the open-fields of Stone is 'the field at Stone' or 'the field with the stone'. History There is a Bronze Age ring ditch at Pirehill suggesting occupation in prehistoric times (County Archeology). Stone lies within the territory of the Iron Age Celtic tribe 'the Cornovii' (people of the horn; perhaps a horned god or topographical feature) mentioned by Ptolemy 2nd century AD in Geographia. To the northwest of Stone lies one of their hill forts which overlooks the Trent and perhaps the salt production in the region. The early history of Stone is unclear and clouded by the 12th century medieval romance concerning the murder of the Saxon princes Wulfad and Rufin by their father Wulfhere of Mercia who reputedly had his base near Darleston (Wulfherecester). The murder of Wulfad in the 7th century and his subsequent entombment under a cairn of stones is the traditional story (described as 'historically valueless' by Thacker 1985: 6). The church built over the stones marking the graves of Wulfad and Rufin in 670 lasted until the 9th century before being destroyed by invading Danes. It was replaced in 1135 by the Augustinian Stone Priory, which survived until its dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII. The building collapsed in 1749 and the present church of St. Michael's was built in 1758. All that remains of the original priory is the rib-vaulted undercroft which forms the foundations beneath Priory House, which is located on Lichfield Street opposite the Frank Jordan Community Centre. Stone lay within the Pirehill hundred of Staffordshire named after nearby Pire Hill. In 1251, Henry III granted Stone a market charter. The Common Plot (aka Mudley Pits) is a large area of open and wooded common land sited just to the north of the town of Stone. The Duke of Cumberland built extensive winter fortifications and a camp here, traces of which can still be seen, during the winter of 1745/46. The purpose of the camp was to bring the Duke's army down from the freezing Staffordshire Moorlands and Peak District, where they had been seeking to stop an advance on London by a force of 6,000 Jacobite rebels. The rebels were thought to be using pack-horse routes over the high country, with the aim of reaching Derby. Stone was also strategic in preventing any break-away Jacobite group going across to Wales to recruit more men there but with winter coming on, the Jacobites decided to retreat back to Scotland. Stone Urban District was an urban district. It was based on the Stone civil parish which equates to the town of Stone. There were two amendments in parts of the Stone Rural parish in Stone Rural District were transferred in. The district was abolished by the Local Government Act 1972, and replaced with Stafford Borough Council and Stone Town Council. The latter publishes a history of Stone. Roads Stone stands in the valley of the River Trent, and was an important stopping-off point for stagecoaches on one of the roads turnpiked in the 18th century. A directory for 1851 says that Stone was a very lively town, and a great thoroughfare for coaches, carriers and travellers. No fewer than 38 stage coaches passed through the town daily. The main coaching route was the London to Holyhead route, via Watling Street as far as Lichfield and then from Lichfield to Holyhead via the A51. To support the coaching trade Stone was a principal stopping point with many coaching inns to refresh both horses and travellers. Notable hostelries include the Crown Hotel, Crown & Anchor, Red Lion and the Black Horse Inn. The Trent and Mersey Canal The River Trent, which runs through the town, had been used for cargo-carrying vessels since Roman times but further inland smaller boats could only be used. Seasonal fluctuations in water depth proved insurmountable, although cargo could be carried from the sea as far south as Wilden Ferry (southeast of Derby), where the River Derwent joins the Trent and increases the quantity of water, then onwards by road. Prior to tarmac roads, journeys overland by roads were slow and delicate wares were prone to breakages over the rough terrain. James Brindley, the canal builder, put forward the scheme to build what he called the Grand Trunk Canal to connect the two rivers, Mersey and Trent in 1766. It was backed by Josiah Wedgwood who saw that it offered an efficient way to bring raw materials to the potteries and to transport finished wares to his customers. By 29 September 1772 (Brindley died on 27 September), 48 miles of the Grand Trunk Canal (now known as the Trent and Mersey Canal) from Wilden Ferry to Stone was navigable — the length past Burton-on-Trent being completed in 1770. On completion of the Star Lock a grand opening was held, and during this opening a cannon was fired in celebration. However disaster struck and the cannon damaged the new lock, requiring a re-build. Stone became the headquarters of the canal company with its office at Westbridge House, sited then below Star Lock on what is now Westbridge Park. The offices were moved later to Stoke-on-Trent. Brewing industry Due to the quality of the local water beneath Stone two brewers were located here carrying on the Augustinian monks' tradition of beer making. The most notable was John Joule & Sons Ltd, established in 1780. The company was acquired by Bass Charrington in 1968, and ceased brewing at the end of October 1974. The brewery was demolished in the Autumn of 1977. The adjacent bottling plant was closed some years before. The canal played a great part in the export of beer. Joules once owned a pair of boats that delivered coal to the brewery and as late as the 1950s had the telephone number 'Stone 1'. Joules' draught beer stores and bottling plant remains an imposing building on the canal and can be clearly identified by the red cross logo of John Joules in the brickwork. The second brewer was Montgomery & Co, acquired by the Bent's Brewery Co of Liverpool in 1889. The brewery was located on what is now Mount Industrial Estate. It was also taken over by Bass and closed on 31 March 1968. Although the brewing industry in Stone ceased following the closure of Joules and Bents following an aggressive takeover from the nearby Burton upon Trent brewers in the 1960s and 1970s, in recent years it has begun anew with the opening of the Lymestone Brewery in 2008. This family-run microbrewery is based in part of the original Bents brewery. More recently a second microbrewery, trading under the name Joules, dropping the 'John' due to trademark reasons, has begun brewing in Market Drayton, Shropshire. A pint of both Lymestone and Joules can be tasted at the Swan Inn; Lymestone Brewery also has their own public house - The Borehole Inn, situated next to the brewery itself. The Star Public House was fully licensed in 1819 although the building predates the canal by some 200 years. The building has in its time been a butcher's shop and slaughterhouse. Stabling for boat horses was available up to the 1950s and the business relied heavily on the canal for trade. Public transport The coming of the railway was to end Stone's era as a coaching and canal town. The North Staffordshire Railway opened its main line from Stoke-on-Trent through Stone to Norton Bridge on 3 April 1848; the following year a branch line from Stone to Colwich began operating. One industry that did flourish under the railway era was the shoe industry, at its height in 1851 there were 16 shoeworks. The industry however declined after Australia, the main shoe market, imposed an import tax on the industry. Present day Stone Parish Church, dedicated to Saint Michael the Archangel, is at the south end of the town located on what used to be Stone Priory. It was commenced in 1753, and finished in 1758. The present clock dates from 1896. Christ Church stands on the north side of the town, where the population is still increasing. It was erected in 1839. The canal still dominates the town. Many canal side sites have in recent times been taken over for modern day use including The Moorings, a development of apartments based on the old Stubbs warehouse. Apartments and housing surround the old Trent Hospital, once the workhouse. Housing developments also border the canal. Commercial traffic has now been replaced by the leisure craft that pass through Stone each year. The Canal Cruising Company today operates from the historic site of the canal maintenance and boat building operations of the Trent and Mersey Canal Company. This restored docks complex with its workshops, by Yard Lock, continues to be used for the maintenance of pleasure craft and historic boats. In 2010 a new marina opened just south of the town, below Aston Lock, with moorings for pleasure craft, a farm shop and a café. State education within Stone is based on the three tier school system, with a range of first and primary schools, two middle schools (Walton Priory Middle and Christchurch Academy) and a high school (Alleyne's Academy). Independent education is served by the Catholic St Dominic's Priory School founded with the convent of the same name in the 19th century by Mother Margaret Hallahan when the school was originally known as "Blessed Imelda's Enpension School". Staffordshire Fire and Rescue Service has its headquarters just south of Stone. Yarnfield Park Training and Conference Centre just outside the town is a major training centre for the UK telecommunications industry. It is owned by BT Group and run by Accenture. Stone is the key UK manufacturing site for the Quickfit laboratory glassware system which finds widespread use in many school, college and university science departments. The National Association of Chimney Sweeps is located in the town. The town is home to two football clubs, Stone Old Alleynians F.C. of the North West Counties Football League and Stone Dominoes F.C. of the Staffordshire County Senior League. Both teams share a fully enclosed floodlit stadium at Yarnfield, named Springbank Park. Staffordshire County Cricket Club play Minor Counties Championship matches at Lichfield Road, as do the town's cricket club, Stone Cricket Club. The Stone Food and Drink Festival takes place the first weekend in October and brings together the very best in local produce and cooking talent. It attracts in excess of 20,000 visitors to the town and runs for one week in total with the 'main event' on the town's Westbridge Park on Friday, Saturday and Sunday. Media Television Television news is covered by BBC Midlands Today and ITV Central, both of which come from Birmingham. Stone can receive good to marginal signals from the Sutton Coldfield transmitting station and from The Wrekin transmitting station, which can be received in the higher parts of town. Radio Stone's local radio stations are Signal 1 and BBC Radio Stoke, which broadcast from studios in Stoke-on-Trent. However, some parts of the town can also receive Free Radio Black Country and Shropshire, Greatest Hits Radio, BBC WM, BBC Radio Cymru and Heart and Smooth from the West Midlands and North West. Newspapers Stone is covered by two daily newspapers, The Sentinel from Stoke-on-Trent and the Express and Star from Wolverhampton. The weekly Staffordshire Newsletter and the bi-monthly Stone and Eccleshall Gazette also cover the town. Magazines The Stone and Eccleshall Gazette Community news website Stone has an independent community news website called A Little Bit Of Stone which delivers up to date news and information for the residents and visitors of Stone. The website is supported by active social media accounts on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube. Football Stone Old Alleynians F.C. Stone Dominoes F.C. Transport Stone railway station, on the West Coast Main Line, serves the town. An hourly semi-fast direct service has been operated by London Midland and West Midlands Trains since 2008. This runs south to London Euston via Stafford and the Trent Valley line, and north to Crewe via Stoke-on-Trent. Passenger numbers have risen 152 per cent between 2008 and June 2012 with three more services per day are being planned to cope with demand. Figures for 2019/20 are 184,000 passengers Stone's main bus service is the First Potteries' route 101 which runs north to Tittensor, Trentham, Newcastle-under-Lyme and Stoke-on-Trent and south to Stafford. It calls at several places in Stone, like the schools. D&G Bus run six local services in and around Stone. Two trunk roads go through the town, the A34 linking Birmingham to Manchester and the A51 linking Lichfield to Chester. Stone is by-passed by the M6 motorway. In recent times cycling north from the town along the canal towpath towards Barlaston Trentham and Stoke-on-Trent is much improved. In June 2012 the local authorities announced a £700,000 scheme to rectify the problem, with new paths. To the south, towards Burston, Weston and Great Haywood the towpath is passable on a bicycle but better suited to a mountain bike rather than a racing bike. Stone's main car and van rental service is Stone Van Hire, aiding ventures around Stone's town and further afield in Staffordshire. Buildings Stone has many buildings of interest including the Grade II listed Hayes House and the Catholic chapel of St Anne. Notable people Werburgh (died 699) an Anglo-Saxon princess, was born in Stone and died in Trentham James Brindley, (1716 – 1772) the Surveyor-General of the Trent & Mersey Canal John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent, (1735 in Meaford Hall – 1823) colleague of Lord Nelson, victor in a battle Cape St Vincent in 1797. He was buried in the family mausoleum in Stone. Earl St Vincent Square in Stone (at the south end of the High St) is named after him and a monument was erected in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral. Stebbing Shaw, (1762 near Stone –1802) a cleric, local historian and topographer Peter de Wint, (1784 in Stone – 1849) landscape painter featured in the National Gallery William Bernard Ullathorne, (1806 – 1889) Roman Catholic Bishop of Birmingham is buried in the Catholic Church in Stone Augusta Theodosia Drane (1823–1894) writer and Roman Catholic nun, was prioress of the Stone convent 1872-1881 Thomas Smith (1847 in Stone – 1919) trade union leader and Liberal politician, general secretary of National Union of Boot and Shoe Rivetters and Finishers Frank Clewlow, (1885 in Stone – 1957) actor-director, worked in England, Scotland, Australia & New Zealand Eva Morris, (1885 – 2000) the oldest person in the world from December 1999 to her death at the Autumn House Nursing Home in Stone in November 2000, aged 114 Sarah Ward (1895–1965), politician L. T. C. Rolt, (1910 – 1974) author of ‘Narrowboat’ and several engineering biographies Frank Thomas (1930 in Stone – 1988) Roman Catholic Bishop of Northampton David Warrilow, (1934 in Stone – 1995) actor, interprets the works of Samuel Beckett Cedric Price, (1934 in Stone – 2003) an architect, teacher and writer on architecture Sir William Nigel Paul Cash (born 1940) known as Bill Cash, is a British Conservative politician and MP for Stone Terry Darlington (born c.1940?) author of Narrow Dog to Carcassonne, Narrow Dog to Indian River and Narrow Dog to Wigan Pier A. N. Wilson (born 1950 in Stone) writer and newspaper columnist Ian Morris (born 1960) historian and author of Why the West Rules—For Now, went to school in Stone Scout Niblett (born 1973 in Stone) an indie rock musician Helen Morgan (born 1974/75 in Stone), Liberal Democrat politician, now MP for North Shropshire since 2021. Jackie Degg, (born 1978 in Stone) former model and page 3 girl Notable in sport Tom Fishwick (1876 in Stone – 1950) an English cricketer, played first-class cricket for Warwickshire Arthur Fernie (1877 in Stone – 1959) an English cricketer, played first-class cricket for Cambridge University and the Marylebone Cricket Club Billy Tompkinson (1895 in Stone – 1968) footballer, played for Wolves, Rochdale, Stockport County and Stoke Bertie Shardlow (1909 in Stone – 1976) cricketer, boat carpenter and father of Paul Shardlow Russell Flower (born 1942 in Stone) left-handed batsman, bowled slow left-arm orthodox Paul Shardlow (1943 in Stone – 1968) an English professional goalkeeper for Stoke City F.C. and cricket player John James (born 1948 in Stone) footballer, played for Port Vale F.C., Chester F.C. and Tranmere Rovers F.C. made 381 appearances Stan Collymore, (born 1971 in Stone) former footballer and TV pundit Keri Lees (born 1972 in Stone) retired English athlete, competed in the 100 & 400 metres hurdles at the 2000 Summer Olympics Chris Birchall, (born 1984) footballer, played for LA Galaxy and internationally for Trinidad and Tobago went to school in Stone Andy Wilkinson, (born 1984 in Stone) defender with Stoke City F.C. from 1998 Lizzie Neave (born 1987) Olympic canoeist, lived in Stone and trained at the Stafford and Stone Canoe Club. Joe Clarke (born 1992) Olympic gold medal winner in the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio, attended Alleyne's Academy in Stone Twin towns See also Listed buildings in Stone, Staffordshire Listed buildings in Stone Rural Stone Meadows References External links 1851 description of Stone parish Christ Church The Trent & Mersey Canal Website of Potteries.org Neville Malkin's "Grand Tour" of the Potteries Retrieved Feb 2017 = Has several old pictures, drawings and historical narrative about St Michael's Church, the Jervis Mausoleum, Joule's Brewery and the Railway station Towns in Staffordshire Civil parishes in Staffordshire Borough of Stafford
418947	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin%20Newsom	Gavin Newsom	Gavin Christopher Newsom (born October 10, 1967) is an American politician and businessman who has been the 40th governor of California since 2019. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as the 49th lieutenant governor of California from 2011 to 2019 and the 42nd mayor of San Francisco from 2004 to 2011. Newsom graduated from Santa Clara University in 1989. Afterward, he founded the PlumpJack Group with billionaire heir and family friend Gordon Getty as an investor. The wine store grew to manage 23 businesses, including wineries, restaurants, and hotels. Newsom began his political career in 1996, when San Francisco mayor Willie Brown appointed him to the city's Parking and Traffic Commission. Brown then appointed Newsom to fill a vacancy on the Board of Supervisors the next year and Newsom was first elected to the board in 1998. Newsom was elected mayor of San Francisco in 2003 and reelected in 2007. He was elected lieutenant governor of California in 2010. As lieutenant governor, Newsom hosted The Gavin Newsom Show from 2012 to 2013. He also wrote the 2013 book Citizenville, about using digital tools for democratic change. He was reelected in 2014. Newsom was elected governor of California in 2018. During his governorship, Newsom faced criticism for his personal behavior and leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was followed by an unsuccessful attempt to recall him from office in 2021. He was reelected in 2022. Early life Newsom was born on October 10, 1967, the son of Tessa Thomas (née Menzies) and William Alfred Newsom III, a state appeals court judge and attorney for Getty Oil. He is a fourth-generation San Franciscan. One of Newsom's maternal great-grandfathers, Scotsman Thomas Addis, was a pioneer scientist in the field of nephrology and a professor of medicine at Stanford University. Newsom is the second cousin, twice removed, of musician Joanna Newsom. Newsom's aunt was married to Ron Pelosi, the brother-in-law of then Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi. Newsom's parents divorced in 1972 when he was a boy. Newsom has said he did not have an easy childhood, partly due to dyslexia. He attended kindergarten and first grade at Ecole Notre Dame Des Victoires, a French-American bilingual Catholic school in San Francisco, but eventually transferred out, due to the severe dyslexia that still affects him. It has challenged his abilities to write, spell, read, and work with numbers. Throughout his schooling, Newsom had to rely on a combination of audiobooks, digests, and informal verbal instruction. To this day, he prefers to interpret documents and reports through audio. Newsom attended third through fifth grades at Notre Dame des Victoires, where he was placed in remedial reading classes. In high school, he played basketball and baseball and graduated from Redwood High School in 1985. Newsom was a shooting guard in basketball and an outfielder in baseball. His skills placed him on the cover of the Marin Independent Journal. Tessa Newsom worked three jobs to support Gavin and his sister Hilary Newsom Callan. In an interview with The San Francisco Chronicle, his sister recalled Christmases when their mother told them they would not receive any gifts. Tessa opened their home to foster children, instilling in Newsom the importance of public service. His father's finances were strapped in part because of his tendency to give away his earnings. Newsom worked several jobs in high school to help support his family. Newsom attended Santa Clara University on a partial baseball scholarship, graduating in 1989 with a Bachelor of Science with a major in political science. He was a left-handed pitcher for Santa Clara, but he threw his arm out after two years and has not thrown a baseball since. He has reflected on his education fondly, crediting Santa Clara's Jesuit approach with helping him become an independent thinker who questions orthodoxy. While in school, Newsom spent a semester studying abroad in Rome, Italy. Business career Newsom and his investors created the company PlumpJack Associates L.P. on May 14, 1991. The group started the PlumpJack Winery in 1992 with the financial help of his family friend Gordon Getty. PlumpJack was the name of an opera written by Getty, who invested in 10 of Newsom's 11 businesses. Getty told the San Francisco Chronicle that he treated Newsom like a son and invested in his first business venture because of that relationship. According to Getty, later business investments were because of "the success of the first". One of Newsom's early interactions with government occurred when Newsom resisted the San Francisco Department of Public Health's requirement to install a sink at his PlumpJack wine store. The Health Department argued that wine was a food and required the store to install a $27,000 sink in the carpeted wine shop on the grounds that the shop needed the sink for a mop. When Newsom was later appointed supervisor, he told the San Francisco Examiner: "That's the kind of bureaucratic malaise I'm going to be working through." The business grew to an enterprise with more than 700 employees. The PlumpJack Cafe Partners L.P. opened the PlumpJack Café, also on Fillmore Street, in 1993. Between 1993 and 2000, Newsom and his investors opened several other businesses that included the PlumpJack Squaw Valley Inn with a PlumpJack Café (1994), a winery in Napa Valley (1995), the Balboa Café Bar and Grill (1995), the PlumpJack Development Fund L.P. (1996), the MatrixFillmore Bar (1998), PlumpJack Wines shop Noe Valley branch (1999), PlumpJackSport retail clothing (2000), and a second Balboa Café at Squaw Valley (2000). Newsom's investments included five restaurants and two retail clothing stores. Newsom's annual income was greater than $429,000 from 1996 to 2001. In 2002, his business holdings were valued at more than $6.9 million. Newsom gave a monthly $50 gift certificate to PlumpJack employees whose business ideas failed, because in his view, "There can be no success without failure." Newsom sold his share of his San Francisco businesses when he became mayor in 2004. He maintained his ownership in the PlumpJack companies outside San Francisco, including the PlumpJack Winery in Oakville, California, new PlumpJack-owned Cade Winery in Angwin, California, and the PlumpJack Squaw Valley Inn. He is the president in absentia of Airelle Wines Inc., which is connected to the PlumpJack Winery in Napa County. Newsom earned between $141,000 and $251,000 in 2007 from his business interests. In February 2006, he paid $2,350,000 for his residence in the Russian Hill neighborhood, which he put on the market in April 2009 for $3,000,000. At the time of the Silicon Valley Bank collapse in March 2023, it was acknowledged that at least three of Newsom's wine companies, PlumpJack, Cade and Odette, were Silicon Valley Bank clients. Early political career Newsom's first political experience came when he volunteered for Willie Brown's successful campaign for mayor in 1995. Newsom hosted a private fundraiser at his PlumpJack Café. Brown appointed Newsom to a vacant seat on the Parking and Traffic Commission in 1996, and he was later elected president of the commission. Brown appointed him to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors seat vacated by Kevin Shelley in 1997. At the time, he was the youngest member of San Francisco's board of supervisors. Newsom was sworn in by his father and pledged to bring his business experience to the board. Brown called Newsom "part of the future generation of leaders of this great city". Newsom described himself as a "social liberal and a fiscal watchdog". He was elected to a full four-year term to the board in 1998. San Francisco voters chose to abandon at-large elections to the board for the previous district system in 1999. Newsom was reelected in 2000 and 2002 to represent the second district, which includes Pacific Heights, the Marina, Cow Hollow, Sea Cliff and Laurel Heights, which had San Francisco's highest income level and highest Republican registration. Newsom paid $500 to the San Francisco Republican Party to appear on the party's endorsement slate in 2000 while running for Supervisor. He faced no opposition in his 2002 reelection bid. As a San Francisco Supervisor, Newsom gained public attention for his role in advocating reform of the city's municipal railway (Muni). He was one of two supervisors endorsed by Rescue Muni, a transit riders group, in his 1998 reelection. He sponsored Proposition B to require Muni and other city departments to develop detailed customer service plans. The measure passed with 56.6 percent of the vote. Newsom sponsored a ballot measure from Rescue Muni; a version of the measure was approved by voters in November 1999. Newsom also supported allowing restaurants to serve alcohol at their outdoor tables, banning tobacco advertisements visible from the streets, stiffer penalties for landlords who run afoul of rent-control laws, and a resolution, which was defeated, to commend Colin Powell for raising money for youth programs. Newsom's support for business interests at times strained his relationship with labor leaders. During Newsom's time as supervisor, he supported housing projects through public-private partnerships to increase homeownership and affordable housing in San Francisco. He supported HOPE, a failed local ballot measure that would have allowed an increased condo-conversion rate if a certain percentage of tenants within a building were buying their units. As a candidate for mayor, he supported building 10,000 new housing units to create 15,000 new construction jobs. Newsom's signature achievement as a supervisor was a voter initiative called Care Not Cash (Measure N), which offered care, supportive housing, drug treatment, and help from behavioral health specialists for the homeless in lieu of direct cash aid from the state's general assistance program. Many homeless rights advocates protested against the initiative. "Progressives and Democrats, nuns and priests, homeless advocates and homeless people were furious", Newsom said. The successfully passed ballot measure raised his political profile and provided the volunteers, donors, and campaign staff that helped make him a leading contender for the mayorship in 2003. In a city audit conducted four years after the inception of program and released in 2008, the program was evaluated as largely successful. Mayor of San Francisco (2004–2011) Elections 2003 Newsom placed first in the November 4, 2003, general election in a nine-person field. He received 41.9 percent of the vote to Green Party candidate Matt Gonzalez's 19.6 percent in the first round of balloting, but he faced a closer race in the December 9 runoff, when many of the city's progressive groups supported Gonzalez. The race was partisan, with attacks against Gonzalez for his support of Ralph Nader in the 2000 presidential election, and attacks against Newsom for contributing $500 to a Republican slate mailer in 2000 that endorsed issues Newsom supported. Democratic leadership felt they needed to reinforce San Francisco as a Democratic stronghold after losing the 2000 presidential election and the 2003 gubernatorial recall election to Arnold Schwarzenegger. National Democratic Party figures, including Bill Clinton, Al Gore, and Jesse Jackson, campaigned for Newsom. Five supervisors endorsed Gonzalez, while Willie Brown endorsed Newsom. Newsom won the runoff with 53 percent of the vote to Gonzalez's 47 percent, a margin of 11,000 votes. He ran as a business-friendly centrist Democrat and a moderate in San Francisco politics; some of his opponents called him conservative. Newsom claimed he was a centrist in the Dianne Feinstein mold. He ran on the slogan "great cities, great ideas", and presented over 21 policy papers. He pledged to continue working on San Francisco's homelessness issue. Newsom was sworn in as mayor on January 3, 2004. He called for unity among the city's political factions, and promised to address the issues of public schools, potholes and affordable housing. Newsom said he was "a different kind of leader" who "isn't afraid to solve even the toughest problems". 2007 San Francisco's progressive community tried to field a candidate to run a strong campaign against Newsom. Supervisors Ross Mirkarimi and Chris Daly considered running, but both declined. Gonzalez also decided not to challenge Newsom again. When the August 10, 2007, filing deadline passed, San Francisco's discussion shifted to talk about Newsom's second term. He was challenged in the election by 13 candidates, including George Davis, a nudist activist, and Michael Powers, owner of the Power Exchange sex club. Conservative former supervisor Tony Hall withdrew by early September due to lack of support. The San Francisco Chronicle declared in August 2007 that Newsom faced no "serious threat to his re-election bid", having raised $1.6 million for his reelection campaign by early August. He was reelected on November 6 with over 72 percent of the vote. Upon taking office for a second term, Newsom promised to focus on the environment, homelessness, health care, education, housing, and rebuilding San Francisco General Hospital. Mayoralty As mayor, Newsom focused on development projects in Hunters Point and Treasure Island. He gained national attention in 2004 when he directed the San Francisco city–county clerk to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, violating the state law passed in 2000. Implementation of Care Not Cash, the initiative he had sponsored as a supervisor, began on July 1, 2004. As part of the initiative, 5,000 more homeless people were given permanent shelter in the city. About 2,000 people had been placed into permanent housing with support by 2007. Other programs Newsom initiated to end chronic homelessness included the San Francisco Homeless Outreach Team (SF HOT) and Project Homeless Connect (PHC), which placed 2,000 homeless people into permanent housing and provided 5,000 additional affordable rental units in the city. During a strike by hotel workers against a dozen San Francisco hotels, Newsom joined UNITE HERE union members on a picket line in front of the Westin St. Francis Hotel on October 27, 2004. He vowed that the city would boycott the hotels by not sponsoring city events at them until they agreed to a contract with workers. The contract dispute was settled in September 2006. In 2005, Newsom pushed for a state law to allow California communities to create policy restricting certain breeds of dogs. In 2007, he signed the law establishing Healthy San Francisco to provide city residents with universal health care, the first city in the nation to do so. Newsom came under attack from the San Francisco Democratic Party in 2009 for his failure to implement the City of San Francisco's sanctuary city rule, under which the city was to not assist U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The same year, Newsom received the Leadership for Healthy Communities Award, along with Mayor Michael Bloomberg of New York City and three other public officials, for his commitment to making healthful food and physical activity options more accessible to children and families. He hosted the Urban-Rural Roundtable in 2008 to explore ways to promote regional food development and increased access to healthy, affordable food. Newsom secured $8 million in federal and local funds for the Better Streets program, which ensures that public health perspectives are fully integrated into urban planning processes. He signed a menu-labeling bill into law, requiring that chain restaurants print nutrition information on their menus. Newsom was named "America's Most Social Mayor" in 2010 by Same Point, based on analysis of the social media profiles of mayors of the 100 largest U.S. cities. Same-sex marriage Newsom gained national attention in 2004 when he directed the San Francisco city–county clerk to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, violating state law. In August 2004, the Supreme Court of California annulled the marriages Newsom had authorized, as they conflicted with state law. Still, Newsom's unexpected move brought national attention to the issue of same-sex marriage, solidifying political support for him in San Francisco and in the LGBTQ+ community. During the 2008 election, Newsom opposed Proposition 8, the ballot initiative to reverse the Supreme Court of California ruling that there was a constitutional right to same-sex marriage. Proposition 8 supporters released a commercial featuring footage of Newsom saying the following in a speech regarding same-sex marriage: "This door's wide open now. It's going to happen, whether you like it or not." Some observers noted that polls shifted in favor of Proposition 8 after the commercial's release; this, in turn, led to speculation that Newsom had inadvertently played a role in the amendment's passage. Lieutenant governor of California (2011–2019) Elections 2010 In April 2009, Newsom announced his candidacy for governor of California in the 2010 election. He received Bill Clinton's endorsement in September 2009. Throughout the campaign, he had low poll numbers, trailing Democratic frontrunner Jerry Brown by more than 20 points in most polls. Newsom dropped out of the race in October 2009. Newsom filed initial paperwork to run for lieutenant governor in February 2010, and officially announced his candidacy in March. He received the Democratic nomination in June and won the election on November 2. Newsom was sworn in as lieutenant governor on January 10, 2011, and served under Governor Jerry Brown. The one-week delay was to ensure that a successor as mayor of San Francisco was chosen before he left office. Edwin M. Lee, the city administrator, took office the day after Newsom was sworn in as lieutenant governor. While lieutenant governor, in May 2012, Newsom began hosting The Gavin Newsom Show on Current TV. The same month, he drew criticism for calling Sacramento "dull" and saying he was only there once a week, adding, "there's no reason" to be there otherwise. 2014 Newsom was reelected as lieutenant governor on November 4, 2014, defeating Republican Ron Nehring with 57.2 percent of the vote. His second term began on January 5, 2015. Capital punishment Newsom supported a failed measure in 2012 that sought to end capital punishment in California. He claimed the initiative would save California millions of dollars, citing statistics that California had spent $5 billion since 1978 to execute just 13 people. In 2016, Newsom supported Proposition 62, which also would have repealed the death penalty in California. He argued that Prop. 62 would get rid of a system "that is administered with troubling racial disparities" and said that the death penalty was fundamentally immoral and did not deter crime. Proposition 62 failed. Criminal justice and cannabis legalization In 2014, Newsom was the only statewide politician to endorse California Proposition 47, legislation that recategorized certain nonviolent offenses like drug and property crimes as misdemeanors as opposed to felonies. Voters passed the measure on November 4, 2014. In July 2015, Newsom released the Blue Ribbon Commission on Marijuana Policy's final report, which he had convened with the American Civil Liberties Union of California in 2013. The report's recommendations to regulate marijuana were intended to inform a legalization measure on the November 2016 ballot. Newsom supported the resulting measure, Proposition 64, which legalized cannabis use and cultivation for California state residents who are 21 or older. On February 24, 2017, in response to pro-enforcement statements by White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer, Newsom sent Attorney General Jeff Sessions and President Donald Trump a letter urging them not to increase federal enforcement against recreational cannabis firms opening in California. He wrote: "The government must not strip the legal and publicly supported industry of its business and hand it back to drug cartels and criminals ... Dealers don't card kids. I urge you and your administration to work in partnership with California and the other eight states that have legalized recreational marijuana for adult use in a way that will let us enforce our state laws that protect the public and our children while targeting the bad actors." Newsom responded to comments by Spicer that compared cannabis to opioids: "Unlike marijuana, opioids represent an addictive and harmful substance, and I would welcome your administration's focused efforts on tackling this particular public health crisis." Education Newsom joined Long Beach City College Superintendent Eloy Oakley in a November 2015 op-ed calling for the creation of the California College Promise, which would create partnerships between public schools, public universities, and employers and offer a free community college education. Throughout 2016, he joined Oakland mayor Libby Schaaf at the launch of the Oakland Promise and Second Lady Jill Biden and Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti at the launch of the LA Promise. In June 2016, Newsom helped secure $15 million in the state budget to support the creation of promise programs throughout the state. In December 2015, Newsom called on the University of California to reclassify computer science courses as a core academic class to incentivize more high schools to offer computer science curricula. He sponsored successful legislation signed by Governor Brown in September 2016, that began the planning process for expanding computer science education to all state students, beginning as early as kindergarten. In 2016, Newsom passed a series of reforms at the University of California to give student-athletes additional academic and injury-related support, and to ensure that contracts for athletic directors and coaches emphasized academic progress. This came in response to several athletics programs, including the University of California–Berkeley's football team, which had the lowest graduation rates in the country. Technology in government Newsom released his first book, Citizenville: How to Take the Town Square Digital and Reinvent Government, on February 7, 2013. The book discusses the Gov 2.0 movement taking place across the nation. After its release, Newsom began to work with the Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society at the University of California, Berkeley, on the California Report Card (CRC). The CRC is a mobile-optimized platform that allows state residents to "grade" their state on six timely issues. The CRC exemplifies ideas presented in Citizenville, encouraging direct public involvement in government affairs via technology. In 2015, Newsom partnered with the Institute for Advanced Technology and Public Policy at California Polytechnic State University to launch Digital Democracy, an online tool that uses facial and voice recognition to enable users to navigate California legislative proceedings. Governor of California (2019–present) Elections 2018 On February 11, 2015, Newsom announced that he was opening a campaign account for governor in the 2018 elections, allowing him to raise funds for a campaign to succeed Brown as governor of California. On June 5, 2018, he finished in the top two in the nonpartisan blanket primary, and he defeated Republican John H. Cox by a landslide in the November 6 general election. Newsom was sworn in on January 7, 2019. 2021 recall Several recall attempts were launched against Newsom early in his tenure, but they failed to gain much traction. On February 21, 2020, a recall petition was introduced by Orrin Heatlie, a deputy sheriff in Yolo County. The petition mentioned Newsom's sanctuary state policy and said laws he endorsed favored "foreign nationals, in our country illegally"; said that California had high homelessness, high taxes, and low quality of life; and described other grievances. The California secretary of state approved it for circulation on June 10, 2020. Forcing the gubernatorial recall election required a total of 1,495,709 verified signatures. By August 2020, 55,000 signatures were submitted and verified by the secretary of state, and 890 new valid signatures were submitted by October 2020. The petition was initially given a signature deadline of November 17, 2020, but it was extended to March 17, 2021, after Judge James P. Arguelles ruled that petitioners could have more time because of the pandemic. Newsom's attendance at a party at The French Laundry in November 2020, despite his public health measures; voter anger over lockdowns, job losses, school and business closures; and a $31 billion fraud scandal at the state unemployment agency were credited for the recall's growing support. The French Laundry event took place on November 6, and between November 5 and December 7 over 442,000 new signatures were submitted and verified; 1,664,010 verified signatures, representing roughly 98 percent of the final verified total of 1,719,900, were submitted between November 2020 and March 17, 2021. During the campaign, Newsom compared the recall effort to the attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election. On September 14, 2021, the recall election was held, with only 38 percent voting to recall Newsom, failing to remove him from office. 2022 In 2022, Newsom was elected to a second term, defeating Republican state senator Brian Dahle with 59 percent of the vote. Appointments After U.S. Senator Kamala Harris was elected vice president of the United States in the 2020 presidential election, Newsom appointed Secretary of State of California Alex Padilla to succeed her as California's junior U.S. senator. To replace Padilla as secretary of state, Newsom appointed Assemblywoman Shirley Weber. After the U.S. Senate confirmed Xavier Becerra as U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services, Newsom appointed Rob Bonta Attorney General of California. In an interview with Joy Reid, Newsom was asked whether he would appoint a Black woman to replace Dianne Feinstein if she were to retire from the Senate or die before her term ended in 2024; Newsom replied that he would. Feinstein died in September 2023, and Newsom faced pressure to quickly appoint a successor. He fulfilled his promise and appointed Laphonza Butler to the seat. Criminal justice Capital punishment On March 13, 2019, three years after voters narrowly rejected its repeal, Newsom declared a moratorium on the state's death penalty, preventing any execution in the state as long as he remained governor. The move also led to the withdrawal of the state's current lethal injection protocol and the execution chamber's closure at San Quentin State Prison. In a CBS This Morning interview, Newsom said that the death penalty is "a racist system ... that is perpetuating inequality. It's a system that I cannot in good conscience support." The moratorium granted a temporary reprieve for all 737 inmates on California's death row, then the largest death row in the Western Hemisphere. In January 2022, Newsom directed the state to begin dismantling its death row in San Quentin, to be transformed into a "space for rehabilitation programs", as all the condemned inmates are moving to other prisons that have maximum security facilities. The state's voters upheld capital punishment in 2012 and 2016, with the latter measure agreeing to move the condemned to other prisons. Though a 2021 poll by the UC Berkeley Institute of Governmental Studies and co-sponsored by the Los Angeles Times suggested declining support for the death penalty among California's voters, Republican opponents criticized Newsom's moves to halt capital punishment in California as defiance of the will of voters, and capital punishment advocates said they denied closure to murder victims' families. Clemency In response to the Trump administration's crackdown on immigrants with criminal records, Newsom gave heightened consideration to people in this situation. A pardon can eliminate the grounds for deportation of immigrants who would otherwise be legal permanent residents. Pardon requests from people facing deportation are given expedited review by the state Board of Parole Hearings, per a 2018 California law. In his first acts of clemency as governor, Newsom pardoned seven formerly incarcerated people in May 2019, including two Cambodian refugees facing deportation. He pardoned three men who were attempting to avoid being deported to Cambodia or Vietnam in November 2019. They had separately committed crimes when they were each 19 years old. In December 2019, Newsom granted parole to a Cambodian refugee who had been held in a California prison due to a murder case. Although immigrant rights groups wanted Newsom to end policies allowing the transfer to federal agents, the refugee was turned over for possible deportation upon release. Newsom denied parole to Sirhan Sirhan on January 13, 2022, the 1968 assassin of Robert F. Kennedy who had been recommended for parole by a parole board after serving 53 years in prison. Newsom wrote an op-ed for the Los Angeles Times saying Sirhan "still lacks the insight that would prevent him from making the kind of dangerous and destructive decisions he made in the past. The most glaring proof of Sirhan's deficient insight is his shifting narrative about his assassination of Kennedy, and his current refusal to accept responsibility for it." Police reform Newsom has spoken in favor of Assembly Bill 1196, which would ban carotid artery restraints and choke holds in California. He has claimed that there is no longer a place for a policing tactic "that literally is designed to stop people's blood from flowing into their brain, that has no place any longer in 21st-century practices." In September 2021, Newsom signed legislation raising the minimum age to become a police officer from 18 to 21. Also in the bills were restrictions on the use of tear gas and a ban on police departments employing officers after misconduct or crimes. Among the bills was the George Floyd Bill, requiring officers to intervene when witnessing excessive force on the part of another officer. Transgender prisoners In September 2020, Newsom signed into law a bill allowing California transgender inmates to be placed in prisons that correspond with their gender identity. Disasters and emergencies COVID-19 pandemic Newsom declared a state of emergency on March 4, 2020, after the first death in California attributable to the novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus disease (COVID-19). His stated intention was to help California prepare for and contain COVID-19's spread. The emergency declaration allowed state agencies to more easily procure equipment and services, share information on patients and alleviated restrictions on the use of state-owned properties and facilities. Newsom also announced that mitigation policies for the state's estimated 108,000 unsheltered homeless people would be prioritized, with a significant push to move them indoors. Newsom issued an executive order that allowed the state to commandeer hotels and medical facilities to treat COVID-19 patients and permitted government officials to hold teleconferences in private without violating open meeting laws. He also directed local school districts to make their own decisions on school closures, but used an executive order to ensure students' needs would be met whether or not their school was physically open. The U.S. Department of Agriculture approved the Newsom administration's request to offer meal service during school closures, which included families being able to pick up those meals at libraries, parks, or other off-campus locations. Roughly 80 percent of students at California's public schools receive free or reduced-price meals. This executive order included continued funding for remote learning opportunities and child care options during workday hours. As the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases in the state continued to rise, on March 15, Newsom urged people 65 and older and those with chronic health conditions to isolate themselves from others. He also called on bars and brewery and winery tasting rooms to close their doors to patrons. Some local jurisdictions had mandatory closures. The closures were extended to movie theaters and health clubs. He asked restaurants to stop serving meals inside their establishments and offer take-out meals only. His statewide order to stay at home became mandatory on March 19. It allowed movement outside the home for necessities or recreation, but people were required to maintain a safe distance apart. Activity "needed to maintain continuity of operation of the federal critical infrastructure sectors, critical government services, schools, childcare, and construction" was excluded from the order. Essential services such as grocery stores and pharmacies remained open. Newsom provided state funds to pay for protective measures such as hotel room lodging for hospital and other essential workers fearing returning home and infecting family members. By April 26, he had issued 30 executive orders under the state of emergency while the legislature had not been in session. On April 28, Newsom, along with the governors of Oregon and Washington, announced a "shared approach" for reopening their economies. His administration outlined key indicators for altering his stay-at-home mandate, including the ability to closely monitor and track potential cases, prevent infection of high-risk people, increase surge capacity at hospitals, develop therapeutics, ensure physical distancing at schools, businesses, and child-care facilities, and develop guidelines for restoring isolation orders if the virus surges. The plan to end the shutdown had four phases. Newsom emphasized that easing restrictions would be based on data, not dates, saying, "We will base reopening plans on facts and data, not on ideology. Not what we want. Not what we hope." Of a return of Major League Baseball and the NFL, he said, "I would move very cautiously in that expectation." In early May, Newsom announced that certain retailers could reopen for pickup. Most Californians approved of Newsom's handling of the crisis and were more concerned about reopening too early than too late, but there were demonstrations and protests against these policies. Under pressure, Newsom delegated more decision-making on reopening to the local level. That same month, he announced a plan for registered voters to have the option to vote by mail in the November election. California was the first state in the country to commit to sending mail-in ballots to all registered voters for the November general election. As the state opened up, the Los Angeles Times found that new coronavirus hospitalizations in California began accelerating around June 15 at a rate not seen since early April, immediately after the virus began rapidly spreading in the state. On June 18, Newsom made face coverings mandatory for all Californians in an effort to reduce COVID-19's spread. Enforcement would be up to business owners, as local law enforcement agencies view non-compliance as a minor infraction. By the end of June, he had ordered seven counties to close bars and nightspots, and recommended eight other counties take action on their own to close those businesses due to a surge of coronavirus cases in some parts of the state. In a regular press conference on July 13 as he was ordering the reinstatement of the shutdown of bars and indoor dining in restaurants, he said, "We're seeing an increase in the spread of the virus, so that's why it's incumbent upon all of us to recognize soberly that COVID-19 is not going away any time soon until there is a vaccine or an effective therapy". Newsom oversaw a sluggish initial rollout of vaccines; California had one of the lowest vaccination rates in the country by January 2021, and had only used about 30 percent of the vaccines it had at its disposal, a far lower rate than other states, by January 20. After reaching high approval ratings, specifically 64 percent in September 2020, a UC Berkeley Institute of Governmental Studies poll from February 2021 showed that Newsom's approval rate was down to 46 percent, with 48 percent disapproval, the highest of his tenure. The Los Angeles Times attributed this decline to public opinion of his management of the pandemic. The vaccination rate began increasing in January, with over half the population fully vaccinated as of September 2021, the percentage ranking #16 out of the 50 states. Despite Newsom's administration enacting some of the country's toughest pandemic restrictions, California had the 29th-highest death rate out of all 50 states by May 2021. Monica Gandhi, a leading COVID-19 expert from UCSF, said that California's restrictive approach "did not lead to better health outcomes", and criticized California's delay in implementing new CDC recommendations absolving the fully vaccinated from most indoor mask requirements, while saying the decision lacked scientific rationale and could cause "collateral damage". Pandemic unemployment fraud and debt In January 2021, the Los Angeles Times reported that Newsom's administration had mismanaged $11.4 billion by disbursing unemployment benefits to ineligible claimants, especially those paid through the federally funded Pandemic Unemployment Assistance program. Another $19 billion in claims remained under investigation for fraud. At the same time, legitimate claimants faced lengthy delays in receiving benefits. The state's unemployment system had been overseen by California Labor Secretary Julie Su, a Newsom appointee, whom President Joe Biden later appointed as deputy secretary of labor in February 2021. Political opponents attributed the crisis to the Newsom administration's failure to heed multiple warnings by federal officials of the potential for fraud, while Newsom's administration said the Trump administration's failure to provide appropriate guidance for the new federally funded program contributed to the fraud. Experts said much of the fraud appeared to originate from international criminal gangs in 20 countries. A report by California State Auditor Elaine Howle said $810 million was disbursed to claimants who had fraudulently filed on behalf of inmates in the state's prison system. According to The Sacramento Bee, by the summer of 2021, California owed $23 billion to the federal government for unemployment benefits paid out during the pandemic, which was 43 percent of all unemployment debt, owed by 13 states at the time, to the federal government. Most of this debt was unrelated to the federally funded pandemic unemployment programs that had experienced most of the fraud, and instead was due to longstanding underfunding and California's high rate of unemployment during the pandemic. Wildfires Due to a mass die-off of trees throughout California that could increase the risk of wildfires, Newsom declared a state of emergency on March 22, 2020, in preparation for the 2020 wildfire season. After declaring a state of emergency on August 18, he reported that the state was battling 367 known fires, many sparked by intense thunderstorms on August 16–17. His request for assistance via issuance of a federal disaster declaration in the wake of six major wildfires was first rejected by the Trump administration, but accepted after Trump spoke to Newsom. On June 23, 2021, the NPR station CapRadio reported that Newsom and Cal Fire had falsely claimed in January 2020 that of land at risk for wildfires had been treated with fuel breaks and prescribed burns; the actual treated area was , an overstatement of 690 percent. According to CapRadio, the fuel breaks of the 35 "priority projects" Newsom had touted, which were meant to ensure the quick evacuation of residents while preventing traffic jams and a repeat of events in the 2018 fire that destroyed the town of Paradise, where at least eight evacuees burned to death in their vehicles, were struggling to mitigate fire spread in almost every instance while failing to prevent evacuation traffic jams. The same day CapRadio revealed the oversight, leaked emails showed that Newsom's handpicked Cal Fire chief had ordered the removal of the original statement. In another report in April 2022, CapRadio found a program, hailed in 2020 by the Newsom administration to fast-track environmental reviews on high-priority fire prevention projects, had failed to make progress. KXTV released a series of reports chronicling PG&E's liabilities after committing 91 felonies in the Santa Rosa and Paradise fires. Newsom was accused of accepting campaign donations from PG&E in order to change the CPUC's ruling on PG&E's safety license. The rating change allowed PG&E to avoid billions of dollars in extra fees. Newsom was also accused of setting up the Wildfire Insurance Fund via AB 1054, using ratepayer fees, so PG&E could avoid financial losses and pass the liability costs to ratepayers and taxpayers. Energy and environment Upon taking office in 2019, Newsom succeeded Brown as co-chair of the United States Climate Alliance. In September 2019, Newsom vetoed SB 1, which would have preserved environmental protections at the state level that were set to roll back nationally under the Trump administration's environmental policy. In February 2020, the Newsom administration sued federal agencies over the rollbacks to protect imperiled fish in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta in 2019. Newsom attended the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, where he spoke of California as a climate leader due to the actions of governors before him. In August 2020, he addressed the 2020 Democratic National Convention. His speech mentioned climate change and the wildfires prevalent in California at the time. On September 23, 2020, Newsom signed an executive order to phase out sales of gasoline-powered vehicles and require all new passenger vehicles sold in the state to be zero-emission by 2035. Bills he signed in September with an environmental focus included a commission to study lithium extraction around the Salton Sea. During his 2018 campaign, Newsom pledged to tighten state oversight of fracking and oil extraction. Early in his governorship, his administration approved new oil and gas leases on public lands at about twice the rate of the prior year. When asked about this development, Newsom said he was unaware of the rate of approvals, and he later fired the head of the Division of Oil, Gas and Geothermal Resources. In November 2019, he imposed a moratorium on approval of new hydraulic fracturing and steam-injected oil drilling in the state until the permits for those projects could be reviewed by an independent panel of scientists. State agencies resumed issuing new hydraulic fracturing permits in April 2020. In 2021, the Center for Biological Diversity sued the Newsom administration over the continued sale of oil and gas leases, and Consumer Watchdog called for the end of their sale. In April 2021, Newsom committed to ending the sale of gas leases by 2024 and ending oil extraction by 2045. In October 2021, he proposed a buffer between new fossil fuel extraction sites and densely populated areas. In 2022, gas prices in California exceeded $6 per gallon. Newsom attributed this to corporate greed and price gouging by oil companies. He proposed a windfall profits tax and penalty for oil companies in September 2022. On March 28, 2023, Newsom signed a law that authorizes the California Energy Commission to set "a profit threshold above which companies would be assessed a financial penalty", requires petroleum companies to report additional profit data to state regulators, and creates a new oversight division of the California Energy Commission to investigate price gouging in the gasoline industry. Ethics concerns Donations to spouse's nonprofit organization The Sacramento Bee reported that Jennifer Siebel Newsom's nonprofit organization The Representation Project had received more than $800,000 in donations from corporations that had lobbied the state government in recent years, including PG&E, AT&T, Comcast, and Kaiser Permanente. Siebel Newsom received $2.3 million in salary from the nonprofit since launching it in 2011. In 2021, Governor Newsom said that he saw no conflict in his wife's nonprofit accepting donations from companies that lobby his administration. Executive authority and actions Overall, Newsom has vetoed legislation at a rate comparable to that of his predecessors. From 2019 to 2021, he vetoed 12.7 percent of the bills passed by the legislature on average. The rate declined over the course of the three legislative sessions. Newsom's vetoes have included bills to allow ranked-choice voting, require an ethnic studies class as a high school graduation requirement, and reduce penalties for jaywalking. Newsom used a larger than normal number of executive orders during the 2020 legislative session. Gun control As lieutenant governor in 2016, Newsom was the official proponent of Proposition 63. The ballot measure required a background check and California Department of Justice authorization to purchase ammunition, among other gun control regulations. In response to the 2019 mass shooting in Virginia Beach, Newsom called for nationwide background checks on people purchasing ammunition. Later that year, he responded to the Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting by stating his support for the 2nd Amendment and saying he would like national cooperation controlling "weapons of goddamned mass destruction". He also said, "These shootings overwhelmingly, almost exclusively, are males, boys, 'men'—I put in loose quotes. I do think that is missing in the national conversation." On June 10, 2021, Newsom called federal Judge Roger Benitez "a stone cold ideologue" and "a wholly owned subsidiary of the gun lobby of the National Rifle Association" after Benitez struck down California's statewide ban on assault weapons. While the ban remained in place as the state appealed the ruling, Newsom proposed legislation that would empower private citizens to enforce the ban after the United States Supreme Court declined to strike down the Texas Heartbeat Act, which empowers private citizens to report unauthorized abortions. On July 1, 2022, Newsom signed two gun control bills (AB 1621, 2571) passed by the legislature. Assembly Bill 1621 restricts privately manufactured ghost guns, which were found to be linked to over 100 violent crimes in Los Angeles. Assembly Bill 2571 prohibited the marketing of firearms such as the JR-15 to children. On July 22, 2022, Newsom signed Senate Bill 1327, a law enabling private citizens to sue anyone who imports, distributes, manufactures or sells illegal firearms in California. The law requires courts to award statutory damages of at least $10,000 and attorney's fees. On June 8, 2023, Newsom proposed a 28th amendment to the U.S. Constitution to raise the age to buy firearms to 21, institute universal background checks for gun purchases, mandate waiting periods and ban assault weapons for civilians. Law professor Erwin Chemerinsky called this a "terrible idea", since the advocated method (which has never been used) would be a constitutional convention (which is not understood to be limited to single amendments), potentially allowing a complete rewrite of the Constitution, or addition of other amendments on separate subjects, like abortion, or the often proposed balanced budget amendment (which liberals feel would decimate welfare programs). Abortion In December 2021, Newsom announced his intention to make California a "sanctuary" for abortion, which included possibly paying for procedures, travel, and lodging for out-of-state abortion seekers, if the procedure is banned in Republican-led states. In March 2022, he signed a bill requiring private health insurance plans in the state to fully cover abortion procedures, by eliminating associated co-pays and deductibles and increasing insurance premiums. In February 2023, Newsom organized the Reproductive Freedom Alliance of state governors supportive of abortion and reproductive rights. After Walgreens announced in March 2023 that it would refuse to dispense abortion pills in the 21 states where it is illegal or they could face legal action for doing so, Newsom tweeted, "California won't be doing business with @walgreens – or any company that cowers to the extremists and puts women's lives at risk, we're done." He also said that Walgreens was giving into "right-wing bullies" and that he would determine how California can cut ties with Walgreens. He indicated that he wanted to cancel Walgreens' $54 million contract with the California state prison system. Walgreens also receives $1.5 billion for filling prescriptions for the 15 million people enrolled in the state's Medi-Cal program (California's version of Medicaid). Law experts said that federal Medicaid laws do not allow health plans to disqualify providers for reasons other than fraud or contract violations, provisions that have prevented conservative states from blocking Medicaid spending to Planned Parenthood clinics. Health care Newsom campaigned on reducing the cost of health care and increasing access. He also indicated his support for creating a universal state health-care system. The budget passed in June 2019 expanded eligibility for Medi-Cal from solely undocumented minor children to undocumented young adults from ages 19 to 25. In 2021, Newsom signed legislation expanding Medi-Cal eligibility to undocumented residents over age 50. On June 30, 2022, he signed a $307.9 billion state budget that "pledges to make all low-income adults eligible for the state's Medicaid program by 2024 regardless of their immigration status." This budget would make California the first U.S. state to guarantee healthcare to all low-income illegal immigrants, at a cost of $2.7 billion per year. Newsom was criticized in early 2022 for walking back from his support for universal health care and not supporting Assembly Bill 1400, which would have instituted single-payer health care in California; critics suggested that opposition from business interests, which had donated large sums to Newsom and his party, had swayed his opinion. On July 6, 2022, Newsom signed Senate Bill 184, which established the Office of Health Care Affordability, with the stated goal to "develop data-informed policies and enforceable cost targets, with the ultimate goal of containing health care costs." In October 2023, Newsom vetoed a bill to cap co-pays for diabetic insulin at $35. Infrastructure and development High-speed rail In his February 2019 State of the State address, Newsom announced that, while work would continue on the Central Valley segment from Bakersfield to Merced, the rest of the system would be indefinitely postponed, citing cost overruns and delays. This and other actions created tension with the State Building and Construction Trades Council of California, a labor union representing 450,000 members. Homelessness and housing shortage A poll found that California voters thought the most important issue for Newsom and the state legislature to work on in 2020 was homelessness. In his first week of office, Newsom threatened to withhold state funding for infrastructure to communities that failed to take actions to alleviate California's housing shortage. In late January 2019, he announced that he would sue Huntington Beach for preventing the construction of affordable housing. A year later, the city acted to settle the lawsuit by the state. Newsom opposes NIMBY (not-in-my-back-yard) sentiment, declaring in 2022 that "NIMBYism is destroying the state". In 2021, he signed a pair of bills into law that made zoning regulations for housing less restrictive, allowing construction of duplexes and fourplexes in lots that were previously zoned exclusively for single-family homes. Newsom also signed a bill which expedites the environmental review process for new multifamily developments worth at least $15,000,000. To participate, developers must apply directly through the governor's office. In 2022, Newsom signed 39 bills into law intended to address California's housing crisis, three of which entailed major land use reform. One bill eliminated minimum parking requirements for housing near mass transit stations throughout the state. Michael Manville, an urban planning professor at UCLA's Luskin School of Public Affairs, called it "one of the biggest land-use reforms in the country." Another bill allowed developers to build housing on some lots previously exclusively zoned for commercial use without getting local governments' permission if a certain percentage of the housing was affordable. A third bill allowed for the construction of market-rate housing on some lots previously exclusively zoned for commercial use. In a signing ceremony for the latter two bills, Newsom warned local governments, which have a history of blocking and delaying housing developments, that they would be held accountable for future housing obstructionism. Other bills Newsom signed required localities "to approve or deny various building permits within a strict timeline" and streamlined student and faculty housing projects by allowing California colleges to skip onerous review processes for new projects. In October 2023, Newsom vetoed several bills aimed at expanding access to housing assistance. One was a bill to repurpose unused state-owned land for affordable housing, which Newsom said infringed on state sovereignty. Another would have expanded the number of people who qualify for state housing assistance. A third would have mandated that Medi-Cal cover the cost of housing assistance. Water management Newsom supports a series of tentative water-sharing agreements that would bring an end to the dispute between farmers, cities, fishers, and environmentalists over how much water should be left in the state's two most important rivers, the Sacramento and San Joaquin, which flow into the Delta. Native American genocide In a speech before representatives of Native Americans in June 2019, Newsom apologized for the genocide of Native Americans approved and abetted by the California state government upon statehood in the 19th century. By one estimate, at least 4,500 Native Californians were killed between 1849 and 1870. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books." In October 2023, Newsom vetoed a bill aimed at increasing Native American access to housing assistance programs, as well as a bill to provide housing grants to tribal entities. LGBTQ+ rights In September 2022, Newsom made California the first sanctuary state for transgender youth, proclaimed June 2023 LGBTQ+ Pride Month in California, and issued a fine of $1.5 million to a school district whose board rejected a curriculum including a biography of Harvey Milk, a Californian gay rights leader. But he also vetoed several bills, passed by the Assembly by a wide margin, one of which would have instructed judges who preside over custody battles to take a parent's affirmation of a child's gender identity into account, and another of which would have mandated that insurance plans serving California residents cover the cost of gender-affirming care. Caste discrimination In October 2023, Newsom vetoed a bill to ban discrimination based on caste, calling it "unnecessary". Many Hindu rights organizations applauded the veto, saying the bill "would have put a target on hundreds of thousands of Californians simply because of their ethnicity or their religious identity". Advocates for the rights of Dalits and other violently oppressed castes sharply criticized the veto. Labor rights In October 2023, Newsom vetoed a bill to provide unemployment insurance to striking workers, citing excess burden on the state's unemployment system. He also vetoed a bill to expand the mandatory warning given to soon to be laid off employees from 60 days to 75, extend the same protections to long-term contract workers, and prohibit employers from making laid-off employees sign nondisclosure agreements in order to receive severance. Personal travel Newsom's first international trip as governor was to El Salvador. With nearly 680,000 Salvadoran immigrants living in California, he said that the "state's relationship with Central America is key to California's future". He was also concerned about the tens of thousands of Salvadorans who were fleeing the smallest country in Central America for the U.S. each year. As governor of a state impacted by the debate of illegal immigration, he went to see the factors driving it firsthand, and to build business and tourism partnerships between California and Central America. He said he wanted to "ignite a more enlightened engagement and dialogue". National profile Many journalists and political analysts have mentioned Newsom as a presidential hopeful. According to a poll by NewsNation, 22% of California voters wanted Newsom to enter the 2024 presidential election. In May 2023, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Newsom's predecessor, believed a future presidential campaign by Newsom to be a "no-brainer". An article published in The Hill by journalist Sharon Udasin also discussed the inevitability of a Newsom presidential run. On September 25, 2022, Newsom said that he would not run for president in 2024, citing his "vulnerable" 2021 recall. After his 2022 reelection, he informed White House staff that he would not challenge president Biden; he endorsed Biden's reelection campaign on April 25, 2023. Newsom has become an outspoken critic of the policies of Florida Governor Ron DeSantis, denouncing DeSantis's orchestration of the Martha's Vineyard migrant airlift and calling him a "small, pathetic man". DeSantis responded by saying California has "huge problems" and daring Newsom to run against Biden. A CalMatters analysis published in 2019 found his political positions to be more conservative than almost any Democratic state legislator in California. Personal life Newsom was baptized and raised in his father's Catholic faith. He has described himself as an "Irish Catholic rebel...in some respects, but one that still has tremendous admiration for the Church and very strong faith". When asked about the state of the Catholic Church in 2008, he said it was in crisis. He said he stays with the Church because of his "strong connection to a greater purpose, and...higher being". Newsom identifies as a practicing Catholic, saying that he has a "strong sense of faith that is perennial, day in and day out". He is the godfather of designer and model Nats Getty. In December 2001, Newsom married Kimberly Guilfoyle, a former San Francisco prosecutor and legal commentator for Court TV, CNN, and MSNBC. They married at Saint Ignatius Catholic Church on the campus of the University of San Francisco, where Guilfoyle had attended law school. The couple appeared in the September 2004 issue of Harper's Bazaar; the spread had them posed at the Getty Villa with the caption "the New Kennedys". They jointly filed for divorce in January 2005, citing "difficulties due to their careers on opposite coasts". Their divorce was finalized on February 28, 2006. Guilfoyle gained prominence in 2011 via a Fox News chat show. She was later named senior advisor to Republican President Donald Trump, whom Newsom has extensively criticized. On January 31, 2007, Newsom's close friend, campaign manager, and former chief of staff Alex Tourk confronted Newsom after learning from his wife, Ruby Rippey-Tourk, that she and Newsom had an affair in 2005, when she was Newsom's appointments secretary. Tourk immediately resigned. Newsom admitted the affair the next day and apologized to the public, saying he was "deeply sorry" for his "personal lapse of judgment". In 2018, Rippey-Tourk said that she thought it wrong to associate Newsom's behavior with the #MeToo movement: "I was a subordinate, but I was also a free-thinking, 33-yr old adult married woman & mother.... I do want to make sure that the #metoo movement is reserved for cases and situations that deserve it." Newsom began dating film director Jennifer Siebel in September 2006. He announced he would seek treatment for alcohol use disorder in February 2007. The couple announced their engagement in December 2007, and they were married in Stevensville, Montana, in July 2008. They have four children. Newsom and his family moved from San Francisco to a house they bought in Kentfield in Marin County in 2012. After his election as governor, Newsom and his family moved into the California Governor's Mansion in Downtown Sacramento and thereafter settled in Fair Oaks. In May 2019, The Sacramento Bee reported that Newsom's $3.7 million purchase of a 12,000 square foot home in Fair Oaks was the most expensive private residence sold in the Sacramento region since the year began. In August 2021, Newsom sold a Marin County home for $5.9 million in an off-market transaction. He had originally put the property up for sale in early 2019 for $5.895 million, but removed the property from the market after a price reduction to $5.695 million. Other political activism In 2023, Newsom launched Campaign for Democracy, a PAC to take on authoritarian leaders. It is thought to be a starting point for a possible 2028 presidential bid. Works Gavin Newsom (2013; co-authored with Lisa Dickey). Citizenville: How to Take the Town Square Digital and Reinvent Government. London: Penguin Group. . . See also Electoral history of Gavin Newsom References Further reading . External links Governor Gavin Newsom official government website Gavin Newsom for Governor campaign website CityMayors profile about Gavin Newsom Gavin Newsom at On the Issues 1967 births Living people 20th-century American businesspeople 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American politicians Activists from the San Francisco Bay Area American activists with disabilities American businesspeople in retailing American chief executives American drink industry businesspeople American investors American LGBT rights activists American political writers American politicians with disabilities American restaurateurs American salespeople American television talk show hosts Articles containing video clips Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area Catholics from California Current TV people Democratic Party governors of California Lieutenant Governors of California Mayors of San Francisco Newsom family People from Greenbrae, California People from Kentfield, California Politicians with dyslexia Redwood High School (Larkspur, California) alumni Russian Hill, San Francisco Santa Clara Broncos baseball players Television personalities from San Francisco Writers from San Francisco
418974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoroscopy	Fluoroscopy	Fluoroscopy () is an imaging technique that uses X-rays to obtain real-time moving images of the interior of an object. In its primary application of medical imaging, a fluoroscope () allows a surgeon to see the internal structure and function of a patient, so that the pumping action of the heart or the motion of swallowing, for example, can be watched. This is useful for both diagnosis and therapy and occurs in general radiology, interventional radiology, and image-guided surgery. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, since the 1950s most fluoroscopes have included X-ray image intensifiers and cameras as well, to improve the image's visibility and make it available on a remote display screen. For many decades, fluoroscopy tended to produce live pictures that were not recorded, but since the 1960s, as technology improved, recording and playback became the norm. Fluoroscopy is similar to radiography and X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) in that it generates images using X-rays. The original difference was that radiography fixed still images on film, whereas fluoroscopy provided live moving pictures that were not stored. However, today radiography, CT, and fluoroscopy are all digital imaging modes with image analysis software and data storage and retrieval. Mechanism of action Although visible light can be seen by the naked eye (and thus forms images that people can look at), it does not penetrate most objects (only translucent ones). In contrast, X-rays can penetrate a wider variety of objects (such as the human body), but they are invisible to the naked eye. To take advantage of the penetration for image-forming purposes, one must somehow convert the X-rays' intensity variations (which correspond to material contrast and thus image contrast) into a form that is visible. Classic film-based radiography achieves this by the variable chemical changes that the X-rays induce in the film, and classic fluoroscopy achieves it by fluorescence, in which certain materials convert X-ray energy (or other parts of the spectrum) into visible light. This use of fluorescent materials to make a viewing scope is how fluoroscopy got its name. As the X-rays pass through the patient, they are attenuated by varying amounts as they pass through or reflect off the different tissues of the body, casting an X-ray shadow of the radiopaque tissues (such as bone tissue) on the fluorescent screen. Images on the screen are produced as the unattenuated or mildly attenuated X-rays from radiolucent tissues interact with atoms in the screen through the photoelectric effect, giving their energy to the electrons. While much of the energy given to the electrons is dissipated as heat, a fraction of it is given off as visible light. Early radiologists would adapt their eyes to view the dim fluoroscopic images by sitting in darkened rooms, or by wearing red adaptation goggles. After the development of X-ray image intensifiers, the images were bright enough to see without goggles under normal ambient light. Image Intensifiers are still being used to this day (2023) with many new models still using II (Image Intensifier) as its method of acquiring the image which is still popular due to lower cost compared to Flat Panel Detectors and there have been many debates on whether II or Flat Detector is more sensitive to X-Ray, which results in lower X-Ray Dosage used. (Depending upon what type of technology / panel is being used influences this answer greatly) Nowadays, in all forms of digital X-ray imaging (radiography, fluoroscopy, and CT) the conversion of X-ray energy into visible light can be achieved by the same types of electronic sensors, such as flat panel detectors, which convert the X-ray energy into electrical signals: small bursts of electric current that convey information that a computer can analyze, store, and output as images. As fluorescence is a special case of luminescence, digital X-ray imaging is conceptually similar to digital gamma ray imaging (scintigraphy, SPECT, and PET) in that in both of these imaging mode families, the information conveyed by the variable attenuation of invisible electromagnetic radiation as it passes through tissues with various radiodensities is converted by an electronic sensor into an electric signal that is processed by a computer and output as a visible-light image. Medical use Fluoroscopy has become an important tool in medical imaging to render moving pictures during a surgery or any other procedure. Surgical fluoroscopy Fluoroscopy is used in various types of surgical procedure, such as orthopaedic surgery and podiatric surgery. In both of those, it is used to guide fracture reduction and in use in certain procedures that have extensive hardware. Urology In urology, fluoroscopy is used in retrograde pyelography and micturating cystourethrography to detect various abnormalities related to the urinary system. Cardiology In cardiology, fluoroscopy is used for diagnostic angiography, percutaneous coronary interventions, (pacemakers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, and cardiac resynchronization devices). Gastrointestinal fluoroscopy Fluoroscopy can be used to examine the digestive system using a substance that is opaque to X-rays (usually barium sulfate or gastrografin), which is introduced into the digestive system either by swallowing or as an enema. This is normally as part of a double-contrast technique, using positive and negative contrast. Barium sulfate coats the walls of the digestive tract (positive contrast), which allows the shape of the digestive tract to be outlined as white or clear on an X-ray. Air may then be introduced (negative contrast), which looks black on the film. The barium meal is an example of a contrast agent swallowed to examine the upper digestive tract. While soluble barium compounds are very toxic, the insoluble barium sulfate is nontoxic because its low solubility prevents the body from absorbing it. Investigations of the gastrointestinal tract include barium enemas, defecating proctograms, barium meals and swallows, and enteroclysis. Other medical uses Liver biopsy is performed under fluoroscopic guidance at many centers. Angiography of the leg, heart, and cerebral vessels. Placement of a peripherally inserted central catheter Placement of a weighted feeding tube (e.g. Dobhoff) into the duodenum after previous attempts without fluoroscopy have failed Discography, an invasive diagnostic procedure for evaluation for intervertebral disc pathology. In lumbar puncture, fluoroscopy helps to guide where the needles of the spinal tap can go, and may reduce the number of attempts required for a successful lumbar puncture. Other uses Fluoroscopy is also used in airport security scanners to check for hidden weapons or bombs. These machines use lower doses of radiation than medical fluoroscopy. The reason for higher doses in medical applications is that they are more demanding about tissue contrast, and for the same reason they sometimes require contrast media. History Early era Fluoroscopy's origins and radiography's origins can both be traced back to 8 November 1895, when Wilhelm Röntgen, or in English script Roentgen, noticed a barium platinocyanide screen fluorescing as a result of being exposed to what he would later call X-rays (algebraic x variable signifying "unknown"). Within months of this discovery, the first crude fluoroscopes were created. These experimental fluoroscopes were simply thin cardboard screens that had been coated on the inside with a layer of fluorescent metal salt, attached to a funnel-shaped cardboard eyeshade which excluded room light with a viewing eyepiece which the user held up to his eye. The fluoroscopic image obtained in this way was quite faint. Even when finally improved and commercially introduced for diagnostic imaging, the limited light produced from the fluorescent screens of the earliest commercial scopes necessitated that a radiologist sit for a period in the darkened room where the imaging procedure was to be performed, to first accustom his eyes to increase their sensitivity to perceive the faint image. The placement of the radiologist behind the screen also resulted in significant dosing of the radiologist. In the late 1890s, Thomas Edison began investigating materials for ability to fluoresce when X-rayed, and by the turn of the century he had invented a fluoroscope with sufficient image intensity to be commercialized. Edison had quickly discovered that calcium tungstate screens produced brighter images. Edison, however, abandoned his research in 1903 because of the health hazards that accompanied the use of these early devices. Clarence Dally, a glass blower of lab equipment and tubes at Edison's laboratory was repeatedly exposed, developing radiation poisoning, later dying from an aggressive cancer. Edison himself damaged an eye in testing these early fluoroscopes. During this infant commercial development, many incorrectly predicted that the moving images of fluoroscopy would completely replace roentgenographs (radiographic still image films), but the then superior diagnostic quality of the roentgenograph and their already alluded-to safety enhancement of lower radiation dose via shorter exposure prevented this from occurring. Another factor was that plain films inherently offered recording of the image in a simple and inexpensive way, whereas recording and playback of fluoroscopy remained a more complex and expensive proposition for decades to come (discussed in detail below). Red adaptation goggles were developed by Wilhelm Trendelenburg in 1916 to address the problem of dark adaptation of the eyes, previously studied by Antoine Beclere. The resulting red light from the goggles' filtration correctly sensitized the physician's eyes prior to the procedure, while still allowing him to receive enough light to function normally. X-ray shoe fitting More trivial uses of the technology emerged in the early 1920s, including a shoe-fitting fluoroscope that was used at shoe stores and department stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the late 1940s and 1950s. Issues raised by doctors and health professionals included the potential for burns to the skin, damage to bone, and abnormal development of the feet. These concerns lead to the development of new guidelines, regulations and ultimately the practice's end by the early 1960s. Shoe salesmen and industry representatives sometimes defended their use, claiming that there was no evidence of harm, and that their use prevented harm to the feet caused by poorly-fitted shoes. Fluoroscopy was discontinued in shoe-fitting because the radiation exposure risk outweighed the trivial benefit. Only important applications such as health care, bodily safety, food safety, nondestructive testing, and scientific research meet the risk-benefit threshold for use. Analog electronic era Analog electronics revolutionized fluoroscopy. The development of the X-ray image intensifier by Westinghouse in the late 1940s in combination with closed circuit TV cameras of the 1950s allowed for brighter pictures and better radiation protection. The red adaptation goggles became obsolete as image intensifiers allowed the light produced by the fluorescent screen to be amplified and made visible in a lighted room. The addition of the camera enabled viewing of the image on a monitor, allowing a radiologist to view the images in a separate room away from the risk of radiation exposure. The commercialization of video tape recorders beginning in 1956 allowed the TV images to be recorded and played back at will. Digital electronic era Digital electronics were applied to fluoroscopy beginning in the early 1960s, when Frederick G. Weighart and James F. McNulty (1929-2014) at Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo, California produced on a fluoroscope the world's first image to be digitally generated in real-time, while developing a later commercialized portable apparatus for the onboard nondestructive testing of naval aircraft. Square wave signals were detected on a fluorescent screen to create the image. From the late 1980s onward, digital imaging technology was reintroduced to fluoroscopy after development of improved detector systems. Modern improvements in screen phosphors, digital image processing, image analysis, and flat panel detectors have allowed for increased image quality while minimizing the radiation dose to the patient. Modern fluoroscopes use caesium iodide (CsI) screens and produce noise-limited images, ensuring that the minimal radiation dose results while still obtaining images of acceptable quality. Etymology Many names exist in the medical literature for moving pictures taken with X-rays. They include fluoroscopy, fluorography, cinefluorography, photofluorography, fluororadiography, kymography (electrokymography, roentgenkymography), cineradiography (cine), videofluorography, and videofluoroscopy. Today, the word "fluoroscopy" is widely understood to be a hypernym of all the aforementioned terms, which explains why it is the most commonly used and why the others are declining in usage. The profusion of names is an idiomatic artifact of technological change, as follows: As soon as X-rays (and their application of seeing inside the body) were discovered in the 1890s, both looking and recording were pursued. Both live moving images and recorded still images were available from the beginning with simple equipment; thus, both "looking with a fluorescent screen" (fluoro- + -scopy) and "recording/engraving with radiation" (radio- + -graphy) were immediately named with Neo-Latin words—both words are attested since 1896. The quest for recorded moving images, though, was a more complex challenge. In the 1890s, moving pictures of any kind (whether taken with visible light or with invisible radiation) were emerging technologies. Because the word "photography" (literally "recording/engraving with light") was long since established as connoting a still-image medium, the word "cinematography" (literally "recording/engraving movement") was coined for the new medium of visible-light moving pictures. Soon, several new words were coined for achieving moving radiographic pictures. This was often done either by filming a simple fluoroscopic screen with a movie camera (variously called fluorography, cinefluorography, photofluorography, or fluororadiography) or by taking serial radiographs rapidly to serve as the frames in a movie (cineradiography). Either way, the resulting film reel could be displayed by a movie projector. Another group of techniques included various kinds of kymography, whose common theme was capturing recordings in a series of moments, with a concept similar to movie film, although not necessarily with movie-type playback; rather, the sequential images would be compared frame by frame (a distinction comparable to tile mode versus cine mode in today's CT terminology). Thus, electrokymography and roentgenkymography were among the early ways to record images from a simple fluoroscopic screen. Television also was under early development during these decades (1890s–1920s), but even after commercial TV began widespread adoption after World War II, it remained a live-only medium for a time. In the mid-1950s, a commercialized ability to capture the moving pictures of television onto magnetic tape (with a video tape recorder) was developed. This soon led to the addition of the "video-" prefix to the words fluorography and fluoroscopy, with the words videofluorography and videofluoroscopy attested since 1960. In the 1970s, videotape moved from TV studios and medical imaging into the consumer market with home video via VHS and Betamax, and those formats were also incorporated into medical video equipment. Thus, over time the cameras and recording media for fluoroscopic imaging have progressed: The original kind of fluoroscopy, and the common kind for its first half-century of existence, simply used none, because for most diagnosis and treatment, they were not essential. For those investigations that needed to be transmitted or recorded (such as for training or research), movie cameras using film (such as 16 mm film) were the medium. In the 1950s, analog electronic video cameras (at first only producing live output, but later using video tape recorders) appeared. Since the 1990s, digital video cameras, flat panel detectors, and storage of data to local servers or (more recently) secure cloud servers have been used. Late-model fluoroscopes all use digital image processing and image analysis software, which not only helps to produce optimal image clarity and contrast, but also allows that result with a minimal radiation dose (because signal processing can take tiny inputs from low radiation doses and amplify them while to some extent also differentiating signal from noise). Whereas the word "cine" () in general usage refers to cinema (that is, a movie) or to certain film formats (cine film) for recording such a movie, in medical usage it refers to cineradiography or, in recent decades, to any digital imaging mode that produces cine-like moving images (for example, newer CT and MRI systems can put out to either cine mode or tile mode). Cineradiography records 30-frame/second fluoroscopic images of internal organs such as the heart taken during injection of contrast dye to better visualize regions of stenosis, or to record motility in the body's gastrointestinal tract. The predigital technology is being replaced with digital imaging systems. Some of these decrease the frame rate, but also decrease the absorbed dose of radiation to the patient. As they improve, frame rates will likely increase. Today, owing to technological convergence, the word "fluoroscopy" is widely understood to be a hypernym of all the earlier names for moving pictures taken with X-rays, both live and recorded. Also owing to technological convergence, radiography, CT, and fluoroscopy are now all digital imaging modes using X-rays with image-analysis software and easy data storage and retrieval. Just as movies, TV, and web videos are to a substantive extent no longer separate technologies, but only variations on common underlying digital themes, so, too, are the X-ray imaging modes, and indeed, the term "X-ray imaging" is the ultimate hypernym that unites all of them, even subsuming both fluoroscopy and four-dimensional CT (4DCT), which is the newest form of moving pictures taken with X-rays. Many decades may pass before the earlier hyponyms fall into disuse, not the least because the day when 4D CT displaces all earlier forms of moving X-ray imaging may yet be distant. Adverse effects The use of X-rays, a form of ionizing radiation, requires the potential risks from a procedure to be carefully balanced with the benefits of the procedure to the patient. Because the patient must be exposed to a continuous source of X-rays instead of a momentary pulse, a fluoroscopy procedure generally subjects a patient to a higher absorbed dose of radiation than an ordinary (still) radiograph. Only important applications such as health care, bodily safety, food safety, nondestructive testing, and scientific research meet the risk-benefit threshold for use. In the first half of the 20th century, shoe-fitting fluoroscopes were used in shoe stores, but their use was discontinued because it is no longer considered acceptable to use radiation exposure, however small the dose, for nonessential purposes. Much research has been directed toward reducing radiation exposure, and recent advances in fluoroscopy technology such as digital image processing and flat panel detectors, have resulted in much lower radiation doses than former procedures. Because fluoroscopy involves the use of X-rays, a form of ionizing radiation, fluoroscopic procedures pose a potential for increasing the patient's risk of radiation-induced cancer, in addition to the cancer risk and other stochastic radiation effects, deterministic radiation effects have also been observed ranging from mild erythema, equivalent of a sunburn, to more serious burns. Radiation doses to the patient depend greatly both on the size of the patient and length of the procedure, with typical skin dose rates quoted as 20–50 mGy/min. Exposure times vary depending on the procedure being performed, ranging from minutes to hours. A study of radiation-induced skin injuries was performed in 1994 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) followed by an advisory to minimize further fluoroscopy-induced injuries. The problem of radiation injuries due to fluoroscopy has been further addressed in review articles in 2000 and 2010. While deterministic radiation effects are a possibility, radiation burns are not typical of standard fluoroscopic procedures. Most procedures sufficiently long in duration to produce radiation burns are part of necessary life-saving operations. X-ray image intensifiers generally have radiation-reducing systems such as pulsed rather than constant radiation, along with "last image hold", which "freezes" the screen and makes it available for examination without exposing the patient to unnecessary radiation. Image intensifiers have been introduced that increase the brightness of the screen, so that the patient can be exposed to a lower dose of X-rays. Whilst this reduces the risk of ionisation occurring, it does not remove it entirely. Equipment X-ray image intensifiers The invention of X-ray image intensifiers in the 1950s allowed the image on the screen to be visible under normal lighting conditions, and provided the option of recording the images with a conventional camera. Subsequent improvements included the coupling of, at first, video cameras, and later, digital cameras using image sensors such as charge-coupled devices or active pixel sensors to permit recording of moving images and electronic storage of still images. Modern image intensifiers no longer use a separate fluorescent screen. Instead, a caesium iodide phosphor is deposited directly on the photocathode of the intensifier tube. On a typical general-purpose system, the output image is approximately 105 times brighter than the input image. This brightness gain comprises a flux gain (amplification of photon number) and minification gain (concentration of photons from a large input screen onto a small output screen) each of about 100. This level of gain is sufficient that quantum noise, due to the limited number of X-ray photons, is a significant factor limiting image quality. Within the XRII, five mini components make up this intensifier, which are: The glass envelope helps maintain the tube vacuum to allow control of the electron flow, but it has no actual functional part in the image formation. Input phosphor, when the X-rays interact with this piece, its energy is converted into a burst of visible light photons as they occur like this on the intensifying screen/monitor. The photocathode is a thin metal layer, that is usually composed of caesium and antimony compounds that respond to stimulation by the light with the emission of the electron. The electrostatic focusing lenses are located along the length of the tube and are responsible for the focusing of the electrons across the tube from the input to the output phosphor. The output phosphor is usually made up of cadmium sulfide crystals and is what records the arrival of the photoelectrons and normally results in 50–70 times gain. Image intensifiers are available with input diameters up to 45 cm, and a resolution of around two to three line pairs/mm. Flat-panel detectors The introduction of flat-panel detectors allows for the replacement of the image intensifier in fluoroscope design. Flat-panel detectors offer increased sensitivity to X-rays, so have the potential to reduce patient radiation dose. Temporal resolution is also improved over image intensifiers, reducing motion blurring. Contrast ratio is also improved over image intensifiers; flat-panel detectors are linear over a very wide latitude, whereas image intensifiers have a maximum contrast ratio of about 35:1. Spatial resolution is roughly equal, although an image intensifier operating in magnification mode may be slightly better than a flat panel. Flat-panel detectors are considerably more expensive to purchase and repair than image intensifiers, so their use adoption is primarily in specialties that require high-speed imaging, e.g., vascular imaging and cardiac catheterization. Contrast agents A number of substances have been used as radiocontrast agents, including silver, bismuth, caesium, thorium, tin, zirconium, tantalum, tungsten, and lanthanide compounds. The use of thoria (thorium dioxide) as an agent was rapidly stopped, as thorium causes liver cancer. Most modern injected radiographic positive contrast media are iodine-based. Iodinated contrast comes in two forms - ionic and nonionic compounds. Nonionic contrast is significantly more expensive than ionic (about three to five times the cost), but nonionic contrast tends to be safer for the patient, causing fewer allergic reactions and uncomfortable side effects such as hot sensations or flushing. Most imaging centers now use nonionic contrast exclusively, finding that the benefits to patients outweigh the expense. Negative radiographic contrast agents are air and carbon dioxide (CO2). The latter is easily absorbed by the body and causes less spasm. It can also be injected into the blood, where air absolutely cannot due to the risk of an air embolism. Imaging concerns In addition to spatial blurring factors that plague all X-ray imaging devices, caused by such things as Lubberts effect, K-fluorescence reabsorption, and electron range, fluoroscopic systems also experience temporal blurring due to system latency. This temporal blurring has the effect of averaging frames together. While this helps reduce noise in images with stationary objects, it creates motion blurring for moving objects. Temporal blurring also complicates measurements of system performance for fluoroscopic systems. References External links Fluoroscopy FDA Radiological Health Program "Were those old shoe store fluoroscopes a health hazard?" at Straight Dope, 27 November 1987 Fluoroscopy video in the medical field Fluoroscopy video in the Nondestructive Testing field
418979	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Greenbrier	The Greenbrier	The Greenbrier is a luxury resort located in the Allegheny Mountains near White Sulphur Springs in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, in the United States. Since 1778, visitors have traveled to this part of the state to "take the waters" of the area. Today, The Greenbrier is situated on of land with 710 guest rooms, 20 restaurants and lounges, more than 55 indoor and outdoor activities and sports, and more than 35 retail shops. The current Greenbrier was built in 1913 by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway and was owned for much of its history by that company and its successors, Chessie System and CSX Corporation. Following years of heavy losses, CSX had the hotel file for bankruptcy protection in 2009. Justice Family Group, LLC, a company owned by coal baron and later Governor of West Virginia Jim Justice, subsequently bought the property and guaranteed all debts, resulting in dismissal of the bankruptcy protection. Justice promised to return the hotel to its former status as a five-star resort and to introduce "tasteful" gambling for guests to increase profit. The Greenbrier Hotel Corp. today operates as a subsidiary of Justice's company. The last U.S. president to stay at The Greenbrier during a presidency was Dwight D. Eisenhower. A total of 28 presidents have stayed at the hotel. The Greenbrier is also the site of a massive underground bunker that was meant to serve as an emergency shelter for the United States Congress during the Cold War. The bunker was code named "Project Greek Island". History Early development A spring of sulphur water is at the center of the resort property. It is surrounded by the white-columned spring house, topped by a green dome that has been the symbol of The Greenbrier for generations. Beginning in 1778, Mrs. Anderson, a local pioneer, adopted the local Native American tradition of "taking the waters" to relieve her chronic rheumatism. Based on this resource, for the first 125 years, the resort was known by the name White Sulphur Springs. It was a destination for people during the summers who wanted to escape coastal heat and diseases. The property was acquired by the Calwells, a prominent Baltimore family. They developed the large property as a resort, selling cottages, many of which still stand today, to prominent Southern individuals. Notable guests of the early 19th century included Martin Van Buren and Henry Clay. In 1858, they built a huge hotel building on the property. The Grand Central Hotel came to be known by the moniker "The White" and, later, "The Old White". During the Civil War, the property changed hands between forces of the Confederate Army and the Union Army, who almost burned the resort to the ground. Following the Civil War, the resort reopened under Confederate States of America Major Cornelius Boyle. It became a place for many Southerners and Northerners alike to vacation. It was the setting for some notable post-war reconciliations. The "White Sulphur Manifesto", the only political paper published by Confederate General Robert E. Lee after the Civil War, advocated the merging of the two societies. The resort became a center of regional post-war society, especially after the arrival of the railroad. Beginning in 1869, it provided direct service to the resort's gates. The Greenbrier In 1910, the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway purchased the resort property, building additional amenities, including the current bath wing, which opened in 1911. The C&O's improvements culminated with the construction of a colossal six-story, 250-room hotel building, which forms the central wing of today's hotel. Designed by British-born American architect Frederick Julius Sterner, it opened on September 25, 1913. At this time, what had for decades been a summer establishment was converted to a year-round resort, and the name was officially changed to The Greenbrier, after the neighboring county. The neighboring town had incorporated in 1909 and adopted the name White Sulphur Springs, which the resort had previously used. The railroad also introduced the game of golf, which became a defining feature of the resort. The first small course was opened in 1910, and a full 18-hole course, designed by Charles B. Macdonald, opened at The Greenbrier in 1913. That original course is today known as "The Old White TPC". The historic Old White Hotel structure was demolished in 1922 because it failed to meet then-current fire codes. In 1931, completion of the north wing, crossing the original 1913 wing like a "T", nearly doubled the size of the hotel. Just after the United States entered World War II, the resort was called on December 17, 1941, to serve as a relocation center for Axis diplomats who were in the United States and had been interned as enemies of the United States. The first detainees were Germans; later, they were joined by Japanese diplomats previously interned at The Homestead in Hot Springs, Virginia. The hotel served as a diplomatic detention center until July 8, 1942. The hotel briefly reopened for the 1942 season, but was soon commandeered by the U.S. Army for use as a hospital. The Army paid $3.3 million for the property, which had been valued at $5.4 million, and took over control of the property on September 1, 1942. They converted the resort to a 2000-bed hospital, known as Ashford General Hospital, named for Bailey Ashford, a noted Army doctor. The hospital opened on October 16, 1943. The hospital treated nearly 25,000 patients before closing on June 30, 1946. The property was sold back to the C&O railroad for just under the $3.3 million they had been paid in 1942. C&O hired internationally renowned interior designer Dorothy Draper to completely redecorate and restore The Greenbrier. Draper oversaw every element of the design of the property in her trademark style: combining bold colors, classical influences and modern touches, and the work took two years. The Greenbrier's reopening, celebrated from April 15 to April 18, 1948, was an international social event of the season. Notable attendees included the Duke of Windsor and his wife, Wallis Simpson (who had spent her honeymoon with her first husband at The Greenbrier in 1916), Bing Crosby, and members of the Joseph Kennedy family. Since the late 20th century, the resort has hosted several presidents and vice-presidents, in addition to foreign dignitaries such as Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Prince Rainier and Princess Grace of Monaco. International meetings The Greenbrier resort has played host to several important international meetings. During World War II, future Canadian prime minister Lester Pearson, then assigned to the Canadian embassy in Washington, D.C., was among the illustrious guests planning the Allied effort for resources allocation. The U.S., Mexican, and Canadian leaders met at the Greenbrier in 1955 for international discussions. The Bunker In the late 1950s, the U.S. government approached The Greenbrier for assistance in creating a secret emergency relocation center to house Congress in the aftermath of a nuclear holocaust. The classified, underground facility, named "Project Greek Island", was built at the same time as the West Virginia Wing, an above-ground addition to the hotel, from 1959 to 1962. Although for 30 years the bunker was kept stocked with supplies, it was never used as an emergency location, even during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The existence of the bunker was not acknowledged by the government; Ted Gup of The Washington Post reported it in a 1992 story. Immediately after publication of the Post story, the government decommissioned the bunker. The facility has since been renovated. It is used as a data storage facility by CSX IP for the private sector. It is featured as an attraction in which visitors can tour the now declassified facilities, known as The Bunker. Justice family ownership On March 20, 2009, the resort filed for bankruptcy, listing debt of up to $500 million and assets of $100 million. It had suffered from competition from a wide variety of resorts, and declining traffic since the postwar period as patrons shifted to destinations they could reach by automobile. The resort lost $35 million in 2008 and had to lay off 650 employees, half its workforce, in early 2009. Pending court and regulatory approval, it was announced in March 2009 that the resort was to be sold to the Marriott hotel chain, contingent upon significant concessions from the unions and approval of $50 million in financing from CSX. On May 7, 2009, the Justice family of West Virginia purchased the resort for $20 million. The Justice family, headed by patriarch Jim Justice, has extensive farm and mining operations in West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. It farms through its Justice Family Farms group, headquartered in Beckley, West Virginia. In early 2009, it sold its Bluestone Coal Corporation network of West Virginia coal mines to the Russian mining company, Mechel, based in Moscow. The Marriott Corporation asserted that it had a valid contract to purchase the hotel, and expected to see that contract honored. However, Justice ultimately settled with Marriott. The bankruptcy judge dismissed the case on May 19, 2009, clearing the way for Justice's purchase of the property. The resort was closed briefly after the 2016 West Virginia flood; however, flood victims who needed a place to stay were offered rooms in the hotel. The hotel reopened on July 12, 2016, with several amenities, including an off-road Jeep trail, several walking trails, and the falconry operation, which had been closed for the year. With Justice's election as Governor of West Virginia in 2017, his daughter Jill took over day-to-day control of The Greenbrier. Facilities The Casino Club at the Greenbrier In November 2008, county voters narrowly approved a local option referendum that would permit casino-style gambling at the hotel. The rules, regulations, and tax rates were signed into law on May 8, 2009. The Justice family promised that gambling facilities at the resort would be "tasteful" if established. The temporary casino, named "The Tavern Casino", opened on October 1, 2009. The permanent casino, The Casino Club at The Greenbrier opened on July 2, 2010 with a celebrity gala. In 2013, the casino added simulcast horse racing and associated betting to its offerings. Presidents' Cottage Museum Twenty-eight presidents have been hosted at The Greenbrier. The Presidents' Cottage Museum is a two-story building with exhibits about these visits and the history of The Greenbrier. The building is open seasonally. Golf The resort has a significant place in golf history. The original nine holes were designed by Alexander H. Findlay. In 1944, Sam Snead became the head golf professional at Greenbrier and in retirement held the position of the resort's pro emeritus. In the 21st century, that title has been held by Tom Watson and later Lee Trevino. The Greenbrier was the site of the Ryder Cup in 1979, the first to be contested under the format of United States against Europe, which has been continued to the present. It hosted the Solheim Cup in 1994, the women's equivalent to the Ryder Cup. The Greenbrier is the first of three locations to host both the men's and women's United States versus Europe team competitions, the Ryder and Solheim cups; it was joined in 1998 by Muirfield Village in Dublin, Ohio, with Scotland's Gleneagles Hotel PGA Centenary Course, the host of the 2014 Ryder Cup, joining when it hosted the 2019 Solheim Cup. The Greenbrier American Express Championship on the Senior PGA Tour (now the PGA Tour Champions) was held from 1985 through 1987. The PGA Tour came to the hotel in 2010 with the Greenbrier Classic. After two years of being held on the last weekend of July, the tournament obtained the more favorable date of the first weekend in July, starting in 2012. On March 28, 2011, The Old White Course became a TPC course. The 2016 event was canceled due to severe flooding in June. All four of the golf courses on the property, the Old White TPC, the Greenbrier Course, the Meadows Course, and the Snead Course were damaged in the 2016 flood. On July 12, 2016, a modified course, made up mostly of the Greenbrier Course but also parts of the Meadows Course, was laid out and opened for play that year. The remaining courses were closed for the year. In 2020, the PGA Tour cancelled its TPC affiliation with The Greenbrier. The resort will host a LIV Golf event at the Old White Course in 2023. Tennis The resort is home to a 2,500-seat tennis stadium, five Har-Tru outdoor courts and five Deco-Turf indoor courts. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, all matches during the 2020 World TeamTennis season were held at The Greenbrier. Medical and sports facilities The Greenbrier Clinic, adjacent to the hotel, has operated as an executive health facility since 1948. In 1971 it began operating independently from the hotel (although still leasing its facility from The Greenbrier). In 2011, Justice announced an ambitious plan to construct the Greenbrier Medical Institute, a large-scale medical facility with a projected cost of at least $250 million, planned to be built in five stages. It was to include a sports medicine facility to be headed by orthopedic surgeon James Andrews. Construction of the first stage began in May 2012. The project was intended to establish relationships with professional sports teams, as the resort wanted to attract a National Football League team that would hold its annual training camp at The Greenbrier. In March 2014, the New Orleans Saints and the hotel reached agreement on a three-year deal. The hotel committed to build three football fields and other facilities for the Saints, at an estimated cost of $20–25 million, adjacent to the medical facilities. The project was to be partially subsidized by tax breaks recently approved by the state legislature, with an estimated value of $25 million over 10 years. The relationship between the hotel and the Saints reportedly developed after a visit by Saints head coach Sean Payton to the 2013 Greenbrier Classic golf tournament to play in its pro-am competition and then to serve as caddie for his friend, PGA Tour player Ryan Palmer. After three seasons (during which the Saints praised the Greenbrier's facilities but finished with a 7–9 record every year), the Saints did not renew their contract with the hotel. The Houston Texans took over the facilities for their 2017 training camp. The New England Patriots have also held training camp at The Greenbrier. The Spring League, a minor league football organization which evolved into the USFL, held six of the seven games in their inaugural season at The Greenbrier. In popular culture Set in West Virginia in the aftermath of a nuclear war, the video game Fallout 76 features a location known as "The Whitespring Resort" which strongly resembles the exterior and interior of the Greenbrier, including the hidden government bunker beneath. Entombed, a 2010 novel by Brian Keene, takes place in a fictionalized West Virginia hotel with a bunker beneath. The author states in the afterword that he was inspired by the Greenbrier. The Greenbrier was at the center of a moment on the U.S. game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire. Comedian Norm Macdonald's $1,000,000 question was in reference to the Greenbrier's bunker. Macdonald was ready to correctly guess the Greenbrier but believed host Regis Philbin was trying to talk him out of the answer. Philbin did not know the answer, and was trying to ensure that Macdonald did not lose the $468,000 that he had already won for a charity. Macdonald walked away with $500,000 for Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Camps. The Greenbrier is used as a setting in the 1933 film Mary Stevens, M.D. Gallery See also List of casinos in West Virginia List of casinos in the United States List of casino hotels Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center Raven Rock Mountain Complex Greenbrier Presidential Express, a train that was planned to run between Washington, D.C., and White Sulphur Springs References Sources The History of The Greenbrier: America's Resort by Robert Conte Bibliography Conte, Robert S. The History of the Greenbrier: America's Resort. Charleston, W. Va: Published for the Greenbrier by Pictorial Histories Pub. Co, 1989. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21426566 Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.). In America It's The Greenbrier: "Famous Since 1778", White Sulphur Springs West Virginia. [White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.]: [The Greenbrier], 1930. Signed, in print, L.R. Johnston, General Manager ... Possibly a proof copy. Printed as [12] p. on 2 sheets (45 x 58 cm. or smaller) with text on one side of sheet only. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63110504 Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.). The Greenbrier Historical Heritage: White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia : Where the Vacation Season Never Ends. [White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.]: [The Greenbrier], 1965. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76875121 Greenbrier White Sulphur Springs Company. A Treatise on the White Sulphur Springs and Its Waters, 1892. [Richmond, Va.]: [A. Hoenx], 1892. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26019669 Greenbrier Hotel, White Sulphur Springs, W. Va. General Robert E. Lee at White Sulphur Springs, 1867-'68-'69. [White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.]: [The Greenbrier], 1932. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6366418 Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.). The Portico. White Sulphur Springs, W. Va: The Greenbrier, 1932. "Published weekly, during the season. Sub-title: "Tales of the 'Old White' and Notes from the Greenbrier." Editor: Alice Elizabeth Gasaway, The Greenbrier ..." http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47804280 Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.), and Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Company. Green-Brier White Sulphur Springs, 1900. [White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.]: [Greenbrier], 1900. Contains a description of the hotel (with rates), society and its amusements and scenery, with an analysis of the water, a Bird's eye view of the White Sulphur Springs, and information on Chesapeake and Ohio's train service to the area. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/233974083 Keefer, Louis E. Shangri-La for Wounded Soldiers: The Greenbrier As a World War II Army Hospital. Reston, VA: Cotu Pub, 1995. MacCorkle, William Alexander. The White Sulphur Springs; The Traditions, History, and Social Life of the Greenbriar White Sulphur Springs. New York: The Neale Publishing Company, 1916. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1581713 Miscellaneous Materials About Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. Includes Informational Brochures, Menus, Calendars, Postcards. 1940. Artist sees the Greenbrier; Roads and trails on the estate and in the vicinity of the Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; White Sulphur Springs, the Greenbrier and cottages; Greenbrier overture; Follow the Old Buffalo and Seneca trails to White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; Baths and medical department of the Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; America's most beautiful all-year-resort, the Greenbrier and cottages; Greenbrier calendar; Robert E. Lee week; Old White arts school and colony; Old White Art Gallery; President's cottage, 1835-1932; White Sulphur for conventions. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/647900978 Moorman, J. J. Virginia White Sulphur Springs With the Analysis of Its Waters, the Diseases to Which They Are Applicable, and Some Account of Society and Its Amusements at the Springs. Baltimore: Kelly, Piet, 1869. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10845672 Moorman, J. J. A Brief Notice of a Portion of a Work by William Burke, Entitled "The Mineral Springs of Western Virginia": With Preliminary Remarks on the Relative Virtues of the Saline and Gaseous Contents of the White Sulphur Water. Philadelphia: Printed by Merrihew and Thompson, 1843. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14828853 Olcott, William. The Greenbrier Heritage. [Philadelphia?]: [Arndt, Preston, Chapin, Lamb & Keen], 1967. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/564643 Panel Descriptions of the Virginia Room. The Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, W. Va. [White Sulpher Springs, W. Va.]: [The Greenbrier], 1931. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47745488 Pencil, Mark. White Sulphur Papers, or, Life at the Springs of Western Virginia. New York: S. Colman, 1839. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12415888 Rains, David. The History of the White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, Famous Since 1778, And The Greenbrier and Cottages. Roanoke, Va: Stone Print. and manufacturing Co, 1939. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5576726 Smith, Wm. P. Topographical Map of a Portion of the White Sulphur Springs Tract in Greenbrier County, West Virginia. [United States]: [publisher not identified], 1875. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56966082 Topographic Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, West Virginia. [White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.?]: [publisher not identified], 1970. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13946601 External links Official site The Bunker – official site The Ultimate Congressional Hideaway – 1992 article exposing the bunker Additional History of the Bunker Interview with Paul Fritz Bugas, former superintendent of the bunker Congressional Bunker Tour Virtual Tour at the Civil Defense Museum "The Greenbrier Resort Hopes to Preserve Its Past" – New York Times, 2010 "Taking the Waters: 19th Century Medicinal Springs: White Sulphur Springs." Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, University of Virginia 1858 establishments in Virginia Biographical museums in West Virginia Buildings and structures in Greenbrier County, West Virginia Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Continuity of government in the United States Destination spas Disaster preparedness in the United States Federal architecture in West Virginia Golf clubs and courses designed by Charles B. Macdonald Golf clubs and courses in West Virginia Greenbrier County, West Virginia in the American Civil War Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia Hotel buildings completed in 1913 Hotel buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia Hotels established in 1858 Hotels in West Virginia Military and war museums in West Virginia Military hospitals in the United States Museums in Greenbrier County, West Virginia National Historic Landmarks in West Virginia National Register of Historic Places in Greenbrier County, West Virginia Neoclassical architecture in West Virginia Presidential museums in the United States Railway hotels in the United States Resorts in West Virginia Ryder Cup venues Solheim Cup venues Tourist attractions in Greenbrier County, West Virginia White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia
419016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ventures	The Ventures	The Ventures are an American instrumental rock band formed in Tacoma, Washington, in 1958, by Don Wilson and Bob Bogle. The band, which was a quartet for most of its existence, helped to popularize the electric guitar across the world during the 1960s. While their popularity in the United States waned in the 1970s, the group remains especially revered in Japan, where they have toured regularly. The classic lineup of the band consisted of Wilson (rhythm guitar), Bogle (initially lead guitar, later bass), Nokie Edwards (initially bass, later lead guitar), and Mel Taylor (drums). Their first wide-release single, "Walk, Don't Run" (1960), brought international fame to the group, and is often cited as one of the top songs ever recorded for guitar. In the 1960s and early 1970s, 38 of the band's albums charted in the US, ranking them as the 6th best album chart performer during the 1960s, and the band had 14 singles in the Billboard Hot 100. With over 100 million records sold, the Ventures are the best-selling instrumental band of all time. The Ventures have had an enduring impact on the development of music worldwide. The band was among the first to employ and popularize fuzz and flanging guitar effects, concept albums, and twelve-string guitars in rock music. Their instrumental virtuosity, innovation, and unique sound influenced many musicians and bands, earning the group the moniker "The Band that Launched a Thousand Bands". Their recording of "Walk, Don't Run" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for its lasting impact, and in 2008 the group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. History Formation and rise to fame Don Wilson and Bob Bogle first met in 1958, when Bogle was looking to buy a car from a used car dealership in Seattle owned by Wilson's father. Finding a common interest in guitars, the two decided to play together, while Wilson joined Bogle performing masonry work. They bought two used guitars in a pawn shop for about $10 each. Initially calling themselves the Versatones, the duo played small clubs, beer bars, and private parties throughout the Pacific Northwest. Wilson played rhythm guitar, Bogle lead. When they went to register the band name, they found that it was already taken. Disappointed, they cast about for an appropriate name. Wilson's mother suggested the name "The Ventures", upon which they eventually agreed in 1959. After watching Nokie Edwards play at a nightclub, they recruited him as bass player. Bogle owned a Chet Atkins LP, Hi-Fi in Focus, on which he heard the song "Walk, Don't Run". Soon, the group was in a recording studio playing the new song, with Bogle on lead, Wilson on rhythm, Edwards on bass, and Skip Moore on drums. They pressed a number of 45s, which they distributed to several record companies. Later, Skip Moore opted out of the group to work at his family's gas station. When "Walk, Don't Run" was recorded, he also opted out of the royalties from the recording, taking $25 for the session instead. He later sued to collect royalties but failed because of his prior opt-out. "Walk, Don't Run" sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA. Needing a permanent drummer for the group after George T. Babbitt Jr. dropped out because he was not old enough to play night clubs and bars, they hired Howie Johnson and, in the midst of a fast-paced touring schedule, recorded an album to capitalize on the success of the single. (Babbitt went on to become a 4-star general in the United States Air Force (USAF) and on March 1, 1998, he played live in uniform on drums with the band.) The lineup of Bogle, Wilson, Edwards and Johnson remained intact until September 1962, when Johnson was replaced by Mel Taylor. The group found early success with a string of singles, but quickly became leaders in the album market. The Ventures were among the pioneers of concept albums (starting with 1961's The Colorful Ventures) where each song on several of their albums was chosen to fit a specific theme. Some of the Ventures' most popular albums at the time were a series of records of dance music. In the early 1960s "golden age of hi-fi", with the novelty of stereo still in its experimental stages, the Ventures found their characteristic style of recording each instrument in either the extreme left or right channel, with little (if any) cross-over, enhancing the stereo effect to its fullest limits. In 1963, Edwards, a talented guitarist in his own right, suggested that Bogle's lead guitar abilities were being stretched, and that they were in essence wasting Edwards' talents by keeping him on bass. Bogle agreed, and rapidly learned the bass parts to all their tunes, allowing Edwards to take lead guitar full-time, although he had played lead previously on several tracks on their first studio sessions/albums. This move would prove vital in modernizing the band's sound, ensuring success in an ever-changing market well into the late 1960s. Classic lineup In the fall of 1957, Johnson had been injured in an auto crash, which caused irreversible spinal damage. This forced him to play with a neckbrace at first. However, he was able to play without it shortly after joining the group. Johnson played on the first four LPs and recorded on about half of the tracks on the fifth LP (Twist with the Ventures/Dance!) and about half of their sixth LP (Twist With The Ventures Vol. 2/Beach Party). He did not like spending so much time away from his new family (his second marriage) by having to commute from Seattle to Los Angeles to record, and because of this, he left the band. Johnson continued to play locally in the Washington area with local groups until his death on May 5, 1988, at age 54. At the time Johnson quit the Ventures, Bogle and Wilson already knew Mel Taylor, house drummer at The Palomino in North Hollywood (the venue where they would play numerous shows during their resurgence in the 1980s). Taylor was known for a hard-hitting style of drumming. The group invited him to some recording sessions, which led Taylor to become a permanent member of the Ventures. The band continued to remain a constant presence in the American music landscape during this time: between 1962 and 1967, they released 22 albums, and all but one reached the top 100 of the Billboard album charts (13 of which reached the top 40). They experienced more moderate success in the singles market, with 6 charting on the Billboard Hot 100. Their most successful single during this time was Walk Don't Run '64 (a re-arranged surf-style version of their 1960 breakout hit), which reached #8. During this time, the Ventures' popularity overseas began to increase significantly. In particular, the Japanese music market embraced the Ventures' music after Bogle and Wilson toured the country in 1962. By the time they returned in 1964, this time as a full band, their music became immensely popular in Japan, and were greeted by thousands of fans at the airport. Their 1965 single "Diamond Head" reached only #70 in the United States but was a major hit overseas, reaching #1 in the Japanese and Hong Kong markets, and becoming the first million-selling single in Japan. The Ventures were responsible for a period in Japanese music known as the eleki boom, where thousands of Japanese purchased electric guitars and many guitar-based bands started up. Resurgence and decline in the US The combination of Edwards on lead guitar, Taylor on drums, Bogle on bass and Wilson on rhythm guitar remained unchanged until Edwards left the band in 1968, to be replaced by Gerry McGee (born Gerald James McGee in Eunice, Louisiana; November 17, 1937 – October 12, 2019), son of the famous Cajun fiddle player Dennis McGee. Edwards came back in 1973 and remained with them until 1984, although he has toured and gigged with them dozens of times in the subsequent years. Edwards' replacement in 1984 was, once again, Gerry McGee. Mel Taylor left in 1972 (and was replaced by drummer Joe Barile) to pursue a solo career when the Ventures became a nostalgia act. His intentions were to concentrate on new material and the progressive side of music. He returned in 1979 and stayed with the Ventures until his death from cancer in 1996. When Mel Taylor got sick he was replaced by his son, Leon Taylor. (Original drummer Howie Johnson had died in 1988; Skip Moore, the drummer on "Walk, Don't Run" is also deceased.) Later years Their commercial fortunes in the US declined sharply in the early 1970s due to changing musical trends. In the late 1970s and into the 1980s, a resurgence of interest in surf music led to some in the punk/new wave audience rediscovering the band. The Go-Go's wrote "Surfin' And Spyin'" and dedicated it to the Ventures. The Ventures recorded their own version and continue occasionally to perform the song. Their career again rejuvenated by Quentin Tarantino's use of the Lively Ones' version of Nokie Edwards' "Surf Rider" and several other classic surf songs in the soundtrack of the hit movie Pulp Fiction. The Ventures became one of the most popular groups worldwide thanks in large part to their instrumental approach—there were no language barriers to overcome. The Ventures are still the most popular American rock group in Japan, the world's second largest record market. One oft-quoted statistic is that the Ventures outsold the Beatles 2-to-1 in Japan. They produced dozens of albums exclusively for the Japanese and European markets, and have regularly toured Japan from the 1960s through to the present. According to a January 1966 Billboard Magazine article, the Ventures had five of 1965's top 10 singles in Japan. The Ventures today On March 10, 2008, the Ventures were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with John Fogerty as their presenter. In attendance were original members Don Wilson and Nokie Edwards, late 1960s member John Durrill, current guitarist Bob Spalding, and current drummer Leon Taylor, son of Mel Taylor who, along with Mel Taylor's widow, Fiona, accepted on behalf of the Ventures' late drummer. Bob Bogle and Gerry McGee were unable to attend the ceremony. Fiona Taylor gave special mention to her husband's predecessor drummers Skip Moore and Howie Johnson. The Ventures performed their biggest hits, "Walk, Don't Run" and "Hawaii Five-O", augmented on the latter by Rock and Roll Hall Of Fame musical director Paul Shaffer and his band. Bob Bogle lived in Vancouver, Washington, for years and died there on June 14, 2009, of non-Hodgkin lymphoma; he was 75. Nokie Edwards died on March 12, 2018, due to complications after hip surgery. He was 82. Gerry McGee died on October 12, 2019, after having a heart attack and collapsing onstage four days earlier in Japan. He was 81. Don Wilson continued to record with the band, but retired from touring at the end of 2015. He died of natural causes on January 22, 2022, at the age of 88. Mel Taylor died on August 11, 1996, of cancer, at the age of 62. He was diagnosed two weeks before his death. Despite the passing of the founding members, the Ventures continue today (2023), with Bob Spalding—the 5th Venture—on lead guitar, Ian Spalding on rhythm guitar, Luke Griffin on bass, and Leon Taylor—son of legendary drummer Mel Taylor—on drums. Guitars During their first years (1958–1961), the Ventures played Fender guitars (a Jazzmaster, a Stratocaster and a Precision Bass) for both their live performances and their recording sessions. These instruments are prominently visible on the covers of two early albums: The Ventures and The Colorful Ventures. From 1962 to 1963 they used two Jazzmasters with a Precision Bass, shown on the album cover of "Bobby Vee meets The Ventures". Then in early 1963, California guitar manufacturer Mosrite re-branded their uniquely styled, futuristic-looking Mark 1 electric guitar model for the Ventures by applying decals that stated "The Ventures Model" on the headstock. The band adopted these guitars (which included a bass model) and first used them on The Ventures in Space (1963), one of their most influential albums because of the unique, otherworldly guitar sounds it contained. From 1963 through 1968, a statement on their album covers announced that the Ventures used Mosrite guitars "exclusively" (the Ventures and designer Semie Moseley were partners in the distribution of these instruments). After the expiration of their contract with Moseley, the Ventures returned to playing mainly Fender guitars. Only rarely have they used Mosrite guitars since that contract ended. In the mid-1990s, Fender issued a limited edition Ventures Signature Series of guitars consisting of a Jazzmaster, a Stratocaster, and a Fender Jazz Bass, all with specifications determined by the band. Aria Guitars and Wilson Brothers Guitars have subsequently issued Ventures Signature Model instruments. The Wilson Brothers guitar, in particular, is closely modeled physically on the original Mosrite design. Legacy The Ventures enjoyed their greatest popularity and success in the US and Japan in the 1960s, but they continue to perform and record. With over 110 million albums sold worldwide, the group remains the best selling instrumental rock group of all time. Thirty-eight Ventures albums (including a seasonal Christmas album) charted in the US, and six of fourteen chart singles made it into the Top 40, with three making it into the Top 10. Of their 38 chart albums, 34 of them occurred in the 1960s, and the Ventures rank as the 6th best pop album performer for that decade, according to "Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Albums". Among their achievements in America, in 1963 the Ventures had five LPs in the Billboard Top 100 of the albums chart at the same time. Additionally, they released a series of instructional LPs entitled Play Guitar with the Ventures and Play Electric Bass with the Ventures. Four LPs were released in this series, the first of which reached the Billboard Top 100 Album Chart—an achievement previously unheard of for an instructional LP. In a novelty achievement, the Ventures were the first act to place two different versions of the same song in the Top 10, those being "Walk, Don't Run" (#2) and "Walk, Don't Run '64" (#8). The Ventures were among the first rock acts able to sell albums based on a style and sound without needing hit singles on the albums. These albums are also some of the earliest examples of the concept album in rock music. Many of the Ventures' albums, starting with Colorful Ventures in 1961, were organized according to a central theme. While they predated the advent of the terms surf guitar and surf rock, and they do not consider themselves a surf rock group, they were a major building block of surf music, if not the first to play the style. Guitar Player, in an article titled "20 Essential Rock Albums", cited elements of their 1960 Walk, Don't Run album which presaged the coming surf trend. The theme music of the television show Hawaii Five-O continues to be popular. The tune was composed by Morton Stevens, who also composed numerous episode scores. The theme was recorded by the Ventures, whose version reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart. Because of the tempo of the music, the theme gained popularity in the UK with followers of Northern soul and was popular on dance floors in the 1970s. The Encyclopædia Britannica states that the Ventures "served as a prototype for guitar-based rock groups." Special effects The Ventures pioneered the use of special effects on such songs as "The 2000 Pound Bee", recorded in late 1962, in which lead guitarist Nokie Edwards employed a fuzz pedal. Edwards' use of "fuzz tone" predated the "King of Fuzz Guitar", Davie Allan of The Arrows, by at least three years. In addition, Edwards was among the first to use the twelve-string guitar in rock. The 1964 The Ventures In Space album was a primer in the use of special guitar effects, and made pioneering use of 'reverse-tracking'. The Ventures In Space, because of its ethereal space-like effects, was deemed an influence on the later 1960s San Francisco psychedelic generation, as well as being cited as a favorite by Keith Moon of the Who. The band's cover of the Tornados' "Telstar" (released in January 1963) featured one of the first instances of flanging on a pop record. The song "Silver Bells" on The Ventures' Christmas Album, released in November 1965, has one of the first recorded uses of a talk box as a musical effect, voiced by Red Rhodes. Influences The Ventures have had an influence on many musicians, both professional and amateur. Their instructional album, Play Guitar with the Ventures, was the first such record to chart on the Billboard Top LPs list, peaking at No. 96, and taught thousands of budding guitarists how to play the guitar. George Harrison stated in a Guitar Player interview that he preferred the American guitar sound of the Ventures to British contemporaries. When asked to name the most influential rock guitar solos, Joe Walsh said he would have to include the entire song "Walk, Don't Run" because it changed so many guitar players' lives. John Fogerty, during his introduction of the Ventures at their Hall of Fame induction, said that it "kicked open a whole movement in rock and roll... The sound of it became 'surf music' and the audacity of it empowered guitarists everywhere." Stephen Stills told Ventures guitarist Don Wilson that he learned to play on Ventures records. Jeff Baxter and Gene Simmons were early members of the Ventures Fan Club. Carl Wilson called the Ventures a major influence on his early guitar playing, stating that the Beach Boys had learned to play all of their songs by ear. Discography Selected studio albums Walk, Don't Run (1960) The Ventures (1961) Another Smash!!! (1961) The Colorful Ventures (1961) Twist with the Ventures (1962) (aka Dance) Mashed Potatoes And Gravy(1962) Surfing (1963) The Ventures Play Telstar and the Lonely Bull (1963) The Ventures in Space (1964) Walk, Don't Run, Vol. 2 (1964) Knock Me Out! (1965) Where The Action Is (1966) Wild Things! (1966) Super Psychedelics (1967) Guitar Freakout (1967) Flights Of Fantasy (1968) Hawaii Five-O (1969) 10th Anniversary Album (1970) Band members Current members Bob Spalding – lead guitar, bass guitar, rhythm guitar (2005–present; studio and live guest 1980–2005) Leon Taylor – drums (1996–present) Ian Spalding – rhythm guitar, bass guitar (2016–present) Luke Griffin – bass guitar, rhythm guitar (2017–present) Former members Don Wilson – rhythm guitar (1958–2015; died 2022) Bob Bogle – bass guitar, lead guitar (1958–2005; died 2009) George T. Babbitt (1959–1960) – drums Nokie Edwards – lead guitar, bass guitar (1960–1968, 1972–1985; as guest 1999–2016; died 2018) Howie Johnson – drums (1960–1962; died 1988) Skip Moore (1960) – drums Mel Taylor – drums (1962–1973, 1979–1996; died 1996) Gerry McGee – guitar (1968–1972, 1985–2017; died 2019) John Durrill – keyboards (1968–1972) Sandy Lee Gornicki – keyboards (1968) Joe Barile – drums (1973–1979) Dave Carr – keyboards (1973–1974) Biff Vincent – keyboards (1975–1976) JD Hoag – guitar (1981–1982) Timeline See also List of best-selling music artists List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees List of surf rock musicians Rautalanka The Ventures discography References Bibliography Walk, Don't Run - The Story of The Ventures, 2nd ed. 2009, by Del Halterman (US), p. 378, Lulu Press. Driving Guitars, by M.Campbell & D.Burke (UK), 2009, p. 430, Idmon press. External links The Ventures official site Musical groups established in 1958 American surf music groups American instrumental musical groups Rock music groups from Washington (state) Instrumental rock musical groups Musical groups from Tacoma, Washington American musical quartets Dolton Records artists Liberty Records artists 1958 establishments in Washington (state)
419026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayview%E2%80%93Hunters%20Point%2C%20San%20Francisco	Bayview–Hunters Point, San Francisco	Bayview–Hunters Point (sometimes spelled Bay View or Bayview) is the San Francisco, California, neighborhood combining the Bayview and Hunters Point neighborhoods in the southeastern corner of the city. The decommissioned Hunters Point Naval Shipyard is located within its boundaries and Candlestick Park, which was demolished in 2015, was on the southern edge. Due to the South East location, the two neighborhoods are often merged. Bayview–Hunter's Point has been labeled as San Francisco's "Most Isolated Neighborhood". Redevelopment projects for the neighborhood became the dominant issue of the 1990s, 2000s and 2010s. Efforts include the Bayview Redevelopment Plan for Area B, which includes approximately 1300 acres of existing residential, commercial and industrial lands. This plan identifies seven economic activity nodes within the area. The former Navy Shipyard waterfront property is also the target of redevelopment to include residential, commercial, and recreational areas. Geography The Bayview–Hunters Point districts are located in the southeastern part of San Francisco, strung along the main artery of Third Street from India Basin to Candlestick Point. The boundaries are Cesar Chavez Boulevard to the north, U.S. Highway 101 (Bayshore Freeway) to the west, Bayview Hill to the south, and the San Francisco Bay to the east. Neighborhoods within the district include Hunters Point, India Basin, Bayview, Silver Terrace, Bret Harte, Islais Creek Estuary and South Basin. The entire southern half of the neighborhood is the Candlestick Point State Recreation Area as well as the Candlestick Park Stadium which was demolished in 2015. History The Ohlone people Primarily composed of tidal wetlands with some small hills, the area was inhabited by the Yelamu and Ramaytush Ohlone people prior to the arrival of Spanish missionaries in the 1700s. The district consisted of what the Ohlone people called "shell mounds", which were sacred burial grounds. The Spanish called them, Costanoans, or "coast dwellers". The land was later colonized in 1775 by Juan Bautista Aguirre, a ship pilot for Captain Juan Manuel de Ayala who named it La Punta Concha (English: Conch Point). Later explorers renamed it Beacon Point. For the next several decades it was used as pasture for cattle run by the Franciscan friars at Mission Dolores. In 1839, the area was part of the Rancho Rincon de las Salinas y Potrero Viejo Mexican land grant given to José Cornelio Bernal (1796–1842). Following the California Gold Rush, Bernal sold what later became the Bayview–Hunters Point area for real estate development in 1849. Little actual development occurred but Bernal's agents were three brothers, John, Phillip and Robert Hunter, who built their homes and dairy farm on the land (then near the present-day corner of Griffith Street and Oakdale Avenue) and who gave rise to the name Hunters Point. In 1850, Hunter began trying to sell lots in an entirely new city called “South San Francisco” on the peninsula that now bears his name. Physically isolated from the rest of the city by both Mission Bay and the Islais Creek estuary, the only way to get to Hunters Point aside from sailing was via the San Bruno Road, completed in 1858. The Bayview–Hunters Point district was labelled "Southern San Francisco" on some maps, not to be confused with the city of South San Francisco further to the south. Islais Creek and "Sacred Sites" The Muwekma Ohlone held and still hold Islais Creek by 3rd Street and Marin in the Bayview as one of fifty, "sacred sites". Islais Creek and the adjoining bay has been heavily polluted. Of the original approximately 1500 people who inhabited the San Francisco Peninsula prior to the Portola Expedition in 1769, only one lineage is known to have survived. Their descendants form the four branches of the Ramaytush Ohlone peoples today. Industrial development After a San Francisco ordinance in 1868 banned the slaughter and processing of animals within the city proper, a group of butchers established a "butchers reservation" on of tidal marshland in the Bayview district. Within ten years, 18 slaughterhouses were located in the area along with their associated production facilities for tanning, fertilizer, wool and tallow. The "reservation" (then bounded by present-day Ingalls Street, Third Street, from Islais Creek to Bayshore) and the surrounding houses and businesses became known as Butchertown. By 1888, the city cracked down on the slaughterhouse district due to a diphtheria outbreak and a need for better sanitation. The city inspectors found under the slaughterhouses a foul smell, the decay of animal parts, and live pigs. The butcher industry declined following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake until 1971 when the final slaughterhouse closed. From 1929 until 2006 the Bayview–Hunters Point district were home for the coal and oil-fired power plants which provided electricity to San Francisco. Smokestack effluvium and byproducts dumped in the vicinity have been cited for health and environmental problems in the neighborhood. In 1994, the San Francisco Energy Company proposed building another power plant in the neighborhood, but community activists protested and pushed to have the current facility shut down. In 2008, Pacific Gas and Electric Company demolished the Hunters Point Power Plant and began a two-year remediation project to restore the land for residential development. The area remains a hub of business along 3rd Street, represented by the Merchants of Butchertown. Shrimping industry From 1870 to the 1930s, shrimping industries developed as Chinese immigrants begin to operate most of the shrimp companies. By the 1930s, there were a dozen shrimp operations in Bayview. In 1939 when the U.S. Navy took over the land under eminent domain for the Naval Shipyard. The Health Department came in and burned the shacks and docks that once provided a small village of fishermen and their families a steady living in the abundant shrimp harvest from the San Francisco Bay. Shipyard Shipbuilding became integral to Bayview–Hunters Point in 1867 with the construction there of the first permanent drydock on the Pacific coast. The Hunters Point Dry Docks were greatly expanded by Union Iron Works and Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation and were capable of housing the largest ships that could pass through the locks of the Panama Canal. World War I increased the contracts there for building Naval vessels and, in 1940, the United States Navy purchased a section of property to develop the San Francisco Naval Shipyard. Beginning in the 1920s, a strong presence of Maltese American immigrants, along with Italian Americans, began populating the Bayview, focused on the local Catholic St. Paul of the Shipwreck Church and the Maltese American Social Club. They were a presence until the 1960s when they began moving into the suburbs. The shipbuilding industry saw a large influx of blue collar workers into the neighborhood, many of them African Americans taking part in the Great Migration. This migration into Bayview increased substantially after World War II due to racial segregation and eviction of African Americans from homes elsewhere in the city. Between 1940 and 1950, the population of Bayview saw a fourfold increase to 51,000 residents. The Hunter's Point shipyard at its peak employed 17,000 people. One function of HPS was the loading of components of the atomic weapon “Little Boy” that was eventually used on Hiroshima. “Little Boy” was loaded on the USS Indianapolis on July 15, 1945, and is reported to have contained half of the uranium-235 (U-235) available in the United States, valued at the time at $300 million ($4.37 billion in 2018). The USS Indianapolis left Hunters Point at 6:30 am on July 16, 1945, but was not allowed to leave San Francisco’s harbor until 8:30 am, after the first atomic weapon test “Trinity” (5:29 am) had been confirmed successful in the New Mexico desert. In 1947, the Hunter's Point crane was constructed at the shipyard to repair battleships. It was the largest crane in the world at the time. The crane still looms large over the neighborhood today. Until 1969, the Hunters Point shipyard was the site of the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory (NRDL). The NRDL decontaminated ships exposed to atomic weapons testing and also researched the effects of radiation on materials and living organisms. This caused widespread radiological contamination and, in 1989, the base was declared a Superfund site requiring long-term clean-up. The Navy closed the shipyard and Naval base in 1994. The Base Realignment and Closure program manages various pollution remediation projects. Environmental impact report On January 10, 2010, Ohlone representatives, Ann Marie Sayers, Corrina Gould, Charlene Sul, and Carmen Sandoval, Ohlone Profiles Project, American Indian Movement West and International Indian Treaty Council penned a letter to then mayor of San Francisco, Gavin Newsom, about preserving the Ohlone historical sites at the Candlestick Point–Hunters Point shipyard stating “This is an important opportunity to work together to protect these ancient historical sites, honor our ancestors and insure that development pressures do not further damage critical Ohlone Indigenous sites, the sites affected by the development are extremely significant and are believed to be burial or ceremonial sites, in addition to protecting these sites, we also want to work with the local community to protect their health, the land and the fragile Bay marine environment.” On June 12, 2014, Vice published an article on the history, environmental bigotry and radiation effects on the residents of the neighborhood. Italian, Portuguese, and Maltese community development Upon late 1800s settlement, there were many Italian, Maltese, and Portuguese home-builders, ranchers and truck farmers in the Bayview from 1890 to 1910. The growing population of Italian, Maltese, and Portuguese residents seemingly pushed out the early Chinese community that was located in the Bayview. African-American community development Redlining reports In the 1930s, the distribution of race and income in the neighborhood was fairly even. Two redlining reports from this time characterize the residential makeup of the area as lower-income: that is, residents were either "white collar" workers or factory laborers who had jobs in the vicinity. While "many of the inhabitants [were] from foreign extraction, no racial problem [was] presented." Poverty in the neighborhood was widely attributed to the depression. In 1937, the Home Owner's Loan Corporation made a redlining map to determine which San Francisco neighborhoods should receive loans for mortgages and general housing investment. Two districts in the Bayview Hunters Point received the two lowest possible grades. This lack of investment made it much harder for the area to rebound from the depression, and also made it very difficult for people trying to purchase new homes in the area. In 1942, to address the housing shortage issue, the federal government built 5,500 'temporary' housing units in the area for the families of shipyard workers. As a result, Hunters Point began as one of the most integrated areas in the city. Toward the end of WWII, the San Francisco Housing Authority pushed for the hiring of an all-white police force to govern the neighborhood. Many of the officers were recruited from the segregated south. From this point onwards, racial discrimination – in terms of the environment, housing, employment, and policing – shaped the development of the Bayview Hunters Point and further contributed to its segregation from the rest of the city. By the 1950s and 60s, the Bayview was a predominantly African-American neighborhood that housed a movie theater along the Third Street corridor, as well as a library, a gymnasium at the time, Cub scouts through "Rec and Park" as well as youth baseball teams such as "The Blue Diamonds" of Innes [Street]. Racial tensions By the 1960s, the Bayview and Hunters Point neighborhoods were populated predominantly by African-Americans and other racial minorities, and the area was isolated from the rest of San Francisco. Pollution, substandard housing, declining infrastructure, limited employment and racial discrimination were notable problems. James Baldwin documented the marginalization of the community in a 1963 documentary, "Take This Hammer", stating, "this is the San Francisco America pretends does not exist." On September 27, 1966, a race riot occurred at Hunters Point, sparked by the killing of a 16-year-old fleeing from a police officer. The policeman, Alvin Johnson, stated he "caught [a couple of kids] red-handed with a stolen car" and ordered Matthew Johnson to stop, firing several warning shots before fatally shooting Johnson. In 1967 US Senators Robert F. Kennedy, George Murphy and Joseph S. Clark visited the Western Addition and Bayview-Hunter's Point Neighborhood accompanied by future mayor Willie Brown to speak to activist Ruth Williams about the inequalities occurring in the Bayview. Closure of the naval shipyard, shipbuilding facilities and de-industrialization of the district in the 1970s and 1980s increased unemployment and local poverty levels. Building projects to revitalize the district began in earnest in the 1990s and the 2000s. As in the rest of the city, housing prices rose 342% between 1996 and 2008. Many long-time African American residents, whether they could no longer afford to live there or sought to take advantage of their homes' soaring values, left what they perceived as an unsafe neighborhood and made an exodus to the Bay Area's outer suburbs. Once considered a historic African American district, the percentage of black people in the Bayview–Hunters Point population declined from 65 percent in 1990 to a minority in 2000. Despite the decline, the 2010 U.S. Census shows the African American population in the Bayview to be greater in number than that of any other ethnicity. In the 2000s, the neighborhood became the focus of several redevelopment projects. The MUNI T-Third Street light-rail project was built through the neighborhood, replacing an aging bus line with several new stations, street lamps and landscaping. Lennar proposed a $2-billion project to build 10,500 homes, including rentals, and commercial spaces atop the former Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, and a new football stadium for the San Francisco 49ers, and a shopping complex for Candlestick Point. The stadium would reinvigorate the district, but the 49ers changed their focus to Santa Clara in 2006. Bids for the 2016 Summer Olympics in San Francisco that included plans to build an Olympic Village in Bayview–Hunters Point was also dropped. Lennar proposed to build the stadium without the football team. Local community activist groups have criticized much of the redevelopment for displacing rather than benefiting existing neighborhood residents. Education The Bayview, a historically predominant black neighborhood, is home to more elementary school-age students than any other neighborhood in the city and combined with the Mission and Excelsior, houses a quarter of all students in the district. Schools in the Bayview have suffered from declining enrollment for the past two decades. Out of the 6,000 students who live in the Bayview, more than 70% choose to attend school outside of their neighborhood. In 2016, in attendance with Jonathan Garcia, Adonal Foyle and Theo Ellington, Willie L. Brown middle school in Bayview-Hunter's Point commemorated the unveiling of the new Golden State Warrior outside basketball court at the school, donated by the Warriors Community Foundation. Bayview-Hunter's Point has several elementary and middle schools, one high school and has two college campuses. The schools include: Elementary and early enrichment Whitney Young Development Center (now FACES SF) Erikson School (K) Frandelja Enrichment Center Fairfax Frandelja Enrichment center Gilman Success Daycare Bret Harte elementary school George Washington Carver elementary school Hunters Point Number Two School Charles R. Drew Elementary School Leola M. Havard Early Education School Malcolm X Academy Middle and junior high schools Joshua Marie Cameron Academy KIPP Bayview Academy KIPP San Francisco College Preparatory Willie L. Brown Jr. Middle School One Purpose School (K–12) Thurgood Marshall High School Rise University Preparatory High schools One Purpose School (K–12) Thurgood Marshall High School Joshua Marie Cameron Academy (7–12) Coming Of Age Christian Academy (K–12) Colleges City College of San Francisco—Evans Center City College of San Francisco—Oakdale Center After school programs YMCA—Bayview College Track Young Community Developers (YCD) Faces SF—Bayview City of Dreams In 2004 Bill Cosby visited the Bayview-Hunter's Point school, Charles Drew Elementary where he railed against students and parents, criticizing them by saying "they must invest in their children's education before they wind up teenage moms, jail inmates, drug dealers -- or dead." In his speech—which was a topic of debate on conservative talk radio, on cable TV networks and in African American neighborhoods—Cosby lambasted low-income blacks for spending $500 on their children's shoes, but not spending $250 on the educational tool Hooked on Phonics. He furthered his statements by saying "I am talking about these people who cry when their son is standing there in an orange suit," he said in May. "Where were you when he was 2? Where were you when he was 12? Where were you when he was 18, and how come you didn't know that he had a pistol? And where is the father? ... You can't keep saying that God will find a way. God is tired of you." Then San Francisco schools chief Arlene Ackerman wrote a letter to Cosby shortly after the speech, inviting him to visit one of her three new "Dream Schools," low-performing public schools overhauled to include long school days, Saturday school, mandatory student uniforms, a more rigorous curriculum and required contracts signed by parents pledging to be involved in their children's education. He derided African Americans for wearing saggy pants, speaking improper English and giving children names like "Shaniqua, Shaligua, Mohammed and all that crap." After his visit, Cosby praised the school, but he stressed that it was parents—not just the schools themselves—who needed to step up to ensure their children beat the statistics. "Parents are 99 percent," he said. "School districts don't parent. They teach." In 2017, mentorship nonprofit, Friends of the Children received a four-year $1.2 million grant from the Social Innovation Fund, which will allow the national program to expand into San Francisco’s Bayview and Hunters Point neighborhoods. Friends of the Children provides long-term mentorship opportunities for children from kindergarten through high school. After 24 years of evaluation, the program was proven to increase high school graduation rates, decrease teen pregnancy, and reduce juvenile justice involvement. Demographics According to the 2010 U.S. Census, Bayview–Hunters Point (ZIP 94124) had a population of 33,996, an increase of 826 from 2000. The census data showed the single-race racial composition of Bayview–Hunters Point was 33.7% African-American, 30.7% Asian (22.1% Chinese, 3.1% Filipino, 2.9% Vietnamese, 0.4% Cambodian, 0.3% Indian, 0.2% Burmese, 0.2% Korean, 0.2% Japanese, 0.2% Pakistani, 0.1% Laotian), 12.1% White, 3.2% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (2.4% Samoan, 0.1% Tongan, 0.1% Native Hawaiian), 0.7% Native American, 15.1% other, and 5.1% mixed race. Of Bayview's population, 24.9% was of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race (11.5% Mexican, 4.2% Salvadoran, 2.6% Guatemalan, 1.4% Honduran, 1.4% Nicaraguan, 0.7% Puerto Rican, 0.2% Peruvian, 0.2% Spanish, 0.2% Spaniard, 0.1% Colombian, 0.1% Cuban, 0.1% Panamanian). According to the 2010 U.S. Census, Bayview–Hunters Point had the highest percentage of African-Americans among San Francisco neighborhoods, home to 21.5% of the city's Black population, and they were the predominant ethnic group in the Bayview. Census figures showed the percentage of African-Americans in Bayview declined from 48% in 2000 to 33.7% in 2010, while the percentage of Asian and White ethnicity increased from 24% and 10%, respectively, to 30.7% and 12.1%. However the eastern part of the neighborhood had a population of 12,308 and is still roughly 53% African-American. According to the 2005–2009 American Community Survey (ACS), the Bayview district is estimated to have 10,540 housing units and an estimated owner-occupancy rate of 51%. The 2010 U.S. Census indicates the number of households to be 9,717, of which 155 belong to same-sex couples. Median home values were estimated in 2009 to be $586,201, but that has since fallen dramatically to around $367,000 in 2011, the lowest of any of San Francisco's ZIP code areas. Median Household Income was estimated in 2009 at $43,155. Rent prices in the Bayview remain relatively low, by San Francisco standards, with over 50% of rents paid in 2009 at less than $750/mo. A recent Brookings Institution report identified Hunters Point as one of five Bay Area "extreme poverty" neighborhoods, in which over 40% of the inhabitants live below the Federal poverty level of an income of $22,300 for a family of four. Nearly 12% of the population in the Bayview receives public assistance income, three times the national average, and more than double the state average. While the Bayview has a higher percentage of the population receiving either Social Security or retirement income than the state or national averages, the dollar amounts that these people receive is less than the averages in either the state or the nation. Marginalization Since the 1960s, the Bayview–Hunters Point community has been cited as a significant example of marginalization. In 2011, it remained "one of the most economically disadvantaged areas of San Francisco". Root causes include a working class populace historically segregated to the outskirts of the city, high levels of industrial pollution, the closure of industry, and loss of infrastructure. The results have been high rates of unemployment, poverty, disease and crime. Attempts to mitigate the effects of marginalization include the city's building of the Third Street light-rail line, establishment of the Southeast Community Facility (SECF) as a response from the SF Public Utilities Commission to a community-led effort to balance environmental injustice associated with public utilities, the Southeast Food Access Workgroup, initially formed by the SF Department of Public Health as part of the SF Mayor's ShapeUp SF health initiative, and implementation of enhanced local hiring policy that recognizes that regulations requiring hiring for public projects prioritize City residents and contractors may not help specific neighborhoods where job seekers and contractors may still be overlooked. Place-based and asset-based community building programs networked through the Quesada Gardens Initiative began in 2002 adding direct grassroots public participation to the social and environmental change landscape with a goal of preserving diversity and encouraging longterm residents to reinvest in their neighborhood. The Hunter's Point shipyard's toxic waste pollution has been cited for elevated rates of asthma and other respiratory diseases among residents. These adverse health effects coupled with rising housing costs contribute to what one community member and organizer has characterized as behavior "meeting the UN standard definition of genocide". Gang and drug activity, as well as a high murder rate, have plagued the Bayview–Hunters Point district. A 2001 feature article in the San Francisco Chronicle cited feuding between small local gangs as the major cause of the area's unsolved homicides. In 2011, The New York Times described Bayview as "one of the city's most violent" neighborhoods. Police have made the removal of guns from the streets their top priority in recent years, leading to a 20% decline in major crimes between 2010 and 2011, including declines of 35% in homicides, 22% in aggravated assaults, 38% in arson, 30% in burglary, 34% in theft, 23% in auto theft, and 39% in robbery. Lesser crimes have also declined by about 24% over the past year. As of 2018, crime rates in the area are 161% higher compared to the national average. Auto theft averaged around 10 break-ins a day as of 2020. Food Desert & Food Swamp The USDA defines a food desert as a region without access to nutritious, affordable and quality whole foods. Food deserts are areas with a 20 percent or greater poverty rate and where a third of residents live more than a mile from a supermarket, farmers market or local grocery store. In the “grocery gap,” researchers from Food Trust found African Americans are 400 percent more likely to live in a community that lacks a full-service supermarket. Until the late 2000s the neighborhood had no chain supermarkets. In 2011, a San Francisco official described the area as "a food desert – an area with limited access to affordable, nutritious food like fresh produce at a full-size grocery store." A large swath of the southeast sector of San Francisco sits within a Federally recognized food desert. A Home Depot was approved by the city to be built in the area, but the Home Depot Corporation abandoned its plans following the late 2000s economic crisis. Lowe's took over Home Depot's plans, and in 2010 opened their first store in San Francisco on the Bayshore Blvd. site. In August 2011, UK supermarket chain Tesco, owner of Fresh and Easy stores, opened Bayview–Hunters Point's first new grocery store in 20 years, though this store has closed as part of Fresh and Easy's larger corporate exit from the United States. The neighborhood was the subject of a 2003 documentary, Straight Outta Hunters Point, directed by lifelong Hunters Point resident Kevin Epps, and a 2012 sequel, "Straight Outta Hunters Point 2," movies that expose the daily drama of gang-related wars plaguing a community already fighting for social and economic survival. The Spike Lee film Sucker Free City used Hunters Point as a backdrop for a story on gentrification and street gangs. In 2002, the Quesada Gardens Initiative began with two people planting flowers and vegetables where space allotted; now there are 3,500 members who volunteer. At last count, Quesada Gardens Initiative produced 10,000 pounds of fruits and vegetables in a year. The transformation has also been slow but steady. In 2011 Hunter's Point was labelled as the United States' top 9 worst food deserts in that same year the Bayview District welcomed Fresh & Easy, an upstart grocery chain owned by British food giant Tesco. The Bayview location delivered weak sales, but it was hardly alone: Tesco sold most of the stores and closed the rest in 2013, and the chain soon disappeared into bankruptcy. The store sat empty for a few years while former Supervisor Malia Cohen worked with former mayor Mayor Ed Lee and the Office of Economic and Workforce Development (OEWD) on finding a new owner. They landed on Howard and Amanda Ngo. With a $250,000 investment from OEWD and $4.1 million from the Small Business Administration, the couple hosted the grand opening for their second Duc Loi’s Pantry at 5800 Third Street in 2016. But the store closed in 2019 due to a range of factors, including lack of patronage from the surrounding community. Residents in the community voiced that both Fresh & Easy and Duc Loi’s Pantry could have done more to engage the locals. “In a growing community where there are folks who have been here for decades and new folks coming in, you have to find that connection with everyone that is around you and let them know that your service is available, and I just feel that both entities did not necessarily do that.” In October 2021 it was made public that a first-of-its-kind “food empowerment market" would be placed in at Third and McKinnon where the former Doc Loi Pantry and Fresh & Easy grocery store had been. The idea is a community market that would distribute donated or subsidized food—but unlike a food bank, eligible shoppers would be able to pick and choose their own groceries and either pay for the goods at a subsidized price or obtain them for free. The market would also host an on-site community kitchen focusing on culinary education and offer free delivery service for seniors and those with mobility issues. The Food Empowerment Market idea stems from legislation introduced by District 11 Supervisor Ahsha Safai that allocates $1.5 million in startup funds from the Human Service Agency to establish the model for the new market in partnership with a yet-to-be-named neighborhood nonprofit. Bayview-Hunters Pointhas the highest rates of obesity in San Francisco with less than five percent of food sold in the neighborhood consisting of fresh produce. The neighborhood also has the most residents (mainly seniors) facing food insecurity than anywhere else in the city, according to a report from the San Francisco Department of Public Health. District 10 supervisor Shamann Walton supports the idea, stating it would provide residents with unprecedented healthy choices, and that he’s hopeful The City will get behind any deal struck between the current owners of the vacant space and the Human Services Agency. This project would really focus on seniors and families as well, Latino and Black seniors are twice as likely to be food insecure in San Francisco, according to The City’s COVID-19 Command Center report. Many of them live in Bayview-Hunters Point and historically have low rates of enrollment in distribution and food delivery programs, making them hard to reach. Families experience the risks of living in a food desert early and intensely. Nearly 27% of pregnant Latina mothers and 20% of Black mothers in San Francisco don’t know where their next healthy meal is coming from. Children from those same families are also the most likely to consume fast food than their white peers. Any and all efforts to combat food insecurity should focus on seniors and families, two groups especially vulnerable to food insecurity, advocates and officials say. Doing so doesn’t just make for healthier communities, it starts down the path toward ensuring equity in opportunity and access for all residents. Community activism In April 1968, baseball icon, hall-of-fame inductee, and San Francisco Giants legend Willie Mays and Osceola Washington campaigned for "Blacks and Whites Together Fund Drive for Youth Activities this Summer. Bayview-Hunters Point Neighborhood Community Center." A number of community groups, such as the India Basin Neighborhood Association, the Quesada Gardens Initiative, Literacy for Environmental Justice, the Bayview Merchants' Association, the Bayview Footprints Collaboration of Community-Building Groups, and Greenaction for Health and Environmental Justice work with community members, other organizations and citywide agencies to strengthen, improve, and fight for the protection of this diverse part of San Francisco. Community gardening, art, and social history are popular in the area. The Quesada Gardens Initiative is a well recognized organization that has created a cluster of 35 community and backyard gardens in the heart of the neighborhood, including the original Quesada Garden on the 1700 block of Quesada Ave., the Founders' Garden, Bridgeview Teaching and Learning Garden (which won the 2011 Neighborhood Empowerment Network's "Best Green Community Project Award," Krispy Korners, the Latona Community Garden, and the new Palou Community Garden. Major public art pieces honor unique hyper-local history, grassroots involvement, and the right of communities to define themselves. Redevelopment Linda Brooks-Burton Library The original Anna E. Waden Bayview Branch Library was opened as a storefront facility in 1927. It was the 13th branch in the San Francisco Public Library system, replacing a "library station" that had been established in 1921. In 1969, a red brick building was built on the corner of 3rd Street and Revere Avenue in the Bayview-Hunters Point district. With a bequest from Anna E. Waden, a clerical employee of the City of San Francisco. Miss Waden's gift of $185,700 paid for the development of this cooperative community project. The building was completed in February 1969, and the formal dedication took place on July 12, 1969. The architect was John S. Bolles & Associates and the contractor was Nibbi Brothers. The façade included a sculpture by Jacques Overhoff. Linda Brooks Burton, born and raised in the Bayview was the Managing Librarian at the Bayview branch for 15 years before promotion to District Manager. She worked for the SF Public Library for 30 years total. Brooks-Burton was the driving force and central champion behind the new branch library building project. At the branch library, Linda co-founded the African American History Preservation Project in 2007 to create digital archives about a vanishing piece of local history as well as collected and recorded information about the migration of blacks to jobs at the Hunters Point Shipyard and the culture that developed in the area. And co-founded the Bayview Footprints Network of Community Building Groups in 2008. Bayview Footprints brought together dozens of community groups that tell the story of the Bayview online. Officials with the library system said Brooks-Burton was an advocate for education, youth and families. She served on the Bayview community boards of Whitney Young Child Development Center (now FACES SF) and Healing Arts Youth Center and all six branches in the South East. Brooks-Burton passed away Sept. 19, 2013, from a sudden heart attack and some residents had been calling for the branch to be named after her following her death. Library officials said Brooks-Burton was a “tireless community champion” and officials called her the quiet champion behind the effort to build a new branch library in the Bayview. The Anna E. Waden Library finished construction in 2013, it was renamed in honor of Linda Brooks-Burton in 2015 and is located at Third Street and Revere. The building cladding is also inspired by African textile designs. In the buildings outside atrium are west African Adinkra symbols. Redevelopment of Hunters Point Naval Shipyard and environmental racism In 2016, Tetra Tech, the firm in charge of overseeing the cleanup of toxic material on the naval base, was charged with negligence. In response, the Navy was forced to momentarily cease transferring shipyard land to Lennar for redevelopment. Hunters Point Naval Shipyard was a redevelopment project being spearheaded by Lennar on the 702 acres at Candlestick Point and the San Francisco Naval Shipyard. The plan called for 10,500 residential units, a new stadium to replace Candlestick Park, of commercial and retail space, an 8,000- to arena; artists' village and 336 acres of waterfront park and recreational area. The developers said the project would contribute up to 12,000 permanent jobs and 13,000 induced jobs. The approval process required developers to address concerns of area residents and San Francisco government officials. Criticism of the project focused on the large-scale toxic clean-up of the industrial superfund site, environmental impact of waterfront construction, displacement of an impoverished neighborhood populace and a required build-up to solve transportation needs. In July 2010, Lennar received initial approval of an Environmental Impact Report from San Francisco supervisors. In September 2011, the court denied the transfer of property to Lennar prior to clean-up of contamination. Per a letter sent from the EPA to the Navy, the process was placed on hold until “the actual potential public exposure to radioactive material at and near” the shipyard can be “clarified.” "I am Bayview" campaign Partnered with the office of Supervisor of District 10 Malia Cohen and Bayview Underground, I am Bayview helmed by creative George McCalman and photographer Jason Madara created a series of images of photographed community members to visually communicate gentrification. George states that if "one is going to move into a neighborhood, you should get to know the people who live there, not simply displace an existing community. Gentrification is a hot button issue in San Francisco. This was our visual response. Twenty-nine posters are now installed along the 3rd Street corridor of the Dogpatch and Bayview, capturing the Bayview residents who represent their neighborhood proudly." I am Bayview has also been subject to criticism as some Bayview- and San Franciscan-born people felt it promoted the gentrification of the neighborhood. Pan-African flags In 2017, Supervisor Malia Cohen and the city of San Francisco "tagged" Third Street poles with red, black and green stripes in honor of Black History Month and to honor Black residents' heritage in Bayview–Hunters Point. Cohen issued a statement issued a statement explaining the reasoning behind the painting: “The intention of painting the flagpoles is to create a unifying cultural marker for the Bayview, in the same vein as the Italian flags painted on poles in North Beach, the designation of Calle 24 in the Mission and the bilingual street signs and gates upon entering Chinatown. This is about branding the Bayview neighborhood to honor and pay respect to the decades of contributions that African-Americans have made to the southeast neighborhood and to the city. It’s also beautification for the streetscape.” Many neighbors were pleased to see the tribute to African-Americans' community legacy. Several early risers in the community took photos of the poles being painted, expressing their gratitude to Cohen. Birth Education and Community SisterWeb Bayview-based birth business, SisterWeb founded by Marna Armstead provides support resources for a wide range of maternal support for individuals before and after birth. They also provide mothers with information and support throughout pregnancy and childbirth as well as advocate for mothers’ needs to practitioners. SisterWeb's clients typically begin working with doulas by early in the third trimester of pregnancy through the first six weeks after birth. Former San Francisco Supervisor Malia Cohen, who represented the Bayview, was researching health disparities in birth outcomes for black women after conversations she had with her younger sister and one of her legislative aides, both of whom were pregnant at the time. Cohen’s research led her to SisterWeb, which aims to train black, Pacific Islander and Spanish-speaking doulas before matching them with women in their respective communities in San Francisco. Arts and technology The Bayview has also been a quiet hub for the arts since 1957 and technology going back as far as 1984. Acts such as Ike and Tina Turner performed at the former Club Long Island located on what is now Third & McKinnon. METRAe BaHu Operating from 1987-1998, BaHu Gallery was a free-space, non-commercial art gallery and installation location in Bayview-Hunters Point (BaHu). BaHu was the second location for the exhibition spaces sponsored by METRAe, originally located in SOMA. The first METRAe show in 1984 featured beat poet Jack Micheline in a below ground, basement workshop. During the METRAe BaHu period, dozens of artists were provided display areas, receptions open to the public, etc. An inaugural show with multi-media artist S. Scott Davis III was curated by artist Dewey Crumpler, whose own work can be seen on the exterior of the Joe Lee Gym in Bayview Town Center. Over the 10 year period, participating artists included: Rene Yung, Susan Hersey, Tony Calkins, William Pattengill, Topher Delany, Jessica Bodner, Jack Freeman, and many others. Sculptures in Bayview In the Bayview, there are recorded eighteen sculptures across the neighborhood they are: Invocation by Pepe Ozan SRL by Survival Research Laboratory Ship Shape-Shifting Time by Nobuho Nagasawa Copra Cane Islais Sculpture by Cliff Garten Heron's Head Park Sculpture by Macchiarini Creative Design Time to Dream by Amana Johnson Sundial by Jaques Overhoff Big Fish by William Wareham Headless Ndebele by Fran Martin Bone Wall The Butterfly Girl by Jason Webster Gigantry by Matthew Passmore Nautica Swing by Matthew Gellar Bayview Horn by Jerry Ross Barish Hale Konon (Ohlone Canoe) by Jessica Bodner Murals in Bayview In the 1980s an artist named Brooke Fancher's mural titled “Tazuri Watu” was commissioned and completed in 1987, "Tazuri Watu" has covered the side of a building located at the intersection of 3rd and Palou for three decades. Over time, the historical work of art had faded, and vandals have defaced portions of it. Earl Shaddix, executive director of Economic Development on Third, called for its restoration. Shaddix applied for a $25,000 grant from the city through the District 10 Participatory Budgeting program, spearheaded by former Supervisor Malia Cohen's office. The program allows residents of a few districts in San Francisco to vote on funding one-time neighborhood improvement projects. After a successful campaign, the city awarded the money in 2018, and planning for the restoration began. The city commissioned a Malcolm X mural on the Kirkwood Star Market, painted by artist Refa-1 in 1997 and the murals painted on Joseph Lee Recreational Center by artist Dewey Crumpler titled "The Fire Next Time" (presumably after the James Baldwin book of the same name) in 1984 of Harriet Tubman, Paul Robeson, two Senufo birds which in African culture oversee the lives and creativity of the community, King Tut, Muhammed Ali, Willie Mays, Wilma Rudolph and Arthur Ashe. On Egbert Street, painted by Korean artist Chris "Royal Dog" Chanyang Shim in 2016, a mural features a young African-American girl in a traditional Korean hanbok robe with Korean characters above her head translate to the phrase “You will be a blessing.” Other artists that contributed to the 9 murals alone Egbert St are Cameron Moberg, Ricky Watts, Dan Pan, Strider, Annie, Vanessa Agana Espinoza, Mel Waters, William Holland crowned "The Mayor of Egbert" by the community. The murals were revealed during Imprint City's "block party" and was mostly commissioned with private funds, but public funds were secured by the California Arts Council. On April 21, 2021, Afatasi the Artist, Tanya Herrera and 4 other artists designed a group of the new murals that line Evans Avenue and Hunters Point Boulevard viewed only in the pedestrian lane in Bayview-Hunters Point. Along the Third Street corridor, there are many more murals including: Multimedia and technology Kimberly Bryant founded Black Girls Code, not-for-profit organization that focuses on providing technology education for African-American girls, in the Bayview in 2011. In 2012, Leila Janah started Samaschool with a pilot program in the Bayview-Hunters Point community. The model originally focused on training students to perform digital work competitively, to prepare them for success on online work sites like oDesk and Elance. A collaboration was completed with singer-songwriter Michael Franti and Freq Nasty, in which Franti's single "The Future" was remixed in support of a Bay Area nonprofit Beats for a Better Future to help create a music studio for at-risk youth in Bayview-Hunters Point. Although located in the Dogpatch district not Bayview, long time center for technology and the arts, BAYCAT Studio (short for Bayview Hunters Point Center for Arts and Technology provides a productive space for low-income youth, young people of color, and young women in the Bay Area to learn the technical side of multi-media production. According to their site, BAYCAT exists "to end racial, gender, and economic inequity by creating powerful, authentic media while diversifying the creative industry. Through the education and employment of low-income youth, young people of color, and young women in the Bay Area, and producing media for socially-minded clients, we are changing the stories that get shared with the world." Imprint City, BayviewLIVE, and music performances Started by Tyra Fennell, Imprint City is a non-profit organization located in the Bayview that seeks to activate underutilized spaces with arts and culture events as well as community development projects, encouraging increased foot traffic and economic vitality. The BayviewLIVE Festival, celebrates urban performing and visual artists with past featured headliners such as Talib Kweli, Busta Rhymes, Kamaiyah, Nef the Pharaoh and Jidenna. Dance The Hunters Point Shipyard is home to the country's largest artist colony, "The Point". Zaccho Dance Theatre, founded by Artistic Director Joanna Haigood, one of the main professional dance companies in BVHP since opening their studio in 1990. In 2018 the Zaccho Dance Studio put on a live event titled, Picture Bayview Hunters Point that showcase the history of Bayview-Hunter's Point through dance. Other studios include all female dance studio, Feline Finesse Dance Company. Landmarks and attractions Historic buildings Five buildings historic buildings in the district, which are listed in as San Francisco Designated Landmarks. The Bayview Opera House (previously South San Francisco Opera House), located at 4705 Third St., was constructed in 1888 and designated a California landmark on December 8, 1968. It was nominated for the National Registry in 2010, and won the Governor's Award for Historic Preservation in 2011. For Black History Month in 2014, Tony Saunders hosted an event at the opera house with special guest. In 2017 the Bayview opera house hosted Hercules in the Bayview presented by Theater of War Productions and featured dramatic readings by acclaimed actors Reg E. Cathey, Frances McDormand, Linda Powell, David Strathairn who read scenes from Euripides' The Madness of Hercules. The event was partnered by Bret Harte School and OnePurpose School, the Golden State Warriors, Bayview Hunters Point YMCA, The San Francisco Foundation, KQED, The 3rd Street Youth Center & Clinic, Infinity Productions Inc., former D10 Supervisor Malia Cohen, and The San Francisco Chapter of The Links, Incorporated. The Opera House has also screened films such as The Hate U Give, Sorry to Bother You, Blindspotting, and Toni Morris: The Pieces I Am. The Albion Brewery was built in 1870 and opened as the Albion Ale And Porter Brewing Company (this was also the location of the Hunters Point Springs and the Albion Castle). Located at 881 Innes Avenue, it was listed as a San Francisco Designated Landmark on April 5, 1974. The Quinn House, located at 1562 McKinnon Avenue, was built in and listed as a San Francisco Designated Landmark on July 6, 1974. The Sylvester House at 1556 Revere was built in and listed as a San Francisco Designated Landmark on April 5, 1974. Recreation areas Candlestick Park On July 26, 2013, prior to being demolished, Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z brought the Legends of the Summer Stadium Tour to Candlestick Park. Many acts prior and after had also performed at Candlestick including The Beatles, Rolling Stones, Jimmy Buffett, Van Halen, Scorpions, Metallica and Paul McCartney. Pope John Paul II celebrated a Papal Mass on September 18, 1987, at Candlestick Park during his tour of America. Martin Luther King Jr Memorial Swimming Pool In 1968, actor Steve McQueen and mayor Joseph Alioto attended the ceremonial groundbreaking for the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial swimming pool at Third Street and Carroll Avenue. The makers of McQueen's film 'Bullitt', Warner Bros Studios, donated an initial $25,000 towards the pool's construction in hopes to raise another $50,000 at the movie premiere. Director Woody Allen is also credited with donating $5000 to this project. Parks Bayview is home to multiple large parks. Bayview Park is located on Key Avenue offers sweeping views of the city. Bayview K.C. Jones Playground features a swimming pool and baseball diamond. The Candlestick Point State Recreation Area located on the bay south of Bayview Hill at Candlestick Point is a popular attraction for kayakers and windsurfers. Heron's Head Park, located in the northern part of the neighborhood, is home to a recently resurgent population of Ridgway's rails and the EPA Award-Winning Heron's Head Eco Center. India Basin Shoreline Park features a playground and multipurpose "hypecourt", and it offers waterfront access. The Quesada Garden, located on Quesada Avenue and 3rd Street in the heart of the neighborhood, is a landmark community open space on a public right-of-way. It is connected to a showcase community food producing garden (Bridgeview Community Teaching and Learning Garden) by two large murals produced with the community by artists Deidre DeFranceaux, Santie Huckaby, Malik Seneferu, and Heidi Hardin. Together, these projects have turned one of the most dangerous and blighted corridors in San Francisco into the safe route through the neighborhood, and have created a destination point for residents and visitors. Karl Paige and Annette Young Smith, retired residents, started planting on an urban median strip in 2002, and were quickly joined by neighbors to complete what is now a 650-foot by 20-foot focal point for flowers, food, art and community building. Thirteen mature Canary Island date palm trees on the block are on the San Francisco Registry of Historic Trees. In 2008 Annette Smith, one of the founders of the revitalized Quesada Community Garden. India Basin Waterfront Park In 2014, the San Francisco Recreation and Park Department acquired the 900 Innes Avenue property in India Basin. The property was the former site of a shipbuilding center, and an 18-month environmental cleanup at the site was completed in August 2022. In October 2018, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors approved a plan to combine India Basin Shoreline Park, India Basin Shoreline Open Space, and the 900 Innes Avenue lot to create India Basin Waterfront Park. In February 2022, the city of San Francisco unveiled an Equitable Development Plan (EDP) "with the goal of preserving the culture and identity of the historic neighborhood" during the construction of the park. The partnership includes the A. Philip Randolph Institute, the Trust for Public Land, and San Francisco Parks Alliance. India Basin Waterfront Park is part of the Blue Greenway initiative to connect San Francisco's southeast waterfront with a series of parks, open spaces, and trails spanning from Oracle Park to Candlestick Point. Ghost streets The Bayview and Hunter's Point has many "ghost streets", streets with long corridors that have been since the 1940s. "Ghost streets" exist at the streets Westbrook and Hunters View at the Westbook Public Housing at Fitch Street above Innes Avenue, "Hudson Street" (the fence) above Hawes and Innes. The slope here is a hotspot of native habitat, so aficionados of plants and insects. The locals treat Hudson Street as a way of relieving the heavy traffic on Hunters Point Blvd and Innes Avenue. Another is Earl Street which runs along the fence separating the India Basin Open Space and some private properties from the former Naval Base. "All My USO'S" Yearly at Gilman Park in Bayview, the Polynesian and Samoan community host a BBQ called "All My Uso's" (AMU). The BBQ is held to honor both the heritage of the communities as well as the humanity amongst people. Every year one of the founders JT Mauia who passed of cancer and community activist Taeotui "Jungle Joe" who tragically passed from gun violence are honored. At the barbecue kids get free haircuts and face-paint jobs are also offered. All My Uso's (AMU) was founded in San Francisco, CA in 2015 and established as a non-profit organization in 2017. AMU’s mission is to promote cultural identity while celebrating diversity and empowerment in underrepresented communities. Businesses on the Third Street Corridor After 60 years, the historic and iconic Sam Jordan's Bar and Grill at 4004 3rd Street closed in 2019. Sam Jordan's Bar and Grill was the oldest African-American bar in San Francisco. The Galvez block was renamed "Sam Jordan's Way" in his honor. The San Francisco Wholesale Produce Market, located on Jerrold Avenue, has been at the center of food distribution in San Francisco since long before moving to its Bayview location in 1963. In June 2020, San Francisco native, Reese Benton, opened the city's first black-owned woman-led cannabis dispensary, Posh Green Retail Store. A Lucky's grocery store opened at Bayview Plaza (the site where the old Walgreens stood) in 2022. Mother Brown's Dining Room Mother Brown's Dining Room United Council of Human Services has been a long staple in the Bayview and provides two meals a day to area homeless in the Bayview District but due to permit issues, beds cannot be provided so plastic chairs are provided instead. 5700 and 5800 Third Street Between 2012–2019, the 5700 and 5800 Third Street area in the Bayview was the host of many businesses including Wing Stop, Limón Rotisserie, Fresh and Easy grocery store (closed in fall 2013), locally owned grocery store Duc Loi (closed in 2019), as well as former restaurants such as CDXX, and Corner Café. None of which have been able to remain open due to the location along the Third Street corridor. Post offices The Bayview currently has two major USPS offices, the second-largest branch (next to Napoleon Street) located on Evans Street, and a smaller branch on Williams Street. The USPS in 2011 told Bayview postal employees, community leaders, and local politicians that the closure of Bayview's Williams location was "not in the plans" and "off the table". Months later, all Bayview postal customers were mailed official notifications of an impending closure. This stirred up controversy in the immediate community, sparking frustrations and outrage. From residents to politicians, many cited racial and social bias as the reasoning for the closure of the location. Residents were encouraged to use their voices and call local the local postmaster. In 2012 postmaster Raj Sanghera announced that the Bayview Williams location was taken off the closure list, with other branches as well located in Visitacion Valley, Civic Center, McLaren Station, and San Bruno Avenue. During the COVID pandemic in 2020, after calling for a #DontMessWithUSPS Day of Action and nearing the November 2020 elections, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi showed up at the Bayview Post Office in San Francisco on Williams Street to discuss her new bill funding the USPS and blocking the Trump administration's overhaul of it. She also had won concessions on mail delivery. Pelosi accompanied with District 10 supervisor, Shamann Walton exclaimed that the Trump administration had been trying to "tamper" with the mail-in ballots by closing several post offices across the country. Other speakers at the Bayview event included letter carriers, someone whose mailbox had been removed, and a veteran with epilepsy who depends on the postal service for medication. Transportation The Bayview is served by the Muni bus and light rail system. Caltrain commuter rail service runs the eastern part of the neighborhood. The rail line formerly served the Paul Avenue station in the Bayview until it closed in 2005. The transportation system enables trips that are minutes to/from downtown being 1/2 mile from Hwy 101 and Interstate 280, and 1.5 miles from Dogpatch and UCSF-Mission Bay. The neighborhood is also 15 min way from SFO. Opening in 2007, the T-Third Street line, a line extension of the Muni Metro system, linked Bayview-Hunters Point to downtown San Francisco. In addition to facilitating a connection between the neighborhood and the rest of the city, many residents cite the T-Third Street also being a contributing factor to rising property values and housing prices in the area. Muni transit lines that run through the Bayview include: Active lines T Third Street 23 Monterey 54 Felton 24 Divisadero T Owl 9 San Bruno 9R San Bruno Rapid 10 Townsend 15 Bayview-Hunters Point Express 19 Polk 29 Sunset 33 Ashbury/18th Street 44 O'Shaughnessy 48 Quintara/24th Street 54 Felton 56 Rutland 67 Bernal Heights 90 San Bruno Owl 91 3rd Street/19th Avenue Owl. Defunct lines 15 Kearny (Now the T Third Street) 16 Third Street (Now the T Third Street) San Francisco 49ers pre and post game-day shuttles 75X Candlestick Express Balboa Park Station 77X Candlestick Express California and Van Ness 78X Candlestick Express Funston and California 79X Candlestick Express Sutter and Sansome 86 Candlestick Shuttle Bacon and San Bruno 87 Candlestick Shuttle Gilman and Third Street In popular culture Video games In the 2016 Ubisoft game Watch Dogs 2 which was set in a fictional version of San Francisco, the art installation Bayview Rise was featured. Print The San Francisco Bay View is an African-American newspaper with headquarters located on Third Street. Thrasher magazine also houses headquarters in the Bayview. The Examiner prints out of the Bayview. The Sun-Reporter, a historic weekly newspaper, operates out of Bayview. Radio Radio station KYA broadcast out of Bayview Park until it was sold to the Hearst Publishing Company in 1934, becoming the full-time voice of the San Francisco Examiner. KALW 91.7 FM local public radio and the San Francisco Arts Commission to tell the stories of the people who live, work, and have a positive impact on San Francisco's Bayview neighborhood Film Full-length films The Midnight Story starring Tony Curtis, some scenes in the film were shot in Bayview. The St. Joseph Orphanage Asylum, originally located at Revere/Newhall, is the site of several set-ups. The All Hallows Chapel, at Newhall/Palou is also used in the funeral scene. (1957) The Hunters Point Shipyard made a cameo appearance in Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo. (1958) The Bayview's Candlestick Park was also home to the location for the climactic scene in the thriller Experiment in Terror. (1962) Take This Hammer, a film aired by KQED directed by Richard O. Moore, follows author and activist James Baldwin in the spring of 1963 as he's driven around San Francisco to meet with members of the local African-American community. (1963) The film Bullitt features scenes filmed in the Bayview. (1968) Freebie and the Bean, a Richard Rush comedy was also filmed at Candlestick Park in Bayview. (1974) The Fan, the Robert DeNiro and Wesley Snipes film was also filmed in the Bayview. (1996) The Spike Lee film, Sucker Free City, Hunter's-Point was used as a backdrop. (2004) The Will Smith film The Pursuit of Happyness, the film had a scene that took place at Candlestick Park. (2006) Scenes for the film Contagion, starring Matt Damon, Kate Winslet and Jude Law, were filmed at Candlestick stadium. (2011) The Last Black Man in San Francisco features scenes that were filmed in Hunter's Point. The Allen house (901 Innes Ave.) and the dock undergoing a hazardous materials cleanup (881 Innes Ave.) in the film's opening scenes are located on adjacent blocks on Innes Street. (2019) Short films Palm Trees Down 3rd Street, is a short film and film festival winner, directed by Maria Judice, that features the 3rd street corridor. Music videos Music videos with prominent artists that feature the Bayview or Hunter's Point RBL Posse's hit "Don't Give Me No Bammer Weed" was filmed in the Hunter's Point community and features cameos from Ainsley and NBA legend, Shaquille O'Neal. (1992) Larry June's music video "Smoothies 1991" (2019) Marcus Orelias's music video "Blackouts" featuring Stephan Marcellus (2017) Jordan Gomes also known as Stunnaman02's music video "Out that Window" (2019) Documentaries The short film Point of Pride, released in 2014, is a documentary that focuses on the Bayview-Hunter's Point social uprising of the 50s and 60s. Straight Outta Hunters Point was a widely successful early 00s documentary made by filmmaker Kevin Epps showcasing the gang violence in Bayview-Hunter's Point. Bay View Hunter's Point: San Francisco's Last Black Neighborhood? an Andante Higgins produced documentary (2004) A Choice of Weapons (2008) Television KQED aired news footage of Bobby Kennedy and George Murphy describing their impressions of housing in Bayview Hunters Point in 1967. The footage also included representatives of Bayview Hunters Point, including Osceola Washington, Harold Brooks and Suzanne Cook. Discovery Channel's, Forgotten Planet – Episode 3 focuses on the Hunter's Point Shipyard. Sam Jordan's Bar appeared on an episode of Spike's Bar Rescue. During the Versuz battle of the Bay between Bay Area legends, E-40 and Too Short. Too Short shouted out the Bayview community. (2021) In the cult-classic animated TV show Fillmore!, one of the main characters - Ingrid Third was named after the Third Street corridor. The creator of the show, Scott M. Gimple had developed a keen fascination with San Francisco hence the name being coined after the Fillmore district while couch surfing in his early years. Notable residents Music The Product (a rap-duo composed of Budwyser and Darace), one of the first rap groups out of Hunters Point. 11/5, defunct gangsta rap group from the Oakdale public housing projects in Hunters Point Eric Melvin, guitarist for NOFX RBL Posse, gangsta rap group from Harbor Road public housing projects in Hunters Point Ramirez, punk rapper, from Bayview-Hunter's Point signed to New Orleans based label G*59 Records. Prezi, rapper from Hunter's Point. Cindy Herron, singer and founding member of En Vogue. Martin Luther McCoy, actor, guitarist and musician. Larry June, rapper from Hunter's Point. Jordan "Stunnaman02" Gomes, rapper and actor from Bayview. Marcus Orelias, rapper, actor, and entrepreneur from Bayview. Michael Franti, rapper, musician, poet, activist, documentarian, and singer-songwriter. Boo Banga, rapper from the Hunter's Point community, famously featured on San Quinn's "San Francisco Anthem". Herm, rapper from the Bayview-Hunter's Point. Film, theatre, and television Kevin Epps, filmmaker best known for the documentary Straight Outta Hunters Point Terri J. Vaughn (born 1969), actress born and raised in Bayview–Hunters Point Iman Rodney, videographer and Emmy Award winner. Maria Judice, filmmaker and artist. André Fenley, multi-award winning senior sound mixing, sound editor engineer at Skywalker Sound. Ruth Williams was a producer, activist, playwright, and actress. She fundraised in the Bayview with the assistance of Tina Turner, Sly and the Family Stone, the O'Jays, Larry Graham, H.B. Barnum, Danny Glover, Chaka Khan and more. The Bayview Opera House's theatre is named after her. Sports and fitness Frank "Lefty" O'Doul (1897–1969), an american professional baseball player born and raised in the Bayview. Jimmy Lester (1944-2006), former boxer known as the "Bayview Blaster" Dion Jordan (born 1990), a professional NFL player born and raised in the Bayview. Desmond Bishop, professional NFL player Stevie Johnson (born 1986), NFL wide receiver, born and raised in Hunters Point before moving to Fairfield, CA Eric Wright (born 1985), NFL player, cornerback for the San Francisco 49ers Sam Jordan (1925-2003), professional boxer, politician and founder of Sam Jordan's Bar. Donald Strickland (born 1980), NFL player, free agent cornerback who played for the San Francisco 49ers, Indianapolis Colts and New York Jets Maria Kang (born 1980), fitness advocate, coach, blogger and founder of the "No Excuse Mom" movement. Medical Dr. Arthur H. Coleman (1920–2002), the first black physician and one of the last privately practicing family doctors in San Francisco's Bayview-Hunters Point district. Dr. Ahimsa Sumchai (born 1952), nutritionist, environmental activist and former professional gymnast responsible for winning the San Francisco Citywide Gymnastics Competition in 1964. Education Linda Brooks-Burton, was a librarian, educator, activist, and loved member of the Bayview community. The main Bayview library is named in her honor. Politics and activism Espanola Jackson (1934–2016), heralded as "Bayview's greatest activist"; a member of the Muwekma Ohlone tribe. Elouise Westbrook (1915–2011) activist Mary L. Booker (1931–2017), civil rights activist Big Five of Bayview, environmental and community activist Sophie Maxwell, resident of the Bayview and former district 10 supervisor. Christopher Muhammad, Bay Area Minister of the Nation of Islam Marie Harrison (1948–2019), Bayview environmental activist. Shamann Walton, resident of the Bayview and district 10 supervisor. See also References External links Profile: Bayview–Hunters Point 2006 11-part series UC Berkeley School of Journalism Community-building through informal resident-led groups known as Quesada Gardens Initiative Community's user-generated calendar of events created by Footprints community network Bayview Merchants' Association Bay View Newspaper Bayview MAGIC – Community of color collaborative Historic Hunters Point in pictures India Basin Neighborhood Association Map of India Basin Islais Creek History Neighborhood Parks Council Hunters Point infant mortality rate is comparable to Bulgaria Hunters Point Shipyard redevelopment 1966 Hunters Point riot Review of a documentary film about Hunters Point Alternative economic development for Bayview–Hunters Point Community Window on the Shipyard, an archive of Shipyard-related documents Literacy for Environmental Justice, a local organization working on Environmental Justice issues in Hunters Point Artists at Hunters Point Shipyard Department of the Navy BRAC Program Management Office African-American culture African-American history in San Francisco History of San Francisco Populated coastal places in California Bayview–Hunters Point, San Francisco
419037	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilford%20Woodruff	Wilford Woodruff	Wilford Woodruff Sr. (March 1, 1807September 2, 1898) was an American religious leader who served as the fourth president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1889 until his death. He ended the public practice of plural marriage among members of the LDS Church in 1890. Woodruff joined the Latter Day Saint church after studying Restorationism as a young adult. He met Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement in Kirtland, Ohio, before joining Zion's Camp in April 1834. He stayed in Missouri as a missionary, preaching in Arkansas and Tennessee before returning to Kirtland. He married his first wife, Phebe, that year and served a mission in New England. Smith called Woodruff to be a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in July 1838, and he was ordained in April 1839. Woodruff served a mission in England from August 1839 until April 1841, leading converts from England to Nauvoo. Woodruff was away promoting Smith's presidential campaign at the time of Smith's death. After returning to Nauvoo, he and Phebe traveled to England, where Woodruff preached and supported local members. The Woodruffs returned to the United States just before the Saints were driven out of Nauvoo, and Woodruff oversaw forty families in Winter Quarters, where he was sealed to his first plural wives. He joined the advance company that traveled to the Salt Lake Valley without his family in 1847. After returning to Winter Quarters, Woodruff and Phebe left to preside over the Eastern States Mission. Woodruff and his family arrived in Salt Lake City on October 15, 1850. He served in the Utah territorial legislature and was heavily involved in the social and economic life of his community. He worked as an Assistant Church Historian and as Church Historian from 1856 to 1889. He was married to three more wives between 1852 and 1853. In 1877, he became president of the St. George Temple, where endowment ordinances were first performed for the dead as well as the living. Woodruff helped standardize the temple ceremony and decreed that church members could act as proxy for anyone they could identify by name. He also ended sealings of members to unrelated priesthood holders. In 1882, Woodruff went into hiding to avoid arrest for unlawful cohabitation under the Edmunds Act. In 1889, Woodruff became the fourth president of the LDS Church. After government disenfranchisement of polygamists and women in Utah Territory and seizure of church properties, which threatened to extend to temples, Woodruff ended the church's official support of new polygamous marriages in the 1890 Manifesto. Woodruff died in 1898 and his detailed journals provide an important record of Latter Day Saint history. Early years and conversion Woodruff was one of four sons born to Beulah Thompson and Aphek Woodruff. Beulah died of "spotted fever" in 1808 at the age of 26, when Wilford was fifteen months old. Aphek married Azubah Hart in 1809. In 1826, Aphek lost his mill and moved from Northington to Farmington, Connecticut. Woodruff attended school until he was 18 years old, which was unusual at the time. He survived having typhus and numerous accidents. At age 20, Woodruff left home to manage a flour mill for his aunt, and after three years, operated mills for other people until moving to Richland, New York, with his brother, Azmon, in 1832. During his time as a mill operator, he studied religion and became interested in Restorationism. Woodruff had his local Baptist minister, Mr. Phippen, baptize him without making him a member of the local congregation. Woodruff joined Smith's original Church of Christ on December 31, 1833. He was impressed with how the missionaries (Zerah Pulsipher and Elijah Cheney) preached their message voluntarily and free of charge, and how they purported to heal the sick. Zion's Camp and mission Woodruff left his home in Richland after members recruited him to join Zion's Camp in April 1834. He met prominent church leaders, including Joseph Smith, in Kirtland, Ohio, before leaving with Zion's Camp for Missouri in May. When Zion's Camp left Missouri, Woodruff stayed to help members in Clay County, Missouri. He was ordained as a priest in 1834 and volunteered to serve a mission. After donating all his belongings to the church, Woodruff left Kirtland on January 12, 1835, preaching without "purse or scrip" in Arkansas and Tennessee. Woodruff's original companion was Harry Brown, who later left Woodruff to return to his family in Kirtland. Most of the mission, Woodruff preached in small towns and villages in western Kentucky and Tennessee and supported new members there. Warren Parrish ordained Woodruff as an elder in June 1835, and Woodruff heard in February 1836 that Smith had called him as a member of the Second Quorum of the Seventy. Woodruff was dedicated to the Latter Day Saint Church, which distanced him from his family, who did not believe in the church. He returned to Kirtland in November 1836, where he studied Latin and Greek grammar at the Kirtland School, a school for adult education, which met in the attic of the Kirtland Temple. In January 1837, Smith called Woodruff to join the First Quorum of the Seventy. Three months later, over a period of five days, he participated in washing and anointings in the Kirtland Temple, accompanied by prolonged fasting and prayer and Charismatic experiences, such as speaking in tongues and prophecy. Marriage and family Like many early Latter-day Saints, Woodruff practiced plural marriage. Woodruff was married to ten women in total, although not at the same time. His first wife, Phebe, stated that she thought plural marriage was "the most wicked thing I ever heard of", but she eventually embraced it. His wives: Phebe Whittemore Carter (March 8, 1807 – November 10, 1885), m. April 13, 1837 Mary Ann Jackson (February 18, 1818 – October 25, 1894) m. April 15, 1846, or August 2, 1846 (divorced in 1848 but resealed in 1878) Sarah Elinor Brown (August 22, 1827 – December 25, 1915) m. August 2, 1846 (divorced after 3 weeks) Mary Caroline Barton (January 12, 1829 – August 10, 1910) m. August 2, 1846 (divorced after 3 weeks) Mary Meek Giles Webster (September 6, 1802 – October 3, 1852) m. March 28, 1852 (died 7 months after sealing) Clarissa Henrietta Hardy (November 20, 1834 - September 3, 1903) m. April 20, 1852 (divorced in 1853) Emma Smith (March 1, 1838 – March 4, 1912) m. March 13, 1853 Sarah Brown (January 1, 1834 – May 9, 1909), m. March 13, 1853 Sarah Delight Stocking (July 26, 1838 – May 28, 1906) m. July 31, 1857 Eudora Young Dunford (May 12, 1852 – October 21, 1921) m. March 10, 1877 (divorced in 1879) Six of Woodruff's wives bore him a total of 34 children, with three wives and 14 children preceding him in death. Woodruff met his first wife, Phebe Carter, in Kirtland shortly after his return from his first mission through Southern Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Woodruff came to Kirtland on November 25, 1836, along with Abraham O. Smoot. He was introduced to Phebe by Milton Holmes on January 28, 1837. She was a native of Maine and had become a Latter Day Saint in 1834. Woodruff and Phebe were married on April 13, 1837, with the ceremony performed by Frederick G. Williams. Their marriage was later sealed in Nauvoo by Hyrum Smith. Due to a loss of records, this ordinance was later repeated by Heber C. Kimball in Salt Lake City in 1853. Phebe accompanied her husband on his 1837–1838 mission to the Fox Islands in Maine. During some of this time, she resided with her parents in their house in Maine. She headed west with her husband shortly after the birth of their daughter, despite her reluctance to leave home. During their journey west, Phebe became deathly ill. She frequently slipped into unconsciousness starting on December 2, 1838. Phebe reported that she conversed with two angels who gave her the choice to live or die. They said that she could choose to live if she would accept the responsibility of supporting her husband in all of his future work for the Lord; she chose to live and persevere with the faithful. She recovered after receiving a blessing from Woodruff. Her firstborn child died of a respiratory infection in 1840 while Woodruff was on a mission in England. Phebe was among the members of the Relief Society in Nauvoo. In the late 1840s, Phebe was set apart as a missionary and served with Woodruff as he presided over the Eastern States Mission. Phebe was later numbered among the "leading ladies" who helped organize the Relief Society in Utah Territory in the 1860s through the 1880s. She was also a key figure behind the Indignation Meeting of 1870 that was an important step in the women of Utah being granted the right to vote. Woodruff's second marriage to Mary Ann Jackson ended in divorce a year after their son, James, was born in 1847. Woodruff's third and fourth marriages ended in divorce only three weeks after their sealing, after the two young women started dating men their own age. In 1852, Woodruff married Mary Giles Meeks Webster and Clarissa Henrietta Hardy, but Mary died that same year and Clarissa divorced him a year later. In 1853, he was sealed to two more women, Emma Smith, age 15, and Sarah Brown, age 19. Sarah bore a son the following year, but Emma did not bear any children until she was 19. Emma's first child died at age 13 months, and her fourth child, born in 1867, died soon after birth. In 1857, Brigham Young sealed Sarah Delight Stocking to Woodruff. Delight's third child died as an infant in 1869. In 1877, Young sealed his daughter, Eudora Lovina Young Dunford, to Woodruff. Their child died a few hours after birth in 1878. Although Woodruff and Mary Ann Jackson were divorced, he provided a home for her and sent money to her to support her and their son, James. James came to live with Woodruff as a young man in 1863. Among Woodruff's children was church apostle Abraham O. Woodruff. Woodruff's daughter Phebe was sealed as a wife to Lorenzo Snow in 1859. During Woodruff's time as president of the LDS Church, his wife Emma Smith Woodruff accompanied him to public functions, and she was the only wife he lived with after Phebe's death in 1885. She was a niece of Abraham O. Smoot. Although she married Woodruff, then age 46, when she was 15, she did not have the first of her eight children until she was 19. Emma was involved in the Relief Society, serving as both a ward and stake president for that organization. She also served as a member of the Relief Society General Board from 1892 to 1910. Woodruff spent more time with Emma's children than his children from other wives. He corresponded most frequently with Emma's and Phebe's children, giving them advice on living a virtuous life and saving money. He built homes for his wives, and he sent money to his wives and children, probably based on their individual needs. In the 1880s, Woodruff met Lydia Mary Olive Mamreoff von Finkelstien Mountford, who grew up Christian in Jerusalem. Woodruff and Mountford became friends, and she spent time with Woodruff's family at their summer home. While historian D. Michael Quinn and others have speculated that Mountford was sealed to Woodruff as a plural wife in 1897, there is no evidence for it. According to Thomas G. Alexander, Mountford was away giving lectures in California while Woodruff was in Oregon at the time that Quinn postulated they were sealed. Missionary work and work as an apostle Mission in the east and England; ordination as apostle On May 30, 1837, a month after his marriage to Phebe, Woodruff left Kirtland with Jonathan Hale and Milton Holmes to serve a mission in New England. According to their accounts, the main places they preached were The Fox Islands, Litchfield County, Connecticut, and York County, Maine. Phebe joined Woodruff in Farmington, Connecticut, on July 16, where he baptized some of his relatives. Baptizing his family brought him great joy, saying that it was in fulfillment of a dream he had when he was young. Although Phebe did not accompany him on all of his journeys over the next year and a half, she stayed at various locations in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine—locations that he, to some extent, made his base of operations. Woodruff baptized over 100 people during this mission. In 1838, Woodruff led a party of 53 members in wagons from the Maine coast to Nauvoo, Illinois. Some of the party wintered in Rochester, Illinois, after hearing about the growing persecution of members in Missouri. They moved to Quincy, Illinois, in April 1839. In July 1838, Smith called Woodruff as a member of the Quorum of Twelve Apostles. He was ordained at Far West, Missouri, in April 1839 where the other members of the Quorum of the Twelve had traveled. He suffered from malaria in Commerce, Missouri, during the July epidemic. In 1839, he and John Taylor were the first two apostles to leave from the Nauvoo/Montrose area to go on missions to Britain. He spent over a month in the Staffordshire Potteries and then traveled to Herefordshire, where he preached to members of the United Brethren. Almost all of the members of the United Brethren converted to Mormonism. Outside of London, the missionary work in England was successful, and by August 1840, there were around 800 members, with local members acting as leadership and proselyting missionaries. Preaching in London was difficult, and Woodruff had dreams about serpents attacking him before he and his companions were able to baptize 49 people. Many converts left to join the other members in the United States. When he left England in April 1841, 140 members joined him in journeying to New York. Woodruff met Phebe in Maine, and they traveled to Nauvoo together in October 1841. Nauvoo and Winter Quarters In Nauvoo, the Twelve Apostles assigned Woodruff to assist with the church's temporal matters in Nauvoo. He became co-manager of Times and Seasons in February 1842. Woodruff supervised the physical printing of the paper, and he and John Taylor also published a general interest newspaper called Nauvoo Neighbor, starting in May 1843. He bought and sold real estate, helped clerk in a provision store, and farmed. He became a member of the Nauvoo city council and served as chaplain for the Nauvoo Legion, a local militia. He also helped organize the Nauvoo Masonic Lodge and the Nauvoo Agricultural and Manufacturing Society. As one of the church's apostles, he was also a member of the Council of Fifty. He took detailed notes on the King Follett discourse. He joined the other apostles in a trip to the East Coast to raise funds for a temple and hotel under construction in Nauvoo, setting out in July 1843 and returning in November 1843. Woodruff and his wife, Phebe, received their second anointing in Nauvoo in 1844, making them members of the Anointed Quorum. In May 1844, Woodruff left on another trip to preach and promote Joseph Smith's presidential campaign. News of Smith's death reached Woodruff on July 9, and fellow apostles returned to Nauvoo in August. The apostles called Woodruff and Phebe to serve in England. They left Nauvoo in August 1844, leaving their eldest child with a family in Nauvoo. They left their three-year-old with Phebe's parents in Maine, bringing their one-year-old with them to England. Woodruff worked to square the mission account books and visited wards and branches throughout the United Kingdom, establishing the authority of the apostles after Smith's death. Members in England tried to form a joint stock company trading with Nauvoo in cotton, wool, and iron. The company failed because of unrest in Nauvoo and problems in management. After hearing that members had been driven out of Nauvoo, the Woodruffs left England in January 1846. Woodruff picked up their daughter and brought some of his relatives with him to Nauvoo, but Woodruff's relatives decided to join James Strang's followers rather than move west. Before leaving Nauvoo, Woodruff and Orson Hyde dedicated the temple on April 30, 1846. Woodruff oversaw 40 families, and they stayed at Winter Quarters. Many people got sick in Winter Quarters, and Woodruff's 16-month-old son, Joseph, died of a respiratory infection on November 12, 1846. Phebe's friend from England, Jane Benbow, also died, and Phebe went into labor 6 weeks early, giving birth to a son who died two days after birth. Woodruff joined an advance company that left in April 1847 to find a place to settle, leaving his family in Winter Quarters. Woodruff suffered various ailments, as did most of the other migrants. They arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24 and immediately planted crops. Woodruff learned to fly fish in England, and his 1847 journal account of his fishing in the East Fork River is the earliest known account of fly fishing west of the Mississippi River. Woodruff returned to Winter Quarters that October 31; Phebe was there and had given birth three days earlier to a daughter named Shuah. The apostles assigned Woodruff to preside over the Eastern States Mission, centered in Boston. Phebe was specially blessed to teach and be a mother in Israel, and they left Winter Quarters in June 1848. Shuah died, probably of dysentery, on July 22 during the journey east. Phebe went with the children to visit her father in Maine while Woodruff organized church work on the East Coast. He organized branches, preached, and resolved conflicts. In 1849, Phebe's father and a sister joined the church. Woodruff led 200 members in traveling west, starting in February 1850. They arrived in Nebraska in May 1850, where the price of oxen and their drivers was steep. The trail was heavily grazed by other travelers, leaving little food for their oxen and half died. Woodruff sent word to Brigham Young that his party needed oxen, and a party from Salt Lake City arrived on October 8. Woodruff's group arrived in the valley on October 15. Settling Utah Woodruff initially focused on building cabins, farming, and grazing his cattle. He experimented with different varieties of wheat. He sold goods from outside of Utah in a retail store. His efforts were not successful, and he focused on farming and herding in 1856. In 1852, Woodruff began serving as church historian. Phebe gave birth to Bulah in 1851 and to a son who died shortly after birth in 1853. Wilford adopted an orphaned Paiute boy named Moroni Bosnel in 1855. He also purchased a 6-year-old Paiute boy; it is unclear if the boy was part of the household as a slave or a son. An adopted son named Saroquetes helped Wilford Jr. manage day-to-day ranching duties in the 1850s and 1860s. Woodruff served multiple terms in the Utah territorial legislature. He was a member of the legislative house from its formation in 1851 until 1854, and then served in the legislative council from 1854 until 1876. Woodruff promoted public schools and noted attendance statistics when he traveled to southern Utah. Woodruff served as a member of the 1862 Utah Constitutional Convention and the committee that drafted the appeal to the U.S. Congress to approve the constitution and grant statehood for Utah. This attempt to join the Union failed. Woodruff served as a member of the Provo City Council in 1868 and 1869. Woodruff was also on the Board of Regents of the University of Deseret, where he chaired a committee to prepare spelling books in the Deseret Alphabet. Woodruff spent some time in 1854 educating his own children at home before public schools were established. He was president of a society for a lecture and discussion group called the Universal Scientific Society, founded in February 1855 and disbanded in November 1855. He also attended meetings of the Polysophical Society, a literary group including Lorenzo and Eliza Snow. The society stopped meeting after the Mormon Reformation in 1856. Woodruff was president of the Deseret Horticultural Society, founded in September 1855, which sought to find the most productive trees and bushes. By his own report, he had cultivated over 70 kinds of apples via importing and grafting, along with apricots, peaches, grapes, and currants in 1857. On multiple occasions, his products won prizes at the Utah Territorial Fair. Woodruff led the Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing Society from 1862 to 1877. The organization encouraged experimentation and shared knowledge about what plants would grow well in the territory. The Utah Territorial Legislature chartered it in 1856. Woodruff sometimes led ceremonies in the Endowment House after it was built in 1855, officiating every Saturday in sealings and endowments in 1867 to 1868. He served a "home mission" to reactivate lapsed members and call them to repentance, preaching for a renewed commitment to religion throughout the Mormon Reformation. During the time of the Utah War, he moved his family south to Provo in April 1858; they moved back to Salt Lake City in July. During this time there were no public worship services in Salt Lake City, and Woodruff and the other members of the Twelve Apostles organized groups of priesthood holders that met regularly to pray and preach to one another. Woodruff's wife Sara lived and taught school in Fort Harriman in 1860; she returned to Salt Lake City by 1865. His wife Delight moved to Fort Harriman in 1862, and her parents also lived there. In 1866, Emma moved to a house on Woodruff's farm just outside Salt Lake City. In 1868, Woodruff was elected to be part of the city council in Provo; Delight moved to Provo to facilitate his work there. Woodruff was the founding director of Zion's Cooperative Savings Bank in August 1871. He was also on the board of directors for ZCMI. When Brigham Young set up United Order communities in 1874, Woodruff helped organize United Orders in Provo, Pleasant Grove, American Fork, and Lehi, but did not enroll in the communalist program himself. Most United Order programs stopped functioning after a few months. Woodruff started keeping bees in 1870, and founded a society for beekeepers in Utah territory that year. He and Phebe moved to a smaller house in 1871, since their children were no longer living at home. Woodruff's other wives still continued to bear children and needed larger places to live. Woodruff's wife Sarah and his son's family moved to Randolph, Utah, in 1871, and he built a house for Sarah in 1872. Woodruff bought new mowers and rakes, which he used at both Randolph farm and his Salt Lake City farm in 1873. He built a house for Delight in 1876 in Salt Lake City. He helped his older sons, Wilford Jr. and David Patten, with their own farming businesses. Phebe was still Woodruff's most visible wife, appearing with him in public. St. George Temple President Beginning in 1877, Woodruff was the first president of the St. George Temple. This was the first temple in which the endowment ordinances were performed for the dead as well as for the living. Under the direction of Brigham Young, Woodruff was key in implementing endowments for the dead in the temple, in standardizing the ceremonies, and in giving various sermons to encourage broader understanding of the program. Woodruff helped John D. T. McAllister with writing parts of the temple ceremony. McAllister served as first counselor in the temple presidency and later succeeded Woodruff as temple president in 1884. In February 1877, Woodruff received a revelation that church members could act as a proxy in the temple for not only their own relatives, but for anyone they could identify by name. Woodruff stated that temple presidents were "authorized to exercise discretion in permitting persons to be baptized for friends." In 1893, Lorenzo Snow made it a policy that heirs should request in writing for others to perform temple work for their relatives. Woodruff spent his 70th birthday working in the temple in 1877. 154 women from St. George performed temple ordinances vicariously for women who "had previously been sealed to [Woodruff] vicariously" and those who were related to him, Thompson, or the Hart families. Two years earlier, in 1875, Woodruff performed baptisms for the dead on behalf of 141 of his relatives in the Endowment House and for over 900 more in that same year. Woodruff accepted Brigham Young's daughter Eudora as a plural wife in 1877; their union produced a son who died shortly after birth. Eudora divorced Woodruff, probably in 1879. Woodruff, Phebe, and their living children (except for Susan) met and performed more temple work, and at this time, Woodruff adopted various relatives to himself in the temple. He also sealed five single women to his recently deceased son Brigham. He was baptized on behalf of the signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence and other Founding Fathers. He stated in a September 16, 1877, discourse that he had been visited by the departed spirits of these men. Many of the proxy baptisms for the Founding Fathers had been done previously in Nauvoo and in the Endowment House in Salt Lake City, but the proxy endowments for these men were first done in the St. George Temple. Woodruff also compiled lists of notable men and women, for whom he performed vicarious temple work with the help of Lucy Bigelow Young. After Brigham Young's death in August 1877, John Taylor became the new president of the church, and Woodruff became president of the Twelve Apostles. Woodruff chaired the committee to separate Brigham Young's personal property from church property, finding that Brigham Young owed the church almost $700,000 in real-estate and other expenses. In 1879, George Reynolds was convicted of polygamy in a U.S. Supreme Court ruling. Utah's U.S. marshal started looking for Woodruff, and Woodruff fled to Bunkerville, Nevada, northern Arizona, and New Mexico. A new Supreme Court ruling required the federal government to provide positive evidence of polygamy before convicting the husband, and Woodruff could appear in public again until the 1882 when the Edmunds Act was passed. The Edmunds Act outlawed unlawful cohabitation, which was easier to prove than polygamy, and church leadership advised men in polygamous marriages to live in one house with one wife. Prosecution of polygamous men began in earnest in 1884, and Woodruff went into hiding in St. George during 1885 and often wore a dress and sunbonnet as a disguise. He was able to visit Phebe before her death on November 9, 1885, but fearing arrest, did not attend her funeral, instead watching it from the president's office. After Phebe's death, he lived at Emma's house or with friends. President of the Church Polygamy and legal disputes After the death of John Taylor in July 1887, Woodruff assumed leadership of the church as the senior member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Woodruff wanted to reorganize the First Presidency right away, continuing with George Q. Cannon as first counselor. Other members of the Quorum took this opportunity to raise grievances against Cannon, stating that he had defended his son John Q. too vigorously during his excommunication, to the point of hiding his crimes. The Twelve Apostles with Woodruff as its president presided over the church until the Quorum came to an agreement in April 1889. After George Q. Cannon apologized to the Quorum, they approved his appointment as first counselor. In 1887, the new U.S. marshal, Frank H. Dyer, told Woodruff he would not arrest him, and Woodruff could make public appearances again in Salt Lake City. Outside of Salt Lake City, deputy marshals vigorously hunted down suspected polygamists, being paid more with more convicts. In an effort to appear more attractive for statehood, Woodruff counseled local press not to excessively criticize the federal government and asked missionaries in the southeastern United States to soften their approach to decrease complaints from local ministers. He also asked leaders to stop preaching the practice of plural marriage. On behalf of the church, Woodruff courted the favor of businessman Alexander Badlam Jr. and prominent Republican Isaac Trumbo. The two men moved to Arlington, Virginia, under false names, seeking to persuade Republican congressmen to support Utah's bid for statehood in 1888. After Utah was denied statehood, Woodruff personally traveled to California in 1889 to speak with politicians. During Woodruff's tenure, the church faced a number of legal battles with the United States. The Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862 made it illegal for religious entities to own property worth more than $50,000 in any territory, and the Edmunds–Tucker Act of 1887 put forth the procedure for confiscating Church property. Marshal Dyer became the federally-appointed receiver of church property, and he confiscated the temple block, the Gardo House, and other offices. The church paid to rent the properties back from him. Church leadership discouraged new polygamous marriages in Utah. Late in 1889, federal judges stopped approving naturalized citizenship for Mormon immigrant residents in Utah Territory. Judges cited a disdain for federal law, pointing to doctrines such as blood atonement and temple vows as reported from former members to avenge the government for Joseph Smith's death. Other former members testified that an oath against the federal government was not part of the endowment ceremony. Another $3 million in church assets were confiscated in 1887. Judge Anderson ruled against the naturalization of Mormon residents. In response, Charles Penrose wrote a manifesto, signed by the First Presidency and the Twelve, in December 1889. This manifesto denied that the church had any right to overrule any civil court, denied the doctrine of blood atonement, asserted their right to criticize government officials, and the right of all Christians to believe that "the kingdom of heaven is at hand". Historian Thomas Alexander stated that both the judge's interpretation of church history and the manifesto were "a selective reading" of church history. The Edmunds-Tucker Act also took away the right to vote from practicing polygamists and all women in Utah. Combined with the influx of non-Mormons, the church could no longer control political offices in Utah Territory, and the members of the Liberal Party achieved a majority over the People's Party in 1890. In June 1890, the First Presidency told church officials that leaders were no longer allowed to perform plural marriages in the United States. Henry W. Lawrence replaced Marshal Dyer and threatened to confiscate the temples in Logan, Manti, and St. George, as they were not used for public worship. Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto, which officially ended the church's support of plural marriage. After the manifesto was issued, judge Charles S. Zane stated that no further church property would be confiscated. Woodruff further clarified in hearings about confiscated church property that men with plural wives should "cease associating with them", though Joseph F. Smith and Lorenzo Snow did not make such strong statements. When the First Presidency suggested issuing another manifesto to tell polygamous men from associating with plural wives, Woodruff said that a man who neglected his wives and children could face church discipline. Law professor Kenneth L. Cannon II states that Woodruff's intent with the 1890 Manifesto was to stop the creation of more plural marriages but allow existing ones to continue. The judge in the hearing decided not to return confiscated property to the church, stating that while the practice of polygamy may have stopped, it was still taught as part of the religion. Lobbyists managed to obtain amnesty for Mormons who did not enter polygamy after November 1890, but polygamists still did not have the right to vote. When Democrats took office in 1893, they restored property to the church and civil rights to members of the church. Historian Thomas Alexander stated in his biography of Woodruff that Woodruff's decision to stop polygamy was a significant transition "from isolation to assimilation, from extremism to respectability". Some Mormon historians, such as B. H. Roberts, never seemed to come to terms with the manifesto. Despite the manifesto, some Mormon historians have asserted that Woodruff continued to secretly allow new plural marriages to be performed in Mexico, Canada, and upon the high seas. Temple changes and church economic stimulus efforts Starting in 1847, members of the church sealed their relatives to a family member or friend who held the priesthood, since Brigham Young said that all marriages before the Restoration were illegitimate. Brigham Young also stated that children born outside of marriage should be sealed to the parent who lived the Gospel and adopted through a special sealing to a faithful priesthood holder. Woodruff and other members disagreed with the law of adoption. Woodruff and Heber C. Kimball discussed the law of adoption together in 1857, agreeing that they did not believe in the "custom of adoption", and that sons ought to be sealed to the fathers in their lineage when possible. In a conference address from April 1894, Woodruff announced a specific policy of sealing individuals only to their direct ancestors. He also encouraged members to "trace their genealogies as far as they can". Woodruff helped found the Genealogical Society of Utah to help church members complete generational sealings. In Wilford's 1894 address, he also stated that widows could be sealed to their deceased husbands, even if their husbands had never heard the gospel. Woodruff stated that this change in practice was not a change in doctrine, since Joseph Smith had referred to a welding link between fathers and their children. Woodruff also encouraged presidents of the four temples in the Utah Territory to coordinate their temple procedures in 1893. An economic recession in 1891 followed by another depression in 1893 affected the church's finances. Bishops used fast offerings as well as tithing to help the poor, and as a result, less money ended up in church headquarters. From July until December 1893, the church was unable to pay the salaries of its employees. Woodruff tried to promote economic development with various ventures, including the Utah Sugar Company at Lehi. The company was not successful and created over $300,000 in debt for the Church. The church also supported local industries like coal and iron mining, the Saltair resort, and the state's first hydroelectric generating facility. The church completed and dedicated the Manti and Salt Lake temples during his tenure. Woodruff also established Bannock Academy in Rexburg, Idaho, which later became Ricks College and Brigham Young University–Idaho. Political manifesto Moses Thatcher and B. H. Roberts attended the 1895 state constitutional convention as Democrats. Both were general authorities of the church. Roberts opposed women's suffrage, while Woodruff and the First Presidency supported it. Thatcher had issues with chronic ulcers and a morphine addiction, and in the rare times when he was in good health, he often failed to attend meetings. Thatcher ran as the Democratic Party's nominee for senate. Heber J. Grant said that Thatcher should have consulted with the other apostles and the First Presidency before accepting the nomination for senate. Thatcher argued that the First Presidency did not have the right to limit a member's political decisions. At a general priesthood session, Joseph F. Smith said that any obligations that take a member away from their religious duties should be discussed with their presiding officers. He said that any Melchizedek priesthood holder ought to have permission from his church leaders before pursuing a political office. Republican leaders connected Smith's statements with Thatcher and Roberts's political activity and used it to criticize the Democratic Party. Smith's remarks became controversial, with some members calling for the church to not interfere in politics, and with others supporting Smith's position. In response, Woodruff published a statement where he stated that the church did not wish to interfere with members' political endeavors. In December 1895, Woodruff said that Thatcher and Roberts would not be presented for the traditional vote of approval at April's general conference until both repented. Utah became a state with a Republican majority in the state government. Thatcher refused to reconcile with the apostles and continued to experience ill health. George Q. Cannon drafted a "Political Manifesto" at Woodruff's request. It stated that religion and politics had always been separate in the church, but that people in full-time church positions should get approval from the First Presidency before accepting a political nomination. All members of the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve signed the document, except for Thatcher. The First Presidency agreed to drop Thatcher's name from the sustaining vote portion of general conference. Thatcher publicized his side of the dispute in a note in The Salt Lake Tribune. Church leaders asked for sustaining votes for the manifesto in local meetings, leading to some disputes. Joseph F. Smith, a Republican, wanted the manifesto to apply to all members, but Woodruff and Cannon disagreed with Smith. After several failed attempts at reconciliation, the Twelve disfellowshipped Thatcher, removing him from his position as an apostle. Death and legacy Woodruff died in San Francisco, California, on September 2, 1898, after a failed bladder surgery. He was succeeded as church president by his son-in-law, Lorenzo Snow. Woodruff was buried at the Salt Lake City Cemetery. Woodruff's journals are a significant contribution to LDS Church history. He kept a daily record of his life and activities within the LDS Church, beginning with his mission to the southern states in 1835. Matthias F. Cowley, editor of his published journals, observed that Woodruff was "perhaps, the best chronicler of events in all the history of the Church". The diaries are "one of the significant records of 19th-century Mormonism". In an introduction to selections from Woodruffs journals, compiler Susan Staker wrote that the journals were "public, official—and ultimately very male". In addition to writing in his diary, Woodruff wrote over 12,000 letters during his lifetime, sometimes keeping a copy for his files. In his Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, B. H. Roberts wrote that Woodruff's record was a "priceless" documentary of the discourses of Joseph Smith and Brigham Young. Woodruff's diaries are featured prominently in Laurel Thatcher Ulrich's book, A House Full of Females: Plural Marriage and Women's Rights in Early Mormonism, 1835-1870. Woodruff was an Assistant Church Historian from 1856 to 1883 and was the church's eleventh official Church Historian from 1883 to 1889. Woodruff and his assistants compiled and edited historical documents from Joseph Smith's and Brigham Young's lives. They also wrote biographies of members of the Council of the Twelve. Edward Tullidge helped Woodruff write his autobiography in 1856. Woodruff's teachings as an apostle were the 2006 course of study in the LDS Church's Sunday Relief Society and Melchizedek priesthood classes. Millennialist beliefs and apocalyptic prophecies Throughout his life, Woodruff believed that the Second Coming of Jesus and a cataclysmic end of the world was imminent. On August 23, 1868, Woodruff preached a sermon in which he famously prophesied that New York City would be "destroyed by an earthquake"; Boston would be "swept into the sea, by the sea heaving itself beyond its bounds"; and Albany, New York, would be "destroyed by fire". Speaking afterwards, church president Brigham Young stated that "what Brother Woodruff has said is revelation and will be fulfilled". Woodruff believed that the United States would disassemble by 1890. In January 1880, he received a revelation referred to as the "Wilderness Prophecy", which stated that enemies of the church would be destroyed before Christ's Second Coming and reaffirmed the importance of temples. Works LDS Church publication number 36315. See also Smoot–Rowlett Family Clara W. Beebe, one of Woodruff's daughters Notes Citations References Ludlow, Daniel H., Editor. Church History, Selections from the Encyclopedia of Mormonism. Deseret Book Company, Salt Lake City, UT, 1992. . Further reading External links Archival records Wilford Woodruff Papers Foundation Wilford Woodruff Journals and Papers, MSS 1352, Church History Catalog Wilford Woodruff papers, Vault MSS 798 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library Brigham Young University Wilford Woodruff family letters, MSS 8173 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library Brigham Young University. This record is digitized; click on individual items under "Box/folder" to view them. Transcriptions of above letters George A. Smith Papers at University of Utah Digital Library, Marriott Library Special Collections Other links Wilford Woodruff Papers Foundation Wilford Woodruff biography at the Joseph Smith Papers Project website 1807 births 1898 deaths 19th-century American politicians 19th-century American writers 19th-century apocalypticists 19th-century Mormon missionaries American diarists American general authorities (LDS Church) American Mormon missionaries in England American Mormon missionaries in the United States American orchardists Apostles (LDS Church) Apostles of the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints) Burials at Salt Lake City Cemetery Converts to Mormonism Doctrine and Covenants people Farmers from New York (state) Farmers from Utah General Presidents of the Young Men (organization) Latter Day Saints from Connecticut Latter Day Saints from Illinois Latter Day Saints from Ohio Latter Day Saints from Utah Members of the Utah Territorial Legislature Mission presidents (LDS Church) Mormon pioneers Official historians of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Presidents of the Church (LDS Church) Presidents of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church) Religious leaders from Salt Lake City Religious leaders from Hartford, Connecticut Smoot–Rowlett family Temple presidents and matrons (LDS Church) Utah city council members Utah Democrats Writers from Salt Lake City Harold B. 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419038	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolicon	Lolicon	In Japanese popular culture, is a genre of fictional media in which young (or young-looking) girl characters appear in romantic or sexual contexts. The term, a portmanteau of the English words "Lolita" and "complex", also refers to desire and affection for such characters (, "loli"), and fans of such characters and works. Associated with unrealistic and stylized imagery within manga, anime, and video games, lolicon in otaku (manga/anime fan) culture is understood as distinct from desires for realistic depictions of girls, or real girls as such, and is associated with the concept of moe, or feelings of affection and love for fictional characters as such (often cute characters in manga and anime). The phrase "Lolita complex", derived from the novel Lolita, entered use in Japan in the 1970s, when sexual imagery of the shōjo (idealized young girl) was expanding in the country's media. During the "lolicon boom" in adult manga of the early 1980s, the term was adopted in the nascent otaku culture to denote attraction to early bishōjo (cute girl) characters, and later to only younger-looking depictions as bishōjo designs became more varied. The artwork of the boom, strongly influenced by the round styles of shōjo manga (marketed to girls), marked a shift from previous realism and the advent of "cute eroticism" (kawaii ero), an aesthetic now common in manga and anime more broadly. The lolicon boom faded by the mid-1980s, and the genre has since made up a minority of erotic manga. A moral panic against "harmful manga" in the 1990s has made lolicon a keyword in manga debates in Japan. Child pornography laws in some countries include depictions of fictional child characters, while those in other countries, including Japan, do not. Opponents and supporters have debated if the genre contributes to child sexual abuse. Cultural critics generally identify lolicon with a broader separation between fiction and reality in otaku sexuality. Definition and scope Lolicon is a Japanese abbreviation of "Lolita complex" (, rorīta konpurekkusu), an English-language phrase and wasei-eigo derived from Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita (1955) but in Japan more associated with Russell Trainer's The Lolita Complex (1966, translated 1969), a work of pop psychology in which the author uses the term to describe adult male attraction to pubescent and pre-pubescent females. In Japanese, the phrase was adopted to describe feelings of love and lust for young girls over adult women, which remains the phrase's common meaning. Due to its association with otaku (manga and anime fan) culture, however, the term today is more often used to describe desires for young or young-looking girl characters (, "loli") which are generally understood to exist and be satisfied in fiction, though the meaning of the term remains contested and for the public at large still carries a connotation of pedophilia. Lolicon also refers to sexualized works which feature such characters, and fans of these works and characters. It is distinct from more formal words for pedophilia (yōji-zuki or pedofiria; clinically, shōniseiai or jidōseiai) and child pornography (jidō poruno). The meaning of lolicon in the otaku context developed in the early 1980s, during the "lolicon boom" in adult manga (see ). According to editor and critic Akira Akagi, the term's meaning moved away from the sexual pairing of an older man and a young girl, and instead came to describe desire for "cuteness" and "girl-ness" in manga and anime. Other critics defined lolicon as the desire for "cute things", "manga-like" or "anime-like" characters, "roundness", and the "two-dimensional", as opposed to "real". At the time, all eroticism in the manga style featuring cute girl (bishōjo) characters was associated with the term, and synonyms of "Lolita complex" included "two-dimensional complex" (nijigen konpurekkusu), "two-dimensional fetishism" (nijikon fechi), "two-dimensional syndrome" (nijikon shōkōgun), "cute girl syndrome" (bishōjo shōkōgun), and simply "sickness" (byōki). As character body types in erotic manga became more varied by the end of the lolicon boom, the scope of the term narrowed to more young-looking depictions. Lolicon became a keyword in debates after the 1989 arrest of Tsutomu Miyazaki, a serial killer of young girls who was portrayed in media reports as an otaku (see ). As lolicon was conflated with desire for real children in debates on "harmful manga", the early meaning was replaced among otaku by moe, which refers to feelings of affection and love for characters more generally. Like moe, lolicon is still used by otaku to refer to attraction that is consciously distinct from reality; some otaku identify as "two-dimensional lolicon" (nijigen rorikon) to clarify their attraction to characters. The term has become a keyword in criticism of manga and sexuality within Japan, as well as globally with the spread of Japanese popular culture. History Background In the 1970s, shōjo manga (marketed to girls) underwent a renaissance in which artists experimented with new narratives and styles, and introduced themes such as psychology, gender, and sexuality. These developments attracted adult male fans of shōjo manga, who crossed gendered boundaries to produce and consume it. The first appearance of the term "Lolita complex" in manga was in Stumbling Upon a Cabbage Patch, an Alice in Wonderland–inspired work by Shinji Wada published in the June 1974 issue of the shōjo manga magazine Bessatsu Margaret, where a male character calls Lewis Carroll a man with a "strange character of liking only small children" in an inside joke to adult readers. Early lolicon artwork was influenced by male artists mimicking shōjo manga, as well as erotic manga created by female artists for male readers. The image of the shōjo (young girl) became dominant in Japanese mass media by the 1970s as an idealization of cuteness, innocence, and an "idealized Eros", attributes which became attached to imagery of younger girls over time. Nude photographs of shōjo, conceived as fine art, gained popularity: a photo collection entitled was published in 1969, and in 1972 and 1973 there was an "Alice boom" in nude photos themed around Alice in Wonderland. Specialty adult magazines carrying nude photos, fiction, and essays on the appeal of young girls emerged in the 1980s; this trend faded in the late 1980s, due to backlash and because many men preferred images of shōjo in manga and anime. The spread of such imagery, both in photographs and in manga, may have been helped by prohibitions on displaying pubic hair under Japan's obscenity laws. 1970s–1980s The rise of lolicon as a genre began at Comiket (Comic Market), a convention for the sale of dōjinshi (self-published works) founded in 1975 by the group (Labyrinth), made of adult male fans of shōjo manga; in 1979, a group of male artists published the first issue of the fanzine , whose standout work was an erotic parody of Little Red Riding Hood by Hideo Azuma, known as a pioneer of lolicon. Prior to Cybele, the dominant style in seinen (marketed to men) and pornographic manga was gekiga, characterized by realism, sharp angles, dark hatching, and gritty linework. Azuma's work, in contrast, displayed light shading and clean, circular lines, which he saw as "thoroughly erotic" and sharing with shōjo manga a "lack of reality". Azuma's combination of the stout bodies of Osamu Tezuka's manga and the emotive faces of shōjo manga marked the advent of the bishōjo character and the aesthetic of "cute eroticism" (kawaii ero). While erotic, Azuma's manga was also viewed as humorous and parodic; only a minority of readers found his style erotic at first, but a large fan base soon grew in response to the alternative to pornographic gekiga that it represented. Erotic manga mostly moved away from combining realistic bodies and cartoony faces towards a wholly-unrealistic style. Lolicon manga played a role in attracting male fans to Comiket, an event originally dominated by women (90 percent of participants were female at its first run in 1975); in 1981, the number of male and female participants was equal. Lolicon, mostly created by and for men, served as a response to yaoi (manga featuring male homoeroticism), mostly created by and for women. The early 1980s saw a "lolicon boom" in professional and amateur art. The popularity of lolicon within the otaku community would attract the attention of publishers with the creation of specialty publications dedicated to the genre, including Lemon People (1982) and Manga Burikko (1982). Lemon People in particular was one of the first lolicon manga magazines published in Japan, with the first issue's cover stating that it "had the monopoly on lolicon comic content in 1982", expressing the excitement over the word lolicon itself. Other magazines of the boom included , Melon Comic, and . The genre's rise was closely linked to the concurrent development of otaku culture and growing fan consciousness; the word otaku itself was coined in Burikko in 1983. Originally founded as an unprofitable gekiga magazine, the publication was transformed into a lolicon magazine in 1983 by editor Eiji Ōtsuka, whose intention was to publish "shōjo manga for boys". Artwork in the magazine continued the trend started by Azuma rooted in the soft styles of shōjo manga, with less realism and fewer explicit depictions of sex; in November 1983, Burikko editors yielded to reader demands by removing photographs of gravure idol models from its opening pages, printing an issue with the subtitle "Totally Bishōjo Comic Magazine". Lolicon magazines regularly published female artists, such as Kyoko Okazaki and Erika Sakurazawa, and male artists such as , the "King of Lolicon", who produced 160 pages of manga per month to meet demand. Uchiyama's works were published in both niche magazines such as Lemon People and in the mainstream Shōnen Champion. The first-ever pornographic anime series was Lolita Anime, released episodically in 1984–1985. Iconic characters of the boom include Clarisse from the film Lupin III: Castle of Cagliostro (1979) and Lana from the TV series Future Boy Conan (1978), both directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Clarisse was especially popular, and inspired a series of articles discussing her appeal in the anime specialty magazines , , and Animage, as well as a trend of fan works (dubbed "Clarisse magazines") that were not explicitly sexual, but instead "fairytale-esque" and "girly". Many early lolicon works combined mecha and bishōjo elements; Kaoru Nagayama highlights the premiere of the Daicon III Opening Animation at the 1981 Japan SF Convention as a notable example of the link between science fiction and lolicon in the nascent otaku culture of the time. Anime shows targeted at young girls with young girl heroines, such as Magical Princess Minky Momo (1982–1983), gained new viewership from adult male fans, who started fan clubs and were courted by creators. Helen McCarthy suggests that lolicon anime is rooted in magical girl shows such as Minky Momo, where transforming heroines can blur lines between girls and women. While the lolicon boom in commercial erotic manga only lasted until 1984, it marked the beginning of its now-dominant bishōjo style. Near the end of the boom, because "readers had no attachment to lolicon per se" and "did not take [young girls] as objects of sexual desire", a majority of readers and creators of erotic manga moved towards the diversifying bishōjo works featuring "baby-faced and big-breasted" characters, which were no longer considered lolicon. At Comiket, lolicon manga had declined in popularity by 1989 with developments in erotic dōjinshi, including new genres of fetishism and the growing popularity of softcore eroticism popular among men and women, particularly in yuri (manga with lesbian themes). 1990s–present In 1989, lolicon and otaku became the subject of a media frenzy and moral panic after the arrest of Tsutomu Miyazaki, a young man who had kidnapped and murdered four girls between the ages of four and seven and committed sexual acts with their corpses. Widely disseminated photos of Miyazaki's room revealed an extensive collection of video tapes, which included horror/slasher films on which he had modelled some of his crimes, and manga, including shōjo and lolicon works. In the extended public debates that followed, Miyazaki's crimes were blamed on supposed media effects: namely, a reduction in his inhibitions to crime, and a blurring of the lines between fiction and reality. Miyazaki was labelled as an otaku, and an image of otaku as "socially and sexually immature" men, and for some as "pedophiles and potential predators", was established for much of the public. The decade saw local crackdowns on retailers and publishers of "harmful manga", and the arrests of some dōjinshi artists. Despite this, lolicon imagery expanded and became more acceptable within manga in the 1990s, and the early 2000s saw a small boom in the genre sparked by the magazine Comic LO. Media Lolicon media is loosely defined. Some define its characters by age, while others define its characters by appearance (those that are small and flat-chested, independent of age). Lolicon works often depict girl characters as innocent, precocious, and sometimes flirtatious; characters may appear in borderline or outright sexual situations, though the term can be applied to works with neither (see ). According to Kaoru Nagayama, manga readers define lolicon works as those "with a heroine younger than a middleschool student", a definition which can vary from characters under age 18 for "society at large", to characters "younger than gradeschool-aged" for "fanatics", and to "kindergarteners" for "more pedophiliac readers". Elisabeth Klar observes that girl characters in lolicon can show an "contradictory performance of age" in which their body, behavior, and role in a story conflict; an example is the roribabā ("Lolita granny") archetype, a girl character who speaks with the mannerisms of an old woman. Curvy hips and other secondary sex characteristics similarly appear as features in some of the genre's characters. Plot devices often explain the young appearance of characters who are non-human or actually much older. Lolicon manga, often published as dōjinshi or compiled in anthology magazines, is mostly consumed by male audiences, though Nagayama notes that the works of have "resonated with female readers" and "earned the support of women". Other notable artists include Aguda Wanyan and Takarada Gorgeous. Female creators of lolicon works include Erika Wada and . Lolicon imagery is a prominent theme in Superflat, a manga-influenced contemporary art movement founded by Takashi Murakami. Prominent Superflat artists whose works feature lolicon imagery include Mr. and Henmaru Machino. Murakami himself did a lolicon-inspired photoshoot with Britney Spears for the cover of the magazine Pop. Relation to moe In the 1990s, lolicon imagery evolved and contributed to the mainstream development of moe, the generalized affective response to fictional characters (typically bishōjo characters in manga, anime, and computer games) and its associated design elements. The bishōjo character form moved from niche, otaku publications to mainstream manga magazines, and saw explosive popularity in the decade with the rise of bishōjo games and anime series such as Sailor Moon and Neon Genesis Evangelion, which pioneered media and merchandising based on fan affection for their female protagonists. Moe characters, which tend to be physically immature girl characters exemplified by cuteness, are ubiquitous in contemporary manga and anime. In contrast to lolicon works, sexuality in moe is treated indirectly or not at all; the moe response is often defined with emphasis on platonic love. John Oppliger of AnimeNation identifies Ro-Kyu-Bu!, Kodomo no Jikan, and Moetan as examples of series which challenge the distinction between moe and lolicon through use of sexual innuendo, commenting that they "satire the chaste sanctity of the moé phenomenon" and "poke fun at viewers and the arbitrary delineations that viewers assert". "Moe-style" lolicon works depict mild eroticism, such as glimpses of underwear, and forgo explicit sex. Genre features Akira Akagi identified five themes in lolicon manga in 1993: sadomasochism, "groping objects" (alien tentacles or robots in the role of the penis), "mecha fetishes" (combinations of a machine and a girl), erotic parodies of mainstream anime and manga, and "simply indecent or perverted stuff", also noting common themes of lesbianism and masturbation. Media scholar Setsu Shigematsu argues that these forms of substitution and mimicry enable lolicon to "transform straight sex into a parodic form". More extreme works depict themes including coercion, rape, incest, bondage, and hermaphroditism. Nagayama argues that most pornographic lolicon manga deal with a "consciousness of sin", or a sense of taboo and guilt in its consumption. Some manga manage this by portraying the girl as enjoying the experience in the end, while others represent the girl as the active partner in sex who seduces men to her. Other lolicon manga, where "men are absolute evil and girls are pitiable victims", indulge in the "pleasure of sin" through the breaking of taboos, which he argues affirms the fragility of the characters. He posits that manga depicting sex between children avoid the "consciousness of sin" via mutual innocence, while also thematizing nostalgia and an idealized past, while other lolicon manga accomplish this through characters with especially unrealistic and moe designs, where "it is precisely because fiction is distinguished from reality as fiction that one can experience moe". Legality and censorship Child pornography laws in some countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, have expanded since the 1990s to include sexually explicit depictions of fictional child characters, while those in other countries, including Japan and the United States, exclude fiction from relevant definitions. In 1999, Japan passed a national law criminalizing the production and distribution of child pornography. The law's original draft included depictions of fictional children in its definition of child pornography; after "criticism from many in Japan", this text was removed in the final version. In 2014, Japan's parliament amended the 1999 law to criminalize possession of child pornography; the 2013 draft introduced by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which maintained the existing legal definition, included a provision for a government investigation on whether manga, anime, and computer-generated images "similar to child pornography" were connected to child sexual abuse, which would be followed by a later decision on regulation. This provision was opposed by anime and manga artist and publishing associations, which argued that regulation would infringe on freedom of expression and negatively impact the creative industry and cited a lack of existing evidence linking fiction and crime. The provision was removed from the law's final version, which took effect in 2015. Lolicon media is a common target of local ordinances in Japan which restrict distribution of materials designated "harmful to the healthy development of youth", which were strengthened throughout the 1990s and 2000s. An amendment proposed in 2010 to the Tokyo law on material banned from sale to minors (described by Vice Governor Naoki Inose as targeting non-pornographic lolicon manga, writing that "We had regulation for eromanga, but not for lolicon") restricted depictions of "non-existent youths" who appeared under age 18 and were portrayed in "anti-social sexual situations". Under massive opposition from manga creators, academics, and fans, the bill was rejected in June 2010 by Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly; however, a revision passed in December 2010 which restricts "manga, anime, and computer games" where any characters engage in "sexual or pseudo sexual acts that would be illegal in real life" depicted in a way that "glorifies or exaggerates" such acts. In 2011, several manga were listed for restriction, including ("My Wife Is an Elementary Student"), which had been previously criticized on television by Inose. It was later published online by J-Comi, avoiding restriction. Sexualized depictions of young girl characters have also been subject to censorship and restriction outside of Japan. In 2006, North American publisher Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the manga series Kodomo no Jikan for release under the title Nymphet, but cancelled its plans in 2007 after vendor cancellations. In a statement, the company noted that the manga "cannot be considered appropriate for the US market by any reasonable standard". In 2020, Australian senator Stirling Griff criticized the Australian Classification Board for giving ratings to manga and anime depicting "child exploitation", and called for a review of classification regulations; later in the year, the board banned the import and sale of three volumes of the light novel series No Game No Life for sexualized depiction of young characters. Some online platforms, including Discord and Reddit, ban lolicon content. Debate Explaining the exclusion of lolicon from the 2014 amendment to Japan's child pornography laws, an LDP lawmaker stated that "Manga, anime, and CG child pornography don't directly violate the rights of girls or boys. It has not been scientifically validated that it even indirectly causes damage. Since it hasn't been validated, punishing people who view it would go too far;" his statement echoes activist arguments. Statistically, sexual abuse of minors in Japan has declined since the 1960s and 1970s while the prevalence of fictional lolicon has increased; Patrick W. Galbraith interprets this as evidence that lolicon imagery does not necessarily influence crimes and argues that lolicon characters do not necessarily represent real boys or girls, but rather what McLelland calls a "third gender," while Steven Smet suggests that lolicon is an "exorcism of fantasies" that contributes to Japan's low crime rates. Galbraith further argues that otaku culture collectively promotes a media literacy and ethical position of separating fiction and reality, especially when the conflation of the two would be dangerous. Drawing on his fieldwork as an anthropologist, he writes that the sexual imagination of otaku, including lolicon, "did not lead to 'immoral acts', but rather ethical activity". A 2012 report by the Sexologisk Klinik for the Danish government found no evidence that cartoons and drawings depicting fictive child sexual abuse encourage real abuse. Academic Sharalyn Orbaugh argues that manga depicting underage sexuality can help victims of child sexual abuse to work through their own trauma, and that there is greater harm in regulating sexual expression than potential harm caused by such manga. Legal scholar Hiroshi Nakasatomi argues that lolicon can distort readers' sexual desires and induce crime, and that it violates the rights of children, a view shared by the non-profit organization CASPAR (founded after the Miyazaki case). Some critics, such as the non-profit organization Lighthouse, claim that lolicon works can be used for child grooming, and that they engender a culture that is accepting of sexual abuse. Guidelines released in 2019 by the United Nations Human Rights Committee encouraged state parties to include explicit drawings of fictional children in laws against child pornography, "in particular when such representations are used as part of a process to sexually exploit children". Feminist critic Kuniko Funabashi argues that lolicon manga contributes to sexual violence by portraying girls passively and by "presenting the female body as the man's possession". Legal scholar Shin'ichirō Harata argues that child pornography laws should not collapse reality and fiction together, but also that fans should not dismiss an ambivalence represented by lolicon. He describes the practice of keeping the two separated as the "ethics of moe", or "responsibility of otaku". Dilton Rocha Ferraz Ribeiro analyzes the debate over the legal status of lolicon works in Japan and finds that both the pro-regulation and anti-regulation coalitions are relatively stable, with each reacting to actions by the other coalition. Catherine Driscoll and Liam Grealy argue that these debates, including international pressure on Japan to regulate these works, create a "discourse of Japanese exceptionalism" to international norms. Critical commentary Cultural critics responding to lolicon generally emphasize it as distinct from attraction to real young girls. Anthropologist Patrick W. Galbraith finds that "from early writings to the present, researchers suggest that lolicon artists are playing with symbols and working with tropes, which does not reflect or contribute to sexual pathology or crime". Psychologist Tamaki Saitō, who has conducted clinical work with otaku, highlights the estrangement of lolicon desires from reality as part of a strict distinction for otaku between "textual and actual sexuality", and observes that "the vast majority of otaku are not pedophiles in actual life". Manga researcher Yukari Fujimoto argues that lolicon desire "is not for a child, but for the image itself", and that this is understood by those "brought up in [Japan's] culture of drawing and fantasy". Cultural historian Mark McLelland identifies lolicon and yaoi as "self-consciously anti-realist" genres, given a rejection by fans and creators of "three-dimensionality" in favor of "two-dimensionality", and compares lolicon to the yaoi fandom, in which largely female and heterosexual fans consume depictions of male homosexuality which "lack any correspondent in the real world". Setsu Shigematsu argues that lolicon reflects a shift in "erotic investment" from reality to "two-dimensional figures of desire". Queer theorist Yuu Matsuura argues that two-dimensional characters are non-human "artifacts" and that desire oriented to such characters is not a desire toward humans. Matsuura criticizes the consideration of two-dimensional lolicon as "child pornography" as being , a term they use to refer to the marginalization of fictosexuals or Nijikon. Most scholars also identify lolicon as a form of self-expression on the part of its male creators and consumers. Sociologist Sharon Kinsella suggests that for lolicon fans, "the infantilized female object of desire [...] has crossed over to become an aspect of their own self image and sexuality". Akira Akagi argues that lolicon manga represented a notable shift in reader identification from the "hero" penetrator common to pornographic gekiga: "Lolicon readers do not need a penis for pleasure, but rather they need the ecstasy of the girl. [...] They identify with the girl, and get caught up in a masochistic pleasure." Manga critic Gō Itō views this as an "abstract desire", quoting lolicon artist who told him that "he was the girl who is raped in his manga", reflecting a feeling of being "raped by society, or by the world". Kaoru Nagayama posits that lolicon readers adopt a fluid perspective that alternates between that of an omniscient voyeur and the multiple characters in a work, reflecting an active reader role and a projection onto girl characters. Writing in The Book of Otaku (1989), feminist Chizuko Ueno argued that lolicon, as an orientation towards fictional bishōjo, is "completely different from pedophilia", and characterized it as a desire to "be part of the 'cute' world of shōjo" for male fans of shōjo manga who "find it too much to be a man". Several scholars identify the emergence of lolicon with changes in Japanese gender relations. Sociologist Kimio Itō attributes the rise of lolicon manga to a shift in the 1970s and 1980s, when boys, driven by a feeling that girls were "surpassing them in terms of willpower and action", turned to the "world of imagination", in which young girl characters are "easy to control". Kinsella interprets lolicon as part of a "gaze of both fear and desire" stimulated by the growing power of women in society, and as a reactive desire to see the shōjo "infantilized, undressed, and subordinate". Media scholar Chizuko Naitō views lolicon as reflecting a "societal desire in a broader sense" for young girls as sex symbols in Japan (which she calls a "loliconized society"). Christine Yano argues that eroticized imagery of the shōjo, "real or fictive", reflects "heteronormative pedophilia" in which emphasis is placed on the ephemerality of childhood: "it is as child that [the shōjo] becomes precious as a transitory figure threatened by impending adulthood". Responding in 1982 to the popularity of Clarisse from his film Lupin III: Castle of Cagliostro, Hayao Miyazaki criticized artists and fans who idolized her in what he considered a demeaning manner, and said that he "hate[d] men who use the word lolicon." Despite his apparent rejection, Saitō and Galbraith still find connections between Miyazaki and desire for young girl characters. Interpreting Miyazaki's own words and his acknowledgment of eroticism as key to his creative process, Galbraith suggests that the distance between Miyazaki and the lolicon boom was about "shame": he criticized men who were open and playful about lolicon desire for having little shame, while he felt embarrassment about his own "longing" for girl characters. See also Hentai – anime and manga pornography Junior idol – child or early teenager pursuing a career as a photographic model Lolita fashion – Japanese fashion style and subculture Shotacon – male equivalent of lolicon, focusing on young boy characters Simulated child pornography – produced without direct involvement of children Notes References Citations Works cited Further reading External links 1970s neologisms Animation controversies Anime and manga controversies Anime and manga genres Anime and manga terminology Female stock characters in anime and manga Hentai Japanese sex terms Obscenity controversies in animation Obscenity controversies in comics Obscenity controversies in video games Pedophilia Wasei-eigo Girls
419049	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Bredesen	Phil Bredesen	Philip Norman Bredesen Jr. (; born November 21, 1943) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 48th governor of Tennessee from 2003 to 2011. A member of the Democratic Party, he was elected in 2002 with 50.6% of the vote and re-elected in 2006 with 68.6%. He is the most recent Democrat elected to a statewide office in the state. He served as the 66th mayor of Nashville from 1991 to 1999. Bredesen is the founder of the HealthAmerica Corporation, which he sold in 1986. Since 2011, he has been chair of Silicon Ranch Corporation, a firm that develops and operates solar power stations. On December 6, 2017, Bredesen announced he would run for Bob Corker's open seat in the United States Senate, as Corker chose not to seek reelection in 2018. On August 2, 2018, he won the Democratic primary and faced off against Republican nominee Marsha Blackburn. He lost in the general election on November 6, 2018. After losing the Senate race, he and his campaign team founded Clearloop, a renewable energy startup. Bredesen has been widely characterized as a moderate Democrat who is fiscally conservative but socially liberal. Early life and private career Bredesen was born in Oceanport, New Jersey, the son of Norma Lucille (Walborn) and Philip Norman Bredesen. His parents divorced and his mother was employed as a bank teller. During Bredesen's childhood, his grandmother, who sewed for a living, lived with the family. Bredesen grew up in Shortsville, New York, 30 miles from Rochester. He attended Red Jacket Central Elementary and Secondary School in the adjoining village of Manchester. He received a scholarship to Harvard University, where he graduated with an undergraduate degree in physics. In 1967, Bredesen moved to Lexington, Massachusetts, where he did classified work for Itek and received a draft deferment during the Vietnam War. In 1968, Bredesen worked for the campaign of Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy, who was seeking the Democratic presidential nomination. Bredesen launched his first political campaign in 1969, when he ran for the Massachusetts State Senate. He was defeated by a popular incumbent Republican, Ronald MacKenzie. Bredesen joined pharmaceutical firm G.D. Searle & Company in 1971, and moved to London in 1973 to manage one of the company's divisions. In 1974, he married Andrea Conte. In 1975, the family moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where Conte had been recruited by Hospital Corporation of America. In Nashville, Bredesen founded HealthAmerica Corp., an insurance company. He sold his controlling interest in HealthAmerica in 1986, and because of the wealth he earned from the company, did not accept his gubernatorial salary. Political involvement Mayor of Nashville In 1987, Bredesen ran for mayor of Nashville. He finished second out of 10 candidates with 30% of the vote, behind only 5th District Congressman Bill Boner, who won 46%. Since Boner fell short of the necessary threshold for an outright victory, he and Bredesen faced each other in a runoff. Boner won the runoff, 75,790 votes to 66,153, largely by emphasizing that he was a Nashville native while Bredesen was a Northerner. In December 1987, Bredesen ran in the Democratic primary for the 5th District congressional seat left open by Boner's victory. He finished a distant second behind Bob Clement, son of former governor Frank G. Clement. Ahead of the 1991 mayoral race, Boner was accused of marital infidelity, and declined to run. Bredesen won the election, defeating Councilwoman Betty Nixon, 78,896 votes to 30,282. As mayor of Nashville, Bredesen added more than 440 new teachers, built 32 new schools and renovated 43 others. He also implemented a back-to-basics curriculum to teach students the fundamentals of learning. Under the Bredesen Administration, the NFL's Houston Oilers (now Tennessee Titans) were brought to Nashville and furnished with a new stadium, Nissan Stadium; the NHL awarded Nashville its first of four new expansion franchises, the Nashville Predators; and Bridgestone Arena was built. Bredesen also attempted to lure the NBA's Minnesota Timberwolves and later the NHL's New Jersey Devils to Nashville, but both efforts were unsuccessful. A new downtown library was built as a cornerstone of major improvements to the entire library system, the city's downtown entertainment district was renovated, and two parks, Beaman Park and Shelby Bottoms, were established. Bredesen did not run for a third term in 1999. The Metro Charter had been amended in 1994 to limit city council members to two consecutive four-year terms, and was worded in such a way that it appeared to apply to mayors as well. Although mayors had been permitted to serve a maximum of three consecutive terms since the formation of Metro Nashville in 1963, Bredesen did not make an issue of that. Governor of Tennessee Bredesen declared his candidacy for the 1994 Tennessee gubernatorial election in November 1993. He won the Democratic nomination for governor, capturing 53% of the vote in a primary that included more than a half-dozen candidates, among them Shelby County Mayor Bill Morris and state senator Steve Cohen. In the November general election, Bredesen was defeated by the Republican nominee, 7th district U.S. Representative Don Sundquist, 807,104 votes to 664,252. Bredesen ran for governor of Tennessee again in 2002. He easily won the Democratic nomination, capturing nearly 80% of the vote in a six-candidate primary, and faced Republican 4th district U.S. Representative Van Hilleary in November (the incumbent, Sundquist, was term-limited). Bredesen promised to manage state government better, improve Tennessee's schools and use his experience as a managed-care executive to fix TennCare, which had created a critical budget shortfall toward the end of Sundquist's term. His reputation as a moderate Democrat was well established (he is a member of the "good government" faction of the Nashville Democratic Party), so Hilleary's attempts to brand him as a liberal ultimately failed. Republicans also suffered from Sundquist's unpopular attempts to implement a state income tax. Bredesen garnered more support in East Tennessee than was usual for a Democrat, especially one from Nashville. In November, Bredesen narrowly defeated Hilleary, 837,284 votes to 786,803. First term Bredesen became governor amid a fiscal crisis, with a predicted state budget shortfall of $800 million. Much of the shortfall was due to TennCare, which was $650 million over budget. Sundquist had hoped to remedy the budget shortfall by implementing an income tax, but this proved wildly unpopular and was never enacted. Bredesen argued that services would have to be cut, saying, "you can't have Massachusetts services and Tennessee taxes." In 2003, he signed a 9% across-the-board spending cut. In 2004, he enacted a series of changes to TennCare, essentially removing 191,000 Medicaid-eligible patients and reducing benefits. By 2006, these changes had reduced the program's cost by more than $500 million. Bredesen used some of the savings to establish a "safety net" for health clinics affected by the cuts. In 2006, he implemented "Cover Tennessee" to cover people with preexisting conditions and the uninsured. During his first term, Bredesen enacted a number of measures aimed at improving education. In 2003, the state established the Tennessee Lottery to fund college scholarships for the state's high school graduates. Teachers' pay was raised above the average salary in the Southeast, and Tennessee's pre-kindergarten initiative was expanded to include a statewide program for four-year-olds. Bredesen created the Governor's Books from Birth Foundation, a statewide expansion of Dolly Parton's Imagination Library that offers free books for children, and in his fourth year, he signed legislation that increased funding for education by $366.5 million, much of which came from savings due to TennCare reform. To attract new industry, Bredesen worked with the General Assembly to reform Tennessee's worker compensation system (changes supported by the business community and opposed by trial lawyers), and invest in programs to help laid-off employees develop new skills. During his tenure, 2,889 companies, including Nissan and International Paper, expanded or moved to Tennessee, bringing more than 104,000 jobs and $12.8 billion in new business investment to the state. Bredesen launched a war on methamphetamine abuse, focusing on treatment, prevention and public awareness, with the Governor's Meth-Free Tennessee initiative. Criminal penalties and resources for law enforcement were also enhanced as part of this program, which led to a 50% decline in illegal and toxic meth labs. In 2005, Bredesen signed legislation establishing the Tennessee Heritage Conservation Trust Fund, which increased the state's land-buying power in hopes of protecting ecologically significant land and conserving or restoring historically significant areas. In his 2006 reelection campaign, Bredesen brushed off a primary challenge from John Jay Hooker, winning nearly 90% of the vote. In the general election, he defeated State Senator Jim Bryson, 1,247,491 votes to 540,853, sweeping all 95 counties and garnering more votes than any gubernatorial candidate in state history. Second term In 2007, Bredesen was criticized for proposing a private donation funded $4.8 million dining room upgrade to entertain lawmakers and other dignitaries to the Tennessee Governor's Mansion. Critics labelled the proposed complex "Bredesen's Bunker," and derided it as too elaborate and expensive. In August 2008, Bredesen enacted further cuts to TennCare, placing restrictions on services to 10,800 TennCare patients who received some type of home nursing care. The new limits affected about 1,000 of those patients. In the 2008 elections, Republicans gained control of both chambers of the General Assembly for the first time since Reconstruction. The onset of the Great Recession also limited what Bredesen could accomplish during his remaining years in office. In 2009, he called for nearly $129 million in state spending cuts and enacted a voluntary buyout for state employees that reduced the workforce by 5% without requiring layoffs. In April 2009, Bredesen signed a bill into law which eliminated thumbprint requirements for gun purchases. In May 2009, Bredesen vetoed a bill that would have allowed people to carry guns in bars, but the legislature overrode his veto. In June 2009, Bredesen signed a bill into law allowing loaded guns in cars. Post-governorship Since leaving the governor's office in 2011, Bredesen has been the chairman of a solar energy plant developer. Viewed by many as a moderate Democrat based in the South, Bredesen was touted as a potential presidential candidate in 2008, but he said he had no interest in joining the wide field of Democrats seeking the nomination. He did not comment on joining a Democratic ticket as Vice President of the United States. On June 4, 2008, Bredesen endorsed Barack Obama for U.S. President. Following the withdrawal of former Senator Tom Daschle as nominee for United States Secretary of Health and Human Services in the Obama Administration, The Atlantic correspondent Marc Ambinder reported that Bredesen was being vetted as a possible replacement. Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius was eventually chosen for the post. 2018 U.S. Senate campaign On September 26, 2017, incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Bob Corker announced he would not seek reelection in 2018. On December 6, 2017, Bredesen announced that he would run for Corker's open seat. Bredesen won the Democratic primary on August 2, 2018, with 348,302 votes (91.50%). Marsha Blackburn won the Republican primary on the same day. In April 2018, Corker said that Bredesen was "a very good mayor, a very good governor, a very good business person" with "real appeal" and "crossover appeal", and that the two of them had cooperated well over the years, but that he would vote for Blackburn and contribute to her campaign. Corker said that he would not campaign against Bredesen. After Corker's praise for Bredesen, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell warned Corker that such comments could cost the Republican Party its Senate majority. Shortly after Corker's comments, President Donald Trump tweeted an endorsement of Marsha Blackburn, who was running for the Republican nomination in the Senate race. During the campaign, Trump attacked Bredesen. According to Politico, Bredesen represents a "center-right coalition" including "Chamber of Commerce-type Republicans." During the campaign, Bredesen said that he opposed Trump's tariff policy, saying that the tariffs amounted to a tax on Tennesseans and "they will drive up prices, hurt our economy and will cost jobs, especially in our important automotive sector". Bredesen praised Corker for publicly opposing Trump's tariff policy. In October 2018, singer-songwriter Taylor Swift endorsed Bredesen. The endorsement was notable because Swift had never been publicly political before. She said Blackburn's "voting record in Congress appalls and terrifies me" and shared a link to the nonpartisan voter registration website Vote.org, which saw a significant spike in page views and new registrations. Blackburn defeated Bredesen in the November 6 election. Although polls showed the race to be close for much of the cycle, Blackburn pulled ahead after the confirmation hearings for Justice Brett Kavanaugh, which are believed to have mobilized Republican voters. In the general election, Bredesen lost by just over ten points, taking 43.9 percent of the vote to Blackburn's 54.7 percent. He carried only three counties — Davidson, Shelby and Haywood. The race was called for Blackburn less than half an hour after the polls closed. Political positions Bredesen has been described as a moderate Democrat. According to The Tennessean, he is a "political moderate", "known for his middle-of-the-road, fiscally conservative politics" and has "occasionally irritated liberals in his party". On The Issues, a nonpartisan and nonprofit organization that examines politicians' records and statements, identifies Bredesen as a "moderate populist conservative". According to the Political Encyclopedia of U.S. States and Regions, Bredesen has embraced both fiscal conservatism and social liberalism "in a way that has a broad appeal to voters across the political spectrum". In his 2018 Senate campaign, Bredesen ran on a moderate platform. The New York Times wrote of Bredesen's 2018 campaign that "in an indication of how precarious it can be to run statewide as a Democrat in the South, he also made no mention of his party and did not refer to President Trump by name." Social issues Bredesen has said the Affordable Care Act "needs fixing." In 2018, he said, "I was not a fan of the Affordable Care Act but when it passed, I said, 'it's the law of the land, let's make it work.'" Bredesen is pro-choice on abortion. He supports legal access to abortion, but does not consider it a defining issue of his platform. He supported a state constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage in 2006, but supported the right of same-sex couples to adopt children. He supports non-discrimination protections for same-sex couples. Bredesen is a supporter of capital punishment. Bredesen had an A rating from the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) as governor, but in 2018, the NRA gave him a D rating. During his Senate campaign, he has expressed his support for the 2nd Amendment and described himself as a gun owner. His campaign disagrees with the D rating and has responded that Bredesen "agrees with 80-plus percent of NRA's positions [but] differs, for example, by supporting gun show background checks." In the wake of the February 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Bredesen called for universal background checks for gun purchases (including those made at gun shows), tighter checks for mental illness, and a ban on bump stocks. As governor, he vetoed bills to allow guns in bars or restaurants that serve alcohol. He also signed into law a bill allowing gun owners with handgun permits to carry their firearms in public parks. In 2009, Bredesen said he would not veto a bill exempting certain firearms from federal regulations, allowing the bill to become law without his signature, but he had vetoed a similar bill earlier (his veto was overridden). Regarding immigration issues, Bredesen has taken positions that are commonly associated with both parties. In 2004, Bredesen introduced a bill to "end the practice of issuing state drivers' licenses to undocumented persons." He supports DACA for undocumented immigrants brought to the US as children. Judicial nominees In October 2018, Bredesen broke with the Democratic Party and endorsed the confirmation of Trump's second Supreme Court nominee, Brett Kavanaugh. The endorsement came the day before the final confirmation vote on the nomination. Economic and fiscal issues On fiscal issues, Bredesen leans conservative. He ran for governor opposing the state income tax and as governor made cuts to the state's government health care plan due to its financial trouble. Bredesen opposed the Republican Party's 2017 tax reform, saying it provided "crumbs" to the middle class. As governor, he proposed increasing taxes on cigarettes. In 2007, he expressed uncertainty about the Bush tax cuts stating they would not help everyone. He also sought to eliminate the grocery tax break arguing that funding was needed for the state's budget. He did not raise the sales tax and opposed raising taxes on gas, but did support increasing a tax on cable services. He supports an increase in the minimum wage. Personal life Bredesen married Susan Cleaves in 1968. They divorced in 1974 and had no children. Later that year, he married Andrea Conte in Wheatley, Oxfordshire, England. The two have one son, Ben. As of 2018, Bredesen's net worth was estimated to be between $88.9 million and $358 million. Bredesen is a founding member of the nonprofit Nashville's Table and he served on the board of the Frist Center. Electoral history References External links - official campaign site \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1943 births 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American politicians American Presbyterians Democratic Party governors of Tennessee Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Harvard College alumni Heads of county government in Tennessee Living people Mayors of Nashville, Tennessee People from Oceanport, New Jersey Politicians from Rochester, New York Candidates in the 2018 United States Senate elections
419056	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EA%20Sports	EA Sports	EA Sports is a division of Electronic Arts that develops and publishes sports video games. Formerly a marketing gimmick of Electronic Arts, in which they tried to imitate real-life sports networks by calling themselves the "EA Sports Network" (EASN) with pictures or endorsements with real commentators such as John Madden, it soon grew up to become a sub-label on its own, releasing game series such as EA Sports FC, PGA Tour, NHL, NBA Live, and Madden NFL. Most games under this brand are developed by EA Vancouver, the Electronic Arts studio in Burnaby, British Columbia as well as EA Tiburon in Maitland, Florida. The main rival to EA Sports is 2K Sports. Notably, both companies compete over the realm of NBA games, with 2K releasing the NBA 2K series. Konami is its rival in association football games with their own series, eFootball. For several years after the brand was created, all EA Sports games began with a stylized five-second video introducing the brand with Andrew Anthony voicing its motto, "It's in the game", meaning that its games aimed at simulating the actual sports as authentically and completely as possible; Anthony was never compensated for his appearance and did it merely as a favour to a friend. Unlike some other sports game companies, EA Sports has no special ties to a single platform, which means that all games are released for the best-selling active platforms, sometimes long after most of the other companies abandon them. For example, FIFA 98, Madden NFL 98, NBA Live 98, and NHL 98 were released for the Sega Genesis and the Super NES throughout 1997; Madden NFL 2005 and FIFA 2005 had PlayStation releases in 2004 (FIFA 2005 and Madden NFL 2005 were also the last two PlayStation titles to be released); and NCAA Football 08 had an Xbox release in 2007. Madden NFL 08 also had Xbox and GameCube releases in 2007, and was the final title released for the GameCube, with Madden NFL 09 following as the final Xbox title. Additionally, NASCAR Thunder 2003 and NASCAR Thunder 2004 were released not only for the PlayStation 2, but for the original PlayStation as well. EA Sports brand name is used to sponsor English Football League Two team Swindon Town F.C. from the 2009–10 season onward and the EA Sports Cup in the Republic of Ireland. In July 2021, hackers who breached Electronic Arts in June 2021, have released the entire cache of stolen data after failing to extort the company and later sell the stolen files to a third-party buyer. Prior to the start of the 2023–24 season, EA Sports signed with the Spanish football league association, Liga Nacional de Fútbol Profesional to sponsor both first and second tier competitions which were under the title name, "LaLiga EA Sports" and "LaLiga Hypermotion" for five seasons with the €30 million a year deal. In June 2023, EA announced a restructuring of the company, having EA Entertainment and EA Sports as two separate divisions inside the business, with Cam Weber becoming the president of the division. History Exclusivity deals In 2003, EA purchased the license to NASCAR for six years, ending competition from Papyrus and Infogrames. The NASCAR license expired in 2009 and the NASCAR license would be owned by Polyphony Digital for the Gran Turismo series starting with Gran Turismo 5, and also Eutechnyx for NASCAR The Game series from 2011 to 2015. On December 13, 2004, EA Sports signed an exclusive deal with the National Football League (NFL) and its Players' Union for five years. On February 12, 2008, EA Sports announced the extension of its exclusive deal until the 2012 NFL season. Less than a month after the NFL Exclusive deal on January 11, 2005, EA Sports signed a four-year exclusive deal with the Arena Football League (AFL). On April 11, 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and EA Sports signed a deal to grant EA Sports the sole rights to produce college football games for six years. EA lost the rights for Major League Baseball (MLB) games to 2K Sports in 2005, ending EA's MVP series; however, EA made NCAA Baseball games in 2006 and 2007 after losing the MLB license. In January 2008, EA Sports decided not to renew their NCAA College Baseball license while they evaluated the status of their MVP game engine. In 2005, EA Sports and ESPN signed a massive 15-year deal for ESPN to be integrated into EA Sports video games from 2K Sports and Sega. EA's use of the ESPN license has steadily increased over the early life of the deal. EA's early usage of the ESPN license began with ESPN Radio and a sports ticker in titles like Madden NFL, NBA Live, Tiger Woods PGA Tour, and NCAA Baseball and Football. The ESPN integration now includes streaming podcasts, text articles (including content only available previously to ESPN Insider subscribers), and ESPN Motion video (including such programs as Pardon the Interruption). The federal district case O'Bannon v. NCAA, decided in 2014, involved the rights of college athletes to be able to control their likelinesses in downstream products from NCAA properties. The case specifically concerned EA's NCAA Basketball 09 when it was first filed in 2009, leading EA to abandon the NCAA Basketball line that year. The case was ruled in favor of the college athletes, which made licensing of these for EA's games more difficult. While EA had continued the NCAA Football series, the NCAA terminated its license agreement with EA in 2013 due to several factors, including the O'Bannon case as well as issues over comparable licensing fees to the professional sports games. On June 4, 2012, EA signed a "multi-year, multi-product" partnership with the Ultimate Fighting Championship, taking over from THQ. Following the release of Rory McIlroy PGA Tour in 2015, EA Sports announced that they would end its PGA Tour series after 25 years, with the said game was pulled from digital storefronts in May 2018. 2K Sports announced that they would assume their licensing agreement with the PGA Tour beginning with the release of The Golf Club 2019 featuring PGA Tour in 2018. The NFL, the NFL's Players' Association, and EA confirmed its exclusivity contract for NFL sports simulation games in May 2020, lasting through at the 2025–2026 NFL season with an optional one-year extension. The new contract allows EA to develop NFL games outside of the typical EA Madden titles, including for mobile games. In February 2021, EA announced it was returning to college sports with a EA College Football game to be released within the next couple of years. As planned, the game will not use any player likenesses, but instead bypasses the issues with the NCAA by licensing all other branding related to college football such as team names, uniforms, and stadiums through the Collegiate Licensing Company, as at the time of the announcement, the NCAA had not yet reached definitive rules on appropriate payment to players for their likeliness. If such rules are established by the time of the game's release, EA said they would then include player likenesses. However, Notre Dame stated that until such rules are in place, they declined to be part of EA's game. At the time of this announcement, EA stated they had no other agreements with other NCAA sports. Later that month, EA purchased Codemasters, developers of the F1 series, therefore reclaiming the rights to publish F1 games. EA acquired Metalhead Software in May 2021, the developers of the Super Mega Baseball series. EA stated that they are looking to taking the core aspects of that series to integrate with licensing from MLB to publish a licensed baseball game again in the future. EA has had deals with FIFA to use the FIFA name and branding for its EA FIFA series, in additional to over 300 separate deals with the leagues and teams for their names, logos, and player likeness rights. According to The New York Times in October 2021, FIFA had started discussions with EA in the prior two years on renewing these rights towards an exclusivity deal but with several caveats that has made negotiations difficult. Among FIFA's requests was increasing the exclusive license fee to over each four-year period between FIFA World Cups, and limiting the scope of this exclusivity to association football simulation games, while EA wanted to expand the branding into new video game ventures such as esports using the game, an area that FIFA wanted to either keep to themselves or license to other developers to expand their own revenues. FIFA issued a statement following this report that stated they had reached an impasse with EA on the negotiations. FIFA's position was that it has "a duty to support its 211 member associations to fully capitalise on the inherent opportunities that have been emerging over the recent years. As part of this strategy, FIFA also commits to continuing to organise skill-based eSports tournaments under the umbrella of the recently launched FIFAe competition structure and consumer brand." To that end, FIFA believed it was necessary that any license agreement "must involve more than one party controlling and exploiting all rights". EA has considered that abandoning the FIFA name would have little impact on the player experience since the league and team licenses would be unaffected. EA had trademarked EA Sports F.C. as a potential replacement name for the series. The last game released under the FIFA banner was 2022's FIFA 23. On March 2, 2022, EA, along with FIFA, NHL and the NHL Players' Association, the IIHF and F1 announced that they removed any of their names and logo licensing rights involving the Russian and Belarusian teams in both FIFA 22 and NHL 22, citing the recent events related to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. The removals from both games also affected the development of F1 22; with Nikita Mazepin of the Haas F1 Team being replaced by Kevin Magnussen, the Russian Grand Prix being removed from the lineup, and the logos of Mazepin's sponsor Uralkali being removed. PC games For the 2003 game year, and from years 2006 to 2008, EA published compilations of EA Sports titles for Windows Called the "Year Number" Collection. In June 2009, EA Sports announced that for 2010, the games Madden NFL, NCAA Football, NASCAR, NHL, NBA Live, and Tiger Woods PGA Tour would not be shipped for PC platforms. The NCAA Football series had not been released on the PC since 1998, The Tiger Woods series' last PC game was Tiger Woods PGA Tour 08, the NASCAR series had not had a PC version since NASCAR SimRacing in 2005, and the last Madden series' to be released on PC was Madden NFL 08. The NHL series' last PC game was NHL 09. Likewise, NBA Live 08 was the final PC version for NBA Live. The head of EA Sports at that time, Peter Moore, cited piracy and the fact that the "PC as a platform for authentic, licensed, simulation sports games has declined radically in the past three years as the next generation consoles [...] have attracted millions of consumers."] However, the FIFA series continues to be released on PC, and for the first time since 2008, Madden NFL 19 was released for PC. Following EA's purchase with Codemasters, the F1 series would be published by EA on PC. PlayStation Home On April 23, 2009, EA Sports released the long-awaited "EA Sports Complex" space for the PlayStation 3's online community-based service, PlayStation Home in the European and North American versions. In the Complex, users can play a series of mini-games, including poker, kart racing, golf, and it also features a Virtual EA Shop. There are also a number of advertisements for upcoming EA Sports games. Each mini-game that the Complex features has a reward or rewards. Heavy Water, a company dedicated to developing for Home, developed the EA Sports Complex for EA Sports. Originally, the Complex just featured two rooms: the EA Sports Complex and the EA Sports Complex Upstairs. The EA Sports Complex featured racing and had a golfing range that was unavailable to play. The Upstairs had four poker tables that users could play at any time. With the June 18, 2009 update, the Complex's name changed to the EA Sports Racing Complex and the Upstairs changed to the EA Sports Complex Green Poker Room. Other than the name change, the update took away the golfing range and added four more karts for users to play Racing at and it also added one red poker table to the poker room. The July 2, 2009 update added golf and another poker room making four rooms for the Complex; the EA Sports Racing Complex, the EA Sports Golf Complex, the EA Sports Complex Green Poker Room, and the EA Sports Complex Red Poker Room. The Racing Complex features Racing with a total of eight karts; four on each side of the Complex. The Golf Complex features two Practice Ranges for golfing; one range on each side of the Complex. A Golf Pro-shop is coming soon for the Golf Complex. The Green Poker Room featured four green poker tables that users can play anytime. The Red Poker Room featured four red poker tables but requires users to have 2,000 points to play. On July 16, 2009, EA Sports released another room for the Complex making five rooms for the Complex. This room is the game space for Fight Night Round 4 called "Club Fight Night" featuring a mini-game called Club DJ and coming soon, robot boxing. On July 30, 2009, EA Sports added a Black Poker Table to the EA Sports Complex Red Poker Room for the higher level players. In time, there will be a room dedicated for this table just like the Green Poker Room and the Red Poker Room. They also added a fifth green table to the Green Poker Room. The update also included the addition of the EA Sports Pro Shop where users can purchase full boxing outfits and furniture from Fight Night Round 4. The Pro Shop is found in the Racing Complex. The August 16, 2009 update replaced the fifth green table in the Green Poker Room with a red table. They also reduced the number of points for the Black Table from 20,000 to 10,000. The August 27, 2009 update separated the scoreboards for each level of play – Green, Red, and Black – and into Daily boards and Season boards (left side and right side), improved card readability, additional rail seating near the poker tables, player removal on lockup while playing poker, and player buy-in refund on removal (does not refund on Home disconnect) while playing poker. On October 9, 2009, EA Sports released the EA Sports Complex to the Japanese version of Home. They also released NFL jerseys for every team in the league for purchase inside of the EA Sports Complex and in Home's shopping complex. EA Sports have also teamed up with the Home team to produce and distribute exclusive virtual items that serve to support National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. 100% of proceeds for these items went go to the Brees Dream Foundation in support of breast cancer research and awareness programs. The items are black jerseys with a pink number 9 on the front and the name Brees on the back also in pink. These jerseys were available from October 15, 2009, to November 25, 2009. On November 5, 2009, for those who purchased the Brees Breast Cancer jersey, they received a free DJ kit that is featured in the Club Fight Night space by entering one of the two EA Sports Complex poker rooms between November 5, 2009, and November 25, 2009. On November 25, 2009, Fight Night Round 4 producers Mike Mahar and Brian Hayes were in Home between the hours of 4:00pm and 5:00pm PT (7:00pm and 8:00pm EST), for a live chat with the PlayStation Home community in one instance of the Club Fight Night space. On January 7, 2010, EA Sports released NCAA college football jerseys in the EA Sports Complex and in Home's shopping complex. On August 2, 2011, EA Sports launched the EA Sports Season Ticket subscription service. It was discontinued in 2015 and it was replaced with the similar EA Access service. Franchises Most EA Sports games are distinguished by year, as most games are released on a yearly basis. Nevertheless, as EA Sports is the leading purchaser of official licenses, it is not uncommon that in a short span several games of the same sport but with different licenses are released: FIFA: Road to World Cup 98 was shortly followed by World Cup 98, all in the wake of FIFA Soccer Manager in 1997 (as EA has owned the license for the FIFA World Cup, which happens regularly in four-year intervals, since 1998), and college football and basketball games are released that are based on Madden NFL and NBA Live, respectively. Former References External links 1991 establishments in California American companies established in 1991 American brands Electronic Arts Video game publishing brands Video game companies established in 1991
419084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad%20ibn%20Hanbal	Ahmad ibn Hanbal	Saahibul Hadith Imam Ul Adham Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-Dhuhli (; November 780 – 2 August 855 CE/164–241 AH), was a Muslim jurist, theologian, ascetic, hadith traditionist, and founder of the Hanbali school of Sunni jurisprudence — one of the four major orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam. The most highly influential and active scholar during his lifetime, Ibn Hanbal went on to become "one of the most venerated" intellectual figures in Islamic history, who has had a "profound influence affecting almost every area of" the traditionalist perspective within Sunni Islam. One of the foremost classical proponents of relying on scriptural sources as the basis for Sunni Islamic law and way of life, Ibn Hanbal compiled one of the most important Sunni hadith collections, the Musnad, which has continued to exercise considerable influence in the field of hadith studies up to the present time. Having studied fiqh and hadith under many teachers during his youth, Ibn Hanbal became famous in his later life for the crucial role he played in the Mihna, the inquisition instituted by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun towards the end of his reign, in which the ruler gave official state support to the Muʿtazilite dogma of the Quran being created, a view that contradicted the orthodox doctrine of the Quran being the eternal, uncreated Word of God. Living in poverty throughout his lifetime working as a baker and suffering physical persecution under the caliphs for his unflinching adherence to the traditional doctrine, Ibn Hanbal's fortitude in this particular event only bolstered his "resounding reputation" in the annals of Sunni history. Throughout Sunni Islamic history, Ibn Hanbal was venerated as an exemplary figure in all the traditional schools of Sunni thought, both by the exoteric ulema and by the mystics, with the latter often designating him as a saint in their hagiographies. The fourteenth-century hadith master al-Dhahabi referred to Ibn Hanbal as "the true Shaykh of Islām and leader of the Muslims in his time, the ḥadīth master and Proof of the Religion." In the modern era, Ibn Hanbal's name has become controversial in certain quarters of the Islamic world, because the Hanbali reform movement known as Wahhabism has cited him as a principal influence along with the thirteenth-century Hanbali reformer Ibn Taymiyyah. However it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism," as there is evidence, according to the same authors, that "the older Hanbalite authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of the Wahhabis," rich as medieval Hanbali literature is in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics. In this connection, scholars have cited Ibn Hanbal's own support for the use of relics as simply one of several important points upon which the theologian's opinions diverged from those of Wahhabism. Other scholars maintain that Ahmād Ibn Hānbal was "the distant progenitor of Wahhābism" who also immensely inspired the conservative reform movement of Salafiyya. Biography Early life and family Ahmad ibn Hanbal's family was originally from Basra, Iraq, and belonged to the Arab Banu Dhuhl tribe. His father was an officer in the Abbasid army in Khurasan and later settled with his family in Baghdad, where Ahmad was born in 780 CE. Ibn Hanbal had two wives and several children, including an older son, who later became a judge in Isfahan. Education and work Ahmad studied extensively in Baghdad, and later traveled to further his education. He started learning jurisprudence (Fiqh) under the celebrated Hanafi judge, Abu Yusuf, the renowned student and companion of Imaam Abu Hanifah. After finishing his studies with Abu Yusuf, ibn Hanbal began traveling through Iraq, Syria, and Arabia to collect hadiths, or traditions of Muhammad. Ibn al-Jawzi states that Imam Ahmad had 414 Hadith masters whom he narrated from. With this knowledge, he became a leading authority on the hadith, leaving an immense encyclopedia of hadith, Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal. After several years of travel, he returned to Baghdad to study Islamic law under Al-Shafi'i. Ahmad became a mufti in his old age, and founded the Hanbali madhab, or school of Islamic law, which is now most dominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Unlike the other three schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi), the Hanbali madhab remained largely traditionalist or Athari in theology. In addition to his scholastic enterprises, ibn Hanbal was a soldier on the Islamic frontiers (Ribat) and made Hajj five times in his life, twice on foot. Death Ibn Hanbal died on Friday, 12 Rabi-ul-awwal, 241 AH/ 2 August, 855 at the age of 74–75 in Baghdad, Iraq. Historians relate that his funeral was attended by 800,000 men and 60,000 women and that 20,000 Christians and Jews converted to Islam on that day. His qabr (grave) is located in the premises of the Imam Ahmad Bin Hanbal Shrine in Ar-Rusafa District. The Mihna Ibn Hanbal was known to have been called before the Inquisition or Mihna of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun. Al-Ma'mun wanted to assert the religious authority of the Caliph by pressuring scholars to adopt the Mu'tazila view that the Qur'an was created rather than uncreated. According to Sunni tradition, ibn Hanbal was among the scholars to resist the Caliph's interference and the Mu'tazili doctrine of a created Qur'an. Ibn Hanbal's stand against the inquisition by the Mu'tazila (who had been the ruling authority at the time) led to the Hanbali school establishing itself firmly as not only a school of fiqh (legal jurisprudence), but of theology as well. Due to his refusal to accept Mu'tazilite authority, ibn Hanbal was imprisoned in Baghdad throughout the reign of al-Ma'mun. In an incident during the rule of al-Ma'mun's successor, al-Mu'tasim, ibn Hanbal was flogged to unconsciousness. However, this caused upheaval in Baghdad and al-Mu'tasim was forced to release ibn Hanbal. After al-Mu’tasim's death, al-Wathiq became caliph and continued his predecessor's policies of Mu'tazilite enforcement and in this pursuit, he banished ibn Hanbal from Baghdad. It was only after al-Wathiq's death and the ascent of his brother al-Mutawakkil, who was much friendlier to the more traditional Sunni beliefs, that ibn Hanbal was welcomed back to Baghdad. Views and thought Ibn Hanbal's principal doctrine is what later came to be known as "traditionalist thought," which emphasized the acceptance of only the Quran and hadith as the foundations of orthodox belief. He did, however, believe that it was only a select few who were properly authorized to interpret the sacred texts. Theology God Ibn Hanbal understood the perfect definition of God to be that given in the Quran, whence he held that proper belief in God constituted believing in the description which God had given of Himself in the Islamic scripture. To begin with, Ibn Hanbal asserted that God was both Unique and Absolute and absolutely incomparable to anything in the world of His creatures. As for the various divine attributes, Ibn Hanbal believed that all the regular attributes of God, such as hearing, sight, speech, omnipotence, will, wisdom, the vision by the believers on the day of resurrection etc., were to be literally affirmed as "realities" (ḥaqq). As for those attributes called "ambiguous" (mutas̲h̲ābih), such as those which spoke of God's hand, face, throne, and omnipresence, vision by the believers on the day of resurrection, etc. they were to be understood in the same manner. Ibn Hanbal treated those verses in the scriptures with apparently anthropomorphic descriptions as muhkamat (clear) verses; admitting to only a literal meaning. Furthermore, Ibn Hanbal "rejected the negative theology (taʿṭīl) of the Jahmiyya and their particular allegorizing exegesis (taʾwīl) of the Quran and of tradition, and no less emphatically criticized the anthropomorphism (tas̲h̲bīh) of the Mus̲h̲abbiha, amongst whom he included, in the scope of his polemics, the Jahmiyya as unconscious anthropomorphists." Ibn Hanbal was also a critic of overt and unnecessary speculation in matters of theology; he believed that it was fair to worship God "without the 'mode' of the theologoumena (bilā kayf), and felt it was wise to leave to God the understanding of His own mystery. Thus, Ibn Hanbal became a strong proponent of the bi-lā kayfa formula. This mediating principle allowed the traditionalists to deny ta'wil (figurative interpretations) of the apparently anthropomorphic texts while concomitantly affirming the doctrine of the "incorporeal, transcendent deity". Although he argued for literalist meanings of the Qur'anic and prophetic statements about God, Ibn Hanbal was not a fideist and was willing to engage in hermeneutical exercises. The rise of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the Ashab al-Hadith, whose cause he championed, during the Mihna; would mark the stage for the empowerment and centering of corporealist ideas in the Sunnite orthodoxy. Ibn Hanbal also recognized "Divine Form (Al-Şūrah)" as a true attribute of God. He disagreed with those speculative theologians who interpreted the Divine Form as something that represents pseudo-divinities such as the sun, moon, stars, etc. For Ibn Hanbal, to deny that God truly has a Form is Kufr (disbelief). He also believed that God created Adam "according to His form". Censuring those who alleged that this was referring to the form of Adam, Ibn Hanbal asserted: "He who says that Allah created Adam according to the form of Adam, he is a Jahmi (disbeliever). Which form did Adam have before He created him?" The Quran One of Ibn Hanbal's most famous contributions to Sunni thought was the considerable role he played in bolstering the orthodox doctrine of the Quran being the "uncreated Word of God" (kalām Allāh g̲h̲ayr mak̲h̲lūḳ). By "Quran," Ibn Hanbal understood "not just an abstract idea but the Quran with its letters, words, expressions, and ideas—the Quran in all its living reality, whose nature in itself," according to Ibn Hanbal, eluded human comprehension. Taqlid Ahmad ibn Hanbal favoured Ijtihad and rejected Taqlid; the practise of blind adherence to madhabs (legal schools). Ahmad ibn Hanbal's staunch condemnation of Taqlid is reported in Hanbali Qadi 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hassan's treatise (1196-1285 A.H / 1782-1868 C.E) Fath al-Majeed. Comparing Taqlid to Shirk (polytheism), ibn Hanbal states: "I am amazed at those people who know that a Sanad (i.e. Chain of Transmission) is authentic and yet, in spite of this, they follow the opinion of Sufyan, for Allah (Glorified be He), says: {And let those who oppose the Messenger's commandment (i.e. his Sunnah - legal ways, orders, acts of worship, statements) (among the sects) beware, lest some Fitnah (disbelief, trials, afflictions, earthquakes, killing, overpowered by a tyrant) should befall them or a painful torment be inflicted on them}. (An-Nur: 63) Do you know what that Fitnah is? That Fitnah is Shirk (polytheism). Maybe the rejection of some of his words would cause one to doubt and deviate in his heart and thereby be destroyed." Intercession It is narrated by Abū Bakr al-Marwazī in his Mansak that Ibn Hanbal preferred one to make tawassul or "intercession" through Muhammad in every supplication, with the wording: "O God! I am turning to Thee with Thy Prophet, the Prophet of Mercy. O Muhammad! I am turning with you to my Lord for the fulfillment of my need." This report is repeated in many later Hanbali works, in the context of personal supplication as an issue of jurisprudence. Ibn Qudamah, for example, recommends it for the obtainment of need in his Wasiyya. In the same way, Ibn Taymiyyah cites the Hanbali fatwa on the desirability of Muhammad's intercession in every personal supplication in his Qāida fil-Tawassul wal-Wasiīla where he attributes it to "Imām Ahmad and a group of the pious ancestors" from the Mansak of al-Marwazī as his source. Mysticism As there exist historical sources indicating patently "mystical elements in his personal piety" and documented evidence of his amiable interactions with numerous early Sufi saints, including Maruf Karkhi, it is recognized that Ibn Hanbal's relationship with many of the Sufis was one of mutual respect and admiration. Qadi Abu Ya'la reports in his Tabaqat: "[Ibn Hanbal] used to greatly respect the Sūfīs and show them kindness and generosity. He was asked about them and was told that they sat in mosques constantly to which he replied, 'Knowledge made them sit.'" Furthermore, it is in Ibn Hanbal's Musnad that we find most of the hadith reports concerning the abdal, forty major saints "whose number [according to Islamic mystical doctrine] would remain constant, one always being replaced by some other on his death" and whose key role in the traditional Sufi conception of the celestial hierarchy would be detailed by later mystics such as Hujwiri and Ibn Arabi. It has been reported that Ibn Hanbal explicitly identified Maruf Karkhi as one of the abdal, saying: "He is one of the Substitute-Saints, and his supplication is answered." Of the same Sufi, Ibn Hanbal later asked rhetorically: "Is religious knowledge anything else than what Maruf has achieved?" Additionally, there are accounts of Ibn Hanbal extolling the early ascetic saint Bishr the Barefoot and his sister as two exceptional devotees of God, and of his sending people with mystical questions to Bishr for guidance. It is also recorded that Ibn Hanbal said, with regard to the early Sufis, "I do not know of any people better than them." Moreover, there are accounts of Ibn Hanbal's son, Sālih, being exhorted by his father to go and study under the Sufis. According to one tradition, Sālih said: "My father would send for me whenever a self-denier or ascetic (zāhid aw mutaqashshif) visited him so I could look at him. He loved for me to become like this." As for the Sufis' reception of Ibn Hanbal, it is evident that he was "held in high regard" by all the major Sufis of the classical and medieval periods, and later Sufi chroniclers often designated the jurist as a saint in their hagiographies, praising him both for his legal work and for his appreciation of Sufi doctrine. Hujwiri, for example, wrote of him: "He was distinguished by devoutness and piety ... Sufis of all orders regard him as blessed. He associated with great Shaykhs, such as Dhul-Nun of Egypt, Bishr al-Hafi, Sari al-Saqati, Maruf Karkhi, and others. His miracles were manifest and his intelligence sound ... He had a firm belief in the principles of religion, and his creed was approved by all the [theologians]." Both non-Hanbali and Hanbali Sufi hagiographers such as Hujwiri and Ibn al-Jawzi, respectively, also alluded to Ibn Hanbal's own gifts as a miracle worker and of the blessedness of his grave. For example, Ibn Hanbal's own body was traditionally held to have been blessed with the miracle of incorruptibility, with Ibn al-Jawzi relating: "When the Prophet's descendant Abū Ja'far ibn Abī Mūsā was buried next to him, Ahmad ibn Hanbal's tomb was exposed. His corpse had not putrified and the shroud was still whole and undecayed." Although there is a perception that Ibn Hanbal or his school were somehow adverse to Sufism, scholars such as Eric Geoffrey have asserted that this opinion is more partial than objective, for there is no proof that the Hanbali school "[attacked] Sufism in itself any more than any other school," and it is evident that "during the first centuries some major Sufis [such as Ibn Ata Allah, Hallaj, and Abdullah Ansari] ... followed the Hanbalite school of law." By the twelfth-century, the relationship between Hanbalism and Sufism was so close that one of the most prominent Hanbali jurists, Abdul Qadir Jilani, was also simultaneously the most famous Sufi of his era, and the Tariqa that he founded, the Qadiriyya, has continued to remain one of the most widespread Sufi orders up until the present day. Even later Hanbali authors who were famous for criticizing some of the "deviances" of certain heterodox Sufi orders of their day, such as Ibn Qudamah, Ibn al-Jawzi, and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, all belonged to Abdul Qadir Jilani's order themselves, and never condemned Sufism outright. Relics As has been noted by scholars, it is evident that Ibn Hanbal "believed in the power of relics," and supported the seeking of blessing through them in religious veneration. Indeed, several accounts of Ibn Hanbal's life relate that he often carried "a purse ... in his sleeve containing ... hairs from the Prophet." Furthermore, Ibn al-Jawzi relates a tradition narrated by Ibn Hanbal's son, Abdullah ibn Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who recalled his father's devotion towards relics thus: "I saw my father take one of the Prophet's hairs, place it over his mouth, and kiss it. I may have seen him place it over his eyes, and dip it in water and then drink the water for a cure." In the same way, Ibn Hanbal also drunk from Muhammad's bowl (technically a "second-class" relic) in order to seek blessings from it, and considered touching and kissing the sacred minbar of Muhammad for blessings a permissible and pious act. Ibn Hanbal later ordered that he be buried with Muhammad's hairs he possessed, "one on each eye and a third on his tongue." Sufi scholar Gibril Haddad reports from al-Dhahabi that Ibn Hanbal "used to seek blessings from the relics of the Prophet." Citing the aforementioned report of Ibn Hanbal's devotion towards Muhammad's hair, al-Dhahabī then goes onto staunchly criticize whoever finds fault with the practices of tabarruk or seeking blessings from holy relics, saying: "Where is the quibbling critic of Imām Ahmad now? It is also authentically established that Abd Allāh [Ibn Hanbal's son] asked his father about those who touch the pommel of Muhammad's pulpit and touch the wall of his room, and he said: 'I do not see any harm in it.' May God protect us and you from the opinion of the dissenters and from innovations!" When asked by his son Abdullah about the legitimacy of touching and kissing Muhammad's grave in Medina, Ibn Hanbal is said to have approved of both these acts as being permissible according to sacred law. Jurisprudence According to Hanbali scholar Najm al-Din Tufi (d. 716 A.H/ 1316 C.E), Ahmad ibn Hanbal did not formulate a legal theory; since "his entire concern was with hadith and its collection". More than a century after Ahmad's death, Hanbali legalism would emerge as a distinct school; due to the efforts of jurists like Abu Bakr al-Athram (d. 261 A.H/ 874 C.E), Harb al-Kirmani (d. 280 A.H/ 893 C.E), 'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad (d. 290 A.H/903 C.E), Abu Bakr al-Khallal (d. 311 A.H/ 923 C.E) etc., who compiled Ahmad's various legal verdicts. Independent reasoning by muftis Ibn Hanbal also had a strict criterion for ijtihad or independent reasoning in matters of law by muftis and the ulema. One story narrates that Ibn Hanbal was asked by Zakariyyā ibn Yaḥyā al-Ḍarīr about "how many memorized ḥadīths are sufficient for someone to be a mufti [meaning a mujtahid jurist or one capable of issuing independently-reasoned fatwas]." According to the narrative, Zakariyyā asked: "Are one-hundred thousand sufficient?" to which Ibn Hanbal responded in the negative, with Zakariyyā asking if two-hundred thousand were, to which he received the same response from the jurist. Thus, Zakariyyā kept increasing the number until, at five-hundred thousand, Ibn Hanbal said: "I hope that that should be sufficient." As a result, it has been argued that Ibn Hanbal disapproved of independent reasoning by those muftis who were not absolute masters in law and jurisprudence. Misusing ahadith Ibn Hanbal narrated from Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā al-Qaṭṭān that the latter said: "If someone were to follow every rukhṣa [dispensation] that is in the ḥadīth, he would become a transgressor (fāsiq)." It is believed that he quoted this on account of the vast number of forged traditions of Muhammad. Private interpretation Ibn Hanbal appears to have been a formidable opponent of "private interpretation," and actually held that it was only the religious scholars who were qualified to properly interpret the holy texts. One of the creeds attributed to Ibn Hanbal opens with: "Praise be to God, who in every age and interval between prophets (fatra) elevated learned men possessing excellent qualities, who call upon him who goes astray (to return) to the right way." It has been pointed out that this particular creed "explicitly opposes the use of personal judgement (raʾy) ... [as basis] of jurisprudence." Ethics Differences of opinion Ibn Hanbal was praised both in his own life and afterwards for his "serene acceptance of juridicial divergences among the various schools of Islamic law". According to later notable scholars of the Hanbali school like Ibn Aqil and Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Hanbal "considered every madhhab correct and abhorred that a jurist insist people follow his even if he considered them wrong and even if the truth is one in any given matter."<ref>Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007), p. 306; see Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmū' al-Fatāwā, 20:365</ref> As such, when Ibn Hanbal's student Ishāq ibn Bahlūl al-Anbārī had "compiled a book on juridicial differences ... which he had named The Core of Divergence (Lubāb al-Ikhtilāf)," Ibn Hanbal advised him to name the work The Book of Leeway (Kitāb al-Sa'a) instead. Works The following books are found in Ibn al-Nadim's Fihrist: Usool as-Sunnah: "Foundations of the Prophetic Tradition (in Belief)" as-Sunnah: "The Prophet Tradition (in Belief)" Kitab al-`Ilal wa Ma‘rifat al-Rijal: "The Book of Narrations Containing Hidden Flaws and of Knowledge of the Men (of Hadeeth)" Riyad: Al-Maktabah al-Islamiyyah Kitab al-Manasik: "The Book of the Rites of Hajj" Kitab al-Zuhd: "The Book of Abstinence" ed. Muhammad Zaghlul, Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, 1994 Kitab al-Iman: "The Book of Faith" Kitab al-Masa'il: "Issues in Fiqh" Kitab al-Ashribah: "The Book of Drinks" Kitab al-Fada'il Sahaba: "Virtues of the Companions" Kitab Tha'ah al-Rasul : "The Book of Obedience to the Messenger" Kitab Mansukh: "The Book of Abrogation" Kitab al-Fara'id: "The Book of Obligatory Duties" Kitab al-Radd `ala al-Zanadiqa wa'l-Jahmiyya: "Refutations of the Heretics and the Jahmites" (Cairo: 1973) Tafsir: "Exegesis" Musnad Ahmad ibn HanbalHistorical views Ibn Hanbal has been extensively praised for both his work in the field of prophetic tradition (hadith), jurisprudence, and his defense of orthodox Sunni theology. Abdul-Qadir Gilani stated that a Muslim could not truly be a wali of Allah except that they were upon Ibn Hanbal's creed; despite praise from his contemporaries as well, Yahya ibn Ma'in noted that Ibn Hanbal never boasted about his achievements. Jurisprudence There have some alleged views that his juristic views were not always accepted. Qur'anic exegete Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, who at one time had sought to study under Ibn Hanbal, later stated that he did not consider Ibn Hanbal a jurist and gave his views in the field no weight, describing him as an expert in prophetic tradition only. However this must be seen in context of its time, as Ibn Hanbal's school was still at its infancy and not followed by so many people yet compared to the other schools and the students had conflict with Al-Tabari's school. Consider how the Masa'il of Imam Ahmad, i.e. the first written compilation of Ibn Hanbal's question and answers, was written by Abu Bakr al-Khallal who lived around the same time as Al-Tabari, and the first written compilation of Ibn Hanbal's fiqh was Al-Khiraqi who also lived around that same time. The more systematic teaching of Ibn Hanbal's jurisprudence in education facilities only occurred after that point. Likewise, some consider how the Andalusian scholar Ibn 'Abd al-Barr did not include Ibn Hanbal or his views in his book The Hand-Picked Excellent Merits of the Three Great Jurisprudent Imâms about the main representatives of Sunni jurisprudence. However, Ibn 'Abd al-Barr actually has praised Ibn Hanbal's jurisprudence by saying "He is very powerful in the fiqh of the madhab of the ahl al-hadith and he is the Imam of the 'ulama of ahl al-hadith." Be that as it may, the vast majority of other scholars do recognize Ibn Hanbal's prowess as a master jurist worthy of one whose methodology became foundation for its own school of jurisprudence. Imam Shafi'i said, among many other praises, "Ahmad is an Imam in eight fields: he is an imam in hadith, jurisprudence, Al-Qur'an, Al-Lughah, Al-Sunnah, Al-Zuhd, Al-Warak, and Al-Faqr". Al-Dhahabi, one of the most major Islamic biographers, notes in his masterpiece Siyar A'lam Nubala that Ibn Hanbal's status in jurisprudence is alike Al-Layth ibn Sa'd, Malik ibn Anas, Al-Shafi'i, and Abu Yusuf. Muhammad Abu Zahra, a contemporary Hanafi scholar, wrote a book titled Ibn Hanbal: Hayatuhu wa `Asruhu Ara'uhu wa Fiqhuh, and there he mentioned the heavy praises of various other classical scholars towards Ibn Hanbal and his school of jurisprudence. Hadith It is reported that Ibn Hanbal has reached the title of al Hafidh of Hadith according to Jamal al-Din al-Mizzi classification, as the title bestowment were approved by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani that Ibn Hanbal has memorized at least 750,000 hadith during his life, more than Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj who each memorized 300,000 hadith, and Abu Dawud al-Sijistani who memorized 500,000 hadith. Abu Zur'ah mentions that Ibn Hanbal has memorized 1000,000 hadith, 700,000 among them are related to jurisprudence. While according to the classification from Marfu' Hadith of Ibn Abbas which recorded by Al-Tabarani, Ibn Hanbal has reached the rank of Amir al-Mu'minin al-Hadith, a rank that only reached by very few Hadith scholars in history such as Malik ibn Anas, Yahya ibn Ma'in, Hammad ibn Salamah, Ibn al-Mubarak, and Al-Suyuti. Ibn Hanbal's Musnad is not, however, ranked among the Kutub al-Sittah, the six big collections of hadith. In popular culture Ahmad ibn Hanbal was largely depicted in Qatar TV's 2017 Ramadan drama serial "The Imam" starring Mahyar Khaddour in the lead role. See also References Further reading Primary Al-Ājurrī, Kitāb al-Sharīʿa, Beirut 2000 Al-Dhahabī, Siyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ, ed. Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ and Ḥusayn al-Asad, 25 vols., Beirut 1401–9/1981–8 Ibn Abī Yaʿlā, Ṭabaqāt al-ḥanābila, ed. Muḥammad Ḥāmid al-Fiqī, 2 vols., Cairo 1952 Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, al-Masāʾil wa-l-rasāʾil al-marwiyya ʿan al-imām Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, ed. ʿAbdallāh b. Salmān b. Sālim al-Aḥmadī, 2 vols., Riyadh 1991 Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, al-ʿIlal wa-maʿrifat al-rijāl, ed. Waṣiyyallāh b. Muḥammad ʿAbbās, Bombay 1408/1988 Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, Kitāb al-ṣalāh (with a supplement comprising Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya's al-Ṣalāh wa-aḥkām tārikīhā), ed. Zakariyyā ʿAlī Yusūf, Cairo 1971 Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, Kitāb al-zuhd, ed. Muḥammad Jalāl Sharaf, Beirut 1981 Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, al-Musnad lil-imām Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, ed. Aḥmad Muḥammad Shākir, 20 vols., Cairo 1416/1995 Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, al-Radd ʿalā l-zanādiqa wa-l-Jahmiyya, in ʿAlī Sāmī al-Nashshār and ʿAmmār Jumʿī al-Ṭālibī (eds.), ʿAqāʾid al-salaf (Alexandria 1971), 51–103 Ṣāliḥ b. Ḥanbal, Sīrat al-imām Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, ed. Fuʾād ʿAbd al-Munʿim Aḥmad, 2 vols. in one, Alexandria 1401/1981 Ibn al-Jawzī, Manāqib al-imām Aḥmad, ed. ʿĀdil Nuwayhiḍ, Beirut 1393/19732 Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa-l-nihāya, 16 vols., Cairo 1418/1998 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ijtimāʿ al-juyūsh al-islāmiyya, ed. ʿAwwād ʿAbdallāh al-Muʿtaq, Riyadh 1419/1999 Ibn Taymiyya, Darʾ taʿāruḍ al-ʿaql wa-l-naql, ed. Muḥammad Rashād Sālim, 11 vols., Riyadh 1979–81 Abū Nuʿaym al-Iṣfahānī, Ḥilyat al-awliyāʾ wa-ṭabaqāt al-aṣfiyāʾ, 10 vols., Beirut 1409/1988 Marʿī b. Yūsuf al-Karmī, al-Shahāda al-zakiyya fī thanāʾ al-aʾimma ʿalā Ibn Taymiyya, ed. Najm ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Khalaf, Beirut 1404/1984 Abū Bakr al-Khallāl, al-Sunna, ed. ʿAṭiyya al-Zahrānī, 7 vols., Riyadh 1410/1989 Abū Bakr Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥajjāj al-Marwazī, Kitāb al-waraʿ, ed. Samīr b. Amīn al-Zuhayrī, Riyadh 1418/1997. Secondary Binyamin Abrahamov, Islamic theology. Traditionalism and rationalism, Edinburgh 1998 Binyamin Abrahamov, "The bi-lā kayfa doctrine and its foundations in Islamic theology," Arabica 42/1–3 (1995), 365–79 Muḥammad Abū Zahra, Ibn Ḥanbal. Ḥayātuhu wa-ʿaṣruhu wa-fiqhuhu, Cairo 1947 Michael Cooperson, "Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal and Bishr al-Ḥāfī. A case study in biographical traditions," SI 86 (1997/2), 71–101 Michael Cooperson, Classical Arabic biography. The heirs of the prophets in the age of al-Maʾmūn, Cambridge 2000 Daniel Gimaret, "Theories de l'acte humain dans l'école ḥanbalite," BEO 29 (1977), 157–78 Ignáz Goldziher, "Aḥmed b. Muḥammad b. Ḥanbal," EI1 Ignáz Goldziher, Vorlesungen über den Islam, Heidelberg 1910 Gibril F. Haddad, The four imams and their schools, London 2007 Wael B. Hallaq, "Was al-Shafiʿi the master architect of Islamic jurisprudence?," IJMES, 25 (1993), 590 Livnat Holtzman, "Human choice, divine guidance and the fiṭra tradition. The use of ḥadīth in theological treatises by Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya," in Yossef Rapoport and Shahab Ahmed (eds.), Ibn Taymiyya and his times, Karachi 2009 Livnat Holtzman, Predestination (al-qaḍāʾ wa-l-qadar) and free will (al-ikhtiyār) as reflected in the works of the Neo-Ḥanbalites of the fourteenth century, Ph.D. diss., Bar-Ilan University 2003 (in Hebrew) Nimrod Hurvitz, The formation of Ḥanbalism. Piety into power, London 2002 Nimrod Hurvitz, "From scholarly circles to mass movements. The formation of legal communities in Islamic societies," American Historical Review 108/4 (2003), 985–1008 Henri Laoust, "Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal," EI2 Henri Laoust, La profession de foi d'Ibn Baṭṭa, Damascus 1958 Henri Laoust, "Les premières professions de foi ḥanbalites," in Mélanges Louis Massignon (Damascus 1956–7), 3:7–35 Wilferd Madelung, "The origins of the controversy concerning the creation of the Koran," in J. M. Barral (ed.), Orientalia hispanica (Leiden 1974), 1:504–25 George Makdisi, "Ḥanbalite Islam," in Merlin L. Swartz (ed.), Studies on Islam (Oxford 1981), 216–64 Christopher Melchert, "The adversaries of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal," Arabica 44 (1997), 234–53 Christopher Melchert, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Oxford 2006 Christopher Melchert, The formation of the Sunni schools of law, 9th–10th centuries C.E., Leiden 1997 Christopher Melchert, "The Ḥanābila and the early Ṣūfīs," Arabica 48/3 (2001), 352–67 Christopher Melchert, "The Musnad of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal," Der Islam 82 (2005), 32–51 Christopher Melchert, "The piety of the Hadith folk," IJMES 34 (2002), 425–39 John A. Nawas, "A reexamination of three current explanations for al-Maʾmūn's introduction of the miḥna," IJMES 26 (1994), 615–29 Walter M. Patton, Aḥmed ibn Ḥanbal and the miḥna, Leiden 1897 Muḥammad Z. Siddiqi, Ḥadīth literature, ed. and revised by Abdal Hakim Murad, Cambridge 1993 Morris S. Seale, Muslim theology. A study of origins with reference to the Church Fathers, London 1964 Susan Spectorsky, "Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal's fiqh," JAOS 102/3 (1982), 461–5 Susan Spectorsky, Chapters on marriage and divorce. Responses of Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh, Austin 1993 W. Montgomey Watt, The formative period of Islamic thought, Edinburgh 1973 W. Montgomey Watt, Islamic creeds, Edinburgh 1994 Wesley Williams, "Aspects of the creed of Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. A study of anthropomorphism in early Islamic discourse," IJMES'' 34 (2002), 441–63. 780 births 855 deaths 8th-century Arab people 9th-century Arabic-language writers 9th-century Arab people 9th-century jurists 9th-century Muslim scholars of Islam 9th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate Scholars from the Abbasid Caliphate Atharis Hadith compilers Hanbalis Mujaddid Sunni imams Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam Biographical evaluation scholars
419094	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose%20tissue	Adipose tissue	Adipose tissue (also known as body fat, or simply fat) is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin, and cytokines (especially TNFα). In obesity, adipose tissue is also implicated in the chronic release of pro-inflammatory markers known as adipokines, which are responsible for the development of metabolic syndrome, a constellation of diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. Anatomical features In humans, adipose tissue is located: beneath the skin (subcutaneous fat), around internal organs (visceral fat), in bone marrow (yellow bone marrow), intermuscular (Muscular system) and in the breast (breast tissue). Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other cell types are present, collectively termed stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells. Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, the subcutaneous layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it provides protective padding. However, its main function is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be oxidised to meet the energy needs of the body and to protect it from excess glucose by storing triglycerides produced by the liver from sugars, although some evidence suggests that most lipid synthesis from carbohydrates occurs in the adipose tissue itself. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles. Under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity. The paired gonadal depots are attached to the uterus and ovaries in females and the epididymis and testes in males; the paired retroperitoneal depots are found along the dorsal wall of the abdomen, surrounding the kidney, and, when massive, extend into the pelvis. The mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot (which originates near the stomach and spleen) and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, respectively. The two superficial depots are the paired inguinal depots, which are found anterior to the upper segment of the hind limbs (underneath the skin) and the subscapular depots, paired medial mixtures of brown adipose tissue adjacent to regions of white adipose tissue, which are found under the skin between the dorsal crests of the scapulae. The layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a "frosting" of white adipose tissue; sometimes these two types of fat (brown and white) are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes. Minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the gonadal depots are the largest and the most easily dissected, comprising about 30% of dissectible fat. Obesity In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus. A panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as a literal "apron of skin" if a severely obese person loses large amounts of fat (a common result of gastric bypass surgery). Obesity is treated through exercise, diet, and behavioral therapy. Reconstructive surgery is one aspect of treatment. Visceral fat Visceral fat or abdominal fat (also known as organ fat or intra-abdominal fat) is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc.). Visceral fat is different from subcutaneous fat underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat interspersed in skeletal muscles. Fat in the lower body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous and is not consistently spaced tissue, whereas fat in the abdomen is mostly visceral and semi-fluid. Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots, including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal depots. Visceral fat is often expressed in terms of its area in cm2 (VFA, visceral fat area). An excess of visceral fat is known as abdominal obesity, or "belly fat", in which the abdomen protrudes excessively. New developments such as the Body Volume Index (BVI) are specifically designed to measure abdominal volume and abdominal fat. Excess visceral fat is also linked to type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, inflammatory diseases, and other obesity-related diseases. Likewise, the accumulation of neck fat (or cervical adipose tissue) has been shown to be associated with mortality. Several studies have suggested that visceral fat can be predicted from simple anthropometric measures, and predicts mortality more accurately than body mass index or waist circumference. Men are more likely to have fat stored in the abdomen due to sex hormone differences. Estrogen (female sex hormone) causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by the ovaries declines, fat migrates from the buttocks, hips and thighs to the waist; later fat is stored in the abdomen. Visceral fat can be caused by excess cortisol levels. At least 10 MET-hours per week of aerobic exercise leads to visceral fat reduction in those without metabolic-related disorders. Resistance training and caloric restriction also reduce visceral fat, although their effect may not be cumulative. Both exercise and hypocaloric diet cause loss of visceral fat, but exercise has a larger effect on visceral fat versus total fat. High-intensity exercise is one way to effectively reduce total abdominal fat. An energy restricted diet combined with exercise will reduce total body fat and the ratio of visceral adipose tissue to subcutaneous adipose tissue, suggesting a preferential mobilization for visceral fat over subcutaneous fat. Epicardial fat Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is a particular form of visceral fat deposited around the heart and found to be a metabolically active organ that generates various bioactive molecules, which might significantly affect cardiac function. Marked component differences have been observed in comparing EAT with subcutaneous fat, suggesting a location-specific impact of stored fatty acids on adipocyte function and metabolism. Subcutaneous fat Most of the remaining nonvisceral fat is found just below the skin in a region called the hypodermis. This subcutaneous fat is not related to many of the classic obesity-related pathologies, such as heart disease, cancer, and stroke, and some evidence even suggests it might be protective. The typically female (or gynecoid) pattern of body fat distribution around the hips, thighs, and buttocks is subcutaneous fat, and therefore poses less of a health risk compared to visceral fat. Like all other fat organs, subcutaneous fat is an active part of the endocrine system, secreting the hormones leptin and resistin. The relationship between the subcutaneous adipose layer and total body fat in a person is often modelled by using regression equations. The most popular of these equations was formed by Durnin and Wormersley, who rigorously tested many types of skinfold, and, as a result, created two formulae to calculate the body density of both men and women. These equations present an inverse correlation between skinfolds and body density—as the sum of skinfolds increases, the body density decreases. Factors such as sex, age, population size or other variables may make the equations invalid and unusable, and, , Durnin and Wormersley's equations remain only estimates of a person's true level of fatness. New formulae are still being created. Marrow fat Marrow fat, also known as marrow adipose tissue (MAT), is a poorly understood adipose depot that resides in the bone and is interspersed with hematopoietic cells as well as bony elements. The adipocytes in this depot are derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) which can give rise to fat cells, bone cells as well as other cell types. The fact that MAT increases in the setting of calorie restriction/ anorexia is a feature that distinguishes this depot from other fat depots. Exercise regulates MAT, decreasing MAT quantity and diminishing the size of marrow adipocytes. The exercise regulation of marrow fat suggests that it bears some physiologic similarity to other white adipose depots. Moreover, increased MAT in obesity further suggests a similarity to white fat depots. Ectopic fat Ectopic fat is the storage of triglycerides in tissues other than adipose tissue, that are supposed to contain only small amounts of fat, such as the liver, skeletal muscle, heart, and pancreas. This can interfere with cellular functions and hence organ function and is associated with insulin resistance in type-2 diabetes. It is stored in relatively high amounts around the organs of the abdominal cavity, but is not to be confused with visceral fat. The specific cause for the accumulation of ectopic fat is unknown. The cause is likely a combination of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors that are involved in excess energy intake and decreased physical activity. Substantial weight loss can reduce ectopic fat stores in all organs and this is associated with an improvement of the function of those organs. In the latter case, non-invasive weight loss interventions like diet or exercise can decrease ectopic fat (particularly in heart and liver) in overweight or obese children and adults. Physiology Free fatty acids (FFAs) are liberated from lipoproteins by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and enter the adipocyte, where they are reassembled into triglycerides by esterifying them onto glycerol. Human fat tissue contains about 87% lipids. There is a constant flux of FFAs entering and leaving adipose tissue. The net direction of this flux is controlled by insulin and leptin—if insulin is elevated, then there is a net inward flux of FFA, and only when insulin is low can FFA leave adipose tissue. Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood sugar, which results from consuming carbohydrates. In humans, lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids) is controlled through the balanced control of lipolytic B-adrenergic receptors and a2A-adrenergic receptor-mediated antilipolysis. Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance. Abdominal fat has a different metabolic profile—being more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to a large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension). Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals with higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems. Recent advances in biotechnology have allowed for the harvesting of adult stem cells from adipose tissue, allowing stimulation of tissue regrowth using a patient's own cells. In addition, adipose-derived stem cells from both human and animals reportedly can be efficiently reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells without the need for feeder cells. The use of a patient's own cells reduces the chance of tissue rejection and avoids ethical issues associated with the use of human embryonic stem cells. A growing body of evidence also suggests that different fat depots (i.e. abdominal, omental, pericardial) yield adipose-derived stem cells with different characteristics. These depot-dependent features include proliferation rate, immunophenotype, differentiation potential, gene expression, as well as sensitivity to hypoxic culture conditions. Oxygen levels seem to play an important role on the metabolism and in general the function of adipose-derived stem cells. Adipose tissue is a major peripheral source of aromatase in both males and females, contributing to the production of estradiol. Adipose derived hormones include: Adiponectin Resistin Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) TNFα IL-6 Leptin Estradiol (E2) Adipose tissues also secrete a type of cytokines (cell-to-cell signalling proteins) called adipokines (adipose cytokines), which play a role in obesity-associated complications. Perivascular adipose tissue releases adipokines such as adiponectin that affect the contractile function of the vessels that they surround. Brown fat Brown fat or brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a specialized form of adipose tissue important for adaptive thermogenesis in humans and other mammals. BAT can generate heat by "uncoupling" the respiratory chain of oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria through tissue-specific expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). BAT is primarily located around the neck and large blood vessels of the thorax, where it may effectively act in heat exchange. BAT is robustly activated upon cold exposure by the release of catecholamines from sympathetic nerves that results in UCP1 activation. Nearly half of the nerves present in adipose tissue are sensory neurons connected to the dorsal root ganglia. BAT activation may also occur in response to overfeeding. UCP1 activity is stimulated by long chain fatty acids that are produced subsequent to β-adrenergic receptor activation. UCP1 is proposed to function as a fatty acid proton symporter, although the exact mechanism has yet to be elucidated. In contrast, UCP1 is inhibited by ATP, ADP, and GTP. Attempts to simulate this process pharmacologically have so far been unsuccessful. Techniques to manipulate the differentiation of "brown fat" could become a mechanism for weight loss therapy in the future, encouraging the growth of tissue with this specialized metabolism without inducing it in other organs. A review on the eventual therapeutic targeting of brown fat to treat human obesity was published by Samuelson and Vidal-Puig in 2020. Until recently, brown adipose tissue in humans was thought to be primarily limited to infants, but new evidence has overturned that belief. Metabolically active tissue with temperature responses similar to brown adipose was first reported in the neck and trunk of some human adults in 2007, and the presence of brown adipose in human adults was later verified histologically in the same anatomical regions. Beige fat and WAT browning Browning of WAT, also referred to as "beiging", occurs when adipocytes within WAT depots develop features of BAT. Beige adipocytes take on a multilocular appearance (containing several lipid droplets) and increase expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). In doing so, these normally energy-storing adipocytes become energy-releasing adipocytes. The calorie-burning capacity of brown and beige fat has been extensively studied as research efforts focus on therapies targeted to treat obesity and diabetes. The drug 2,4-dinitrophenol, which also acts as a chemical uncoupler similarly to UCP1, was used for weight loss in the 1930s. However, it was quickly discontinued when excessive dosing led to adverse side effects including hyperthermia and death. β3 agonists, like CL316,243, have also been developed and tested in humans. However, the use of such drugs has proven largely unsuccessful due to several challenges, including varying species receptor specificity and poor oral bioavailability. Cold is a primary regulator of BAT processes and induces WAT browning. Browning in response to chronic cold exposure has been well documented and is a reversible process. A study in mice demonstrated that cold-induced browning can be completely reversed in 21 days, with measurable decreases in UCP1 seen within a 24-hour period. A study by Rosenwald et al. revealed that when the animals are re-exposed to a cold environment, the same adipocytes will adopt a beige phenotype, suggesting that beige adipocytes are retained. Transcriptional regulators, as well as a growing number of other factors, regulate the induction of beige fat. Four regulators of transcription are central to WAT browning and serve as targets for many of the molecules known to influence this process. These include peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), PRDM16, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α), and Early B-Cell Factor-2 (EBF2). The list of molecules that influence browning has grown in direct proportion to the popularity of this topic and is constantly evolving as more knowledge is acquired. Among these molecules are irisin and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), which have been well-studied and are believed to be important regulators of browning. Irisin is secreted from muscle in response to exercise and has been shown to increase browning by acting on beige preadipocytes. FGF21, a hormone secreted mainly by the liver, has garnered a great deal of interest after being identified as a potent stimulator of glucose uptake and a browning regulator through its effects on PGC-1α. It is increased in BAT during cold exposure and is thought to aid in resistance to diet-induced obesity FGF21 may also be secreted in response to exercise and a low protein diet, although the latter has not been thoroughly investigated. Data from these studies suggest that environmental factors like diet and exercise may be important mediators of browning. In mice, it was found that beiging can occur through the production of methionine-enkephalin peptides by type 2 innate lymphoid cells in response to interleukin 33. Genomics and bioinformatics tools to study browning Due to the complex nature of adipose tissue and a growing list of browning regulatory molecules, great potential exists for the use of bioinformatics tools to improve study within this field. Studies of WAT browning have greatly benefited from advances in these techniques, as beige fat is rapidly gaining popularity as a therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. DNA microarray is a bioinformatics tool used to quantify expression levels of various genes simultaneously, and has been used extensively in the study of adipose tissue. One such study used microarray analysis in conjunction with Ingenuity IPA software to look at changes in WAT and BAT gene expression when mice were exposed to temperatures of 28 and 6 °C. The most significantly up- and downregulated genes were then identified and used for analysis of differentially expressed pathways. It was discovered that many of the pathways upregulated in WAT after cold exposure are also highly expressed in BAT, such as oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid metabolism, and pyruvate metabolism. This suggests that some of the adipocytes switched to a beige phenotype at 6 °C. Mössenböck et al. also used microarray analysis to demonstrate that insulin deficiency inhibits the differentiation of beige adipocytes but does not disturb their capacity for browning. These two studies demonstrate the potential for the use of microarray in the study of WAT browning. RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) is a powerful computational tool that allows for the quantification of RNA expression for all genes within a sample. Incorporating RNA-Seq into browning studies is of great value, as it offers better specificity, sensitivity, and a more comprehensive overview of gene expression than other methods. RNA-Seq has been used in both human and mouse studies in an attempt characterize beige adipocytes according to their gene expression profiles and to identify potential therapeutic molecules that may induce the beige phenotype. One such study used RNA-Seq to compare gene expression profiles of WAT from wild-type (WT) mice and those overexpressing Early B-Cell Factor-2 (EBF2). WAT from the transgenic animals exhibited a brown fat gene program and had decreased WAT specific gene expression compared to the WT mice. Thus, EBF2 has been identified as a potential therapeutic molecule to induce beiging. Chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing (ChIP-seq) is a method used to identify protein binding sites on DNA and assess histone modifications. This tool has enabled examination of epigenetic regulation of browning and helps elucidate the mechanisms by which protein-DNA interactions stimulate the differentiation of beige adipocytes. Studies observing the chromatin landscapes of beige adipocytes have found that adipogenesis of these cells results from the formation of cell specific chromatin landscapes, which regulate the transcriptional program and, ultimately, control differentiation. Using ChIP-seq in conjunction with other tools, recent studies have identified over 30 transcriptional and epigenetic factors that influence beige adipocyte development. Genetics The thrifty gene hypothesis (also called the famine hypothesis) states that in some populations the body would be more efficient at retaining fat in times of plenty, thereby endowing greater resistance to starvation in times of food scarcity. This hypothesis, originally advanced in the context of glucose metabolism and insulin resistance, has been discredited by physical anthropologists, physiologists, and the original proponent of the idea himself with respect to that context, although according to its developer it remains "as viable as when [it was] first advanced" in other contexts. In 1995, Jeffrey Friedman, in his residency at the Rockefeller University, together with Rudolph Leibel, Douglas Coleman et al. discovered the protein leptin that the genetically obese mouse lacked. Leptin is produced in the white adipose tissue and signals to the hypothalamus. When leptin levels drop, the body interprets this as a loss of energy, and hunger increases. Mice lacking this protein eat until they are four times their normal size. Leptin, however, plays a different role in diet-induced obesity in rodents and humans. Because adipocytes produce leptin, leptin levels are elevated in the obese. However, hunger remains, and—when leptin levels drop due to weight loss—hunger increases. The drop of leptin is better viewed as a starvation signal than the rise of leptin as a satiety signal. However, elevated leptin in obesity is known as leptin resistance. The changes that occur in the hypothalamus to result in leptin resistance in obesity are currently the focus of obesity research. Gene defects in the leptin gene (ob) are rare in human obesity. , only 14 individuals from five families have been identified worldwide who carry a mutated ob gene (one of which was the first ever identified cause of genetic obesity in humans)—two families of Pakistani origin living in the UK, one family living in Turkey, one in Egypt, and one in Austria—and two other families have been found that carry a mutated ob receptor. Others have been identified as genetically partially deficient in leptin, and, in these individuals, leptin levels on the low end of the normal range can predict obesity. Several mutations of genes involving the melanocortins (used in brain signaling associated with appetite) and their receptors have also been identified as causing obesity in a larger portion of the population than leptin mutations. Physical properties Adipose tissue has a density of ~0.9 g/ml. Thus, a person with more adipose tissue will float more easily than a person of the same weight with more muscular tissue, since muscular tissue has a density of 1.06 g/ml. Body fat meter A body fat meter is a tool used to measure the body fat to weight ratio in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine the ratio. They tend to under-read body fat percentage. In contrast with clinical tools, one relatively inexpensive type of body fat meter uses the principle of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in order to determine an individual's body fat percentage. To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures the resistance, then uses information on the person's weight, height, age, and sex to calculate an approximate value for the person's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten and how much water has been drunk before the analysis. Before bioelectrical impedance analysis machines were developed, there were many different ways in analyzing body composition such as skin fold methods using calipers, underwater weighing, whole body air displacement plethysmography (ADP) and DXA. Animal studies Within the fat (adipose) tissue of CCR2 deficient mice, there is an increased number of eosinophils, greater alternative Macrophage activation, and a propensity towards type 2 cytokine expression. Furthermore, this effect was exaggerated when the mice became obese from a high fat diet. Gallery See also Adipose differentiation-related protein Adipocytes Apelin Bioelectrical impedance analysis – a method to measure body fat percentage. Blubber – an extra thick form of adipose tissue found in some marine mammals. Body fat percentage Cellulite Lipolysis Lipodystrophy Human fat used as pharmaceutical in traditional medicine Obesity Starvation Steatosis (also called fatty change, fatty degeneration or adipose degeneration) Stem cells Subcutaneous fat Bariatrics Classification of obesity Classification of childhood obesity EPODE International Network, the world's largest obesity-prevention network World Fit A program of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), and the United States Olympians and Paralympians Association (USOP) Obesity and walking Social stigma of obesity References Further reading External links Adipose tissue photomicrographs Connective tissue Endocrine system Obesity
419135	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Purpose%20Cultural%20Cat%20Girl%20Nuku%20Nuku	All Purpose Cultural Cat Girl Nuku Nuku	is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Yuzo Takada. It was serialized in Weekly Manga Action for only three issues in 1991, with the three published stories later compiled in a single volume collection in December 1997. The story begins when genius inventor Kyusaku Natsume transplants the brain of a cat found by his son Ryunosuke on Christmas Eve, into a schoolgirl android that he created and subsequently stole from his former employer, Mishima Heavy Industries (owned by his estranged wife and Ryunosuke's mother, Akiko Natsume). The result, Nuku Nuku (also known as Atsuko Natsume), is a nekomusume or cat girl. The manga was licensed by ADV Manga and published as a single volume on August 24, 2004. Cat Girl Nuku Nuku has been adapted into two OVA series and one anime television series. All three anime adaptations were also licensed in North America by ADV Films. An English language version of the OVA was released by Crusader Video in the United Kingdom on VHS featuring regional accents. Discotek Media has since received the license to the OVA, TV Series and its Dash!! spin-off. Plot The plot generally focuses on the custody battle for Ryunosuke and the attempts by Akiko and Mishima Heavy Industries to reclaim Nuku Nuku's body, which often involves amusingly larger-than-life battles between Nuku Nuku and military hardware produced by Mishima Heavy Industries. Two episodes also deal with a one-sided war between Nuku Nuku and another android named Eimi, who suffers from an over-the-top inferiority complex and envies Nuku Nuku's more stable design. As it stands, Eimi was made after her and seeks to transfer her programming into Nuku Nuku to ditch her own body, which Akiko calls "a piece of junk". In spite of Eimi being more emotionally unstable than Nuku Nuku, both their fights end in a draw. Episode List(All purpose cultural cat girl nuku nuku OVA 1992-93) Episode 1 Ryunosuke finds a kitten in an alleyway while relieving himself. Then taking that he gets on a car with his dad, fleeing his mom's deadly aerial onslaught. While they survived that attack, the kitten got hurt. Trying to save that kitten Kyusaku apparently implants the kitten's brain in a prototype robotic framework, which after some time would appear to function as a work maid in their house. Sometime later, when Akiko again sends an attack force in the school where the feline brained bot named, ''Nuku Nuku'' studies along with her husband Kyosaku, as a teacher, in the same class. There a battle ensues, fairly quickly resulting in the defeat of the attack vehicle. Lastly it cuts to Akiko, the mom, wanting to scheme again to get back her son to stay with her. Episode 2 Ryonusuke goes to a beach with his friend and nuku nuku, where, of course again, his mom, tries with subterfuge get her child back. For that she first gets the friend shimino hypnotized and brainwashed in sleep time to make her go on aboard Akiko's ship. Then use the child, to lure her son out. Nuku nuku, this time can't perform as earlier because of her lack of swimming gear, which Kyosaku, shortly after provides, and with that she reaches the boat, defeats the episodic bot and in the ensuing chaos Akiko decides to not take her son, just for this time. Episode 3 After a call and tea time with nuku nuku, Akiko decides to try her hand at being a housewife and the family start living in her family mansion/estate. Although Kyosaku wants this to make her rich wife responsible for once, she changes her mind angrily after receiving a wake up call from her confidante and henchwoman, Arisa, that she's not getting what she wants from this. Following this, the usual bot v cat/furry android fight ensues which results in things going back to how they were before. Episode 4 It's about a tragic bot named eimi yoshikawa who plots to steal nuku nuku's body to have a much desired upgrade. In the end, they fight, the whole of tokyo gets decimated and they resolve their issues. Episode 5 The two henchwomen, arisa and kyouko, decide to sabotage nuku nuku's job at a local restaurant out of pure spite borne out of the fact that they're not financially well off anymore. Episode 6 Because of a fight between Eimi Yoshikawa and Nuku nuku, a brand new highly weaponized, atomized military satellite's controlling system got ruptured and it has now out of control. To stop it from targeting the wrong people, nuku nuku and eimi take it upon themselves to venture into space to destroy it. Episode List (All-purpose cultural cat girl nuku nuku tv series 1998) It is a series that is mainly a retelling of the original OVA. This series has a more comical side to it. In this, the same characters appear with the same kind of roles and also the same kind of conclusion. An extension to that is multiple tropey school characters, who all have their own highlights. Episode 1 It starts with Nuku nuku, the android cat-brained robot going to school and starting classes there. While taking class, a so called ''evil corporation'' called Mishima Industries (same as before) decides to test their robotic washing machine in the school ground, which unsurprisingly goes berserk, against which nuku nuku has to defend her classmates. After saving them, the tropey classmates accept her as their own. Episode 2 Nuku nuku defeats another mistakenly activated, mishima industry's failed project, before it can proceed to destroy the school. Episode 3 After a neighbor's kid with a heart of gold is dropped off to Ryounusuke's house for temporary babysitting she decides to make the breakfast and lunch in Akiko's absence but ends up wasting eveything. Then the family with the kid go to a fresh produce market where another demonstration of the so called ''evil'' mishima industries takes place, resulting in another failed project running berserk among the people present there, which nuku nuku neutralizes in the usual fashion. Episode 4 In this episode Nuku nuku participates in the mishima industries arranged singing competition agaisnt her ''father'' Kyousaku's wishes. Kyousaku then resorts to sabotaging her daughter's performance which doesn't work and she wins. Later it's revealed that she participated in the event to earn the huge prize money for her father's underfunded research projects. Episode 5 Futaba, nuku nuku's class rep & strict friend has been brainwashed to be an aggressive mishima industries product promoter through a hypnotizing effect inducing book by a bookstore keeper she deemed as a crush and nuku nuku has to stop this. After this when she's rightfully sombre about it, her friends cheer her up. Episode 6 In a beach visit, Kyousaku somehow got ''captured'' and ''taken'' to an underwater base, supposedly belonging to mishima industries, which is, in actuality, a hotel to boost the company's tourism revenue and prospects. Now, it's up to nuku nuku and ryounosuke to save him from this supposed capture. Episode 7 A Back to the Future-like episodic plot where after fantastically going to the past nuku nuku and ryounusuke have to make sure that their parents propose to each other. Episode 8 A humanoid mouse looking alien falls in love with nuku nuku's homeroom teacher and approaches him at his student chie shirakaba's private amusement park complex in order to spend a night with him. Episode 9 The snobby rich girl Chie shirakaba gets angry with nuku nuku and her loyal underlings over a selfish reason. She then gets the underfunded scientist Kyousaku to make her a mecha which she would use to win against nuku nuku in school sports festival. While doing this, Akiko's underlings Arisa and Kyouko try capturing her out of suspicion that Chie being a corporate spy. Then nuku nuku and the chie's underlings protects her and the rift amidst them gets mended. Episode 10 After Ryounosuke ingests a sip of the so-called ''DNA changer'' because of a mix-up, he turns into an alligator. With nuku nuku as his only hope, it's a race against time to revert him back to his human self. Episode 11(TV Special) After forgetting that Ryounosuke and others left to visit relatives in the new years', nuku nuku gets the misconception that she got abandoned, thinking she now would have to live with it. P.S. Noriko, childhood freind of Ryounosuke treats her terribly in this distressful situation. Episode 12(TV Special) On valentine's day, nuku nuku wants to gift a secret someone chcolate, but in the way gets the rich & snobby shirakaba who buys up all the chocolate from the nearby the store. But as it happens, all those were laced with mishima product enzyme which would make any consumer wanting to aggressively buy and promote mishima products. So, to stop it Akiko and her underlings come with robot to take their stuff away, an attempt which nuku nuku thwarts, but shirabaka still runs away showing her ungratefulness. So, with a single chocolate bar nuku nuku, given by Kyousaku, makes a heart shaped one and presents it to her crush, which, happens to be a cat. Episode 13 Nuku nuku and the gang somehow got to be casting members of a movie for a school festival, in honor of the soon to be graduated. P.S. This episode is full of musical numbers. Episode 14 In the last episode, it all comes down to nuku nuku to save earth from a humongously giant asteroid which is about to hit earth, risking her life. Characters Atsuko 'Nuku Nuku' Natsume Voiced by: Megumi Hayashibara (Japanese), Allison Keith (English) The de facto protagonist and title character. Nuku Nuku started out as just a stray cat Ryunosuke stumbled upon taking a leak while on the run with his father Kyusaku after retrieving (stealing) a prototype android of Kyusaku's own design to keep it from being sold off to the military by Ryu's mother Akiko. The stray cat was shot in the crossfire short by Akiko's henchwomen quickly after Ryu was allowed to keep the cat as a Christmas present. In a moment of brilliance Kyusaku put the dying cat's brain into the android, giving the feline sapience and the android emotions. Nuku Nuku considers Ryu her brother and Akiko and Kyusaku her parents though she is fully aware of her origins. Nearly indestructible, she acts as Ryu's, and her own, bodyguard keeping from being reclaimed by the near dementedly overprotective Akiko. Relatively new to the world, Nuku Nuku acts childish at times, and is still easily distracted by stereotypical feline things like mice, but shows a sincere desire to evolve and grow. In spite of her situations, she harbors no ill will towards Akiko or just about anyone, but is more than willing to resort to violence when push comes to shove. To help create the pretense of a normal life she attends high school. Ryunosuke Natsume Voiced by: Kazue Ikura (Japanese), Kira Vincent-Davis (English) The son of a brilliant if absent minded scientist and the over protective CEO of Japan's number one weapon's manufacturer, Ryu manages to take it all in stride and enjoys the times where he's able to squeeze in a normal life and quality time with either of his parents. He loves Nuku Nuku as a sister, but is agitated when his father brushes off her blunders as 'just being a cat' when at the same time granting her the respect and responsibilities of a human being. Ryu was the one who found the stray cat that would eventually become Nuku Nuku. Ryu is fully aware of how warped his mother can be, but still cares for her all the same (but still prefers to live with his father over his mother's smothering affection). Kyusaku Natsume Voiced by: Akira Kamiya (Japanese), Andrew Klimko (English) The brilliant, if quite eccentric, scientist who created a prototype android with funding from his wife's company. However, with the amount of cash being dumped into the project he realized that his android would be sold off as a weapon. Having no desire to aid his wife's weapon's research he fled with his son in tow. He and his wife are not technically divorced and will still chat and bicker like any married couple when the chance arises. He created add-ons for Nuku Nuku on at least one occasion to outfit her for unique situations. Akiko Natsume Voiced by: Saeko Shimazu (Japanese), Kelly Manison (English) CEO of Japan's biggest military contractor, and an obsessively protective mother, Akiko's greatest goals are to reclaim Ryunosuke from her husband and to capture Nuku Nuku in order to reverse engineer her. Because of the delicate nature of the information about Nuku Nuku's existence she does not try to legally reclaim Ryu, but instead relies on numerous abduction attempts by her two henchwomen Arisa and Kyouko. In spite of her borderline-demented attitude and love of firepower, she does indeed love Ryunosuke and only wants what's best for him. That said, all else is business to her, and is frighteningly ruthless and manipulative to get what she wants and was even willing to turn a blind eye to Nuku Nuku when the cat girl was working at a restaurant her company owned. Eimi Yoshikawa Voiced by: Mika Kanai (Japanese), Cynthia Martinez (English) An android built in the image of the deceased granddaughter of Kyusaku Natsume's mentor, Eimi is emotionally, mentally, and physically unstable. Built in the image of a girl around Ryu's age, Eimi's activation resulted in an explosion that killed her grandfather, leaving her legally the property of Akiko's company. Suffering from multiple sources of psychological trauma on top of (or maybe because of) her faulty design, Eimi's single fixation is taking Nuku Nuku's body for herself. (Eimi's own body doomed to detonate if pushed beyond its limit due a faulty or perhaps non-existent cooling system.) Eimi openly admits she has no idea how to download her OS into Nuku Nuku's hardware (not knowing Nuku Nuku's brain is biological and not software driven like Eimi's own), but is driven by a lack of a better plan and a superiority-inferiority complex she suffers from Nuku Nuku. Nuku Nuku for her part would love nothing more than to be Eimi's friend. Eimi admitted to having feelings for Ryu, but brushed off her own emotions as meaningless since like everything else about her is just a software parlor trick, and wrote an apology to Ryu for feeling such 'fake' emotions towards him. A drama queen and an irrepressible hot-head, Eimi is able to think ahead and be clever but often lets her own impatience get the better of her. Arisa Sono and Kyouko Ariyoshi Arisa voiced by: Aya Hisakawa (Japanese), Kaytha Coker (English) Kyouko voiced by: Akiko Hiramatsu (Japanese), Tiffany Grant (English) Akiko's two loyal henchwomen, they spearhead the attacks on Nuku Nuku and frequently suffer the consequences. Arisa is the more violent of the two and prefers to use weapons in order to get her way, something which Kyouko tries to restrain. Media Manga The manga is published in English by ADV Manga. It was serialized in Weekly Manga Action. It was created by Yuzo Takada and originally contained three chapters which focused on Nuku Nuku trying to be a human after her brain was transferred into an android. The manga was licensed by ADV Manga and published as a single volume on August 24, 2004, with the name All Purpose Cultural Cat Girl Nuku Nuku. Anime Cat Girl Nuku Nuku has been adapted into two OVA series and one anime television series. The first OVA adaptation, All Purpose Cultural Cat Girl Nuku Nuku, was directed by Yoshio Ishiwata and released in Japan as six individual episodes on both VHS and Laserdisc from November 1992. A subtitled version of the OVA was released by A.D. Vision on May 9, 1995. Crusader Video released the OVA in the United Kingdom featuring regional accents. A scene possibly alluding to masturbation was removed prior to release. Spanning fourteen episodes, the full anime adaptation, All Purpose Cultural Cat Girl Nuku Nuku TV, was directed by Yoshitaka Fujimoto. It premiered in Japan on January 7, 1998, and ran until March 25, 1998. It introduces new characters and makes several changes to the manga story line. The third adaptation was a 12-episode OVA series called All Purpose Cultural Cat-Girl Nuku Nuku DASH! and also directed by Yoshitaka Fujimoto. It was released on DVD in three volumes from September 23, 1998, to December 23, 1998. All three anime adaptations were originally licensed in North America by ADV Films. Discotek Media licensed the OVA, TV Series and its Dash!! spin-off for a single-disc SDBD release on August 28, 2018, which includes Crusader Video's dub of the OVA as an added bonus. Reception In his book Horror and Science Fiction Film IV, Donald C Willis referred to All Purpose Cultural Cat Girl Nuku Nuku, Volume 1 as "miscalculated to be another Urusei Yatsura [...] thought it has its moments." The review also noted that "The exaggerated emotions are less amusing than wearing." Footnotes References External links 1992 anime OVAs 1993 anime OVAs 1993 manga 1998 anime television series debuts 1999 manga ADV Films Ashi Productions Discotek Media Futabasha manga Kadokawa Shoten manga Kemonomimi Seinen manga Shōnen manga
419136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent%20Cooperation%20Treaty	Patent Cooperation Treaty	The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) is an international patent law treaty, concluded in 1970. It provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications to protect inventions in each of its contracting states. A patent application filed under the PCT is called an international application, or PCT application. A single filing of a PCT application is made with a Receiving Office (RO) in one language. It then results in a search performed by an International Searching Authority (ISA), accompanied by a written opinion regarding the patentability of the invention, which is the subject of the application. It is optionally followed by a preliminary examination, performed by an International Preliminary Examining Authority (IPEA). Finally, the relevant national or regional authorities administer matters related to the examination of application (if provided by national law) and issuance of patent. A PCT application does not itself result in the grant of a patent, since there is no such thing as an "international patent", and the grant of patent is a prerogative of each national or regional authority. In other words, a PCT application, which establishes a filing date in all contracting states, must be followed up with the step of entering into national or regional phases to proceed towards grant of one or more patents. The PCT procedure essentially leads to a standard national or regional patent application, which may be granted or rejected according to applicable law, in each jurisdiction in which a patent is desired. The contracting states, the states which are parties to the PCT, constitute the International Patent Cooperation Union. History The Washington Diplomatic Conference on the Patent Cooperation Treaty was held in Washington from 25 May to 19 June 1970. The Patent Cooperation Treaty was signed on the last day of the conference on 19 June 1970. The Treaty entered into force on 24 January 1978, initially with 18 contracting states. The first international applications were filed on 1 June 1978. The Treaty was subsequently amended in 1979, and modified in 1984 and 2001. As of December 2022, PCT membership consisted of 157 contracting states. It was expected that by the end of 2020 the total number of PCT applications filed since the system became operational in 1978 would reach 4 million. Parties Any contracting state to the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property can become a member of the PCT. A majority of the world's countries are parties to the PCT, including all of the major industrialized countries (with a few exceptions, notably Argentina, Uruguay, Venezuela and Pakistan). As of 26 December 2022, there were 157 contracting states to the PCT. Procedure The main advantages of the PCT procedure, also referred to as the international procedure, are that (a) it allows the filing of a single patent application, replacing the need for filing a multiplicity of separate applications, with a procedure taking place in a predictable way; (b) the international search and, optionally, the international preliminary examination "give applicants a better basis for deciding whether and in which countries to further pursue their applications", thus allowing "for better management of patent portfolios and the avoidance of unnecessary expenses"; and (c) it allows the deferral of national processing. A PCT application (also called "international patent application") has two phases. The first phase is the international phase in which patent protection is pending under a single patent application filed with the patent office of a contracting state of the PCT. The second phase is the national and regional phase which follows the international phase in which rights are continued by filing necessary documents with the patent offices of separate contracting states of the PCT. A PCT application, as such, is not an actual request that a patent be granted, and it is not converted into one unless and until it enters the "national phase". Filing The first step of the procedure consists in filing an international (patent) application with a competent patent office, called a Receiving Office (RO). This application is called an international application or simply a PCT application since it neither results in an international patent nor in a PCT patent, neither of which exists. The PCT application needs to be filed in one language only, although a translation of the application may be required for the international search and the international publication, depending on the language of filing and the competent or chosen International Searching Authority. At least one applicant (either a physical or legal person) must be a national or resident of a contracting state to the PCT; otherwise, no PCT filing date is accorded. If a PCT filing date is erroneously accorded, the Receiving Office may, within four months from the filing date, declare that the application should be considered withdrawn. The requirement that at least one applicant must be a national or resident of a contracting state to the PCT needs, however, "only to be complied with at the time of filing the international application. Later changes in the applicant's country of residence (or nationality) ... have no consequence on the validity of the international application itself." In most member states, the applicant or at least one of the applicants of the application is required to be a national or resident of the state of the receiving office where the application is filed. Applicants from any contracting state may file a PCT application at the International Bureau in Geneva, subject to national security provisions. Upon filing of the PCT application, all contracting states are automatically designated. Subject to reservations made by any contracting state, a PCT application fulfilling the requirements of the treaty and accorded a PCT filing date has the effect of a regular national application in each designated state as of the PCT filing date, which date is considered to be the actual filing date in each designated State. Search and written opinion A search or "international search" is then made by an authorized international searching authority (ISA) to find the most relevant prior art documents regarding the claimed subject matter. The search results in an international search report (ISR), together with a written opinion regarding patentability. The ISA(s) that the applicant can choose depends on the receiving Office with which the applicant filed the international application. In 2013, the most selected ISAs were the European Patent Office (EPO) (with 37.7% of all ISRs issued), followed by the Japan Patent Office (JPO) (20.7%) and the Korean Intellectual Property Office (KIPO) (14.8%). The ISA must establish the ISR and its accompanying written within "three months from the receipt of the search copy by the International Searching Authority, or nine months from the priority date, whichever time limit expires later." The ISR is published together with the PCT application (or as soon as possible afterwards). The written opinion is initially confidential, but unless it is superseded by an International Preliminary Examination Report (see optional examination, below), it is made available in the form of an International Preliminary Report on Patentability (Chapter I of the Patent Cooperation Treaty, or IPRP Chapter I), within 30 months of the filing date or a priority date, if any. If the ISR is not in English, it is translated into English for publication. A designated Office may require a translation of the IPRP Chapter I into English. The international search report can help the applicant decide whether it would be worthwhile seeking national protection, and if so, in how many countries, as fees and other expenses, including translation costs, must be paid to enter the national phase in each country. Yet another advantage of filing a PCT application under the PCT is that many national patent authorities will rely on the international search report (although the PCT does not obligate them to do so) instead of performing a prior art search themselves, and the applicant may thus be able to save search fees. In addition to the compulsory international search, at least one optional supplementary international search may also be carried out by participating International Searching Authorities, upon request by the applicant and payment of corresponding fees. The purpose is to reduce the likelihood of seeing new prior art being cited in the subsequent national phases. A supplementary international search is said to allow applicants to obtain an additional search report "taking into account the growing linguistic diversity of the prior art being found". In 2009 and 2010, the demand for supplementary international searches was relatively low. Publication The PCT application is published by the International Bureau at the WIPO, based in Geneva, Switzerland, in one of the ten "languages of publication": Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. The publication normally takes place promptly after 18 months from the filing date or, if a priority is claimed, from the earliest priority date. There are two exceptions to this rule, however. First, a PCT application may be published earlier if the applicant requests early publication. Secondly, if 18 months after the priority date, the PCT application designates only the United States, then the application is not automatically published. From the publication of the PCT application until 28 months after the priority date, any third party may file observations regarding the novelty and inventive step of the invention. The observations may be submitted anonymously, and no fee is due for filing such observations. An international application may also be withdrawn to prevent its publication. To do so, the International Bureau (IB) "must receive the notice of withdrawal of the application before the corresponding technical preparations for publication are completed". Optional examination An international preliminary examination may optionally be requested ("demanded"). The international preliminary examination is conducted by an authorized International Preliminary Examination Authority (IPEA) and its objective is "to formulate a preliminary and non-binding opinion on the questions whether the claimed invention appears to be novel, to involve an inventive step (to be non-obvious), and to be industrially applicable". This results in an International Preliminary Examination Report (IPER). Since 2004, the IPER bears the title "international preliminary report on patentability (Chapter II of the Patent Cooperation Treaty)" (commonly abbreviated "IPRP Chapter II"). The filing of a demand for international preliminary examination, which must be done within a time limit, is subject to the payment of a "handling fee" for the benefit of the International Bureau and a "preliminary examination fee" for the benefit of the IPEA. The cost of filing a demand varies depending on the IPEA used by the applicant. The IPEA(s) that the applicant can choose however depends on the receiving Office with which the applicant filed the PCT application (the same applies to ISAs). If the written opinion established by the International Searching Authority (ISA) is positive, "there is little value to be obtained from filing a demand". However, "[for] cases where the written opinion of the ISA contains negative findings, the savings in the applicant's/agent's time and, where applicable, agent's fees, required by multiple responses to national offices may well justify the use of the Chapter II procedure." The demand for an international preliminary examination also gives the applicant an opportunity to amend the claims, description and drawings. Otherwise, the applicant can only modify the claims once within two months from the time of the ISR has been transmitted. There are many advantages, such as cost and effort savings ("as well as possibly shortened pendency/faster grants"), in receiving a favourable IPRP Chapter II, i.e. a favourable report following an international preliminary examination. For instance, national offices "with a smaller examining staff and those without examiners tend to rely more heavily on the results in the IPRP Chapter II". When an international preliminary examination is demanded, the contracting states for which the examination is demanded are called elected Offices (under Chapter II), otherwise they are called designated Offices (under Chapter I). The election of a contracting state correspondingly means electing it when demanding (requesting) the examination. An alternative to the filing of a demand for international preliminary examination is to file informal comments in response to the written opinion established by the ISA. These informal comments are not published. The informal comments should be submitted to the International Bureau (IB), and not to the ISA or the IPEA. They are kept in the file of the PCT application and, in the case where no demand is filed, forwarded to the designated offices, which are free to require a translation of the informal comments. Substantive conditions of patentability The PCT does not make any specific provision concerning the types of invention which may be the subject of an international application. Rules 39 and 67 permit International Searching and Preliminary Examining Authorities not to carry out search and examination on certain types of subject matter, such as scientific and mathematical theories, methods of doing business and computer programs to the extent that the Authority is not equipped to carry out a search or international preliminary examination concerning such programs. However, this does not affect the issue of whether the invention is patentable under the laws of the contracting states, as "[n]othing in [the PCT] and the Regulations is intended to be construed as prescribing anything that would limit the freedom of each contracting state to prescribe such substantive conditions of patentability as it desires." National and regional phases Finally, at 30 months from the filing date of the PCT application or from the earliest priority date of the application if a priority is claimed, the international phase ends and the PCT application enters in national and regional phase. However, any national law may fix time limits which expire later than 30 months. For instance, it is possible to enter the European regional phase at 31 months from the earliest priority date. National and regional phases can also be started earlier on the express request of the applicant, even before publication of the international application. If the entry into national or regional phase is not performed within the prescribed time limit, the PCT application generally ceases to have the effect of a national or regional application. Statistics The millionth PCT application was filed at the end of 2004, whereas the two millionth application was filed in 2011. The first ever decline in the number of filed PCT applications in over 30 years occurred in 2009, with a 4.5 percent drop compared to 2008. In 2013, about 205,000 international applications were filed, making 2013 the first year during which more than 200,000 PCT applications were filed in one year. The 3 millionth PCT application was published on 2 February 2017. It was predicted that by the end of 2020, the total number of PCT applications filed since the system became operational in 1978 would reach 4 million. Applications in 2018 were filed by users from 127 countries. The United States of America continued to be the largest source of applications, followed by China, Japan, Germany, and the Republic of Korea. Applications from China have grown at the fastest rate, rising to 21.1% of all applications in 2018. The top individual filer of applications in 2018 was Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd., which filed 5,405 applications, followed by Mitsubishi Electric with 2,812 applications, Intel with 2,499 applications, Qualcomm with 2,404 applications, and ZTE with 2,080 applications. Countries located in Asia were the source of 50.5% of all PCT applications in 2018. Applicants in Europe (24.5%) and North America (23.1%) were the other major sources of filings. The combined share for Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) and Oceania amounted to 1.7% of total PCT filings. The World Intellectual Property Organization provides statistics on the PCT System in the PCT Yearly Review, the World Intellectual Property Indicators and the IP Statistics Data Center. See also Eurasian Patent Organization (EAPO) Patent Law Treaty (PLT) Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT) Notes References Further reading External links The full text of the Patent Cooperation Treaty in the WIPO Lex database — official website of WIPO. Patent Cooperation Treaty resources on the WIPO web site. Patent law treaties World Intellectual Property Organization treaties Treaties concluded in 1970 Treaties entered into force in 1978 Treaties of Albania Treaties of Algeria Treaties of Antigua and Barbuda Treaties of Armenia Treaties of Australia Treaties of Austria Treaties of Azerbaijan Treaties of Barbados Treaties of Belarus Treaties of Belgium Treaties of Belize Treaties of the People's Republic of Benin Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina Treaties of Botswana Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria Treaties of Burkina Faso Treaties of Cameroon Treaties of Canada Treaties of the Central African Republic Treaties of Chad Treaties of the People's Republic of China Treaties of Colombia Treaties of the Comoros Treaties of the Republic of the Congo Treaties of Costa Rica Treaties of Ivory Coast Treaties of Croatia Treaties of Cuba Treaties of Cyprus Treaties of Czechoslovakia Treaties of the Czech Republic Treaties of Denmark Treaties of Djibouti Treaties of Dominica Treaties of Ecuador Treaties of Egypt Treaties of El Salvador Treaties of Equatorial Guinea Treaties of Estonia Treaties of Finland Treaties of France Treaties of Gabon Treaties of the Gambia Treaties of Georgia (country) Treaties of West Germany Treaties of Ghana Treaties of Greece Treaties of Grenada Treaties of Guatemala Treaties of Guinea Treaties of Guinea-Bissau Treaties of Honduras Treaties extended to Hong Kong Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic Treaties of Iceland Treaties of India Treaties of Indonesia Treaties of Ireland Treaties of Israel Treaties of Italy Treaties of Japan Treaties of Kazakhstan Treaties of Kenya Treaties of North Korea Treaties of South Korea Treaties of Kuwait Treaties of Kyrgyzstan Treaties of Laos Treaties of Latvia Treaties of Lesotho Treaties of Liberia Treaties of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Treaties of Liechtenstein Treaties of Lithuania Treaties of Luxembourg Treaties of North Macedonia Treaties of Madagascar Treaties of Malawi Treaties of Malaysia Treaties of Mali Treaties of Mauritania Treaties of Mexico Treaties of Moldova Treaties of Monaco Treaties of the Mongolian People's Republic Treaties of Montenegro Treaties of Morocco Treaties of Mozambique Treaties of Namibia Treaties of the Netherlands Treaties of New Zealand Treaties of Nicaragua Treaties of Niger Treaties of Nigeria Treaties of Norway Treaties of Oman Treaties of Papua New Guinea Treaties of the Philippines Treaties of Poland Treaties of Portugal Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania Treaties of the Soviet Union Treaties of Saint Kitts and Nevis Treaties of Saint Lucia Treaties of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Treaties of San Marino Treaties of Senegal Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro Treaties of Yugoslavia Treaties of Saudi Arabia Treaties of Seychelles Treaties of Sierra Leone Treaties of Singapore Treaties of Slovakia Treaties of Slovenia Treaties of South Africa Treaties of Spain Treaties of Sri Lanka Treaties of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan Treaties of Eswatini Treaties of Sweden Treaties of Switzerland Treaties of Syria Treaties of Tajikistan Treaties of Tanzania Treaties of Thailand Treaties of Togo Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago Treaties of Tunisia Treaties of Turkey Treaties of Turkmenistan Treaties of Uganda Treaties of Ukraine Treaties of the United Arab Emirates Treaties of the United Kingdom Treaties of the United States Treaties of Uzbekistan Treaties of Vietnam Treaties of Zambia Treaties of Zimbabwe 1970 in Washington, D.C. Treaties extended to Greenland Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands Treaties extended to American Samoa Treaties extended to Baker Island Treaties extended to Guam Treaties extended to Howland Island Treaties extended to Jarvis Island Treaties extended to Johnston Atoll Treaties extended to Midway Atoll Treaties extended to Navassa Island Treaties extended to the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Treaties extended to Palmyra Atoll Treaties extended to Puerto Rico Treaties extended to the United States Virgin Islands Treaties extended to Wake Island Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles Treaties extended to Aruba Treaties extended to the Panama Canal Zone Treaties extended to the Isle of Man Treaties extended to British Hong Kong Treaties extended to French Guiana Treaties extended to French Polynesia Treaties extended to the French Southern and Antarctic Lands Treaties extended to Guadeloupe Treaties extended to Martinique Treaties extended to Mayotte Treaties extended to New Caledonia Treaties extended to Réunion Treaties extended to Saint Pierre and Miquelon Treaties extended to Wallis and Futuna
419161	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Lugg	River Lugg	The River Lugg () rises near Llangynllo in Radnorshire, Wales. It flows through the border town of Presteigne and then through Herefordshire, England, where it meets its main tributary, the River Arrow, to the south of Leominster. It flows into the River Wye downstream of Hereford at Mordiford, around from its source. Its name comes from a Welsh root, and means "bright stream". As it passes through the countryside, it is crossed by a number of bridges, many of which are slisted structures. Lugg Bridge at Lugwardine and the bridge at Mordiford with its associated causeway both date from the 14th century. The river at Leominster was altered significantly in the 1960s, when it was diverted to the south and then along the course of the Leominster and Kington Railway around the northern edge of the town, as part of a flood defence scheme. In the past, it was important for milling, supplying power to nearly one third of the mills in Herefordshire at the time of the Domesday Book. There are a few mills left, and some obvious mill sites, but many of the mills below Leominster were bought up and their weirs demolished as part of a scheme to make the river navigable in the 1690s. This was not a success, as the water levels dropped creating shoals, and in the 1720s, some of the weirs were reinstated, with pound locks to enable boats to bypass them. Navigation up to Leominster was for a time possible, although it was never hugely successful, and ceased in the 1860s, once railways had been built in the area. The river was a free navigation as a result of powers obtained in an Act of Parliament of 1695, but in 2002, the Environment Agency became the navigation authority following the passing of the Wye Navigation Order. This reaffirmed the right of navigation on the river, but prohibited the building of locks and weirs, and so most boating is by canoes and kayaks. The river is also used for fishing, as it has good populations of wild brown trout and grayling. Water quality of the river system is moderate, although some of its tributaries have poor water quality, and some bad. In common with many rivers, the chemical quality changed from good to fail in 2019, following the introduction of testing for chemicals not previously included in the quality assessment. The whole of the river is a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and since 2003, a policy of building fish passes where there are weirs has led to significant improvements to the presence of migratory fish in the river. Course The River Lugg rises at two locations on Pool Hill, to the north-west of Llangunllo, close to the contour, and is joined by several other streams as it descends rapidly. It is crossed by the Heart of Wales Line, between and stations, before passing under the first of four bridges that carry the B4356 road over it. Already it has dropped below the contour. It turns to the east to reach Greenstreet Bridge on the B4356, and then to the south-east to pass the village of Llangunllo. Just beyond it is Llangunllo Bridge, again on the B4356. Mynachdy moated enclosure, a well-preserved medieval moated homestead is situated on the north bank, after which the river turns to the south to pass the grade I listed Monaughty House, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries. It is one of the oldest stone buildings in Radnorshire, and renovation in the 1990s saw many of its later 19th century modifications removed. Next it is crossed by the A488 Penybont to Shrewsbury road, after which a tributary joins on the south bank. Castell Foel-Allt, the remains of a medieval motte and bailey castle is located on the north bank, and is a scheduled monument. It passes under Whitton Bridge on the B4357 road, and is joined by Cascob Brook on its south bank. Almost opposite is a short section of Offa's Dyke, a long linear earthworks which roughly defined much of the border between England and Wales. After a fourth crossing by the B4356, it arrives on the outskirts of Presteigne. It is crossed by the narrow, single-arched Old Boultibrooke Bridge, probably dating from the 18th century, which has been bypassed by a new bridge constructed in 1932, just to its east. After it is joined by Norton Brook and the English/Welsh border, the river continues along the northern edge of Presteigne, passing the Old Mill, formerly known as New Mill House. Close by is the weir which once powered the mill. Lugg Bridge, the first of several with this name, carries Ford Street over the river, and has three segmental arches. The basic structure dates from the 17th century, but it has been heavily modified. Continuing eastwards, the river comes to Rosser's Bridge, where the border turns to the south, and the river is wholly in Herefordshire. Hindwell Brook joins on the south bank, and the course turns to the north-east. Another tributary, Lime Brook, flows southwards to join the north bank. Just before Lyepole Bridge, the river passes a castle mound, which was once a motte castle, founded by Hugh Mortimer in the mid-12th century. As the river turns to the south-east, a large weir directs water into a mill leat, which runs on the north side of the main channel to Aymestrey Mill, a grist mill built in the 1860s. Most of the machinery is still in situ, and the wheel now powers a printing press. The A4110 road bridge crosses the river and the mill tailrace, and as the river turns to the south, a similar weir creates a leat to the west of the river. Mortimer's Cross Water Mill is located further to the south, fed by another weir. It is long and a leat feeds the mill, which has three sets of stones. It was a paper mill until the 1830s, and then became a grain mill. New machinery was installed in 1870 and it produced animal feed until the 1940s. It is unusual in that it was designed to be operated by one man. It has been restored and on days when it is open to the public, it can be seen in operation. To the south of the mill is Lugg Bridge, consisting of three arches, two spanning the river and a third spanning the mill tailrace. The north face dates from 1771, when the bridge was built, while the south face dates from 1938, when it was widened. At Lugg Green, Kingsland is another Lugg Bridge, and after a series of weirs, the river arrives on the northern edge of Leominster. A leat to Crowards Mill, now disconnected from the main river, was formerly the main channel of the Lugg, with much of the flow passing over a weir into the Kenwater. The Lugg served Osborne Mill, Marsh Mill and a third corn mill, before rejoining the Kenwater within the town. Pinsley Brook ran through the town just to the south of Kenwater, to power Pinsley Mill, another corn mill just to the north of Leominster railway station and joined the Lugg below Eaton Bridge. There were once 19 bridges in Leominster, most of them crossing the Lugg, Kenwater or Pinsley Brook. The river system within the town was radically reworked in the 1960s, as part of a flood alleviation scheme. The Lugg continued southwards along the course of the Kenwater, to a new weir close to the former course of the Leominster and Kington Railway. The Kenwater passed over the weir, while a new channel was cut for the Lugg, following the course of the railway. It then passed under the railway to meet the Ridgemoor Brook, and under Ridgemoor Bridge, a single span that dates from 1815 but was widened in 1940, which carries the A44 road. Below the bridge, it is joined by Cheaton Brook, and then rejoins its original course. The Pinsley Brook was diverted into the Kenwater to the west of the town in 1968 and its original course filled in. Parts of it had been culverted some years before that. The Lugg then passes under Mosaic Bridge, constructed for the A49 bypass in 1988. It takes its name from a mosaic on the southern pier which was designed by young people at the time of its construction, and has since been restored. Eaton Bridge, carrying the A44, has three arches and was built in the 16th century, with modifications made in the 18th century. Near Eaton Hall is another three-arched bridge, dating from the 19th century, where the eastern arch crosses a leat. The river is then joined by the River Arrow on its western bank, and was crossed by the Worcester, Bromyard and Leominster Railway until it was closed in 1964. As the river passes under Ford Bridge at Ford, the B4361 road, the railway and the A49 road are squeezed into a narrow gap between it and War Hill to the west. The next bridge downstream is Hampton Court Bridge at Hope under Dinmore, a single span which carries the A417. It may have been designed by Sir Jeffry Wyattville for the Arkwright family who lived at Hampton Court, a grade I listed house built between 1427 and 1436 and modified in the 18th century. The river forms the western and southern boundaries of the associated parkland and the building was remodelled and restored by Wyattville for Richard Arkwright at that time. The Humber Brook forms the eastern boundary of the estate, and joins the Lugg on its north bank. The river continues to the east and then turns to the south. At Bodenham is the single-span Bodenham Bridge, dating from 1816, after which the river turns to the west. It is crossed by two bridges carrying the Welsh Marches Line just to the south of the twin tunnels through Dinmore Hill. Dinmore railway station was located on the north bank, until it closed in 1958. The river crosses back under the railway a little further to the south. At Marden a hump-backed bridge with four spans crosses the river. It is grade II* listed and the Ordnance Survey call it Laystone Bridge, while English Heritage call it Leystone Bridge. Wellington Brook joins on the west bank of the river, opposite the grade I listed church of St Mary, Marden, which dates from the 13th and 14th centuries. As it approaches Moreton Bridge, the channel splits into two, enclosing an island, and the three-span bridge crosses both channels. It dates from the 16th or 17th century, but was altered in the mid-19th century. The bridge is to the east of the village of Moreton on Lugg. After Wergins Bridge, Morton Brook joins on the west bank, and the river is crossed by a railway bridge carrying the Cotswold Line. Lugg Bridge at Lugwardine dates from the 14th century, and was repaired in 1409 and 1464. It has three arches, and was widened in the 1960s, when the south side was largely rebuilt. The Little Lugg joins from the east near the bridge, which was the location of corn mills in 1903, when a structure spanned the river to the south of the bridge. A little further downstream is Lugwardine Bridge, consisting of three spans dating from the early 17th century. It was widened in 1824 and altered in the 20th century. After the River Frome joins on the east bank, the final bridge connects Mordiford on the east bank to Hampton Bishop. The bridge dates from the 14th century, and was widened in the 16th century. It consists of two main arches, through which the Lugg flows, with two flood arches and a causeway containing five more arches to the west of the main arches. The causeway was widened on the upstream side in the 20th century. To the west of the causeway are the remains of a pound lock. The walls of the chamber survive, although they are in poor condition. The Pentaloe Brook joins the river on its east bank just below the bridge, and then the Lugg joins the River Wye. History At the time of the Domesday Book, which recorded details of a survey of the land in 1086, the Lugg was an important river for milling. Some 80 mills were recorded in the county of Herefordshire, and of those, around one third were located in the valley of the Lugg, some on tributaries and others on the main river. In addition, those on the Lugg were valued considerably higher than those elsewhere, with an average value of 15 shillings and 4 pence, compared to 6 shillings and 7 pence for mills on other rivers. At that time, the hay meadows on the banks of the Lugg were the largest in the county, and the valley produced large crops of hay and corn. At least four of the sites were recorded as having fulling mills subsequently, but none were recorded when a survey of the river was made in 1697. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, four Acts of Parliament were passed which specifically named the River Lugg in their titles, but the middle two had the most effect on the river. The first (14 Cha. 2. c. 15) was passed on 19 May 1662, entitled An Act for the making navigable the Rivers Wye and Lugg, and the Rivers and Brooks running into the same, in the counties of Hereford, Gloucester and Monmouth. Sir William Sandys was appointed to carry out the work, which involved building weirs and flash locks to maintain water levels, but his previous experience on the Warwickshire Avon did not fit the Wye, which was a much steeper and faster-flowing river, and the work was abandoned by about 1668, before any work had been started on the Lugg. The second Act of Parliament was obtained on 17 March 1695, entitled An Act for making navigable the Rivers of Wye and Lugg, in the county of Hereford. One important effect of this act was that it re-established both rivers as free navigations, for it contained the clause: Therefore be it enacted that the rivers Wye and Lugg may be henceforth accounted, deemed and taken to be free and common rivers for all to make use of for carrying and conveying of all passenger goods, wares and commodities by boats, barges, lighters and other vessels whatsoever. On many of Britain's lowland rivers, there was an uneasy relationship between use of the water for milling, which required weirs to be built, and navigation, which required freedom of movement along the waterway. The 1695 Act took a radical approach, allowing the weirs to be bought and demolished, with funding for the purchases to be raised by a rate on the county of Herefordshire. On the Wye, some of the weirs were associated with fishing, but on the Lugg, all of them were connected with milling. Details of them have survived, because a comprehensive survey was carried out by an anonymous author, thought to be Daniel Dennell, who had previously worked on the Exeter Canal, and Dennell's document was acquired by the British Museum in 1856. The survey listed ten mills between Lugg Bridge, Leominster and the junction with the Wye, but this was probably the number of wheels or pairs of millstones, rather than the number of buildings where milling occurred. The annual value of each mill was to be established, and the price to buy the mill and weir was then fixed at 16 times that value. It is not clear exactly what work was done, since the relevant sheets from the accounts are missing, but a lot of money was spent. Locks may have been put into some of the weirs; this was certainly true at Tidnor, and may have also been the case at the confluence with the Wye, at Mordiford, Hampton Court, and some other sites. Several bridges were altered, by breaking one of the arches and constructing a timber drawbridge or later a raised arch. Overall, the policy of removing the weirs was not a success, as it meant that water levels dropped significantly, and navigation was hindered by shoals, which prevented boats from passing. A third Act of Parliament was obtained on 15 May 1727, which openly stated that destroying the weirs had been a mistake, and allowed the trustees to reinstate them, with associated locks. Neither the minutes nor the accounts for this phase of the work have survived. Thomas Chinn, a millwright from Tewkesbury, was employed to build locks around 1748, after money was raised by subscriptions in Leominster. He was later indicted for building locks against four bridges, but this charge may have been malicious. When the case was heard, he was only fined sixpence for each bridge and was not required to remove the locks. There are known to have been locks at twelve sites between Leominster and the Wye, at Volca Meadow, Ford Bridge, Hampton Court, Bodenham Mill, Kings Mill, Moreton Bridge, Wergins Bridge, Sherwick Mill, Lugg Bridge, Tidnor, Mordiford and the confluence. Some of these may have been half locks or flash locks, but some were definitely pound locks with two sets of gates, and of the three locks still in existence in 1906, both Tidnor and Mordiford were pound locks, but no clear evidence for a second set of gates at Lugg Bridge has been found. Barges on the river were hauled by teams of men. A fourth Act of Parliament was obtained in 1809, to allow horse towing paths to be constructed on the Wye and the Lugg, but there is no evidence that such a path was ever started on the Lugg. The arrival of railways in the area in the 1850s led to the winding up of the Wye and Lugg Towing Path Company, and use of both the Lugg and the Wye for navigation ceased soon afterwards. Some traffic may have used the lower of the Lugg up to Lugg Bridge until about 1860. As a result of the 1695 Act, the Lugg was a free navigation, but in 1995 the National Rivers Authority sought to apply bylaws to both the Wye and the Lugg. Their case was taken to the High Court, and was continued by the Environment Agency, which superseded the National Rivers Authority later that year. This action eventually led to the granting of the Wye Navigation Order in 2002, which reaffirmed the right of navigation on both rivers, appointed the Environment Agency as the navigation authority for the rivers, but prohibited the construction of weirs and locks. Most use of the river is now by canoes and kayaks, although it is still sometimes used by small boats but can be very dangerous when in flood. In February 2020, it was one of several rivers with severe flood warnings following the impact of Storm Dennis. Recreation The river is popular with canoeists who have undisputed rights of navigation. However travelling from Leominster to Hereford is challenged by numerous fallen trees obstructing the river. It is a good fishing river, with populations of wild brown trout and grayling. Environment The Environment Agency measure the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail. Equivalent data for the Welsh section is not readily available. The water quality of the River Lugg system was as follows in 2019. Like many rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and mercury compounds, none of which had previously been included in the assessment. From its source to its mouth, the entire length of the river has been a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) since 2 February 1995. It received the designation because it was one of the best examples of a clay river, with its chemistry changing from nutrient-poor in the upper reaches to naturally nutrient-rich in the lower reaches. As well as supporting several rare plant communities and otters, it also provides habitat for Atlantic stream crayfish, Atlantic Salmon, Bullhead and Twaite Shad. Below Eaton, the river is a designated Special Area of Conservation (SAC). During the 1980s and 1990s, there was a sharp drop in the number of migrating salmon on the river, as access was impeded by weirs. From 2003, a number of fish passes were constructed at these locations, and a survey in 2013 found that numbers of salmon in the river and in the tributary River Arrow had increased dramatically. The survey also found that brown trout had benefitted from the improvements, as their numbers had also increased. Some of the work was funded by the Lugg and Arrow Fisheries Association. The Eaton Angling Club, which was established in 1877, manages the fishing rights on of the river near Eaton Hall. Every year since 1955, they had stocked the river with 500 to 600 rainbow trout, but in 2009, some of their stocking was with triploid brown trout, infertile females which cannot inter-breed with the wild trout. Because of the conservation status of the river, and guided by the Environment Agency's National Trout and Grayling Fisheries Strategy, they have reduced the levels of stocking, which still include some triploid brown trout. Research on similar rivers has shown that reducing the levels of restocking can have a disproportionate benefit for the native populations of both brown trout and grayling, and the club are monitoring catch data to see if this is the case on the Lugg. A survey by the Trout Trust identified the bridge at Eaton as a problem for migrating fish, as there is a weir which forms part of the bridge footings. While salmon and larger trout can easily negotiate the flume that this creates, it acts as a barrier to smaller fish, grayling and eels, and they recommended that some remedial action should be taken. Construction of a Larinier fish pass at Ballsgate Weir, near Aymestrey, was expected to be completed in autumn 2019, but work was delayed by high water levels in the river throughout the winter from September onwards. The need for the fish pass was shown by fish surveys carried out above and below the weir, which showed that while plenty of salmon spawned below the weir, very few succeeded in getting further upstream. The fish pass was completed by the Wye and Usk Foundation in September 2020, and was funded by the European Regional Development Fund. The weir was the last major obstacle on the river for migrating salmon, and opens up miles of spawning grounds further upstream, in addition to making it easier for other species to move up and down the river. 2020 and 2021 illegal damage In November/December 2020, damage was done to a stretch of the riverbank near Kingsland in Herefordshire. The damaged area, which was part of the SSSI, was home to protected wildlife including crayfish, otters, salmon, and lampreys. It was discovered that trees had been felled, river-bed gravel removed, the meanders straightened, and all vegetation in the area had been dug up by bulldozer, without permission, leaving the riverbank devastated. A lawyer for Salmon and Trout Conservation, who is also a local resident, said: The Environment Agency, Natural England and the Forestry Commission interrupted the work, preventing further damage. Herefordshire Wildlife Trust said the changes would have "huge repercussions for wildlife downstream" and urged that the landowner responsible be prosecuted. John Price, the landowner, has stated that he was acting legally, and had been asked to carry out the work to prevent flooding of nearby homes. Further damage was done in December 2021. In March 2022, the Environment Agency and Natural England launched legal proceedings against the landowner, following an investigation. John Price, the landowner, was ordered to appear at Kidderminster Magistrates' Court in May 2022. He admitted seven charges relating to the dumping of materials, modifying the watercourse and natural features, using vehicles to disturb species of interest, and destroying flora and fauna, river habitats and fish populations. In April 2023, Price was jailed for twelve months and ordered to pay a total of over £1.2million in court costs and for the restoration of the affected stretch of river. Notes References Bibliography External links River Lugg SSSIs Photos of the River Lugg on geograph.org.uk Rivers of Herefordshire Rivers of Powys River Lugg River Lugg River navigations in the United Kingdom 1Lugg
419167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creek%20War	Creek War	The Creek War (also the Red Stick War; the Creek Civil War), was a regional conflict between opposing Native American factions, European powers, and the United States during the early 19th century. The Creek War began as a conflict within the tribes of the Muscogee, but the United States quickly became involved. British traders and Spanish colonial officials in Florida supplied the Red Sticks with weapons and equipment due to their shared interest in preventing the expansion of the United States into regions under their control. The Creek War took place largely in modern-day Alabama and along the Gulf Coast. Major engagements of the war involved the United States military and the Red Sticks (or Upper Creeks), a Muscogee tribal faction who resisted U.S. colonial expansion. The United States formed an alliance with the traditional enemies of the Muscogee, the Choctaw and Cherokee Nations, as well as the Lower Creeks faction of the Muscogee. During the hostilities, the Red Sticks allied themselves to the British. A Red Stick force aided British Naval Officer Alexander Cochrane's advance towards New Orleans. The Creek War effectively ended in August 1814 with the signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson, when Andrew Jackson forced the Creek confederacy to surrender more than 21 million acres in what is now southern Georgia and central Alabama. According to historian John K. Mahon, the Creek War "...was as much a civil war among Creeks as between red and white..." The war was also a continuation of Tecumseh's War in the Old Northwest, and, although a conflict framed within the centuries-long American Indian Wars, it is usually more identified with, and considered an integral part of, the War of 1812 by historians. Background Creek militancy was a response to increasing United States cultural and territorial encroachment into their traditional lands. But the war's alternate designation as "the Creek Civil War" comes from the divisions within the tribe over cultural, political, economic, and geographic matters. At the time of the Creek War, the Upper Creeks controlled the Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Alabama Rivers that lead to Mobile; while the Lower Creeks controlled the Chattahoochee River, which flows into Apalachicola Bay. The Lower Creek were trading partners with the United States and, unlike the Upper Creeks, had adopted more of their cultural practices. Territorial conflict The provinces of East and West Florida, governed by Spanish and British firms like Panton, Leslie, and Co., provided most of the European trading goods into Creek country. Pensacola and Mobile, in Spanish Florida, controlled the outlets of the U.S. Mississippi Territory's rivers. Territorial conflicts between France, Spain, Britain, and the United States along the Gulf Coast that had previously helped the Creeks to maintain control over most of the United States' southwestern territory had shifted dramatically due to the Napoleonic Wars, the West Florida Rebellion, and the War of 1812. This made long-standing intra-Creek trade and political alliances more tenuous than ever. In the Treaty of New York (1790), Treaty of Colerain (1796), Treaty of Fort Wilkinson (1802), and Treaty of Washington (1805), the Creek ceded parts of their Georgia territory east of the Ocmulgee River. In 1804, the United States claimed the city of Mobile under the Mobile Act. The 1805 treaty with the Creek also allowed the creation of the Federal Road that linked Washington, D.C. to the newly acquired port city of New Orleans, which partially stretched through Creek territories. During and after the American Revolution, the United States wished to maintain the Indian Line which had been established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The Indian Line created a boundary for colonial settlement in order to prevent illegal encroachment into Indian lands, and also helped the U.S. government maintain control over Indian trade. Still, traders and settlers often violated the terms of the treaties establishing the Indian Line, and frontier settlement by colonists in Indian lands was one of the arguments the United States used to expand its territory. These increasing territorial grabs westward into Creek territory (which included parts of Spanish Florida), coupled with the Louisiana Purchase (which neither the British nor the Spanish recognized at the time), compelled the British and Spanish governments to strengthen existing alliances with the Creek. In 1810, following the occupation of Baton Rouge during the West Florida Rebellion, the United States sent an expeditionary force to occupy Mobile. As a result, Mobile was jointly occupied by weak detachments of American and Spanish soldiers until Secretary of War John Armstrong ordered General James Wilkinson to force the Spanish to turn over control of the city in February 1813. The Patriot Army captured parts of East Florida from 1811–1815. After Fort Charlotte was surrendered in April, the Spanish focused on protecting Pensacola from the United States. The Spanish decided to support the Creek in an attack on the United States and in defense of their homeland, but were greatly hindered by their weak position in the Floridas and lack of supplies even for their own army. Cultural assimilation and religious revival The splintering of the Creek peoples along progressive and nativist lines had roots dating back to the eighteenth century, but came to a head after 1811. Red Stick militancy was a response to the economic and cultural crises in Creek society caused by the adoption of Western trade goods and culture. From the sixteenth century, the Creek had formed successful trade alliances with European empires, but the drastic fall in the price of deerskin from 1783 to 1793 made it more difficult for individuals to repay their debt, while at the same time the assimilation process made American goods more necessary. The Red Sticks particularly resisted the "civilization" programs administered by the U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins, who had stronger alliances among the towns of the Lower Creek. Some of the "progressive" Creek began to adopt American farming practices as their game disappeared, and as more Anglo settlers assimilated into Creek towns and families. Leaders of the Lower Creek towns in present-day Georgia included Bird Tail King (Fushatchie Mico) of Cusseta, Little Prince (Tustunnuggee Hopoi) of Broken Arrow, and William McIntosh (Tunstunuggee Hutkee, White Warrior) of Coweta. Many of the most prominent Creek chiefs before the Creek War were "mixed-bloods", like William McGillivray and William McIntosh (who were on opposing sides of the Creek Civil War). Before the Creek War and the War of 1812, most U.S. politicians saw removal to be the only alternative to the assimilation of native peoples into Western culture. The Creeks, on the other hand, blended their own culture with adopted trade goods and political terms, and had no intention of abandoning their land. The Americanization of the Creeks was more prevalent in western Georgia among the Lower Creeks than in Upper Creek towns, and came from internal and external processes. The U.S. government's and Benjamin Hawkins' pressure on the Creeks to assimilate stood in contrast to the more natural blending of cultures that came from a long tradition of cohabitation and cultural appropriation, beginning with white traders in Indian country. The Shawnee leader Tecumseh came to the area to encourage the peoples to join his movement to throw the Americans out of Native American territories. Previously, he had united tribes in the Northwest (Ohio and related territories) to fight against U.S. settlers after the War for Independence. In 1811, Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa attended the annual Creek council at Tukabatchee. Tecumseh delivered an hour-long speech to an audience of 5,000 Creeks as well as an American delegation including Hawkins. Although the Americans dismissed Tecumseh as non-threatening, his message of resistance to Anglo encroachment was well received among Creek and Seminole, especially among more conservative and traditional elders and young men. Mobilization of recruits to Tecumseh's cause was bolstered by the Great Comet of 1811 and the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811–12, which were taken as evidence of Tecumseh's supernatural powers. The war party rallied around prophets who had traveled with Tecumseh and remained with the Creek, influencing newly converted Creek religious leaders. Peter McQueen of Talisi (now Tallassee, Alabama); Josiah Francis (Hillis Hadjo) (Francis the Prophet) of Autauga, a Koasati town; and High-head Jim (Cusseta Tustunnuggee) and Paddy Walsh, both Alabamas, were among the spiritual leaders responding to rising concerns and the prophetic message. The militant faction of Creek stood in opposition of the Creek Confederacy Council's official policies, particularly in regard to foreign relations with the United States. The rising war party began to be called "Red Sticks" at this timein Creek culture, red 'sticks' or clubs symbolize war, while white sticks represent peace. Course of the war Creeks who did not support the war became targets for the prophets and their followers, and began to be murdered in their sleep or burned alive. Warriors of the prophets' parties also began to attack the property of their enemies, burning plantations and destroying livestock. The first major offensive of the civil war was the Red Stick attack on the Upper Creek town, and seat of the council, at Tuckabatchee on July 22, 1813. In Georgia, a war party of "friendly" Creek organized under William McIntosh, Big Warrior, and Little Prince attacked 150 Uchee warriors who were traveling to meet up with Red Stick Creeks in the Mississippi Territory. After this offensive in the beginning of October 1813, the party burned a number of Red Stick towns before retiring to Coweta. Although there were a few limited attacks on whites in 1812 and early 1813, Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins did not believe that the disruption in the Creek Nation or the increasing war dances were a cause for concern. But in February 1813, a small war party of Red Sticks, led by Little Warrior, were returning from Detroit when they killed two families of settlers along the Ohio River. Hawkins demanded that the Creek turn over Little Warrior and his six companions, the standard operating procedure between the nations up to that point. The first clashes between the Red Sticks and United States forces occurred on July 27, 1813. A group of territorial militia intercepted a party of Red Sticks returning from Spanish Florida, where they had acquired arms from the Spanish governor at Pensacola. The Red Sticks escaped and the soldiers looted what they found. Seeing the Americans looting, the Creek regrouped and attacked and defeated the Americans. The Battle of Burnt Corn, as the exchange became known, broadened the Creek Civil War to include American forces. Chiefs Peter McQueen and William Weatherford led an attack on Fort Mims, north of Mobile, on August 30, 1813. The Red Sticks' goal was to strike at mixed-blood Creek of the Tensaw settlement who had taken refuge at the fort. The warriors attacked the fort and killed a total of 400 to 500 people, including women and children and numerous white settlers. The attack became known as the Fort Mims massacre and became a rallying cause for American militia. The Red Sticks subsequently attacked other forts in the area, including Fort Sinquefield. Panic spread among settlers throughout the Southwestern frontier, and they demanded U.S. government intervention. Federal forces were busy fighting the British and Northern Woodland tribes, led by the Shawnee chief Tecumseh in the Northwest. Affected states called up militias to deal with the threat. After the Battle of Burnt Corn, U.S. Secretary of War John Armstrong notified General Thomas Pinckney, Commander of the 6th Military District, that the U.S. was prepared to take action against the Creek Confederacy. Furthermore, if Spain were found to be supporting the Creeks, an assault on Pensacola would ensue. Brigadier General Ferdinand Claiborne, a militia commander in the Mississippi Territory, was concerned about the weakness of his sector on the western border of the Creek territory, and advocated preemptive strikes. But Major General Thomas Flourney, commander of 7th Military District, refused his requests. He intended to carry out a defensive American strategy. Meanwhile, settlers in that region sought refuge in blockhouses. The Tennessee legislature authorized Governor Willie Blount to raise 5,000 militia for a three-month tour of duty. Blount called out a force of 2,500 West Tennessee men under Colonel Andrew Jackson to "repel an approaching invasion ... and to afford aid and relief to ... Mississippi Territory". He also summoned a force of 2,500 from East Tennessee under Major General John Alexander Cocke. Jackson and Cocke were not ready to move until early October. In addition to the state actions, U.S. Indian agent Hawkins organized the friendly Lower Creek under Major William McIntosh, an Indian chief, to aid the Georgia and Tennessee militias in actions against the Red Sticks. At the request of Chief Federal Agent Return J. Meigs (called "White Eagle" by the Indians for the color of his hair), the Cherokee Nation voted to join the Americans in their fight against the Red Sticks. Under the command of Chief Major Ridge, 200 Cherokee fought with the Tennessee Militia under Colonel Andrew Jackson. At most, the Red Stick force consisted of 4,000 warriors, possessing perhaps 1,000 muskets. They had never been involved in a large-scale war, not even against neighboring American Indians. Early in the war, General Cocke observed that arrows "form a very principal part of the enemy's arms for warfare, every man having a bow with a bundle of arrows, which is used after the first fire with the gun until a leisure time for loading offers". Many Creek tried to remain friendly to the United States, but, after Fort Mims, few European Americans in the region distinguished between friendly and unfriendly Creeks. The Holy Ground (Econochaca), located near the junction of the Alabama and Coosa Rivers, was the heart of the Red Stick Confederation. It was about 150 miles (240 km) from the nearest supply point available to any of the three American armies. The easiest attack route was from Georgia through the line of forts on the frontier and then along a good road that led to the Upper Creek towns near the Holy Ground, including nearby Hickory Ground. Another route was north from Mobile along the Alabama River. Jackson's route of advance was south from Tennessee through a mountainous and pathless terrain. Georgia campaign By August, the Georgia Volunteer Army and state militia had been mobilized in anticipation of war with the Creeks. The news of Fort Mims first reached Georgia on September 16, and was taken as legal grounds to begin a military offensive. In addition, Benjamin Hawkins wrote to Brigadier General John Floyd on September 30 that the Red Stick war party had "received 25 small guns" at Pensacola. The immediate concern of the force was the defense of Georgia's "Indian Line", separating Indian territory from U.S. territory at the Ocmulgee River. The proximity of Jasper and Jones counties to hostile Creek towns resulted in a regiment of Georgia volunteer militia under Major General David Adams. John Floyd was made general of the main Georgia army (in September 1812 and numbering 2,362 men). The Georgia Army was aided by Cherokee and independent Creek allies, as well as a number of Georgia volunteer militia. Floyd's task was to advance to the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers and join the Army of Tennessee. Due to the state's failure to secure supplies early enough in the year, Floyd gained a few months to train and drill the men at Fort Hawkins. On November 24, General Floyd crossed the Chattahoochee and established Fort Mitchell, where he was joined by 300-400 Creek from Coweta, organized under McIntosh. With these allies and 950 of his men, Floyd began his advance towards the juncture of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers where he was supposed to rendezvous with Jackson. His first target was the major town of Autossee on the Tallapoosa River, a Red Stick stronghold only 20 miles from the Coosa River. On November 29, he attacked Autossee. Floyd's losses were 11 killed and 54 wounded. Floyd estimated that 200 Creek were killed. Having achieved the destruction of the town, Floyd returned to Fort Mitchell. The second westward advance of Floyd's troops departed Fort Mitchell with a force of 1,100 militia and 400 friendly Creek. Along the way they fortified Fort Bainbridge and Fort Hull on the Federal Road. On January 26, 1813, they set up a camp on the Callabee Creek near the abandoned site of Autossee. Red Stick chiefs William Weatherford, Paddy Walsh, High-head Jim, and William McGillivray raised a combined force of at least 1,300 warriors to stop the advance. This was the largest combined force raised by the Creek during the entire war. On January 29, the Red Sticks launched an attack on the American camp at dawn. After daylight, Floyd's army repulsed the attack. Casualty figures vary for Floyd's force, from 17 to 22 killed, and 132 to 147 wounded. Floyd estimated Red Stick casualties as 37 killed, including Chief High-head Jim. Georgia retreated to Fort Mitchell with Floyd, who was severely wounded in the leg. The Battle of Calebee Creek was Georgia's last offensive operation of the war. Mississippi militia In October, General Thomas Flournoy organized a force of about 1,000—consisting of the Third United States Infantry, militia, volunteers, and Choctaw Indians—at Fort Stoddert. General Claiborne, ordered to lay waste to Creek property near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, advanced from Fort St. Stephen. He achieved some destruction but no military engagement. At roughly the same time, Captain Samuel Dale left Fort Madison (near Suggsville) going southward to the Alabama River. On November 12 a small party rowed out to intercept a war canoe. Dale wound up alone in the canoe in hand-to-hand combat with four warriors, an encounter which became known as the Canoe Fight. Continuing to a point about 85 miles (140 km) north of Fort Stoddert, Claiborne established Fort Claiborne. On December 23, he encountered a small force at the Holy Ground and burned 260 houses. William Weatherford was nearly captured during this engagement. Casualties for the Mississippians were 1 killed and 6 wounded. 30 Creek soldiers were killed in the engagement, however. Because of supply shortages, Claiborne withdrew to Fort St. Stephens. North Carolina and South Carolina militia Brigadier General Joseph Graham's brigade of troops from North and South Carolina, including Colonel Reuben Nash's South Carolina militia, deployed along the Georgia frontier to deal with the Red Sticks. Colonel Nash's South Carolina regiment of volunteer militia traveled from South Carolina at the end of January 1814. The militia marched to the start of the Federal Road in Augusta, Georgia, walking to Fort Benjamin Hawkins (in modern Macon, Georgia) en route to reinforce the various forts including Fort Mitchell (in modern Phenix City, Alabama), Fort Bainbridge, Fort Hull, and Fort Decatur. Other companies in the Nash's regiment were at Fort Mitchell by July 1814. Graham's brigade participated in only a few skirmishes before returning home. Tennessee campaign Although Jackson's mission was to defeat the Creek, his larger objective was to move on Pensacola. Jackson's plan was to move south, build roads, destroy Upper Creek towns, and then later proceed to Mobile to stage an attack on Spanish-held Pensacola. He had two problems: logistics and short enlistments. When Jackson began his advance, the Tennessee River was low, making it difficult to move supplies, and there was little forage for his horses. On October 10, Jackson, along with 2,500 troops, set out on the expedition, his arm in a sling. Jackson established Fort Strother as a supply base. On November 3, his top cavalry officer, Brigadier General John Coffee, defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee. It was a brutal battle, and many Red Sticks, including some women and children, were killed. After this, Jackson received a call for help from 150 allied Creeks besieged by 700 Red Stick warriors. Jackson marched his troops to relieve the siege, and won another decisive victory at the Battle of Talladega on November 9. After Talladega, however, Jackson was plagued by supply shortages and discipline problems arising from his men's short term enlistments. John Alexander Cocke, with the East Tennessee Militia, took the field on October 12. His route of march was from Knoxville to Chattanooga and then along the Coosa River toward Fort Strother. Because of rivalry between the East and West Tennessee militias, Cocke was in no hurry to join Jackson, particularly after he angered Jackson by mistakenly attacking a friendly village on November 17. When he finally reached Fort Strother on December 12, the East Tennessee men only had 10 days remaining on their enlistments. Jackson had no choice but to dismiss them. Furthermore, Brigadier General Coffee, who had returned to Tennessee for remounts, wrote Jackson that the cavalry had deserted. By the end of 1813, Jackson was down to a single regiment whose enlistments were due to expire in mid-January. Although Governor Blount had ordered a new levee of 2,500 troops, Jackson would not be up to full strength until the end of February. When a draft of 900 raw recruits arrived unexpectedly on January 14, Jackson was down to a cadre of 103 and Coffee, who had been "abandoned by his men". Since new men had enlistment contracts of only sixty days, Jackson decided to get the most out of his untried force. He departed Fort Strother on January 17 and marched toward the village of Emuckfaw to cooperate with the Georgia Militia. However, this was a risky decision. It was a long march through difficult terrain against a numerically superior force, the men were inexperienced, undisciplined, and insubordinate, and a defeat would have prolonged the war. After two indecisive battles at Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek, Jackson returned to Fort Strother and did not resume the offensive until mid-March. The arrival of the 39th United States Infantry on February 6, 1814, provided Jackson a disciplined core for his force, which ultimately grew to about 5,000 men. After Governor Blount ordered the second draft of Tennessee militia, Cocke, with a force of 2,000 six-month men, once again marched from Knoxville to Fort Strother. Cocke's men mutinied when they learned that Jackson's men only had three-month enlistments. Cocke tried to pacify his men, but Jackson misunderstood the situation and ordered Cocke's arrest as an instigator. The East Tennessee militia reported to Fort Strother without further comment on their term of service. Cocke was later cleared. Jackson spent the next month building roads and training his force. In mid-March, he moved against the Red Stick force concentrated on the Tallapoosa at Tohopeka (Horseshoe Bend). He first moved south along the Coosa, about half the distance to the Creek position, and established a new outpost at Fort Williams. Leaving another garrison there, he then moved on Tohopeka with a force of about 3,000 effective fighting men augmented by 600 Cherokee and Lower Creek allies. The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, which occurred on March 27, was a decisive victory for Jackson, effectively ending the Red Stick resistance. Results On August 9, 1814, Andrew Jackson forced headmen of both the Upper and Lower towns of Creek to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Despite protest of the Creek chiefs who had fought alongside Jackson, the Creek Nation ceded 21,086,793 acres (85,335 km²) of land—approximately half of present-day Alabama and part of southern Georgia—to the United States government. Even though the Creek War was largely a civil war among the Creek, Andrew Jackson recognized no difference between his Lower Creek allies and the Red Sticks who fought against him. He took the lands of both for what he considered the security needs of the United States. Jackson forced the Creek to cede 1.9 million acres (7,700 km²) that was also claimed as hunting grounds of the Cherokee Nation, who had fought as U.S. allies during the Creek War as well. With the Red Sticks subdued, Jackson turned his focus on the Gulf Coast region in the War of 1812. On his own initiative, he invaded Spanish Florida and drove a British force out of Pensacola. He defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. In 1818, Jackson again invaded Florida, where some of the Red Stick leaders had fled, an event known as the First Seminole War. As a result of these victories, Jackson became a national figure and eventually was elected the seventh President of the United States in 1829. As president, Andrew Jackson advocated the Indian Removal Act, passed by Congress in 1830, which authorized negotiation of treaties for exchange of land and payment of annuities, and authorized forceful removal of the Southeastern tribes to prescribed Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River, an ethnic cleansing now known as the Trail of Tears. See also Indian Campaign Medal List of Indian massacres George Mayfield, interpreter and spy for Andrew Jackson, later honored by the Creek for his integrity during treaty negotiations References Sources Adams, Henry, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (1889) Andrew Burstein The Passions of Andrew Jackson (Alfred A. Kopf 2003), p. 106 Holland, James W. "Andrew Jackson and the Creek War: Victory at the Horseshoe Bend", Alabama Review, 1968 21(4): 243–275. Kanon, Thomas. "'A Slow, Laborious Slaughter': The Battle Of Horseshoe Bend." Tennessee Historical Quarterly, 1999 58(1): 2–15. useful for illustrations Mahon, John K., The War of 1812, (University of Florida Press 1972) Waselkov, Gregory A. A Conquering Spirit: Fort Mims and the Redstick War of 1813–1814. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2006. Further reading Richard D. Blackmon. The Creek War, 1813-1814. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army, 2014. Mike Bunn and Clay Williams. Battle for the Southern Frontier: The Creek War and the War of 1812. The History Press, 2008. Kathryn E. Holland Braund. Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685–1815. University of Nebraska Press, 2006. Benjamin W. Griffith Jr. McIntosh and Weatherford: Creek Indian Leaders. University of Alabama Press, 1998. Angela Pulley Hudson. Creek Paths and Federal Roads: Indians, Settlers, and Slaves and the Making of the American South. University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Roger L. Nichols. Warrior Nations: The United States and Indian Peoples. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013. Frank L. Owsley Jr. Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815. University of Alabama Press, 2000. Claudio Saunt. A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733–1816. Cambridge University Press, 1999. Gregory A. Waselkov. A Conquering Spirit: Fort Mims and the Redstick War of 1813–1814. University of Alabama Press, 2006. J. Leitch Wright Jr. Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People. University of Nebraska Press, 1990. External links "The Creek War 1813-1814", Horseshoe Bend National Military Park, National Park Service 1810s in the United States Andrew Jackson Muscogee 19th-century Cherokee history History of Georgia (U.S. state) Pre-statehood history of Alabama War of 1812 Civil wars involving the states and peoples of North America Wars between the United States and Native Americans
419211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20Beirut%20barracks%20bombings	1983 Beirut barracks bombings	Early on a Sunday morning, October 23, 1983, two truck bombs struck buildings in Beirut, Lebanon, housing American and French service members of the Multinational Force in Lebanon (MNF), a military peacekeeping operation during the Lebanese Civil War. The attack killed 307 people: 241 U.S. and 58 French military personnel, six civilians, and two attackers. The first suicide bomber detonated a truck bomb at the building serving as a barracks for the 1st Battalion 8th Marines (Battalion Landing Team – BLT 1/8) of the 2nd Marine Division, killing 220 marines, 18 sailors and three soldiers, making this incident the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States Marine Corps since the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II and the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States Armed Forces since the first day of the Tet Offensive in the Vietnam War. Another 128 Americans were wounded in the blast; 13 later died of their injuries, and they are counted among the number who died. An elderly Lebanese man, a custodian/vendor who was known to work and sleep in his concession stand next to the building, was also killed in the first blast. The explosives used were later estimated to be equivalent to as much as of TNT. Minutes later, a second suicide bomber struck the nine-story Drakkar building, a few kilometers away, where the French contingent was stationed; 55 paratroopers from the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment and three paratroopers of the 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment were killed and 15 injured. It was the single worst French military loss since the end of the Algerian War. The wife and four children of a Lebanese janitor at the French building were also killed, and more than twenty other Lebanese civilians were injured. A group called Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the bombings and said that the aim was to force the MNF out of Lebanon. According to Caspar Weinberger, then United States Secretary of Defense, there is no knowledge of who did the bombing. Some analysis highlights the role of Hezbollah and Iran, calling it "an Iranian operation from top to bottom". There is no consensus on whether Hezbollah existed at the time of bombing. The attacks eventually led to the withdrawal of the international peacekeeping force from Lebanon, where they had been stationed following the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) withdrawal in the aftermath of Israel's 1982 invasion of Lebanon. Beirut: June 1982 to October 1983 Timeline 6 June 1982 – Israel undertook military action in Southern Lebanon: Operation "Peace for Galilee." 23 August 1982 – Bachir Gemayel was elected to be Lebanon's president. 25 August 1982 – A MNF of approximately 400 French, 800 Italian soldiers and 800 marines of the 32nd Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) were deployed in Beirut as part of a peacekeeping force to oversee the evacuation of Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) guerrillas. 10 September 1982 – The PLO retreats from Beirut under MNF protection. Subsequently, the 32nd MAU was ordered out of Beirut by the President of the United States. 14 September 1982 – Lebanon's President, Bachir Gemayel, was assassinated. 16 September to 18 September 1982 – The Sabra and Shatila massacre occurred. 19 September 1982 – The destroyer USS John Rodgers and nuclear cruiser USS Virginia operating off the coast of Beirut conduct a naval bombardment into the town of Suk al Gharb, in the hills overlooking Beirut, in support of the Lebanese Army, after it is nearly overrun by Syrian-backed Druze militiamen and Palestinian guerrillas. Over 300 rounds of 5" shells are fired to suppress the attack. 20 September 1982 – The Beirut residence of the U.S. ambassador is shelled; for a second day US naval ships again conduct counter fire operations. 21 September 1982 – Bachir Gemayel's brother, Amine Gemayel, was elected to be Lebanon's president. 29 September 1982 – The 32nd MAU was redeployed to Beirut (primarily at the BIA) rejoining 2,200 French and Italian MNF troops already in place. 30 October 1982 – The 32nd MAU was relieved by the 24th MAU. 15 February 1983 – The 32nd MAU, redesignated as the 22nd MAU, returned to Lebanon to relieve the 24th MAU. 18 April 1983 – The U.S. Embassy bombing in Beirut killed 63, of whom 17 were Americans. 17 May 1983 – The May 17 Agreement was signed. 30 May 1983 – The 24th MAU relieved the 22nd MAU. Mission On June 6, 1982, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) initiated Operation "Peace for Galilee" and invaded Lebanon in order to create a 40 km buffer zone between the PLO and Syrian forces in Lebanon and Israel. The Israeli invasion was tacitly approved by the U.S., and the U.S. provided overt military support to Israel in the form of arms and materiel. The U.S.' support for Israel's invasion of Lebanon taken in conjunction with U.S. support for Lebanese President Bachir Gemayel and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) alienated many. Bachir Gemayel was the legally elected president, but he was a partisan Maronite Christian and covert associate of Israel. These factors served to disaffect the Lebanese Muslim and Druze communities. This animosity was made worse by the Phalangist, a right-wing, largely Maronite-Lebanese militia force closely associated with President Gemayel. The Phalangist militia was responsible for multiple, bloody attacks against the Muslim and Druze communities in Lebanon and for the 1982 atrocities committed in the PLO refugee camps, Sabra and Shatila by Lebanese Forces (LF), while the IDF provided security and looked on. The Phalangist militia's attacks on Sabra and Shatila were purportedly a response to the September 14, 1982, assassination of President-elect Bachir Gemayel. Amine Gemayel, Bachir's brother, succeeded Bachir as the elected president of Lebanon, and Amine continued to represent and advance Maronite interests. All of this, according to British foreign correspondent Robert Fisk, served to generate ill will against the MNF among Lebanese Muslims and especially among the Shiites living in the slums of West Beirut. Lebanese Muslims believed the MNF, and the Americans in particular, were unfairly siding with the Maronite Christians in their attempt to dominate Lebanon. As a result, this led to artillery, mortar, and small arms fire being directed at MNF peacekeepers by Muslim factions. Operating under the peacetime rules of engagement, MNF peacekeepers – primarily U.S. and French forces – used minimum use of force as possible in order to avoid compromising their neutral status. Until October 23, 1983, there were ten guidelines issued for each U.S. marine member of the MNF: When on post, mobile or foot patrol, keep loaded magazine in weapon, bolt closed, weapon on safe, no round in the chamber. Do not chamber a round unless instructed to do so by a commissioned officer unless you must act in immediate self-defense where deadly force is authorized. Keep ammo for crew-served weapons readily available but not loaded in the weapon. Weapons will be on safe at all times. Call local forces to assist in self-defense effort. Notify headquarters. Use only minimum degree of force to accomplish any mission. Stop the use of force when it is no longer needed to accomplish the mission. If you receive effective hostile fire, direct your fire at the source. If possible, use friendly snipers. Respect civilian property; do not attack it unless absolutely necessary to protect friendly forces. Protect innocent civilians from harm. Respect and protect recognized medical agencies such as Red Cross, Red Crescent, etc. The perimeter guards at the U.S. Marine headquarters on the morning of October 23, 1983, were in full compliance with rules 1–3 and were unable to shoot fast enough to disable or stop the bomber (see Bombings: Sunday, October 23, 1983 below). In 1982, the Islamic Republic of Iran established a base in the Syrian-controlled Beqaa Valley in Lebanon. From that base, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) "founded, financed, trained and equipped Hezbollah to operate as a proxy army" for Iran. Some analysts believe the newly formed Islamic Republic of Iran was heavily involved in the bomb attacks and that a major factor leading it to orchestrate the attacks on the barracks was America's support for Iraq in the Iran–Iraq War and its extending of $2.5 billion in trade credit to Iraq while halting the shipments of arms to Iran. A few weeks before the bombing, Iran warned that providing armaments to Iran's enemies would provoke retaliatory punishment. On September 26, 1983, "the National Security Agency (NSA) intercepted an Iranian diplomatic communications message from the Iranian intelligence agency, the Ministry of Information and Security (MOIS)," to its ambassador, Ali Akbar Mohtashemi, in Damascus. The message directed the ambassador to "take spectacular action against the American Marines." The intercepted message, dated September 26, would not be passed to the Marines until October 26: three days after the bombing. Much of what is now public knowledge of Iranian involvement, e.g., PETN purportedly supplied by Iran, the suicide bomber's name and nationality, etc., in the bombings was not revealed to the public until the 2003 trial, Peterson, et al v. Islamic Republic, et al. Testimony by Admiral James "Ace" Lyon's, U.S.N. (Ret), and FBI forensic explosive investigator Danny A. Defenbaugh, plus a deposition by a Hezbollah operative named Mahmoud (a pseudonym) were particularly revealing. Incidents On July 14, 1983, a Lebanese Armed Forces patrol was ambushed by Lebanese Druze militia elements and from July 15–17, Lebanese troops engaged the Shia Amal militia in Beirut over a dispute involving the eviction of Shiite squatters from a schoolhouse. At the same time, fighting in the Shuf between the LAF and Druze militia escalated sharply. On July 22, Beirut International Airport (BIA), the headquarters of the U.S. 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (24th MAU), was shelled with Druze mortar and artillery fire, wounding three U.S. marines and causing the temporary closure of the airport. On July 23, Walid Jumblatt, leader of the predominantly Druze Progressive Socialist Party (PSP), announced the formation of a Syrian-backed "National Salvation Front" opposed to the May 17 Agreement. In anticipation of an IDF withdrawal from the Alayh and Shuf districts, fighting between the Druze and LF and between the Druze and LAF, intensified during the month of August. Druze artillery closed the BIA between 10 and 16 August, and the Druze made explicit their opposition to LAF deployment in the Shuf. The LAF also clashed with the Amal militia in Beirut's western and southern suburbs. As the security situation deteriorated, US positions at BIA were subjected to increased fire. On August 10 and 11, an estimated thirty-five rounds of mortar and rocket fire landed on US positions, wounding one marine. On August 28, in response to constant mortar and rocket fire upon US positions, US peacekeepers returned fire for the first time. On the following day, US artillery silenced a Druze battery after two marines were killed in a mortar attack. On August 31, the LAF swept through the Shia neighborhood of West Beirut, establishing temporary control over the area. On September 4, the IDF withdrew from the Alayh and Shuf Districts, falling back to the Awwali River. The LAF was not prepared to fill the void, moving instead to occupy the key junction at Khaldah, south of BIA. That same day, BIA was again shelled, killing two marines and wounding two others. No retaliation was given due to the ROE. As the LAF moved slowly eastward into the foothills of the Shuf, accounts of massacres, conducted by Christians and Druze alike, began to be reported. On September 5, a Druze force, reportedly reinforced by PLO elements, routed the Christian LF militia at Bhamdun and all but eliminated the LF as a military factor in the Alayh District. This defeat obliged the LAF to occupy Souk El Gharb to avoid conceding all of the high ground overlooking BIA to the Druze. U.S. positions were again subjected to constant indirect fire attacks; consequently, counterbattery fire based on target acquisition radar data was employed. F-14 tactical airborne reconnaissance (TARPS) missions were conducted for the first time on September 7. On September 8, naval gunfire from offshore destroyers was employed for the first time in defense of the U.S. Marines. On September 25, a ceasefire was instituted that same day and Beirut International Airport reopened five days later. On October 1, Walid Jumblatt announced a separate governmental administration for the Shuf and called for the mass defection of all Druze elements from the LAF. Nevertheless, on 14 October the leaders of Lebanon's key factions agreed to conduct reconciliation talks in Geneva, Switzerland. Although the ceasefire officially held into mid-October, factional clashes intensified and sniper attacks on MNF contingents became commonplace. On October 19, four marines were wounded when a US convoy was attacked by a remotely detonated car bomb parked along the convoy route. Bombings: Sunday, October 23, 1983 At around 06:22, a 19-ton yellow Mercedes-Benz stake-bed truck drove to the Beirut International Airport. The 1st Battalion 8th Marines (BLT), commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Larry Gerlach, was a subordinate element of the 24th MAU. The truck was not the water truck they had been expecting. Instead, it was a hijacked truck carrying explosives. The driver turned his truck onto an access road leading to the compound. He drove into and circled the parking lot, and then he accelerated to crash through a -high barrier of concertina wire separating the parking lot from the building. The wire popped "like somebody walking on twigs." The truck then passed between two sentry posts and through an open vehicle gate in the perimeter chain-link fence, crashed through a guard shack in front of the building and smashed into the lobby of the building serving as the barracks for the 1st Battalion 8th Marines (BLT). The sentries at the gate were operating under rules of engagement which made it very difficult to respond quickly to the truck. On the day of the bombing, the sentries were ordered to keep a loaded magazine inserted in their weapon, bolt closed, weapon on safe and no round in the chamber. Only one sentry, LCpl Eddie DiFranco, was able to chamber a round. However, by that time the truck was already crashing into the building's entryway. The suicide bomber, an Iranian national named Ismail Ascari, detonated his explosives, which were later estimated to be equivalent to approximately 12,000 pounds of TNT. The force of the explosion collapsed the four-story building into rubble, crushing to death 241 American servicemen. According to Eric Hammel in his history of the U.S. Marine landing force, The force of the explosion initially lifted the entire four-story structure, shearing the bases of the concrete support columns, each measuring fifteen feet in circumference and reinforced by numerous one-and-three-quarter-inch steel rods. The airborne building then fell in upon itself. A massive shock wave and ball of flaming gas was hurled in all directions. The explosive mechanism was a gas-enhanced device consisting of compressed butane in canisters employed with pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) to create a fuel-air explosive. The bomb was carried on a layer of concrete covered with a slab of marble to direct the blast upward. Despite the lack of sophistication and wide availability of its component parts, a gas-enhanced device can be a lethal weapon. These devices were similar to fuel-air or thermobaric weapons, explaining the large blast and damage. An after-action forensic investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) determined that the bomb was so powerful that it probably would have brought down the building even if the sentries had managed to stop the truck between the gate and the building. Less than ten minutes later, a similar attack occurred against the barracks of the French 3rd Company of the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment, away in the Ramlet al Baida area of West Beirut. As the suicide bomber drove his pickup truck toward the "Drakkar" building, French paratroopers began shooting at the truck and its driver. It is believed that the driver was killed and the truck was immobilized and rolled to stop about from the building. A few moments passed before the truck exploded, bringing down the nine-story building and killing 58 French paratroopers. It is believed that this bomb was detonated by remote control and that, though similarly constructed, it was smaller than and slightly less than half as powerful as the one used against the Marines. Many of the paratroopers had gathered on their balconies moments earlier to see what was happening at the airport. It was France's worst military loss since the end of the Algerian War in 1962. Rescue and recovery operations: October 23 to 28, 1983 American Organized rescue efforts began immediately – within three minutes of the bombing – and continued for days. Unit maintenance personnel were not billeted in the BLT building, and they rounded up pry bars, torches, jacks and other equipment from unit vehicles and maintenance shops and began rescue operations. Meanwhile, combat engineers and truck drivers began using their organic assets, i.e., trucks and engineering equipment, to help with the rescue operations. 24th MAU medical personnel, Navy dentists LT Gil Bigelow and LT Jim Ware, established two aid stations to triage and treat casualties. Medevac helicopters, CH-46s from Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron (HMM-162), were airborne by 6:45 AM. U.S. Navy medical personnel from nearby vessels of the U.S. Sixth Fleet went ashore to assist with treatment and medical evacuation of the injured, as did sailors and shipboard marines who volunteered to assist with the rescue effort. Lebanese, Italian, British, and even French troops, who had suffered their own loss, provided assistance. Many Lebanese civilians voluntarily joined the rescue effort. Especially important was a Lebanese construction contractor, Rafiq Hariri of the firm Oger-Liban, who provided heavy construction equipment, e.g., a 40-ton P & H crane, etc., from nearby BIA worksites. Hariri's construction equipment proved vitally necessary in lifting and removing heavy slabs of concrete debris at the barracks site just as it had been necessary in assisting with clearing debris after the April U.S. Embassy attack. While the rescuers were at times hindered by hostile sniper and artillery fire, several marine survivors were pulled from the rubble at the BLT 1/8 bomb site and airlifted by helicopter to the , located offshore. U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force and Royal Air Force medevac planes transported the seriously wounded to the hospital at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus and to U.S. and German hospitals in West Germany. A few survivors, including Lt. Col. Gerlach, were sent to the Italian MNF dispensary and to Lebanese hospitals in Beirut. Israel's offers to medevac the wounded to hospitals in Israel were rejected as politically unacceptable even though Israeli hospitals were known to provide excellent care and were considerably closer than hospitals in Germany. At about noon Sunday, October 23, the last survivor was pulled from the rubble; he was LTJG Danny G. Wheeler, Lutheran chaplain for BLT 1/8. Other men survived beyond Sunday, but they succumbed to their injuries before they could be extracted from the rubble. By Wednesday, the majority of the bodies and body parts had been recovered from the stricken barracks, and the recovery effort ended on Friday. After five days, the FBI came in to investigate, and the Marines returned to normal duties. French "The explosion at the French barracks blew the whole building off its foundations and threw it about 6 meters (20 feet) westward, while breaking the windows of almost every apartment house in the neighborhood .... Grim-faced French paratroopers and Lebanese civil-defense workers aided by bulldozers also worked under spotlights through the night at the French barracks, trying to pull apart the eight stories of 90 centimeter (3 foot) thick cement that had fallen on top of one another and to reach the men they could still hear screaming for help. They regularly pumped oxygen into the mountain of rubble to keep those who were still trapped below alive." Victims The explosions resulted in 346 casualties, of which 234 (68%) were killed immediately, with head injuries, thoracic injuries and burns accounting for a large number of deaths. The New York Times printed a list of the identified casualties on October 26, 1983. Another list of those who survived the incident was published by the Department of Defense. The information had to be re-printed, as individuals were misidentified, and family members were told incorrect statuses of their loved ones. Twenty-one U.S. peacekeepers who lost their lives in the bombing were buried in Section 59 at Arlington National Cemetery, near one of the memorials to all the victims. American and French response U.S. President Ronald Reagan called the attack a "despicable act" and pledged to keep a military force in Lebanon. U.S. Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger, who had privately advised the administration against stationing U.S. Marines in Lebanon, said there would be no change in the U.S.'s Lebanon policy. French President François Mitterrand and other French dignitaries visited both the French and American bomb sites to offer their personal condolences on Monday, October 24, 1983. It was not an official visit, and President Mitterrand only stayed for a few hours, but he did declare "We will stay." During his visit, President Mitterrand visited each of the scores of American caskets and made the sign of the cross as his mark of respectful observance for each of the fallen peacekeepers. U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush arrived and made a tour of the destroyed BLT barracks on Wednesday, October 26, 1983. Vice President Bush toured the site and said the U.S. "would not be cowed by terrorists." Vice President Bush also visited with wounded U.S. personnel aboard the U.S.S. Iwo Jima (LPH-2), and he took time to meet with the commanders of the other MNF units (French, Italian and British) deployed in Beirut. In retaliation for the attacks, France launched an airstrike in the Beqaa Valley against alleged Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) positions. President Reagan assembled his national security team and planned to target the Sheik Abdullah barracks in Baalbek, Lebanon, which housed Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) believed to be training Hezbollah militants. A joint American–French air assault on the camp where the bombing was planned was also approved by Reagan and Mitterrand. U.S. Defense Secretary Weinberger lobbied successfully against the mission, because at the time it was not certain that Iran was behind the attack. Some of the U.S. Marines in Beirut were moved to transport vessels offshore where they could not be targeted; yet, they would be ready and available to serve as a ready reaction force in Beirut if needed. For protection against snipers and artillery attacks, the Marines remaining at the airport built, and moved into, bunkers in the ground employing 'appropriated' Soviet-bloc CONEXes. Col Geraghty requested and received reinforcements to replace his unit losses. BLT 2/6, the Second Marine Division Air Alert Battalion stationed at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, and commanded by Col. Edwin C. Kelley, Jr., was dispatched and flown into Beirut by four C-141s in less than 36 hours after the bombing. Lt. Col. Kelley officially replaced the seriously injured BLT 1/8 commander, Lt. Col. Larry Gerlach. The entire Headquarters and Service Company and Weapons Company of BLT 2/6 was airlifted into Beirut, along with Company E (Reinforced). Lt. Col. Kelley quietly redesignated his unit, BLT 2/6, as BLT 1/8 to help bolster the morale of the BLT 1/8 survivors. The BLT headquarters was relocated to a landfill area west of the airfield, and Company A (Reinforced) was repositioned from the university library position to serve as landing force reserve afloat, aboard Amphibious Ready Group shipping. On November 18, 1983, the 22d MAU rotated into Beirut and relieved in place the 24th MAU. The 24th MAU with Lt. Col. Kelley commanding BLT 1/8 returned to Camp Lejeune, NC, by sea for training and refitting. Eventually, it became evident that the U.S. would launch no serious and immediate retaliatory attack for the Beirut Marine barracks bombing beyond naval barrages and air strikes used to interdict continuous harassing fire from Druze and Syrian missile and artillery sites. A true retaliatory strike failed to materialize because there was a rift in White House counsel (largely between George P. Shultz of the Department of State and Weinberger of the Department of Defense) and because the extant evidence pointing at Iranian involvement was circumstantial at that time: the Islamic Jihad, which took credit for the attack, was a front for Hezbollah which was acting as a proxy for Iran; thus, affording Iran plausible deniability. Secretary of State Shultz was an advocate for retaliation, but Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger was against retaliation. Secretary of Defense Weinberger, in a September 2001 Frontline interview, reaffirmed that rift in White House counsel when he claimed that the U.S. still lacks "'actual knowledge of who did the bombing' of the Marine barracks." The had arrived and taken up station off Beirut on September 25, 1983. Special Representative in the Middle East Robert McFarlane's team had requested New Jersey after the August 29th Druze mortar attack that killed two marines. After the October 23rd bombing, on November 28, the U.S. government announced that the New Jersey would remain stationed off Beirut although her crew would be rotated. It was not until December 14 that New Jersey finally joined the fray and fired 11 projectiles from her 16-inch guns at hostile targets near Beirut. "This was the first time 16-inch shells were fired for effect anywhere in the world since the New Jersey ended her time on the gunline in Vietnam in 1969." Also in December 1983, U.S. aircraft from the and battle groups attacked Syrian targets in Lebanon, but this was ostensibly in response to Syrian missile attacks on American warplanes. In the meantime, the attack boosted the prestige and growth of the Shi'ite organization Hezbollah. Hezbollah officially denied any involvement in the attacks, but was seen by many Lebanese as involved nonetheless as it praised the "two martyr mujahideen" who "set out to inflict upon the U.S. Administration an utter defeat, not experienced since Vietnam." Hezbollah was now seen by many as "the spearhead of the sacred Muslim struggle against foreign occupation". The 1983 report of the U.S. Department of Defense Commission's on the attack recommended that the National Security Council investigate and consider alternative ways to reach "American objectives in Lebanon" because, "as progress to diplomatic solutions slows," the security of the USMNF base continues to "deteriorate." The commission also recommended a review for the development of a broader range of "appropriate military, political, and diplomatic responses to terrorism." Military preparedness needed improvement in the development of "doctrine, planning, organization, force structure, education, and training" to better combat terrorism, while the USMNF was "not prepared" to deal with the terrorist threat at the time due to "lack of training, staff, organization, and support" specifically for defending against "terror threats." Amal Movement leader Nabih Berri, who had previously supported U.S. mediation efforts, asked the U.S. and France to leave Lebanon and accused the two countries of seeking to commit 'massacres' against the Lebanese and of creating a "climate of racism" against Shias. Islamic Jihad phoned in new threats against the MNF pledging that "the earth would tremble" unless the MNF withdrew by New Year's Day 1984. On February 7, 1984, President Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawing from Lebanon largely because of waning congressional support for the mission after the attacks on the barracks. The withdrawal of the 22d MAU from the BIA was completed 12:37 PM on February 26, 1984. "Fighting between the Lebanese Army and Druze militia in the nearby Shouf mountains provided a noisy backdrop to the Marine evacuation. One officer commented: 'This ceasefire is getting louder.'" On February 8, 1984, the USS New Jersey fired almost 300 shells at Druze and Syrian positions in the Beqaa Valley east of Beirut. This was the heaviest shore bombardment since the Korean War. Firing without air spotting, the battleship had to rely on Israeli target intelligence. "In a nine-hour period, the USS New Jersey fired 288 16-inch rounds, each one weighing as much as a Volkswagen Beetle. In those nine-hours, the ship consumed 40 percent of the 16-inch ammunition available in the entire European theater ... [and] in one burst of wretched excess," New Jersey seemed to be unleashing eighteen months of repressed fury. "Many Lebanese still recall the 'flying Volkswagens,' the name given to the huge shells that struck the Shouf." In addition to destroying Syrian and Druze artillery and missile sites, approximately 30 of these behemoth projectiles rained down on a Syrian command post, killing the senior commanding Syrian general in Lebanon along with several of his senior officers. Following the lead of the U.S., the rest of the multinational force, the British, French and Italians, was withdrawn by the end of February 1984. The ship-borne 22d MAU contingent remained stationed offshore near Beirut while a detached 100-man ready reaction force remained stationed ashore near the U.S./U.K. Embassy. The 22d MAU was relieved in place by the 24th MAU on April 10, 1984. On April 21, the ready reaction force in Beirut was deactivated and its men were reassigned to their respective ships. In late July 1984, the last marines from the 24th MAU, the U.S./U.K. Embassy guard detail, was withdrawn from Beirut. Although the withdrawal of U.S. and French peacekeepers from Lebanon following the bombings has been widely cited as demonstrative of the efficacy of terrorism, Max Abrahms observes that the bombings targeted military personnel and as such are not consistent with the most widely accepted attempts to define terrorism, which emphasize deliberate violence against civilians. A 2019 study disputes that the bombings motivated the withdrawal of U.S. forces, arguing instead that the collapse of the Lebanese national army in February 1984 was the primary motivating factor behind the withdrawal. Aftermath Search for perpetrators At the time of the bombing, an obscure group called the "Islamic Jihad" claimed responsibility for the attack. There were many in the U.S. government, such as Vice President Bush, Secretary of State George Shultz, and National Security Adviser Robert McFarlane (who was formerly Reagan's Mideast envoy), who believed Iran and/or Syria were/was responsible for the bombings. After some years of investigation, the U.S. government now believes that elements of what would eventually become Hezbollah, backed by Iran and Syria, were responsible for these bombings as well as the bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Beirut earlier in April. It is believed that Hezbollah used the name "Islamic Jihad" to remain anonymous. Hezbollah eventually announced its existence in 1985. This is while, according to President Reagan's Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, "We still do not have the actual knowledge of who did the bombing of the Marine barracks at the Beirut Airport, and we certainly didn't then." Weinberger mentions lack of certainty about Syria or Iran's involvement as the reason why America did not take any retaliatory actions against those states. Hezbollah, Iran and Syria have continued to deny any involvement in any of the bombings. An Iranian group erected a monument in a cemetery in Tehran to commemorate the 1983 bombings and its "martyrs" in 2004. Lebanese author Hala Jaber claims that Iran and Syria helped organize the bombing which was run by two Lebanese Shia, Imad Mughniyah and Mustafa Badr Al Din: Imad Mughniyeh and Mustafa Badr Al Din took charge of the Syrian–Iranian backed operation. Mughniyeh had been a highly trained security man with the PLO's Force 17 . . . Their mission was to gather information and details about the American embassy and draw up a plan that would guarantee the maximum impact and leave no trace of the perpetrator. Meetings were held at the Iranian embassy in Damascus. They were usually chaired by the ambassador, Hojatoleslam Ali-Akbar Mohtashemi, who played an instrumental role in founding Hezbollah. In consultation with several senior Syrian intelligence officers, the final plan was set in motion. The vehicle and explosives were prepared in the Beqaa Valley which was under Syrian control. Two years after the bombing, a U.S. grand jury secretly indicted Imad Mughniyah for terrorist activities. Mughniyah was never captured, but he was killed by a car bomb in Syria on February 12, 2008. Commentators argue that the lack of a response by the Americans emboldened terrorist organizations to conduct further attacks against U.S. targets. Along with the U.S. embassy bombing, the barracks bombing prompted the Inman Report, a review of the security of U.S. facilities overseas for the U.S. State Department. Alleged retaliation On March 8, 1985, a truck bomb blew up in Beirut, killing more than 80 people and injuring more than 200. The bomb detonated near the apartment block of Sheikh Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, a Shia cleric thought by many to be the spiritual leader of Hezbollah. Although the U.S. did not engage in any direct military retaliation to the attack on the Beirut barracks, the 1985 bombing was widely believed by Fadlallah and his supporters to be the work of the United States; Sheikh Fadlallah stating that "'They sent me a letter and I got the message,' and an enormous sign on the remains of one bombed building read: 'Made in the U.S.A.'" Robert Fisk also claims that CIA operatives planted the bomb and that evidence of this is found in an article in The Washington Post newspaper. Journalist Robin Wright quotes articles in The Washington Post and The New York Times as saying that according to the CIA the "Lebanese intelligence personnel and other foreigners had been undergoing CIA training" but that "this was not our [CIA] operation and it was nothing we planned or knew about." "Alarmed U.S. officials subsequently canceled the covert training operation" in Lebanon, according to Wright. Lessons learned Shortly after the barracks bombing, President Ronald Reagan appointed a military fact-finding committee headed by retired Admiral Robert L. J. Long to investigate the bombing. The commission's report found senior military officials responsible for security lapses and blamed the military chain of command for the disaster. It suggested that there might have been many fewer deaths if the barracks guards had carried loaded weapons and a barrier more substantial than the barbed wire the bomber drove over easily. The commission also noted that the "prevalent view" among U.S. commanders was that there was a direct link between the navy shelling of the Muslims at Suq-al-Garb and the truck bomb attack. Following the bombing and the realization that insurgents could deliver weapons of enormous yield with an ordinary truck or van, the presence of protective barriers (bollards) became common around critical government facilities in the United States and elsewhere, particularly Western civic targets situated overseas. A 2009 article in Foreign Policy titled "Lesson Unlearned" argues that the U.S. military intervention in the Lebanese Civil War has been downplayed or ignored in popular history – thus unlearned – and that lessons from Lebanon are "unlearned" as the U.S. militarily intervenes elsewhere in the world. Civil suit against Iran On October 3 and December 28, 2001, the families of the 241 U.S. peacekeepers who were killed as well as several injured survivors filed civil suits against the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Ministry of Information and Security (MOIS) in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. In their separate complaints, the families and survivors sought a judgment that Iran was responsible for the attack and relief in the form of damages (compensatory and punitive) for wrongful death and common-law claims for battery, assault, and intentional infliction of emotional distress resulting from an act of state-sponsored terrorism. Iran (the defendant) was served with the two complaints (one from Deborah D. Peterson, Personal Representative of the Estate of James C. Knipple, et al., the other from Joseph and Marie Boulos, Personal Representatives of the Estate of Jeffrey Joseph Boulos) on May 6 and July 17, 2002. Iran denied responsibility for the attack but did not file any response to the claims of the families. On December 18, 2002, Judge Royce C. Lamberth entered defaults against defendants in both cases. On May 30, 2003, Lamberth found Iran legally responsible for providing Hezbollah with financial and logistical support that helped them carry out the attack. Lamberth concluded that the court had personal jurisdiction over the defendants under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, that Hezbollah was formed under the auspices of the Iranian government and was completely reliant on Iran in 1983, and that Hezbollah carried out the attack in conjunction with MOIS agents. On September 7, 2007, Lamberth awarded $2,656,944,877 to the plaintiffs. The judgment was divided up among the victims; the largest award was $12 million to Larry Gerlach, who became a paraplegic as a result of a broken neck he suffered in the attack. The attorney for the families of the victims uncovered some new information, including a U.S. National Security Agency intercept of a message sent from Iranian intelligence headquarters in Tehran to Hojjat ol-eslam Ali-Akbar Mohtashemi, the Iranian ambassador in Damascus. As it was paraphrased by presiding U.S. District Court Judge Royce C. Lamberth, "The message directed the Iranian ambassador to contact Hussein Musawi, the leader of the terrorist group Islamic Amal, and to instruct him ... 'to take a spectacular action against the United States Marines.'" Musawi's Islamic Amal was a breakaway faction of the Amal Movement and an autonomous part of embryonic Hezbollah. According to Muhammad Sahimi, high-ranking US officials had a different interpretation from that intercept, which stopped them from ordering a revengeful attack against Iran. In July 2012, federal Judge Royce Lamberth ordered Iran to pay more than $813m in damages and interest to the families of the 241 U.S. peacekeepers that were killed, writing in a ruling that Tehran had to be "punished to the fullest extent legally possible... Iran is racking up quite a bill from its sponsorship of terrorism." In April 2016, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that frozen assets of Iran's Central Bank held in the U.S. could be used to pay the compensation to families of the victims. Mossad conspiracy theory Former Mossad agent Victor Ostrovsky, in his 1990 book By Way of Deception, has accused the Mossad of knowing the specific time and location of the bombing, but only gave general information to the Americans of the attack, information which was worthless. According to Ostrovsky, then Mossad head Nahum Admoni decided against giving the specific details to the Americans on the grounds that the Mossad's responsibility was to protect Israel's interests, not Americans. Admoni denied having any prior knowledge of the attack. Benny Morris, in his review of Ostrovsky's book, wrote that Ostrovsky was "barely a case officer before he was fired; most of his (brief) time in the agency was spent as a trainee" adding that due to compartmentalization "he did not and could not have had much knowledge of then current Mossad operations, let alone operational history." Benny Morris wrote that the claim regarding the barracks was "odd" and an example of one of Ostrovsky's "wet" stories which were "mostly fabricated." Memorials and remembrance A Beirut Memorial has been established at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, and has been used as the site of annual memorial services for the victims of the attack. A Beirut Memorial Room at the USO in Jacksonville, North Carolina has also been created. The Armed Forces Chaplaincy Center, the site of Chaplain Corps training for the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force at Fort Jackson, Columbia, South Carolina, includes the partially destroyed sign from the Beirut barracks chapel as a memorial to those who died in the attack. According to Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff, one of the navy chaplains present during the attack, "Amidst the rubble, we found the plywood board which we had made for our "Peace-keeping Chapel." The Chaplain Corps Seal had been hand-painted, with the words "Peace-keeping" above it, and "Chapel" beneath. Now "Peace-keeping" was legible, but the bottom of the plaque was destroyed, with only a few burned and splintered pieces of wood remaining. The idea of peace – above; the reality of war – below." Other memorials to the victims of the Beirut barracks bombing have been erected in various locations within the U.S., including one at Penn's Landing in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Boston, Massachusetts, and one in Florida. Additionally, a Lebanese cedar has been planted in Arlington National Cemetery near the graves of some of the victims of the attack, in their memory. A plaque in the ground in front of the tree, dedicated in a ceremony on the first anniversary of the attack, reads: "Let peace take root: This cedar of Lebanon tree grows in living memory of the Americans killed in the Beirut terrorist attack and all victims of terrorism around the world." The National Museum of the Marine Corps, in Quantico, Virginia, unveiled an exhibit in 2008 in memory of the attack and its victims. One memorial to the attack is located outside the U.S., where Gilla Gerzon, the director of the Haifa, Israel USO during the time of the attack coordinated the creation of a memorial park that included 241 olive trees, one for each of the U.S. military personnel who died in the attack. The trees lead to an overpass on Mount Carmel looking toward Beirut. In 2004 it was reported that an Iranian group called the Committee for the Commemoration of Martyrs of the Global Islamic Campaign had erected a monument, at the Behesht-e-Zahra cemetery in Tehran, to commemorate the 1983 bombings and its "martyrs". There is also an ongoing effort on the part of Beirut veterans and family members to convince the U.S. Postal Service and Citizens' Stamp Advisory Committee to create a stamp in memory of the victims of the attack, but the recommendation has not yet been approved. In the meantime, Beirut veterans have created a "PC Postage" commercially produced Beirut Memorial statue private vendor stamp (with or without the words "They Came in Peace") that is approved for use as postage by the U.S. Postal Service. Author & Navy SEAL Jack Carr, author of The Terminal List revealed on The Pat McAfee Show that he was writing a book, Carr’s 7th, on the Beirut Bombings. See also 1983 US embassy bombing in Beirut Tyre headquarters bombings, similar attacks against Israeli military posts in Lebanon 1984 United States embassy annex bombing Khobar Towers Bombing Mountain War List of vehicle ramming terrorist attacks FLLF 2021 Kabul airport attack Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links President Reagan reads Chaplain Arnold Resnicoff's first-hand account of bombing: Text Version; Video Version; Text of original report, Tribute to the French 3rd Parachute Company Lebanese civil war Full Information 241.SaveTheSoldiers.com An Honorary Tribute to the soldiers who died Lebanese civil war 1983 Full of Pictures and Information John H. Kelly : Lebanon 1982–1984 – includes Diary entries by Ronald Reagan: " I have ordered the use of Naval Gunfire. " – September 11, 1983 Report on the bombing Aftermath pictures The Beirut Memorial Online BeirutCoin.com – Commemorative Challenge Coin honoring those KIA Official Beirut Veterans of America Website "A Soldier's Perspective: Remembering America's First Suicide Bombing, Oct 20, 2008. A chaplain remembers: brief YouTube interview with Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff, recalling attack and its aftermath. "Finding Accommodation," Washington Jewish Week, Oct 23, 2008. Looking back 25 years at lessons of interfaith cooperation from the bombing. Extensive CBS Radio breaking newscast recordings Richmond Times Dispatch online presentation 30th Anniversary of the Beirut Bombing 1983 in international relations Massacres in 1983 Ministry of Intelligence (Iran) Articles containing video clips Attacks on buildings and structures in Beirut Attacks on military installations in the 1980s Contemporary French history France–Iran relations France–Lebanon relations Hezbollah 1983 in the United States Iran–United States relations Iran–Lebanon relations Lebanon–United States relations Massacres of the Lebanese Civil War October 1983 events in Asia Reagan administration controversies Suicide bombings in 1983 Suicide bombings in Beirut Suicide car and truck bombings in Lebanon Anti-Americanism United States Marine Corps in the 20th century Building bombings in Lebanon 1983 crimes in Lebanon 20th-century mass murder in Lebanon Terrorist incidents in Lebanon in 1983 Hezbollah attacks
419222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20E.%20Park	Robert E. Park	Robert Ezra Park (February 14, 1864 – February 7, 1944) was an American urban sociologist who is considered to be one of the most influential figures in early U.S. sociology. Park was a pioneer in the field of sociology, changing it from a passive philosophical discipline to an active discipline rooted in the study of human behavior. He made significant contributions to the study of urban communities, race relations and the development of empirically grounded research methods, most notably participant observation in the field of criminology. From 1905 to 1914, Park worked with Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute. After Tuskegee, he taught at the University of Chicago from 1914 to 1933, where he played a leading role in the development of the Chicago School of sociology. Park is noted for his work in human ecology, race relations, human migration, cultural assimilation, social movements, and social disorganization. He played a large role in defining sociology as a natural science and challenged the belief that sociology is a moral science. He saw sociology as "...a point of view and a method for investigating the processes by which indiviudals are inducted into and induced to cooperate in some sort of permanent corporate existence, society." Biography Childhood and early life Robert E. Park was born in Harveyville, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, on February 14, 1864, to parents Hiram Asa Park and Theodosia Warner Park. Immediately following his birth, the Park family moved to Red Wing, Minnesota, where he grew up. Park lived in Red Wing for his first eighteen years. Referred to as the "Middle Border" by American novelist Hamlin Garland, Red Wing was a relatively undeveloped and unsettled area with new- but few- towns. The one significant event from his youth recalled by Park was an encounter with bandit Jesse James with whom Park provided with directions to a local blacksmith's shop. Park has been described as an "awkward, sentimental and romantic boy" whose character led him to develop an interest in writing. He was not considered a promising student, but he liked learning about the people in his town and their ancestries, a niche which would prove to be useful throughout his life. Park graduated high school in 1882—finishing tenth overall in a class of thirteen. Park was interested in attending college after high school, but his father did not allow him to do so, ironically because he felt his son was not "study material." As a result, Robert ran away from home and found a job working on a railroad. Park's love of writing and concern for social issues, especially issues related to race in cities, led him to become a journalist. Franklin Ford and Park made plans for a newspaper, Thought News, which would report public opinion. Although it was never published, Park still pursued a career as a journalist. From 1887 to 1898, Park worked as a journalist in Detroit, Denver, New York City, Chicago, and Minneapolis. Park's experience as a reporter led him to study the social function of the newspaper, "not as an organ of opinion, but as a record of current events". Towards the end of his newspaper career, Park became disenchanted with the idea that newspaper reporting could alone solved social issues. As a reporter Park learned a great deal about urban communities, which inspired his later sociological endeavors in race relations. In 1894, Park married Clara Cahill, the daughter of a wealthy Michigan family and had four children: Edward, Theodosia, Margaret and Robert. Education Park first attended the University of Minnesota where he excelled in his courses. Because of his success at the University of Minnesota, his father offered to invest in furthering Robert's education at the prestigious University of Michigan. Upon entering the University of Michigan, Park decided to transition from studying science to instead studying philology. His professor Calvin Thomas exerted a great influence on him. He challenged him to expand his mind and deeply pursue the concepts presented in his courses. John Dewey also had a very strong influence on Park during his college year. After Park took Dewey's course on logic his sophomore year of college, he decided to again shift his major, this time to philosophy. Park stated that his interest in going to college has originally been purely practical, originally intending to pursue engineering, but this mindset shifted when he began taking courses which truly intrigued him. He was endlessly fascinated by the notion of exploring the realm of the dubious and unknown rather than focusing on the secure knowledge offered to him in his previous years of education. Upon becoming a student of philosophy Park became, "presently possessed with a devouring curiosity to know more about the world and all that men had thought and done". His future work in the field of sociology, which primary focused on human's behavior in different environments, proves that this exploratory mindset stuck with him for the rest of his life. At the University of Michigan Park was involved in the school newspaper, The Argonaut. He held a position of associate editor his junior year and managing editor his senior year. He wrote a satirical piece titled, "A Misapprehension, A Realistic Tale à la Henry James". The connections he formed at The Argonaut would prove helpful in later landing him a job as a reporter at Minneapolis newspaper. Park graduated from the University of Michigan (Phi Beta Kappa) in 1887 and attended Harvard University. He earned an MA from Harvard in 1899. After graduating, he went to Germany to study at Friedrich Wilhelm University. He studied Philosophy and Sociology in 1899–1900 with Georg Simmel in Berlin. The three courses Park took with Simmel constituted the majority of his sociological training and Park proceeded to adopt Simmel's belief that modernity would express itself most tangibly in the city. Simmel's work the Philosophy of Money and relative shorter essays greatly influenced Park's future writing. In Berlin, Park read a book on the logics of social sciences by Russian author Bogdan A. Kistyakovski, who studied under philosopher Wilhelm Windelband. It was this reading that inspired Park to spend a semester at the University of Strasbourg (1900), and then undergo his PhD in philosophy in 1903 in Heidelberg under Wilhelm Windelband and Alfred Hettner with a dissertation titled Masse und Publikum. Eine methodologische und soziologische Untersuchung, which translates to: Crowd and Public: A methodological and sociological study. Park then traveled to Germany to study at the University of Berlin. He enrolled for one semester at the University of Strasbourg, and studied for a few years at the University of Heidelberg alongside Georg Simmel, earning his PhD in 1904. Professional life Journalism Park began his career with journaling in Minneapolis in 1887. Between then and 1898, he worked with newspapers in Detroit, Denver, New York, and Chicago until attending Harvard in 1898. He believed that his work for newspapers could encourage moral and social change through public outrage. He worked in various journalistic capacities, such as being a police reporter, general reporter, and feature writer and city newspaper editor and wrote muckraking stories and investigative pieces and articles that called for techniques of "scientific reporting," which he later realized was similar to survey research. Park's main focus as a journalist was the daily life of human beings and their routines. His focus was what journalists call "human interest". His experience as a journalist impacted his view on the world and how people should study it. Although he was a journalist for many years he was not totally satisfied with just reporting current events. Park wanted to dive deeper than the surface of these events and understand the underlying long-term significance of the events. Teaching In 1904, Park began teaching philosophy at Harvard as an assistant professor. Park taught there for two years until celebrated educator and author, Booker T. Washington, invited him to the Tuskegee Institute to work on racial issues in the southern United States. Park was offered a position by the Congo Reform Association, but ended up subsequently working for Washington at Tuskegee. Park and Washington originally met through their mutual interest in helping Africans through the Congo Reform Association of which Park was secretary and Washington was vice president. Over the next seven years, Park worked for Washington by doing field research and taking courses. In 1910, Park traveled to Europe to compare US poverty to European poverty. Shortly after the trip, Washington, with the help of Park, published The Man Farthest Down (1913). This publication highlights Parker and Washington's journey to explore Europe in the hopes of finding the man "the farthest down" in order to explore these people were choosing to emigrate and the likeliness of a future change in positions. This led them on a six-week journey through the British Isles, France, Italy, Poland, Denmark, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the Tuskegee Institute, Park joined the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago in 1914, first as a lecturer (until 1923), then as a full professor until his retirement in 1933. During his time in Chicago, he continued to study and teach human ecology and race relations. In 1914, Park taught his first course in the Sociology and Anthropology department. The course was titled The Negro in America and it was, "Directed especially to the effects, in slavery and freedom, of the white and black race, an attempt will be made to characterize the nature of the present tensions and tendencies and to estimate the character of the changes which race relations are likely to bring about in the American system". This class was important from a historical perspective because it may have been the first course ever offered at a predominantly white institution that focused exclusively on black Americans. This set a precedent for classes with similar focuses to come. Legacy During Park's time at the University of Chicago, its sociology department began to use the city that surrounded it as a sort of research laboratory. His work, together with that of his Chicago colleagues, such as Ernest Burgess, Homer Hoyt, and Louis Wirth – developed into an approach to urban sociology that became known as the Chicago School. This would become Park's legacy. After leaving the University of Chicago, Park moved to Nashville, Tennessee. He taught at Fisk University until his death in 1944, at age 79. During his lifetime, Park became a well-known figure both within and outside the academic world. At various times from 1925, he was president of the American Sociological Association and of the Chicago Urban League, and he was a member of the Social Science Research Council. Park's presidential address for the American Sociological Association was entitled "The Concept of Position in Sociology" and was later published in the Proceedings of the 1925 Annual Meeting. Work Human ecology Park coined the term human ecology, the study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The term has been described as an attempt to apply the interrelations of human beings a type of analysis previously applied to the interrelations of plants and animals. Park himself explains human ecology as, "fundamentally an attempt to investigate the processes by which the biotic balance and social equilibrium are disturbed, the transition is made from one relatively stable order to other". Bogardus acknowledges that Park is the father of human ecology, proclaiming, "Not only did he coin the name but he laid out the patterns, offered the earliest exhibit of ecological concepts, defined the major ecological processes and stimulated more advanced students to cultivate the fields of research in ecology than most other sociologists combined." Park found that a key underpinning of his human ecology is the concept of competition. He believed that it is the primary feature of the biotic level of life. He maintained that human beings restricted in some areas when it comes to competition, while in the plant and animal kingdom it is uninhibited. He maintained that human restriction of competition is what allows our modern concept of society to exist. The essential characteristics of competition are 1) a territorially organized population 2) that is more or less completely rooted in the soil it occupies 3) the individual units living in a relationship are living in a mutually dependent relationship, not a symbiotic one. According to Park's papers regarding this topic, "Dominance" and "Succession: An Ecological Concept", ecological competition can be manifest itself through dominance and succession. Urban ecology While at the University of Chicago, Park continued to strengthen his theory of human ecology. Along with Ernest W. Burgess developed a program of urban research in the sociology department. They also developed a theory of urban ecology, which first appeared in their book Introduction to the Science of Sociology (1922). Using the city of Chicago as their they proposed that cities were environments like those found in nature. Park and Burgess suggested that cities were governed by many of the same forces of Darwinian evolution that happens in ecosystems. They felt the most significant force was competition. Competition was created by groups fighting for urban resources, like land, which led to a division of urban space into ecological niches. Within these niches people shared similar social characteristics because they were subject to the same ecological pressure. Competition for land and resources within cities eventually leads to separation of urban space into zones with the more desirable zones imposing higher rent. As residents of a city become more affluent, they move outward from the city center. Park and Burgess refer to this a succession, a term also used in plant ecology. They predicted that cities would form into five concentric rings with areas of social and physical deterioration concentrated in the center and prosperous areas near the city's edge. This model is known as concentric zone theory, it was first published in The City (1925). Race relations Park spent a great deal of time studying race relations with Booker T. Washington while at the University of Chicago. Park contributed significantly to the study of race relations, with Everrett Hughes stating that, "Park probably contributed more ideas for analysis of racial relations and cultural contracts than any other modern social scientist." Park worked closely with Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee Institute from 1907 to 1914. While working under Washington, Park's primary interest was the system that had evolved to define Black-White relations in the South. Park said that he learned more about human nature and society while in the South. He says that, "These seven years were for me a sort of prolonged internship during which I gained a clinical and first hand knowledge of a first class social problem . . .[It was from Washington that] I gained some adequate notion of how deep-rooted in human history and human nature social institutions were, and how difficult, if not impossible it was, to make fundamental changes in them by mere legislation or by legal artifice of any sort". After leaving the Tuskegee Institute, Park joined the University of Chicago where he developed a theory of assimilation, as it pertained to immigrants in the United States, known as the "race relation cycle". The cycle has four stages: contact, conflict, accommodation, and assimilation. The first step is contact followed by competition. Then, after some time, a hierarchical arrangement can prevail – one of accommodation – in which one race was dominant and others dominated. In the end assimilation occurred. Park declared that it is "a cycle of events which tends everywhere to repeat itself" and that it can also be seen in other social processes." He was instrumental in founding the race relations course at Chicago. Critiques Park's theory of conflict has been discredited for a number of reasons, and his theories and contributions in sociology have largely been neglected and forgotten over time. In the years following the heyday of the Chicago school, Park's reputation took a downfall, and his idea of "symbolic interactionism" was subsequently pushed aside. Park was frequently called a conservative when it came to his theory of the race relations cycle. Critics of Park misinterpreted his theory of race relations, believing that Park meant to assert that progression through the four stages was inevitable; current discourse debates whether Park meant anything of the sort. Within Park's theory of conflict, race relations exists merely as a specific case of this greater theory. Racial groups, or any other kind of group can remain in the conflict stage indefinitely. Park was further criticized for perceived racist tendencies. Already in his work as an editorial secretary of the Congo Reform Association, Park defended the idea of a noble white civilizing mission to elevate an allegedly savage African population. During his years at the Tuskegee Institute, this nostalgia for European imperialism was complemented by a stereotypical depiction of black peasants in the South as a primitive counterpart of the negative tendencies Park identified in modern city life. These early views on imperialism and race have been called a form of "romantic racism" that strongly influenced his later more elaborated sociological perspectives on the same issues. As already the black Marxist Oliver C. Cox, a student of Park, has warned, this racial essentialism eventually led Park to a mystification of race relations in the Jim Crow era as a natural solution to racial conflict. In his essay Education in its relation to the conflict and fusion of cultures, Park can be quoted: The Negro is, by natural disposition, neither an intel-lectual nor an idealist, like the Jew; nor a brooding introspective, like the East African; nor a pioneer and frontiersman, like the Anglo-Saxon. He is primarily an artist, loving of life for its sake. His métier is expression rather than action. He is, so to speak the lady among the races. Park's belief in inherited racial temperaments, though racist, was somewhat offset by his belief in "social inheritance" working in tandem with "biological inheritance". Put simply, he thought that while some races are more predisposed to certain temperaments, a whole person is also made up of their social qualities. Park also supported Franz Boas' conclusion that there was no scientific evidence to indicate that "Blacks were as a group intellectually inferior to Whites". The works of sociologists Louis Wirth and Rose Hum Lee illustrate the downfalls of Park's thinking, specifically in relation to adhering to his views on ethnic groups in America. Park's conclusions that the complete assimilation of Jews, Christians, and Chinese folks have occurred was shown within Wirth and Hum Lee's work to be untrue. Major works The Man Farthest Down: A Record of Observation and Study in Europe (with Booker T. Washington), 1912 Introduction to the Science of Sociology (with E.W. Burgess), 1921 Old World Traits Transplanted: The Early Sociology of Culture, 1921 The Immigrant Press and Its Control, 1922 The City: Suggestions for the Study of Human Nature in the Urban Environment, 1925Proceedings: The Concept of Position in Sociology Proceedings, 1925 The University and the Community of Races, 1932 Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man, 1937 An Outline of the Principles of Sociology, 1939 American Sociology: The Story of Sociology in the United States through 1950, 1951 Human Communities: The City and Human Ecology, 1952 Societies, 1955 Impact Park's impact on the field of sociology is palpable yet often goes unrecognized. The majority of the sociologists born in the nineteenth century borrowed and concentrated in other fields and their work was considered sociological after the fact. Park was one such sociologist, with much of his interests originating in philosophy and then evolving into what we consider to be modern sociology when he began to focus on studying Chicago. His work led to the development of the Chicago school (sociology). Park along with fellow Chicago School sociologists Ernest Burgess, William I. Thomas, George Herbert Mead, and Louis Wirth created a theoretical basis for sociology which emphasized the more methodological approach which we recognize today. The school produced many studies on city life, including ones on Polish immigrants, gangs, and Jewish ghetto life. It has been noted that Park and his students employed a 'moving camera' approach to their studies of urban life, attempting to capture city dwellers in their natural modes of life. The Chicago school of thought regarding urban ecology still guides much of the work conducted in this field today. Additionally, Erving Goffman, who is considered to be the most influential sociologist of the twenty-first century, embraced the legacy of Park by adopting more qualitative methods when constructing predictive empirical science in contrast to positivist sociological trends. Bibliography 1903: Masse und Publikum. Eine methodologische und soziologische Untersuchung (Ph.D. thesis) publ. Berlin: Lack & Grunau, 1904 1912: The Man Farthest Down: a Record of Observation and Study in Europe with Booker T Washington, New York: Doubleday 1921: Introduction to the Science of Sociology (with Ernest Burgess) Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1921: Old World Traits Transplanted: the Early Sociology of Culture with Herbert A Miller, & Kenneth Thompson, New York: Harper & Brothers 1922: The Immigrant Press and Its Control New York: Harper & Brothers 1925: The City: Suggestions for the Study of Human Nature in the Urban Environment (with R. D. McKenzie & Ernest Burgess) Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1928: Human Migration and the Marginal Man, American Journal of Sociology 33: 881–893 1932: The University and the Community of Races Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press 1932: The Pilgrims of Russian-Town The Community of Spiritual Christian Jumpers in America, by Pauline V. Young Ph.D. with an Introduction by Robert E. Park, Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1937: Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man in Everett V Stonequist, The Marginal Man, Park's Introduction, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1939: Race relations and the Race Problem; a Definition and an Analysis with Edgar Tristram Thompson, Durham, NC: Duke University Press 1939: An Outline of the Principles of Sociology, with Samuel Smith, New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc 1940: Essays in Sociology with C W M Hart, and Talcott Parsons et al., Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1950: Race and Culture, Glencoe Ill: The Free Press, 1952: Human Communities: the City and Human Ecology Glencoe, Ill: The Free Press 1955: Societies, Glencoe Ill: The Free Press 1967: On Social Control and Collective Behavior, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969: Human Migration and the Marginal Man. in The Classic Essays on the Culture of Cities. Ed. Richard Sennett. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969, pp. 131–142 1972: The Crowd and the Public and Other Essays, Heritage of Society 1974: The Collected Papers of Robert Ezra Park: Volumes 1,2, & 3.'' Arno Press See also Social disorganization theory Everett Stonequist Frederic Thrasher The Chicago School Notes Further reading External links An appreciation of Park at the University of Chicago An appreciation of Park at Brock University Review materials for studying Robert Ezra Park An appreciation of Park at the American Sociological Association Park's Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man (1937) at University of Chicago School of Sociology Guide to the Robert Ezra Park Collection 1882-1979 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center American criminologists University of Chicago faculty University of Michigan alumni Harvard University alumni Presidents of the American Sociological Association 1864 births 1944 deaths Human ecologists
419242	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Trudell	John Trudell	John Trudell (February 15, 1946December 8, 2015) was a Native American author, poet, actor, musician, and political activist. He was the spokesperson for the Indians of All Tribes' takeover of Alcatraz beginning in 1969, broadcasting as Radio Free Alcatraz. During most of the 1970s, he served as the chairman of the American Indian Movement, based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. After his pregnant wife, three children and mother-in-law were killed in 1979 in a suspicious fire at the home of his parents-in-law on the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes Duck Valley Indian Reservation in Nevada, Trudell turned to writing, music and film as a second career. He acted in films in the 1990s. The documentary Trudell (2005) was made about him and his life as an activist and artist. Early life and education Trudell was born in Omaha, Nebraska on February 15, 1946, the son of a Santee Dakota father and a Mexican mother. He grew up in small towns near the Santee Sioux Reservation in northern Nebraska near the southeast corner of South Dakota. He was educated in local schools and also in Santee Dakota culture. Military service At the age of 17 in 1963, Trudell dropped out of high school and left the Midwest to join the US Navy. He served during the early years of the Vietnam War and stayed in the Navy until 1967. Afterwards, he attended San Bernardino Valley College, a two-year community college in San Bernardino, California, studying radio and broadcasting. Activism After leaving the military, Trudell had become involved in Indian activism. In 1969, he became the spokesperson for the United Indians of All Tribes' occupation of Alcatraz Island. This was a mostly student-member group that had developed in San Francisco. Trudell went to Alcatraz a week after the occupation started. He used his background in broadcasting and ran a radio station from the island through a cooperative arrangement with students at the University of California, Berkeley, broadcasting at night over the Berkeley FM station KPFA. The show was called Radio Free Alcatraz. He discussed the cause of the occupation and American Indian issues, and played traditional Native American music. He criticized how "the system today is only geared toward white needs." He spoke for the many Indigenous people who believed they did not fit in with the then majority European-American population of the nation. He became a spokesperson for the occupation specifically and for the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement generally, as the author Vine Deloria, Jr. named it. Trudell was the spokesman for the nearly two-year-long occupation, until 1971. After the failure of the federal government to meet demands of the protesters at Alcatraz, Trudell joined the American Indian Movement. It had been established in 1968 in Minneapolis among urban American Indians, first to deal with alleged police harassment and injustice in the law enforcement system. Trudell acted as its national chairman from 1973 until 1979. He took the position after the first chairman, Carter Camp, was convicted for actions related to a protest and was sentenced to jail. Loss of family in house fire On February 12, 1979, Trudell's wife Tina Manning, their three children and his mother-in-law, Leah Hicks-Manning, died in a suspicious fire at the home of his parents-in-law on the Duck Valley Indian Reservation in Nevada. His father-in-law Arthur Manning survived. He was a member of the Duck Valley Shoshone Paiute's Tribal Council which was working for treaty rights. Opponents included the local tribal police chief and the BIA superintendent, John Artichoker. Leah coordinated social services at the reservation. Tina had been working for tribal water rights at the Wildhorse Reservoir. Opponents of her campaign included officials of the local BIA, Elko County and Nevada state officials, members of the water recreation industry, and local white ranchers. Other activists have also speculated whether there was government involvement behind the tragedy. The housefire that killed Trudell's family happened within 24 hours of him burning a US flag on the steps of the FBI building in Washington D.C. in protest of the government's treatment of Native Americans and the Sioux Nation. Trudell believed that the fire was meant to threaten and silence him and his activist wife. Trudell believed that the fire was arson, but the BIA police investigation claimed that it was accidental. In numerous interviews, he expressed distrust for the federal government and specifically the FBI. The FBI has been implicated in wrongdoing in Pine Ridge and other reservations during this period, which included offering monetary support to Dick Wilson's Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOONS). Essentially the GOONS, paid by Dickie Wilson (who in turn was paid by the FBI), the then Band Council Chief (elected in what many believe was a rigged election), terrorized and murdered traditional Sioux people who spoke out against federal government treatment of American Indian people. Aquash murder controversy In 2004, Trudell testified in the federal trial of Arlo Looking Cloud, an Oglala Lakota American Indian Movement (AIM) member charged in the kidnapping and murder of Anna Mae Aquash, the highest-ranking woman in AIM, in December 1975. Trudell testified that Looking Cloud had told him that John Graham, another low-level AIM member, was the gunman in the murder. Trudell identified Graham from photographs. Looking Cloud was convicted in 2004 and sentenced to life imprisonment. His testimony was part of the evidence considered by the Canadian judge who ordered Graham's extradition to the United States in February 2005. On March 2, 2005, the Native Youth Movement Vancouver announced a boycott of Trudell's music and poetry in retaliation for his testimony, and alleged that the FBI had killed Aquash. In 2010, Graham was convicted in a South Dakota state court of felony murder of Aquash and sentenced to life imprisonment. Later years Trudell was the co-founder, with Willie Nelson, of Hempstead Project Heart, which became a project of Earth Island Institute in 2012. Hempstead Project Heart is dedicated to raising awareness about the environmental, social, and economic benefits of legalizing industrial hemp in America. Trudell was also involved with Seva Foundation and their Native American programs. He performed at numerous benefit concerts in support of their work. Personal life In 1968, Trudell married his first wife, Fenicia "Lou" Ordonez, divorcing in 1970. They had one son, Wovoka Trudell, who was born on Alcatraz Island; and a daughter, Tara Evonne Trudell. In 1972, Trudell married Tina Manning, an activist of the Duck Valley Shoshone Paiute Tribe. They had three children together: Ricarda Star, Sunshine Karma, and Eli Changing Sun. In February 1979, Tina (who was pregnant), the children and her mother Leah Hicks-Manning were all killed in a fire at her parents' house on the Duck Valley Reservation. Her father Arthur survived. All of this occurred within a day of John Trudell burning the American Flag on the steps of the Capitol building in Washington D.C. Trudell was in a relationship with Marcheline Bertrand, the mother of actress Angelina Jolie, at the time of her death from cancer in 2007. In early December 2015, it was announced that Trudell was in the last stages of terminal cancer. His death was prematurely announced on the evening of December 4, 2015; his publicist asked for a retraction and the stories were largely removed from the websites where they had been posted. Trudell died on December 8, 2015. According to Independent Lens, one of his last statements was: "I want people to remember me as they remember me." After his death, a family member posted: "My ride showed up. Celebrate Love. Celebrate Life," on his Facebook page. Musical career In 1979, Trudell met musical artist and activist Jackson Browne and became more interested in the musical world (and recording albums and performing his own compositions in live venues). Trudell recorded an album AKA Grafitti Man ("graffiti" was misspelled in the title) with Kiowa guitarist Jesse Ed Davis that was originally available on cassette tape format only. This comports with the practice common to American Indigenous and other minorities of distributing music mixtapes. These tapes were captured live at group events and copied and distributed through non-commercial channels, like those of the San Francisco-based rock group Grateful Dead, Native American powwow music performances in general, and African American gatherings - whence came the expression Each One Teach One. These tactics were common also to an emerging grassroots movement that was arguably itself a response to the reactionary madness of slavery and/or military-industrial/imperialist hegemony flourishing since the 1980s. In 1990, he took part in Tony Hymas's Oyaté project. In 1992, Trudell remade and re-released AKA Grafitti Man as an audio CD to substantial critical and popular acclaim. Arguably his greatest musical success came with the 1994 album Johnny Damas & Me that was described as "a culmination of years of poetic work, and an example of a process of fusing traditional sounds, values, and sensibilities with thought-provoking lyrics, this time with urgent rock and roll." His musical releases (many with his band Bad Dog) include A.K.A Grafitti Man (1986), Heart Jump Bouquet (1987), Blue Indians (1999), Descendant Now Ancestor (2001), Bone Days (2001), Live A Fip (2003), Madness and The Moremes (2007), Crazier Than Hell (2010), Wazi's Dream (2015). Popular Music critic Neal Ullestad said of Trudell's live performances, "This isn't simply pop rock with Indian drums and chants added. It's integrated rock and roll by an American Indian with a multicultural band directed to anyone who will listen." The closing sequence of Alanis Obomsawin's 2014 documentary film Trick or Treaty? is set to Trudell's song "Crazy Horse." Writing career About six months after the deaths of his family, Trudell started writing poetry. He described his work, "They're called poems, but in reality they're lines given to me to hang on to." He has written many poems, including "Baby Boom Che" and "Rant and Roll," and hundreds of others. In the 2010s he often shared recent poetic musings and written works-in-progress via social media, such as his Facebook page. Various impromptu videos of Trudell in live concert appearances or addressing political, social, indigenous rights and educational groups are posted on Youtube, and although he was sought after by various print and broadcast media outlets for "sound byte commentary," Trudell preferred to speak in a less frenetic style directly to gatherings assembled for specific causes that he supported (e.g., advocating on behalf of re-legalizing hemp cultivation for its many beneficial uses, including sustainable paper pulp). Trudell often used his poetry as lyrics for recordings, and began in 1982 to set them to traditional American Indian music, which also in the 1980s eventually led to the recording of A.K.A Graffiti Man, as he struggled to make sense of bewildering situations that confronted him, including the loss of so many loved ones. In late 1988, Australian rock band Midnight Oil invited Trudell (as Graffiti Man) to tour with them during their From Diesel and Dust to the Big Mountain world tour. They billed Trudell's part of the show as "Native American activist performance." Members of Midnight Oil played traditional instruments, sang in native American languages, and accompanied songs with heavy psychedelic Hendrix-style guitar, accompanying Trudell. This exposure brought Trudell new and larger audiences. Trudell also toured in 1993 with Peter Gabriel's global WOMAD (World Music and Dance) production. He was billed as John Trudell, performing his traditional songs and reading his poetry. In 2008, Trudell published a book, Lines From a Mined Mind: The Words of John Trudell, a collection of 25 years of poetry, lyrics and essays. Film career Trudell created a career as an actor, performing in roles in Pow Wow Highway (1989), Thunderheart (1992), On Deadly Ground (1994) and Smoke Signals (1998) (as the Radio speaker Randy Peone on K-REZ radio). He was an adviser to the production of Incident at Oglala, directed by Michael Apted and produced by Robert Redford. A kind of companion piece to the fictional Thunderheart, the 1992 documentary explores facts related to the 1975 shooting of two FBI agents at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, for which Leonard Peltier was convicted in 1977. In Thunderheart, Trudell played a character who resembles Peltier. Dreamkeeper (2003) "The Legends of American Nations Come to Life" features several traditional native stories. Trudell played a character named Coyote in a story about A Spider and Coyote. Documentary about Trudell The filmmaker Heather Rae spent more than a decade making a documentary about Trudell, which was released in 2005. Her intent in Trudell (2005) was to demonstrate how his political and cultural activities were tied to contemporary history and inspired people. The film premiered at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival in the U.S. documentary competition. The movie has received a mixed response among film critics and viewers. Some claimed it to be thought-provoking and touching, while others suggested Rae made a one-dimensional biopic. The song used at the end of the film is "Johnny Lobo" about Trudell by Kris Kristofferson, from his 1995 album A Moment of Forever. Discography John Trudell has appeared on the following albums: 1983 Tribal Voice 1986 aka Graffiti Man (with Jesse Ed Davis) 1987 ...But This Isn't El Salvador (as Tribal Voice) 1987 Heart Jump Bouquet (with Jesse Ed Davis) 1991 Fables and Other Realities 1992 Child's Voice: Children of the Earth (vocals performed by Trudell's daughters) 1992 AKA Grafitti Man 1994 Johnny Damas & Me 1999 Blue Indians 2001 Descendant Now Ancestor (spoken word) 2001 Bone Days (produced by the actress Angelina Jolie) 2003 The Collection: 1985-1992 (anthology of first six albums) 2005 Live à Fip 2007 Madness & The Moremes (double album) 2010 Crazier Than Hell 2010 Out Live This Beast (with Cempoalli 20) 2010 Rare Breed: The Songs of Peter La Farge (Bad Girl) 2014 Through the Dust (with Kwest) 2014 Generations of Evolution (with Meds Hawk) 2015 Wazi's Dream (feat. Bad Dog: Quiltman, Mark Shark, Billy Watts, Ricky Eckstein) 2015 Ancestors Song and The Fire Is Hungry (with Thana Redhawk) 2016 Time Dreams (with The Pines) 2016 Like Broken Butterflies (with Kwest) 2016 We Are the Halluci Nation (with A Tribe Called Red) 2020 Streams of Thought, Vol. 3: Cane & Able(Black Thought) 2021 MADA (with Sin Soto) His music draws from a blend of styles, including rock, blues and native beats, pop and political protest songs. He also draws from his own poetry. His music can be both insightful and funny. Bibliography Trudell, John. Living in Reality: Songs Called Poems, Society of the People Struggling to be Free, 1982, 71 pages, ISBN B001B0TKZO Trudell, John. Stickman: Poems, Lyrics, Talks, edited by Paola Igliori. New York, New York: Inanout Press, 1999, 168 pages, Trudell, John. Lines From a Mined Mind: The Words of John Trudell, Fulcrum Pub, 2008, 280 pages, Anthology Publications Trudell, John. "Carry the Stone" Seeds of Fire: Contemporary Poetry from the Other U. S. A.. edited by Jonathan Andersen. Smokestack Books, 2008. References Further reading Lee Kimberly, "Heartspeak from the Spirit Songs of John Trudell, Keith Secola, and Robbie Robertson", Studies in American Indian Literature, JSTOR, Access provided by University of Illinois @ Urbana-Champaign Richard Burke, "What Tribe? Whose Island?", The North American Review, Vol. 255, No. 1 (Spring, 1970), pp. 51–56, JSTOR provided by University of Illinois Liz Cook, "Some Thoughts About Biography", pp. 73–74, Wíčazo Ša Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), JSTOR Louis Heath, "No Rock Is an Island No Rock Is an Island", The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 52, No. 7 (Mar. 1971), pp. 397–399, JSTOR King, Frank J., III. "A Native Voice: Visit Activist/Actor/Artist John Trudell", University of Michigan, ProQuest subscriber only Akwesasne Notes (1975–1989). Rooseveltown: August 31, 1975. Vol. 7, Iss. 3; p. 14 Segel, Joel. "Interview with John Trudell." Cultural Democracy Spring 1996: 4–6. External links Official John Trudell website John Trudell FBI file Santee Dakota people Native American activists Members of the American Indian Movement Indigenous American philosophy Native American musicians Native American poets Nebraska Independents American spoken word poets 20th-century American male actors Native American male actors American male film actors Male actors from Nebraska Writers from Nebraska San Bernardino Valley College alumni United States Navy sailors American male actors of Mexican descent Deaths from cancer in California 2015 deaths 1946 births People from Elko County, Nevada Inside Recordings artists
419247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davey%20Allison	Davey Allison	David Carl Allison (February 25, 1961 – July 13, 1993) was an American NASCAR driver. He was best known for driving the No. 28 Texaco-Havoline Ford for Robert Yates Racing in the NASCAR Cup Series. Born in Hollywood, Florida, he was the oldest of four children born to Bobby and Judy Allison. The family moved to Hueytown, Alabama, and along with Bobby Allison's brother, Donnie, Red Farmer and Neil Bonnett, became known as the Alabama Gang. Early career Growing up, Allison participated in athletics, preferring football, but settled upon automobile racing. He began working for his father's NASCAR Winston Cup Series team after graduating high school, and built a race car of his own, a Chevy Nova, with friends known as the "Peach Fuzz Gang." He began his career in 1979 at Birmingham International Raceway and won his first race in his sixth start. He became a regular winner at BIR, and by 1983 was racing in the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA) series. Allison won two ARCA events at his home track, Talladega Superspeedway, in 1983, and was named ARCA Rookie of the Year in 1984, placing second in the series title. That same year he married his first wife, Deborah. Allison continued racing in the ARCA series in 1985, winning eight races in the series, four at Talladega Superspeedway. He competed in some of NASCAR's lower divisions. In the Busch series, his crew chief was Red Farmer. In July 1985, car owner Hoss Ellington gave Allison an opportunity to drive a NASCAR Winston Cup Series car in the Talladega 500. Allison qualified 22nd In Ellington's Chevrolet and finished 10th in his first Winston Cup start. The wins earned Allison more NASCAR Cup Series opportunities in 1986, when he made 4 starts in the No. 95 Sadler Racing Chevrolet entry with Tom Pistone serving as crew chief. Davey later substituted for injured racer Neil Bonnett in Junior Johnson's No. 12 Budweiser Chevy, starting and finishing 7th in the Talladega 500. NASCAR Early Winston Cup career Prior to the 1987 season, car owner Harry Ranier tapped Davey to replace veteran driver Cale Yarborough in the Ranier-Lundy No. 28 Ford Thunderbird. Yarborough was leaving the Ranier-Lundy team to start his own operation along with the team's sponsor, Hardee's. Ranier negotiated a sponsorship deal with Texaco's Havoline motor oil brand, a deal that was signed during the NASCAR edition of Speedweeks at Daytona International Speedway. On qualifying day, Davey signalled that he was in Winston Cup to stay when he qualified an unmarked, but Texaco-Havoline painted No. 28 Thunderbird second for the 1987 Daytona 500, becoming the first rookie ever to start on the front row for NASCAR's most prestigious event. A pit miscue which allowed a rear tire to fall off on the track ended his hopes of a good finish in the race, but success for Davey Allison would be just around the corner. May 3, 1987 would become an infamous day in NASCAR history. Earlier in the week, Bill Elliott had qualified his No. 9 Coors-Melling Ford Thunderbird at a record 212.809 mph (a record which still stands today) for the Winston 500 at the unlighted Talladega Superspeedway. Davey Allison would qualify third, while father Bobby would start second alongside Elliott in the Stavola Brothers No. 22 Miller Buick. On lap 22 of the event, Bobby Allison ran over a piece of debris, cutting his right-rear tire. The car turned sideways, lifted into the air, became airborne, and crashed vertically into the frontstretch spectator fence near the start finish line. The car landed back on the track and collected a number of other competitors. Davey was ahead of his father at the time and saw the crash unfold in his mirror. Bobby Allison was not injured, but the crash slightly injured several spectators and the race was red-flagged for two hours and thirty-eight minutes. It was this event that triggered the requirement of smaller carburetors, and later, carburetor restrictor plates on engines at Daytona and Talladega to reduce the top speeds. When the race resumed, Allison continued to run up front and when Elliott exited the race with engine failure, his toughest competition was eliminated. With darkness falling during a late caution flag, the decision was made to end the race 10 laps short of its 188 lap distance. Running second on the restart, Allison passed leader Dale Earnhardt on the backstretch and pulled away for his first Winston Cup win. In winning the race, Allison became the first rookie since Ron Bouchard in 1981 to win a Winston Cup event. Allison would better that feat just 28 days later by winning the Budweiser 500 at Dover International Speedway (then the Dover Downs International Speedway), becoming, at the time, the only rookie to win two Winston Cup events. In all, Allison started 22 of the 29 Winston Cup races in 1987, winning twice, and scoring nine top-five and 10 top-ten finishes. He also won five poles in his rookie season. The 1988 season started with much promise. Allison again started outside the front row for the Daytona 500, the first modern day race utilizing the NASCAR-mandated carburetor restrictor plate. While father Bobby was battling up front early in the race, Davey and his team struggled with a car that was repaired during the early morning hours following a crash in the final practice session. As the race came to a conclusion, Davey found himself running second, just behind his father. Bobby Allison would go on to hold off his son and win his third Daytona 500. Father and son would celebrate their one-two finish in victory lane. Davey Allison would struggle through much of the first half of the 1988 season as he ran some of the Winston Cup short tracks for the first time. The team was also suffering from engine failures and now sole-owner Harry Ranier was looking to sell the team. Crew chief Joey Knuckles was fired and engine builder Robert Yates replaced him. Then on June 19, at Pocono International Raceway came his father's near-fatal, career-ending crash. With his father clinging to life in a Pennsylvania hospital, Davey Allison raced on but failed to finish the next three events. The team rebounded when the series returned to Pocono in July with Allison scoring a third-place finish. Back at Talladega, the No. 28 Ford again suffered engine failure but Allison would drive his father's car later in the race when relief driver Mike Alexander was overcome by heat. Two races later, Allison would score his first win of the season at Michigan International Speedway. The win changed the fortunes for the financially strapped team and after a series of top-5 and top-10 finishes, Allison would win the inaugural race at the new Richmond International Raceway. On October 1, 1988, Ranier sold the team to Yates, who temporarily remained as Allison's crew chief for the balance of the season, before undertaking full ownership. The rest of the season was a mixed bag but Allison would finish the season with a third-place finish at Phoenix International Raceway, and a second at the season ending Atlanta Journal 500 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. He would finish eighth in the final Winston Cup standings. But the roller coaster 1988 Winston Cup season had taken a toll on Davey Allison's marriage and he and Deborah quietly divorced during the offseason. Initial years with Robert Yates Racing (1989–1990) Davey Allison's 1989 season did not start well. A year after he and his father's one-two Daytona 500 finish, Davey started at 16th, then was involved in an early incident with Geoff Bodine that sent his car careening into the sand bar separating the track's backstretch from Lake Lloyd. The car made one slow, complete, roll-over with Davey eventually restarting the car and driving it back to the pits. He drove the damaged, hood-less car to a 25th-place finish and had a heated exchange with Bodine following the race (the first of several exchanges with other drivers during his career). The team rebounded at Rockingham and when the series moved to Talladega in May for the Winston 500, Davey had scored one top-10 and three top-5 finishes. Davey started on the pole at Talladega and got his first win of 1989, his second victory in Talladega's spring event. After the race, Davey stood sixth in the Winston Cup Championship standings, but did not win again until the next restrictor plate race, the Pepsi 400 at Daytona, his last win of the season. By the end of the season, Davey had collected seven top-five and 13 top-ten finishes along with one pole position to go with the two wins. He slipped to 11th in the final Winston Cup standings. However, Davey would marry his second wife, Liz, during the season, and their first child, Krista, was born prior to the 1990 season. The 1990 season did not start much better than the 1989 season and by the sixth race at Bristol, Davey was a 17th in the Winston Cup standings. A poor qualifying run had the team pitting in the backstretch pits, which usually doomed a team's chances of winning the race. But the team owner decided against pitting on the final caution flag and Davey scored his second short-track win in a thrilling photo-finish with Mark Martin, winning by just eight inches. But the win did not change the team's fortunes and after an ill-handling car at Dover required Davey to ask for relief from fellow Alabama driver Hut Stricklin, Robert Yates decided to hire "Suitcase" Jake Elder as the team's crew chief. Davey won the fall event at Charlotte Motor Speedway but finished the season 13th in the final Winston Cup standings. He again posted two wins, but only five top-five and 10 top-ten finishes. Larry McReynolds' hiring (1991) The 1991 season began with much promise. Davey won the pole for the Daytona 500 and was in contention for the win until the final laps. After a late race restart, eventual winner Ernie Irvan passed Dale Earnhardt for the lead. Davey tried to follow Irvan around Earnhardt but could not make the pass and the two drivers battled side by side for a few laps. As the cars came off turn two, Earnhardt's car spun, collecting Allison and Kyle Petty. Davey was unable to continue and finished 15th. From there, things went downhill. Davey finished 12th at Richmond, 16th at Rockingham, then crashed hard early in the Motorcraft 500 at Atlanta, finishing 40th. Davey was openly feuding with crew chief Elder, and Allison threatened to quit the team if Elder stayed. After the poor result at Atlanta, Robert Yates decided that he had to make a change at crew chief. Elder was fired, and Larry McReynolds was hired away from the Kenny Bernstein team to replace him. In his first race with McReynolds at the helm, Allison finished second at the 1991 Transouth 400. A third-place finish followed at Bristol, then a sixth at North Wilkesboro and an eighth at Martinsville. The team finished 22nd at Talladega due to a large accident triggered by Ernie Irvan but there was no doubt the team was much improved and was destined for bigger things. Two weeks later, Davey dominated The Winston all-star race at Charlotte, and continued his domination by winning the Coca-Cola 600 the following week, leading 263 of the race's 400 laps. Two races later, Davey won his first road course event at then Sears Point International Raceway where he was awarded the victory after Ricky Rudd was penalized by NASCAR for spinning Allison out on the final lap. He won again at Michigan then finished third in the Pepsi 400 at Daytona. At the halfway point of the 1991 season, Davey had climbed to fifth in the Winston Cup point standings. After finishing 14th at Pocono, the series moved to Talladega. As the race wound down, Davey Allison aimed for yet another win behind leader Dale Earnhardt. But Davey was unable to get drafting help from fellow Ford Motor Company drivers, and he slipped to ninth place after attempting to pass Earnhardt for the lead. In his post-race interview, Allison stated "All we needed was three inches to clear Earnhardt, when you can't get help from a fellow Ford driver, that's pitiful." In a fit of rage after the race, Allison punched a wall in the team's transporter, breaking his wrist. The injury failed to slow him down, however, as he finished a remarkable 10th on the road course at Watkins Glen, then was second at Michigan, a photo-finish, in which Dale Jarrett scored his first Winston Cup victory. Davey scored back-to-back victories at Rockingham and Phoenix and entered the final race at Atlanta second in the Winston Cup standings. But a dead battery in that race relegated him to a 17th-place finish, dropping him to third in the final standings, only four points behind Ricky Rudd. Dale Earnhardt won the championship. The final tally of the 1991 season for Davey Allison; five wins, 12 top-five and 16 top-ten finishes, and three pole positions. It was also during the 1991 season that Davey and Liz welcomed their second child, a son, Robert Grey Allison. With Larry McReynolds at the helm, Davey Allison entered the 1992 season as a legitimate championship contender. 1992 Statistically, 1992 was Davey Allison's best season in Winston Cup racing. Davey started sixth in the 1992 Daytona 500 but was probably not quite as fast as the Junior Johnson teammates of Bill Elliott and Sterling Marlin. But the race would change dramatically on lap 92 when Elliott, Marlin, and Ernie Irvan triggered a multi-car crash at the front of the pack. Fourteen cars were eliminated, but Allison—and eventual runner-up Morgan Shepherd—somehow made it through the mess. He would dominate the event, lead 127 laps to join his father as a Daytona 500 winner. Allison was also the only driver to lead the Daytona 500 at halfway and go on to win, until Denny Hamlin won the 2016 race. Bill Elliott would rebound to win the next four events, but Allison was not far behind in each event, posting four top-five finishes to maintain his lead in the points. A hard crash in the Food City 500 at Bristol left him with a bruised shoulder, and the following weekend the team had Jimmy Hensley on hand for relief just in case Allison could not go the distance. Allison managed to race through the pain and go the distance, winning at North Wilkesboro after beating Rusty Wallace and Geoffrey Bodine off pit road with a fast pit stop and leading the remaining laps en route to victory. Another hard crash at Martinsville re-injured his ribs, but Allison rebounded yet again, leading a contingent of Fords to victory in the Winston 500 at Talladega using the same car with which he won the Daytona 500. This would be Allison’s third victory at Talladega. The win also put him in position to win the Winston Million if he could finish off the "small slam" with a win in either the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte, or the Southern 500 at Darlington. Next up was The Winston all-star race. One year removed from his domination of that event and the Coca-Cola 600, Davey was ready to take the spotlight again. But this time around, there was more focus on the event itself. Over the winter, the Musco Lighting company had installed a state-of-the-art lighting system at then Charlotte Motor Speedway. Billed as "One Hot Night" by The Nashville Network, which was to broadcast the event, The Winston was the first superspeedway race to be held under the lights. Davey would drive the same car that he used to dominate the event one year earlier, affectionately known as "007." In the final, 10-lap segment of the race, Dale Earnhardt led, followed by Kyle Petty and Davey. In the third turn on the final lap, Petty got under Earnhardt's car and the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet spun. Davey took advantage of this and jumped into the lead. But Petty charged back and as Davey crossed the start-finish line to win the race, the two cars came together, sending the driver's side of Davey's car hard into the outside wall in a shower of sparks. An unconscious Allison was taken from his car and airlifted to a Charlotte hospital. The crash left him with a concussion, bruised lung, and a battered and bruised body. His car, "007," was totaled. Allison would later claim to have sustained an out-of-body experience after the crash. He claimed to have awoke to see his crashed car below him as he rose away from it, and to have turned his attention away from the frantic work of the emergency workers to a bright light above, which faded and left him in darkness until he awoke later in the hospital. McReynolds stated during the FOX telecasts that the first words from Allison when he awoke in the hospital were "Did we win?" McReynolds told Allison "Yes, Davey, we won." Victory celebrations went on even though the driver was not present, and all of the crew members later went to the hospital to be with their driver. The wreck did not deter Allison. He finished fourth in the Coca-Cola 600 the following week despite the injuries and maintained his points lead. He then finished 11th at Dover, 28th at Sears Point, and fifth at Pocono. Still hanging onto the points lead, and his body healing, Davey won the pole and dominated the Miller Genuine Draft 400 at Michigan, leading 158 of the race's 200 laps. The first half of the season ended with Davey posting a 10th-place finish in the Pepsi 400 at Daytona. At the halfway point of the season, Allison had a 46-point lead over second place Bill Elliott and a 134-point lead over third place Alan Kulwicki, and had held the points lead since the first race of the season, despite the injuries and setbacks. That would all change as the series went back to Pocono. Davey won the pole for the event and led 115 of the first 149 laps. But a lengthy pit stop during a caution flag sent him to the middle of the pack. On lap 150, Allison was charging back through the pack, followed closely by Darrell Waltrip. The two cars made contact and Davey went sliding into the grass off Pocono's "tunnel turn." The car went airborne and began a series of violent flips before landing on top of an infield guardrail. Miraculously, Davey survived the crash. He was airlifted to the hospital with a severe concussion, along with a broken arm, wrist, and collar bone. His 33rd-place finish left him nine points behind Bill Elliott for the series title, but that seemed insignificant at the moment. Especially traumatizing was the fact that Pocono was the site of Davey's father Bobby's career-ending crash a few years earlier (see above). In fact, many worried fans wondered if the younger Allison's career was over. Davey arrived at Talladega the following week wearing dark shades to hide eyes severely bruised in the Pocono crash, Allison famously told a reporter asking to see his eyes at the press conference, "You can see it, but its ugly." His arm was in a cast that allowed him to drive, and velcro attachments to his glove and the car's shifter knob helped him drive with less exertion, but Bobby Hillin Jr. would relieve Davey after the initial laps of the DieHard 500. Under NASCAR rules, the driver who takes the green flag is the one assigned to the points for all drivers that drive that car during the race. Hillin drove the No. 28 Texaco-Havoline Ford Thunderbird to a third-place finish at Talladega, helping Davey and the team keep pace with Elliott. The team was a strong contender for the win until suffering a jack failure on a pit stop. The following week, veteran road racer Dorsey Schroeder would relieve Allison, but he could only manage a 20th-place finish. With his body healed enough to allow him to drive an entire race, Davey headed to Michigan where he had dominated the track's earlier event. But tragedy struck as the Michigan events began. While practicing for the weekend's Busch Series race, Davey's younger brother, Clifford crashed hard in the third and fourth turns of Michigan International Speedway. He would die en route to the hospital. Davey drove to a fifth-place finish in the Champion Spark Plug 400, then went home to Hueytown for Clifford's funeral. The following weekend, he crashed again at Bristol, finishing 30th. Although still in second place in the Winston Cup standings, he now trailed leader Bill Elliott by 109 points. Davey's chance to win the Winston Million was up next as the series headed to Darlington for the Mountain Dew Southern 500, which was worth both a million dollar bonus if he could win the Small Slam, but moreover, become the fourth driver to win the Career Grand Slam. There was a promotion for the event as fake Million Dollar Bills were printed with Allison's face on them were handed out for fans. Davey led 72 laps of the event and was in contention to win, but soon after the leaders pitted for tires and fuel, rain halted the race with 69 laps left. Instead it was Darrell Waltrip, gambling that the rains would come, did not pit and was leading the race when it was red flagged. He was declared the winner as darkness fell and the rains continued. Waltrip, who had long feuded with the entire Allison clan (Bobby and Donnie; ironically, Waltrip had replaced Donnie Allison with the DiGard team in 1975 and was a relief driver for one of Donnie's wins at Talladega), sat next to his car on pit road in lawn chair and held a colorful umbrella, gleefully joking that the rain shower was worth "one million dollars" to him as he became the fourth driver to finish a Career Grand Slam. (This was the second time Waltrip prevented a driver from clinching a Small Slam; in 1985, he stopped Bill Elliott's 1985 run at a Small Slam at Charlotte and Elliott has yet to win that leg of the Grand Slam; Elliott would take the Small Slam at Darlington in September; Dale Earnhardt stopped Waltrip's Small Slam and Career Grand Slam attempt three years previously at Darlington.) Davey finished fifth and was now 119 points behind Elliott, who finished third. Allison and Elliott continued their drive for the championship after Darlington as the two kept pace with each other. But beginning with the Goody's 500 at Martinsville on September 28, Elliott's hold on the points lead began to slip. He finished 30th in that event while Allison finished 16th. Then at North Wilkesboro, Allison posted an 11th-place finish, while Elliott finished 26th. Back at Charlotte, Allison finished a 19th, but Elliott finished 30th and there were now four drivers within 100 points of Elliott...Allison, Alan Kulwicki, Mark Martin, and Harry Gant. Martin and Kulwicki finished first and second respectively at Charlotte, and Kulwicki was continuing a late season charge. Three races prior to Charlotte, Kulwicki had crashed and finished 34th at Dover leaving him 278 points behind Elliott and in fourth place in the standings. Elliott's skid stopped temporarily at Rockingham where he finished fourth. Davey finished 10th and Kulwicki 12th and entering the final two races of the 1992 season, Davey was 70 points behind Elliott in second, with Kulwicki 85 points behind in third. But Davey's fortunes changed dramatically at Phoenix as he won the event by beating his closest rivals off of pit road, and Elliott finished 31st. Davey now had the points lead for the first time since his violent Pocono crash, and was 30 points ahead of Kulwicki, and 40 ahead of Elliott, who had slipped to third in the standings. Also in contention to win the championship as the series moved to the final race at Atlanta were Harry Gant (fourth place, 97 points behind), Kyle Petty (fifth place, 98 points behind), and Mark Martin (sixth place, 113 points behind). The 1992 Hooters 500 would be a milestone race in NASCAR Winston Cup history. It would be the final race of Richard Petty's career, as well as the first for future Winston Cup Champion Jeff Gordon. Couple that with the closest championship race in history, and the race was destined to be a classic. Davey Allison entered the race needing only to finish fifth or better to win the Winston Cup. A first lap incident involving Rick Mast caused minor damage to Davey's car, and he battled through much of the race to stay in the top ten. Meanwhile, Elliott and Kulwicki were staging a battle for the ages, battling for and swapping the lead through much of the event. Late in the race, Davey had finally managed to reach the top five and was in position to win the championship when Ernie Irvan lost control of his car on the frontstretch on lap 286. Davey could not avoid Irvan's spinning car and plowed into the No. 4 Kodak Chevrolet Lumina. Allison's tumultuous 1992 season was over, his championship hopes lost as Elliott and Kulwicki finished first and second in the race respectively. Kulwicki, an independent driver who had turned down offers to drive for other teams, including Junior Johnson, won the championship by leading one more lap than Elliott (103 to 102). 1993 Though 1992 had been a heartbreaking year for Davey Allison and the Robert Yates Racing team in more ways than one, they had to be encouraged by their run for the championship. But 1993 opened on a sour note with Allison finishing 28th at Daytona. That finish was followed by a 16th at Rockingham, but Davey rebounded to win at Richmond the following week. The next race at Atlanta was delayed a week by a blizzard that blanketed much of the Southeast. Morgan Shepherd won the race and Davey finished 13th. He then posted an 11th at Darlington. Despite the early season struggles, Davey was sixth in the Winston Cup standings, while defending series champ Kulwicki was ninth. Davey Allison had debuted in the International Race of Champions (IROC) in 1992, but his injuries forced him to miss the last two races. Three days after Kulwicki's death in an airplane crash, Davey Allison finished fifth in an emotional race at Bristol. He followed that finish with a fourth at North Wilkesboro, second at Martinsville, seventh at Talladega, and 15th at Sears Point. He finished a 30th in the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte, but rebounded at Dover, finishing third. He was sixth at Pocono, but finished 35th at Michigan and 31st at Daytona. Halfway through the 1993 season, Davey was fifth in the point standings, but was 323 points behind leader Dale Earnhardt. Still, Davey and the Robert Yates team were confident that they could put their early season struggles and inconsistency behind them and could make a run for the championship in the second half. The inaugural race at New Hampshire International Speedway proved the team's optimism was not unfounded. Davey led 38 laps of the event and finished third behind Rusty Wallace and Mark Martin. Death On July 12, 1993, Allison boarded his newly acquired Hughes 369HS helicopter to fly to Talladega Superspeedway to watch family friend Neil Bonnett and his son David Bonnett test a car for David's Busch Series debut. He picked up another family friend, racer Red Farmer, en route to the track. Allison was attempting to land the helicopter inside a fenced-in area of the track infield when the craft nosed up suddenly, then crashed. Neil Bonnett freed Farmer from the wreckage, but Allison was unresponsive and could not be freed until paramedics arrived. Farmer went on to a lengthy but successful recovery, but Allison never regained consciousness after sustaining a critical head injury. He was pronounced dead at 7:00 a.m. the next morning by a neurosurgeon at Carraway Methodist Medical Center in Birmingham after a procedure to relieve pressure on his brain proved unsuccessful. In January 1994, Allison's estate filed a lawsuit against McDonnell Douglas claiming the cause of the crash was a failure of the collective socket on the helicopter. The lawsuit sought $25 million and was filed on behalf of Davey Allison Racing Enterprises, Tommy Allison as Executor of Davey Allison's estate, and Red Farmer. Birmingham attorney Jim Thompson presented evidence from a metallurgist showing that the cast metal piece contained air pockets and paint inside the part, claiming "that meant the part was defective the day it left the factory." A test pilot reconstruction showed identical results to Allison's crash. The suit called the socket a "totally failed magnesium part." In their March 1995 report, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) blamed the crash on Allison's inexperience in helicopters, coupled with the decision to attempt a downwind landing. It blamed the crash on a "poor in-flight decision to land downwind in a confined area that was surrounded by high obstructions" The board also listed Allison's "failure to properly compensate for the tailwind condition" as a likely crash cause. Furthermore, NTSB investigator Rolf Sasser said, "there was no indication of failure of that socket prior to the accident. There was no evidence of any fatigue failure. In fact, the failure of that socket would not be consistent with the loss of control that we found and witnesses stated that occurred." In August 1995, a judge ruled against the Allison estate in their lawsuit against McDonnell-Douglas. The cause of the accident was not established and not considered important to the outcome of the case. The judge's ruling was based upon the evidence that shoulder harnesses that came in the helicopter from the manufacturer had been removed at some point. Testimonials from a biomechanical expert established that Allison would not have died, and Farmer would not have sustained his injuries, had they been wearing shoulder harnesses originally provided in the helicopter, relieving the manufacturer of liability. In a 2003 interview, Jim Thompson said McDonnell-Douglas settled the suit in 1996 for an undisclosed amount without admitting fault. Both Thompson and attorneys for McDonnell-Douglas stated they were prohibited by the court from discussing the settlement. Thousands packed the auditorium at St. Aloysius Church in Bessemer, Alabama, to pay their respects at his funeral. His organs except his corneas were donated. Allison was buried wearing one of his black Texaco firesuits and wearing a racing hat. Fellow drivers attending the funeral included Mario Andretti, Roger Penske, Mark Martin, Darrell Waltrip, and Bill Elliott. Governor Jim Folsom Jr. made a brief visit and ordered the flags in Alabama lowered to half-mast. Some members of the band Aerosmith attended the service at St. Aloysius. Police estimated 2,000 people attended the funeral service. The procession of cars on the way to the cemetery stretched five miles long. People parked their cars on Interstate 20 and stood on the highway overpass to watch the procession. He is buried near his brother, Clifford, in Bessemer's Highland Memorial Gardens. Four jet fighters flew over the cemetery in formation. At the gravesite, country singer Joe Diffie performed his song Ships That Don't Come In, Allison's favorite song. Journalist Paul Finebaum compared the large-scale mourning done by Alabama to the death of Bear Bryant in 1983. "Not since that sad week a decade ago has this state responded to a tragedy in such an overwhelming fashion." After the final race of the season, series champion Dale Earnhardt and race winner Rusty Wallace drove a side-by-side Polish Victory Lap carrying flags for fallen drivers Alan Kulwicki and Allison. In his short NASCAR Winston Cup career, Allison posted 19 wins, 66 top-five finishes, and 92 top-ten finishes. He also won 14 poles and earned $6,724,174. He was survived by his wife, Liz, and two children: daughter Krista Marie and son Robert "Robbie" Grey. Tribute Ten years after Allison's first win, Texaco debuted the throwback Battlestar paint scheme in his memory. It ran two races, but in the second, at the 1997 DieHard 500 in October, Ernie Irvan put the throwback Battlestar on the pole. Later, Texaco would often use the throwback paint scheme for their drivers at the track until they discontinued sponsorship. The R. K. Allen Oil Company, the Talladega-based distributor for Texaco in the area, remembered the legacy of Allison with the Talladega-Texaco Walk of Fame in Talladega, where fans vote drivers, past and present, to a specially themed "hall of fame" for drivers. The event took place until 2013. City manager Seddrick Hill of Talladega reinstated the Walk of Fame in 2022. Talladega Walk of Fame members Note: From 1994 to 2003, two drivers were inducted in the inactive driver category. From 2003 to 2012, one inactive driver was voted, unlike the past. Since 2013, the Talladega Walk of Fame Board of Directors has nominated one driver when necessary. The Board of Directors also inducted an active driver in 2000. Notes The Walk of Fame induction was moved from July to October in 1997, and was in September in 2003. Hamilton was voted by fans to the Walk of Fame in 2000; the Board of Directors did not want the retiring Waltrip, whose 84 wins was the most by a driver who started his career after 1972 (when the schedule was reduced to the current format) to be inducted as an inactive driver, so he was automatically inducted by the board. It should be known Waltrip was very unpopular at Talladega in his prime for his feuds with all three Allisons, starting when he replaced Donnie in the DiGard racing car in 1975; ironically, it was Waltrip who was a relief driver driving when Donnie won the 1977 Talladega 500. Also, Waltrip's associate sponsor was the Havoline brand of oil from 1993-97 (co-branding with Sears) and again in 1999-2000 (Texaco was associated with Kmart-sponsored cars fielded by Carl Haas, with both Newman-Haas Racing in CART and Haas-Carter Racing in 2000). In the 2010's, Waltrip's daughter Sarah Kaitlin graduated from Samford University in the Birmingham area; coincidentally, Davey Allison's widow and children moved shortly after his death to the Nashville area where Waltrip lives, where son Robert Grey graduated from Middle Tennessee State University. The Board of Directors of the Talladega-Texaco Walk of Fame inducted the inaugural class by decree in 1994. Legacy Allison was leading the IROC series championship at the time of his death, with one race remaining in the four race series. Terry Labonte drove the final race in place of Allison and secured the championship for him. His championship money, $175,000, was set up as a trust fund for his children. Allison finished 31st in the final 1993 NASCAR Championship Standings and earned officially half of the 1993 owner points fund for the #28 team. Racing Champions produced a die-cast model of Allison's 1989 Texaco car as a tribute after his death, as well as his standard 1993 scheme in the main line of die-cast. Racing Champions also made die-cast replicas of cars Allison drove during his career in the Racing Champions Premier line, with a trading card that read "Champion Forever". A promotional die-cast 28 car was released with Allison's replacement, Ernie Irvan listed as driver to pay tribute to the team's win at Martinsville in the fall of 1993. Only 20,000 of them were released. Allison was posthumously inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1998, and in 2018 he was announced as an inductee of the NASCAR Hall of Fame where he was formally inducted in 2019. Allison became a figure in a controversy as his widow became involved with country music star Joe Diffie shortly after Allison's death. Tabloid television programs and newspapers gave much coverage to the story at the time, with some claiming that the two had been lovers before Allison's death. Liz has openly discussed her relationship with Diffie, most recently on the Paul Finebaum Radio Network during the week of the 2006 race at Talladega. Liz expressed some regret over the relationship and mentioned that she and Diffie were band-aids for each other, and band aids were not meant to be permanent. Liz Allison and their two children moved to Nashville and she married physical therapist Ryan Hackett on May 13, 2000. After being divorced for four years, Bobby and Judy Allison reunited at the wedding, after nearly seven years of tragedy had separated them. On April 28, 2003, the mayor of Hueytown, Alabama, declared it Davey Allison Day and is celebrated on the weekend of the springtime Talladega race. Due to Allison's death, Robert Yates initially chose not to field a car at the 1993 Miller Genuine Draft 400, stating "It's hard to race with tears in your eyes". Yates would return to Talladega with Robby Gordon replacing Allison in the No. 28, but he lost control of the Texaco/Havoline Ford early in the race and crashed and finished last. Lake Speed would take over driving duties until the 1993 Southern 500. Ernie Irvan, would later take over the ride at the Mountain Dew Southern 500 and won the Goody's 500 at Martinsville Speedway and it was a heartwarming time for Irvan's crew as it marked their first time back to victory lane since Allison's death. Irvan would also win the Mello Yello 500 at Charlotte as well. Racing Champions ran the No. 28 Havoline Ford with Ernie Irvan replacing Allison as the driver in tribute of the win. Allison also had his own brand of chili by Bunker Hill with his face on the can. Allison also had a comic book printed about him during his racing days. A road called "Allison-Bonnett Memorial Drive" in his hometown is honored by him, along with fellow native Neil Bonnett, who died a year after Davey. In the videogames NASCAR 99, NASCAR 2000 and NASCAR Rumble, he appears as an unlockable NASCAR Legend with his Texaco Ford that he drove from 1987 to 1989. Allison's livery style has been used as tributes by Ford (Robert Yates NASCAR Hall of Fame), Dr. Pepper / 7 Up Group (an associate sponsor of Allison in 1992 and 93), and Chevron (at least two occasions, primarily at Talladega, the Battlestar livery has been used as a retro livery). Most notably, Irvan put the 1987 Battlestar livery on the pole at the October 1997 Talladega race, much to the delight of fans. In the 2021 GEICO 500, Joey Gase and his Rick Ware Racing No. 53 team would run a tribute scheme for Davey Allison. The car started 35th and finished 34th. Motorsports career results NASCAR (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) Winston Cup Series Daytona 500 Busch Series ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) International Race of Champions (key) (Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.) See also List of all-time NASCAR Cup Series winners List of Daytona 500 winners List of Daytona 500 pole position winners List of fatalities from aviation accidents List of NASCAR All-Star Race drivers List of people from Alabama Alabama Gang List of sportspeople who died during their careers NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers NASCAR Winston Cup Series era References External links NTSB report on the crash. Widow Liz's official site. 1961 births 1993 deaths People from Hueytown, Alabama Sportspeople from Jefferson County, Alabama Racing drivers from Alabama NASCAR drivers International Race of Champions drivers American Speed Association drivers ISCARS Dash Touring Series drivers Accidental deaths in Alabama Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United States Burials in Alabama International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees Sportspeople from Hollywood, Florida Racing drivers from Florida Alabama Gang Texaco Hueytown High School alumni Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1993 Victims of helicopter accidents or incidents in the United States Robert Yates Racing drivers NASCAR Hall of Fame inductees
419259	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival%20analysis	Survival analysis	Survival analysis is a branch of statistics for analyzing the expected duration of time until one event occurs, such as death in biological organisms and failure in mechanical systems. This topic is called reliability theory or reliability analysis in engineering, duration analysis or duration modelling in economics, and event history analysis in sociology. Survival analysis attempts to answer certain questions, such as what is the proportion of a population which will survive past a certain time? Of those that survive, at what rate will they die or fail? Can multiple causes of death or failure be taken into account? How do particular circumstances or characteristics increase or decrease the probability of survival? To answer such questions, it is necessary to define "lifetime". In the case of biological survival, death is unambiguous, but for mechanical reliability, failure may not be well-defined, for there may well be mechanical systems in which failure is partial, a matter of degree, or not otherwise localized in time. Even in biological problems, some events (for example, heart attack or other organ failure) may have the same ambiguity. The theory outlined below assumes well-defined events at specific times; other cases may be better treated by models which explicitly account for ambiguous events. More generally, survival analysis involves the modelling of time to event data; in this context, death or failure is considered an "event" in the survival analysis literature – traditionally only a single event occurs for each subject, after which the organism or mechanism is dead or broken. Recurring event or repeated event models relax that assumption. The study of recurring events is relevant in systems reliability, and in many areas of social sciences and medical research. Introduction to survival analysis Survival analysis is used in several ways: To describe the survival times of members of a group Life tables Kaplan–Meier curves Survival function Hazard function To compare the survival times of two or more groups Log-rank test To describe the effect of categorical or quantitative variables on survival Cox proportional hazards regression Parametric survival models Survival trees Survival random forests Definitions of common terms in survival analysis The following terms are commonly used in survival analyses: Event: Death, disease occurrence, disease recurrence, recovery, or other experience of interest Time: The time from the beginning of an observation period (such as surgery or beginning treatment) to (i) an event, or (ii) end of the study, or (iii) loss of contact or withdrawal from the study. Censoring / Censored observation: Censoring occurs when we have some information about individual survival time, but we do not know the survival time exactly. The subject is censored in the sense that nothing is observed or known about that subject after the time of censoring. A censored subject may or may not have an event after the end of observation time. Survival function S(t): The probability that a subject survives longer than time t. Example: Acute myelogenous leukemia survival data This example uses the Acute Myelogenous Leukemia survival data set "aml" from the "survival" package in R. The data set is from Miller (1997) and the question is whether the standard course of chemotherapy should be extended ('maintained') for additional cycles. The aml data set sorted by survival time is shown in the box. Time is indicated by the variable "time", which is the survival or censoring time Event (recurrence of aml cancer) is indicated by the variable "status". 0= no event (censored), 1= event (recurrence) Treatment group: the variable "x" indicates if maintenance chemotherapy was given The last observation (11), at 161 weeks, is censored. Censoring indicates that the patient did not have an event (no recurrence of aml cancer). Another subject, observation 3, was censored at 13 weeks (indicated by status=0). This subject was in the study for only 13 weeks, and the aml cancer did not recur during those 13 weeks. It is possible that this patient was enrolled near the end of the study, so that they could be observed for only 13 weeks. It is also possible that the patient was enrolled early in the study, but was lost to follow up or withdrew from the study. The table shows that other subjects were censored at 16, 28, and 45 weeks (observations 17, 6, and9 with status=0). The remaining subjects all experienced events (recurrence of aml cancer) while in the study. The question of interest is whether recurrence occurs later in maintained patients than in non-maintained patients. Kaplan–Meier plot for the aml data The survival function S(t), is the probability that a subject survives longer than time t. S(t) is theoretically a smooth curve, but it is usually estimated using the Kaplan–Meier (KM) curve. The graph shows the KM plot for the aml data and can be interpreted as follows: The x axis is time, from zero (when observation began) to the last observed time point. The y axis is the proportion of subjects surviving. At time zero, 100% of the subjects are alive without an event. The solid line (similar to a staircase) shows the progression of event occurrences. A vertical drop indicates an event. In the aml table shown above, two subjects had events at five weeks, two had events at eight weeks, one had an event at nine weeks, and so on. These events at five weeks, eight weeks and so on are indicated by the vertical drops in the KM plot at those time points. At the far right end of the KM plot there is a tick mark at 161 weeks. The vertical tick mark indicates that a patient was censored at this time. In the aml data table five subjects were censored, at 13, 16, 28, 45 and 161 weeks. There are five tick marks in the KM plot, corresponding to these censored observations. Life table for the aml data A life table summarizes survival data in terms of the number of events and the proportion surviving at each event time point. The life table for the aml data, created using the Rsoftware, is shown. The life table summarizes the events and the proportion surviving at each event time point. The columns in the life table have the following interpretation: time gives the time points at which events occur. n.risk is the number of subjects at risk immediately before the time point, t. Being "at risk" means that the subject has not had an event before time t, and is not censored before or at time t. n.event is the number of subjects who have events at time t. survival is the proportion surviving, as determined using the Kaplan–Meier product-limit estimate. std.err is the standard error of the estimated survival. The standard error of the Kaplan–Meier product-limit estimate it is calculated using Greenwood's formula, and depends on the number at risk (n.risk in the table), the number of deaths (n.event in the table) and the proportion surviving (survival in the table). lower 95% CI and upper 95% CI are the lower and upper 95% confidence bounds for the proportion surviving. Log-rank test: Testing for differences in survival in the aml data The log-rank test compares the survival times of two or more groups. This example uses a log-rank test for a difference in survival in the maintained versus non-maintained treatment groups in the aml data. The graph shows KM plots for the aml data broken out by treatment group, which is indicated by the variable "x" in the data. The null hypothesis for a log-rank test is that the groups have the same survival. The expected number of subjects surviving at each time point in each is adjusted for the number of subjects at risk in the groups at each event time. The log-rank test determines if the observed number of events in each group is significantly different from the expected number. The formal test is based on a chi-squared statistic. When the log-rank statistic is large, it is evidence for a difference in the survival times between the groups. The log-rank statistic approximately has a Chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom, and the p-value is calculated using the Chi-squared test. For the example data, the log-rank test for difference in survival gives a p-value of p=0.0653, indicating that the treatment groups do not differ significantly in survival, assuming an alpha level of 0.05. The sample size of 23 subjects is modest, so there is little power to detect differences between the treatment groups. The chi-squared test is based on asymptotic approximation, so the p-value should be regarded with caution for small sample sizes. Cox proportional hazards (PH) regression analysis Kaplan–Meier curves and log-rank tests are most useful when the predictor variable is categorical (e.g., drug vs. placebo), or takes a small number of values (e.g., drug doses 0, 20, 50, and 100 mg/day) that can be treated as categorical. The log-rank test and KM curves don't work easily with quantitative predictors such as gene expression, white blood count, or age. For quantitative predictor variables, an alternative method is Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. Cox PH models work also with categorical predictor variables, which are encoded as {0,1} indicator or dummy variables. The log-rank test is a special case of a Cox PH analysis, and can be performed using Cox PH software. Example: Cox proportional hazards regression analysis for melanoma This example uses the melanoma data set from Dalgaard Chapter 14. Data are in the R package ISwR. The Cox proportional hazards regression usingR gives the results shown in the box. The Cox regression results are interpreted as follows. Sex is encoded as a numeric vector (1: female, 2: male). The Rsummary for the Cox model gives the hazard ratio (HR) for the second group relative to the first group, that is, male versus female. coef = 0.662 is the estimated logarithm of the hazard ratio for males versus females. exp(coef) = 1.94 = exp(0.662) - The log of the hazard ratio (coef= 0.662) is transformed to the hazard ratio using exp(coef). The summary for the Cox model gives the hazard ratio for the second group relative to the first group, that is, male versus female. The estimated hazard ratio of 1.94 indicates that males have higher risk of death (lower survival rates) than females, in these data. se(coef) = 0.265 is the standard error of the log hazard ratio. z = 2.5 = coef/se(coef) = 0.662/0.265. Dividing the coef by its standard error gives the z score. p=0.013. The p-value corresponding to z=2.5 for sex is p=0.013, indicating that there is a significant difference in survival as a function of sex. The summary output also gives upper and lower 95% confidence intervals for the hazard ratio: lower 95% bound = 1.15; upper 95% bound = 3.26. Finally, the output gives p-values for three alternative tests for overall significance of the model: Likelihood ratio test = 6.15 on 1 df, p=0.0131 Wald test = 6.24 on 1 df, p=0.0125 Score (log-rank) test = 6.47 on 1 df, p=0.0110 These three tests are asymptotically equivalent. For large enough N, they will give similar results. For small N, they may differ somewhat. The last row, "Score (logrank) test" is the result for the log-rank test, with p=0.011, the same result as the log-rank test, because the log-rank test is a special case of a Cox PH regression. The Likelihood ratio test has better behavior for small sample sizes, so it is generally preferred. Cox model using a covariate in the melanoma data The Cox model extends the log-rank test by allowing the inclusion of additional covariates. This example use the melanoma data set where the predictor variables include a continuous covariate, the thickness of the tumor (variable name = "thick"). In the histograms, the thickness values are positively skewed and do not have a Gaussian-like, Symmetric probability distribution. Regression models, including the Cox model, generally give more reliable results with normally-distributed variables. For this example we may use a logarithmic transform. The log of the thickness of the tumor looks to be more normally distributed, so the Cox models will use log thickness. The Cox PH analysis gives the results in the box. The p-value for all three overall tests (likelihood, Wald, and score) are significant, indicating that the model is significant. The p-value for log(thick) is 6.9e-07, with a hazard ratio HR = exp(coef) = 2.18, indicating a strong relationship between the thickness of the tumor and increased risk of death. By contrast, the p-value for sex is now p=0.088. The hazard ratio HR = exp(coef) = 1.58, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.934 to 2.68. Because the confidence interval for HR includes 1, these results indicate that sex makes a smaller contribution to the difference in the HR after controlling for the thickness of the tumor, and only trend toward significance. Examination of graphs of log(thickness) by sex and a t-test of log(thickness) by sex both indicate that there is a significant difference between men and women in the thickness of the tumor when they first see the clinician. The Cox model assumes that the hazards are proportional. The proportional hazard assumption may be tested using the Rfunction cox.zph(). A p-value which is less than 0.05 indicates that the hazards are not proportional. For the melanoma data we obtain p=0.222. Hence, we cannot reject the null hypothesis of the hazards being proportional. Additional tests and graphs for examining a Cox model are described in the textbooks cited. Extensions to Cox models Cox models can be extended to deal with variations on the simple analysis. Stratification. The subjects can be divided into strata, where subjects within a stratum are expected to be relatively more similar to each other than to randomly chosen subjects from other strata. The regression parameters are assumed to be the same across the strata, but a different baseline hazard may exist for each stratum. Stratification is useful for analyses using matched subjects, for dealing with patient subsets, such as different clinics, and for dealing with violations of the proportional hazard assumption. Time-varying covariates. Some variables, such as gender and treatment group, generally stay the same in a clinical trial. Other clinical variables, such as serum protein levels or dose of concomitant medications may change over the course of a study. Cox models may be extended for such time-varying covariates. Tree-structured survival models The Cox PH regression model is a linear model. It is similar to linear regression and logistic regression. Specifically, these methods assume that a single line, curve, plane, or surface is sufficient to separate groups (alive, dead) or to estimate a quantitative response (survival time). In some cases alternative partitions give more accurate classification or quantitative estimates. One set of alternative methods are tree-structured survival models, including survival random forests. Tree-structured survival models may give more accurate predictions than Cox models. Examining both types of models for a given data set is a reasonable strategy. Example survival tree analysis This example of a survival tree analysis uses the Rpackage "rpart". The example is based on 146 stageC prostate cancer patients in the data set stagec in rpart. Rpart and the stagec example are described in Atkinson and Therneau (1997), which is also distributed as a vignette of the rpart package. The variables in stages are: pgtime: time to progression, or last follow-up free of progression pgstat: status at last follow-up (1=progressed, 0=censored) age: age at diagnosis eet: early endocrine therapy (1=no, 0=yes) ploidy: diploid/tetraploid/aneuploid DNA pattern g2: % of cells in G2 phase grade: tumor grade (1-4) gleason: Gleason grade (3-10) The survival tree produced by the analysis is shown in the figure. Each branch in the tree indicates a split on the value of a variable. For example, the root of the tree splits subjects with grade < 2.5 versus subjects with grade 2.5 or greater. The terminal nodes indicate the number of subjects in the node, the number of subjects who have events, and the relative event rate compared to the root. In the node on the far left, the values 1/33 indicate that one of the 33 subjects in the node had an event, and that the relative event rate is 0.122. In the node on the far right bottom, the values 11/15 indicate that 11 of 15 subjects in the node had an event, and the relative event rate is 2.7. Survival random forests An alternative to building a single survival tree is to build many survival trees, where each tree is constructed using a sample of the data, and average the trees to predict survival. This is the method underlying the survival random forest models. Survival random forest analysis is available in the Rpackage "randomForestSRC". The randomForestSRC package includes an example survival random forest analysis using the data set pbc. This data is from the Mayo Clinic Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC) trial of the liver conducted between 1974 and 1984. In the example, the random forest survival model gives more accurate predictions of survival than the Cox PH model. The prediction errors are estimated by bootstrap re-sampling. Deep Learning survival models Recent advancements in deep representation learning have been extended to survival estimation. The DeepSurv model proposes to replace the log-linear parameterization of the CoxPH model with a multi-layer perceptron. Further extensions like Deep Survival Machines and Deep Cox Mixtures involve the use of latent variable mixture models to model the time-to-event distribution as a mixture of parametric or semi-parametric distributions while jointly learning representations of the input covariates. Deep learning approaches have shown superior performance especially on complex input data modalities such as images and clinical time-series. General formulation Survival function The object of primary interest is the survival function, conventionally denoted S, which is defined as where t is some time, T is a random variable denoting the time of death, and "Pr" stands for probability. That is, the survival function is the probability that the time of death is later than some specified time t. The survival function is also called the survivor function or survivorship function in problems of biological survival, and the reliability function in mechanical survival problems. In the latter case, the reliability function is denoted R(t). Usually one assumes S(0) = 1, although it could be less than 1if there is the possibility of immediate death or failure. The survival function must be non-increasing: S(u) ≤ S(t) if u ≥ t. This property follows directly because T>u implies T>t. This reflects the notion that survival to a later age is possible only if all younger ages are attained. Given this property, the lifetime distribution function and event density (F and f below) are well-defined. The survival function is usually assumed to approach zero as age increases without bound (i.e., S(t) → 0 as t → ∞), although the limit could be greater than zero if eternal life is possible. For instance, we could apply survival analysis to a mixture of stable and unstable carbon isotopes; unstable isotopes would decay sooner or later, but the stable isotopes would last indefinitely. Lifetime distribution function and event density Related quantities are defined in terms of the survival function. The lifetime distribution function, conventionally denoted F, is defined as the complement of the survival function, If F is differentiable then the derivative, which is the density function of the lifetime distribution, is conventionally denoted f, The function f is sometimes called the event density; it is the rate of death or failure events per unit time. The survival function can be expressed in terms of probability distribution and probability density functions Similarly, a survival event density function can be defined as In other fields, such as statistical physics, the survival event density function is known as the first passage time density. Hazard function and cumulative hazard function The hazard function, conventionally denoted or , is defined as the event rate at time conditional on survival until time or later (that is, ). Suppose that an item has survived for a time and we desire the probability that it will not survive for an additional time : Force of mortality is a synonym of hazard function which is used particularly in demography and actuarial science, where it is denoted by . The term hazard rate is another synonym. The force of mortality of the survival function is defined as The force of mortality is also called the force of failure. It is the probability density function of the distribution of mortality. In actuarial science, the hazard rate is the rate of death for lives aged . For a life aged , the force of mortality years later is the force of mortality for a –year old. The hazard rate is also called the failure rate. Hazard rate and failure rate are names used in reliability theory. Any function is a hazard function if and only if it satisfies the following properties: , . In fact, the hazard rate is usually more informative about the underlying mechanism of failure than the other representations of a lifetime distribution. The hazard function must be non-negative, , and its integral over must be infinite, but is not otherwise constrained; it may be increasing or decreasing, non-monotonic, or discontinuous. An example is the bathtub curve hazard function, which is large for small values of , decreasing to some minimum, and thereafter increasing again; this can model the property of some mechanical systems to either fail soon after operation, or much later, as the system ages. The hazard function can alternatively be represented in terms of the cumulative hazard function, conventionally denoted or : so transposing signs and exponentiating or differentiating (with the chain rule) The name "cumulative hazard function" is derived from the fact that which is the "accumulation" of the hazard over time. From the definition of , we see that it increases without bound as t tends to infinity (assuming that tends to zero). This implies that must not decrease too quickly, since, by definition, the cumulative hazard has to diverge. For example, is not the hazard function of any survival distribution, because its integral converges to 1. The survival function , the cumulative hazard function , the density , the hazard function , and the lifetime distribution function are related through Quantities derived from the survival distribution Future lifetime at a given time is the time remaining until death, given survival to age . Thus, it is in the present notation. The expected future lifetime is the expected value of future lifetime. The probability of death at or before age , given survival until age , is just Therefore, the probability density of future lifetime is and the expected future lifetime is where the second expression is obtained using integration by parts. For , that is, at birth, this reduces to the expected lifetime. In reliability problems, the expected lifetime is called the mean time to failure, and the expected future lifetime is called the mean residual lifetime. As the probability of an individual surviving until age t or later is S(t), by definition, the expected number of survivors at age t out of an initial population of n newborns is n × S(t), assuming the same survival function for all individuals. Thus the expected proportion of survivors is S(t). If the survival of different individuals is independent, the number of survivors at age t has a binomial distribution with parameters n and S(t), and the variance of the proportion of survivors is S(t) × (1-S(t))/n. The age at which a specified proportion of survivors remain can be found by solving the equation S(t) = q for t, where q is the quantile in question. Typically one is interested in the median lifetime, for which q = 1/2, or other quantiles such as q = 0.90 or q = 0.99. Censoring Censoring is a form of missing data problem in which time to event is not observed for reasons such as termination of study before all recruited subjects have shown the event of interest or the subject has left the study prior to experiencing an event. Censoring is common in survival analysis. If only the lower limit l for the true event time T is known such that T > l, this is called right censoring. Right censoring will occur, for example, for those subjects whose birth date is known but who are still alive when they are lost to follow-up or when the study ends. We generally encounter right-censored data. If the event of interest has already happened before the subject is included in the study but it is not known when it occurred, the data is said to be left-censored. When it can only be said that the event happened between two observations or examinations, this is interval censoring. Left censoring occurs for example when a permanent tooth has already emerged prior to the start of a dental study that aims to estimate its emergence distribution. In the same study, an emergence time is interval-censored when the permanent tooth is present in the mouth at the current examination but not yet at the previous examination. Interval censoring often occurs in HIV/AIDS studies. Indeed, time to HIV seroconversion can be determined only by a laboratory assessment which is usually initiated after a visit to the physician. Then one can only conclude that HIV seroconversion has happened between two examinations. The same is true for the diagnosis of AIDS, which is based on clinical symptoms and needs to be confirmed by a medical examination. It may also happen that subjects with a lifetime less than some threshold may not be observed at all: this is called truncation. Note that truncation is different from left censoring, since for a left censored datum, we know the subject exists, but for a truncated datum, we may be completely unaware of the subject. Truncation is also common. In a so-called delayed entry study, subjects are not observed at all until they have reached a certain age. For example, people may not be observed until they have reached the age to enter school. Any deceased subjects in the pre-school age group would be unknown. Left-truncated data are common in actuarial work for life insurance and pensions. Left-censored data can occur when a person's survival time becomes incomplete on the left side of the follow-up period for the person. For example, in an epidemiological example, we may monitor a patient for an infectious disorder starting from the time when he or she is tested positive for the infection. Although we may know the right-hand side of the duration of interest, we may never know the exact time of exposure to the infectious agent. Fitting parameters to data Survival models can be usefully viewed as ordinary regression models in which the response variable is time. However, computing the likelihood function (needed for fitting parameters or making other kinds of inferences) is complicated by the censoring. The likelihood function for a survival model, in the presence of censored data, is formulated as follows. By definition the likelihood function is the conditional probability of the data given the parameters of the model. It is customary to assume that the data are independent given the parameters. Then the likelihood function is the product of the likelihood of each datum. It is convenient to partition the data into four categories: uncensored, left censored, right censored, and interval censored. These are denoted "unc.", "l.c.", "r.c.", and "i.c." in the equation below. For uncensored data, with equal to the age at death, we have For left-censored data, such that the age at death is known to be less than , we have For right-censored data, such that the age at death is known to be greater than , we have For an interval censored datum, such that the age at death is known to be less than and greater than , we have An important application where interval-censored data arises is current status data, where an event is known not to have occurred before an observation time and to have occurred before the next observation time. Non-parametric estimation The Kaplan–Meier estimator can be used to estimate the survival function. The Nelson–Aalen estimator can be used to provide a non-parametric estimate of the cumulative hazard rate function. These estimators require lifetime data. Periodic case (cohort) and death (and recovery) counts are statistically sufficient to make nonparametric maximum likelihood and least squares estimates of survival functions, without lifetime data. Goodness of fit Die goodness of fit of survival fine models can be assessed using scoring rules. Computer software for survival analysis The textbook by Kleinbaum has examples of survival analyses using SAS, R, and other packages. The textbooks by Brostrom, Dalgaard and Tableman and Kim give examples of survival analyses using R (or using S, and which run in R). Distributions used in survival analysis Exponential distribution Weibull distribution Log-logistic distribution Gamma distribution Exponential-logarithmic distribution Generalized gamma distribution Applications Credit risk False conviction rate of inmates sentenced to death Lead times for metallic components in the aerospace industry Predictors of criminal recidivism Survival distribution of radio-tagged animals Time-to-violent death of Roman emperors Intertrade waiting times of electronically traded shares on a stock exchange See also References Further reading External links via Dr. Therneau's page on the Mayo Clinic website SOCR, Survival analysis applet and interactive learning activity. Survival/Failure Time Analysis @ Statistics' Textbook Page Survival Analysis in R Lifelines, a Python package for survival analysis Survival Analysis in NAG Fortran Library Senescence Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics) Mathematics in medicine Survival
419266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Allison	Bobby Allison	Robert Arthur Allison (born December 3, 1937) is a former American professional stock car racing driver and owner. Allison was the founder of the Alabama Gang, a group of drivers based in Hueytown, Alabama, where there were abundant short tracks with high purses. Allison raced competitively in the NASCAR Cup Series from 1961 to 1988, while regularly competing in short track events throughout his career. He also raced in IndyCar, Trans-Am, and Can-Am. Named one of NASCAR's 50 greatest drivers and a member of the NASCAR Hall of Fame, he was the 1983 Winston Cup champion and won the Daytona 500 in 1978, 1982, and 1988. His brother Donnie Allison was also a prominent driver, as were his two sons, Clifford and Davey Allison. Bobby and Donnie's televised fistfight with Cale Yarborough at the 1979 Daytona 500 has been credited with exposing NASCAR to a nationwide audience. Allison was unusual for competing successfully with his own, low-budget team for much of his career. Early life Allison was born December 3, 1937, in Miami, Florida. He entered his first race as a senior at Archbishop Curley-Notre Dame High School in Miami. Since he was only 17, he had to have his parents' permission to compete. When his mother approved, Allison assumed it was permanent, but his mother believed it was for only one race. After he graduated from high school in 1955, Allison's mother thought she would derail his racing interest by sending him to Wisconsin to work for Mercury Outboard Motors, where her brother-in-law, Jimmy Hallett, was the national sales manager. Unbeknownst to her, the owner of Mercury was Carl Kiekhaefer, who also owned race cars. Allison began working as a mechanic and an engine tester. While employed at Mercury, Allison worked in the boat division for 10 months, then was transferred to the racing division. During the two months he worked in the racing division for Kiekhaefer, he went to 19 races, mostly Grand National (Known as the NASCAR Cup Series as of 2020), and a few Convertible races. Every one of those races was won by a Carl Kiekhaefer car from the shop in which he worked. Kiekhaefer was a hard person to work for and several people got fired, so Allison decided to go back to Miami only after a little over two months. In 1956, having returned to Miami, Allison started racing again. His parents had told Allison that he could not race and live at home, so Allison came up with a fictitious name (Bob Sunderman) which was used only once as he finished well enough to make the Sunday paper. Allison's father saw the paper and told him that if he was going to race to do it with honor and use his own name. In 1959, Allison took his brother, Donnie, Kenny Andrews, who owned a car (whose father owned Andy Racing Wheels), and Gil Hearne, who went along as Kenny's driver, to find more lucrative racing than was available in South Florida. Their searching led them to Montgomery Motor Speedway in Montgomery, Alabama, where he was informed of a race that would take place that night in Midfield, Alabama, near Birmingham. Allison entered and finished 5th in that race, which paid more than finishing second in any race of a higher level in South Florida. He went to Montgomery the next night, winning the preliminary races, and finished 2nd in the feature, winning $400, having found his lucrative racing. The brothers returned home and Bobby convinced Red Farmer into coming back to Alabama with him. They had immediate success and began answering to the name The Alabama Gang. Allison became a well-known driver and a top star in short-track racing, earning back-to-back Modified Special titles in 1962–63, then two consecutive NASCAR National Modified championships in 1964–65. NASCAR career Allison moved full-time to the Grand National circuit in 1965 and got his first victory at Oxford Plains Speedway on July 12, 1966. During the course of his career, Bobby Allison accumulated 84 credited victories and 2 uncredited victories making him fourth all-time, tied with Darrell Waltrip. He also won the Daytona 500 in 1978, 1982 and 1988, finishing one-two with his son, Davey Allison. In 1972 he was voted national Driver of the Year after winning ten races and taking 11 poles, including a record five straight. He was NASCAR Winston Cup Champion in 1983, winning the Driver of the Year award again while driving for DiGard Racing. The 1982 Daytona 500 was fraught with controversy that became known as "Bumpergate". He also won the Firecracker 400 in 1982, making Allison the fourth driver to sweep both Sprint Cup point races at Daytona in the same year. After Allison accomplished this, no driver repeated such a feat until Jimmie Johnson did it in 2013. Allison ran in the Indianapolis 500 twice, with a best finish of 25th in 1975. His NASCAR team owners included DiGard, Junior Johnson & Associates, and Roger Penske, for whom Allison scored four of the five NASCAR wins for American Motors' Matador. The other AMC victory was accomplished by Mark Donohue also racing for Penske in 1973 at Riverside. He raced in NASCAR as a driver/owner of an AMC Matador. Bobby Allison was elected to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1993. Allison was involved in an accident at Talladega in May 1987, that saw his car cut down a tire, turn sideways and go airborne into the protective catch fence that separates the speedway from the grandstands. The impact, at over , tore out over 100 yards of fencing. Parts and pieces of the car went flying into the grandstand injuring several spectators. This was the same race where Bill Elliott had set the all-time qualifying record at . NASCAR then mandated smaller carburetors for the remaining 1987 events at Talladega and Daytona. The following year, NASCAR mandated restrictor plates at Daytona and Talladega to keep speeds under . Allison won the first Daytona 500 run with restrictor plates in February 1988 by a car length over his son Davey Allison, rendering him the first driver to have won the Daytona 500 both with and without restrictor plates. He is the oldest driver (50 years) ever to win the Daytona 500. Bobby and Davey Allison are the first one-two father/son finish in the Daytona 500. As a result of permanent injuries in a crash at Pocono (see below), Bobby now has no memory of the final win of his career or of celebrating together with his son in victory lane. He was elected to the NASCAR Hall of Fame in 2011. Cale Yarborough fight Early in the 1979 Daytona 500, Bobby, his brother Donnie and rival Cale Yarborough tangled early in the race. Donnie led the second half of the race while Yarborough made up his lost laps through caution periods. By the time there were eight laps to go, Yarborough reached second place and set his eyes on passing Donnie. Bobby was two laps down and was 1/4 mile ahead of the two rivals as Yarborough and Donnie crashed on the final lap. Richard Petty went by and won the race. Bobby passed the wreckage, finished the race, and on his way back around Bobby stopped to check on his brother and make sure he wasn't hurt. He pulled over to the wreck site to offer Donnie a ride to the garage area. Yarborough ran up to Bobby and, according to Bobby, Yarborough was yelling that Bobby was at fault and hit him in the face with his helmet—cutting his nose and his lip. Bobby climbed out and a fist-fight broke out. This fight led to a $6,000 fine each for Yarborough and the Allison brothers. In 2000 when asked about the fist-fight Bobby said "I stopped to offer Donnie a ride to the garages and Cale comes running up saying I caused the wreck. I tried to tell him he had the wrong person. And I've said before, I think I questioned his ancestry. He hit me in the face with his helmet and I saw blood dripping onto my shirt. I thought 'If I don't stop this I'll be running from Cale for the rest of my life.' I climbed out and throttled him. He ran his nose into my fist several times. My story and I'm sticking to it forever. He never challenged me again. The fine surprised me, but the fact that it brought NASCAR onto the map makes it all worth every penny." To this day, Allison maintains that Yarborough was "beating his face on my fist". Donnie had a similar story to Bobby: "Cale said I forced him in the mud. I did not. He wrecked himself and I was the unfortunate bystander to be in it. He and I have talked. We're fine. We both view it as lost opportunities. After he and I talked it out and agreed to disagree Bobby came to the crash site asking me if I wanted a ride. Somehow I don't remember...but seconds later fists were thrown between Cale and Bobby. I tried to get into the fight and got scratched in the cheek by Cale. I later kicked him when Bobby mopped him into the mud. All of us were fined $6,000 but between Daytona 500 and this fight, today it's worth every penny to be involved in a fight that got NASCAR on the map." Cale Yarborough unsurprisingly has a different account of the story: "If they look at the video they'll realize I was forced in the mud by Donnie. I was going to pass Donnie and win the race but he forced me in the mud and I had no control. So hell I hit him back. If I wouldn't finish the race neither would he. He and I had a civil talk after the wreck and we were fine until Bobby Allison climbed out of the car and began shouting at me. It went chaotic from there." According to the three during an interview in 2012 at the NASCAR Hall of Fame, NASCAR later refunded the fines as a reward to them for bringing NASCAR into national spotlights. Allison however complains to this day that because he only made $4,000 in the race, he had his wife Judy help pay the fine (by contributing $2,000) & he was only refunded with $4,000 by officials. Pocono and tragedies On June 19, 1988, at the midpoint of the 1988 season, Allison crashed on lap 1 of the Miller High Life 500. Initially he survived a head-on hit into the outside barrier but then suddenly Jocko Maggiacomo t-boned Allison in the driver's side of the car, nearly killing Allison. When he reached a local hospital he was initially declared dead, but subsequent medical assistance saved his life. Beginning from a vegetative state, Allison entered a rehab program. After regaining most of his memory and re-learning every day activities, Allison prepared to attempt a comeback in the early-1990's. However, a series of tragedies led Allison to abort his comeback attempt, thus retiring from driving in NASCAR. In 1992 his younger son, Clifford Allison, was fatally injured in a practice crash for the NASCAR Busch Series race (now Xfinity Series) at Michigan International Speedway. Later in 1993, his son Davey was killed in a helicopter accident at Talladega Superspeedway. Three years after these major tragedies, he and his wife Judy divorced. Four years after their divorce, while attending their daughter-in-law's wedding, they reconnected. They were remarried in July 2000 and remained together until her death in 2015. He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1992, and inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame in May 2011, along with Lee Petty, Bud Moore, David Pearson, and Ned Jarrett. Allison is one of ten drivers to have won what was then considered a career Grand Slam (an unofficial term) by winning the sport's four majors: the Daytona 500, the Winston 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Southern 500. Only nine other drivers have accomplished this feat: Richard Petty, David Pearson, Darrell Waltrip, Dale Earnhardt, Jeff Gordon, Jimmie Johnson, Buddy Baker, Kevin Harvick & Denny Hamlin Career wins controversy Officially, Allison has won 84 Cup Series races, placing him in fourth place on the all-time wins list, tied with Darrell Waltrip. Unofficially, Allison has won 85 races, and may be credited with 86 wins. The controversy lies in two races: the 1971 Myers Brothers 250 held at Bowman Gray Stadium (Winston-Salem, North Carolina), and the 1973 National 500 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. (Charlotte, North Carolina.) 1971 Myers Brothers 250 Due to reduced sponsorship money being given out by the "Big Three" automobile companies in Detroit, some Winston Cup teams chose not to enter some of the smaller prize-money races of the large 48-event season (only 14 cars entered the 1971 Space City 300), leading NASCAR to allow its "minor league" Grand American Series drivers (itself suffering from a massive decrease in events versus its 1970 season) to enter six of the Winston Cup races. For these races, Grand American Series "pony cars", such as the Chevrolet Camaro, Ford Mustang, and AMC Javelin, were competing against the larger Grand National Series cars, featuring the Chevrolet Chevelle, Ford Torino Talladega, Dodge Charger Daytona, and Plymouth Roadrunner Superbird. The 1971 Myers Brothers 250 was held August 6, 1971 at Bowman Gray Stadium in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. The first car to cross the finish line after 250 laps was driven by Allison. Knowing that the pony car would handle better on the flat track of that race, and the race following at West Virginia International Speedway, Allison had chosen to race his Grand American 1970 Ford Mustang, No. 49, sponsored by Rollins Leasing, and owned by Melvin Joseph. (Joseph was the head of Dover International Speedway until his death in 2005.) As he was not racing in a Grand National car, he never received credit in that series, but was credited with a Grand American Series win. NASCAR has had co-sanctioned races with various series in the past; in such cases, the win counts only in the series which that driver's car was sanctioned. The driver tied with Allison in all-time Cup wins because of the dispute is involved in this incident. An Automobile Racing Club of America/Winston West combination race in College Station, Texas on March 21, 1993, was won by Darrell Waltrip, driving an ARCA entry. That win was credited as an ARCA win only, and not counted in the NASCAR K&N Pro Series West (as it is currently known) win list. Likewise, when a Winston Cup driver won a Winston Cup/Winston West combination race, the win counts in Cup, not West. The Busch Series and Busch North Series also raced combination races in the past. Currently, Bristol Motor Speedway has such a race, with the Whelen Modified Tour and Whelen Southern Modified Tour. 1973 National 500 The 1973 National 500 was held October 7, 1973 at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord, North Carolina. The first three cars to cross the finish line after the scheduled 334 laps (501 miles) were driven by Cale Yarborough, Richard Petty, and Bobby Allison, in that order. Again, these facts are not disputed. What is disputed, is the legality of the first two cars' engines, recounted in Jim McLaurin's book ”NASCAR'S Most Wanted", in the chapter “Fudgin’ With the Rules”: In the 1973 National 500 at Charlotte Motor Speedway, Allison protested that the engines in winner Cale Yarborough's and second-place Richard Petty's cars were over-sized. NASCAR inspected all three of the top finishers, and Allison's engine fit the cubic-displacement specs. Six hours after the inspections began, NASCAR technical director Bill Gazaway told the press that the results were being sent to headquarters in Daytona for a final decision. Monday afternoon NASCAR released a statement saying that, because the inspection facilities at Charlotte were inadequate, the pre-race inspection numbers would be used-when all three cars were legal and that the results would stand. Allison threatened both to quit and to sue. It was not until after a private meeting with NASCAR President Bill France Jr., a week later that Allison was assuaged. Speculation was that Allison had been bought off. Allison wouldn't confirm or deny it, saying only that he had “received satisfactory restitution”. The results were never changed. 1973 was a transition year in NASCAR. Teams could run a restrictor plate-equipped 7-liter engine or a 5.9 liter engine without restrictor plates. A decade later, Petty's over sized engine at the same race resulted in new NASCAR rules being implemented against oversized engines, including the possibility of twelve-week suspensions for the offending engine builder, driver, and car owner. 1982 Daytona 500 Following his victory at Daytona, Allison's car was inspected and was found to have lost its rear bumper, which appeared to have fallen off in a slight bump between two cars at the beginning of the race, causing a multi-car accident. Tests were performed on the car without its rear bumper and it was discovered that the car was faster and handled better without the bumper (better underside aerodynamics and over 70lbs. lighter). It has been claimed that Allison and his crew modified the bumper so that it would fall off easily at the beginning of the race. NASCAR never fined him and the victory stands. Allison and his crew denied the allegations. In the Allison biography Miracle, Allison explained that NASCAR inspectors told the DiGard crew to move the bumper on its mounting points. The team simply tack-welded the bumper back on at an acceptable position, but "forgot" to properly secure it. Car owner Allison drove his own cars for portions of the early 1970s, including the full 1973 season. Allison won six races as an owner-driver from 1970 to 1974. Allison also ran for his own team in 1977 after splitting with Roger Penske, with a best finish of second at Nashville. In 1985 Allison returned to being an owner-driver after leaving DiGard Motorsports, taking his number (22) and sponsor (Miller American) with him to his new team. His best finish as an owner-driver in 1985 was a fourth-place finish at Dover. Following the 1985 season he brought his number and sponsor with him to the Stavola Brothers Racing team. In 1990 Allison revived his team and was a car owner for numerous drivers, most notably Mike Alexander, Hut Stricklin, Jimmy Spencer, and Derrike Cope. Stricklin was Donnie Allison's son-in-law. The car number raced was No. 12 and sponsors included Raybestos Brakes from 1990 to 1992 and, in 1993, Meineke. Stricklin moved to the Junior Johnson & Associates team halfway through 1992 and Raybestos left at the end of the year to the Stavola Brothers No. 8 team. For 1994 season, the team partnered with Ron Zook, for Cup and Busch Series. For 1995 and 1996, the team was sponsored by Mane 'n Tail with Derrike Cope at the wheel. Allison was forced to close down the team due to financial problems after the 1996 season. Recent years Allison has actively promoted rail safety for the CSX "Keep on Living" campaign with appearances at Talladega and Daytona. On March 6, 2008, his mother, Kittie Allison, died at age 101 in Charlotte, North Carolina. On May 23, 2011, Bobby Allison was inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame. Judy Allison, Bobby's wife of 55 years, died December 18, 2015, following complications from surgery. Motorsports career results NASCAR (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) Grand National Series Winston Cup Series Daytona 500 Busch Series International Race of Champions (key) (Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.) American open-wheel racing (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) USAC Championship Car Indianapolis 500 See also List of NASCAR drivers References External links Bobby Allison at NASCAR.com The Greatest 33 Profile 1937 births Living people Racing drivers from Miami Indianapolis 500 drivers NASCAR drivers NASCAR Cup Series champions International Race of Champions drivers Trans-Am Series drivers American Speed Association drivers NASCAR team owners International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees People from Hueytown, Alabama Sportspeople from Jefferson County, Alabama Racing drivers from Alabama Alabama Gang Archbishop Curley-Notre Dame High School alumni Team Penske drivers USAC Stock Car drivers NASCAR Hall of Fame inductees
419271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20XI	Final Fantasy XI	also known as Final Fantasy XI Online, is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), originally developed and published by Squaresoft and then published by Square Enix as the eleventh main installment of the Final Fantasy series. Designed and produced by Hiromichi Tanaka, it was released in Japan on May 16, 2002, for PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows-based personal computers in November of that year. The game was the first MMORPG to offer cross-platform play between PlayStation 2 and PC. It was later released for the Xbox 360 in April 2006. All versions of the game require a monthly subscription to play. The story is set in the fantasy world of Vana'diel, where player-created avatars can both compete and cooperate in a variety of objectives to develop an assortment of jobs, skills, and earn in-game item rewards. Players can undertake an array of quests and progress through the in-game hierarchy and through the major plot of the game. Since its debut in 2002, five expansion packs have been released along with six add-on scenarios. Each expansion pack and add-on brings a new major storyline to the Final Fantasy XI world, along with numerous areas, quests, events and item rewards. In 2015, Square Enix released the final main scenario for Final Fantasy XI titled Rhapsodies of Vana'diel. Final Fantasy XI became the final active server on the PlayStation 2 online service. Support for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 versions was ultimately ended on March 31, 2016, leaving only the PC platform playable. A mobile client for the game was under development by Square Enix in collaboration with Korean developer Nexon, using Unreal Engine 4, but was cancelled in late 2020. A spin-off mobile game, Final Fantasy Grandmasters was released on September 30, 2015. As of September 2020, a new, episodic story series titled The Voracious Resurgence has since been added to the game. The storyline concluded in June 2023. In May 2022 rumors had circulated that FFXI may soon be shutting down. Yoji Fujito released a statement noting that this was not the case and users should not worry about the services being shut down any time soon. Gameplay Final Fantasy XI is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), and differs from previous titles in the series in several ways. Unlike the predefined main characters of previous Final Fantasy titles, players are able to customize their characters in limited ways, including selecting from one of five races and choosing their gender, facial style, hair color, body size, job, and nation allegiance. Also diverging from previous games in the series, the game takes place in a fully three-dimensional landscape with enemies freely roaming in it, allowing battles to occur in real time as opposed to the random encounters used in previous games - a trend continued in every numbered Final Fantasy title since. There are currently 16 public game worlds available for play, down from 32 at the game's height, with approximately 15,000 to 20,000 players in each. A private Test Server was opened to eligible players to aid in feedback of updates in development for the game in mid-2011. The servers are named after summoned monsters from previous Final Fantasy titles, such as Ifrit and Diabolos. Players have the ability to move between servers, though Square Enix charges a "world transfer" fee to do so. There are no region-specific or system-specific servers, and unlike most online games, players of different languages play in the same world and can interact through automatic language translation from a library of translated phrases. The game servers are run by Square Enix as part of their PlayOnline network. Interface Players have the option of using any combination of a keyboard, mouse, and controller to play Final Fantasy XI. While by default, a player using a PlayStation 2 or an Xbox 360 uses a virtual/in-game keyboard option, the player is able to use an external keyboard that is USB compatible for communication within the game. The head-up display in Final Fantasy XI consists of a log window, menus, and several game information elements. The log window at the bottom of the screen displays system messages, battle messages, and text input by other players. Players may choose to filter what appears in the log window. "Menus" allow the player to access different commands, status windows, and configuration options. The "action command menu" appears just above the log window and gives the player several options to interact with the game world. Several menu options are available through the use of keyboard shortcuts, as well. Basic gameplay Story related gameplay in Final Fantasy XI consists of two major components: missions, through which the main storyline of the game is told, and quests, which do not advance the main storyline, but fill out the game's fantasy world. Completing missions allows a player to advance in rank, which grants access to new areas, several privileges, and various other storylines. At first, a player may only complete missions for their home nation, though they are able to change allegiances later on, allowing access to other nations' storylines. Quests may be undertaken for their various rewards, or to acquire "fame", which allows a character to become well-known and respected by NPCs; a higher fame rating will open up new interactions and quests with NPCs. At release, over one hundred quests were available to play and each expansion pack has added its own set of missions and quests. Players obtain in-game money known as gil by completing missions, quests and defeating Beastmen, though unlike previous Final Fantasy games, these monsters drop only small amounts. Gil can then be exchanged amongst players for goods through the Auction House, or be used to purchase items and rewards from NPCs. Unlike some MMORPGs, there is very little focus on player versus player (PvP) combat, instead the game revolves around player versus environment (PvE). There are numerous PvE activities and events for players to partake in, including instanced activities and shared spaces activities. Some instanced events include Dynamis, Salvage, Assault and Nyzul Isle, which involve anywhere between 6 and 64 players. These battle grounds give players a series of objectives to overcome or complete and enemies to defeat, generally within a certain time frame. Popular shared spaces activities include hunting Notorious Monsters, fiends that rarely appear and drop precious loot. The only way to attack other players in PvP is to enter one on one competition activities known as "Conflict". The first form of competition, called Ballista, involves players competing to score points by throwing petras into a castle-like structure known as a Rook. The second form is known as "Brenner", and features a capture the flag type system. From time to time special seasonal festivals and events are held. They last only for a set period of time and offer a variety of fun or useful rewards. Many events have changed over time, adding new features and eliminating old ones. These events are geared towards any level, often restricting players to level 1, so that veterans and novice players alike can join in together. Events celebrated are often thematically based on real life equivalents, for example: Valentione's Day in place of Valentine's Day, the Egg Hunt Egg-stravaganza in place of Easter, and the Starlight Celebration in place of Christmas. Battle and party system Battles in Final Fantasy XI take place in the world in which players move around, a first in the series, where battle had previously taken place in a separate screen via random encounters. The surprise of the random encounter system is achieved via aggressive monsters, who will attack players based on different factors such as sight and sound. This format would continue in future Final Fantasy games. Monsters within the game operate under a system of "claim" and "enmity". A monster is claimed the moment a player performs any offensive action upon it, whether physical, magical or ability related. With some exceptions, once a monster is claimed it can only be attacked by players in the party or alliance of the player that claimed it. A monster will focus its attention on whoever has built up the most enmity. Players have several means at their disposal, including spells, abilities and items, to build up enmity or shed it to their advantage in battle - a factor that features heavily in group, or "party" play. To defeat more powerful monsters and gain experience points efficiently, players can join a party. A regular party has room for six members. Like in many other games, a well-balanced party will consist of several archetypes- namely a healer, a tank (the party member with high defense that will be the main target of the monster), and the damage dealer. The enmity system comes into play heavily in parties, as players try to keep the monsters attention off fragile jobs and on the tanks. One of the key aspects of the battle system lies in the extreme flexibility of the party composition: unlike many other games, there are no constraints on the role (or "job" class) of the party members. This feature allows to tackle every fight with a wide array of different strategies, while encouraging the community to share new, creative ways of handling a certain type of enemy. A party can expand into an alliance, with up to three parties combined, with a total of 18 players. Alliances are necessary to complete more difficult challenges: including missions, quests, nation or territory driven events, and defeating notorious monsters. Much of end-game play consists of alliance forces overcoming these higher level challenges and can even allow several alliances to enter into specific instances owned by a group of players (e.g. Dynamis instances entry is controlled by an hourglass item). Final Fantasy XIs incarnation of Limit Breaks are "Weapon Skills". Physical damage given and received fills a Tactical Points (TP) bar, to a maximum of 3000. Any amount above 1000 is able to be used up by being channelled into a weapon skill. These skills vary in effect depending on job class, what weapon is equipped, how full the TP bar is, and how proficient the player is with the weapon. If partying with other players, one may use these weapon skills in succession in order to create a "Skillchain". A skillchain creates additional damage after a series of weapon skills are used. Building on this even further, magic used on a skillchain at the right time will receive a boost to its damage; this is called a "Magic Burst". In order to create the best possible skillchains and magic bursts, players must work together, focusing on each other's actions and timing. Job system Final Fantasy XI uses the concept of changing Jobs in a similar fashion to Final Fantasy III, and currently has twenty-two Jobs as of the latest expansion pack in 2013. There are six "standard Jobs" available to choose from at the start of the game. After one standard Job has reached Level 30, the "extra Jobs" are accessible upon completing certain quests. Players are able to change their jobs any time from inside their house or by speaking with a Nomad Moogle. In June 2010, the long-standing level limit of 75 was incrementally increased to the higher level cap of 99, finishing in the December 2011 version update. Jobs have a combination of unique "job traits", "job abilities", and magic spells, giving them a specific role within group play due to their area of expertise. Job traits are passive abilities that are always in effect, while job abilities must be activated by the player in order to come into effect. They last a limited time and have a "cooldown" period before they can be used again. Magic spells are available to certain jobs, and in addition to a cooldown period, they often consume MP or some form of item in order to be cast, while at the same time requiring the user to stand still. Additionally, each job has a special one-hour ability that performs an extraordinary function. The unique system of Final Fantasy XIs job system is the "Support Job". This system allows a player to augment their character with abilities, traits, and spells from another chosen job, at half the level of their current job. For instance, a Level 20 Warrior setting Ninja as their support job would allow them to use all Ninja abilities, traits, and spells up to that of a level 10 Ninja, while still primarily being a Level 20 Warrior. The support job system allows for job-merges never before seen in the Final Fantasy series. However, there are some exceptions to the system. One-hour abilities and other abilities deemed signature to a particular job (such as Call Wyvern for Dragoons) are restricted to being used only on the main job. Crafting and hobbies In addition to completing quests and missions, players can participate in several side-minigames and other activities. One such minigame is fishing, where players can measure their strength against the fish they attempt to catch. Another is clamming, where players collect as many fish or sea creatures as possible without going over their bucket's size limit. Gardening allows players to raise plants in their residence, or "Mog House" as it is known in the game. The raising and breeding of Chocobos was a long-requested activity enabled in the summer 2006 update. Chocobo racing began in March 2007, which allowed for the racing of player-raised Chocobos against non-player characters (NPCs). Winning racers can earn "Chocobucks", which can be used to buy, for example, items that assist Chocobo breeding. An important part of the game is the accumulation of items, especially rare ones, which allow players to create powerful weapons, armour and food. There are many ways to obtain items, such as harvesting, excavating, logging, mining, defeating monsters, and digging by using Chocobos. Square Enix attempted to increase the opportunity for players to find rare items in order to equalize the game and stop the practice of "gil selling", or exchanging real money for in-game items. The item auction system was shut down temporarily once due to some players exploiting the system. Items can be created by consuming elemental crystals (obtained by fighting monsters) with other ingredients in a process called "synthesis". Recipe results can vary widely based on the player's skill, the quality of the player's equipment worn, and the ingredients used. There is large speculation (though nothing evidently documented yet) about the moon phase, direction the player is facing, in-game day (every day of the week is assigned an element), and even time of day the synthesis is performed to either increase or reduce the results of the recipe. Game economy Final Fantasy XI has a largely player-based economy, with a heavy reliance on auction houses in each of the major cities of Vana'diel. There are certain economic controls in place mainly in the form of fees for putting items up for auction. Transportation, auction house, item storage, and fees do not go to players; these gil sinks effectively remove money from the economy to prevent inflation. The city of Jeuno used to levy a tax on bazaar purchases inside the city, but was removed in a patch in the December 2008 version update. Square Enix has stated that the trade of items for real currency is officially a violation of the Terms of Service for Final Fantasy XI. In early 2006, Square Enix discovered that a group of players had found a way to generate game currency and exchange it for real currency, which, in turn, drove up prices for all items across the game. In response, 700 accounts were permanently banned and 300 billion gil was removed from circulation. That July, Square Enix banned or suspended over 8,000 other accounts for similar manipulation and commerce. Since 2006, Square Enix has regularly banned accounts found to be in violation of the terms, some of them using third-party tools, effectively removing billions of gil from the in-game economy. Plot Setting The setting of Final Fantasy XI is the world of Vana'diel, a rich world with diverse climates, ranging from northern glaciers and southern deserts, to ethereal realms and sky landmasses. Vana'diel is divided into a number of regions, which are subdivided into areas known as "zones". These zones are available for exploration and consist of outdoor areas, dungeons, cities, and towns. Players are able to explore a portion of Vana'diel, including the Middle Lands, Near East, and with the release of Seekers of Adoulin, the near west. Six city states exist in the available lands, The Republic of Bastok, The Kingdom of San d'Oria, The Federation of Windurst, The Grand Duchy of Jeuno, The Empire of Aht Urhgan and the Sacred City of Adoulin. While most areas are accessible by walking, various modes of transportation, ranging from the classic Final Fantasy Chocobo and airships to special spells, facilitate movement across the game world. Ancient lore states that Vana'diel was created as a playground for the Gods and their children, who themselves were spawned from an enormous and sentient Crystal. Eventually wishing to be one with the Gods, the children constructed a pathway to paradise. They were smote down for their insolence and their cities cast to the bottom of the sea. After seeing the destruction of her children and filled with sadness, the Goddess Altana wept five tears that gave life to the five Enlightened Races of Vana'diel. The God of Twilight, Promathia, condemned her weakness and the life that arose from it. Promathia cursed the five races with eternal conflict amongst themselves by bringing forth their darkest attributes: the apathy of the Humes, the arrogance of the Elvaan, the rage of the Galka, the cowardice of the Tarutaru, and the envy of the Mithra. He created the Beastmen, commanding them to forever fight the people of Vana'diel and occupy their minds, so these children would never have time to group together and construct a pathway like the ones before them. The creation lore's sentient Crystal, Gods, Children, and the truths behind them feature as major plot points in several Final Fantasy XI expansion packs, while the Beastmen are some of the game's main antagonists. The events of the game are set 20 years after the Crystal War, a devastating war where the Middle Land nations of Bastok, San d'Oria and Windurst fought and defeated the Shadow Lord and his army of Beastmen. Players deal with the aftermath of this conflict in the original story, and may travel back in time to aid in the war effort with the expansion pack Wings of the Goddess. Several parallel worlds are available, such as Dynamis and Abyssea, in which the beastmen won the Crystal War and conquered the land. Characters Final Fantasy XI features five playable races known as the "Enlightened Races": Elvaan A race of proud warriors, the Elvaan's home city is the Kingdom of San d'Oria. Elvaan have an unshakable pride and faith in their beliefs, and many eschew the business world, preferring an austere lifestyle as skilled sword fighters. The Elvaan race possesses high strength and mind, but low MP and intelligence. Elvaan are said to be cursed with the sin of arrogance. Hume Originating from the city of Bastok, Humes are the most common race in Vana'diel and are known for their intelligence and high level of skill in numerous areas. Humes have equally balanced abilities, and are said to be cursed with the sin of apathy. They serve as the game's human race. Galka A hulking race of powerful warriors, the Galka's capital city was destroyed by war 600 years ago. Many of the surviving Galka settled in Bastok, and are currently used by the city as cheap underclass labour. The Galka do not have a female counterpart, but reproduce through reincarnation. They possess the highest HP and vitality in the game, but also the lowest MP. The Galka are cursed with rage. Mithra The Mithra are a race of hunters who live alongside the Tarutaru in Windurst. They are known for their energy, curiosity, and their penchant for causing playful mischief. Due to a gender imbalance in their race males are a rarity, and so only female mithra leave the home, making females the only playable gender. Mithra possess high dexterity and agility, but lower HP and charisma. Mithra are cursed with envy. Tarutaru A race of skilled magic users from the Federation of Windurst, the Tarutaru physically resemble children, however their size does not reflect their age. Tarutaru are playful yet cunning. They possess the highest MP and intelligence of all the races, but the lowest HP and strength. Tarutaru are said to be cursed with cowardice. In addition to the playable races, there are two other non-playable Enlightened Races, known as the Zilart and the Kuluu. These ancient races were thought to be extinct, and are the focus of the first two-game expansions. There is also a large supporting cast of NPCs involved in quests, missions and the game's storylines. The game features several typical Final Fantasy fiends, including Goblins, Sahagins and Tonberries. Several of these races are known as Beastmen, a distinction made between fiends who possess higher than average intelligence, exhibiting self-awareness, emotions, culture, and religion. The complex relationship, bigoted views, and reasons of conflict between the Enlightened Races and Beastmen is a plot point throughout the game. Final Fantasy XI is represented in the Dissidia game series by Shantotto, a female Tarutaru Black Mage from the Windurst storyline, voiced by famed voice actress Megumi Hayashibara in the Japanese version and Candi Milo in the English version. The game's prequel adds Prishe, a female Elvaan from Tavnazia, who is the main character in the Chains of Promathia expansion pack. Story The storyline is primarily followed with missions through the governing nations that exist in the base game as well as each expansion that the player is affiliated with. Nation or governing body affiliation is relatively simple, sometimes requiring prerequisite quests being completed and have several stages of progression to achieve higher recognition and reward throughout each story. Some missions are even required to be completed to further progress into the start of the additional storylines of each expansion or specific areas. Players begin the game as residents of one of the three main countries: San d'Oria, Bastok, and Windurst, and must help band the nations together against the resurrected Shadow Lord. The expansion Rise of the Zilart reveals that the Crystal War and the resurrection of the Shadow Lord had been masterminded by the Zilart princes Eald'Narche and Kam'lanaut, who survived the extinction of their race. The two Zilarts plan to become Gods by opening the path to paradise, and the player is charged with thwarting their plans. Chains of Promathia revolves around an Elvaan girl named Prishe and the dead Twilight God Promathia, who had originally cursed the Zilart race, and the attempts of various factions to either complete or stop his resurrection. The wyrmking Bahamut is involved in these events, and intends to destroy Vana'diel to prevent Promathia from absorbing the life of the world. Treasures of Aht Urhgan concerns the Empire of Aht Urhgan which opens up to the nations of midlands after years of self-imposed isolation. As a new and powerful nation, it is of concern to the nation of the player, who is sent as a representative. The player then becomes embroiled in the intrigues of the Empress's court and the growing fears of war and darkness coming to Aht Urhgan. Wings of the Goddess primarily occurs in the era of the Crystal War, 20 years in the past from the main Final Fantasy XI setting. The player discovers and crosses mysterious time portals alongside the Hume/Elvaan mix Lilisette, and are led to help the Regal Feline Cait Sith reduce the suffering of the era. However, Lilisette and her partner encounter Lilith, an alternate timeline version of herself who wishes to keep the war going to maintain her time while negating Lilisette's. Seekers of Adoulin concerns the western continent archipelago of Adoulin, and the Sacred City of Adoulin. The city was a focal point for colonization 200 years before the present game, but when colonization efforts failed in the main continent of Ulbuka, the nation fell in population and shifted to trade as a focus. Now colonization has begun once again, and players are free to explore the region. Rhapsodies of Vana'diel concerns the conclusion of the previous Final Fantasy XI storylines with the threat posed by the Cloud of Darkness and an alternate timeline version of the player. The Voracious Resurgence, the follow-up story to Rhapsodies of Vana'diel, concerns the mysterious "world eater eggs" appearing all throughout the land of Vana'diel. Development The idea to develop Final Fantasy XI as an online game was conceived by Hironobu Sakaguchi when establishing Square Pictures headquarters in Hawaii. Impressed by western MMORPGs that he discovered there, such as EverQuest, Sakaguchi convinced Square to begin the development of their own MMORPG and suggested that it be based on the Final Fantasy series. Since MMORPG creation was seen as a "greater cause", Final Fantasy XI was made by a merger of four crews: the Parasite Eve II and Brave Fencer Musashi teams from Osaka, and the Mana and Chrono Cross teams from Tokyo. Development began in November 1999. The game was the first developed under Square's new philosophy to develop for "all platforms and media". Hiromichi Tanaka, the producer of the game, said that the title is heavily influenced by Final Fantasy III, especially in its battle and magic systems. According to Tanaka, Square put in Final Fantasy XI what they could not put in the first Final Fantasy titles due to technical limitations, thus making XI the "most [representative] Final Fantasy of all the episodes". The game was developed and ran on the Nvidia GeForce 4 Ti GPU, which the President of Square Yoichi Wada described as the most powerful graphics processor available at the time. The game cost two to three billion yen (~$17–25 million) to create along with the PlayOnline Network Service and was assumed to become profitable over a five-year timespan. By creating a unified game world instead of different ones balkanized by language, development costs were cut 66%. Since recurring monsters of the series are known by different names in the Japanese and English versions of the other installments, it was decided for Final Fantasy XI to use both Japanese and English names for different varieties of the same monsters. A simultaneous release on the PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows as well as concurrent Japanese and American release was originally considered, but this was later changed. There was also discussion of an Xbox release, but was abandoned mainly because of its small 8 GB hard drive. Originally announced in January 2000 at the Yokohama Millennium Conference, there was a great deal of negative press. There were questions raised about naming the game the eleventh in the series, since it was not clear whether the game would have a structured story, which it ended up having, and the title of Final Fantasy Online was suggested. Following an August 2001 beta test in Japan, a public Japanese beta test was done four months later in December. Following its PC release, Final Fantasy XI was listed as one of IGN's most anticipated PlayStation 2 games of 2004. Sony launched a multimillion-dollar ad campaign to promote the game along with the PlayStation 2 hard drive add-on which the game required. Having been released on the PlayStation 2 as well as the personal computer, it became the first cross-platform MMORPG ever created. On June 14, 2002, the game server was down for four hours for maintenance to the database servers, bug fixes on the text interface, and a new patch for the game client. This is thought to be the first patch ever released for a console game. Other early issues included complaints by American players that experienced Japanese players had already completed all the quests. Square Enix responded by adding new servers in order to have game worlds with fewer expert players. Final Fantasy XI is one of the first cross-console video games, and has continued to update its software to allow the game to run on new consoles. In March 2007, a patch was released to enable gameplay in French and German. Square Enix noted that Nintendo's use of "Friend Codes" was the primary reason XI was not brought to the Wii. In December 2006, the PlayStation 2 versions of PlayOnline and Final Fantasy XI were able to install and run on the PlayStation 3. The Vana'diel Collection 2008 discs for the PlayStation 2 had installation issues on the PlayStation 3, causing them to be unusable at first since they weren't on Sony's list of HDD compatible titles in the firmware the PlayStation 3 had at the time. This problem was fixed in December 2007 when Sony released firmware update 2.10 for the PlayStation 3. This allowed all backwards compatible models—20GB model #CECHB01, 60GB model #CECHA01 and 80GB model #CECHE01—to play XI. After working with Microsoft to resolve the game's incompatibility issues with Windows Vista, Square Enix released a downloadable version of the PlayOnline client which is compatible with the operating system, although small bugs have appeared. In September 2010, Akihiko Matsui became the director of Final Fantasy XI. Only three months later, on December 10, Matsui left the team to work as "Lead Combat System Designer" on Square Enix's new MMO, Final Fantasy XIV. His replacement as director of XI is Mizuki Ito. At one point in 2011, Square Enix considered to port Final Fantasy XI for Sony PlayStation Vita. On June 24, at the end of VanaFest 2012, a festival in Yokohama, Japan to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the Japanese launch of Final Fantasy XI, Hiromichi Tanaka, due to health reasons, decided to step down as producer of the game and leave Square-Enix. Akihiko Matsui was selected to replace him. In March 2023, Yoji Fujito replaced Matsui as the producer, while Matsui would in some form continue supporting Final Fantasy XI. In 2006, between 200,000 and 300,000 active players logged in per day, with 500,000 total active players and around 150,000 online at any one time. By April 2009, the total number of active characters exceeded 2 million for the first time. By June 2012, Final Fantasy XI became the most profitable title in the Final Fantasy series. Music The music of Final Fantasy XI was scored by Naoshi Mizuta, Kumi Tanioka, and Nobuo Uematsu. Composer Yasunori Mitsuda was also asked to contribute, but at the time he was unable to do so, as he was scoring the music for Xenosaga. The game's five expansion packs since were scored by Mizuta alone, after Tanioka left to pursue other projects and Uematsu left Square Enix. The opening of the game features choral music with lyrics in Esperanto. According to Uematsu, the choice of language was meant to symbolize the developers' hope that their online game could contribute to cross-cultural communication and cooperation. He also noted the increased difficulty of scoring a game for which there was no linear plotline, a major change from the previous Final Fantasy games. It was the first game in the series for which he composed while he was no longer a Square Enix employee. New music has been employed for special events, such as a holiday score titled "Jeuno -Starlight Celebration-" which can be heard in the city of Jeuno each mid-to-late December since 2004. The game's music has been released in CD form several times and has been featured in Final Fantasy concerts. Some of the game's music has been released on iTunes, such as the vocal "Distant Worlds", which was released on the Japanese iTunes store on September 13, 2005, having been put in the game in a July 2005 patch. A compilation CD box was released on March 28, 2007, titled Final Fantasy XI Original Soundtrack Premium Box, which included the four original soundtracks from Final Fantasy XI and its three expansion sets, as well as the previously unreleased tracks from the game and the unreleased Final Fantasy XI Piano Collections. Dear Friends -Music from Final Fantasy-, a 2004–05 concert series, featured "Ronfaure" from Final Fantasy XI. A ten-track album of music inspired by Final Fantasy XI entitled Music from the Other Side of Vana'diel was released by The Star Onions on August 24, 2005. Expansions and add-ons Final Fantasy XI has additions released every few years. Expansion packs add new story, jobs, zones, quests, and content to the game, while add-ons are smaller in scale, adding a smaller selection of the aforementioned items. All of the expansions and add-ons have been released on PlayStation 2, Microsoft Windows, and Xbox 360, with the exception of Seekers of Adoulin, which did not see a PlayStation 2 release outside Japan. Reception Critical reception Final Fantasy XI received positive reviews from critics. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 2 version 85% based on 57 reviews and 85/100 based on 49 reviews, the PC version 82% based on 44 reviews and 85/100 based on 25 reviews the Xbox 360 version 69% based on 32 reviews and 66/100 based on 25 reviews. Famitsu rated the game 38 out of 40. Computer and Video Games Magazine noted that it was one of the most welcoming MMORPGs despite the cumbersome initial registration and setup. IGN called it a well done but unoriginal game and also noted that North American players were forced to play with already much more experienced Japanese players who had already completed the game's various quests. GameSpot criticized it at release for having an unconventional control system, a lengthy installation, and having no player versus player (PvP) aspects. Other elements receiving criticism include the EXP grind, which involves constant battles to access different parts of the game, and overcrowded camp sites. The expansions have been mostly positively received, with praise for the amount of content added, but increasing signs that the graphics of the game are becoming outdated. The IGN review of the Xbox 360 release was similar, noting that it was a large amount of game content, but had a protracted setup process and elements of the game design that require a large time investment. It has also been noted that this game is the first to move in a wildly different direction while remaining in the main numbering line, as opposed to the Tactics and Crystal Chronicles games which became their own side series. Sales and subscriptions The user base for the PlayStation 2 version was truncated initially because of limited sales of the PlayStation 2's hard drive and network adapters that were needed for the game. The Japanese release of Rise of the Zilart was the number one selling game when it debuted in 2003 with 90,000 copies sold in the first week. The Treasures of Aht Urhgan, released three years later, sold over 103,000 copies for the PlayStation 2 in Japan during 2006. In the United States, Final Fantasy XIs computer version sold 340,000 copies ($15.5 million) by August 2006, after its release in October 2003. It was the country's 51st best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. The Final Fantasy XI All-in-One Pack was number 36 and Wings of the Goddess was number 40 on the top 50 best-selling Xbox 360 games in Japan as of December 2007. For the April-September 2004 financial period, Square Enix saw online gaming, particularly Final Fantasy XI, sales increase by 101 percent and operating profit increase by 230.9 percent. Revenues held steady from subscription services in the summer of 2006; in the fall, however, Square acknowledged that online subscription revenues were "unsatisfactory", despite the steady performance of Final Fantasy XI. By December 2003, there were over 200,000 subscribers to Final Fantasy XI, allowing the company to break even and start making a profit. There were between 200,000 and 300,000 active players daily in 2006. As of August 2006, the Xbox 360 version was the sixth most played game on Xbox Live. As of 2008, the game had 500,000 subscribers. By June 2012, Final Fantasy XI became the most profitable title in the Final Fantasy series. While many MMOs have switched to some form of free-to-play model, the base monthly subscription price point for Final Fantasy XI has remained the same at $11.95 since its debut in 2002. Awards and legacy Final Fantasy XI was awarded the grand prize from the Japan's Consumer Entertainment Software Association (CESA) for 2002–2003 along with Taiko no Tatsujin. It has also received GameSpy's 2003 PC MMORPG Game of the Year Award and IGN's Game of the Month for March 2004, citing the game's huge customization and its successful cross-platform and cross-language game world. It received a runner-up position in GameSpots 2004 "Best Massively Multiplayer Online Game" award category, losing to World of Warcraft. Final Fantasy XI was referenced in the online game Minna no Golf Online in the form of a Final Fantasy XI-themed lobby. At 2009's Electronic Entertainment Expo, Square Enix revealed Final Fantasy XIV Online, which was Square Enix's next MMORPG. The game has spawned several written adaptations and related merchandise. Starting in 2003, a series of Final Fantasy XI novels was written by Miyabi Hasegawa and released in Japanese, German, and French. Additionally, in 2004, Adventure Log, a webcomic by Scott Ramsoomair, was commissioned by Square Enix starting in 2007. Final Fantasy XI PlayOnline Visa and MasterCard credit cards were available in Japan, with features including no annual fees as long as cardholders remain PlayOnline subscribers and various other rewards. There have also been posters with limited edition phone cards and keychains released, also exclusively in Japan. Several T-shirts have been made available for order in North America, and various stuffed animals and gashapon figurines have also been made available to order of different races from the series. A Vana'diel clock which displayed the in-game time was also marketed, as well as CDs of the game's music. Further reading See also List of Square Enix video game franchises Notes References External links 2002 video games Active massively multiplayer online games Fantasy massively multiplayer online role-playing games Final Fantasy video games Massively multiplayer online role-playing games PlayStation 2 games Role-playing video games Sony Interactive Entertainment games Video games developed in Japan Video games scored by Kumi Tanioka Video games scored by Naoshi Mizuta Video games scored by Nobuo Uematsu Video games set on fictional planets Video games with cross-platform play Video games with expansion packs Virtual economies War video games Windows games Xbox 360 games Japan Game Awards' Game of the Year winners
419280	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Thomas%20Anderson	Paul Thomas Anderson	Paul Thomas Anderson (born June 26, 1970), also known by his initials PTA, is an American filmmaker. His films are often psychological dramas, characterized by depictions of flawed and desperate characters, explorations of dysfunctional families, alienation, loneliness and redemption, and a bold visual style that uses moving camera and long takes. His films have garnered critical acclaim. He has been nominated for eleven Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and eight BAFTA Awards (winning one), and received Best Director awards from the Cannes, Venice, and Berlin film festivals, also winning the Golden Bear at the latter. After his directorial debut film Hard Eight (1996), Anderson had a critical and commercial success with Boogie Nights (1997), and received further accolades with Magnolia (1999) and Punch-Drunk Love (2002). His fifth film There Will Be Blood (2007) is often cited as one of the greatest films of the 21st century. This was followed by The Master (2012), Inherent Vice (2014), Phantom Thread (2017) and Licorice Pizza (2021). Anderson is noted for his regular collaborations with cinematographer Robert Elswit, costume designer Mark Bridges, composers Jon Brion and Jonny Greenwood, and several actors. He has also directed music videos for various artists, including Fiona Apple, Radiohead, Haim, Joanna Newsom, Aimee Mann, Brion and Michael Penn. Anderson directed a documentary Junun, about the making of the album with the same name. He directed the short music film Anima, starring singer Thom Yorke. Early life Anderson was born in Studio City, Los Angeles, to Edwina (née Gough) and Ernie Anderson. Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late-night horror host known as "Ghoulardi" (after whom Anderson later named his production company). Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley, one of four siblings. He has five half-siblings by his father's first marriage. He had a troubled relationship with his mother, but was close with his father, who encouraged him to become a writer or director. Anderson attended a number of schools, including Buckley, John Thomas Dye School, Campbell Hall School, Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep. Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age, and never really had an alternative plan to directing films. He made his first film when he was eight, and started making films on a Betamax video camera that his father bought in 1982. He later started using 8 mm film, but realized that video was easier. He began writing in his teen years and experimenting with a Bolex 16-mm camera. After years of experimenting with "standard fare", he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at Montclair Prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store. The film was a 30-minute mockumentary shot on video called The Dirk Diggler Story (1988), about a pornography star; the story was inspired by John Holmes, who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights. Career Early career Anderson attended Santa Monica College, before having two semesters as an English major at Emerson College, where he was taught by David Foster Wallace, and only two days at New York University, before he began his career as a production assistant on television, films, music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City. Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into "homework or a chore", Anderson decided to make a 20-minute film that would be his "college". For $10,000, made up of gambling winnings, his girlfriend's credit card, and the money his father set aside for him for college, Anderson made Cigarettes & Coffee (1993), a short film connecting multiple story lines with a $20 bill. The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program. He planned to expand the film to feature-length, and was invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program. Michael Caton-Jones served as Anderson's mentor. He saw him as someone with "talent and a fully formed creative voice, but not much hands-on experience", and gave him some hard and practical lessons. 1990s While at Sundance, Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first full-length feature, Sydney, retitled Hard Eight. After completing the film, Rysher re-edited it. He had the workprint of the original cut and submitted the film to the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, where it was shown at the Un Certain Regard section. He had the version released, but only after he retitled the film, and raised the $200,000 necessary to finish it. Anderson, Philip Baker Hall, John C. Reilly and Gwyneth Paltrow contributed to the final funding. The version that was released was Anderson's and the acclaim from the film launched his career. The film follows the life of a senior gambler and a homeless man. Philip Seymour Hoffman worked with Anderson on five films. In his review of the film, Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert wrote, "Movies like Hard Eight remind me of what original, compelling characters the movies can sometimes give us." Anderson worked on the script for his second film while working on the first one, and completed it in 1995. The result was his breakout film Boogie Nights, which is based on his short film The Dirk Diggler Story and is set in the Golden Age of Porn. The film follows a nightclub dishwasher who becomes a pornographic actor under his stage name. The script was noticed by New Line Cinema's president, Michael De Luca, who felt "totally gaga" reading it. It was released on October 10, 1997, and was a critical and commercial success. The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds, and provided breakout roles for Mark Wahlberg and Julianne Moore. After the film's production, Reynolds refused to star in Anderson's third film, Magnolia. At the 70th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for three awards, including for Best Supporting Actor (Reynolds), Best Supporting Actress (Moore) and Best Original Screenplay. After the success of Boogie Nights, New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control. Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was "intimate and small-scale", the script "kept blossoming". The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia (1999), which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley. Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film, commissioning her to write eight new songs. At the 72nd Academy Awards, the film was nominated for three awards, including for Best Supporting Actor (Tom Cruise), Best Original Song for "Save Me" by Aimee Mann, and Best Original Screenplay. Anderson stated after the film's release, "what I really feel is that Magnolia is, for better or worse, the best movie I'll ever make." 2000s After the success of Magnolia, Anderson stated that he would make the film around 90 minutes and working with Adam Sandler. The romance film is named Punch-Drunk Love (2002). It follows a beleaguered entrepreneur in love with his sister's co-worker. The film's main character for the subplot was inspired by real-life civil engineer David Phillips. Sandler received critical praise for his first dramatic role in the film. At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival, Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d'Or. Time Out included it among one of the Best films of the 21st century. Karina Longworth wrote, "Paul Thomas Anderson's cracked ode to the transformative power of love in a world that actively mocks sensitivity is perhaps his most original work." There Will Be Blood (2007) was loosely based on Upton Sinclair's novel Oil!. It follows a ruthless oil prospector exploiting the Southern California oil boom in the early 20th century. Against a budget of $25 million, the film earned $76.1 million worldwide. At the 80th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for eight awards, tying with No Country for Old Men. Anderson was nominated for Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay, losing all three to the Coen Brothers for No Country for Old Men. Daniel Day-Lewis won the Oscar for Best Actor and Robert Elswit won the prize for Best Cinematography. Paul Dano received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America. There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade, with some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era. David Denby of The New Yorker wrote, "the young writer-director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford", while Richard Schickel proclaimed it "one of the most wholly original American movies ever made." In 2017, New York Times film critics A. O. Scott and Manohla Dargis named it the "Best Film of the 21st Century So Far". 2010s—present In December 2009, Anderson worked on a new film about a "charismatic intellectual" starting a new religion in the 1950s. An associate of Anderson's stated that the idea for the film had been in his mind for twelve years. The Master was released on September 14, 2012 in North America to critical acclaim. The film follows an alcoholic World War II veteran, who meets the leader of a religious organization. Though the film makes no reference to the movement, it has "long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology." At the 85th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for three awards, including for Best Actor (Joaquin Phoenix), Best Supporting Actor (Hoffman) and Best Supporting Actress (Amy Adams). Production of the film adaptation for Thomas Pynchon's novel Inherent Vice began in May and ended in August 2013. The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen, and had Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time. The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson, Reese Witherspoon, Jena Malone, Martin Short, Benicio Del Toro, Katherine Waterston and Josh Brolin. Following its release in December 2014, the film was nominated for two awards at the 87th Academy Awards, including for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Costume Design. Anderson directed Junun, a 2015 documentary about the making of the album by composer and Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood, Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich, Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur, and a group of Indian musicians. Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th-century Mehrangarh Fort in Rajasthan. Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival. Anderson's eighth film, Phantom Thread, set in the London fashion industry, was released in December 2017. Day-Lewis starred in his final film role to date, after his penultimate film Lincoln. The cast includes Lesley Manville and Vicky Krieps. Focus Features distributed the film in the United States, with Universal Pictures handling international distribution. Principal photography began in January 2017. Elswit was absent during production, and despite claims of Anderson acting as a cinematographer on the film, no official credit was given. On February 16, 2019, Elswit said he would not work with Anderson on his next films. Phantom Thread was nominated for six awards at the 90th Academy Awards, winning one for Best Costume Design. In 2019, Anderson directed the short music film Anima, starring the Radiohead singer Thom Yorke and featuring music from Yorke's album Anima. It was screened in select IMAX theatres on June 26 and released on Netflix on June 27. It was nominated for Best Music Film at the 2020 Grammy Awards. Anderson's ninth film, Licorice Pizza, was released in December 2021. The film was nominated for three awards at the 94th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Original Screenplay. It follows a teenage actor in love with a photography assistant. Other work In 2000, Anderson wrote and directed a segment for Saturday Night Live with Ben Affleck, "SNL FANatic", based on the MTV series FANatic. He was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes, as Altman was 80 years old at the time. In 2008, Anderson co-wrote and directed a 70-minute play at the Largo Theatre, comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen, with a live score by Jon Brion. Anderson has directed music videos for artists, including Fiona Apple, Radiohead, Haim, Joanna Newsom, Aimee Mann, Jon Brion and Michael Penn. Anderson directed a short film for Haim in 2017, Valentine, featuring three musical performances from the band. Influences and style Influences Anderson attended film school for only two days, preferring instead to learn by watching the films of directors he liked along with the accompanying director's audio commentary. He has cited Robert Altman, Jonathan Demme, Robert Downey, Sr., Alfred Hitchcock, John Huston, Stanley Kubrick, Akira Kurosawa, Mike Leigh, David Mamet, Anthony Mann, Vincente Minnelli, Max Ophüls, Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, Frank Tashlin, François Truffaut, Orson Welles and Billy Wilder as influences. Themes and style Anderson is known for films set in San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters. Among the themes dealt with in the films are dysfunctional familial relationships, alienation, surrogate families, regret, loneliness, destiny, the power of forgiveness, and ghosts of the past. Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency. In Boogie Nights, Magnolia, Punch Drunk Love and The Master, the phrase "I didn't do anything" is used at least once, developing themes of responsibility and denial. Anderson's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic trademarks, such as constantly moving camera, steadicam-based long takes, memorable use of music, and multilayered audiovisual imagery. Anderson tends to reference the Book of Exodus, either explicitly or subtly, such as in recurring references to Exodus 8:2 in Magnolia, which chronicles the plague of frogs, culminating with the literal raining of frogs in the film's climax, or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood, a phrase in Exodus 7:19, which details the plague of blood. Within his first three films, Hard Eight, Boogie Nights and Magnolia, Anderson explored themes of dysfunctional families, alienation, and loneliness. Boogie Nights and Magnolia were noted for their large ensemble casts, which Anderson returned to in Inherent Vice. In Punch-Drunk Love, Anderson explored similar themes, but expressed a different visual style, shedding the influences and references of his earlier films, being more surreal and having a heightened sense of reality. It was also short, compared to his previous two films, at 90 minutes. There Will Be Blood stood apart from his first four films, but shared similar themes and style, such as flawed characters, moving camera, memorable music and a lengthy running time. The film was more overtly engaged with politics than his previous films had been, examining capitalism and themes such as savagery, optimism and obsession. The Master dealt with "ideas about American personality, success, rootlessness, master-disciple dynamics, and father-son mutually assured destruction." All of his films deal with American themes, with business versus art in Boogie Nights, ambition in There Will Be Blood, and self-reinvention in The Master. Frequent collaborators Anderson frequently collaborates with many actors and crew, carrying them over on each film. He has referred to regular actors as "my little rep company", including John C. Reilly, Philip Baker Hall, Julianne Moore, William H. Macy, Melora Walters and Philip Seymour Hoffman. Luis Guzmán is also considered Anderson's regular. Hoffman acted in Anderson's first four films as well as The Master. Except for Paul F. Tompkins, Kevin Breznahan and Jim Meskimen, who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia, There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast. Anderson is one of three directors – the others being Jim Sheridan and Martin Scorsese – with whom Daniel Day-Lewis has collaborated more than once. Robert Elswit served as a cinematographer for Anderson's films, except The Master which was shot by Mihai Mălaimare Jr. and Phantom Thread which has no credited cinematographer. Jon Brion served as a composer for Hard Eight, Magnolia and Punch-Drunk Love, and Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead for every film since. Dylan Tichenor edited Boogie Nights, Magnolia, There Will Be Blood and Phantom Thread. Anderson regularly works with producers, JoAnne Sellar, Scott Rudin, Michael De Luca and Daniel Lupi, and casting director Cassandra Kulukundis. Filmography Personal life Anderson dated musician Fiona Apple from 1997 to 2000. Apple said he had a temper and once threw a chair across the room and shoved her out of his car, and that she felt "fearful and numb". Anderson is a vegan. He has been in a relationship with actress and comedian Maya Rudolph since November 2001. They live in the San Fernando Valley with their four children. Awards and recognition Anderson has been called "one of the most exciting talents to come along in years" and "among the supreme talents of today." After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia, Anderson was praised as a "wunderkind". In 2007, the American Film Institute regarded him as "one of American film's modern masters." In 2012, The Guardian ranked him number one on its list of "The 23 Best Film Directors in the World," writing "his dedication to his craft has intensified, with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation." In 2013, Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth-greatest working director, calling him "one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the last 20 years." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that "The Master, the sixth film from the 42-year-old writer-director, affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation. Anderson is a rock star, the artist who knows no limits." Other directors have also praised him. In an interview with Jan Aghed, Ingmar Bergman referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema. Sam Mendes referred to Anderson as "a true auteur – and there are very few of those who I would classify as geniuses". In his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director, Ben Affleck compared Anderson to Orson Welles. , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals (Cannes, Berlin, Venice). Direction for Oscar-related performances References External links Cigarettes & Red Vines - The Definitive Paul Thomas Anderson Resource Esquire magazine profile 1970 births Living people 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American screenwriters 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American screenwriters American film directors American film producers American male screenwriters American music video directors Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award winners Campbell Hall School alumni Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners Directors of Golden Bear winners Film directors from Los Angeles Film producers from California Montclair College Preparatory School alumni People from Studio City, Los Angeles Postmodernist filmmakers Screenwriters from California Silver Bear for Best Director recipients Venice Best Director Silver Lion winners
419331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20African%20Breweries	South African Breweries	South African Breweries (officially The South African Breweries Limited, informally SAB) is a major brewery headquartered in Johannesburg, South Africa and was a wholly owned subsidiary of SABMiller until its interests were sold to Anheuser-Busch InBev on 10 October 2016. South African Breweries is now a direct subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV. The company that is now South African Breweries was founded in 1895 as Castle Brewery to serve a growing market of miners and prospectors in and around Johannesburg. Two years later, it became the first industrial company to list on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange and the year after (1898) it listed on the London Stock Exchange. In 1950, SAB relocated its headquarters and control from London to South Africa. In 1955, Castle Brewing purchased the Ohlsson's and Chandlers Union breweries, and the group was renamed South African Breweries. From the early 1990s onward, the company increasingly expanded internationally, making several acquisitions in both emerging and developed markets. In 1999, it formed a new UK-based holding company, SAB plc, and moved its primary listing to London. In May 2002, SAB plc acquired Miller Brewing, forming SABMiller plc. On 10 October 2016, Anheuser-Busch InBev acquired SABMiller for £69 billion (US$107 billion at the time the deal closed). The arrangement had been approved by shareholders of both companies on 28 September 2016, and the deal closed on 10 October 2016. The acquisition ended the corporate use of the name SABMiller. After the deal closed, the new company's name changed slightly, to Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV (abbreviated as AB InBev); it is trading as ABI on the Brussels Stock Exchange, as BUD on the New York stock exchange and as ANH on the Johannesburg market. SABMiller ceased trading on global stock markets. Acquisition of SABMiller by ABinBev The acquisition of SABMiller by Anheuser-Busch InBev on 10 October 2016 ended the corporate use of the name SABMiller except as a business division of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV (AB InBev). The new entity began trading on the Brussels Stock Exchange as ABI.BR and as BUD on the New York stock exchange. SABMiller ceased trading on global stock markets and divested itself of its interests in the MillerCoors beer company to Molson Coors. On 21 December 2016, the company agreed to sell the former SABMiller Ltd. business in Eastern Europe to Asahi Breweries Group Holdings, Ltd. Anheuser-Busch InBev had previously agreed to sell Grolsch Brewery, Peroni Brewery and Meantime Brewery to Asahi; that deal closed on 12 October 2016. On the same day, the sale of SABMiller's 49 percent share in Snow beer to China Resources Enterprise also closed. In December 2016, the Coca-Cola Company bought the Coca-Cola operations in Africa and in two Central American countries. The deal requires regulatory approval and should close by the end of 2017. In August 2016, after the plans for acquiring SABMiller had been established by Anheuser-Busch InBev, the company said it would close SABMiller's regional offices in Miami, Hong Kong and Beijing after the acquisition deal closed in October 2016. Plans had not yet been revealed for the operation in Zug, Switzerland which controlled SABMiller's central & eastern European beer brands. However, the subsequent sale of much of the business in such countries to Asahi Breweries may affect the Zug operation. The office in Woking (United Kingdom) was expected to remain open for a transitional period but the HQ in London's Stanhope Gate would close. The South African Breweries office in Johannesburg will remain open and will also be used by Anheuser Busch InBev SA/NV (whose corporate HQ is in Leuven, Belgium) as its Africa hub. Board of directors, management and staffing Since SABMiller had been acquired on 10 October 2016, and became a wholly owned subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, there was no longer a need for a board of directors for the former SABMiller. In August 2017, Anheuser Busch InBev had announced that Mauricio Leyva, then the CEO of SAB South Africa, would be the only executive to remain with Anheuser Busch Inbev SA/NV on the new entity's 18 member permanent board. Leyva would become zone president for Middle Americas at Anheuser Busch Inbev SA/NV. News reports indicated that "three ... SABMiller executive committee members - general counsel John Davidson, human resources head Johann Nel and Africa MD Mark Bowman - [would] stay on for a six-month transitional period only". South African Breweries (SAB) remains an entity, as a subsidiary of SAB InBev. According to Bloomberg, Grant Murray Liversage was the Finance Director of South African Breweries Limited after the takeover by Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV. Mauricio Leyva Arboleda, currently employed by Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV and Dinyar S. DeVitre were board members of SAB. Before the 10 October 2016 acquisition of SABMiller, in April 2016, Anheuser-Busch InBev had agreed to protect South African jobs and create a 1 billion rand (US$69 million) fund that would "support farmers, local manufacturing, jobs, and the reduction of harmful alcohol use," including funding new barley and hops farms. This offer was made to convince the regulators to approve the sale of SABMiller. The company is bound by an agreement with the South African Competition Tribunal that employment numbers at South African Brewery will be stable for five years and that there will be no forced reductions of staff and that unionized employees will not be offered voluntary separation for five years. However, AB InBev decided to attempt some cost savings by offering voluntary severance offers to some management level staff at SAB. On 23 January 2017, Robyn Chalmers, Director of Communications, AB InBev Africa and SAB, said that "... no employee will be forcibly retrenched as a result of the merger. It is too early in the process to say how many people may opt for the voluntary offer." She added that the offer "has been made available only to mid-level employees and above". Since the company must maintain the staffing level, highly paid managers will probably be replaced by staff at lower levels. History Brewing in South Africa Prior to incorporation in the year 1895, Castle Brewery had operations in Cape Town to serve the steady expansion of a settler community from the mid-17th century. The demand for beer prompted the first Dutch governor, Jan van Riebeeck, to establish a brewery at the Fort (later replaced by the Castle in central Cape Town) as early as 1658 - beating the first wine production by six months. In the same year, Pieter Visagie brewed the first beer from the waters of the Liesbeeck River. Over the next 200 years, brewing made its mark in the Cape and beyond. Noted brewers of the time included Cloete at the Newlands Brewery; Ohlsson at the Anneberg Brewery; Jacob Letterstedt at Mariendahl Brewery - also in Newlands: Hiddingh at Cannon Brewery; Martienssen at the Salt River Brewery, and a second Cloete in Kloof Street. One of the key figures in the story of Newlands, and in the annals of South African beer manufacturing history, was Swede Anders Ohlsson, who sailed for Africa, aged 23, in 1864. Initially, he imported Swedish goods and timbers, and developed an extensive trade network and a solid business empire. Then he turned to brewing, basing himself at Newlands, where he produced Lion Lager. In 1955, the South African government introduced a heavy tax on beer products causing many consumers to switch to spirits. However, the subsequent shock to the South African beer industry proved to be a blessing in disguise for SAB. A year later, the company purchased its two main competitors, Ohlsson's and Chandlers Union Breweries, both of whom were struggling under the depressed demand for beer, and the group was renamed South African Breweries. After the acquisitions the new and larger SAB was able to rationalize operations, thereby reducing costs and increasing profitability. Donald Gordon's Liberty Life Strategic Investments (LIBSIL), which was associated with JSE-listed financial services and property holding company Liberty Holdings, maintained a large stake in the company for most of the 1990s. By 1998, SAB commanded approximately 98 per cent share of the South African beer market and was considered one of the lowest cost producers of beer in the world. In 1999, after listing on the London Stock Exchange to raise capital for acquisitions, the group purchased the Miller Brewing Company in North America from the Altria Group in 2002, and changed its name to SABMiller. Within South Africa, SAB distributes beer through its extensive network, augmented by a fleet of independent truck drivers (called owner-drivers) comprising mainly former employees, many of whom had received help from the group to start their own businesses. SAB has invested billions of rands in this owner-driver project since inception. Although several international brewers, such as the UK's Whitbread, had tried to enter the South African market, all had thus far failed to gain significant market share. From time to time, new startups also tried to challenge SAB's monopoly, but these had either gone out of business, or been acquired by SAB. A case in point was National Sorghum Breweries (NSB), "a black business consortium" founded in 1990, and the first new player in the beer industry in more than 10 years. "SAB’s supremacy is under threat," observers said, and some thought that within a few years NSB could achieve 10 per cent market share. Instead, the company ran into financial difficulties and failed to gain any significant share of the market. This does not mean that SAB's position could never be threatened. In 2004, a new company was established in South Africa known as Brandhouse through a joint venture of Diageo, Heineken and Namibian Breweries. Brandhouse started marketing, selling and distributing some of the world's top premium brands such as Heineken and Windhoek and in March 2007, the 40-year agreement between SABMiller plc and Heineken N.V. which allowed SAB Ltd to brew and distribute Amstel Lager in South Africa, was terminated, sparking a new era of competition for the industry. At the same time, Heineken announced its intention to build its own brewery in South Africa. SAB Ltd launched a new premium brand, Hansa Marzen Gold shortly thereafter and continued its expansion into premium brands with the launch of Dutch heritage beer, Grolsch, following SABMiller's acquisition of Koninklijke Grolsch N.V. in early 2008. Dreher Premium Lager was launched in South Africa the same year, and the company has made a number of innovations in the spirit cooler and apple-ale categories in recent years. In October 2016, Anheuser-Busch InBev acquired the entire SABMiller company which then became a business division of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV and ceased trading on the worldwide stock markets. As a result, South African Breweries and Carlton & United are now owned by Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV. List of breweries Alrode Brewery, Gauteng, Chamdor Brewery, Gauteng, Ibhayi Brewery, Eastern Cape, Newlands Brewery, Western Cape, Polokwane Brewery, Limpopo, Prospecton Brewery, KwaZulu-Natal, Rosslyn Brewery, North West, Soft drinks In 1925, SAB expanded into other beverages after purchasing a large share in Schweppes (soft drinks). In 1960, the group purchased a controlling interest in Stellenbosch Farmer's Winery, which, along with Distillers Corporation, contributed R98 million to group earnings in 1997. 1997, SAB subsidiary, Amalgamated Beverage Industries, purchased another Coca-Cola bottler, Suncrush, thereby doubling market share to approximately 60 per cent of South African soft drinks. PepsiCo, SAB's only competitor, withdrew from the market in 1997 resulting in the liquidation of Pepsi franchisees. Pepsi, however, re-entered the South African market in 2006. In December 2004, SAB Ltd acquired 100% of Amalgamated Beverage Industries Limited (ABI), which became the soft drink division of SAB Ltd, and the largest beverage company in South Africa was created. Plate glass In 1917, the group began to venture into unrelated businesses when it agreed to take over a failed glass manufacturer, Union Glass, to counter the acute shortage of bottles during World War I. In 1954, Union Glass merged with Consolidated Glassworks and this business was sold off in 1960 to Anglovaal Industries. The company became an important player in international glass manufacturing when it acquired the Plate Glass Group in 1992. The Plate Glass Group traced its roots to a British immigrant and entrepreneur who, in 1897, established a plate glass manufacturing operation in Cape Town, South Africa. Eventually the company became a leading producer of safety and bullet-proof glass for automobiles. In 1987 the company launched a new subsidiary in the United States in partnership with SAB and Anglo American. When Glass medic, a US-based windshield repair and replacement company, was acquired in 1990, the South African parent company merged the subsidiaries under the name Belron International. Belron became a base from which to launch further acquisitions. When SAB purchased Plate Glass in 1992, it was renamed Shatterprufe Limited. Belron had by 1998 become the world's leading producer of automotive replacement glass, with some 1,865 retail outlets in North America, Europe, Australia, and Brazil. Growth had come mainly through acquisitions. In 1997, Belron acquired several leading brands, including Standard Autoglass in Canada, thereby becoming "the largest player in the North American Markets." Worldwide market share was on the order of 18%, and SAB envisioned further expansion in the coming years: In Europe, Belron was opening an average of 12 new outlets per month. While sales had increased by five per cent in 1997, earnings had declined eight per cent to R255 million as a result of the borrowing costs associated with new acquisitions and expansion. In 1997, recognising the need to enhance long-term shareholder value, SAB returned to its core beverage business, locally and internationally, selling off or closing non-core operations over the next few years. Amongst these was the Plate Glass business. Entertainment and hospitality Although SAB (then called Castle Breweries) had established the first pub in South Africa in 1896, it did not begin to invest heavily in service industries until 1949 when an aggressive expansion thrust saw some £4.5 million invested in hotels and pubs, as well as additional brewing facilities. In 1969, these interests were merged with a hotel chain owned by Sol Kerzner, to form a separate subsidiary known as Southern Sun Hotels. Kerzner remained with Southern Sun as its managing director for several years thereafter. In 1983 Kerzner left SAB, but remained a significant shareholder in the company. Southern Sun eventually grew to become the leading hotel chain in South Africa, with franchises awarded by Holiday Inn and Inter-continental Hotels. By 1998, this subsidiary owned 74 hotels with 12,200 rooms, or about 22 per cent of industry capacity. Southern Sun also maintained a minority interest in an eco-tourism company. Development of new hotels depended on securing licences from the government, "as the state still owned large tracts of land in both urban and rural areas." Suitable locations for hotel and resort development were very limited, and local government officials often did not have the training and expertise needed to make informed decisions about the granting of such licences. Resulting delays resulted in significant costs. Several international hotel chains decided to enter South Africa after the lifting of economic sanctions. By 1998, numerous hotels were under construction by Hyatt, Sheraton, Howard Johnson's, Days Inn, Hilton, Best Western, Concorde (France), Le Meridian (France), and Relais de Chateau (France), among others. Most new hotel development was in the executive and luxury segments of the market. In less than four years, industry-wide capacity had more than doubled, and as a result, the hotel industry began to experience significant over-supply. Combined with a weak currency, this translated into some of the lowest room rates in the world. Although escalating levels of violent crime had been a serious constraint for South African tourism, Southern Sun had been able to maintain an average occupancy above 70%. In 1997, hotel earnings increased by 16% over the previous year to contribute R182 million to group earnings. The government introduced the National Gambling Act in 1996, which allowed for up to 40 casino licenses to be issued to "financially competent operators." In 1997, SAB entered into a joint-venture with Tsogo Sun Gaming and Entertainment to establish up to eight casino resorts to be completed as early as 2000. Monte Casino was the first of these developments to be completed at an expected construction cost of $US250 million. The most notable black empowerment transaction facilitated by SAB was Tsogo Investments in early 2003. The transaction, which had an implied value of approximately R1.9-billion, meant that empowerment group Tsogo Investments acquired control of Southern Sun Hotels, then the largest hotel group in southern Africa as well as Tsogo Sun, a leading casino operator in South Africa. Other manufacturing and retail Further diversification came in 1967 with the establishment of a new subsidiary known as Food Corporation (coffee, tea, and food products). An even larger diversification push was undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s, when the SAB group of companies purchased or established numerous unrelated operations including grocers (OK Bazaars), furniture factories and stores (Associated Furniture Company), shoe factories and stores (Shoecorp), and clothing stores (Scotts Stores and Edgars Fashion Group). In 1996, more than 20% of SAB's workforce was employed in these companies. Changes in consumer preferences towards less expensive goods had a negative effect on the premium retail market in the mid-1990s. SAB off-loaded the OK Bazaar grocery chain in 1997 for one rand, after losing nearly R20 million per month. And at the beginning of 1998, the Clothing and Footwear, as well as the furniture divisions were also sold. Later SAB also sold its 21% minority stake in Edgars Fashion Group in 2004. SAB no longer holds any manufacturing or retail assets. International expansion The company's earliest international venture was in 1910 when it founded Rhodesian Breweries in Southern Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe. This subsidiary spearheaded SAB's initial international expansion efforts, having established new breweries in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia and Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, in the early 1950s. Further international expansion came in the 1970s and 1980s with the establishment of breweries in Botswana, Angola, and the buying of Compañía Cervezera de Canarias of the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, prior to 1990, SAB remained primarily focused on domestic opportunities. In 1994, a formal Export Department consisting of 3 people (Neal & McLellan et al.) was established at Beer Division Central Office and was tasked with trading beer into Africa. This proved to be a masterstroke in Strategy as laid the foundations for a significant growth catalyst for Brand and accordingly, market share establishment into African and Indian Ocean markets, as well as generated significant foreign currency for the Group to allow for Investment (South African Reserve Bank regulations at the time made raising Foreign Capital difficult). SAB was invited to revitalise the beer industry in Tanzania, a joint venture with that country's government in Tanzania Breweries Limited, and to re-enter the beer markets of Zambia, Mozambique and, later, Angola. This followed one of its first foreign investments into the Canary Islands. Expansion continued into Africa in the 1990s and on other continents into Hungary (1993), China (1995), Romania, Poland (1995–96), Slovakia (1997), and Russia (1998), the Czech Republic (1999), India (2000) and Central America in 2001. The group's expansion into Asia started with its 1995 negotiation of joint control of the second-largest brewery in mainland China with China Resources, a privatisation arm of the government of the People's Republic of China. Further investments included those in the Harbin Brewery Group and the Fuyang City Snowland Brewery. In 2000 SAB plc entered the Indian market where it has subsequently increased its commitment. By 2001, turnover from SAB plc's international operations accounted for 42% of group turnover. The same year, a pan-African strategic alliance with the Castel group offered the opportunity to invest in promising new African markets and the benefits of scale economies. Involvement in Central and South America started in 2001 with the acquisition of Honduran and Salvadoran breweries. This was followed four years later by the purchase of a major holding in Grupo Empresarial Bavaria, South America's second largest brewer. One of its largest transactions was with the Miller Brewing Company in the US in 2002, whereupon the listed company changed its name to SABMiller plc. By the end of March 2009, SABMiller produced global lager volumes of 210 million hectolitres, with total group revenues of US$25,302 million. On 10 October 2016, Anheuser-Busch InBev acquired SABMiller for £69 billion. The arrangement had been approved by shareholders of both companies on 28 September 2016, and the deal closed on 10 October 2016. The acquisition, subsequently referred to as a merger in the news media, ended the corporate use of the name SABMiller. The new company is called Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, (AB InBev) and is trading on the Brussels Stock Exchange as ABI.BR and as BUD on the New York stock exchange. SABMiller ceased trading on global stock markets and divested itself of its interests in the MillerCoors beer company to Molson Coors. After acquiring SABMiller, Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV agreed on 21 December 2016 to sell the former SABMiller Ltd. business in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania to Asahi Breweries Group Holdings, Ltd. for US$7.8 billion. The deal includes popular brands such as Pilsner Urquell, Tyskie, Lech, Dreher and Ursus. SABMiller was one of the world's largest Coca-Cola bottlers and had carbonated soft drinks bottling operations in 14 markets. These were subsequently owned by the new Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV entity which is also a PepsiCo bottler. In December 2016, Coca-Cola Co. bought the Coca-Cola operations in Africa and in two Central American countries. The deal requires regulatory approval and should close by the end of 2017. List of Products Carling Black Label Castle Lager Castle Free Castle Lite Castle Milk Stout Flying Fish Flying Fish Chill Lite Hansa pilsener Hansa Golden Crisp Lion Lager Brutal Fruit Redd's Newlands Brewery Mountain Weiss Passionate Blond Jacobs Pale Ale Budweiser Corona extra Liberado Beck's Controversy In March 2014, the Competition Tribunal found that the South African Breweries (SAB) did not engage in any anti-competitive behaviour following a case of alleged anti-competitive behaviour brought by the Competition Commission which was heard by the Tribunal between 2010 and 2013. The case was the result of an investigation into allegations related to SAB's distribution system and pricing activities between 2004 and 2007, with the allegations having been referred to the Competition Tribunal in 2007. Throughout the trial, the company maintained that none of its practices were in breach of the law and that it had not engaged in any anti-competitive behaviour. It noted that "SAB has structured its business to serve retailers and consumers and strongly believes that all businesses have the right to distribute their products in the manner that best serves their needs…” The case was in the public domain for several years, having been referred to the Competition Tribunal in 2007 by the Competition Commission after a three-year investigation between 2004 and 2007. The original complaint lodged by Big Daddy's head Nico Pitsiladis with the Competition Commission alleged that SAB charged the Big Daddy's group as a wholesaler the same price as the company charged to retailers, thereby preventing Big Daddy's from earning a fair margin on its sales to retail. The case that was presented by the Competition Commission before the Competition Tribunal related to SAB's distribution system; an alleged practice of minimum resale price maintenance; an allegation of price discrimination and broad, diffuse allegations relating to abuse of dominance. The abuse of dominance allegations were previously separated from the "distribution" case and may proceed separately although the commission has taken no further steps on this part of the case. SAB applied in 2011 to have the case dismissed, arguing that the case presented to the Tribunal was not the same as the original complaint laid by the Big Daddy's group in 2004. This was upheld by the Tribunal in April 2011. Following the Tribunal's dismissal of the case in April 2011, the Competition Commission applied to the Constitutional Court for direct access to the Constitutional Court, bypassing both the Competition Appeal Court and the Supreme Court of Appeal. In December 2011, the Constitutional Court handed down a decision in which it dismissed, with costs, the Competition Commission's direct access application. The Commission subsequently filed an appeal with the Competition Appeal Court, which was heard on 13 September 2012. In November 2012, the Competition Appeal Court announced it had upheld the commission's appeal and set aside the Tribunal's ruling. This resulted in the resumption of the commission's case against SAB, which was heard before the Tribunal in July and August 2013. References Further reading "Bass Ginsber and South African Breweries," Business China, 1 September 1997. "Blackmailer's bluff called," Financial Mail, 8 August 1998. "Cagey SAB finally sees the writing on the wall on unbundling," Business Times, 29 March 1998. "Is the Worst Over for South Africa?" African Business, December 1998. "Lion of Africa, Brewer to the People," The Economist, 9 September 1995. "No Small Beer From This SA Giant," Accountancy, November 1997 SAB Annual Report, 1998. "SAB flat as Johnnic brew confusion," Finance Week, 20 November 1998. "Shoprite Buys Ailing OK Bazaars For R1," The Cape Argus, 4 November 1997. "South Africa - Consular Information Sheet", US State Department, 15 October 1998. "South African Breweries," SG Equity Research, 25 February 1999. "South Africa’s Hotel Industry," Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, February 1999. "We’ll Double in a Decade," Money, July 1994. External links SA Breweries Specialised Dispense Systems SAB Stories: CSR & SA Beer Culture Official Website Carling Black Label Castle Lager Castle Lite Castle Milk Stout Flying Fish Hansa Pilsener Hansa Golden Crisp Brutal Fruit Redd's Beliberado Budweiser South Africa Newlands Brewery Beer in South Africa Defunct breweries Defunct companies of South Africa Manufacturing companies based in Johannesburg Food and drink companies established in 1895 1895 in the South African Republic Establishments in the South African Republic Breweries of South Africa SABMiller
419332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Knight	Gabriel Knight	Gabriel Knight is a series of point-and-click adventure games released by Sierra On-Line in the 1990s created by Jane Jensen. The titular character is an author and book store owner in New Orleans who is investigating a strange series of murders when he learns he is descended from a long line of Schattenjäger ("Shadow Hunters"). After undergoing a spiritual trial, Gabriel becomes the new Schattenjäger, called on to stop those who use supernatural methods to threaten others. To signify this, he wears the Ritter Talisman, a protective medallion. Not having supernatural abilities himself, Gabriel mainly opposes his enemies with cunning and insight after investigation and research. In the first game, he is assisted by Grace Nakimura. In the two sequels, the two act as partners against evil, with Grace being a playable character. The original 1993 game Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers met with success and popularity, due in part to the voice cast including actors Tim Curry, Leah Remini, Virginia Capers, Mark Hamill, Michael Dorn, and Efrem Zimbalist Jr. The game was followed by two sequel games that each used a different style of game design: The Beast Within: A Gabriel Knight Mystery (1995), an interactive movie featuring werewolves, and Gabriel Knight 3: Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned (1999), a 3D graphics game involving vampires. The first two games met with enough critical success that Computer Gaming World declared Jane Jensen "the interactive Anne Rice". The third game did not reach the same success and wound up being the final game published by Sierra following the decline of the point-and-click adventure video game industry. The first two games each had a published novelization written by game creator and writer Jane Jensen. The original game was re-released in 2014 as Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Father (20th Anniversary Edition). This version had remastered graphics, sound, and new voice recordings. To celebrate its release, Jane Jensen posted a Gabriel Knight short story online, one set six months after the third game. Series The Gabriel Knight characters and games were created by writer Jane Jensen, who also worked on King's Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow with veteran game designer Roberta Williams. The music in the series was composed by Robert Holmes, Jensen's husband. All three games in the series focus on the adventures of Gabriel Knight, a financially struggling author and bookstore owner in New Orleans who discovers his true family name is Ritter and he is destined to follow the family legacy of being a Schattenjäger (German for "Shadow Hunter"). Grace Nakimura is a major supporting character in Sins of the Fathers, running the bookstore while doing research for Gabriel. The two are friends who often bicker. In the sequel games, Grace and Gabriel develop a closer relationship and act more as partners when investigating the supernatural. The second game teases their romantic feelings for each other, while the third game has them directly confront their feelings. The two sequel games make Grace a lead character alongside Gabriel and the player alternates between controlling each of them during different parts of the game. Each game calls on the player to acquire information through investigation of surroundings and interrogation of non-player characters (NPCs). Players must also solve puzzles and complete tasks through the use of items they acquire, information they obtain, devices they activate, or provoking action in NPCs. The game's story generally proceeds linearly, with the player unable to continue into the next "day" or "chapter" or "time block" of the narrative until they have solved the required puzzles and obtained the proper information. Solving puzzles and gathering information results in the collection of points. Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers and Gabriel Knight 3: Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned both included short graphic novels that contained back-story, much in the tradition of Infocom's "feelies". The Sins of the Fathers graphic novel follows the story of Günter Ritter, an ancestor of Gabriel Knight, who has left his ancestral home for the American continent in the 17th century. The Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned graphic novel acts as a prologue to the game, explaining how Gabriel began the case. Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers The first game in the series is a point and click adventure done in 3rd person style, with comic book style art used for story cut scenes. While the floppy version of the game only included subtitles, the CD-ROM version featured a cast of voice actors. Tim Curry plays Gabriel Knight, Mark Hamill plays his old friend Detective Franklin Mosely, Leah Remini plays his assistant and friend Grace Nakimura, and Leilani Jones as Malia Gedde. Other characters include Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. as Wolfgang Ritter, Gabriel's great-uncle, Michael Dorn as Dr. John, a proprietor of a voodoo museum, and Mary Kay Bergman as Gerde Hull, the caretaker at Gabriel's ancestral home Schloss Ritter in Germany. The narrator is Virginia Capers. This game introduces Gabriel Knight, a financially struggling horror novelist who owns a bookstore in New Orleans called St. George's Rare Books. His friend Detective Mosely is investigating series of homicides dubbed "The Voodoo Murders" by the press. Compelled by strange nightmares and thinking the murders may give him good material for a book, Gabriel begins his own investigation, aided by his assistant Grace Nakimura. This leads him to meet mysterious New Orleans socialite Malia Gedde, as well as learn much about the history of voodoo. During the investigation, Gabriel realizes genuine supernatural practices are involved and learns he is related to the Ritter family, making him the latest in a line of Schattenjägers ("Shadow Hunters") who are meant to fight those who use supernatural methods to threaten innocent lives. The 20th anniversary remake edition featured Jason Victor as Gabriel Knight, Cissy Jones as Grace Nakimura, Ned Clarke as Detective Mosely, and Amy Kelly as the Narrator. The Beast Within: A Gabriel Knight Mystery The second game (also known as Gabriel Knight 2: The Beast Within) is in the style of a live-action interactive movie, starring Dean Erickson as Gabriel Knight and Joanne Takahashi as Grace Nakimura. Grace is now a playable character for portions of the game. The character Gerde Hull is back as an NPC, portrayed by Andrea Martin. A year after the events of Sins of the Fathers and after undergoing the spiritual trial necessary to become a Schattenjäger, Gabriel has moved to his ancestral home in the small village of Rittersberg in Bavaria, Germany to write his new novel and connect with his family lineage. His new book The Voodoo Murders, a fiction murder mystery based on the events of the first game, is now a best-seller. The people of Rittersberg, the seat of the Schattenjägers, ask for Gabriel's help when there is talk of a werewolf attack in Munich. Gabriel investigates and Grace comes to Germany to help him, determined to fight evil alongside the Schattenjäger and now experiencing visions and dreams of her own. Gabriel develops an unusual friendship with Baron Friedrich Von Glower, who leads an exclusive hunting club in Munich and believes Knight is a kindred spirit. Gabriel Knight 3: Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned This game uses 3D rendered graphics and features the return of Tim Curry to the role of Gabriel Knight. Grace is once again a playable character, now voiced by Charity James. Detective Franklin Mosely returns to Gabriel's life, now voiced by David Thomas. Years after the events of the second game, Gabriel has published another successful book called The Brutal Beast, based on his experiences in the previous game. He now considers himself a full-time Schattenjäger and Grace is his full partner, having created a computerized Schattenjäger archive called SYDNEY. The two are asked by the exiled Prince James of Albany to protect his newborn son from a centuries-old family threat that may involve vampires. That same night, the boy Charlie is kidnapped and Gabriel follows the kidnappers to the mysterious French village of Rennes-le-Château. Gabriel's arrival coincides with that of a visiting tour group supposedly hunting for a legendary local treasure that may be linked to the Roman Catholic Church, the Knights Templar, or the Holy Grail. Gabriel and Grace investigate the case alongside Mosely, who arrived with the tour group. After finding and rescuing the child, Gabriel discovers the origin of the first Schattenjäger. At the end of the game, Grace leaves Gabriel's side to find her own path. Temptation: A Gabriel Knight Interlude To celebrate the release of Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers - 20th Anniversary Edition, Jane Jensen released a short prose story online. The story Temptation: A Gabriel Knight Interlude is set six months following the events of the third game. The story was later adapted into a comic book. The short story depicts Gabriel pursuing a cloaked figure in the woods said to be a seeleesser, "an eater of souls". During the case, Gabriel reflects on recent events and Grace's departure, as well as the fact that he has fulfilled three major "quests" already and is now 36-years-old, bringing him to wonder if he has reached his peak already. During the adventure, he has a vision of Von Glower from The Beast Within and hears the man voice his own doubts and selfish desires, saying Gabriel should return to his life where he had no responsibility and didn't need to endanger himself hunting evil. In the end, Gabriel dismisses the vision and continues his investigations. Possible fourth game After the release of Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned, Jane Jensen stated she had started planning a possible story and setting for a fourth game. In Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned, the player can use the SIDNEY computer interface to search for "gk4" and see an entry on ghosts as a result. Jane Jensen said ghosts would have been the antagonists for a fourth entry to the series. However, no Gabriel Knight 4 game followed and in August 2006, it was confirmed that Jane Jensen's next adventure game project would be the revival of Gray Matter. The rights to Gabriel Knight are currently held by Activision, which acquired them after merging with former rights holder Vivendi Universal in 2008. Jane Jensen has pitched new Gabriel Knight games to both Vivendi and Activision. In April 2012, Jensen launched Pinkerton Road Studio and said in interviews that she hopes producing a new game with Pinkerton Road is a step in the right direction for getting the chance to make new Gabriel Knight games in the future. A remake of Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers for Windows, OS X, iOS and Android was released on October 15, 2014. In 2022, Jensen noted that she has previously envisaged a potential fourth game being about witches and set in Scotland. She stated her willingness to proceed with a book version as a method to make any potential subsequent game production more feasible, but admitted that the complex nature of rights and legal contracts with Activision continues to render such a project unlikely Characters Gabriel Knight is the central protagonist of the series, the orphaned son of Philip Knight and Margaret Templeton Knight, meant to be about 30 year old when the narrative starts (although his age is not consistent in the games). Gabriel is the proprietor of St. George's Rare Books in his hometown of New Orleans and a struggling horror fiction author. Charismatic, sardonic, and intuitive, he prefers to avoid responsibility, often distracted by interesting books and casual affairs with women. His two main friends are his assistant Grace Nakimura and his childhood friend Franklin Mosely, a police detective. Early in the first game, he realizes there is more to his family than he knows. Gabriel's nightmares and a desire to research a new book lead him to investigate recent "voodoo murders". During his investigation, he discovers he descends from the Ritter family and is the latest in a line of Schattenjägers ("Shadow Hunters"). Visiting his family castle Schloss Ritter in Rittersberg, Germany, he undergoes a spiritual trial to become a new Schattenjäger. He later inherits the Ritter Talisman. GK2 features a somewhat more somber Gabriel now living in his family castle over a year later and experiencing financial success since his new novel The Voodoo Murders (based on his experiences in the first game and starring fictional detective Blake Backlash) is a best-seller. By GK3, Gabriel has published another successful novel entitled The Brutal Beast, based on the events of the second game. Gabriel is a more mature and experienced character, now more focused on his duties as a Schattenjäger, with Grace as a full partner in his investigations. Despite his feelings, he still resists romantic commitment with Grace. Grace Nakimura is first introduced in Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers in 1993 as a non-player character, before becoming a player character in both sequel games. Introduced as a 26-year-old assistant, Grace is a researcher, aid, and moral compass for Gabriel in the first game. She becomes a full investigative partner in the two sequel games and is more strongly in the role of romantic interest. At the end of the third game, she decides to pursue her own path rather than remain Gabriel's helper. Grace has been included in multiple lists of top sidekicks and female characters in video games. GameSpot wrote that Grace was "more likable" than Knight and more "intelligent and resourceful". In 2007, Tom's Games also noted that unlike traditional female characters in video games, Grace is designed with conservative dress, without "sexy outfits [and] out-sized proportions". According to USgamer's Pete Davison in 2013, "Grace Nakimura remains one of the best, most realistic female characters in game history". Gerde Hull (voiced by Mary Kay Bergman in the first game, and played by Andrea Martin in the second) is the caretaker of Gabriel's ancestral home, Schloss Ritter in Ritterberg, Germany. When Gabriel first meets Gerde in Sins of the Fathers, she is an anxious and enthusiastically optimistic young woman. She clearly has deep love and respect for Gabriel's great-uncle Wolfgang Ritter, grieving the man's death still during the events of The Beast Within. Gerde acts as a valuable research assistant. Grace considers her a possible rival as Gabriel's investigative partner and love interest but after a talk with Gerde the two become friends. Gerde does not appear in the third game but is mentioned. Novelizations The stories of Sins of the Fathers and The Beast Within were adapted into novels by Jane Jensen. The first is a straightforward adaptation of the events of the game, an approach which Jane Jensen decided, in retrospect, was not the most successful way of introducing Gabriel Knight to a literary audience. For the second novel she "threw the whole idea of the game away and started again from scratch". Both books are out of print as of 2010. As part of her 2012 Kickstarter campaign to fund a new adventure game, Jensen offered both Gabriel Knight novels as ebooks to backers who pledge $50 or more. Compilation In 1998, Sierra released the title Gabriel Knight Mysteries: Limited Edition, which contains: an 8-disc PC CD box of first two Gabriel Knight games and electronic manuals. a 419-page novelization of Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers (written by Jane Jensen and published by Roc in 1997). a full soundtrack of The Beast Within: A Gabriel Knight Mystery. bundled with the original 1993 editions, a 33-page full-color graphic novel of an event that takes place almost 200 years before the opening of Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers (written by Jane Jensen, art direction by Nathan Gams and illustrated by Terese Nielsen). a 20-page full-color graphic novel of an event that takes place days before the opening of the then-upcoming Gabriel Knight 3: Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned (written by Jane Jensen and illustrated by Ron Spears). References External links Activision Blizzard franchises Video game franchises Video game franchises introduced in 1993
419340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Museum%20of%20Nature	Canadian Museum of Nature	The Canadian Museum of Nature (; CMN) is a national natural history museum based in Canada's National Capital Region. The museum's exhibitions and public programs are housed in the Victoria Memorial Museum Building, a in Ottawa, Ontario. The museum's administrative offices and scientific centres are housed at a separate location, the Natural Heritage Campus, in Gatineau, Quebec. The museum originated from a museum established by the Geological Survey of Canada in 1856. Originally based in Montreal, the museum relocated to downtown Ottawa in 1881. In 1911, the museum relocated to Victoria Memorial Museum Building. Initially, a natural history museum, the institution later expanded to include an anthropology and human history department; with the institution renamed the National Museum of Canada in 1927. The departments of the national museum were later split into separate national institutions, with the natural history department forming the National Museum of Natural Sciences in 1968. The museum adopted its current name in 1990 after it was made its own autonomous crown corporation. From 2004 to 2010 the museum renovated and expanded the Victoria Memorial Museum Building. The museum's collection contains over 14.6 million specimens relating to the natural world, several of which are displayed in the museum's permanent exhibitions. The museum also hosts and organizes several travelling exhibitions, as well as support and conducts several research programs relating to natural history. History Early museum (1856–1968) The Canadian Museum of Nature originates from the collecting efforts of the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), an organization established in 1842 in Montreal. In 1856 the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada passed an act that enabled the GSC to establish a museum to exhibit items found from its geological and archaeological field trips; with the museum initially established in Montreal. In 1877, the museum mandate was formally expanded to include the study of modern fauna and flora, in addition to human history, languages, and traditions. In 1881, the museum relocated from Montreal to downtown Ottawa; although space in the new facility soon proved to be inadequate, with the Royal Society of Canada petitioning the federal government to build a new building for the museum by 1896. Preliminary plans for a new building were drawn up by 1899, although work on the building did not begin until 1906. In the following year, management of the museum was assumed by the Department of Mines, with the mandate formally expanded to include anthropological studies. The new museum building, the Victoria Memorial building, was also completed in 1910, although it was not opened to the public until 1912. In 1927, the museum division of the Department of Mines was renamed the National Museum of Canada; with the museum formally split from the GSC. Management of the National Museum was transferred from the Department of Mines to the Department of Resources and Development in 1950. In 1956, the museum was split into two branches, one focused on natural history and another on anthropology. The mandate of the museum was later expanded when the National Museum of Canada assumed management of the Canadian War Museum in 1958, and a history division was established within the museum's anthropology branch in 1964. Natural history museum (1968–present) In 1968, the branches of the National Museum of Canada were split into separate museums. The Canadian Museum of Nature originated from the natural history branch of the museum, initially incorporated as the National Museum of Natural Sciences. The anthropological and human history branch of the former National Museum of Canada became the National Museum of Man (later renamed the Canadian Museum of Civilization in 1988, and the Canadian Museum of History in 2013), while the science and technology branch became the National Museum of Science and Technology (later renamed the Canada Science and Technology Museum). In the same year, the National Museums of Canada Corporation (NMC) was formed to serve as an umbrella organization for the national museums, as well as provide support and administrative units for the museums. The National Museum of Natural Sciences formed a part of the NMC until the organization was dissolved in 1988. In 1990, the government of Canada passed the Museums Act, which led to the National Museum of Natural Sciences, and several national museums being incorporated as autonomous crown corporations. The same act also renamed the National Museum of Natural Sciences into the Canadian Museum of Nature. By 1990, the museum was the only remaining occupant of the Victoria Memorial building. In 1997, the museum opened a new research and collections facility in Gatineau, Quebec, consolidating its research facilities and collections holdings in one building. Between 2004 and 2010, the federal government spent approximately C$216 million dollars on expanding, and renovating the Canadian Museum of Nature. Construction for the rehabilitation project was done in phases, with large portions of the existing structure removed and demolished for renovations. On 22 May 2010, International Day for Biological Diversity, the museum building was reopened to the public. The building's glass tower, or the Queens' Lantern, was dedicated in honour of Queens Victoria and Elizabeth II, with the latter attending the tower's dedication ceremony in June 2010. Facilities The Canadian Museum of Nature operates two facilities. The Victoria Memorial Museum Building in Ottawa houses the museum's exhibitions and public programs; while its administrative, research and collections facility is situated at the Natural Heritage Centre in Gatineau. Victoria Memorial Museum Building The Victoria Memorial Museum Building in Ottawa houses the museum's exhibitions and galleries, in addition to other public programs operated by the museum. The building is located on a property is located in Centretown, a neighbourhood of Ottawa. Situated approximately south of Centre Block on Parliament Hill, the building was initially designed to mirror the Canadian Parliament Buildings as a part of a larger envisioned planned capital. The property is surrounded by several roadways including O'Connor Street to the west, and Metcalfe Street to the east. The southern and northern portions of Metcalfe Street also terminate north and south of the building, as it detours to the east of the property. The building is the first purpose-built museum building erected in Canada. The federal government authorized the construction of the building in 1901, in honour of Queen Victoria; with construction for the building taking place between 1905 and 1911. After its completion, the building housed the national museums, in addition to the National Gallery of Canada from 1911 to 1959. The building's auditorium also housed the Ottawa Little Theatre until 1916. The theatre company was forced to vacate the space after a fire ravaged Centre Block, forcing the temporary relocation of the parliament to the building until 1920. The Canadian Museum of Nature became the building's sole occupant after the Canadian Museum of Civilization relocated to another facility in 1988. On 23 February 1990, the building was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada, given the building's importance to the development of museology in Canada, as well as for its architecture. Design The Tudor-Gothic Revival-style building was designed by David Ewart, the Chief Architect of the Department of Public Works. Tudor-Gothic detailing may be found throughout the building; including its original entrance that includes a triple arch with neo-gothic tracery, pointed arch windows, decorative buttresses, and crenellations and corner turret. Many of the carvings found on the building depict Canadian flora and fauna. In addition to its Tudor-Gothic detailing, the design and orientation of the building also draw upon Beaux-Arts architectural principles. The interior is also embellished with carved wood and bronze balustrades, mosaic floors, marble and plaster detailing and decorative works, and stained glass windows. The interior spaces are centred around a formal hall from which all the museum's other spaces are accessible. The building initially included a central tower at its entrance. However the original tower caused the building to "sink" as the original design did not account for the Leda clay the structure was built on; resulting in the original tower's removal several years after the building opened. A glass and steel tower erected in the place of the former central tower was built between 2004 and 2010. The new central tower named the Queens' Lantern was formally opened in May 2010. The glass tower houses a butterfly staircase that was installed to improve visitor circulation in the museum. The construction of the Queens' Lantern formed a part of a larger rehabilitation project undertaken by the museum between 2004 and 2010; including a partially below-grade expansion to the south of the building, which included laboratories, the shipping and receiving area, workshops, and a green roof; the latter feature used as an outdoor public gathering place. The area surrounding the building's south-side expansion includes green spaces, a greenhouse, and a live animal display area. Other renovations included extensive redesigns to the exhibitions, seismic and building code upgrades, mechanical and electrical system upgrades, asbestos removal, and repairing and restoring the masonry on the building. Designs for the 2004-2010 renovations, including the Queens' Lantern, was a joint effort between Barry Padolsky Associates Inc., KPMB Architects, and Gagnon Joint Venture Architects; with PCL Construction contracted to renovate and build the expansion. Materials used to erect the building include Tyndall stone, steel frames, reinforced concrete, stone exterior cladding, and sandstone. Most of the sandstone used in the building was quarried from Nepean, Ontario, Wallace, Nova Scotia, and several communities in Quebec. Granite used in the building was quarried from Stanstead, Quebec. Natural Heritage Campus The Natural Heritage Campus houses the museum's administrative offices, scientific facilities, and collection storage. Situated in Gatineau, Quebec, the campus was opened by the museum in 1997. The building itself is , and offers workspaces, in addition to laboratory spaces. The building includes three environmentally controlled "pods," housing 42 individual collection rooms and nine documentation rooms. More than 3,000 cabinets are used in the facility's storage spaces to house the museum's specimens. To help preserve the specimens, none of the storage facilities share a wall with the exterior of the building; with a specially sealed corridor surrounding its storage spaces. Exhibitions The museum has seven permanent exhibitions at its Victoria Memorial Museum Building. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the museum also hosts and organizes several travelling exhibitions. The permanent exhibitions at the museum include the Bird Gallery; with over 500 specimens mounted throughout the gallery, representing over 450 species. Several diorama backgrounds featured in the Bird Gallery were painted by James Perry Wilson. The Mammal Gallery is a gallery centred on mammals found in Canada, and also includes several dioramas painted by Clarence Tillenius during the mid-20th century. The Earth Gallery is a permanent exhibition focused on minerals, rocks, and other geological forces. A goodwill Lunar sample gifted to Canada by the United States is on display in the Earth Gallery. The Fossil Gallery is another permanent exhibition that contains fossils from dinosaurs, mammals, and marine animals from approximately 35 to 85 million years ago; including over 30 nearly complete sets of dinosaur skeletons dating between 65 and 85 million years old. A fairly complete specimen of an Edmontosaurus in the museum's Fossil Gallery was the first specimen to be mounted in a Canadian museum; having been acquired by the museum in 1912 and on display since 1913. The other permanent exhibitions include Nature Live, a gallery that houses live arachnids, insects and other invertebrates; and the Water Gallery, which focuses on marine animals and hydrology. The newest permanent exhibition to be introduced at the museum is the Canada Goose Arctic Experience, with over 200 specimens and artifacts from the Canadian Arctic on display in the exhibition. The Arctic Experience gallery was opened in June 2017, coinciding with the 150th anniversary celebrations for Canada. The Arctic Experience gallery encompasses , and is divided into four themed areas that cover climate, ecosystems, geography, and sustainability; in addition to a Beyond Ice installation. The Beyond Ice installation provides visitors a sensory experience of the Arctic region, and was designed alongside the National Film Board of Canada. Although many of the items on display in the Arctic Experience gallery form a part of the museum's collection, the seal-skin kayak, and the items originating from John Franklin's lost expedition were loaned to the museum by the Government of Nunavut. Canada Goose Inc. is the gallery's title sponsor. Collections Collecting efforts by the Canadian Museum of Nature forms a part of the museum's core mandate, with the collection intended to be used to facilitate "interest in, knowledge of and appreciation and respect for the natural world." The museum's collection includes algae, amphibians, birds, bryophytes, fishes, gemstones, invertebrate animals, lichens, mammals, minerals, mosses, palaeobotany material, reptiles, rocks, vascular plants, and vertebrate fossils. In addition these specimens, the museum's collection also includes a collection of art and film pertaining to natural history, audio recording of animal behaviours, and animal models; the latter two typically employed in the museum's exhibitions. As of February 2017 the museum's collection includes over 14.6 million specimens, forming the largest collection of biological specimens in Canada. Although a number of these items are on display in its exhibitions, many of these specimens are held at an off-site storage facility, the Natural Heritage Campus in Gatineau, Quebec. The off-site facility holds over 3.1 million accessioned lots representing more than 10.6 million specimens. As of 2014, approximately 22 per cent of the accessioned lots have been digitized and may be viewed through an online database. Since 2001, there were approximately 43,000 specimens added to the museum's collections annually; acquired primarily through fieldwork by staff, research associates and other collaborators. The first items from the museum's collection originated from the collecting efforts of John Macoun, who was hired as the museum's first biologist by the Geological Survey of Canada in 1882. Other early researchers who helped build up the institution's collections includes Erling Porsild, Charles Mortram Sternberg, and Percy A. Taverner. In addition to museum staff, the museum's collection also includes specimens collected from other naturalists including Catharine Parr Traill. The museum's collection includes over 25 scrapbooks from Traill from 1866 to 1899, forming the largest collection of plant pressings by Traill. The Traill collection forms a part of the National Herbarium of Canada, the museum's botany collection. The museum's herpetology collection includes over 133,000 specimens, and forms the world's largest collection of herpetological specimens that originate from Canada. The museum also holds the largest collection of Arctic plant specimens from Canada; with over 100,000 Arctic plant specimens forming part of the National Herbarium of Canada collection. The museum's collection also includes the skull of an Albertosaurus, the first dinosaur skull found in Canada; discovered by Joseph Tyrrell. Other specimens from its fossil collection include the holotypes for the Daspletosaurus torosus and the Vagaceratops. The former skeletal set was initially mistaken for a Gorgosaurus although research conducted by the museum during the 1960s determined that the fossils were a new species of dinosaur. The holotype for the Vagaceratops was similarly mistaken for a different species when its fossils were first delivered to the museum in 1958; with museum researchers later discovering the fossil was a new species after removing it from the plaster field during the 1990s. In 2015, the museum received over 60 specimens of the Tiktaalik roseae. The species was discovered by American paleontologists Edward Daeschler, Farish Jenkins, and Neil Shubin on Ellesmere Island, who studied the fossils in the United States before they were sent to the Canadian Museum of Nature. Research Supporting, and conducting research into natural history forms a part of the museum's core mandate according to the Museum Act. The museum's Research Services are split into two disciplines, life sciences and earth sciences. The museum operates two cross-disciplinary centres, the Beaty Centre for Species Discovery and the Centre for Arctic Knowledge and Exploration. Museum researchers have been conducting research on Arctic flora since the 1980s, with a particular emphasis on alkali grass. Other major research programs the museum took part in includes several excavations of the Foremost Formation for dinosaur remains, and the China-Canada Dinosaur Project between 1986 and 1991. Between 1972 and 1995, the institution published its own scientific journal, Syllogeus. Library and archives The museum also operates a library and archive at the Natural Heritage Centre. The library contains over 35,000 books, 2,000 periodic titles, museum publications, and microfilms relating to natural history. The museum's archives contain three collections, archival records relating to the museum; a photograph collection of more than 275,000 slides, photos, negatives, and plates; and an art collection of 1,800 works primarily focused on nature. See also List of museums in Ottawa List of natural history museums Royal eponyms in Canada Notes References Further reading External links Museums in Ottawa Nature Natural history museums in Ontario Natural history museums in Quebec Federal departments and agencies of Canada Canadian federal Crown corporations Gothic Revival architecture in Ottawa Scottish baronial architecture in Canada Parliament of Canada buildings Fossil museums in Canada Paleontology in Canada National Historic Sites in Ontario Designated heritage properties in Ottawa Paleontology in Ontario Paleontology in Quebec
419342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Cameron	David Cameron	David William Donald Cameron (born 9 October 1966) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2016 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 2005 to 2016. He served as Leader of the Opposition from 2005 to 2010, and was Member of Parliament (MP) for Witney from 2001 to 2016. He identifies as a one-nation conservative, and has been associated with both economically liberal and socially liberal policies. Born in London to an upper-middle-class family, Cameron was educated at Heatherdown School, Eton College, and Brasenose College, Oxford. From 1988 to 1993 he worked at the Conservative Research Department, latterly assisting the Conservative Prime Minister John Major, before leaving politics to work for Carlton Communications in 1994. Becoming an MP in 2001, he served in the opposition shadow cabinet under Conservative leader Michael Howard, and succeeded Howard in 2005. Cameron sought to rebrand the Conservatives, embracing an increasingly socially liberal position, and introducing the "A-List" to increase the number of female and minority ethnic Conservative MPs. Following the 2010 general election, negotiations led to Cameron becoming prime minister as the head of a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats. His premiership was marked by the ongoing effects of the global financial crisis; these involved a large deficit in government finances that his government sought to reduce through austerity measures. His administration passed the Health and Social Care Act and the Welfare Reform Act, which introduced large-scale changes to healthcare and welfare. It also enforced stricter immigration policies, introduced reforms to education and oversaw the 2012 London Olympics. It privatised the Royal Mail and some other state assets, and legalised same-sex marriage in England and Wales. Internationally, Cameron's government intervened militarily in the First Libyan Civil War and authorised the bombing of the Islamic State. Domestically, his government oversaw the referendum on voting reform and Scottish independence referendum, both of which confirmed Cameron's favoured outcome. When the Conservatives secured an unexpected majority in the 2015 general election, he remained as prime minister, this time leading a Conservative-only government. To fulfil a manifesto pledge, Cameron introduced a referendum on the UK's continuing membership of the EU in 2016. He supported the Britain Stronger in Europe campaign for the UK to remain in the European Union. Following the success of the Leave vote, Cameron resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by Theresa May, his home secretary. He has been the president of Alzheimer's Research UK since 2017. Cameron has been praised for modernising the Conservative Party and for decreasing the United Kingdom's national deficit. However, he has been criticised for his decision to hold the referendum on Britain's membership of the EU, which led to political instability in the UK during the late 2010s. After leaving office, he was implicated in the Greensill scandal after lobbying government ministers and civil servants on behalf of Greensill Capital. Historians and scholars rank Cameron as an average to below-average prime minister. Early life and career Early family life David William Donald Cameron was born on 9 October 1966 in Marylebone, London, and raised at Peasemore in Berkshire. His siblings consist of two sisters and an elder brother, Alexander Cameron KC (1963–2023), a barrister, who died of cancer. He is the younger son of Ian Donald Cameron (1932–2010) a stockbroker, and his wife Mary Fleur, a retired Justice of the Peace and a daughter of Sir William Mount, 2nd Baronet. Cameron is a descendant of William IV, through one of the king's illegitimate children. Cameron's father, Ian, was born at Blairmore House near Huntly, Aberdeenshire, and died near Toulon, France, on 8 September 2010; Blairmore was built by Cameron's great-great-grandfather, Alexander Geddes, who had made a fortune in the grain trade in Chicago, Illinois, before returning to Scotland in the 1880s. Blairmore was sold soon after Ian's birth. Cameron has said, "On my mother's side of the family, her mother was a Llewellyn, so Welsh. I'm a real mixture of Scottish, Welsh, and English." He has also referenced the German Jewish ancestry of one of his great-grandfathers, Arthur Levita, a descendant of the Yiddish author Elia Levita. Education From the age of seven, Cameron was educated at two private schools: at Heatherdown School in Winkfield, Berkshire. The school counts Prince Andrew and Prince Edward among its old boys. Owing to good grades, he entered its top academic class almost two years early. At the age of 13 he went on to Eton College in Berkshire, following his father and elder brother. His early interest was in art. Six weeks before taking his O-Levels, he was caught smoking cannabis. He admitted the offence and had not been involved in selling drugs, so he was not expelled; instead he was fined, prevented from leaving the school grounds, and given a "Georgic" (a punishment that involved copying 500 lines of Latin text). Cameron passed twelve O-Levels and then three A-levels: History of art; History, in which he was taught by Michael Kidson; and Economics with Politics. He obtained three 'A' grades and a '1' grade in the Scholarship Level exam in Economics and Politics. The following autumn, he passed the entrance exam for the University of Oxford, and was offered an exhibition at Brasenose College. After leaving Eton in 1984, Cameron started a nine-month gap year. For three months he worked as a researcher for his godfather Tim Rathbone, then Conservative MP for Lewes, during which time he attended debates in the House of Commons. Through his father, he was then employed for a further three months in Hong Kong by Jardine Matheson as a 'ship jumper', an administrative post. Returning from Hong Kong, Cameron visited the then-Soviet Union, where he was approached by two Russian men speaking fluent English. He was later told by one of his professors that it was "definitely an attempt" by the KGB to recruit him. In October 1985, Cameron began his Bachelor of Arts course in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) at Brasenose College, Oxford. His tutor, Vernon Bogdanor, has described him as "one of the ablest" students he has taught, with "moderate and sensible Conservative" political views. Guy Spier, who shared tutorials with him, remembers him as an outstanding student: "We were doing our best to grasp basic economic concepts. David—there was nobody else who came even close. He would be integrating them with the way the British political system is put together. He could have lectured me on it, and I would have sat there and taken notes." When commenting in 2006 on his former pupil's ideas about a "Bill of Rights" to replace the Human Rights Act, however, Bogdanor, himself a Liberal Democrat, said, "I think he is very confused. I've read his speech and it's filled with contradictions. There are one or two good things in it but one glimpses them, as it were, through a mist of misunderstanding". While at Oxford, Cameron was a member of the Bullingdon Club, an exclusive all male student dining society with a reputation for an outlandish drinking culture associated with boisterous behaviour and damaging property. In his 2019 memoir Cameron wrote about being a member of the Bullingdon and its impact on his political career, saying: "When I look now at the much-reproduced photograph taken of our group of appallingly over-self-confident 'sons of privilege', I cringe. If I had known at the time the grief I would get for that picture, of course I would never have joined. But life isn't like that..."These were also the years after the ITV adaptation of Brideshead Revisited when quite a few of us were carried away by the fantasy of an Evelyn Waugh-like Oxford existence. Cameron's period in the Bullingdon Club was examined in a 2009 Channel 4 docu-drama, When Boris Met Dave, the title referring to Boris Johnson, another high-profile Conservative party figure, who was then Mayor of London at the time of the film had been a member at the same time and who would go on to be Prime Minister himself years later. Cameron graduated in 1988 with a first-class honours BA degree (later promoted to an MA by seniority). Early political career Conservative Research Department After graduation, Cameron worked for the Conservative Research Department between September 1988 and 1993. His first brief was Trade and Industry, Energy and Privatisation; he befriended fellow young colleagues, including Edward Llewellyn, Ed Vaizey and Rachel Whetstone. They and others formed a group they called the "Smith Square set", which was dubbed the "Brat Pack" by the press, though it is better known as the "Notting Hill set", a name given to it pejoratively by Derek Conway. In 1991, Cameron was seconded to Downing Street to work on briefing John Major for the then twice-weekly sessions of Prime Minister's Questions. One newspaper gave Cameron the credit for "sharper ... Despatch box performances" by Major, which included highlighting for Major "a dreadful piece of doublespeak" by Tony Blair (then the Labour Employment spokesman) over the effect of a national minimum wage. He became head of the political section of the Conservative Research Department, and in August 1991 was tipped to follow Judith Chaplin as political secretary to the prime minister. However, Cameron lost to Jonathan Hill, who was appointed in March 1992. Instead, Cameron was given the responsibility for briefing Major for his press conferences during the 1992 general election. During the campaign, Cameron was one of the young "brat pack" of party strategists who worked between 12 and 20 hours a day, sleeping in the house of Alan Duncan in Gayfere Street, Westminster, which had been Major's campaign headquarters during his bid for the Conservative leadership. Cameron headed the economic section; it was while working on this campaign that Cameron first worked closely with and befriended Steve Hilton, who was later to become Director of Strategy during his party leadership. The strain of getting up at 04:45 every day was reported to have led Cameron to decide to leave politics in favour of journalism. Special Adviser to the Chancellor The Conservatives' unexpected success in the 1992 election led Cameron to hit back at older party members who had criticised him and his colleagues, saying "whatever people say about us, we got the campaign right", and that they had listened to their campaign workers on the ground rather than the newspapers. He revealed he had led other members of the team across Smith Square to jeer at Transport House, the former Labour headquarters. Cameron was rewarded with a promotion to Special Adviser to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Norman Lamont. Cameron was working for Lamont at the time of Black Wednesday, when pressure from currency speculators forced the pound sterling out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism. At the 1992 Conservative Party conference, Cameron had difficulty trying to arrange to brief the speakers in the economic debate, having to resort to putting messages on the internal television system imploring the mover of the motion, Patricia Morris, to contact him. Later that month, Cameron joined a delegation of Special Advisers who visited Germany to build better relations with the Christian Democratic Union; he was reported to be "still smarting" over the Bundesbank's contribution to the economic crisis. Lamont fell out with John Major after Black Wednesday and became highly unpopular with the public. Taxes needed to be raised in the 1993 Budget, and Cameron fed the options Lamont was considering through to Conservative Campaign Headquarters for their political acceptability to be assessed. By May 1993, the Conservatives' average poll rating dropped below 30%, where they would remain until the 1997 general election. Major and Lamont's personal ratings also declined dramatically. However, Lamont's unpopularity did not necessarily affect Cameron, who was considered as a potential "kamikaze" candidate for the Newbury by-election, which includes the area where he grew up. However, he decided not to stand. During the by-election, Lamont gave the response "Je ne regrette rien" to a question about whether he most regretted claiming to see "the green shoots of recovery" or admitting to "singing in his bath" with happiness at leaving the European Exchange Rate Mechanism. Cameron was identified by one journalist as having inspired this gaffe; it was speculated that the heavy Conservative defeat in Newbury may have cost Cameron his chance of becoming Chancellor himself, even though as he was not a Member of Parliament he could not have been. Lamont was sacked at the end of May 1993, and decided not to write the usual letter of resignation; Cameron was given the responsibility to issue to the press a statement of self-justification. Special Adviser to the Home Secretary After Lamont was sacked, Cameron remained at the Treasury for less than a month before being specifically recruited by Home Secretary Michael Howard. It was commented that he was still "very much in favour" and it was later reported that many at the Treasury would have preferred Cameron to carry on. At the beginning of September 1993, Cameron applied to go on Conservative Central Office's list of prospective parliamentary candidates (PPCs). Cameron was much more socially liberal than Howard but enjoyed working for him. According to Derek Lewis, then Director-General of Her Majesty's Prison Service, Cameron showed him a "his and her list" of proposals made by Howard and his wife, Sandra. Lewis said that Sandra Howard's list included reducing the quality of prison food, although she denied this claim. Lewis reported that Cameron was "uncomfortable" about the list. In defending Sandra Howard and insisting that she made no such proposal, the journalist Bruce Anderson wrote that Cameron had proposed a much shorter definition on prison catering which revolved around the phrase "balanced diet", and that Lewis had written thanking Cameron for a valuable contribution. During his work for Howard, Cameron often briefed the media. In March 1994, someone leaked to the press that the Labour Party had called for a meeting with John Major to discuss a consensus on the Prevention of Terrorism Act. After an inquiry failed to find the source of the leak, Labour MP Peter Mandelson demanded assurance from Howard that Cameron had not been responsible, which Howard gave. A senior Home Office civil servant noted the influence of Howard's Special Advisers, saying previous incumbents "would listen to the evidence before making a decision. Howard just talks to young public school gentlemen from the party headquarters." Carlton In July 1994, Cameron left his role as Special Adviser to work as the Director of Corporate Affairs at Carlton Communications. Carlton, which had won the ITV franchise for London weekdays in 1991, was a growing media company which also had film-distribution and video-producing arms. Cameron was suggested for the role to Carlton executive chairman Michael P. Green by his later mother-in-law Lady Astor. Cameron left Carlton to run for Parliament in 1997, returning to his job after his defeat. In 1997, Cameron played up the company's prospects for digital terrestrial television, for which it joined with ITV Granada and Sky to form British Digital Broadcasting. In a roundtable discussion on the future of broadcasting in 1998 he criticised the effect of overlapping different regulators on the industry. Carlton's consortium did win the digital terrestrial franchise but the resulting company suffered difficulties in attracting subscribers. Cameron resigned as Director of Corporate Affairs in February 2001 in order to run for Parliament for a second time, although he remained on the payroll as a consultant. Parliamentary candidacies Having been approved for the PPCs' list, Cameron began looking for a seat to contest for the 1997 general election. He was reported to have missed out on selection for Ashford in December 1994, after failing to get to the selection meeting as a result of train delays. In January 1996, when two shortlisted contenders dropped out, Cameron was interviewed and subsequently selected for Stafford, a constituency revised in boundary changes, which was projected to have a Conservative majority. The incumbent Conservative MP, Bill Cash, ran instead in the neighbouring constituency of Stone, where he was re-elected. At the 1996 Conservative Party Conference, Cameron called for tax cuts in the forthcoming Budget to be targeted at the low-paid and to "small businesses where people took money out of their own pockets to put into companies to keep them going". He also said the Party "should be proud of the Tory tax record but that people needed reminding of its achievements ... It's time to return to our tax-cutting agenda. The socialist prime ministers of Europe have endorsed Tony Blair because they want a federal pussy cat and not a British lion." When writing his election address, Cameron made his own opposition to British membership of the single European currency clear, pledging not to support it. This was a break with official Conservative policy but about 200 other candidates were making similar declarations. Otherwise, Cameron kept closely to the national party line. He also campaigned using the claim that a Labour government would increase the cost of a pint of beer by 24p; however, the Labour candidate, David Kidney, portrayed Cameron as "a right-wing Tory". Initially Cameron thought he had a 50/50 chance, but as the campaign wore on and the scale of the impending Conservative defeat grew, Cameron prepared himself for defeat. On election day, Stafford had a swing of 10.7%, almost the same as the national swing, which made it one of the many seats to fall to Labour: Kidney defeated Cameron by 24,606 votes (47.5%) to 20,292 (39.2%), a majority of 4,314 (8.3%). In the round of selection contests taking place in the run-up to the 2001 general election, Cameron again attempted to be selected for a winnable seat. He tried for the Kensington and Chelsea seat after the death of Alan Clark, but did not make the shortlist. He was in the final two but narrowly lost at Wealden in March 2000, a loss ascribed by Samantha Cameron to his lack of spontaneity when speaking. On 4 April 2000, Cameron was selected as PPC for Witney in Oxfordshire. This had been a safe Conservative seat, but its sitting MP Shaun Woodward (who had worked with Cameron on the 1992 election campaign) had "crossed the floor" to join the Labour Party and was selected instead for the safe Labour seat of St Helens South. Cameron's biographers Francis Elliott and James Hanning describe the two men as being "on fairly friendly terms". Cameron, advised in his strategy by friend Catherine Fall, put a great deal of effort into "nursing" his potential constituency, turning up at social functions, and attacking Woodward for changing his mind on fox hunting to support a ban. During the election campaign, Cameron accepted the offer of writing a regular column for The Guardians online section. He won the seat with a 1.9% swing to the Conservatives, taking 22,153 votes (45%) to Labour candidate Michael Bartlet's 14,180 (28.8%), a majority of 7,973 (16.2%). In office Member of Parliament, 2001–2005 Upon his election to Parliament, he served as a member of the Commons Home Affairs Select Committee, a prominent appointment for a newly elected MP. Cameron proposed that the Committee launch an inquiry into the law on drugs, and urged the consideration of "radical options". The report recommended a downgrading of ecstasy from Class A to Class B, as well as moves towards a policy of 'harm reduction', which Cameron defended. Cameron endorsed Iain Duncan Smith in the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election and organised an event in Witney for party supporters to hear John Bercow speaking for him. Two days before Duncan Smith won the leadership contest on 13 September 2001, the 9/11 attacks occurred. Cameron described Tony Blair's response to the attacks as "masterful", saying "He moved fast, and set the agenda both at home and abroad. He correctly identified the problem of Islamist extremism, the inadequacy of our response both domestically and internationally, and supported – quite rightly in my view – the action to remove the Taliban regime from Afghanistan." Cameron determinedly attempted to increase his public visibility, offering quotations on matters of public controversy. He opposed the payment of compensation to Gurbux Singh, who had resigned as head of the Commission for Racial Equality after a confrontation with the police; and commented that the Home Affairs Select Committee had taken a long time to discuss whether the phrase "black market" should be used. However, he was passed over for a front-bench promotion in July 2002; Conservative leader Iain Duncan Smith did invite Cameron and his ally George Osborne to coach him on Prime Minister's Questions in November 2002. The next week, Cameron deliberately abstained in a vote on allowing same-sex and unmarried couples to adopt children jointly, against a whip to oppose; his abstention was noted. The wide scale of abstentions and rebellious votes destabilised the Duncan Smith leadership. In June 2003, Cameron was appointed a shadow minister in the Privy Council Office as a deputy to Eric Forth, then Shadow Leader of the House. He also became a vice-chairman of the Conservative Party when Michael Howard took over the leadership in November of that year. He was appointed Opposition frontbench local government spokesman in 2004, before being promoted to the Shadow Cabinet that June as head of policy co-ordination. Later, he became Shadow Education Secretary in the post-election reshuffle. Daniel Finkelstein has said of the period leading up to Cameron's election as leader of the Conservative party that "a small group of us (myself, David Cameron, George Osborne, Michael Gove, Nick Boles, Nick Herbert I think, once or twice) used to meet up in the offices of Policy Exchange, eat pizza, and consider the future of the Conservative Party". Cameron's relationship with Osborne is regarded as particularly close; Conservative MP Nadhim Zahawi suggested the closeness of Osborne's relationship with Cameron meant the two effectively shared power during Cameron's time as prime minister. From February 2002 to August 2005 he was a non-executive director of Urbium PLC, operator of the Tiger Tiger bar chain. Conservative Party leadership 2005 leadership election Following the Labour victory in the May 2005 general election, Michael Howard announced his resignation as leader of the Conservative Party and set a lengthy timetable for the leadership election. Cameron announced on 29 September 2005 that he would be a candidate. Parliamentary colleagues supporting him included Boris Johnson, Shadow Chancellor George Osborne, Shadow Defence Secretary and deputy leader of the party Michael Ancram, Oliver Letwin and former party leader William Hague. His campaign did not gain wide support until his speech, delivered without notes, at the 2005 Conservative party conference. In the speech he vowed to make people "feel good about being Conservatives again" and said he wanted "to switch on a whole new generation." His speech was well-received; The Daily Telegraph said speaking without notes "showed a sureness and a confidence that is greatly to his credit". In the first ballot of Conservative MPs on 18 October 2005, Cameron came second, with 56 votes, slightly more than expected; David Davis had fewer than predicted at 62 votes; Liam Fox came third with 42 votes; and Kenneth Clarke was eliminated with 38 votes. In the second ballot on 20 October 2005, Cameron came first with 90 votes; David Davis was second, with 57; and Liam Fox was eliminated with 51 votes. All 198 Conservative MPs voted in both ballots. The next stage of the election process, between Davis and Cameron, was a vote open to the entire party membership. Cameron was elected with more than twice as many votes as Davis and more than half of all ballots issued; Cameron won 134,446 votes on a 78% turnout, to Davis's 64,398. Although Davis had initially been the favourite, it was widely acknowledged that his candidacy was marred by a disappointing conference speech. Cameron's election as the Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition was announced on 6 December 2005. As is customary for an Opposition leader not already a member, upon election Cameron became a member of the Privy Council, being formally approved to join on 14 December 2005, and sworn of the council on 8 March 2006. Reaction to Cameron as Leader Cameron's relative youth and inexperience before becoming leader invited satirical comparison with Tony Blair. Private Eye soon published a picture of both leaders on its front cover, with the caption "World's first face transplant a success". On the left, the New Statesman unfavourably likened his "new style of politics" to Tony Blair's early leadership years. Cameron was accused of paying excessive attention to appearance: ITV News broadcast footage from the 2006 Conservative Party Conference in Bournemouth showing him wearing four different sets of clothes within a few hours. In his column for The Guardian, comedy writer and broadcaster Charlie Brooker described the Conservative leader as "a hollow Easter egg with no bag of sweets inside" in April 2007. On the right of the party, Norman Tebbit, the former Conservative chairman, likened Cameron to Pol Pot, "intent on purging even the memory of Thatcherism before building a New Modern Compassionate Green Globally Aware Party". Quentin Davies MP, who defected from the Conservatives to Labour on 26 June 2007, branded him "superficial, unreliable and [with] an apparent lack of any clear convictions" and stated that David Cameron had turned the Conservative Party's mission into a "PR agenda". Traditionalist conservative columnist and author Peter Hitchens wrote, "Mr Cameron has abandoned the last significant difference between his party and the established left", by embracing social liberalism. The Daily Telegraph correspondent and blogger Gerald Warner was particularly scathing about Cameron's leadership, saying that it alienated traditionalist conservative elements from the Conservative Party. Before he became Conservative leader, Cameron was reportedly known to friends and family as "Dave", though his preference is "David" in public. Labour used the slogan Dave the Chameleon in their 2006 local elections party broadcast to portray Cameron as an ever-changing populist, which was criticised as negative campaigning by the Conservative press including The Daily Telegraph, though Cameron asserted the broadcast had become his daughter's "favourite video". Allegations of recreational drug use During the leadership election, allegations were made that Cameron had used cannabis and cocaine recreationally before becoming an MP. Pressed on this point during the BBC television programme Question Time, Cameron expressed the view that everybody was allowed to "err and stray" in their past. During his 2005 Conservative leadership campaign he addressed the question of drug consumption by remarking that "I did lots of things before I came into politics which I shouldn't have done. We all did." Shadow Cabinet appointments His Shadow Cabinet appointments included MPs associated with the various wings of the party. Former leader William Hague was appointed to the Foreign Affairs brief, while both George Osborne and David Davis were retained, as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer and Shadow Home Secretary respectively. Hague, assisted by Davis, stood in for Cameron during his paternity leave in February 2006. In June 2008, Davis announced his intention to resign as an MP, and was immediately replaced as Shadow Home Secretary by Dominic Grieve; Davis' surprise move was seen as a challenge to the changes introduced under Cameron's leadership. A reshuffle of the Shadow Cabinet was undertaken in January 2009. The chief change was the appointment of former Chancellor of the Exchequer Kenneth Clarke as Shadow Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Secretary, David Cameron stating that "With Ken Clarke's arrival, we now have the best economic team." The reshuffle also saw eight other changes made. European Conservatives and Reformists During his successful 2005 campaign to be elected Leader of the Conservative Party, Cameron pledged that the Conservative Party's Members of the European Parliament would leave the European People's Party group, which had a "federalist" approach to the European Union. Once elected Cameron began discussions with right-wing and Eurosceptic parties in other European countries, mainly in eastern Europe, and in July 2006 he concluded an agreement to form the Movement for European Reform with the Czech Civic Democratic Party, leading to the formation of a new European Parliament group, the European Conservatives and Reformists, in 2009 after the European Parliament elections. Cameron attended a gathering at Warsaw's Palladium cinema celebrating the foundation of the alliance. In forming the caucus, which had 54 MEPs drawn from eight of the 27 EU member states, Cameron reportedly broke with two decades of Conservative co-operation with the centre-right Christian Democrats, the European People's Party (EPP), on the grounds that they are dominated by European federalists and supporters of the Lisbon treaty. EPP leader Wilfried Martens, former prime minister of Belgium, has stated "Cameron's campaign has been to take his party back to the centre in every policy area with one major exception: Europe. ... I can't understand his tactics. Merkel and Sarkozy will never accept his Euroscepticism." Shortlists for Parliamentary candidates Similarly, Cameron's initial "A-List" of prospective parliamentary candidates was attacked by members of his party, and the policy was discontinued in favour of sex-balanced final shortlists. Before being discontinued, the policy had been criticised by senior Conservative MP and former Prisons Spokeswoman Ann Widdecombe as an "insult to women", and she had accused Cameron of "storing up huge problems for the future." South Africa In April 2009, The Independent reported that in 1989, while Nelson Mandela remained imprisoned under the apartheid regime, David Cameron had accepted a trip to South Africa paid for by an anti-sanctions lobby firm. A spokesperson for Cameron responded by saying that the Conservative Party was at that time opposed to sanctions against South Africa and that his trip was a fact-finding mission. However, the newspaper reported that Cameron's then superior at Conservative Research Department called the trip "jolly", saying that "it was all terribly relaxed, just a little treat, a perk of the job. The Botha regime was attempting to make itself look less horrible, but I don't regard it as having been of the faintest political consequence." Cameron distanced himself from his party's history of opposing sanctions against the regime. He was criticised by Labour MP Peter Hain, himself an anti-apartheid campaigner. Raising teaching standards At the launch of the Conservative Party's education manifesto in January 2010, Cameron declared an admiration for the "brazenly elite" approach to education of countries such as Singapore and South Korea and expressed a desire to "elevate the status of teaching in our country". He suggested the adoption of more stringent criteria for entry to teaching and offered repayment of the loans of maths and science graduates obtaining first or 2.1 degrees from "good" universities. Wes Streeting, then president of the National Union of Students, said "The message that the Conservatives are sending to the majority of students is that if you didn't go to a university attended by members of the Shadow Cabinet, they don't believe you're worth as much." Expenses During the MPs expenses scandal in 2009, Cameron said he would lead Conservatives in repaying "excessive" expenses and threatened to expel MPs that refused after the expense claims of several members of his shadow cabinet had been questioned:We have to acknowledge just how bad this is, the public are really angry and we have to start by saying, "Look, this system that we have, that we used, that we operated, that we took part in—it was wrong and we are sorry about that". One day later, The Daily Telegraph published figures showing over five years he had claimed £82,450 on his second home allowance. Cameron repaid £680 claimed for repairs to his constituency home. Although he was not accused of breaking any rules, Cameron was placed on the defensive over mortgage interest expense claims covering his constituency home, after a report in The Mail on Sunday suggested he could have reduced the mortgage interest bill by putting an additional £75,000 of his own money towards purchasing the home in Witney instead of paying off an earlier mortgage on his London home. Cameron said that doing things differently would not have saved the taxpayer any money, as he was paying more on mortgage interest than he was able to reclaim as expenses anyway He also spoke out in favour of laws giving voters the power to "recall" or "sack" MPs accused of wrongdoing. In April 2014, he was criticised for his handling of the expenses row surrounding Culture Secretary Maria Miller, when he rejected calls from fellow Conservative MPs to sack her from the front bench. 2010 general election The Conservatives had last won a general election in 1992. The 2010 general election resulted in the Conservatives, led by Cameron, winning the largest number of seats (306). This was, however, 20 seats short of an overall majority and resulted in the nation's first hung parliament since February 1974. 2010 government formation Talks between Cameron and Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg led to an agreed Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition. Cameron in late 2009 had urged the Liberal Democrats to join the Conservatives in a new "national movement" saying there was "barely a cigarette paper" between them on a large number of issues. The invitation was rejected at the time by the Liberal Democrat leader, Nick Clegg, who said that the Conservatives were totally different from his party and that the Lib Dems were the true "progressives" in UK politics. Prime minister (2010–2016) On 11 May 2010, following the resignation of Gordon Brown as prime minister and on his recommendation, Queen Elizabeth II invited Cameron to form a new administration. At age 43, Cameron became the youngest prime minister since Lord Liverpool in 1812, beating the record previously set by Tony Blair in May 1997. In his first address outside 10 Downing Street, he announced his intention to form a coalition government, the first since the Second World War, with the Liberal Democrats. Cameron outlined how he intended to "put aside party differences and work hard for the common good and for the national interest." As one of his first moves Cameron appointed Nick Clegg, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, as deputy prime minister on 11 May 2010. Between them, the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats controlled 363 seats in the House of Commons, with a majority of 76 seats. In June 2010 Cameron described the economic situation as he came to power as "even worse than we thought" and warned of "difficult decisions" to be made over spending cuts. By the beginning of 2015 he was able to claim that his government's austerity programme had succeeded in halving the budget deficit, although as a percentage of GDP rather than in cash terms. In December 2010, Cameron attended a meeting with FIFA vice-president Chung Mong-joon in which a vote-trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup in England was discussed. Cameron agreed to holding the 2014 Scottish independence referendum and eliminated the "devomax" option from the ballot for a straight out yes or no vote. His support for the successful Better Together campaign extended to making a successful request to the Queen to intervene. He had also backed a successful campaign to retain the status quo in a referendum on changing the voting system held at the request of his coalition partners. The 2016 referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union meant that his tenure as British prime minister saw an unprecedented three referendums on the UK's constitutional future. He supported the introduction of gay marriage despite more of his own Conservative MPs voting against the move than for it, meaning the support of Lib Dem MPs in government and Labour MPs in opposition was required to allow it to pass. Earlier in his term he had managed to secure a huge majority for UK participation in UN-backed military action in Libya, but Cameron became the first prime minister since 1782 to lose a foreign policy vote in the House of Commons over proposed military action against Bashar al-Assad's regime in Syria. Subsequently, Barack Obama asked congressional approval, which was not ultimately granted. Economy In response to the Great Recession, Cameron undertook the austerity programme. This was a deficit reduction programme consisting of sustained reductions in public spending, intended to reduce the government budget deficit and the welfare state in the United Kingdom. The National Health Service and education have been "ringfenced" and protected from direct spending cuts. Together with Chancellor George Osborne, Cameron aimed to eliminate the structural deficit (i.e. deficit on current spending as opposed to investment) and to have government debt falling as a percentage of GDP. By 2015, the deficit as a percentage of GDP had been reduced to half what it was in 2010, and the sale of government assets (mostly the shares of banks nationalised in the 2000s) had resulted in government debt as a proportion of GDP falling. Immigration Cameron said immigration from outside the EU should be subject to annual limits. He said in July 2013 that "in the last decade we have had an immigration policy that's completely lax. The pressure it puts on our public services and communities is too great." In 2015, The Independent reported, "The Conservatives have failed spectacularly to deliver their pledge to reduce net migration to less than 100,000 a year. The Office for National Statistics (ONS) announced a net flow of 298,000 migrants to the UK in the 12 months to September 2014—up from 210,000 in the previous year." Defence and foreign affairs Defence cuts In 2014, Cameron dismissed warnings that his cuts to the UK defence budget had left it less than a "first class-player in terms of defence" and no longer a "full partner" to the United States. In the July 2015 budget Chancellor George Osborne announced that the UK defence spending would meet the NATO target of 2% of GDP. NATO military intervention in Libya Cameron condemned the violence used against anti-Gaddafi protesters at the beginning of the Libyan Civil War After weeks of lobbying by the UK and its allies, on 17 March 2011 the United Nations Security Council approved a no-fly zone to prevent government forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi from carrying out air attacks on anti-Gaddafi rebels. Two days later the UK and the United States fired more than 110 Tomahawk missiles at targets in Libya. Cameron said he was "proud" of the role United Kingdom played in the overthrow of Gaddafi's government. Cameron also stated that UK had played a "very important role", adding that "a lot of people said that Tripoli was completely different to Benghazi and that the two don't get on—they were wrong. ... People who said 'this is all going to be an enormous swamp of Islamists and extremists'—they were wrong". In 2015 through 2016 the Foreign Affairs Select Committee conducted an extensive and highly critical inquiry into the British involvement in the civil war. It concluded that the early threat to civilians had been overstated and that the significant Islamist element in the rebel forces had not been recognised, due to an intelligence failure. By mid-2011 the initial limited intervention to protect Libyan civilians had become a policy of regime change. However that new policy did not include proper support and for a new government, leading to a political and economic collapse in Libya and the growth of ISIL in North Africa. It concluded that Cameron was ultimately responsible for this British policy failure. US President Barack Obama also acknowledged there had been issues with following up the conflict planning, commenting in an interview with The Atlantic magazine that Cameron had allowed himself to be "distracted by a range of other things". Falklands In 2013, in response to Argentina's calls for negotiations over the Falkland Islands' sovereignty, a referendum was called asking Falkland Islanders whether they supported the continuation of their status as an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom. With a turnout of 91.94%, an overwhelming 99.8% voted to remain a British territory with only three votes against. In light of this, Cameron said: "We believe in the Falkland islanders' right to self-determination. They had a referendum. They couldn't have been more clear about wanting to remain with our country and we should protect and defend them". Saudi Arabia Cameron supported Britain's close relationship with Saudi Arabia. In January 2015, Cameron travelled to the Saudi capital Riyadh to pay his respects following the death of the nation's King Abdullah. According to WikiLeaks, Cameron initiated a secret deal with Saudi Arabia ensuring both countries were elected onto the U.N. Human Rights Council. In 2015, Cameron's government announced "firm political support" for the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Shi'a Houthis, re-supplying the Saudi military with weapons and providing them with training. Sri Lanka Cameron reiterated calls for an independent investigation into the alleged war crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan Civil War. "There needs to be proper inquiries into what happened at the end of the war, there needs to be proper human rights, democracy for the Tamil minority in that country" Cameron stated. He stated that, if this investigation was not completed by March 2014, he would press for an independent international inquiry. This followed a visit to Jaffna, a war-ravaged town in the northern part of Sri Lanka; Cameron was the first foreign leader to visit Jaffna since the island once colonised by Britain became independent in 1948. Cameron was mobbed by demonstrators, mostly women, seeking his assistance in tracing missing relatives. Turkey In a speech in Ankara in July 2010, Cameron stated unequivocally his support for Turkey's accession to the EU, citing economic, security and political considerations, and claimed that those who opposed Turkish membership were driven by "protectionism, narrow nationalism or prejudice". In that speech, he was also critical of Israeli action during the Gaza flotilla raid and its Gaza policy, and repeated his opinion that Israel had turned Gaza into a "prison camp", having previously referred to Gaza as "a giant open prison". These views were met with mixed reactions. The Cameron government declined to formally recognise the Ottoman Empire's massacres of Armenians as a "genocide". During the EU referendum campaign, Cameron stated that Turkey was unlikely to be ready to join the EU 'until the year 3000' at its current rate of progress. Israel At the end of May 2011, Cameron stepped down as patron of the Jewish National Fund, becoming the first British prime minister not to be patron of the charity in the 110 years of its existence. In a speech in 2011 Cameron said: "You have a prime minister whose commitment and determination to work for peace in Israel is deep and strong. Britain will continue to push for peace, but will always stand up for Israel against those who wish her harm". He said he wanted to reaffirm his "unshakable" belief in Israel within the same message. He also voiced his opposition to the Goldstone Report, claiming it had been biased against Israel and not enough blame had been placed on Hamas. In March 2014, during his first visit to Israel as prime minister, Cameron addressed Israel's Knesset in Jerusalem, where he offered his full support for peace efforts between Israelis and Palestinians, hoping a two-state solution might be achieved. He also made clear his rejection of trade or academic boycotts against Israel, acknowledged Israel's right to defend its citizens as "a right enshrined in international law," and made note of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, as "the moment when the State of Israel went from a dream to a plan, Britain has played a proud and vital role in helping to secure Israel as a homeland for the Jewish people." During his two-day visit, he met with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and with Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas. Senior Foreign Office minister Baroness Warsi resigned over the Cameron government's decision not to condemn Israel for the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, saying that the government's "approach and language during the current crisis in Gaza is morally indefensible." Military intervention in Iraq and Syria In August 2013, Cameron lost a motion in favour of bombing Syrian armed forces in response to the Ghouta chemical attack, becoming the first prime minister to suffer such a foreign-policy defeat since 1782. In September 2014, MPs passed a motion in favour of British planes joining, at the request of the Iraqi government, a bombing campaign against Islamic State (IS) targets in Iraq; the motion explicitly expressed parliament's disapproval of UK military action in Syria. Cameron promised that, before expanding UK air strikes and ground support to include IS units in Syria, he would seek parliamentary approval. In July 2015, a Freedom of Information (FOI) request by Reprieve revealed that, without the knowledge of UK parliamentarians, RAF pilots had, in fact, been bombing targets in Syria, and that Cameron knew of this. The prime minister, along with Defence Secretary Michael Fallon, faced strong criticism, including from Conservative MPs, for not informing the Commons about this deployment; the Ministry of Defence said that the pilots concerned were "embedded" with foreign military forces, and so were "effectively" operating as such, while Fallon denied that MPs had been, as he put it, "kept in the dark". The Reprieve FoI request also revealed that British drone pilots had been embedded, almost continuously, with American forces at Creech Air Force Base since 2008. These drone operators, who were "a gift of services", meaning the UK still paid their salaries and covered their expenses, had been carrying out operations that included reconnaissance in Syria to assist American strikes against IS. Fallon said that it was "illogical" for the UK not to bomb ISIL in Syria, for the organisation does not "differentiate between Syria and Iraq" and is "organised and directed and administered from Syria". Following the terrorist attacks on Paris in November 2015, for which Islamic State claimed responsibility, Cameron began pushing for a strategy for the Royal Air Force to bomb Syria in retaliation. Cameron set out his case for military intervention to Parliament on 26 November, telling MPs that it was the only way to guarantee Britain's safety and would be part of a "comprehensive" strategy to defeat IS. On 3 December 2015 MPs voted 397–223 in favour of launching air strikes against ISIL targets in Syria. The vote for military action was supported by all but seven members of the Parliamentary Conservative Party, as well as 66 Labour MPs who backed the government in defiance of their leader, Jeremy Corbyn, who had expressed his opposition to air strikes. 2015 general election On 7 May 2015, Cameron was re-elected UK prime minister with a majority in the Commons. The Conservative Party's decisive victory in the general election was a surprise, as most polls and commentators had suggested the outcome was too close to call and that the result would be a second hung parliament. Cameron said of his first term when returned as prime minister for a second term that he was "proud to lead the first coalition government in 70 years" and offered particular thanks to Clegg for his role in it. Forming the first Conservative majority government since 1992, David Cameron became the first prime minister to be re-elected immediately after a full term with a larger popular vote share since Lord Salisbury at the 1900 general election. In response to the November 2015 Paris attacks, Cameron secured the support of the House of Commons to extend air strikes against ISIS into Syria. Earlier that year, Cameron had outlined a five-year strategy to counter Islamist extremism and subversive teachings. 2016 referendum and resignation As promised in the election manifesto, Cameron set a date for a referendum on whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union, and announced that he would be campaigning for Britain to remain within a "reformed EU". The terms of the UK's membership of the EU were re-negotiated, with agreement reached in February 2016. The option to leave came to be known as Brexit (a portmanteau of "British" and "exit"). The referendum was held on 23 June 2016. The result was approximately 52% in favour of leaving the European Union and 48% against, with a turnout of 72%. On 24 June, a few hours after the results became known, Cameron announced that he would resign the office of prime minister by the start of the Conservative Party Conference in October 2016. In a speech the next day outside 10 Downing Street, he stated that, on account of his own advocacy on behalf of remaining in the EU, "I do not think it would be right for me to try to be the captain that steers our country to its next destination." There was some strong criticism made of Cameron and his government following the referendum. Matthew Norman, in an opinion piece in The Independent, called the referendum an act of "indescribably selfish recklessness." In late July, Parliament's Foreign Affairs Select Committee was told that Cameron had refused to allow the Civil Service to make plans for Brexit, a decision the committee described as "an act of gross negligence." His farewell speech as he left No 10 accompanied by his family stressed the value of selfless public service. The Conservative Party leadership election was scheduled for 9 September and the new leader was expected to be in place by the autumn conference, set to begin on 2 October. On 11 July, following the withdrawal of Andrea Leadsom from the Conservative Party leadership election and the confirmation of Theresa May as the new leader of the Conservative Party, Cameron announced he would hold a final cabinet meeting on 12 July and then following a final Prime Minister's Questions submit his resignation to the Queen on the afternoon of 13 July. After his final Prime Minister's Questions, Cameron received a standing ovation from MPs; his final comment was, "I was the future once" – a reference to his 2005 quip to Tony Blair, "he was the future once". Cameron then submitted his resignation to the Queen later that day. Although no longer serving as prime minister, Cameron originally stated that he would continue inside Parliament, on the Conservative backbenches. On 12 September, however, he announced that he was resigning his seat with immediate effect, and was appointed to the Manor of Northstead. He was succeeded as MP for Witney by fellow Conservative Robert Courts. The Washington Post described him as having "sped away without glancing back" once Theresa May had "vaulted herself out of the hurricane-strength political wreckage of Britain's vote to leave the European Union." Political views and image Self-description of views Cameron described himself in December 2005 as a "modern compassionate conservative" and spoke of a need for a new style of politics, saying that he was "fed up with the Punch and Judy politics of Westminster". He was "certainly a big Thatcher fan, but I don't know whether that makes me a Thatcherite", saying he was a "liberal Conservative", though "not a deeply ideological person." As Leader of the Opposition, Cameron asserted that he did not intend to oppose the government as a matter of course, and would offer his support in areas of agreement. He has urged politicians to concentrate more on improving people's happiness and "general well-being", instead of focusing solely on "financial wealth". There were claims that he described himself to journalists at a dinner during the leadership contest as the "heir to Blair". In his first Conservative conference speech as party leader in Bournemouth in 2006, he described the National Health Service as "one of the 20th Century's greatest achievements". He went on to say, "Tony Blair explained his priorities in three words: education, education, education. I can do it in three letters: N.H.S." He also talked about his severely disabled son, Ivan, concluding "So, for me, it is not just a question of saying the NHS is safe in my hands—of course it will be. My family is so often in the hands of the NHS, so I want them to be safe there." Cameron said that he believed in "spreading freedom and democracy, and supporting humanitarian intervention" in cases such as the genocide in Darfur, Sudan. However, he rejected neoconservatism because, as a conservative, he recognises "the complexities of human nature, and will always be sceptical of grand schemes to remake the world." A supporter of multilateralism as "a country may act alone—but it cannot always succeed alone", he believes multilateralism can take the form of acting through "NATO, the UN, the G8, the EU and other institutions", or through international alliances. Cameron said that "If the West is to help other countries, we must do so from a position of genuine moral authority" and "we must strive above all for legitimacy in what we do." He believes that British Muslims have a duty to integrate into British culture, but noted in an article published in 2007 that the Muslim community finds aspects such as high divorce rates and drug use uninspiring, and that "Not for the first time, I found myself thinking that it is mainstream Britain which needs to integrate more with the British Asian way of life, not the other way around." In his first speech as PM on radicalisation and the causes of terrorism in February 2011, Cameron said that 'state multiculturalism' had failed. In 2010, he appointed the first Muslim member of the British cabinet, Baroness Warsi, as a minister without portfolio, and in 2012 made her a special minister of state in foreign affairs. She resigned, however, in August 2014 over the government's handling of the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict. Whilst urging members of his party to support the coalition's proposals for same-sex marriage, Cameron said that he backed gay marriage not in spite of his conservatism but because he is a conservative, and claimed it was about equality. In 2012, Cameron publicly apologised for Thatcher-era policies on homosexuality, specifically the introduction of the controversial Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, which he described as "a mistake". Home affairs Poverty In 2006 Cameron described poverty as a "moral disgrace" and promised to tackle relative poverty. In 2007 Cameron promised, "We can make British poverty history, and we will make British poverty history". Also in 2007 he stated "Ending child poverty is central to improving child well-being". In 2015, Polly Toynbee questioned Cameron's commitment to tackling poverty, contrasting his earlier statements agreeing that "poverty is relative" with proposals to change the government's poverty measure, and saying that cuts in child tax credits would increase child poverty among low-paid working families. Cameron denied that austerity had contributed to the 2011 England riots, instead blaming street gangs and opportunistic looters. LGBT rights In 2010 Cameron was given a score of 36% in favour of lesbian, gay and bisexual equality by Stonewall. Prior to 2005, Cameron was opposed to gay rights, calling it a "fringe agenda" and attacking Prime Minister Tony Blair for "moving heaven and earth to allow the promotion of homosexuality in our schools" by repealing the anti-gay Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988. Cameron is recorded by Hansard as having voted against same-sex adoption rights in 2002, but he denies this, claiming he abstained from the three-line whip imposed on him by his party. In 2008, he wanted lesbians who receive IVF treatment to be required to name a father figure, which received condemnation from LGBT equality groups. However, Cameron supported commitment for gay couples in a 2005 speech, and in October 2011 urged Conservative MPs to support gay marriage. In November 2012, Cameron and Nick Clegg agreed to fast-track legislation for introducing same-sex marriage. Cameron stated that he wanted to give religious groups the ability to host gay marriage ceremonies, and that he did not want to exclude gay people from a "great institution". In 2013, the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013 became law despite opposition from more than half of his fellow Conservative MPs, including Cabinet ministers Owen Paterson and David Jones. He also subsequently appointed two women who had voted against same-sex marriage as ministers in the Government Equalities Office, Nicky Morgan and Caroline Dinenage following the 2015 general election. In August 2013, he rejected calls by Stephen Fry and others to strip Russia from hosting the 2014 Winter Olympics due to its anti-gay laws. Cameron did not attend the games but denied it was a boycott in protest at Russia's laws, having previously raised the issue of gay rights in the country with Vladimir Putin. Marriage and family values In 2009 Cameron said "the restoration of family values and a new commitment to economic and social responsibility" were "key to repairing 'broken Britain'". In 2013 Cameron described himself as "a marriage man, I am a great supporter of marriage. I want to promote marriage, defend marriage, encourage marriage." As such he rejected calls from Conservative MP Christopher Chope to extend civil partnership rights to heterosexual couples, saying "I think we should be promoting marriage rather than looking at any other way of weakening it." In 2018 the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that this position was discriminatory. Comments on other parties and politicians Cameron criticised Gordon Brown (when Brown was Chancellor of the Exchequer) for being "an analogue politician in a digital age" and referred to him as "the roadblock to reform". As prime minister, he reacted to press reports that Brown could be the next head of the International Monetary Fund by hinting that he may block the appointment, citing the huge national debt that Brown left the country with as a reason for Brown not being suitable for the role. He said that John Prescott "clearly looks a fool" after Prescott's personal indiscretions were revealed in spring 2006, and wondered if the Deputy Prime Minister had broken the ministerial code. During a speech to the Ethnic Media Conference in November 2006, Cameron also described Ken Livingstone, the Mayor of London, as an "ageing far left politician" following Livingstone's criticism of Trevor Phillips, head of the Commission for Racial Equality. In January 2007, Cameron made a speech in which he described extremist Islamic organisations and the British National Party as "mirror images" to each other, both preaching "creeds of pure hatred". Cameron is listed as being a supporter of Unite Against Fascism. In April 2006, Cameron accused the UK Independence Party of being "fruitcakes, loonies and closet racists, mostly", leading UKIP MEP Nigel Farage (who became leader in September of that year) to demand an apology for the remarks. Right-wing Conservative MP Bob Spink, who later defected to UKIP, also criticised the remarks, as did The Daily Telegraph. Cameron was seen encouraging Conservative MPs to join the standing ovation given to Tony Blair at the end of his last Prime Minister's Question Time; he had paid tribute to the "huge efforts" Blair had made and said Blair had "considerable achievements to his credit, whether it is peace in Northern Ireland or his work in the developing world, which will endure". In September 2015, after the election of Jeremy Corbyn as Labour leader, Cameron called the party a "threat" to British national and economic security, on the basis of Corbyn's defence and fiscal policies. Foreign affairs Iraq War In an interview on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross in 2006, Cameron said that he supported the decision of the then Labour Government to go to war in Iraq, and said that he thought supporters should "see it through". He also supported a motion brought by the SNP and Plaid Cymru in 2006 calling for an inquiry into the government's conduct of the Iraq war. In 2011, he oversaw the withdrawal of British soldiers from Iraq. He repeatedly called for the Chilcot Inquiry into the Iraq war to conclude and publish its findings, saying "People want to know the truth". India Cameron was a strong advocate of increased ties between India and the United Kingdom, describing Indian–British relations as the "New Special Relationship" in 2010. In October 2012, as Narendra Modi rose to prominence in India, the UK rescinded its boycott of the then-Gujarat state Chief Minister over religious riots in Gujarat in 2002 that left more than 2,000 dead, and in November 2013, Cameron commented that he was "open" to meeting Modi. Modi was later elected as prime minister in a landslide majority, leading to Cameron calling Modi and congratulating him on the "election success", one of the first Western leaders to do so. Political image Allegations of social elitism While Leader of the Conservative Party, Cameron was accused of reliance on "old-boy networks", and conversely attacked by his party for the imposition of selective shortlists of women and ethnic minority prospective parliamentary candidates. Some of Cameron's senior appointments, such as George Osborne as Chancellor of the Exchequer, are former members of the Bullingdon Club. Michael Gove conceded it was "ridiculous" how many fellow Cabinet ministers were old Etonians, though he placed the blame on the failings of the state education system rather than Cameron. However, Michael Mosbacher, co-founder of Standpoint magazine, wrote that Cameron's Cabinet has the lowest number of Etonians of any past Conservative government: "David Cameron's government is the least patrician, least wealthy and least public-school-educated—indeed the least Etonian Conservative-led government this country has ever seen". Plots against leadership Following poor results in the May 2012 local elections after a difficult few months for the government, with Labour increasing its lead in the polls, there were concerns from Conservative MPs about Cameron's leadership and his electability. David Davies, the chairman of the Welsh Affairs Select Committee, accused the Conservative leadership of "incompetence" and hinted that it could risk Cameron's leadership. Nadine Dorries warned the Prime Minister that a leadership challenge could happen. Later that year, Conservative MP Brian Binley openly said that Cameron's leadership was like being a "maid" to the Liberal Democrats, and accused him of leading the party to defeat. In January 2013 it was revealed that Adam Afriyie was planning his own bid for the Conservative leadership with the support of fellow MPs Mark Field, Bill Wiggin, Chris Heaton-Harris, Patrick Mercer, Jonathan Djanogly and Dan Byles. The Times and ConservativeHome revealed that a 'rebel reserve' of 55 Conservative MPs gave firm pledges to a co-ordinating MP to support a motion of 'no confidence' and write to Brady simultaneously, more than the 46 MPs needed to trigger a vote of no confidence. Andrew Bridgen openly called for a vote of confidence in Cameron's leadership and claimed that the Prime Minister had a "credibility problem" but he dropped his bid for a contest a year later. Cameron and Andy Coulson In 2007 Cameron appointed Andy Coulson, former editor of the News of the World, as his director of communications. Coulson had resigned as the paper's editor following the conviction of a reporter in relation to illegal phone hacking, although stating that he knew nothing about it. In June 2010 Downing Street confirmed Coulson's annual salary as £140,000, the highest pay of any special adviser to UK Government. In January 2011 Coulson left his post, saying coverage of the phone-hacking scandal was making it difficult to give his best to the job. In July 2011 he was arrested and questioned by police in connection with further allegations of illegal activities at the News of the World, and released on bail. Despite a call to apologise for hiring Coulson by the leader of the opposition, Cameron defended the appointment, saying that he had taken a conscious choice to give someone who had screwed up a second chance. The same month, in a special parliamentary session at the House of Commons, arranged to discuss the News International phone hacking scandal, Cameron said that he "regretted the furore" that had resulted from his appointment of Coulson, and that "with hindsight" he would not have hired him. Coulson was detained and charged with perjury by Strathclyde Police in May 2012. Coulson was convicted of conspiracy to hack phones in June 2014. Prior to the jury handing down their verdict, Cameron issued a "full and frank" apology for hiring him, saying "I am extremely sorry that I employed him. It was the wrong decision and I am very clear about that." The judge hearing Coulson's trial was critical of the prime minister, pondering whether the intervention was out of ignorance or deliberate, and demanded an explanation. Cameron and Lord Ashcroft Although Lord Ashcroft played a significant role in the 2010 election, he was not offered a ministerial post. In June 2012, shortly before a major Conservative rebellion on House of Lords reform, journalist Peter Oborne credited Ashcroft with "stopping the Coalition working" by moving policy on Europe, welfare, education, taxation to the right. According to Oborne, Ashcroft, owner of both the ConservativeHome and PoliticsHome websites and a "brutal critic of the Coalition from the start", had established "megaphone presence" in the on-line media. He believes Cameron's philosophy of liberal conservatism has been destroyed by "coordinated attacks on the Coalition" and "the two parties are no longer trying to pretend that they are governing together." In The Observer, Andrew Rawnsley commented that he believes that Ashcroft uses carefully timed opinion polls to "generate publicity", "stir trouble for the prime minister" and influence the direction of the party. In 2015 Ashcroft released Call Me Dave, an unauthorised biography of Cameron written with journalist Isabel Oakeshott, which attracted significant media attention for various lurid allegations about Cameron's time at university. The book includes an anonymous anecdote about Cameron, now referred to as Piggate, in which he allegedly inserted his penis into a dead pig's head. No evidence for the anecdote has been produced. Many commentators have described the accusations as a "revenge job" by Ashcroft, who was not offered a senior role in government when Cameron came to power in 2010. Ashcroft initially claimed the book was "not about settling scores", while Oakeshott said that they had held back publication until after the 2015 general election to avoid damaging Cameron and the Conservatives' electoral chances. Ashcroft subsequently admitted that the initiation allegations "may have been case of mistaken identity" and has stated that he has a personal "beef" with Cameron. Cameron later went on to deny these allegations and stated that Ashcroft's reasons for writing the book were clear and the public could see clearly through it. Standing in opinion polls An ICM poll in September 2007 saw Cameron rated the least popular of the three main party leaders. A YouGov poll on party leaders conducted on 9–10 June 2011 found 44% of the electorate thought he was doing well and 50% thought he was doing badly, whilst 38% thought he would be the best PM and 35% did not know. In the run up to the 2015 election, Cameron achieved his first net positive approval rating in four years, with a YouGov poll finding 47% of voters thought he was doing well as prime minister compared with 46% who thought he was doing badly. In September 2015, an Opinium poll had similar results to the one shortly before the election, with voters split with 42% who approved of him and 41% who did not. Cameron had significantly better net approval ratings in polls conducting in December and January (getting −6 in both) than Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn (who got −38 and −39). However, following the Panama Papers leak in April 2016, his personal approval ratings fell below Corbyn's. Evaluations of premiership In the months immediately following his resignation from the post of prime minister, a number of commentators gave negative evaluations of Cameron's premiership. The University of Leeds' 2016 survey of post-War prime ministers, which collected the views of 82 academics specialising in the history and politics of post-war Britain, ranked Cameron as the third-worst prime minister since 1945, ranking above only Alec Douglas-Home and Anthony Eden. 90% of respondents cited his calling and losing of the Brexit referendum as his greatest failure. Post-premiership (2016–present) On 19 June 2023, Cameron gave evidence to the UK Covid-19 Inquiry. Positions In October 2016, Cameron became chairman of the National Citizen Service Patrons. In January 2017, he was appointed president of Alzheimer's Research UK to address misconceptions surrounding dementia and campaign for medical research funding to tackle the condition. All appointments post-premiership have to be approved by the UK government's Advisory Committee on Business Appointments. In addition to the two posts above they also approved the following positions: Consultant for Illumina Inc. Vice-chair, UK China Fund Director, ONE Consultant for First Data Corp. Member of Council on Foreign Relations Chairman, LSE-Oxford Commission on Growth in Fragile States Registered member of Washington Speakers Bureau Chairman of advisory board, Afiniti Brexit Cameron maintained a low profile following his resignation as prime minister and the subsequent Brexit negotiations. In January 2019, following Theresa May's defeat in the House of Commons over her draft withdrawal agreement, Cameron gave a rare interview to reporters outside his house in Notting Hill, saying he backed May's Brexit deal with the EU and did not regret calling the 2016 referendum. However, he later said that the outcome of the referendum had left him "hugely depressed" and told The Times he knew "some people will never forgive me". He confessed "Every single day I think about it, and the fact that we lost, and the consequences, and the things that could have been done differently, and I worry desperately". Months following Boris Johnson's election as prime minister, Cameron began criticising Johnson's Brexit strategy, including his decision to prorogue parliament ahead of the Brexit deadline of 31 October and the removal of the whip from Conservative MPs who voted to block a no-deal Brexit. Additionally, he accused Johnson, as well as Michael Gove, of behaving "appallingly" during the referendum campaign of 2016. In September 2020, Cameron became the fifth former prime minister to criticise the UK Internal Market Bill, over which he said he had "misgivings". Memoir On 19 September 2019, Cameron published a memoir, For the Record, through HarperCollins. He was reported to have signed an £800,000 contract for the book. According to the Guardian, the book was initially scheduled for 2018, but was delayed so Cameron would not be perceived as a "backstreet driver" in the ongoing Brexit negotiations. Greensill scandal During Cameron's premiership, the financier Lex Greensill, was an unpaid advisor who had access to eleven government departments. In 2018, Cameron became an advisor to Greensill Capital and held share options in the company reportedly worth as much as $60 million as well as being paid over $1 million each year for 25 days work per year. A Panorama investigation concluded that overall, through a combination of his salary and share sales, Cameron earned around $10 million before tax for 30 months part-time work. In 2019, Cameron arranged for a private meeting with Lex Greensill and Secretary of State for Health and Social Care Matt Hancock; under Hancock, several NHS trusts went on to use Greensill Capital's Earnd app. In 2020, a few months before Greensill Capital collapsed, Cameron lobbied the government to bend the rules to allow it to receive Covid Corporate Financing Facility loans. He sent several text messages to Chancellor of the Exchequer Rishi Sunak, who ultimately declined to help Greensill; Cameron also held ten virtual meetings with permanent secretaries Tom Scholar and Charles Roxburgh to try to obtain money for Greensill. The government-owned British Business Bank lent Greensill up to £400m through a different scheme, leading to a potential £335m loss to the taxpayer. After press revelations in 2021 regarding the extent of Greensill Capital's access, a formal investigation was launched by the UK lobbying registrar to be led by Nigel Boardman, a non-executive board member of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. NYU Abu Dhabi In January 2023, Cameron was assigned to teach politics in a three-week course at New York University Abu Dhabi. He was to lecture students on "practising politics and government in the age of disruption", which included topics like the Ukraine war and migration crisis. Migrant crisis In May 2023, Cameron expressed support for the Rwanda asylum plan and Suella Braverman's policies against illegal immigration into the UK, arguing in an interview with LBC "I think if you don't have a better answer to the things that the government is doing to try and stop this illegal trade, then I think there's no point criticising." In popular culture Cameron made a cameo appearance in the BBC television programme Top Gear's India Special, where he tells the trio of Jeremy Clarkson, James May, and Richard Hammond to "stay away from India" after initially denying the group's request to improve economic relations with India in a letter and suggested that they mend fences with Mexico. Cameron later stated through his aides that he did not like the special that he cameoed in, and that he had the "utmost respect" for the people of India. Cameron was portrayed by comedian Jon Culshaw in ITV's satirical sketch show Newzoids, and by Mark Dexter in the Channel 4 television films Coalition and Brexit: The Uncivil War. In 2019, he was interviewed for The Cameron Years, a BBC mini-documentary series on his premiership. Personal life Family Cameron is married to Samantha Cameron (née Sheffield), the daughter of Sir Reginald Sheffield, 8th Baronet, and Annabel Lucy Veronica Jones (later Viscountess Astor). A Marlborough College school friend of Cameron's sister Clare, Samantha accepted Clare's invitation to accompany the Cameron family on holiday in Tuscany, Italy, after graduating from Bristol School of Creative Arts. It was then David and Samantha's romance started. They were married in 1996. The Camerons have had four children. Their first, Ivan Reginald Ian, was born on 8 April 2002 in Hammersmith and Fulham, London, with a rare combination of cerebral palsy and a form of severe epilepsy called Ohtahara syndrome, requiring round-the-clock care. Recalling the receipt of this news, Cameron was quoted as saying: "The news hits you like a freight train ... You are depressed for a while because you are grieving for the difference between your hopes and the reality. But then you get over that, because he's wonderful." Ivan was cared for at the specialist NHS Cheyne Day Centre in West London, which closed shortly after he left it. Ivan died at St Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London, on 25 February 2009, aged six. The Camerons have two daughters, Nancy Gwen (born 2004) and Florence Rose Endellion (born 2010), and a son, Arthur Elwen (born 2006). Cameron took paternity leave when Arthur was born, and this decision received broad coverage. It was also stated that Cameron would be taking paternity leave after his second daughter was born. She was born at the Royal Cornwall Hospital on 24 August 2010, three weeks prematurely, while the family was on holiday in Cornwall. Her third given name, Endellion, is taken from the village of St Endellion near where the Camerons were holidaying. In early May 2008, the Camerons decided to enrol their daughter Nancy at a state primary school. For three years before that, they had been attending its associated church, St Mary Abbots, near the Cameron family home in North Kensington. Cameron's constituency home is in Dean, Oxfordshire, and the Camerons have been described as key members of the Chipping Norton set. On 8 September 2010, it was announced that Cameron would miss Prime Minister's Questions in order to fly to southern France to see his father, Ian Cameron, who had had a stroke with coronary complications. Later that day, his father died. On 17 September 2010, Cameron attended a private ceremony for the funeral of his father in Berkshire, which prevented him from hearing the address of Pope Benedict XVI in Westminster Hall, an occasion he would otherwise have attended. Inheritance and family wealth In October 2010, David Cameron inherited £300,000 from his father's estate. Ian Cameron, who had worked as a stockbroker in the City of London, used multimillion-pound investment funds based in offshore tax havens, such as Jersey, Panama City, and Geneva, to increase the family wealth. In 1982, Ian Cameron created the Panamanian Blairmore Holdings, an offshore investment fund, valued at about $20 million in 1988, "not liable to taxation on its income or capital gains", which used bearer shares until 2006. In April 2016, following the Panama Papers financial documents leak, David Cameron faced calls to resign after it was revealed that he and his wife Samantha invested in Ian Cameron's offshore fund. He owned £31,500 of shares in the fund and sold them for a profit of £19,000 shortly before becoming prime minister in 2010, which he paid full UK tax on. David Cameron argued that the fund was set up in Panama so that people who wanted to invest in dollar-denominated shares and companies could do so, and because full UK tax was paid on all profits he made there was no impropriety. A protest was held in London in April 2016 demanding Cameron's resignation. In 2009, the New Statesman estimated his wealth at , adding that Cameron is expected to inherit "million-pound legacies" from both sides of his family. Leisure Before becoming prime minister, Cameron regularly used his bicycle to commute to work. In early 2006, he was photographed cycling to work, followed by his driver in a car carrying his belongings. His Conservative Party spokesperson subsequently said that this was a regular arrangement for Cameron at the time. Cameron is an occasional jogger and in 2009 raised funds for charities by taking part in the Oxford 5K and the Great Brook Run. Cameron supports Aston Villa. He is also a keen cricket fan and has appeared on Test Match Special. Faith At a Q&A in August 2013, Cameron described himself as a practising Christian and an active member of the Church of England. On religious faith in general he said: "I do think that organised religion can get things wrong but the Church of England and the other churches do play a very important role in society." He said he considers the Bible "a sort of handy guide" on morality. He viewed Britain as a "Christian country" and aimed to put faith back into politics. Honours and awards : 14 December 2005: appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, giving him the honorific "The Right Honourable" for life. : 6 November 2012: Special Class of the Order of King Abdulaziz. As a former Prime Minister, Cameron, with Samantha, had a place of honour at the state funeral of Queen Elizabeth II on 19 September 2022 and the Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla on 6 May 2023. Bibliography See also 2016 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours Muscular liberalism References Further reading Full biography Books about Cameron as leader Published works by and about David Cameron's articles at The Guardian David Cameron: My Legacy: What I Will Be Remembered For. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform 2017, (50 p.) Political career Video News coverage David Cameron collected news and commentary at The Daily Telegraph Brian Wheeler, The David Cameron story, BBC News, 6 December 2005 External links David Cameron official government website David Cameron official Conservative Party profile The Office of David Cameron personal website \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1966 births 20th-century Anglicans 21st-century Anglicans 21st-century English male writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English memoirists 21st-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford British monarchists Bullingdon Club members Carlton Television Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Conservative Party prime ministers of the United Kingdom English Anglicans English people of German-Jewish descent English people of Scottish descent English people of Welsh descent HuffPost bloggers ITV people English LGBT rights activists Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK) Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom) Living people Lobbying in the United Kingdom Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People educated at Eton College People educated at Heatherdown School Politicians from Marylebone People from West Berkshire District Political funding in the United Kingdom Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom UK MPs 2001–2005 UK MPs 2005–2010 UK MPs 2010–2015 UK MPs 2015–2017
419369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk	Monk	A monk (, from , monachos, "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by living a monastic lifestyle, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedicate their life to serving other people and serving God, or to be an ascetic who voluntarily chooses to leave mainstream society and live their life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in philosophy. The Greek word for a "monk" may be applied to women, but the English is mainly in use for men. The word nun is typically used for female monastics. Although the term monachos is of Christian origin, in the English language monk tends to be used loosely also for both male and female ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds. However, being generic, it is not interchangeable with terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such as cenobite, hermit, anchorite, hesychast, or solitary. Traditions of Christian monasticism exist in major Christian denominations, with religious orders being present in Catholicism, Lutheranism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Reformed Christianity (Calvinism), Anglicanism and Methodism. Indian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, also have monastic traditions as well. Buddhism In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhu is the term for monk. Their disciplinary code is called the patimokkha, which is part of the larger Vinaya. They live lives of mendicancy, and go on a morning almsround (Pali: pindapata) every day. The local people give food for the monks to eat, though the monks are not permitted to positively ask for anything. The monks live in monasteries, and have an important function in traditional Asian society. Young boys can be ordained as samaneras. Both bhikkhus and samaneras eat only in the morning, and are not supposed to lead a luxurious life. Their rules forbid the use of money, although this rule is nowadays not kept by all monks. The monks are part of the Sangha, the third of the Triple Gem of Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha. In Mahayana Buddhism, the term 'Sangha' strictly speaking refers to those who have achieved certain levels of understanding. They are therefore called 'community of the excellent ones' (); however, these in turn need not be monks (i.e., hold such vows). Several Mahayana orders accept female practitioners as monks, instead of using the normal title of "nun", and they are considered equal to male ascetics in all respects. The Bhikkhus are only allowed 4 items (other than their robes): a razor, a needle, an alms bowl and a water strainer. In Vajrayana Buddhism, monkhood is part of the system of 'vows of individual liberation'; these vows are taken in order to develop one's own personal ethical discipline. The monks and nuns form the (ordinary) sangha. As for the Vajrayana vows of individual liberation, there are four steps: A lay person may take the 5 vows called 'approaching virtue' (in Tibetan 'genyen' < dge snyan>). The next step is to enter the monastic way of life (Tib. rabjung) which includes wearing monk's or nun's robes. After that, one can become a 'novice' (Pali samanera, Tib. getshül); the last and final step is to take all vows of the 'fully ordained monk' (gelong). This term 'gelong' (Tib. < dge long>, in the female form gelongma) is the translation of Skt. bikshu (for women bikshuni) which is the equivalent of the Pali term bhikkhuni; bhikkhu is the word used in Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand). Chinese Buddhist monks have been traditionally and stereotypically linked with the practice of the Chinese martial arts or Kung fu, and monks are frequently important characters in martial arts films. This association is focused around the Shaolin Monastery. The Buddhist monk Bodhidharma, traditionally credited as the founder of Zen Buddhism in China, is also claimed to have introduced Kalaripayattu (which later evolved into Kung Fu) to the country. This latter claim has however been a source of much controversy (see Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection). One more feature about the Chinese Buddhist monks is that they practice the burning marks on their scalp, finger or part of the skin on their anterior side of the forearm with incense as a sign of ordination. In Thailand and Burma, it is common for boys to spend some time living as a monk in a monastery. Most stay for only a few years and then leave, but a number continue on in the ascetic life for the rest of their lives. In Mongolia during the 1920s, there were about 110,000 monks, including children, who made up about one-third of the male population, many of whom were killed in the purges of Choibalsan. Christianity Western Christianity Catholicism Within Catholicism, a monk is a member of a religious order who lives a communal life in a monastery, abbey, or priory under a monastic rule of life. Benedict of Nursia, (480-543 or 547 AD) is considered to be the founder of western monasticism. He authored the Rule of St. Benedict, which is the foundation for the Order of St. Benedict and all of its reform groups such as the Cistercians and the Trappists. He founded the great Benedictine monastery, Monte Cassino, in 529. The religious vows taken in the West were first developed by St. Benedict. These vows were three in number: obedience, conversion of life, and stability. Obedience calls for the monk to obey Christ, as represented by the superior person of the monastery, which is an abbot or prior. Conversion of life means, generally, that the monk convert himself to the way of a monk, which is death to self and to the world and life to God and to his work. A Christian monk is to be an instrument of God's work. Stability entails that the monk commit himself to the monastery for the remainder of his life, and so, upon death, will be buried at its cemetery. The vow of stability is unique to Benedictines. The solemn vows in other religious communities were eventually established as vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity. Poverty requires that they renounce any ownership of property or assets, except for items that were allowed to them by their superior (such as a religious habit, shoes, a cloak, etc.), and to live meekly, sharing whatever they might have with the poor. Chastity requires that since they were willing to dedicate their lives to God, they sacrificed the love between men and women and would not marry. Also, they give up any act of sexual conduct. To become a monk, one first must become a postulant, during which time the man lives at the monastery to evaluate whether he is called to become a monk. As a postulant, the man is not bound by any vows, and is free to leave the monastery at any time. If the postulant and the community agree that the postulant should become a monk, the man is received as a novice, at which time he is given his religious habit, and begins to participate more fully in the life of the monastery. Following a period as a novice, usually six months to a year, the novice professes temporary vows, which can be renewed for a period of years. After a few years, the monk professes permanent vows, which are binding for life. The monastic life generally consists of prayer in the form of the Liturgy of the Hours (also known as the Divine Office) and divine reading (lectio divina) and manual labor. Among most religious orders, monks live in simple, austere rooms called cells and come together daily to celebrate the Conventual Mass and to recite the Liturgy of the Hours. In most communities, the monks take their meals together in the refectory. While there is no vow of silence, many communities have a period of silence lasting from evening until the next morning and some others restrict talking to only when it is necessary for the monks to perform their work and during weekly recreation. Monks who have been or will be ordained into Holy Orders as priests or deacons are referred to as choir monks, as they have the obligation to recite the entire Divine Office daily in choir. Those monks who are not ordained into Holy Orders are referred to as lay brothers. In most monastic communities today, little distinction exists between the lay brothers and the choir monks. However, historically, the roles of the two groups of monks within the monastery differed. The work of the choir monks was considered to be prayer, chanting the seven hours of the Divine Office and celebrating the Mass daily whereas the lay brothers provided for the material needs of the community by growing food, preparing meals, maintaining the monastery and the grounds. This distinction arose historically because generally those monks who could read Latin typically became choir monks, while those monks who were illiterate or could not read Latin became lay brothers. Since the lay brothers could not recite the Divine Office in Latin, they would instead pray easily memorizable prayers such as the Our Father or the Hail Mary as many as 150 times per day. Since the Second Vatican Council, the distinction between choir monks and lay brothers has been deemphasized, as the council allowed the Divine Office to be said in the vernacular language, effectively opening participation to all of the monks. Within western monasticism, it is important to differentiate between monks and friars. Monks generally live a contemplative life of prayer confined within a monastery while friars usually engage in an active ministry of service to the outside community. The monastic orders include all Benedictines (the Order of Saint Benedict and its later reforms including the Cistercians and the Trappists) and the Carthusians, who live according to their own statutes, and not according to the Rule of St. Benedict. Orders of friars include the Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augustinians. Although the Canons Regular, such as the Norbertines, live in community, they are neither monks nor friars as they are characterized by their clerical state and not by any monastic vows. Lutheranism Further: Lutheran religious orders Loccum Abbey and Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries; after the Reformation, many monasteries and convents were received into the Lutheran Church and continued religious life, existing to this day. Since the 19th and 20th century, there has been a renewal in the monastic life among Lutheranism. Lutheran religious orders in the Franciscan, Benedictine and other traditions exist, with some Lutheran monasteries having third orders and accepting oblates. In American Lutheran traditions, "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's House in Oxford, Michigan, in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there was 2 permanent professed members and 2 long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden (Östanbäck monastery) and in Germany (Priory of St. Wigbert). There is also the Order of Lutheran Franciscans, a religious community of friars and sisters within the tradition of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Anglicanism Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end when King Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church and made himself the head of the Church of England. He initiated the Dissolution of the Monasteries, during which all of the monasteries within England were destroyed. A large number of monks were executed. Others fled to continental European monasteries where they were able to continue their monastic life. Shortly after the beginning of the Anglo-Catholic Movement in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. In the 1840s, the then Anglican priest and future Catholic Cardinal John Henry Newman established a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford. From then on, there have been established many communities of monks, friars and other religious communities for men in the Anglican Communion. There are Anglican Benedictines, Franciscans, Cistercians, and in the Episcopal Church in the United States, Dominicans. There are also uniquely Anglican monastic orders such as the Society of Saint John the Evangelist and the Community of the Resurrection at Mirfield. Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life". Anglican monks recite the Divine Office in choir daily, either the full eight services of the Breviary or the four offices found in the Book of Common Prayer and celebrate the Eucharist daily. Many orders take on external works such as service to the poor, giving religious retreats, or other active ministries within their immediate communities. Like Catholic monks, Anglican monks also take the monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. In the early 20th century when the Oxford Movement was at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundreds of orders and communities and thousands of religious followers. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still several thousand Anglican monks working today in approximately 200 communities around the world. The most surprising growth has been in the Melanesian countries of the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea. The Melanesian Brotherhood, founded at Tabalia, Guadalcanal, in 1925 by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and the United Kingdom. Methodism The Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery is a double monastery of the United Methodist Church rooted in the Benedictine tradition, being located in Collegeville, Minnesota. Besides monastic orders, the Order of Saint Luke is a dispersed religious order within Methodism, though being ecumenical, it accepts believers of other Christian denominations. Reformed Christianity The Emmanuel Sisters is a convent of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon that was founded by Rev Mother Magdaline Marie Handy. These nuns are engaged in prayer, teaching, and healthcare. Eastern Christianity Eastern Orthodox In Eastern Orthodoxy, monasticism holds a very special and important place: "Angels are a light for monks, monks are a light for laymen" (St. John Klimakos). Eastern Orthodox monastics separate themselves from the world in order to pray unceasingly for the world. They do not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services, but instead are concerned with attaining theosis, or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been an obligation of monasticism, so not all monasteries are "cloistered". The level of contact will vary from community to community. Hermits, on the other hand, have little or no contact with the outside world. Eastern Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as are found in the West, nor do they have Rules in the same sense as the Rule of St. Benedict. Rather, Eastern monastics study and draw inspiration from the writings of the Desert Fathers as well as other Church Fathers; probably the most influential of which are the Greater Asketikon and Lesser Asketikon of St. Basil the Great and the Philokalia, which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth. Hesychasm is of primary importance in the ascetical theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Most communities are self-supporting, and the monastic's daily life is usually divided into three parts: (a) communal worship in the catholicon (the monastery's main church); (b) hard manual labour; and (c) private prayer, spiritual study, and rest when necessary. Meals are usually taken in common in a sizable dining hall known as a trapeza (refectory), at elongated refectory tables. Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren reads aloud from the spiritual writings of the Holy Fathers. The monastic lifestyle takes a great deal of serious commitment. Within the cenobitic community, all monks conform to a common way of living based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain this conformity, the monastic comes to realize his own shortcomings and is guided by his spiritual father in how to deal honestly with them. For this same reason, bishops are almost always chosen from the ranks of monks. Eastern monasticism is found in three distinct forms: anchoritic (a solitary living in isolation), cenobitic (a community living and worshiping together under the direct rule of an abbot or abbess), and the "middle way" between the two, known as the skete (a community of individuals living separately but in close proximity to one another, who come together only on Sundays and feast days, working and praying the rest of the time in solitude, but under the direction of an elder). One normally enters a cenobitic community first, and only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the most advanced, become a solitary anchorite. However, one is not necessarily expected to join a skete or become a solitary; most monastics remain in the cenobium the whole of their lives. In general, Eastern Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world, including their own families. The purpose of the monastic life is union with God, the means is through leaving the world (i.e., the life of the passions). After tonsure, Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns are never permitted to cut their hair. The hair of the head and the beard remain uncut as a symbol of the vows they have taken, reminiscent of the Nazarites from the Old Testament. The tonsure of monks is the token of a consecrated life, and symbolizes the cutting off of their self-will. Degrees The process of becoming a monk is intentionally slow, as the vows taken are considered to entail a lifelong commitment to God, and are not to be entered into lightly. In Eastern Orthodox monasticism, after the completion of the novitiate there are three ranks of monasticism. There is only one monastic habit in the Eastern Orthodox Church (with certain slight regional variations), and it is the same for both monks and nuns. Each successive grade is given a portion of the habit, the full habit being worn only by those in the highest grade, known for that reason as the "Great Schema", or "Great Habit". The various profession rites are normally performed by the Abbot, but if the abbot has not been ordained a priest, or if the monastic community is a convent, a hieromonk will perform the service. The abbot or hieromonk who performs a tonsure must be of at least the rank he is tonsuring into. In other words, only a hieromonk who has been tonsured into the Great Schema may himself tonsure a Schemamonk. A bishop, however, may tonsure into any rank, regardless of his own. Novice (Church Slavonic: Poslushnik), lit. "one under obedience"— Those wishing to join a monastery begin their lives as novices. After coming to the monastery and living as a guest for not less than three days, the revered abbot or abbess may bless the candidate to become a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice, he or she simply receives permission to wear the clothing of a novice. In the Eastern monastic tradition, novices may or may not dress in the black inner cassock (Greek: Anterion, Eisorasson; Church Slavonic: Podriasnik) and wear the soft monastic hat (Greek: Skoufos, Church Slavonic: Skufia), depending on the tradition of the local community, and in accordance to the abbot's directives. The inner-cassock and the skoufos are the first part of the Eastern Orthodox monastic habit. In some communities, the novice also wears the leather belt. He is also given a prayer rope and instructed in the use of the Jesus Prayer. If a novice chooses to leave during the period of the novitiate, no penalty is incurred. He may also be asked to leave at any time if his behaviour does not conform to the monastic life, or if the superior discerns that he is not called to monasticism. When the abbot or abbess deems the novice ready, he is asked if he wishes to join the monastery. Some, out of humility, will choose to remain novices all their lives. Every stage of the monastic life must be entered into voluntarily. Rassophore (Church Slavonic: Ryassofor), lit. "Robe-bearer"— If the novice continues on to become a monk, he is clothed in the first degree of monasticism at a formal service known as the Tonsure. Although there are no formal vows made at this point, the candidate is normally required to affirm his commitment to persevere in the monastic life. The abbot will then perform the tonsure, cutting a small amount of hair from four spots on the head, forming a cross. He is then given the outer cassock (Greek: Rasson, Exorasson, or Mandorasson; Church Slavonic: Ryassa)—an outer robe with wide sleeves, something like the cowl used in the West, but without a hood—from which the name of Rassophore derives. He is also given a brimless hat with a veil, known as a klobuk, and a leather belt is fastened around his waist. His habit is usually black (an archaic synonym for "monk" was ; the female equivalent is ), signifying that he is now dead to the world, and he receives a new monastic name. Although the Rassophore does not make formal vows, he is still morally obligated to continue in the monastic estate for the rest of his life. Some will remain Rassophores permanently, without going on to the higher degrees. Stavrophore (Church Slavonic: Krestonosets), lit. "Cross-bearer"—The next level for Eastern monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbot feels the monk has reached an appropriate level of discipline, dedication, and humility. This degree is also known as the Little Schema, and is considered to be a "betrothal" to the Great Schema. At this stage, the monk makes formal vows of stability, chastity, obedience and poverty. Then he is tonsured and clothed in the habit, which in addition to that worn by the Rassophore, includes the paramandyas (Church Slavonic: paraman), a piece of square cloth worn on the back, embroidered with the instruments of the Passion (see picture above), and connected by ties to a wooden cross worn over the heart. The paramandyas represents the yoke of Christ. Because of this addition he is now called Stavrophore, or Cross-bearer. He is also given a wooden hand cross (or "profession cross"), which he should keep in his icon corner, and a beeswax candle, symbolic of monastic vigilance the sacrificing of himself for God. He will be buried holding the cross, and the candle will be burned at his funeral. In the Slavic practice, the Stavrophore also wears the monastic mantle. The rasson (outer robe) worn by the Stavrophore is more ample than that worn by the Rassophore. The abbot increases the Stavrophore monk's prayer rule, allows a more strict personal ascetic practice, and gives the monk more responsibility. Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos, Church Slavonic: Skhimnik)—Monks whose abbot feels they have reached a high level of spiritual excellence reach the final stage, called the Great Schema. The tonsure of a Schemamonk follows the same format as the Stavrophore, and he makes the same vows and is tonsured in the same manner. But in addition to all the garments worn by the Stavrophore, he is given the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav) which is the article of monastic vesture emblematic of the Great Schema. For this reason, the analavos itself is sometimes called the "Great Schema". The analavos comes down in the front and the back, somewhat like the scapular in Western monasticism, although the two garments are probably not related. It is often intricately embroidered with the instruments of the Passion and the Trisagion (the angelic hymn). The Greek form does not have a hood, the Slavic form has a hood and lappets on the shoulders, so that the garment forms a large cross covering the monk's shoulders, chest, and back. Another piece added is the Polystavrion or "Many Crosses", which consists of a cord with a number of small crosses plaited into it. The polystavrion forms a yoke around the monk and serves to hold the analavos in place, and reminds the monastic that he is bound to Christ and that his arms are no longer fit for worldly activities, but that he must labor only for the Kingdom of Heaven. Among the Greeks, the mantle is added at this stage. The paramandyas of the Megaloschemos is larger than that of the Stavrophore, and if he wears the klobuk, it is of a distinctive thimble shape, called a koukoulion, the veil of which is usually embroidered with crosses. In some monastic traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service. Eastern Orthodox monks are addressed as "Father" even if they are not priests; but when conversing among themselves, monks will often address one another as "Brother". Novices are always referred to as "Brother". Among the Greeks, old monks are often called Gheronda, or "Elder", out of respect for their dedication. In the Slavic tradition, the title of Elder (Church Slavonic: Starets) is normally reserved for those who are of an advanced spiritual life, and who serve as guides to others. For the Eastern Orthodox, Mother is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as "Sister". Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called monachai (the feminine plural of monachos), and their community is likewise called a monastery. Many (but not all) Eastern Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer, and hopefully benefiting from the example and wise counsel of the monks. Bishops are required by the sacred canons of the Eastern Orthodox Church to be chosen from among the monastic clergy. The requirement is specifically that they be monastics, not simply celibate (see clerical celibacy). Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called hieromonks (priest-monks); monks who have been ordained to the diaconate are called hierodeacons (deacon-monks). A Schemamonk who is a priest is called a Hieroschemamonk. Most monks are not ordained; a community will normally only present as many candidates for ordination to the bishop as the liturgical needs of the community require. Hinduism Hinduism has many monastic orders, including the Dashanami Sampradaya () orders established by Adi Shankara as well as Vaishnava orders. Vaishnava Madhvaacharya (Madhvacharya), the Dwaita philosopher, established ashta matha (Eight Monasteries). He appointed a monk (called swamiji or swamigalu in local parlance) for each matha or monastery who has the right to worship Madhvacharya's murti of Lord Krishna by rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years. This ritual is called Paryaya and has been used also outside his sampradaya, e.g. in Gaudiya Vaisnava Radharamana temple in Vrindavan. Similar in appearance to Buddhist monks, brahmacari monks from the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), or Hare Krishnas as they are popularly known, are the best known Vaishnava monks outside India. They are a common sight in many places around the world. Their appearance—simple saffron dhoti, shaved head with sikha, Tulasi neckbeads and tilaka markings—and social customs (sadhana) date back many thousands of years to the Vedic era with its varnasrama society. This social scheme includes both monastic and lay stages meant for various persons in various stages of life according to their characteristics (guna) and work (karma). ISKCON started as a predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks. New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first undergo a three-month Bhakta training, which includes learning the basics of brahmacari (monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to continue as monks or as married Grihasthas. Brahmacari older than 50 years (per ISKCON rule) can become sannyasi. Sannyasa, a life of full dedication to spiritual pursuits, is the highest stage of life in the varnasrama society. It is permanent and one cannot give it up. A Sannyasi is given the title Swami. Older grihastha with grown-up children are traditionally expected to accept vanaprastha (celibate retired) life. The role of monastic orders in Indian and now also Western society has to some extent been adapted over the years in accordance with ever-changing social structures. Jainism One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found in Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities. According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attaining Nirvana or Moksha (i.e., liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or Tirthankara. The Acaranga Sutra, or Book of Good Conduct, is a sacred book within Jainism that discusses the ascetic code of conduct. Other texts that provide insight into conduct of ascetics include Yogashastra by Acharya Hemachandra and Niyamasara by Acharya Kundakunda. Other illustrious Jain works on ascetic conduct are Oghanijjutti, Pindanijjutti, Cheda Sutta, and Nisiha Suttafee. Full Jain monk in either Svetambara or Digambara tradition can belong to one of these ranks: Acharya: leader of the order Upadhyaya: a learned monk, who both teaches and studies himself Muni: an ordinary monk These three are mentioned is the three lines of the Namokar Mantra. In the Digambara tradition, a junior monk can be a: Ailak: they use one piece of cloth Kshullak: they may use two pieces of cloth The Svetambar Terapanthi sect has a new rank of junior monks who are called samana. The nuns are called Aryikas in Digambar tradition and Sadhvi in the Svetambar tradition. Ascetic vows Per the Jain vows, the monks and nuns renounce all relations and possessions. Jain ascetics practice complete non-violence. Ahimsa is the first and foremost vow of a Jain ascetic. They do not hurt any living being, be it an insect or a human. They carry a special broom to sweep away any insects that may cross their path. Some Jain monks wear a cloth over the mouth to prevent accidental harm to airborne germs and insects. They also do not use electricity as it involves violence. Furthermore, they do not use any devices or machines. As they are without possession and attachment, they travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent themselves from becoming attached to any location. However, during four months of monsoon (rainy season) known as chaturmaas, they continue to stay in a single place to avoid killing the life forms that thrive during the rains. Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of opposite sex. Dietary practices Jain ascetics follow a strict vegetarian diet without root vegetables. Shvetambara monks do not cook food but solicit alms from householders. Digambara monks have only a single meal a day. Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains standing and eats only a measured amount. Fasting (i.e., abstinence from food and sometimes water) is a routine feature of Jain asceticism. Fasts last for a day or longer, up to a month. Some monks avoid (or limit) medicine or hospitalization due to their careful attention to body. Austerities and other daily practices Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near river banks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic. Jain ascetics are (almost) completely without possessions. Some Jains (Shvetambara monks and nuns) own only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment) and a bowl used for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) and eat from their hands. They sleep on the floor without blankets and sit on special wooden platforms. Every day is spent either in study of scriptures or meditation or teaching to lay people. They stand aloof from worldly matters. Many Jain ascetics take a final vow of Santhara or Sallekhana (i.e., a peaceful and detached death where medicines, food, and water are abandoned). This is done when death is imminent or when a monk feels that he is unable to adhere to his vows on account of advanced age or terminal disease. Quotes on ascetic practices from the Acharanga Sutra as Hermann Jacobi translated it: See also Into Great Silence — The award-winning documentary on the hermit monks of the Catholic Carthusian Order. Jangam Monk Mainchín, and Monahan, names of Gaelic origin, diminutive of , , "a Monk". Sadhu References Further reading Also online External links Orthodox Monasteries Internet Directory Historyfish.net Texts and articles on Western Christian Monks, Monastics, and the Monastic Life. An Orthodox novice and A hieromonk, Photos from Valaam Monastery, Russia Monasticism Studies Area at www.monachos.net Asceticism Religious occupations Gendered occupations
419373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk%20%28TV%20series%29	Monk (TV series)	Monk is an American mystery comedy-drama television series created by Andy Breckman and starring Tony Shalhoub as Adrian Monk. It originally ran from 2002 to 2009 and is primarily a police procedural series but also exhibits comic and dramatic tones in its exploration of the main characters' personal lives. The series was produced by Mandeville Films and Touchstone Television in association with Universal Network Television. The series debuted on July 12, 2002, on USA Network. It continued for eight seasons, with the final season concluding on December 4, 2009. The series held the record for the most-watched scripted drama episode in cable television history from 2009 through 2012 (broken by The Walking Dead) with "Mr. Monk and the End – Part II", its series finale, with 9.4 million viewers, 3.2 million of them in the 18–49 demographic. The series was critically acclaimed, winning eight Emmy Awards, one Golden Globe Award, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards. On March 15, 2023, Peacock ordered a Monk follow-up film, titled Mr. Monk's Last Case: A Monk Movie with original cast members Shalhoub, Levine, Howard, Gray-Stanford, Hardin and Elizondo confirmed to reprise their roles from the series with creator Andy Breckman penning the script, which will premiere on December 8, 2023. Premise Adrian Monk, a San Francisco Police Department detective, has a nervous breakdown after his wife, Trudy, is killed by a car bomb, possibly because of her work as a journalist. He loses his job and refuses to leave his house for four years. With the help of his nurse and assistant, Sharona Fleming, he finally is able to leave his house and begins work as a private detective and as a consultant for the police, although his obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), which has worsened since Trudy's death, poses challenges for him and frustration for those around him. Monk also continues to investigate Trudy's death. Monk's numerous compulsive habits and phobias compound his situation. Monk is afraid of 312 things, including germs, milk, ladybugs, harmonicas, heights, asymmetry, enclosed spaces, foods touching on his plate, messes, frogs, snakes, risk, and more. The OCD and phobias cause problems for Monk and anyone around him as he investigates cases. However, these same struggles, particularly the OCD, also aid him in solving cases alongside his sharp memory, specific mindset, and attention to detail. Ever since childhood, Monk's obsessive attention to detail has enabled him to spot tiny discrepancies, find patterns, and make connections that others miss. Because Monk's insights operate at both the conscious and subconscious level, he will frequently note that something is amiss about a crime scene but not grasp its full importance until someone later makes a seemingly trivial remark or discovery. Captain Leland Stottlemeyer and Lieutenant Randy Disher call on Monk when they have troubles with investigations. Stottlemeyer is often irritated by Monk's behavior, but respects his friend and former colleague's amazing insight and observational abilities, as does Disher. In the middle of season three, Sharona decides to remarry her ex-husband and moves back to New Jersey. She prompts Monk to hire a new assistant. Monk discovers Natalie when she is involved in a homicide case, in "Mr. Monk and the Red Herring". She then becomes his assistant. Natalie is a widow and the mother of her 11-year-old daughter Julie. Natalie is able to understand and bond with Monk better than most people, largely due to sharing his grief over the loss of a spouse. Sharona appears in one episode in season eight. Monk has a brother Ambrose and a half brother, Jack Jr., whom Monk first learns about when his father tells him in season five. He meets Jack Jr. in the episode "Mr. Monk's Other Brother" during season seven. Characters Main Adrian Monk (Tony Shalhoub) is a former homicide detective and a consultant for the San Francisco Police Department. He has an extreme case of OCD and is well known for his various fears and phobias, including (but certainly not limited to) heights, snakes, crowds, glaciers, rodeos, wind, and milk. His wife Trudy was murdered in 1997, and he is haunted by her death (and the fact that it was unsolved) until the series finale. Her gravestone in that episode says Trudy Anne Monk, 1962-1997. Sharona Fleming (Bitty Schram; seasons 1–3) is Monk's nurse and later becomes his first assistant. She refuses to baby him, often forcing him to do things that are unpleasant to him. Her final appearance as a regular character is in "Mr. Monk Takes His Medicine". She moves to New Jersey midway through season three, leaving only a note. However, she returns in the final season in "Mr. Monk and Sharona" to give closure to her character. By "Mr. Monk and the End (Part Two)", she and Randy are revealed to have moved to New Jersey together. Dr. Charles Kroger (Stanley Kamel) is Monk's psychiatrist during the first six seasons of the show. His last appearance is in "Mr. Monk Paints His Masterpiece". His character was said to have died of a heart attack when Monk returned for season seven after Kamel died of a heart attack on April 8, 2008, between production of seasons six and seven. Lieutenant Randy Disher (Jason Gray-Stanford) is a lieutenant in the Homicide Division of the SFPD. He is naive and often portrayed as slightly dim. The other characters are often irritated by him, but they also care about him. In season eight, he is seen kissing Sharona, and in the series finale, he moves to Summit, New Jersey, where they move in together. He becomes chief of police there. Captain Leland Stottlemeyer (Ted Levine) is the head of the Homicide Division of the San Francisco Police Department. He and Monk have been good friends since Monk was on the police force, and he continues to be Monk's friend throughout the series. He does his best to help Monk but is occasionally annoyed by Monk's phobias and the damage they can cause. In the first two seasons, Stottlemeyer is reluctant to work with Monk, seemingly annoyed by the idea that he could not handle his cases himself. By seasons three and four, his faith in Monk's contribution is well cemented and his collaboration is unquestionable. Natalie Teeger (Traylor Howard; seasons 3–8) is Monk's second and final assistant. Although she is more deferential to her boss than Sharona, referring to him as "Mr. Monk", she is not hesitant about telling him when his eccentricities are going too far. A young widow who lives with her daughter Julie, Natalie lost her husband Mitch when he was shot down over Kosovo in 1998. She first appears in "Mr. Monk and the Red Herring". Natalie was introduced partway through season three when Bitty Schram, who played Sharona, left "precipitous[ly]", reportedly over a contract dispute. Traylor Howard had not yet seen the show and was unenthusiastic about her manager's urgings to audition as Schram's replacement. She nevertheless tried out and got the part. Despite her initial "cool" reception from fans, show co-creator Andy Breckman believes Traylor quickly and successfully filled the void: "I will always be grateful to Traylor because she came in when the show was in crisis and saved our baby. … We had to make a hurried replacement, and not every show survives that. I was scared to death." Supporting Julie Teeger (Emmy Clarke) is Natalie's daughter. She first appeared in "Mr. Monk and the Red Herring" and last appeared in "Mr. Monk and the End – Part I". In her final appearance, Julie prepares to attend college to study theater. Dr. Neven Bell (Héctor Elizondo) is Monk's second psychiatrist. He first appears in "Mr. Monk Buys a House". Dr. Bell was introduced in 2008 to replace Dr. Kroger after the death of actor Stanley Kamel. Trudy Monk (Stellina Rusich in the first and second seasons and Melora Hardin starting in the third season. Younger Trudy is played by Lindy Newton in "Mr. Monk and the Class Reunion".) is Monk's deceased wife. His efforts to solve her murder form a story arc that spans the entire series. Kevin Dorfman (Jarrad Paul) is an accountant and Monk's talkative and nosy upstairs neighbor. He first appears in the season-two episode "Mr. Monk and the Paperboy". He is murdered by fellow magician Karl Torini in the season-seven episode "Mr. Monk and the Magician". Harold Krenshaw (Tim Bagley), another patient of Dr. Kroger's, has constant disputes with Monk due to their incompatible obsessions. Harold first appeared in "Mr. Monk and the Girl Who Cried Wolf". Harold and Monk eventually reconcile their differences and become friends in the episode "Mr. Monk Goes to Group Therapy". Benjy Fleming (Kane Ritchotte during the pilot episode and seasons two and three and Max Morrow during the first season) is Sharona's son. His last appearance is in the season-three episode "Mr. Monk and the Employee of the Month". Episodes Production According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the series as a police show with an Inspector Clouseau-like character with OCD. Hoberman said ABC wanted Michael Richards, who had starred as a private investigator in The Michael Richards Show two years earlier, for the show, but Richards turned it down. Hoberman brought in Andy Breckman as creator, and Breckman, inspired by Sherlock Holmes, introduced Dr. Kroger as a Doctor Watson-like character and an Inspector Lestrade-like character who eventually became Captain Stottlemeyer. Although ABC originated the show, the network handed it off to the USA Network. USA is now owned by NBC (NBC Universal). Monk was the first Touchstone Television-produced show aired on USA Network instead of ABC. Although ABC initially refused Monk, they did air repeats of the show on ABC between June–November 2002, and then again between March–May 2004. On January 12, 2006, USA Network announced that Monk had been picked up through at least season six as one of the "highest-rated series in cable history." An in-joke reference to this contract renewal was also inserted into the episode "Mr. Monk and the Big Reward", which aired around this time. Season five premiered Friday, July 7, 2006, at 9:00 pm Eastern time. This marked the first time change for the program, which aired at 10:00 pm during its first four seasons. The change allowed the show to work as a lead-in to a new USA Network series, Psych, another offbeat detective program. Monk followed a consistent format of airing half of its 16 episodes in midyear and the second half early the following year, with the exception of the first season, which broadcast entirely from July through October 2002, and the final season, which broadcast entirely between August and December 2009. Previously aired episodes of Monk began airing on NBC Universal sibling network NBC April 6, 2008. NBC eyed the show because its block with Psych could be plugged into NBC's schedule intact. The shows were being used to increase the scripted programming on the network as production of its own scripted programming ramped back up following the writers' strike. Ratings for the broadcast debut were well below NBC averages for the time period. The show came in third behind Big Brother 9 on CBS and Oprah's Big Give on ABC. Location Although set in the San Francisco Bay Area, Monk is for the most part shot elsewhere except for occasional exteriors featuring city landmarks. The pilot episode was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, with some location shooting in San Francisco, and the subsequent season-one episodes were shot in the Toronto, Ontario, area. Most of the episodes from seasons two through six were filmed in the Los Angeles area. These include the sets for Monk's apartment, the police station and Stottlemeyer's office, Dr. Kroger's office, and Natalie's house. In season two, episode eight, a building for the Toronto Star can also be seen in a cut scene. In the later part of season four, some on-location filming was done in San Francisco. Many portions of the episode "Mr. Monk and the Big Reward" were noticeably shot on location, including a climactic chase scene where Monk and Natalie are chased by three bounty hunters. Other filming was done in Chinatown, which is shown in the opening of "Mr. Monk Gets Jury Duty", as Stottlemeyer and Disher chase wanted fugitive Miguel Escobar (Carlos Gomez) up Jackson Street. In "Mr. Monk and the Astronaut", some on-location filming was done at Edwards Air Force Base. Theme music During the first season of Monk, the series used a jazzy instrumental introduction to the show by songwriter Jeff Beal, performed by guitarist Grant Geissman. The theme won the 2003 Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music. NYC actor Colter Rule was hired by USA Network to do all radio and TV promotions for the series from its inception, lending an ironic, understated tone that contributed to the show's early popularity. The original tag was "Monk! America's Favorite Defective Detective!" When season two began, the series received a new theme song, titled "It's a Jungle Out There", by Randy Newman. Reaction to the new theme was mixed. A review of season two in the New York Daily News included a wish that producers would revert to the original theme. Shalhoub expressed his support for the new theme in USA Today, saying its "dark and mournful sound,… [its] tongue-in-cheek, darkly humorous side… completely fits the tone of the show." Newman was awarded the 2004 Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music for "It's a Jungle Out There". The show made references to the theme music controversy in the episode "Mr. Monk and the TV Star", where obsessed fan Marci Maven and Sharona both express distaste for the new theme music to a CSI parody called Crime Lab: SF. In the epilogue of the story, Marci implores Monk to promise her that he will never change the theme music if he ever gets his own show. When Monk agrees to the promise, the original music is heard as the scene fades to credits, and it plays through the credits. The original theme is heard in the season-three episode "Mr. Monk and the Game Show". It is heard in several other episodes as the show enters the credits and then leads into the new theme's instrumental version. In the season-five episode "Mr. Monk and the Leper", while looking around a victim's apartment, Randy doodles out the old theme song on the piano, much to Stottlemeyer's exasperation. The music is also heard in the season-seven episode "Mr. Monk and the Bully". In the season-six episode "Mr. Monk and the Rapper", Snoop Dogg guest-starred as Murderuss, a rapper who is being wrongly accused of car-bombing a rival rapper. For the episode, Snoop Dogg performed a hip-hop cover of "It's a Jungle Out There" that substitutes for Randy Newman's version in the opening credits, and at the end before transitioning into the regular credit music. The June 16, 2008, reairing of the pilot episode featured a new credit sequence with the Newman theme. The season-eight episode "Happy Birthday, Mr. Monk" features a slower version of the original theme with a muted trumpet playing the melody. Randy Newman also wrote a new song for the final episode entitled "When I'm Gone". The song was released on iTunes on December 1, 2009, and won the 2010 Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics. For a few episodes where Trudy is featured, a somber but pleasant ending theme was used. The ending theme is last used in "Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra". "Here's what happened" segments Most episodes feature a sequence in which Monk reveals how the crime was committed, almost always prefaced with the words "Here's what happened" and shown in black and white. Sometimes the conventions of these segments are defied for humorous effect, e.g. by having them take place early in the episode or being delivered by someone other than Monk. Syndication Over the years, the show was syndicated on MyNetworkTV from 2010 to 2014. Other networks include Ion Television, WE tv, Sundance TV, MeTV, WGN America, IFC, Cozi TV and Hallmark Movies and Mysteries. Reception The series was given many awards and nominations, including winning eight Emmy Awards, one Golden Globe Award, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards. Turkish adaptation A Turkish adaptation titled began airing on Kanal D in March 2013, the same name used when it first aired the original Monk in the 2000s. Other media Little Monk USA Network premiered a 10-episode online series entitled "Little Monk" on August 21, 2009. It includes Adrian and Ambrose Monk during their middle-school years, bringing a back story to Monk's detective skills and phobias. Scrapped television movie On February 17, 2012, Andy Breckman announced that a script had been completed for a television movie titled Mr. Monk For Mayor. Breckman stated that the film should begin production by June–August 2012 in California for a release date in December 2012. Breckman also stated that he hoped a sequel would be produced, as well. The idea was rejected for budgetary reasons. COVID-19 short On May 11, 2020, Peacock, for their At-Home Variety Show released a 7-minute scripted short of Monk, titled Mr. Monk Shelters in Place, following Monk during the COVID-19 pandemic, showing how he fares during this time. Tony Shalhoub reprises the titular role, as well as original main cast members: Jason Gray-Stanford, Ted Levine, and Traylor Howard in their respective characters. Movie On March 14, 2023, Tony Shalhoub confirmed on Dr. Loubna Hassanieh's Unheard Stories: Stories That Inspire podcast that a 90-minute Monk movie will be produced for Peacock, with shooting expected to start in May 2023. The following day, Peacock officially ordered the Monk follow-up film, titled Mr. Monk's Last Case: A Monk Movie with original cast members Shalhoub, Levine, Howard, Gray-Stanford, Hardin and Elizondo (who played Monk, Captain Stottlemeyer, Natalie, Randy, Trudy, and Dr. Bell) confirmed to reprise their roles from the series with creator Andy Breckman penning the script. The movie will premiere on December 8, 2023. Soundtrack The show's soundtrack features its original music score, composed by Jeff Beal. Podcast A "behind-the-scenes" audio podcast entitled "Lunch at Monk" is available for download through the USA website. In the podcast, cast and crew members of the show are interviewed over lunch and dinner. Novel series Since 2006, during the airing of season four, Lee Goldberg, a writer for the series, has produced a series of novels based on the original television series. All of the novels are narrated by Natalie Teeger, Monk's second assistant. For the most part, the novels remain faithful to the television series, with slight discontinuity. On December 31, 2012, the last novel to be written by Lee Goldberg was released. After Goldberg left the series, Hy Conrad wrote four more books, ending with Mr. Monk and the New Lieutenant. Home releases Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released all eight seasons of Monk on DVD in Region 1. On October 5, 2010, Universal released Monk – The Complete Series: Limited edition boxset on DVD in Region 1, a 32-disc set featuring all eight seasons of the series, as well as special features and a collectible 32-page booklet. Monk episodes are also available on iTunes. All seasons are also available in HD format. The Region 2 and Region 4 DVDs of seasons one-three are in the 4:3 aspect ratio. In Australia, Seasons 1-5 were re-released in slimmer packaging in 2010. In 2017, all eight seasons were re-issued and distributed by Shock Entertainment (previous releases were Universal). Seasons 1-3 are now in 16:9 format, and all seasons are Region 4 NTSC (previous releases were PAL Regions 2, 4 and 5). Complaints from some buyers were that there are no subtitles or episode list and episodes appearing out of order. All 125 episodes (seasons 1–8) of the series are available on various streaming services including Peacock, Amazon Prime, and YouTube TV. References External links Official website Monk on USA from the TV Guide website 2000s American comedy-drama television series 2000s American crime drama television series 2000s American mystery television series 2000s American police procedural television series 2002 American television series debuts 2009 American television series endings American crime comedy television series American detective television series English-language television shows Fictional portrayals of the San Francisco Police Department Murder in television Obsessive–compulsive disorder in fiction Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Television shows adapted into novels Television series by ABC Studios Television series by Universal Television Television series created by Andy Breckman Television shows set in San Francisco Television series by Universal Content Productions USA Network original programming
419387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20philosophy%20articles%20%28D%E2%80%93H%29	Index of philosophy articles (D–H)	Below is a list of philosophy articles from D-H. D D. F. M. Strauss D. H. Mellor D. Hugh Mellor D. T. Suzuki D. V. Gundappa D.H. Mellor Dada Daemon (classical mythology) Dag Prawitz Dagfinn Follesdal Dagfinn Føllesdal Dagobert D. Runes Dagpo Tashi Namgyal Dai Zhen Daimonic Dale Beyerstein Dallas Willard Damaris Cudworth Masham Damaris Masham Damascius Damião de Góis Damien Keown Damis Damo (philosopher) Damon Young Dan Georgakas Dan Wikler Dan Zahavi Dana Scott Dana Ward Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler Daniel Bensaïd Daniel Brock Daniel Callahan Daniel Dennett Daniel Dombrowski Daniel Guérin Daniel Innerarity Daniel Kolak Daniel N. Robinson Daniel of Morley Daniel Raymond Daniel Ross (Australian philosopher and filmmaker) Daniel Rynhold Danilo Pejović Danish philosophy Danko Grlić Dante Alighieri Danube school Dao Daodejing Daoism Daoist philosophy Dardanus of Athens Dariush Shayegan Dark City (1998 film) Darwin's Dangerous Idea Darwiniana Darwinism Daryoush Ashouri Das Argument (journal) Das Kapital Dasein Data dredging Data exchange language Data system Dau al Set Dave Andrews David (commentator) David Abram David Alan Johnson David Albert David Anhaght David B. Kaplan David B. Malament David Basinger David Bell (philosopher) David ben Merwan al-Mukkamas David Benatar David Blitz David Braine (philosopher) David Brewster David Chalmers David Charles (philosopher) David Cockburn David Conway (academic) David Corfield David D. Friedman David E. Cooper David Edmonds (philosopher) David Efird David Estlund David Farrell Krell David Fordyce David Friedrich Strauss David Gauthier David George Ritchie David Graeber David H. M. Brooks David H. Sanford David Hartley David Hartley (philosopher) David Hilbert David Hull (philosopher) David Hume David James Jones David Kalupahana David Kaplan (philosopher) David Kelley David Kellogg Lewis David Koepsell David Kolb David L. Norton David L. Paulsen David Loy David M. Rosenthal David Makinson David Malet Armstrong David Miller (philosopher) David Miller (political theorist) David N. Stamos David Nicoll (anarchist) David of Dinant David Oswald Thomas David P. Gushee David Papineau David Pearce (philosopher) David Pears David Prall David Prychitko David Ray Griffin David Ricardo David Rynin David S. Oderberg David Schmidtz David Sedley David Skrbina David Sosa David Stenhouse David Stove David Strauss David Strong David Sztybel David van Goorle David Watson (anarchist) David Wiggins David Williams (philosopher) David Wong (philosopher) David Wood (philosopher) Dawkins vs. Gould Dax Cowart Daxue Days of War, Nights of Love De Arte Combinatoria De Brevitate Vitae (Seneca) De Cive De Coelesti Hierarchia De dicto De dicto and de re De dicto necessity De Divinatione De divisione naturae De Docta Ignorantia De finibus bonorum et malorum De Interpretatione De Legibus De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio De Morgan's laws De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum De Natura Deorum De Officiis De Providentia De re De re necessity De re publica De rerum natura De se De spectaculis De Stijl De Veritate De Vita Beata De vita libri tres Dean Komel Dean Zimmerman (philosopher) Death Death-of-the-author thesis Death in Venice Death instinct Death into Life Death of Carlo Giuliani Death of God Death of the Author Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture Deaths of philosophers Debendranath Tagore Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya Debt Debt bondage Decadence Decadent movement Decadentism Decedent directive Decembrio – family of scholars Decidability Decidable Decision analysis Decision analysis cycle Decision procedure Decision theory Decision tree Decisionism Declaration of Geneva Declaration of Helsinki Declarationism Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Deconstruction Dedekind cut Deduction Deduction and induction Deduction theorem Deductive Deductive-nomological model Deductive closure Deductive closure principle Deductive fallacy Deductive reasoning Deep ecology Deep inference Deep structure Deepak Kumar (historian) Default logic Defeasible Defeasible logic Defeasible reasoning Defeater Defeatism Defensive democracy Defensivism Definiendum Definiens Defining Issues Test Definist fallacy Definite clause grammar Definite description Definite descriptions Definition Definition of music Definitionism Definitions of fascism Definitions of logic Deflationary theory of truth Degenerate case Degenerated workers' state Degree of belief Degree of truth Deicide Deism Delegate model of representation Delegated authority Deleuze and Guattari Delfim Santos Deliberative democracy Demarcation problem Demetrius Chalcondyles Demetrius Lacon Demetrius of Amphipolis Demetrius of Phalerum Demetrius the Cynic Demiurge Democracy Democracy in Marxism Democrates Democratic centralism Democratic consolidation Democratic deficit Democratic ideals Democratic Rationalization Democratic socialism Democratic structuring Democritus Demodocus (dialogue) Demonax Demonstration (people) Demonstrative Demonstratives De Morgan's laws Dempster–Shafer theory Denial Denis Diderot Denis Dutton Denis the Carthusian Denny's paradox Denotation Denotative meaning Denumerable Denying the antecedent Denying the consequent Denying the correlative Denys de Leeuwis Denys the Carthusian Denys Turner Deodorus Cronos Deontic Deontic logic Deontological Deontological ethics Deontological libertarianism Deontologism Dependability Dependent type Depiction Déprimisme Derech Hashem Derek Parfit Derivation Derivational logicism Derivative algebra (abstract algebra) Dérive Dermot Moran Derrick Jensen Derveni papyrus Description Description logic Descriptions Descriptive ethics Descriptive knowledge Descriptive science Descriptivism Descriptivist theory of names Desert Desert (philosophy) Desiderius Erasmus Design Desire (emotion) Desire (in Philosophy) Desire (philosophy) Desire Mercier Desire Philosophy Desire realm Desiring-production Desmond Clarke Despair Destiny Destructive dilemma Detachment (philosophy) Determinable Determinables Determinate Determinism Deterministic automaton Deterministic context-free grammar Deterministic context-free language Deterministic system (philosophy) Deterrence Deterritorialization Deus Developmental biology Deviance Deviant logic Device paradigm Dewi Zephaniah Phillips Dewitt H. Parker Dexippus (philosopher) Dhammapala Dharani Dhardo Rimpoche Dharma Dharma (Jainism) Dharma transmission Dharmakāya Dharmakirti Dharmakīrti Dharmarāja Adhvarin Dharmarakṣa Dharmarakshita (Sumatran) Diafotismos Diagonalization Diagoras of Melos Diagrammatic reasoning Diairesis Dial House, Essex Dialectic Dialectic of Enlightenment Dialectic process vs. dialogic process Dialectica Dialectical materialism Dialectical monism Dialectician Dialectics Dialetheism Dialethism Diallelus Dialogism Dialogue Dialogues concerning Natural Religion Diamond net Diamond Realm Diana Schaub Dianoia Dicaearchus Dichotomy Dichotomy paradox Dick de Jongh Dictatorship of the proletariat Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers Diction Dictionaries and encyclopedias of philosophy Dictionnaire philosophique Dicto simpliciter Dictum Dictum de omni et nullo Didacticism Diderik Batens Die Anarchisten Die Freien Die Freiheit Diego de Zúñiga Dielo Truda Dieter Henrich Dietrich Bonhoeffer Dietrich of Freiberg Dietrich Tiedemann Dietrich von Hildebrand Différance Difference (philosophy) Difference and Repetition Difference principle Differentia Differential and Absolute Ground Rent Digital philosophy Dignaga Dignāga Dignitas (Roman concept) Dignity Dilemma Dimension Diminished capacity Diminished responsibility Diminished responsibility in English law Dimiter Skordev Dimitri Uznadze Dimitrie Cantemir Dimitrie Cuclin Dimitrije Mitrinović Dimitrios Roussopoulos Dimitris Dimitrakos Ding-an-sich Ding an sich Dio Chrysostom Dio of Alexandria Diocles of Cnidus Diodorus Cronus Diodorus of Adramyttium Diodorus of Aspendus Diodorus of Tyre Diodotus the Stoic Diogenes (journal) Diogenes Allen Diogenes Laërtius Diogenes of Apollonia Diogenes of Babylon Diogenes of Oenoanda Diogenes of Seleucia (Epicurean) Diogenes of Sinope Diogenes of Tarsus Diogenes the Cynic Dionysian Dionysian and Apollonian Dionysius of Chalcedon Dionysius of Cyrene Dionysius of Lamptrai Dionysius the Renegade Diotima of Mantinea Diotimus the Stoic Dipolar theism Direct action Direct and indirect realism Direct Action: Memoirs of an Urban Guerrilla Direct democracy Direct experience Direct realism Direct reference Direct reference theory Direct revelation Direction of fit Directoire style Director primacy Direkte Aktion Dirk Verhofstadt Dirty hands Disbarment Disciples of Confucius Disciples of Plotinus Disciplinary institution Discipline Discipline and Punish Discontinuity (Postmodernism) Discordianism Discourse Discourse ethics Discourse on Inequality Discourse on Metaphysics Discourse on the Method Discourses of Epictetus Discovery (observation) Discrediting tactic Discrete time Discretion Discrimination Discursive dilemma Disgust Disjunction Disjunction elimination Disjunction introduction Disjunctive normal form Disjunctive syllogism Disjunctivism Dispositif Disposition Dispositional and occurrent belief Dispositional belief Dispute resolution organization Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit Disquotational principle Dissent Dissoi logoi Distancing effect Distinction (philosophy) Distinction without a difference Distribution of terms Distribution of wealth Distributism Distributive justice Divided line Divine apathy Divine command ethics Divine command theory Divine grace Divine illumination Divine philosophy Divine Providence Divine right of kings Divine simplicity Divinity Divorce Divyadaan: Salesian Institute of Philosophy, Nashik Djwal Khul Do-ol Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Do it yourself Do not resuscitate Doctor-patient relationship Doctor Irrefragabilis Doctor Mirabilis Doctor of Philosophy Doctrine of internal relations Doctrine of mental reservation Doctrine of the Mean Dogen Dōgen Dogen Kigen Dōgen Kigen Dogma Dogmatism Dogmatists Dokkōdō Dolf Sternberger Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen Domain of discourse Domenico Losurdo Dominance Dominant ideology Dominate Dominator culture Domingo Báñez Domingo de Soto Dominicus Gundissalinus Dominik Gross Dominik Perler Dominion Dominique Lecourt Domninus of Larissa Don't-care (logic) Don't be evil Don't Just Vote, Get Active Don Ihde Donald A. Crosby Donald A. Gillies Donald A. Martin Donald Burt Donald D. Evans Donald Davidson (philosopher) Donald Rooum Donald T. Campbell Donald West Harward Dong Zhongshu Donkey pronoun Donkey sentence Donkey sentences Donna Dickenson Doomsday argument Doomsday cult Doomsday event Dora Marsden Dorothy Day Dorothy Edgington Dorothy Emmet Dorothy Maud Wrinch Dos Fraye Vort Dositej Obradović Dot notation Double-aspect theory Double-mindedness Double aspect theory Double consciousness Double counting (fallacy) Double effect Double negation Double negative Double negation elimination Double truth Double turnstile Doubt Douglas N. Walton Douglas Harding Douglas Hofstadter Dov Gabbay Down the River Doxa Doxastic attitudes Doxastic logic Doxography Dragoş Protopopescu Dramatism Dramatistic pentad Dravya Dravya (Jainism) Dread Dream argument Dream Drew Hyland Drinker paradox Dual-aspect theory Dual-attribute theory Dual consciousness Dual loyalty (ethics) Dual power Dualism (philosophy of mind) Dualistic cosmology Dualistic interactionism Duality of structure Duck test Dudley Knowles Due process Dugald Macpherson Dugald Stewart Duhem–Quine thesis Dukkha Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori Dumitru D. Roşca Dunamis Duncan Kennedy (legal philosopher) Duns Scotus Durandus of Saint-Pourçain Durandus of St Pourcain Durandus of St Pourçain Duration (Bergson) Durruti Column Durruti: The People Armed Dušan Pirjevec Dutch book Dutch book argument Duty Duty of care Duty of confidentiality Dvaita Dvaita Vedanta Dwelling Dwight H. Terry Lectureship Dyad (Greek philosophy) Dyadic Dyck language Dyer Lum Dylan Evans Dynamic epistemic logic Dynamic logic Dynamics of the celestial spheres Dynamis Dynamism (metaphysics) Dysteleology Dystopia Dzogchen E E-freedom E. Antonio Romero E. David Cook E. I. Watkin Early Islamic philosophy Early life of Plato Early modern philosophy Earth immune system Earth jurisprudence Eastern epistemology Eastern Group of Painters Eastern philosophy Eastern philosophy and clinical psychology Ecce Homo (book) Echecrates Echographies of Television Eckart Schütrumpf Eclecticism Eco-criticism Eco-socialism Ecofascism Ecofeminism Ecological fallacy Ecology Ecology of contexts Economic analysis of law Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 Economic determinism Economic freedom Economic subjectivism Economics (Aristotle) Ecophagy Ecosharing Ecosophy Ecphantus the Pythagorean Écriture féminine Ecstasy (philosophy) Eddy Zemach Edgar A. Singer, Jr. Edgar Bauer Edgar Morin Edgar S. Brightman Edgar Zilsel Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits Edith Stein Edith Wyschogrod Edmund Bordeaux Szekely Edmund Burke Edmund Gettier Edmund Gurney Edmund Husserl Edouard Hugon Edouard Le Roy Edouard Louis Emmanuel Julien Le Roy Édouard Schuré Eduard Fimmen Eduard Hanslick Eduard Pons Prades Eduard Spranger Eduard von Hartmann Eduard Zeller Eduardo Carrasco Eduardo Nicol Eduardo Rabossi Education Educational essentialism Educational perennialism Educational progressivism Edvard Westermarck Edward Abramowski Edward Bullough Edward Caird Edward Dembowski Edward Fredkin Edward Grant Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury Edward Jones-Imhotep Edward N. Zalta Edward Nelson Edward S. Reed Edward Said Edward Sapir Edward Stachura Edward Westermarck Edwin Arthur Burtt Edwin Holt Eero Loone Effective method Effective procedure Efficacious grace Efficient cause Effort heuristic Efodi Efrydiau Athronyddol Egalitarian community Egalitarian dialogue Egalitarianism Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays Ego Egocentric bias Egocentric predicament Egocentrism Egoism Egoist anarchism Egolessness Egon Bondy Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus Ehud Hrushovski Eidetic reduction Eight Honors and Eight Shames Eightfold Path Eikasia Eino Kaila Einstein–Bohr debates Either/Or Ekam Ekpyrôsis El Sopar El Túnel Elaine Scarry Élan vital Elbert Hubbard Elbow Room (Dennett book) Eleatics Election Election promise Elective rights Electromagnetic theories of consciousness Elegance Elementary equivalence Elements of the Philosophy of Newton Elements of the Philosophy of Right Elenchus Elephant test Eleutherius Winance Eli Siegel Elia del Medigo Éliane Amado Levy-Valensi Elias (commentator) Elias Alsabti Élie Halévy Eliette Abécassis Elijah Ben Joseph Chabillo Elijah Delmedigo Elijah Millgram Eliminative materialism Eliminativism Eliot Deutsch Élisabeth Badinter Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim Elisabeth Lloyd Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine Élisée Reclus Elisionism Elitism Élitism ELIZA effect Elizabeth Burns (philosopher) Elizabeth Grosz Elliot N. Dorff Elliott Sober Ellipsis Ellopion of Peparethus Elme Marie Caro Elmer Sprague Emanationism Emanouil Dadaoglou Emanuel Lasker Emanuel Mendes da Costa Emanuel Rádl Emanuel Swedenborg Emanuele Severino Embodied cognition Embodied philosophy Embodiment Emergence Emergent materialism Emergent property Emergentism Emerich de Vattel Emersonian perfectionism Emic Emil Abderhalden Emil Brunner Emil Cioran Emil du Bois-Reymond Emil Du Bois-Reymond Emil Fackenheim Emil Lask Emil Leon Post Emil Ludwig Fackenheim Émile Boutroux Émile Bréhier Émile Chartier Emile Durkheim Émile Durkheim Émile Littré Emile Meyerson Émile Meyerson Émile Pouget Émile Saisset Emile: or, On Education Émilie du Châtelet Emilio Betti Emilio Oribe Emily Elizabeth Constance Jones Emma (play) Emma Goldman Emma Goldman: The Anarchist Guest Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze Emmanuel Levinas Emmanuel Mounier Emotion Emotional reasoning Emotions in decision making Emotive conjugation Emotivism Empathy Empedocles Empire style Empirical Empirical decision theory Empirical knowledge Empirical limits in science Empirical method Empirical probability Empirical relationship Empirical research Empiricism Emptiness Empty name Empty set Empty string En soi Enactivism (psychology) Enantiomorph Enchin Enchiridion of Epictetus Enclosed A Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Ethics Encyclopedia of Philosophy Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences Encyclopedist End-of-life care End in itself End term Endgame (Derrick Jensen books) Ending Aging Endowment (philosophy) Endowment effect Endoxa Endurance Endurantism Energeia Energeticism Energy Enforcement Engineered language Engineering ethics England, England English philosophy English, August (novel) Enlightened absolutism Enlightened self-interest Enlightenment (spiritual) Enneads Ennin Enrico Ferri Enrique Dussel Enrique Flores Magón Enrique González Rojo, Jr. Enron Code of Ethics Entailment Entelechy Enthusiasm Enthymeme Entitative graph Entity Entity realism Entropy Entscheidungsproblem Enumerative definition Enumerative induction Envelope paradox Environmental ethics Environmental philosophy Environmental virtue ethics Environmentalism Envy Eo ipso Ephesian school Epic and Novel Epicharmus Epicharmus of Kos Epictetus Epicureanism Epicurus Epigenetics Epilogism Epimenides Epimenides paradox Epinomis Epiphenomenalism Epiphenomenon Episodes of the Cuban Revolutionary War Episteme Epistemic closure Epistemic commitment Epistemic community Epistemic conservatism Epistemic justification Epistemic logic Epistemic minimalism Epistemic modal logic Epistemic moods Epistemic possibility Epistemic probability Epistemic relativism Epistemic theories of truth Epistemic theory of miracles Epistemic virtue Epistemicism Epistemics Epistemocracy Epistemological anarchism Epistemological externalism Epistemological idealism Epistemological particularism Epistemological pluralism Epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory Epistemological realism Epistemological relativism Epistemological rupture Epistemological solipsism Epistemology Epistle to Yemen Epistles (Plato) Epistulae morales ad Lucilium Epoché Epochē Epsilon Epsilon calculus Equal consideration of interests Equality of opportunity Equality of sacrifice Equipollence Equipossible Equiprobable Equisatisfiability Equity Equity (economics) Equivalence Equivalence class Equivalence relation Equivocation Eranos Erasing rule Erasmus of Rotterdam Erastus of Scepsis Eratosthenes Erazim Kohák Eretrian school Ergatocracy Eric A. Havelock Eric Higgs Eric Lionel Mascall Eric McDavid Eric T. Olson (philosopher) Eric Voegelin Erich Adickes Erich Fromm Erich Heller Erich Jantsch Erich Mühsam Erich Rothacker Erich Unger Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn Eristic Erkenntnis Ernan McMullin Ernest Addison Moody Ernest Fenollosa Ernest Fortin Ernest Gellner Ernest Lepore Ernest Nagel Ernest Sosa Ernest Wamba dia Wamba Ernesto Buonaiuti Ernesto Garzón Valdés Ernesto Mayz Vallenilla Ernst Barthel Ernst Bergmann (philosopher) Ernst Bloch Ernst Cassirer Ernst Christian Gottlieb Reinhold Ernst Ehrlich Ernst Friedrich Apelt Ernst Gombrich Ernst Haeckel Ernst Heinrich Haeckel Ernst Jünger Ernst Kapp Ernst Laas Ernst Mach Ernst Mally Ernst Melzer Ernst Nolte Ernst Peter Wilhelm Troeltsch Ernst Platner Ernst Schröder Ernst Troeltsch Ernst Tugendhat Ernst von Glasersfeld Ernst W. Mayr Ernst Zermelo Eros (love) Eros and Civilization Eros and the Mysteries of Love Eros Plus Massacre Erotetics Erotic art Eroticism Errol Harris Error Error theory Ervin László Erwin Marquit Erwin Panofsky Erwin Rohde Erwin Schrödinger Eryxias (dialogue) Esa Saarinen Escapism Eschatology Escuela Moderna Esoteric Esoteric Christianity Especifismo Esperanza Guisán Essay on the Origin of Languages Essays (Francis Bacon) Essays (Montaigne) Essays in Radical Empiricism Essays on Philosophical Subjects Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary Esse est percipi Essence Essential Logic Essential property Essentialism Essentially contested concept Est Playing the Game Estanislao Zuleta Esther Meek Eternal Buddha Eternal recurrence Eternal return Eternal return (Eliade) Eternal statement Eternalism (philosophy of time) Eternity Eternity of the world Ethel MacDonald Ethic of reciprocity Ethica thomistica Ethical absolutism Ethical arguments regarding torture Ethical banking Ethical calculus Ethical code Ethical consumerism Ethical decision Ethical dilemma Ethical egoism Ethical extensionism Ethical formalism Ethical intuitionism Ethical issues of AI Ethical naturalism Ethical non-naturalism Ethical objectivism Ethical problems using children in clinical trials Ethical relationship Ethical relativism Ethical skepticism Ethical solipsism Ethical subjectivism Ethical will Ethicist Ethics Ethics Ethics (journal) Ethics (Spinoza) Ethics and evolutionary psychology Ethics and Language Ethics Bowl Ethics Commission Ethics in Government Act Ethics in pharmaceutical sales Ethics in religion Ethics in the Bible Ethics of artificial intelligence Ethics of care Ethics of cloning Ethics of eating meat Ethics of justice Ethics of technology Ethics of terraforming Ethiopian philosophy Ethnography Ethnology Ethnomethodology Ethology Ethos Etic Étienne Balibar Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Étienne Borne Étienne de La Boétie Étienne Gilson Étienne Souriau Étienne Tempier Étienne Vacherot Etienne Vermeersch Etiology Etiquette Etymological fallacy Etymology of War on Terrorism Euaeon of Lampsacus Eubulides Eubulides of Miletus Eubulus (banker) Euclid Euclid of Megara Euclidean geometry Eudaimonia Eudaimonism Eudemian Ethics Eudemus of Rhodes Eudorus of Alexandria Eudoxus of Cnidus Euenus Eufrosin Poteca Eugen Duhring Eugen Dühring Eugen Fink Eugen Herrigel Eugen Karl Duhring Eugen Karl Dühring Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy Eugene Gendlin Eugene Kamenka Eugenics Eugenio Garin Eugenios Voulgaris Euhemerus Euler diagram Eunoia Euphantus Euphraeus Euphrates the Stoic Eupraxis Eureka: A Prose Poem Eurocommunism European Journal of Philosophy European Journal of Political Theory European Society for Philosophy and Psychology European Summer School in Logic, Language and Information Eurytus (Pythagorean) Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Myndus Eusociality Eustathius of Cappadocia Eustratius of Nicaea Euthanasia Euthanasia in the Netherlands Euthanasia in the United States Euthenics Euthydemos Euthydemus (dialogue) Euthymia (philosophy) Euthymius of Athos Euthyphro Euthyphro dilemma Eutrapelia Eval'd Vasil'evich Il'enkov Evald Ilyenkov Evald Vassilievich Ilyenkov Evaluation Evan Thompson Evander (philosopher) Evander Bradley McGilvary Evangelical Philosophical Society Evasion (book) Evasion (ethics) Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick Evelyn Fox Keller Event (philosophy) Everard Digby (scholar) Everard of Ypres Everlasting Evert Willem Beth Everything Everything which is not forbidden is allowed Evidence Evidence of absence Evidential existentiality Evidential reason Evidentialism Evil Evil daemon Evil demon Evolution Evolution and ethics Evolution of morality Evolutionary argument against naturalism Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethic Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary game theory Evolutionary Humanism Evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology of religion Ex nihilo Examen philosophicum Examined Life Exceptionalism Exchange value Excluded middle Exclusion principle (philosophy) Exclusive disjunction Exclusive or Exclusivism Excuse Exegesis Exemplification Exemplification theory Exile and the Kingdom Existence Existence of God Existence precedes essence Existence theorem Existential crisis Existential fallacy Existential graph Existential humanism Existential import Existential phenomenology Existential proposition Existential quantification Existential quantifier Existential therapy Existentialism Existentialist ethics Existentialist feminism Existentialists Existentiell Exoteric Exotheology Exoticism Expanded Criteria Donor Expect Resistance Expected return Expected utility Experience Experience (Emerson) Experiential knowledge Experientialism Experiment Experimental philosophy Experimenter's bias Experiments in Ethics Explanandum Explanans Explanation Explanatory gap Explanatory power Explication Exploitation Exploitation theory Exploratory engineering Exploring Reality Explosion in a Cathedral Exportation Expression Expressivism Extended Affix Grammar Extended Backus–Naur Form Extended consciousness Extended mind thesis Extension (metaphysics) Extension (semantics) Extensional context Extensional definition Extensionality Externalism Externalization Externism Exteroception Extrication morality Extrinsic finality Extrinsic property Extrinsic value (ethics) Eyewitness testimony F F. C. S. Schiller F. H. Bradley F. M. Cornford F. S. C. Northrop Fa-Tsang Fabrice Hadjadj Face-to-face Facial symmetry Fact Fact-value dichotomy Fact-value distinction Fact, Fiction, and Forecast Facticity Factor T Faculty of Philosophy, Cambridge Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford Faculty psychology Fahrenheit 451 Fair value Faith Faith and rationality Faith, Science and Understanding Fakhr-al-Din Iraqi Fakhr al-Din al-Razi Fallacies Fallacies of definition Fallacy Fallacy of accident Fallacy of affirming the consequent Fallacy of composition Fallacy of denying the antecedent Fallacy of distribution Fallacy of division Fallacy of equivocation Fallacy of exclusive premises Fallacy of false cause Fallacy of four terms Fallacy of hasty generalization Fallacy of irrelevant conclusion Fallacy of many questions Fallacy of misplaced concreteness Fallacy of necessity Fallacy of quoting out of context Fallacy of secundum quid Fallacy of the single cause Fallacy of the undistributed middle Fallibilism Falsafatuna False analogy False attribution False cause False consciousness False consensus effect False dilemma False premise False statement Falsifiability Falsum Familiarity heuristic Family as a model for the state Family resemblance Family values Famine, Affluence, and Morality Fan Zhen Fanaticism Fanya Baron Faraday Institute for Science and Religion Fascism Fascism and ideology Fascist manifesto Fascist symbolism Fatalism Fate of the unlearned Fatemeh Is Fatemeh Fathers and Sons Faulty generalization Faustus Socinus Fauvism Faux frais of production Favorinus Fazang Fazlur Rahman Malik Fear Fear and Trembling Fechner's law Federação Anarquista Gaúcha Federación Anarquista Ibérica Federación Ibérica de Juventudes Libertarias Federacja Anarchistyczna Federal republicanism Federalism Federalist Federica Montseny Federico Cesi Federico Riu Fedir Shchus Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevskii Fëdor Mikhailovich Dostoevskii Feedback Feedforward Feeling Felicific calculus Felicity conditions Feliks Jaroński Feliks Koneczny Félix Guattari Felix Kaufmann Felix Ravaisson Félix Ravaisson Félix Ravaisson-Mollien Felix Weltsch Feminism Feminist art movement Feminist epistemology Feminist existentialism Feminist jurisprudence Feminist legal theory Feminist literary criticism Feminist philosophy Feminist theology Feminist theory Feng Youlan Fenomenologia dell'Individuo Assoluto Ferdinand Alquié Ferdinand de Saussure Ferdinand Ebner Ferdinand Gotthelf Hand Ferdinand Lassalle Ferdinand Tönnies Fergus Gordon Kerr Ferid Muhić Fermat's Last Theorem Fermin Rocker Fermín Salvochea Fernand Brunner Fernand Dumont Fernando González (writer) Fernando Ocariz Fernando Rielo Fernando Savater Ferruccio Busoni Fertilization in vitro Fetter (Buddhism) Fi Zilal al-Qur'an Fiction Failure to refer Fictionalism Fideism Fidel Manrique Fidelity Field theory Fields of Force Fields, Factories and Workshops Fifth Estate (periodical) Fifth Letter (Plato) Figuration Libre Figure and ground Filial piety Filipino values Filippo Turati Final cause Final causes Finance capitalism Fine art Finite automaton Finitism Fiqh Fire Firmin Abauzit First-in-man study First-order logic First-order predicate First-order predicate calculus First-person perspective First Alcibiades First cause First cause argument First law of thermodynamics First Letter (Plato) First mover First of May Group First philosophy First principle Firstness Fiscal conservatism Fitch's paradox Fitch's paradox of knowability Fitness (biology) Five hindrances Five phases Five Precepts Five Virtues Five Ways Five wits Flaccid designator Flesh Flipism Florencio Sánchez Florentine School Florian Znaniecki Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said Fluency heuristic Fluent (artificial intelligence) Fluent calculus Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies Fluxion Fluxus Flying arrow paradox Folk psychology Fooled by Randomness For-itself For a New Liberty For Self-Examination For the children (politics) For the New Intellectual Force Forces and Fields Foreknowledge (disambiguation) Forgery Forgive and Forget: Healing the Hurts We Don't Deserve Forgiveness Form follows function Form of government Form of life Form of life (philosophy) Form of the Good Formal cause Formal distinction Formal epistemology Formal ethics Formal fallacy Formal language Formal logic Formal ontology Formal semantics (logic) Formal theorem Formalesque Formalism (art) Formalism (mathematics) Formalism (philosophy) Formalization Formation rule Formula Formulation (logic) Forward chaining Foucault–Habermas debate Found object Foundation axiom Foundation ontology Foundationalism Foundations of Christianity Foundations of mathematics Foundations of Natural Right Foundherentism Four-dimensionalism Four Books Four causes Four Dissertations Four elements Four Freedoms Four humors Four Noble Truths Four stages of enlightenment Fourier complex Fourteen unanswerable questions Fourth Way (book) Fragmentalism Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology Frame of Government of Pennsylvania Frame problem Frame problem (philosophy) Framing (social sciences) Frances Kamm Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia Francesc Pujols Francesc Sabaté Llopart Francesco Acri Francesco Algarotti Francesco D'Andrea Francesco de Sanctis Francesco Filelfo Francesco Patrizi da Cherso Francesco Patrizzi Francesco Petrarca Francesco Saverio Merlino Francesco Silvestri Francesco Vimercato Francis Anderson (philosopher) Francis Bacon Francis Fukuyama Francis Hutcheson (philosopher) Francis J. Beckwith Francis of Assisi Francis of Marchia Francis of Mayrone Francis of Meyronnes Francis Parker Yockey Francis Robortello Francis Schaeffer Francisco Ascaso Francisco de Vitoria Francisco Giner de los Ríos Francisco J. Ayala Francisco Miró Quesada Cantuarias Francisco Romero (philosopher) Francisco Sanches Francisco Suarez Francisco Suárez Francisco Varela Francisco Zumel Franciscus Bonae Spei Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont Franciscus Patricius Franciscus Patritius Franciscus Toletus Francisque Bouillier Franciszek Fiszer Franciszek Krupiński Franco Bolelli Franco Burgersdijk François Bernier François Châtelet François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon Francois de Salignac de la Mothe Fenelon François de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon François du Souhait François Hemsterhuis François Laruelle François Picavet François Pillon François Poullain de la Barre François Rabelais François Wahl Françoise Gaillard Françoise Meltzer Franjo Marković Frank Ankersmit Frank Cameron Jackson Frank Ebersole Frank Fernández Frank Knopfelmacher Frank Meyer (political philosopher) Frank P. Ramsey Frank Plumpton Ramsey Frank R. Wallace Frank Sibley (philosopher) Frank Van Dun Frankfurt counterexamples Frankfurt School Franklin I. Gamwell Franklin Merrell-Wolff Frantz Fanon Franz Brentano Franz Jakob Clemens Franz Joseph Gall Franz Rosenzweig Franz Xaver Schmid Franz Xaver von Baader Fred Dretske Fred Feldman (philosopher) Fred I. Dretske Fred Miller (philosopher) Fred Newman (philosopher) Frederick C. Beiser Frederick Copleston Frederick Ferré Frederick James Eugene Woodbridge Frederick Neuhouser Frederick Sontag Frederick Suppe Frederick Wilhelmsen Frederik Christian Eilschov Fredric Jameson Fredy Perlman Free-market anarchism Free Boolean algebra Free logic Free Play (Derrida) Free Society Free to Choose Free variables and bound variables Free will Free Workers' Union Free Workers' Union of Germany Freedom (British newspaper) Freedom and Culture Freedom and the Law Freedom Defence Committee Freedom Evolves Freedom of contract Freedom of speech Freedom Press Freedom versus license Freethought Frege's Puzzle Frege's theorem Frege-Geach point Frege-Geach problem Frege–Church ontology Freie Arbeiter Stimme French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools French materialism French philosophy French Pragmatism French structuralist feminism French Theory Freudo-Marxism Freya Mathews Friederich Augustus Rauch Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg Friedrich Albert Lange Friedrich August von Hayek Friedrich Bernhard Ferdinand Michelis Friedrich Calker Friedrich Christian Baumeister Friedrich Eduard Beneke Friedrich Engels Friedrich Groos Friedrich Harms Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi Friedrich Hölderlin Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer Friedrich Kambartel Friedrich Karl Forberg Friedrich Carl von Savigny Friedrich Meinecke Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche bibliography Friedrich Paulsen Friedrich Pollock Friedrich Schiller Friedrich Schlegel Friedrich Schleiermacher Friedrich Solmsen Friedrich Theodor Vischer Friedrich Ulfers Friedrich von Hardenberg Friedrich von Hayek Friedrich von Hügel Friedrich von Schlegel Friedrich Waismann Friedrich Waissman Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche Friends of Durruti Group Friends, Lovers, Chocolate Friendship Fringe science Frithjof Bergmann Frithjof Schuon Fritjof Capra Fritz Heinemann Fritz Mauthner From Bakunin to Lacan From each according to his ability, to each according to his need Führerprinzip Fujiwara Seika Function and Concept Functional calculus Functional completeness Functional contextualism Functional decomposition Functionalism (philosophy of mind) Functor Fundamental attribution error Fundamental ontology Fundamental rights Fundamental science Fundamentalism Fung Yu-lan Funk art Fusion of horizons Fusionism (politics) Futa Helu Future Future contingents Future Primitive and Other Essays Futurism Fuzzy concept Fuzzy logic Fuzzy set Fyodor Dostoyevsky Fyodor Shcherbatskoy G G. A. den Hartogh G. E. L. Owen G. E. M. Anscombe G. E. Moore G. F. B. Riemann G. H. von Wright G. I. Gurdjieff G.E. Moore G.E.L. Owen G.H. von Wright Gabbay's separation theorem Gabino Barreda Gabriel's Wing Gabriel Biel Gabriel Bonnot de Mably Gabriel Jean Edmond Séailles Gabriel Liiceanu Gabriel Marcel Gabriel Nuchelmans Gabrielle Suchon Gadadhara Gaetano Bresci Gaetano Mosca Gaetano Sanseverino Gaia Hypothesis Gaia philosophy Gaisi Takeuti Gaius (jurist) Gaius Marius Victorinus Gaius Musonius Rufus Gaius the Platonist Gajo Petrović Galen Galen Strawson Galenic corpus Galileo Galileo Galilei Galvano Della Volpe Gambler's fallacy Game semantics Game theory GANDALF trial Gangesa Gangeśa Gangesha Upadhyaya Gani Bobi Gaozi Gareth Evans (philosopher) Gareth Matthews Gargi Vachaknavi Garlandus Compotista Garrett Hardin Garry L. Hagberg Gary Chartier Gary Drescher Gary Habermas Gary L. Francione Gary Legenhausen Gasparinus de Bergamo Gaston Bachelard Gaston Berger Gaudapada Gaudiya Vaisnava Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Gautama Buddha Gavagai Gavin Swarteztuber Gay Left Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak Gaze GCH Ge Hong Geist Geisteswissenschaften Gellish Gellish English Gemeinschaft Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Geminus Gemistus Pletho Gender Gender studies Gender theory Gene therapy Genealogy Genealogy (philosophy) General Confederation of Labour (Portugal) General intellect General relativity General semantics General systems theory General will Generalizability Generalization Generalization (logic) Generalized continuum hypothesis Generalized quantifier Generalized quantifiers Generalized star height problem Generation effect Generation of Animals Generative grammar Generativity Generosity Genetic epistemology Genetic fallacy Genetics Genetics and abortion Geneviève Fraisse Genevieve Lloyd Genidentity Genius Genocide Genotype–phenotype distinction Genshin Gentleness Genus Genus–differentia definition Geocriticism Geoffrey Bennington Geoffrey Brennan Geoffrey Hellman Geoffrey Hunter (logician) Geoffrey J. Warnock Geoffrey Ostergaard Geoffrey Reginald Gilchrist Mure Geoffrey Sayre-McCord Geoffrey Scarre Geoffrey Warnock Geographic determinism Geohumoral theory Geometry Geometry of interaction Georg Anton Friedrich Ast Georg Bernhard Bilfinger Georg Brandes Georg Cantor Georg Christoph Lichtenberg Georg Friedrich Daumer Georg Friedrich Meier Georg Gottlob Richter Georg Gustav Fulleborn Georg Henrik von Wright Georg Jellinek Georg Klaus Georg Kreisel Georg Kühlewind Georg Lukács Georg Mehlis Georg Misch Georg Simmel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography George Amiroutzes George Berkeley George Blewett George Boas George Boole George Boolos George Botterill George Caffentzis George Campbell (Presbyterian minister) George Croom Robertson George Dickie (philosopher) George Edward Hughes George Edward Moore George Eliot George Frederick Stout George Grant (philosopher) George Grote George H. Smith George Henry Lewes George Herbert Mead George Holland Sabine George Holmes Howison George Hourani George I. Mavrodes George Kateb George Lakoff George Lansing Raymond George Molnar (philosopher) George of Trebizond George Ohsawa George Orwell George Pappas George Santayana George Sher George Sossenko George Stout George Stuart Fullerton George Sylvester Morris George Trumbull Ladd George Turnbull (theologian) George Woodcock Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon Georges Bataille Georges Bénézé Georges Canguilhem Georges Cochon Georges Florovsky Georges Ohsawa Georges Palante Georges Politzer Georges Sorel Georgi Plekhanov Georgy Valentinovich Plekhanov Gerald Cohen Gerald Dworkin Gerald Holton Gerald Sacks Gerard Casey (philosopher) Gérard Granel Gerard of Abbeville Gerard of Bologna Gerard of Brussels Gerard of Cremona Gerard of Odo Gerard Verschuuren Gerardus Heymans Gerardus Johannes Petrus Josephus Bolland Gerardus Odonis Gerardus van der Leeuw Géraud de Cordemoy Gerbert of Aurillac Gerd Buchdahl Gerda Alexander Gerhard Dorn Gerhard Gentzen Gerhard Karl Erich Gentzen Gerhard Schneemann Gerhard Streminger Gerhard Vollmer Gerhold K. Becker Germain Grisez German Historical School German idealism German philosophy German Philosophy German Waldheim Cemetery Germinal (journal) Germinal (novel) Germinal choice technology Gerolamo Cardano Gerrit Mannoury Gershom Carmichael Gersonides Gertrud (novel) Gesellschaft Geshe Thupten Jinpa Gestalt Gestalt psychology Gestalt theory Gestell Gettier-style example Gettier problem Gettier problems Géza Fodor (philosopher) Ghosha Ghost in the machine Ghost in the machine (philosophy) Giacomo Leopardi Giacomo Marramao Giambattista Vico Giammaria Ortes Gian-Carlo Rota Gian Domenico Romagnosi Giancinto Sigismondo Gerdil Gianfranco Sanguinetti Gianni Vattimo Gifford Lectures Gift from Hijaz Gila Sher Gilbert de la Porrée Gilbert Harman Gilbert Hottois Gilbert Jack Gilbert of Poitiers Gilbert Ryle Gilbert Simondon Giles Fraser Giles of Lessines Giles of Rome Gilles-Gaston Granger Gilles Deleuze Gilles Lipovetsky Gillian Rose Gillick competence Gino Lucetti Gioacchino Ventura di Raulica Giordano Bruno Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition Giorgi Japaridze Giorgio Agamben Giorgio Colli Giorgio de Santillana Giorgio Del Vecchio Giorgio Vasari Giovanna Borradori Giovanni Baldelli Giovanni Botero Giovanni Filoteo Achillini Giovanni Francesco Pico della Mirandola Giovanni Gentile Giovanni Piana Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Giovanni Vailati Gisela Striker Giulio Camillo Giulio Cesare la Galla Giulio Cesare Vanini Giuseppa Eleonora Barbapiccola Giuseppe Ferrari Giuseppe Peano Giuseppe Pecci Giuseppe Tarantino Giuseppe Zangara Giuseppe Zevola Give-away shop Giwi Margwelaschwili Glas (book) Glaucon Gleason's theorem Glen Newey Glenn Albrecht Gli Asolani Glivenko's theorem Global citizens movement Global feminism Global justice Global Workspace Theory Globalization Gloria Origgi Glossary of philosophy Glossary of Stoic terms Gluttony Gnaeus Claudius Severus Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus Gnomic wisdom Gnoseology Gnosiology Gnosticism God God-Building God and Other Minds God in Buddhism God is dead God Is Not Great God of the gaps God, A Guide for the Perplexed Goddess of the Market Godehard Link Gödel's incompleteness theorems Gödel's ontological proof Gödel's theorems Gödel numbering Gödel, Escher, Bach Godfrey of Fontaines Goethean science Gojiro Goldbach's conjecture Golden Eurydice Award Golden mean (philosophy) Golos Truda Gómez Pereira Gongsun Long Gonsalvus of Spain Gonzalo Arango Gonzalo Rodríguez Pereyra Good and evil Good and necessary consequence Good reasons approach Good will Goodman's paradox Goodness Goodness and value theory Gopal Balakrishnan Gopinath Kaviraj Gordon Anderson (author) Gordon Park Baker Gorgias Gorgias (dialogue) Gotama Gottfried Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Gotthard Günther Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Gottlob Ernst Schulze Gottlob Frege Governance Government Governmentality Govinda Chandra Dev Grace de Laguna Grace Jantzen Graham Harman Graham Oppy Graham Priest Grammar Grammar of Assent Grammatical subject Grammaticality intuitions Grammatology Grandfather paradox Granny Made me an Anarchist Grant Cornwell Grassroots democracy Graswurzelrevolution Gravitas Gray Dorsey Great chain of being Great Learning Great Man theory Great Man theory of history Great unity Great Year Greatest good Greatest happiness principle Greed Greedy reductionism Greek hero cult Greek philosophy Green anarchism Green Anarchist Green Anarchy Green libertarianism Green syndicalism Greg Koukl Gregor Mendel Gregor Reisch Gregory Bateson Gregory Chaitin Gregory Currie Gregory I Gregory of Nyssa Gregory of Rimini Gregory Pence Gregory the Great Gregory Vlastos Gregory Wheeler Greibach normal form Grelling's paradox Grelling–Nelson paradox Grellings paradox Gricean maxims Griffith Powell Grigorii Maksimov Grigorii Nikolayevich Vyrubov Gross national happiness Grotesque Grotesque body Groundhog Day (film) Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals Group-serving bias Group entity Growing block universe Growth attenuation Grue and bleen Grundnorm Grundrisse Grzegorz of Stawiszyn Gu Yanwu Gu Zhun Guan Zhong Guanzi (text) Guarino da Verona Gudo Wafu Nishijima Guerrilla ontology Guerrilla punk Guevarism Guido del Giudice Guido Terrena Guidobaldo del Monte Guifeng Zongmi Guiguzi Guillaume du Vair Guillaume Lamy Guillaume Pierre Godin Guilt Guilty pleasure Guise Gulliver's Travels Gumersindo de Azcárate Gunk (mereology) Gunnar Landtman Gunnar Skirbekk Günter Abel Günther Anders Gunther Stent Guo Xiang Guru Guru Nanak Dev Gustav Bergmann Gustav Glogau Gustav Gustavovich Shpet Gustav Kafka Gustav Landauer Gustav Naan Gustav Radbruch Gustav Teichmuller Gustav Teichmüller Gustav Theodor Fechner Gustave Bouvet Gustave de Molinari Gustave Lefrançais Gustavo Bueno Gustavo Rol Guy Aldred Guy Debord Gwil Owen Gwilyn Ellis Lane Owen Gymnosophists Gymnosophy György Bence György Lukács György Márkus H H. B. Acton H. H. Price H. L. A. Hart H. L. Mencken H. P. Grice H. Paul Grice H. Richard Niebuhr H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr. H.H. Price H.L.A. Hart Ha Ki-Rak Habeas corpus Habituation Habitus (sociology) Hacklab Haecceity Hagakure Hagnon of Tarsus Hajime Tanabe Hakim Bey Hakuin Ekaku Halakhah Halcyon (dialogue) Half-truth Halim Hallucination Hallucinations in the sane Halo effect Halting problem Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani Hamid Dabashi Han Fei Han Fei-tzu Han Ryner Han Yong-un Han Yu Handbook of Automated Reasoning Handwaving Hanna Al-Fakhoury Hannah Arendt Hans-Georg Gadamer Hans-Joachim Niemann Hans-Martin Sass Hans-Werner Bothe Hans Achterhuis Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch Hans Albert Hans Blom Hans Blumenberg Hans Cornelius Hans Ehrenberg Hans Frei Hans Freyer Hans Hahn Hans Jonas Hans Kamp Hans Kelsen Hans Köchler Hans Lipps Hans Pfitzner Hans Reichenbach Hans Robert Jauss Hans Rookmaaker Hans Skjervheim Hans Sluga Hans Vaihinger Hao Wang (academic) Happiness Happiness economics Har Dayal Harald Hoffding Harald Høffding Harald K. Schjelderup Harbinger (zine) Hard determinism Hard problem of consciousness Haribhadra Haridas Chaudhuri Harlem Renaissance Harm principle Harm reduction Harmonices Mundi Harmonious society Harmony Harmony of the spheres Harold Arthur Prichard Harold F. Cherniss Harold Foster Hallett Harold H. Thompson (anarchist) Harold Joachim Harriet Martineau Harriet Mill Harriet Taylor Harriet Taylor Mill Harry Austryn Wolfson Harry Binswanger Harry Frankfurt Harry Kelly (anarchist) Harry Oldmeadow Harry Prosch Hartley Burr Alexander Hartley Rogers, Jr. Hartry Field Hartry H. Field Harvey Brown (philosopher) Harvey Friedman Hasan Özbekhan Hasdai Crescas Hasdai ibn Crescas Hasdai Ibn Crescas Hasidic philosophy Hasidism Haskell Curry Hassan Hanafi Hassan Kobeissi Hastings Rashdall Hasty generalization Hatata Hate speech Hauntology Hayashi Hōkō Hayashi Razan Hayashi Ryūkō Haymarket affair Hayom Yom Hayy ibn Yaqdhan Hazel Barnes Health care proxy Heap paradox Heart Heathian anarchism Heaven Heaven and Hell (essay) Hecataeus of Abdera Hecato of Rhodes Hector-Neri Castañeda Hector Boece Hector Zagal Hedgehog's dilemma Hedone Hedonic calculus Hedonic treadmill Hedonism Hedwig Conrad-Martius Hegel-Archiv Hegel Society of America Hegel Society of Great Britain Hegelianism Hegelians Hegemony Hegemony and Socialist Strategy Hegesias of Cyrene Hegesias of Magnesia Hegesinus of Pergamon Hegias Heidegger and Nazism Heidegger Gesamtausgabe Heideggerian terminology Heidelberg School Heidi Ravven Heimin Shimbun Heinrich Christoph Wilhelm Sigwart Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa Heinrich Czolbe Heinrich Gomperz Heinrich Gustav Hotho Heinrich Hertz Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus Heinrich Rickert Heinrich Ritter Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Heinrich Seuse Heinrich von Kleist Heinz Cassirer Heinz dilemma Heinz Heimsoeth Heisenberg indeterminacy principle Heisenberg uncertainty principle HeLa Helen Longino Helen Lynd Helen Zimmern Helena Rasiowa Hélène Cixous Helene von Druskowitz Helga Kuhse Helio Gallardo Heliodoro de Paiva Heliodorus (philosopher) Heliodorus of Alexandria Hell Hellenistic philosophy Hellenistic philosophy and Christianity Helmut Reichelt Helmut Richard Niebuhr Helmut Thielicke Helmuth Plessner Helpfulness Helvidius Priscus Hempel's Dilemma Hempel-Oppenheim model Hendrik G. Stoker Hendrik Hart Hendrik van Eikema Hommes Hendrik van Riessen Henk Barendregt Henology Henosis Henotheism Henri-Frédéric Amiel Henri Bergson Henri Berr Henri Focillon Henri François Marion Henri Gouhier Henri Laborit Henri Lefebvre Henri Poincaré Henri Wallon (psychologist) Henricus Regius Henrik Steffens Henry Aristippus Henry Babcock Veatch Henry Corbin Henry David Thoreau Henry E. Kyburg, Jr. Henry Flynt Henry George Henry Habberley Price Henry Harclay Henry Home Henry Home, Lord Kames Henry James, Sr. Henry Johnstone Jr. Henry Jones (philosopher) Henry Longueville Mansel Henry Margenau Henry More Henry Moyes Henry of Ghent Henry of Harclay Henry Pachter Henry Philip Tappan Henry Sidgwick Henry Stanton Henry Suso Henry William Chandler Henryk Skolimowski Hentisberus Heraclides Lembus Heraclides of Aenus Heraclides of Pontus Heraclides Ponticus Heraclitus Heraclitus of Ephesus Heraclius the Cynic Herbert Feigl Herbert Lionel Adolphus Hart Herbert Marcuse Herbert McCabe Herbert Paul Grice Herbert Simon Herbert Spencer Herbert Spiegelberg Herbert Witzenmann Herbrand's Theorem Herd behavior Here Here is a hand Hereditary property Heresy in Judaism Herillus Hermagoras of Amphipolis Herman Dooyeweerd Herman of Carinthia Herman Oliphant Herman Philipse Herman Tønnessen Herman Van Breda Hermann Blumenau Hermann Cohen Hermann Friedrich Wilhelm Hinrichs Hermann Graf Keyserling Hermann Lotze Hermann Samuel Reimarus Hermann Schwarz (philosopher) Hermann Theodor Hettner Hermann Ulrici Hermann von Helmholtz Hermann Weyl Hermannus Alemannus Hermarchus Hermeneutic circle Hermeneutics Hermetica Hermeticism Hermias (philosopher) Hermias of Atarneus Herminus Hermippus of Smyrna Hermocrates (dialogue) Hermodorus Hermogenes (philosopher) Hermotimus of Clazomenae Hermsprong Heroic realism Heroic theory of invention and scientific development Heroic virtue Hervaeus Natalis Hesiod Hestiaeus of Perinthus Heterological Heteronomy Heteronormativity Heterophenomenology Heterotopia (space) Heuristic Heuristic argument Heuristics Hexis Hey Rub-a-Dub-Dub: A Book of the Mystery and Wonder and Terror of Life Heydar Huseynov Heymeric de Campo Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi Hicetas Hidden variable Hierarchical epistemology Hierarchy Hierarchy of genres Hierarchy of knowledge Hierius Hiero (Xenophon) Hierocles (Stoic) Hierocles of Alexandria Hieronymus Medices Hieronymus of Rhodes Hierophany High modernism High Treason Incident Higher-order logic Higher-order logics Higher-order volition Higher mental plane Hilary Bok Hilary Kornblith Hilary Lawson Hilary Putnam Hilbert's Program Hildegard of Bingen Hillel ben Samuel of Verona Hillel of Verona Himerius Hinayana Hinayana Buddhism Hindsight bias Hindu idealism Hindu philosophy Hinduism Hipparchia of Maroneia Hipparchus (dialogue) Hippasus Hippias Hippias Major Hippias Minor Hippias of Elis Hippo (philosopher) Hippocrates Hippocrates of Cos Hippocratic Oath Hippolyte Taine Hirata Atsutane Hiroki Azuma Hisbah Hisdosus Historian's fallacy Historical determinism Historical fallacy Historical materialism Historical vedic religion Historicism Historicism (art) Historicity (philosophy) Historiography Historism History and Class Consciousness History and Future of Justice History and philosophy of science History monoid History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century) History of anarchism History of Animals History of communism History of Consciousness History of ethics History of evolutionary thought History of logic History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance History of painting History of philosophy History of philosophy in Poland History of Political Philosophy History of political thinking History of pseudoscience History of the Church–Turing thesis History of the concept of creativity History of western philosophy History of Western Philosophy (Russell) Ho Yen Hobson's choice Holarchy Hold come what may Hold more stubbornly at least Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister" Holism Holmes Rolston III Holocentric Hologram Holon (philosophy) Holy Holy History of Mankind Homage to Catalonia Homeland Homer Homes Not Jails Homeschooling Homestead principle Homo consumericus Homo faber Homo sacer Homoiousian Homology (trait) Homomorphism Homonoia Homonymy Homoousian Homoousios Homosexuality Homunculus Homunculus argument Hōnen Honesty Hong Liangji Hong Zicheng Honor Honorio Delgado Honour Hope Hope (virtue) Horace Kallen Horace Romano Harré Horatio Dresser Horizon Horizon anarchism Horizontalidad Horn clause Horror vacui (physics) Horror Victorianorum Horseshoe Horus (athlete) Hosoi Heishu Hospitality Hossein Nasr Hossein Ziai Hostile media effect Hostile Takeover Trilogy Hoter ben Shlomo Hourya Sinaceur House of hospitality Houston Stewart Chamberlain How Are We to Live? How many angels can dance on the head of a pin? How the Self Controls Its Brain Howard Adelman Howard Kainz Howard Robinson Howard V. and Edna H. Hong Kierkegaard Library Howard Williams (humanitarian) Howard Zinn Howison Lectures in Philosophy Hryhorii Savych Skovoroda Hryhorii Skovoroda Hsi K'ang Hsiao Hsing Yun Hsun Tsu Hsün Tsu Hsün Tsǔ Hsun Tzu Hsün Tzu Hsün Tzǔ Hu Qiaomu Hu Shi Hu Shih Huainanzi Huan Tan Huang Tsung-hsi Huang Zongxi Huangdi Sijing Huangdi Yinfujing Huashu Huayan school Hubert Damisch Hubert Dreyfus Hubert Schleichert Huberto Rohden Hudson River School Hugh Binning Hugh Blair Hugh Everett III Hugh J. Silverman Hugh Kenner Hugh MacColl Hugh Mellor Hugh of Saint Victor Hugh of St Cher Hugh of St Victor Hugo Adam Bedau Hugo Cores Hugo Dingler Hugo Grotius Hugo Kołłątaj Hugo Kükelhaus Hugo Perls Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais Hui Shi Hui Shih Huigh de Groot Huineng Huiyuan (Buddhist) Human Human beings Human beings in Buddhism Human cloning Human condition Human enhancement Human exceptionalism Human extinction Human figure (aesthetics) Human nature Human physical appearance Human reliability Human rights Human sciences Human self-reflection Human sexuality Human spirit Human, All Too Human Humana.Mente – Journal of Philosophical Studies Humanism Humanism (life stance) Humanism and Its Aspirations Humanism in France Humanism in Germany Humanist Manifesto Humanist Manifesto I Humanist Manifesto II Humanist Movement Humanist Society Scotland Humanistic naturalism Humanistic psychology Humanitarian-political Humanitarianism Humanitas Humberto Maturana Hume's fork Hume's Law Hume's principle Hume and the Problem of Causation Hume Studies Humility Humor Humor research Humors Humour Humours Humphry Ditton Humster Hundred Schools of Thought Hunein Ibn Ishak Husserliana Huston Smith Hutchins Hapgood Hwang Jang-yop Hyacinthe Sigismond Gerdil Hybrid logic Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial Hyle Hylomorphism Hylopathism Hylozoism Hypatia Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy Hyperbolic discounting Hypergraphy Hypermodernism (art) Hypermodernity Hyperreality Hypokeimenon Hypomnema Hypostasis (Neoplatonism) Hypostasis (philosophy) Hypostatic abstraction Hypothesis Hypothetical Hypothetical construct Hypothetical imperative Hypothetical syllogism Hypothetico-deductive model Hywel Lewis Philosophy
419390	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20philosophy%20articles%20%28I%E2%80%93Q%29	Index of philosophy articles (I–Q)	I I'm entitled to my opinion I-Ching I Am a Strange Loop I and Thou I Ching I Heart Huckabees I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon I know it when I see it I know that I know nothing I problemi della guerra e le vie della pace I. A. Richards Iain Hamilton Grant Iamblichus Iamblichus (philosopher) Ian Bone Ian Buchanan (philosopher) Ian Hacking Ian Ramsey Ian Robinson (rationalist) Ian Thomas Ramsey Iatrogenesis Ibn al-Arabi Ibn al-Nafis Ibn al-Rawandi Ibn ar-Rawandi Ibn Arabi Ibn Bajjah Ibn Daud Ibn Falaquera Ibn Gabirol Ibn Hazm Ibn Kammuna Ibn Khaldun Ibn Khaldūn Ibn Masarra Ibn Masarrah Ibn Miskawayh Ibn Rushd Ibn Sabin Ibn Sina Ibn Sīnā Ibn Taymiya Ibn Taymiyyah Ibn Tufail Ibn Ţufayl Ibn Tzaddik İbrahim Hakkı Erzurumi İbrahim Özdemir Ichthyas Icon Id, ego and super-ego Ida Mett Idea Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose Idea of Progress Ideal (ethics) Ideal language Ideal observer theory Ideal speech situation Ideal type Idealism Idealistic pluralism Idealistic Studies Idealization (science philosophy) Idea Ideas and Action Ideas Have Consequences Idée reçue Idempotency of entailment Identity (philosophy) Identity formation Identity of indiscernibles Identity politics Identity theory of mind Identity thesis Identityism Ideographic Ideological repression Ideology Ideomotor effect Idiolect Idios kosmos Idol (philosophy) Idolon tribus Idols of the cave Idols of the mind Idols of the tribe Idomeneus of Lampsacus Ietsism If If-by-whiskey If a tree falls in a forest If and only if Iff Ignacio de Arbieto Ignacio Ellacuría Ignoramus et ignorabimus Ignoratio elenchi Ignosticism Ignotum per ignotius Igor Pribac Igor Yefimov Ihsan Ikeda Mitsumasa Iki (aesthetic ideal) Ikki Kita Ilkka Niiniluoto Illative Illegalism Illicit major Illicit minor Illocutionary act Illocutionary force Illtyd Trethowan Illuminati Illumination Illuminationism Illuminationist philosophy Illusion Illusion of asymmetric insight Illusion of control Illusion of transparency Illusionism (philosophy) Illusions Illusory correlation Illustrius Pusaeus Image Imagery Imaginary Imaginary Conversations Imagination Imaging Immaculate perception Immanence Immanent critique Immanent evaluation Immanuel Ben Solomon of Rome Immanuel Hermann Fichte Immanuel Kant Immanuel the Roman Immaterial Immaterial force Immaterialism Immediacy (philosophy) Immediate inference Immediatism Immigration Act of 1917 Immortality Immortality of the soul Immunology Immutability Impact bias Impartiality Impenetrability Imperative Imperative logic Imperfect induction Imperialism Imperium Impermanence Implicant Implication Implications of nanotechnology Implicature Imposition Impossible world Impredicative definition Impredicative property Impredicativity Impression Imre Lakatos In a Different Voice In Defense of Anarchism In Praise of Shadows In Search of Lost Time In Search of the Miraculous In vitro fertilisation Incarnation and Christology Incarnational humanism Inclusion (logic) Inclusive Democracy Inclusive disjunction Incoherence Incompatibilism Incompatible-properties argument Incomplete comparison Incompleteness Incompleteness theorem Incompleteness theorems Inconnu Independent Art Group Inconsistent triad Incontinence (philosophy) Incorporeality Incorrigibility Indefinite monism Independence Independence-friendly logic Indeterminacy Indeterminacy (philosophy) Indeterminacy debate in legal theory Indeterminacy of translation Indeterminacy principle Indeterminacy problem Indeterminate Indeterminism Index of aesthetics articles Index of ancient philosophy articles Index of epistemology articles Index of ethics articles Index of logic articles Index of metaphysics articles Index of philosophers Index of philosophy Index of philosophy articles Index of philosophy articles (A–C) Index of philosophy articles (D–H) Index of philosophy articles (R–Z) Index of philosophy of mind articles Index of social and political philosophy articles Indexed language Indexical Indexicality Indexicals Indian philosophy Indian political philosophy Indicative conditional Indicative conditionals Indicator Indifference Indifferent act Indigenism Indirect proof Indirect self-reference Indiscernibility Individual Individual reclamation Individualism Individualism and Economic Order Individualist anarchism Individualist ethical subjectivism Individuation Indo-European copula Indoctrination Indonesian philosophy Indra Sen Indriya Inductionism Inductive definition Inductive inference Inductive reasoning Inductivism Industrial espionage Industrialisation Ineffability Ineffective assistance of counsel Inequality Inequality Reexamined Infallibilism Infallibility Inference Inference rule Inference to the best explanation Inferential role semantics Infinitary logic Infinitary logics Infinite Infinite divisibility Infinite qualitative distinction Infinite regress Infinitesimals Infinitism Infinity Infinity (philosophy) Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche Informal fallacy Informal logic Informal mathematics Information bias (psychology) Information ethics Information theory Informed consent Informed refusal Infoshop Infoshop.org Ingeborg Bachmann Ingeborg i Mjärhult Ingo Zechner Ingroup bias Ingsoc Inherence Inherence relation Inherent Inherent value Inherently funny word Iniciales Inka Innate idea Innate ideas Innate knowledge Innatism Inne pieśni Inner peace Innocence Inocenc Arnošt Bláha Inoue Tetsujirō Inquiry Inside Front Insight Insolubilia Instantiation Instantiation principle Institute for Anarchist Studies Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies Institute for the Secularisation of Islamic Society Institute of Pacific Relations Institution Institutional Critique Institutional cruelty Institutional theory of art Institutionalism Instrumental conditioning Instrumental rationality Instrumental value Instrumentalism Insufficient reason Insurrectionary anarchism Integral theory (Ken Wilber) Integral humanism (India) Integral humanism (Maritain) Integrative level Integrity Intellectual Intellectual dishonesty Intellectual history Intellectual responsibility Intellectual virtue Intellectualism Intelligence Intelligence (trait) Intelligent design Intelligent design theory Intelligibility (philosophy) Intelligible form Intended interpretation Intension Intensional definition Intensional logic Intensional statement Intensionality Intensive Science and Virtual Philosophy Intention Intentional fallacy Intentional Logic Intentional object Intentional stance Intentionality Interactionism Interactionism (philosophy of mind) Interculturalism Interdependence Interests Intergenerational equity Intergenerational justice Interior algebra Internal discourse Internal realism Internalism Internalism and externalism Internalization International Academy of Humanism International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam International Association for Computing and Philosophy International Association for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy International Commission of Jurists International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists International Federation of Philosophical Societies International Journal of Baudrillard Studies International Journal of Žižek 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(animal ethics) Intrinsic value (ethics) Introduction to Arithmetic Introduction to Kant's Anthropology Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy Introduction to Metaphysics Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology Introjection Introspection Introspection illusion Intuition (Bergson) Intuition (knowledge) Intuition (philosophy) Intuition pump Intuitionism Intuitionism in ethics Intuitionist logic Intuitionistic logic Inverse (logic) Inverse gambler's fallacy Inversion Inverted qualia Inverted spectrum Invincible error Invincible ignorance fallacy Inviolability Invisible dictatorship Invisible hand Invisible Pink Unicorn Involuntary commitment Involuntary euthanasia Involuntary memory Involuntary treatment Involution (esoterism) Involution (philosophy) Ioan Zalomit Ioane Petritsi Ioanna Kucuradi Ion (dialogue) Ion Heliade Rădulescu Ion of Chios Ion Petrovici Ionian Enlightenment Ionian School (philosophy) Iosipos Moisiodax Ippen Ipso facto Ipso jure Iranian philosophy Irenaean theodicy 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Phelps Löwenheim–Skolem theorem Loyalty Lu-shih ch'un-ch'iu Lü-shih ch'un-ch'iu Lu Ban Lu Hsiang-shan Lu Jiuyuan Lü Liuliang Lu Xiangshan Luc Bovens Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues Luc Ferry Luce Irigaray Lucía Sánchez Saornil Lucian Lucian Blaga Lucian Floridi Lucian of Samosata Luciano Floridi Lucien Goldmann Lucien Lévy-Bruhl Lucifer the Lightbearer Lucilio Vanini Lucio Colletti Lucio Urtubia Lucius Annaeus Cornutus Lucius Annaeus Seneca Luck Lucretius Lucy Parsons Luddite Ludic Ludic fallacy Ludovico Geymonat Ludwig Feuerbach Ludwig Babenstuber Ludwig Boltzmann Ludwig Büchner Ludwig Klages Ludwig Landgrebe Ludwig Marcuse Ludwig Tieck Ludwig von Mises Ludwig Wittgenstein Ludwik Fleck Luigi Fabbri Luigi Ferri Luigi Galleani Luigi Guido Grandi Luigi Lucheni Luigi Pareyson Luis de Molina Luís Filipe Teixeira Luisa Capetillo Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer Luminism (American art style) Lun Yu Lunheng Lunyu Luo Rufang Lương Kim Định Lüshi Chunqiu Lust Lutheran scholasticism Lutz Wingert Luxemburgism Lwów–Warsaw school Lyceum Lyceum (classical) Lyco of Iasos Lyco of Troas Lycophron (sophist) Lying Lynn Pasquerella Lynne Rudder Baker Lyrical abstraction Lysander Spooner Lysis (dialogue) Lysis of Taras Lyubomir Ivanov (explorer) Lyubov Axelrod M M. Nasroen Ma Rong Mach's principle Machiavellianism Macrocosm Macrocosm and microcosm Mad pain and Martian pain Madame de Stael Madame de Staël Madeleine Doran Madhava Madhusūdana Sarasvatī Madhvacharya Madhwas Madhyamaka Madhyamika Mādhyamika Madhyamika Buddhism Mādhyamika Buddhism Magdalena Środa Magical thinking Magna Moralia Magnanimity Magnificence (History of ideas) Mahabharata Mahābhūta Mahamudra Mahasi Sayadaw Mahatma Gandhi Mahavira Mahayana Mahayana Buddhism Mahmoud Khatami Maieutics Maimonides Maine de Biran Maitreya-nātha Maitreyi Major term Makapansgat pebble Makhnovshchina Maksim Rayevsky Malakia Malcolm Knox Malinda Cramer Malthusian catastrophe Malthusian equilibrium Man's Fate Man's inhumanity to man Man a Machine Man and Society Man and Technics Manas-vijnana Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society Mandala Maṇḍana Miśra Mandate of Heaven Mandated choice Mandeville's paradox Manfred Frank Mani Mani Kaul Manichaeism Manicheanism Manifesto of the Sixteen Manifold Manlio Sgalambro Mannerism Mantra Manuchehr Jamali Manuel Buenacasa Tomeo Manuel Chrysoloras Manuel de Landa Manuel Lassala Manuel Sacristán Many-minds interpretation Many-valued logic Many-valued logics Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics Manzoor Ahmad Mao Zedong Maoism Map–territory relation Mappō Marburg School Marc-Alain Ouaknin Marc de Vries Marc Jean-Bernard Marc Sautet Marcantonio Genua Marcel Conche Marcel Gauchet Marcello Pera Marcelo Dascal Marcelo Sánchez Sorondo Marco Camenisch Marcus Aurelius Marcus Favonius Marcus George Singer Marcus Minucius Felix Marcus Musurus Marek Siemek Margaret Canovan Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne Margaret Elizabeth Egan Margaret Gilbert Margaret Somerville Margareta i Kumla Marginal utility Marginalization Maria Gaetana Agnesi Maria Montessori Maria Nikiforova Maria Occhipinti Maria Ossowska María Zambrano Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman Marian Hillar Marian Jaworski Marian Massonius Marian Zdziechowski Marianna Marquesa Florenzi Mariano Artigas Marie-Louise Berneri Marie Equi Marilena Chaui Marilyn Frye Marilyn McCord Adams Marin Mersenne Marinus of Neapolis Mario Bettinus Mario Bunge Mario De Caro Mario Kopić Mario Perniola Marius the Epicurean Marius Victorinus Marjorie Grene Mark Addis Mark Alan Walker Mark C. Taylor Mark Cherry Mark de Bretton Platts Mark Johnson (philosopher) Mark Kingwell Mark Kuczewski Mark Lance Mark Olssen Mark Philp Mark Sacks Mark Sainsbury (philosopher) Mark Sainsbury (philosopher) Mark Steiner Mark Vernon Mark Wrathall Market populism Market socialism Marketing ethics Markov process Markus Herz Marlène Zarader Marpa Lotsawa Marquis de Condorcet Marriage Marshall Berman Marshall McLuhan Marsiglio of Padua Marsilio dei Mainardine Marsilio Ficino Marsilius of Inghen Marsilius of Padua Marta Petreu Martha C. Nussbaum Martha Craven Nussbaum Martha Klein Martha Nussbaum Martial Guéroult Martian scientist Martin A. Hainz Martin Buber Martin Davis Martin Deutinger Martin Gardner Martin Heidegger Martin Hollis (philosopher) Martin Knutzen Martin Kusch Martin Löb Martin Luther Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Stokhof Martin van Hees Martine Batchelor Martinus Smiglecius Martyn Evans (academic) Marvin Farber Marvin Minsky Marx's Historical Stages Marx's theory of alienation Marx's theory of history Marx's theory of human nature Marx W. Wartofsky Marx’s method Marxism Marxism–Leninism Marxist aesthetics Marxist feminism Marxist humanism Marxist philosophy Marxist philosophy of nature Marxist sociology Mary's room Mary Anne Atwood Mary Anne Warren Mary Astell Mary Daly Mary Hesse Mary Louise Pratt Mary Midgley Mary Tiles Mary Warnock Mary Warnock, Baroness Warnock Mary Whiton Calkins Mary Wollstonecraft Masakazu Nakai Masao Abe Masculism Masked-man fallacy Mass noun Massimo Cacciari Massimo Pigliucci Master-slave dialectic Master-slave morality Master argument Master suppression techniques Mateo Aimerich Material conditional Material equivalence Material good Material implication Material monism Material nonimplication Material substratum Materialism Materialism and Empirio-criticism Mateu Morral Mathematical analysis Mathematical beauty Mathematical constructivism Mathematical fallacy Mathematical function Mathematical induction Mathematical intuitionism Mathematical logic Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society Mathematical space Mathematical universe hypothesis Mathematics and art Matheolus Perusinus Mathesis universalis Matrix grammar Matrix mechanics Matteo Campani-Alimenis Matteotti Battalion Matter Matter (philosophy) Matter and Memory Matthew Ferchi Matthew Foreman Matthew Lipman Matthew of Aquasparta Matthew Stewart (philosopher) Matthew Tindal Matti Häyry Maurice Blanchot Maurice Blondel Maurice Brinton Maurice Cranston Maurice De Wulf Maurice Halbwachs Maurice Merleau-Ponty Maurice Pradines Mauricio Suarez Max Baginski Max Bense Max Black Max Dessoir Max Hödel Max Horkheimer Max More Max Müller Max Müller (Catholic intellectual) Max Planck Max Scheler Max Scheler's Concept of Ressentiment Max Stirner Max Weber Max Weismann Maxence Caron Maxim (philosophy) Maximal consistent set Maximalism Maximilien Luce Maximinus (Praetorian Prefect) Maximus of Ephesus Maximus of Tyre Maximus the Confessor Maxine Greene Maxwell's demon May 68, Philosophy is in the Street! Maya (illusion) Maya Keyes Mayatita Mazdak Mazen Asfour Mazu Daoyi Meaning Meaning (existential) Meaning (linguistics) Meaning (non-linguistic) Meaning (philosophy of language) Meaning (semiotics) Meaning of life Meaning of life (philosophy) Meaning postulate Meaningless statement Means to an end Measurement Measurement in quantum mechanics Mechanics Mechanics (Aristotle) Mechanism (philosophy) Media accountability Media ecology Media ethics Media transparency Mediated reference theory Mediation (Marxist theory and media studies) Medical error Medical ethics Medical gaze Medical torture Medical waste Medieval logic Medieval philosophy Medieval science Mediocrity principle Meditations Meditations on First Philosophy Meditations on the Peaks Meera Nanda Megalothymia and Isothymia Megarian school Megarians Mehdi Belhaj Kacem Mehmet Aydın Meiklejohnian absolutism Meinong's jungle Meister Eckhart Mel Bradford Melbourne School of Continental Philosophy Melchiorre Gioia Melchor Rodríguez García Meleager of Gadara Meletus Meliorism Melissus Melissus of Samos Melville Y. Stewart Meme Meme pool Memeplex Memetics Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism Memoirs of Emma Courtney Memorabilia (Xenophon) Memory Men's rights Men Among the Ruins Mencius Mencius (book) Mendelian genetics Menedemus Menedemus of Pyrrha Menedemus the Cynic Menexenus (dialogue) Meng-tzu Meng K'o Mengzi Menippus Meno Mens rea Mental body Mental causation Mental event Mental functions Mental illness Mental image Mental imagery Mental process Mental property Mental representation Mental space Mental state Mental substance Mental world Mentalese Mentalism (philosophy) Mentality Menyhért Palágyi Meontology Merab Mamardashvili Mercy Mere addition paradox Mereological essentialism Mereological nihilism Mereology Mereotopology Merit Merit (Buddhism) Meritarian Meritocracy Merton School Meshico Mesillat Yesharim Message from the East Messianic democracy Messianism Messius Phoebus Severus Meta Meta-discussion Meta-emotion Meta-epistemology Meta-ethics Meta-ontology Meta-philosophy Meta-rights Metadiscourse Metaethics Metaknowledge Metakosmia Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater Metalanguage Metalogic Metamagical Themas Metamathematics Metameme Metametaphysics Metaphilosophy Metaphor Metaphor in philosophy Metaphor of the sun Metaphysical art Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science Metaphysical naturalism Metaphysical necessity Metaphysical nihilism Metaphysical objectivism Metaphysical poets Metaphysical realism Metaphysical Society Metaphysical solipsism Metaphysical subjectivism Metaphysics Metaphysics (Aristotle) Metaphysics of Morals Metaphysics of presence Metaphysics of quality Metaphysics of War Metarealism Metasyntax Metatheorem Metatheory Metaxy Metempsychosis Meteorology (Aristotle) Method of agreement Method of concomitant variations Method of residues Methodic doubt Methodical culturalism Methodios Anthrakites Methodism Methodism (philosophy) Methodological individualism Methodological naturalism Methodological relativism Methodological skepticism Methodological solipsism Methodology Methods of obtaining knowledge Metrocles Metrodorus of Athens Metrodorus of Chios Metrodorus of Cos Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder) Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) Metrodorus of Stratonicea Mexican Liberal Party Michael A. E. Dummett Michael A. Smith (philosopher) Michael Anthony Eardley Dummett Michael Bratman Michael Davis (philosopher) Michael Devitt Michael Dummett Michael E. Rosen Michael E. Zimmerman (philosopher) Michael Ferejohn Michael Foster (philosopher) Michael Fourman Michael Frede Michael Friedman (philosopher) Michael Gelven Michael Gottlieb Birckner Michael Hardt Michael Hissmann Michael Ignatieff Michael Joseph Oakeshott Michael Levin (philosopher) Michael Lockwood (philosopher) Michael Lynch (philosopher) Michael Martin (philosopher) Michael Matteson Michael Neumann Michael Novak Michael O. Rabin Michael Oakeshott Michael of Ephesus Michael of Massa Michael Otsuka Michael Polanyi Michael Psellos Michael R. Ayers Michael Ruse Michael Sandel Michael Schmidt-Salomon Michael Scriven Michael Sprinker Michael Talbot (author) Michael Tye (philosopher) Michael Vavrus Michael Walzer Michael Williams (philosopher) Michał Falkener Michał Heller Michał Sędziwój Michał Twaróg of Bystrzyków Michał Wiszniewski Michel Bitbol Michel de Certeau Michel de Montaigne Michel Eyquem de Montaigne Michel Fattal Michel Foucault Michel Foucault bibliography Michel Henry Michel Onfray Michel Pêcheux Michel Serres Michel Seymour Michelangelo Fardella Michele Cianciulli Michele Le Doeuff Michèle Le Doeuff Michèle Le Dœuff Microcosm Middle knowledge Middle Platonism Middle term Middle Way Midrash Midwest Studies in Philosophy Might Is Right Might makes right Miguel de Unamuno Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo Miguel García (anarchist) Miguel García Vivancos Miguel Larreynaga Miguel Reale Miguel Serrano Mihailo Đurić Mihailo Marković Mikael Stenmark Mike Lesser Mike Sandbothe Mikel Dufrenne Mikelis Avlichos Mikhail Bakhtin Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Lifshitz Mikhail Ovsyannikov Mikhail Shcherbatov Miki Kiyoshi Mikyo Dorje Mikyö Dorje Milan Damnjanović (philosopher) Milan Kangrga Milan Komar Milan Vidmar Milarepa Milesian school Milgram experiment Military medical ethics Mill's methods Mill's Methods Millan Puelles Milly Witkop Mimamsa Mimāṃsā Mimesis Minarchism Mind Mind's eye Mind-body problem Mind–body dichotomy Mind & Language Mind (journal) Mind children Mind extension Mind over matter Minds, Machines and Gödel Mindset Mindstream Ming Dynasty Mingei Minima Moralia Minimal decency Minimalism Minimax Minimax strategy Minimum Intelligent Signal Test Minimum programme Minkowski space-time Minor premise Minor term Minority (philosophy) Minors and abortion Minos (dialogue) Mir Damad Mir Fendereski Miracle Miracle of the roses Miran Božovič Miranda Fricker Mircea Eliade Mircea Eliade bibliography Mirosław Dzielski Mirror stage Mirror test Misanthropy Misinformation effect Miskawayh Misleading vividness Misology Misopogon Misotheism Mitchell Miller (philosopher) Mitchell Thomashow Miura Baien Miyabi Mladen Dolar Mnason of Phocis Mnesarchus of Athens Mo Ti Mo Tzu Mochus Modal fictionalism Modal logic Modal operator Modal property Modal realism Modalities (sociology) Modality Mode of production Model (abstract) Model theory Models of scientific inquiry Moderate objectivism Moderate realism Moderation Moderatus of Gades Modern liberalism in the United States Modern Moral Philosophy Modern philosophy Modern Physics and Ancient Faith Modern School (United States) Modernism Modernity Modesty Modistae Modjtaba Sadria Modor Modular constructivism Modularity Modularity of mind Modus ponendo tollens Modus ponens Modus tollendo ponens Modus tollens Mohamed Osman Elkhosht Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr Mohammad Ibn Abd-al-Haq Ibn Sab’in Mohammad Taghi Jafari Mohammed Abed al-Jabri Mohammed Aziz Lahbabi Mohammed Chaouki Zine Mohammed Sabila Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Mohism Mohist philosophy Mohist School Moishe Tokar Mojżesz Presburger Moksa (Jainism) Moksha Molecular biology Molinism Molyneux's Problem Molyneux problem Molyneux question Monad Monad (Greek philosophy) Monadic predicate calculus Monadology Monarchomachs Monetary reform Monimus Monism Monistic idealism Monopoly on violence Monotheism Monotonic Monroe Beardsley Montague grammar Montanism Montanus Monte Carlo fallacy Montesquieu Monty Hall problem Mood (psychology) Moore's paradox Moore reduction procedure Moral Moral absolutism Moral agency Moral agent Moral agents Moral certainty Moral character Moral community Moral core Moral development Moral dilemma Moral dilemmas Moral economy Moral education Moral epistemology Moral equivalence Moral evil Moral example Moral hazard Moral hierarchy Moral high ground Moral imperative Moral judgment Moral law Moral luck Moral motivation Moral nihilism Moral non-naturalism Moral objectivism Moral obligation Moral panic Moral particularism Moral perception Moral philosophy Moral pluralism Moral psychology Moral rationalism Moral realism Moral reasoning Moral relativism Moral responsibility Moral scepticism Moral sense Moral sense theory Moral skepticism Moral status of animals in the ancient world Moral subjectivism Moral syncretism Moral treatment Moral universalism Moralism Moralistic fallacy Morality Morality play Morality without religion Moralium dogma philosophorum Morals Morals by Agreement Moravec's paradox Mordecai Kaplan Mores Moritz Carrière Moritz Geiger Moritz Lazarus Moritz Schlick Morphological freedom Morris Weitz Mortalism Morteza Motahhari Mortimer J. Adler Morton White Mos maiorum Moscow Conceptualists Moses Ben Jacob Ibn Ezra Moses ben Joshua Moses ben Maimon Moses ben Nahman Moses Hess Moses ibn Ezra Moses Ibn Ezra Moses Maimonides Moses Mendelssohn Moses Nahmanides Moses Schönfinkel Moshé Machover Mostafa Malekian Motion (physics) Motivation Motivational internalism Motoori Norinaga Mottainai Mou Zongsan Movement Against the Monarchy Movement of Animals Moving the goalpost Mozi Mr. Palomar Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi Mu'tazila Muhammad 'Abduh Muhammad Abduh Muhammad Ali Siddiqui Muhammad Baqir Mir Damad Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei Muhammad ibn Muhammad Tabrizi Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi Muhammad Iqbal Muhammed Hamdi Yazır Muhsen Feyz Kashani Muirhead Library of Philosophy Mujeres Libres Mujo Mujō Mūlamadhyamakakārikā Mulla Hadi Sabzevari Mulla Sadra Multi-criteria decision analysis Multi-valued logic Multicultural particularism Multiculturalism Multimodal logic Multiperspectivalism Multiple-conclusion logic Multiple discovery Multiple Drafts Model Multiple realizability Multiple time dimensions Multiplicity (philosophy) Multitude Multitudes (journal) Multiverse Mumbo Jumbo (phrase) Münchhausen trilemma Mundane reason Munich phenomenology Muro Kyūsō Murray Bookchin Murray Clarke Murray Rothbard Musa al-Sadr Musa Ibn Maimon Music Musica universalis Musical historicism Musicology Musonius Rufus Mussar movement Mutatis mutandis Mutual aid (organization theory) Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution Mutual liberty Mutualism (economic theory) Mutually exclusive events My Philosophical Development Myia Mykhailo Drahomanov Mylan Engel Myles Burnyeat Myles Frederic Burnyeat Myōe Myson of Chenae Mysterium Cosmographicum Mystical experience Mystical philosophy of antiquity Mystical realism Mystical theology Mysticism Myth of Er Myth of Progress Myth of the given Mythologies (book) Mythos (Aristotle) N N-tuple Nabat Nachman Krochmal Nader El-Bizri Nae Ionescu Nagarjuna Nāgārjuna Nahmanides Naïve empiricism Naive realism Naïve realism Najmuddin Kubra Nakae Chōmin Nalin de Silva Namarupa Name Name calling Names Naming and Necessity Namus Nancey Murphy Nancy Cartwright (philosopher) Narayana Guru Narhar Ambadas Kurundkar Naropa Narrative Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Nasir Khusraw Nassim Nicholas Taleb Nasty, brutish, and short Nate Ackerman Nathan Birnbaum Nathan Salmon Nathaniel Culverwell Nation National-Anarchism National character National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research National Federation of Atheist, Humanist and Secular Student Societies National Research Act National Secular Society Nationalism Nationalism and Culture Nationalism studies Nations and Nationalism Nativism Natura naturans Natura naturata Natura non facit saltus Natural (disambiguation) Natural and legal rights Natural deduction Natural Design Natural evil Natural justice Natural kind Natural language Natural law Natural laws Natural light Natural morality Natural number Natural order (philosophy) Natural philosophy Natural religion Natural right Natural rights Natural selection Natural sign Natural slavery Natural Supernaturalism Natural theology Naturales quaestiones Naturalism Naturalism (arts) Naturalism (philosophy) Naturalistic fallacy Naturalistic pantheism Naturalization Naturalized epistemology Nature Nature (essay) Nature (innate) Nature (philosophy) Nature of God Nature versus nurture Naturphilosophie Naturwissenschaften Nausea (novel) Nausiphanes Navya-Nyāya Necessary and sufficient condition Necessary and sufficient conditions Necessary being Necessary condition Necessary truth Necessitarianism Necessity Ned Block Needs Neetham NEFAC Negarchy Negation Negative and positive rights Negative capability Negative Dialectics Negative feedback Negative freedom Negative liberty Negative rights Negative theology Negativity effect Neglect of probability Negotiation Negritude Neil Gillman Neil MacCormick Neil Tennant (philosopher) Neither Victims Nor Executioners Nel Noddings Neleus of Scepsis Nelly Richard Nelly Roussel Nelson Goodman Nemesius Nemesius of Emesa Neo-Aristotelianism (philosophy) Neo-conceptual art Neo-Confucianism Neo-Dada Neo-expressionism Neo-figurative Neo-Futurists Neo-Kantianism Neo-Luddism Neo-medievalism Neo-Objectivism Neo-pop Neo-primitivism Neo-Pythagoreanism Neo-romanticism Neo-Scholasticism Neo-theocracy Neo-Thomism Neoclassicism Neocolonial Dependence Neofunctionalism (sociology) Neomodern Neomodernism Neonatal perception Neoplatonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Neopragmatism Neopythagoreanism Neostoicism Neotribalism Nespelem (art) Néstor García Canclini Nestor Makhno Neti neti Netocracy Neue Slowenische Kunst Neural correlate Neural Darwinism Neural net Neurath's boat Neuroesthetics Neuroethics Neuromantic (Philosophy) Neurophenomenology Neurophilosophy Neuroscience Neutral monism Neutrality (philosophy) Neven Sesardic New Academy New Age New Confucianism New Democracy New England Reformers New England transcendentalism New England Transcendentalists New Essays on Human Understanding New Federalism New Foundations New historicism New legal realism New Libertarian Manifesto New mysterianism New Objectivity New Philosophers New realism New realism (philosophy) New religious movement New Revolutionary Alternative New Right New Sincerity New Thought New Times (politics) New Wittgenstein New York Figurative Expressionism Newcomb's paradox Newcomb's problem Newspeak Newton's flaming laser sword Newton da Costa Newtonian Newtonianism Niall Shanks Nicarete of Megara Niccolò Cabeo Niccolò Machiavelli Nichiren Nicholas Agar Nicholas Hill (scientist) Nicholas Kalliakis Nicholas Krebs Nicholas Kryfts Nicholas Leonicus Thomaeus Nicholas Maxwell Nicholas of Autrecourt Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Kues Nicholas Onufrievich Lossky Nicholas Rescher Nicholas Wolterstorff Nick Bostrom Nick Land Nick Ribush Nick Trakakis Nicla Vassallo Nicola Abbagnano Nicola Antonio Stigliola Nicolai A. Vasiliev Nicolai Hartmann Nicolás Gómez Dávila Nicolas Malebranche Nicolaus Copernicus Nicolaus Hieronymus Gundling Nicolaus of Damascus Nicolaus Taurellus Nicole C. Karafyllis Nicole Oresme Nicoletto Vernia Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachus Nicomachus (son of Aristotle) Nida Vasiliauskaitė Niels Bohr Niels Treschow Nietzsche's views on women Nietzsche-Archiv Nietzsche and free will Nietzsche and Philosophy Nietzsche contra Wagner Nietzschean affirmation Nigel Warburton Nigidius Figulus Nihilism Nihilist paradox Nikephoros Choumnos Nikola Milošević (politician) Nikolai Berdyaev Nikolai Bugaev Nikolai Fedorovich Federov Nikolai Fëdorovich Fëderov Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov Nikolai Konstantinovich Mikhailovskii Nikolai Lobachevsky Nikolai Lossky Nikolai Putyatin Nikolas Kompridis Nikolay Chernyshevsky Nikolay Strakhov Nikos Kazantzakis Nimbarka Nina Karin Monsen Nine Noble Virtues Nino Cocchiarella Ninth Letter (Plato) Nirvana Nirvana (Jainism) Nirvana fallacy Nishi Amane Nishida Kitaro Nishida Kitarō Nishitani Keiji Nishkam Karma No Exit No true Scotsman Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky's political views Noble Eightfold Path Noble lie Noble savage Nocebo Noe Ito Noël Carroll Noema Noesis (phenomenology) Noetics Noise Nomenclature Nominal definition Nominalism Nominalization Nomological danglers Nomos Nomothetic Nomothetic and idiographic Non-archimedean time Non-Aristotelian logic Non-classical logic Non-cognitivism Non-essentialism Non-Euclidean geometry Non-heart-beating donation Non-monotonic logic Non-philosophy Non-physical entity Non-politics Non-rigid designator Non-standard analysis Non-standard model Non-voting Non causa pro causa Non sequitur (logic) Nona L. Brooks Noncognitivism Noncontracting grammar Nondualism Noneism Nonfirstorderizability Nonmaleficence Nonsense Nontheism Nontheist Friend Nonviolence Noogony Noology Noosphere Norbert Bolz Norbert Leser Norberto Bobbio Nordic Journal of Philosophical Logic Norm (philosophy) Norm (sociology) Norm Daniels Norm of reciprocity Normal Normal form Normalization Norman Daniels Norman Geisler Norman Kemp Smith Norman Kretzmann Norman Malcolm Norman Melchert Norman Robert Campbell Norman Swartz Normative Normative ethics Normative science Normative statement Normlessness Northrop Frye Northwest School (art) Norwich School (art movement) Norwood Russell Hanson Nos, Book of the Resurrection Not even wrong Notation Notations Notes on "Camp" Nothing Nothing comes from nothing Nothingness Notion Notion (philosophy) Noumena Noumenon Nous Noûs Novalis Novum Organum Now and After Nuccio Ordine Núcleo de Estudos em Ética e Desconstrução Nuel Belnap Number Number theory Numenius Numenius of Apamea Numerical identity Numinous NuPRL Nur Ali Elahi Nuremberg Code Nursing ethics Nyaya Nyāya Nyāya Sūtras NYC Ya Basta Collective Nymphidianus of Smyrna O Oath Oath of Asaph Obedience (human behavior) Object (philosophy) Object of the mind Objectification Objection (argument) Objective idealism Objective precision Objective reality Objectivism Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand Objectivist movement Objectivist movement in India Objectivist philosophy Objectivist theory of value Objectivity (philosophy) Objectivity (science) Objet petit a Obligation Obscurantism Observation Observations on Man Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime Observer-expectancy effect Observer effect Obversion Occam's razor Occasion of sin Occasionalism Occurrent belief Ocellus Lucanus Ockham's razor Octave Garnier Octave Hamelin Octave Mirbeau Octavio Paz October (journal) Odium theologicum Odo of Châteauroux Oeconomicus Oedipus Rex Oenomaus of Gadara Oets Kolk Bouwsma Of Grammatology Of Miracles Of the Conduct of the Understanding Ogyū Sorai Okishio's theorem Olaf Helmer Olaf Stapledon Olavo de Carvalho Oleksiy Onyschenko Olga Hahn-Neurath Olga Taratuta Oligarchy Oliver Franks, Baron Franks Oliver Leaman Oliver Letwin Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Olympiodorus Olympiodorus the Elder Olympiodorus the Younger Omar Khayyám Omega Omega-consistent Omega-regular language Omega language Omega Point Omission Omission bias Omnibenevolence Omnipotence Omnipotence paradox Omnipresence Omniscience Omphalos hypothesis On Ayn Rand On Breath On Bullshit On Certainty On Colors On Contradiction (Mao Zedong) On Denoting On Divination in Sleep On Dreams On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems On Generation and Corruption On Indivisible Lines On Length and Shortness of Life On Liberty On Marvellous Things Heard On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias On Memory On Nature On Plants On Sleep On the Basis of Morality On the Bondage of the Will On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason On the Freedom of the Will On the Genealogy of Morality On the Heavens On the Plurality of Worlds On the Poverty of Student Life On the Soul On the Universe On Things Heard On Truth On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense On Virtues and Vices On Vision and Colors On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration Onasander Onatas (philosopher) One-sided argument Onesicritus Onora O'Neill Onora O'Neill, Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve Ontic Onto-theology OntoClean Ontological argument Ontological argument for the existence of God Ontological commitment Ontological maximalism Ontological paradox Ontological pluralism Ontological security Ontologism Ontology Ontology alignment Ontotheology Op art Opaque context Open government Open-ended question Open-question argument Open sentence Open society Open source Open texture Open world assumption Openness Operant conditioning Operational definition Operationalism Operationalization Opinion Opium of the people Opportunity cost Oppression Optics Optimism Optimism bias Or Adonai Oration on the Dignity of Man Orch-OR Orchot Tzaddikim Ordered n-tuple Ordered pair Ordered set Ordinal utility Ordinary-language philosophy Ordinary and extraordinary care Ordinary language Ordinary language philosophy Orestes Brownson Organ donation Organ donation in Jewish law Organic (model) Organic composition of capital Organic law Organic society Organic statute Organic unity Organic work Organicism Organism Organizational ethics Organizing principle Organon Oriental despotism Orientalism Orientalism (book) Origen Origen the Pagan Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind Original intent Original meaning Original position Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem Original sin Originalism Origination Orlando J. 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419391	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian%20Monk	Adrian Monk	Adrian Monk, portrayed by Tony Shalhoub, is the title character and protagonist of the USA Network television series Monk. He is a renowned former homicide detective for the San Francisco Police Department. Monk has obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and multiple phobias, all of which intensified after the murder of his wife Trudy, resulting in his suspension from the department. He works as a private police homicide consultant and undergoes therapy with the ultimate goal of overcoming his grief, taking control of his phobias and disorder, and being reinstated as a police detective. Series co-creator David Hoberman says that he based Monk partly on himself, and also on other fictional detectives, such as Lt. Columbo, Hercule Poirot and Sherlock Holmes. Other actors considered for the role included Dave Foley, John Ritter, Henry Winkler, Stanley Tucci, Alfred Molina and Michael Richards. The network eventually chose Shalhoub because they felt he could "bring the humor and passion of Monk to life". Stanley Tucci and Alfred Molina had guest appearances on Monk, with Tucci appearing in season 5 episode "Mr. Monk and the Actor", and Molina appearing in season 6 episode "Mr. Monk and the Naked Man". Both Monk and Shalhoub have garnered many accolades. Monk was included in Bravo's list of The 100 Greatest Television Characters of All Time, and Shalhoub has won various awards for his portrayal, including a Golden Globe Award, three Primetime Emmy Awards and two Screen Actors Guild Awards. Character development Creation Monk was originally envisioned as a "more goofy and physical" Inspector Clouseau type of character. However, co-creator David Hoberman came up with the idea of a detective with obsessive–compulsive disorder. This was inspired by his own bout with self-diagnosed obsessive–compulsive disorder; in a Pittsburgh Post-Gazette interview, he stated that, "Like Monk, I couldn't walk on cracks and had to touch poles. I have no idea why—but if I didn't do these things, something terrible would happen." Other fictional inspirations include Columbo and Sherlock Holmes, and his obsession with neatness and order may be an homage to Hercule Poirot. Like Holmes, and occasionally Poirot, Monk is accompanied by an earnest assistant with little or no detective ability, similar to Doctor Watson and Captain Hastings, respectively; Monk's two major allies from the police department, Captain Stottlemeyer and Lieutenant Disher (credited as "Deacon" in the pilot episode), are reminiscent of Inspector Lestrade and Chief Inspector Japp, Holmes's and Poirot's well-meaning but ineffectual respective police counterparts. In addition, Monk has a brother whose abilities of deduction are even more amazing than his, yet much more geographically limited due to his own personal problems, somewhat in the style of Mycroft Holmes (who is more adept than Sherlock but also notoriously lazy). When trying to think of a possible name for the character, co-creator Andy Breckman decided to look for a "simple monosyllabic last name". Casting Co-creator David Hoberman revealed that the casting sessions were "depressing". USA Network's executive vice president Jeff Wachtel stated that looking for the right actor to portray Monk was "casting hell". After two years of developing, the producers still had not found an actor to play the part. Although Michael Richards was considered, distributors of the show ABC and Touchstone worried that the audience would typecast him for more comedic roles after his previous work as Cosmo Kramer on the sitcom series Seinfeld. After Richards dropped out of the project, he went on to star in another series about a private detective, The Michael Richards Show, which was cancelled after six episodes. Personality Phobias In the script for the pilot, "Mr. Monk and the Candidate", Monk is described as being "a modern day Sherlock Holmes", only "nuts". In the introductory scene of the episode, he is examining the scene of Nicole Vasques' murder, and picks up several important clues, but frequently interrupts himself to wonder aloud whether he left his stove on when he left the house that morning. In the season 6 episode "Mr. Monk and the Naked Man", Monk mentions that he has 312 phobias. The strongest of these phobias are: germs, dentists, sharp or pointed objects, vomiting, death and dead things, snakes, crowds, heights, fear, mushrooms, and small spaces, as Monk also mentions in the season 2 episode "Mr. Monk and the Very Very Old Man". In addition, new phobias develop at seemingly random intervals, such as a temporary fear of blankets at the end of the season 5 episode "Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink". Though it is impossible to determine his strongest phobia, there does appear to be some form of hierarchy between them: in the series finale "Mr. Monk and the End", it is made clear that his fear of vomiting is greater than his fear of death. He has also stated, "Snakes trump heights!". Due to his overpowering fear of germs, Monk refuses to touch door handles and other common objects with his bare hands, avoids contact with anything dirty, and always uses sanitary wipes after human contact, including basic handshakes. He is also unable to eat food that other people have touched—as shown in the season 7 episode "Mr. Monk Falls in Love" when he and Leyla Zlatavich go out to a Zemenian restaurant—and tends to throw away household items after people touch them, such as ladles and plastic storage containers. Assistants Monk's phobias and anxiety disorders make him depend on personal assistants, who drive him around, do his shopping, and always carry a supply of wipes for his use, as shown in episodes like "Mr. Monk Meets the Playboy", "Mr. Monk Goes to the Carnival", etc. They also take active roles in organizing his consultancy work, and sometimes investigate cases themselves. His first assistant, Sharona Fleming (Bitty Schram), is a single mother and practical nurse by profession, hired by the police department to help Monk recover from the three-year catatonic state he lapsed into after Trudy's death. After several years of loyal service, Sharona leaves the show in season 3 to return to New Jersey and remarry her ex-husband Trevor. After her abrupt departure, Monk has a chance meeting with Natalie Teeger (Traylor Howard), whom he hires as his new assistant starting in "Mr. Monk and the Red Herring". Fixations Monk carries out futile and endless attempts to make the world "balanced". Monk is fixated with symmetry, going so far as to always cut his pancakes into squares. He strongly prefers familiarity and rigorous structure in his activities. Monk only drinks Sierra Springs water throughout seasons 1–5 and a fictional brand (Summit Creek) throughout seasons 6–8, to the point that in the season 2 episode "Mr. Monk Goes to Mexico", Monk goes without drinking for several days because he cannot find any Sierra Springs. Monk also has great difficulty in standard social situations, so much so that he must write down common small talk phrases on note cards in an attempt to successfully socialize. While his obsessive attention to minute detail cripples him socially, it makes him a gifted detective and profiler. He has a photographic memory, and can reconstruct entire crime scenes based on little more than scraps of detail that seem unimportant to his colleagues. His trademark method of examining a crime scene, which Sharona used to call his "Zen Sherlock Holmes thing", is to wander seemingly aimlessly around a crime scene, occasionally holding up his hands, as though framing a shot for a photograph. Shalhoub explained in an interview that Monk does this because it "isolates and cuts the crime scene into slices" and causes Monk to look at parts of the crime scene instead of the whole. Monk's delicate mental condition means that his ability to function can be severely impaired by a variety of factors. One example is shown during the season 5 episode "Mr. Monk and the Garbage Strike", in which the smell of garbage prevents Monk from being able to easily identify the murderer of sanitation union boss Jimmy Cusack, eventually causing him to have a psychotic break. Another example is when entering a chaotic murder scene in the episode "Mr. Monk Meets Dale the Whale", his first impulse is to straighten the lamps, though he is frequently able to hold off his fixations when examining bodies or collecting evidence. Even though Monk's mental state in the series is said to be a result of his wife's death, he shows signs of OCD in flashbacks dating back to childhood. To deal with his OCD and phobias, Monk visits a psychiatrist – Dr. Charles Kroger (Stanley Kamel) in the first six seasons and Dr. Neven Bell (Héctor Elizondo) in the last two seasons – weekly, and at several points, daily. Moments of extreme stress can cause Monk to enter a dissociative state, as seen in the Season 1 episode "Mr. Monk and the Earthquake"; he begins speaking in gibberish during these periods, severely hindering his investigative skills. Over the course of the show (roughly 8 years), Monk overcomes many of his phobias and some aspects of his OCD. Though he has not been cured of many of them, if any at all, he has been able to put them in the back of his mind when involved in case work. One breakthrough is shown in the season 8 episode "Mr. Monk Goes to Group Therapy", when Adrian is locked in a car trunk with his fellow OCD patient and personal rival, Harold Krenshaw. During the terrifying trip, both men overcome their longstanding claustrophobia (fear of small spaces), as well as their own differences, resulting in them becoming friends. Possibly due to this, as well as the many cases Monk has solved over the years, he is reinstated as detective first class by Stottlemeyer in the season 8 episode "Mr. Monk and the Badge". Though he is very excited about his reinstatement initially, Monk realizes that becoming a detective again did not mean that he would be happier. In a session with Dr. Bell, Monk realizes he was always happy as a private detective and consultant to the SFPD as his own boss. After overcoming his fear of heights and single-handedly capturing a killer window-washer, Monk turns in his badge. In the series finale, he learns that his late wife, Trudy, had given birth to a daughter before they had met. The knowledge and events of the episode lead to him becoming more cheerful. Character background He has OCD and is quite the germaphobic. Monk also has a brother, Ambrose Monk, an agoraphobic who has not left his house for thirty-two years. Childhood and family Monk was born October 17, 1959. This is shown in the episode "Happy Birthday, Mr. Monk", which takes place during the week of October 16, 2009 (It is stated that his 50th birthday is the next day, October 17, 2009). It is known he was born in the fictitious Marin County town of Tewksbury, to parents Agnes (Rose Abdoo) and Jack Monk, Sr (Dan Hedaya). His parents were very strict and over-protective, although his mother was emotionally distant and seemed to have difficulty expressing affection. Adrian's father, Jack Monk, abandoned the family when Adrian was eight years old when he went out for Chinese food and did not return. Adrian has an agoraphobic brother named Ambrose (John Turturro), from whom he was estranged for seven years following Trudy's death. Monk states that his mother died in 1994. The episode "Mr. Monk and the Marathon Man" reveals that Monk ran track in high school, but quit when he entered college. The episode "Mr. Monk and the Other Detective" reveals that his alma mater is the University of California, Berkeley. In "Mr. Monk and the Class Reunion", it is revealed that Monk had the nickname "Captain Cool" in college, and Natalie is amused to find that he got it from the fact he spent every weekend defrosting the student lounge refrigerator in his dormitory. His dorm room was number 303. In the episode "Mr. Monk and the Three Pies", it is revealed that Monk was angry at his brother for never contacting him after Trudy's death. When the two are reunited, Ambrose admits he did not call Adrian because he believed that he was responsible for the incident. Trudy was getting Ambrose cough medicine and was in the store's garage when she was killed. Adrian hugged Ambrose, and told him he is not responsible for Trudy's death. Their father, Jack, remained unseen in the series until the season 5 episode "Mr. Monk Meets His Dad". Jack explains that he did not return to his family because the message in his fortune cookie read "Stand by your man", which he interpreted to mean that he should follow his own path. Adrian does not forgive his father at first, but warms up to him while assisting him on his duties as a truck driver. Jack mentions reading Sherlock Holmes stories to Adrian, who eventually learned to solve the mysteries before hearing the stories' endings. At the end of the episode, Jack teaches Adrian how to ride a bike—something he was not there to do when Adrian was a child. Jack also mentioned that he has a son from another wife, named Jack Jr. (Steve Zahn). Monk later meets Jack Jr. in the episode "Mr. Monk's Other Brother", and helps to clear him of murder. Trudy's death Throughout the series, Adrian mourns his wife Trudy (Melora Hardin/Stellina Rusich), who was killed on December 14, 1997, by a car bomb he believes was meant for him. The death of his wife exacerbated Monk's already existing obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). One year later, the San Francisco Police Department granted him a psychological discharge. Monk calls it "a temporary suspension" and hopes to be reinstated. His grief over Trudy's death is intense and with him every day of his life; he has stated more than once that he is never truly happy and never expects to be truly happy ever again. Since Trudy's death, Monk has been consulting with San Francisco police detectives on various cases. As the series progresses, Monk makes several discoveries in his ongoing search for the man who killed his wife. He discovered that the car bomb was indeed meant for Trudy and was built by a man named Warrick Tennyson (Frank Collison), who was hired by a six-fingered man named Frank Nunn (Courtney Gains). In the sixth-season finale, he finally catches up with Nunn, who claims to be yet another pawn with no idea why Trudy was killed. This turns out to be part of a larger plot to have Nunn set up another bombing and then frame Monk for killing him; he is shot before Monk can have him arrested or convince him to surrender the name of his employer in Trudy's murder. Once Monk is cleared in Nunn's death, the police find correspondence from Nunn dating back to the era of Trudy's death. There are no names discovered, but there is a reference to the person responsible, referred to as "The Judge". In the two-part series finale, "Mr. Monk and the End", it is revealed that "The Judge" is Ethan Rickover, an actual courtroom judge portrayed by Craig T. Nelson. Monk learns that the older, married, Rickover had an affair with Trudy when she was in her 20s, and that Trudy gave birth to and subsequently adopted out an infant daughter, Molly Evans, on January 2, 1983. Aspiring to one day join the Supreme Court, Rickover had Trudy murdered for fear that the affair would derail his chances at being elected to the court. When Monk finally helps to expose Rickover, he commits suicide, but not before indicating Molly's current whereabouts. Monk later meets and forms a paternal relationship with Molly in the series finale. Music In the pilot episode "Mr. Monk and the Candidate," Monk plays the clarinet during his visit to Trudy's grave. His musical abilities show up again in "Mr. Monk and the Red-Headed Stranger," when he is invited to sit in with Willie Nelson's band and later plays "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain" with Nelson at Trudy's grave. Though Monk is not seen playing the clarinet afterwards, it occasionally is brought up in conversation (such as during a conversation with Kris Kedder in "Mr. Monk Goes to a Rock Concert"). Monk describes himself as Nelson's second-biggest fan and Trudy as his biggest. Reception Critical reception Critical reviews of character Adrian Monk have been positive. Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times called Monk "TV's most original sleuth ever". In a review of the show's pilot, Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle stated: "With his history and his sympathetic but funny 'problems', he [Monk] becomes one of television's most likable characters and floats a show that is, to be frank, riddled with improbability and simplicity". Monk is ranked number 99 on Bravo's list of The 100 Greatest Television Characters of All Time. He was named one of TV's Smartest Detectives by AOL. Shalhoub's performance in the series has also been praised. Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly called Shalhoub's performance "original and splendid". Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker said that Shalhoub is "brilliant at conveying the tension between Monk’s desire to conquer his disorder and his dug-in defense of his behavior". Michael Abernethy of PopMatters describes Shalhoub's performance as "exceptional", and Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer states that Shalhoub is a "careful and nuanced actor". Alan Sepinwall of the Star-Ledger described Shalhoub as "the perfect fit" for the character. Awards Shalhoub has earned various awards and nominations for his work in Monk. He has been nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series each year from 2003 to 2010, winning in 2003, 2005 and 2006. In 2003, Shalhoub won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy; he was nominated for the same category in 2004, 2005, 2007 and 2009. He received the 2004 and the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series, with nominations in the same category in 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009. References Sources Fictional characters from San Francisco Fictional characters with eidetic memory Fictional characters with obsessive–compulsive disorder Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Fictional consultants Fictional police officers in television Fictional private investigators Fictional characters based on Sherlock Holmes Fictional San Francisco Police Department detectives Fictional undercover police agents Fictional Welsh American people Monk (TV series) characters Television characters introduced in 2002
419396	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoke%20Poges	Stoke Poges	Stoke Poges () is a village and civil parish in south-east Buckinghamshire, England. It is centred north-north-east of Slough, its post town, and southeast of Farnham Common. Etymology In the name Stoke Poges, stoke means "stockaded (place)" that is staked with more than just boundary-marking stakes. In the 1086 Domesday Book, the village was recorded as Stoche. William Fitz-Ansculf, who held the manor in 1086 (in the grounds of which the Norman parish church was built), later became known as William Stoches or William of Stoke. Amicia of Stoke, heiress to the manor, married Robert Pogeys, Knight of the Shire 200 years later, and the village eventually became known as Stoke Poges. Robert Poges was the son of Savoyard Imbert Pugeys, valet to King Henry III and later steward of the royal household. Poges and Pocheys being an English attempt at Pugeys which ironically meant "worthless thing". The spelling appearing as "Stoke Pocheys", if applicable to this village, may suggest the pronunciation of the second part had a slightly more open "o" sound than the word "Stoke". Stoke Poges Manor House A manor house at Stoke Poges was built before the Norman Conquest and was mentioned in the 1086 Domesday Book. In 1555 the owner, Francis Hastings, 2nd Earl of Huntingdon, pulled down much of the existing fortified house. He replaced it with a large Tudor brick-built house, with numerous chimneys and gables. In 1599 it was acquired by Sir Edward Coke, who is said to have entertained Queen Elizabeth I there in 1601. A few decades later, the married lady of the manor, Frances Coke, Viscountess Purbeck, the daughter of Sir Edward Coke, had a love affair with Robert Howard, a member of parliament. The affair's discovery was received as a scandal upon the three people involved, and in 1635 Lady Frances was imprisoned for adultery. She later escaped from prison to France, and eventually returned and lived at Stoke Poges Manor for a time. She died at Oxford in 1645 at the court of King Charles I. Charles I himself was imprisoned at Stoke Poges Manor in 1647 before his execution. Later the manor came into the possession of Thomas Penn, a son of William Penn who founded Pennsylvania and was its first proprietor. Thomas Penn held three-fourths of the proprietorship. The manor property remained in his family for at least two generations, as his son John Penn "of Stoke" also lived there. Thomas Gray's 1750 poem "A Long Story" describes the house and its occupants. Sir Edwin Henry Landseer was a frequent visitor to the house and rented it as a studio for some time. His most famous painting, The Monarch of the Glen (1851), is said to have been created at Stoke Poges, with the deer in the park used as models. Education Stoke Poges has a primary school called The Stoke Poges School. It was rated 'Good' by Ofsted in 2022. In May 1984 four pupils drowned at Land's End during a school trip. Their bereaved parents were angered by Buckinghamshire County Council's offer of £3500 compensation per child. A Sikh faith secondary school called Pioneer Secondary Academy opened in 2022. On the site had been Khalsa Secondary Academy which had been rated 'Inadequate ' by Ofsted in 2019 and subsequently closed. Larchmoor School in Gerrards Cross Road was a major school in England for deaf children which was opened in 1967 by Elizabeth II and ran by the Royal National Institute for Deaf People. It closed in the late 20th century. Halidon House School was founded 1865, based in Slough and then in 1948 moved to Framewood Manor, Framewood Road. It was a girls school which closed in 1983. St. James Roman Catholic School moved from Richmond in 1830 to Baylis House. The school closed in 1907. Rafael Merry del Val, Cardinal Secretary of State under Pope Pius X was educated at the school. Stoke House School in Stoke Green was a preparatory school from 1841 to 1913. In 1913 Ted Parry, the headmaster relocated the school to Seaford and later it was renamed Stoke Brunswick School. Long Dene School, moved from Jordans, Buckinghamshire to the Manor House in 1940. In 1945 the school relocated to Chiddingstone Castle, Kent. St Giles' Church Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" is believed to have been written in the churchyard of Saint Giles. The church is a Grade I listed building. Other churches have claimed the honour, including St Laurence's Church, Upton-cum-Chalvey and St Mary's in Everdon, Northamptonshire. Gray is buried in a tomb with his mother and aunt in the churchyard. John Penn commissioned James Wyatt to design a monument which is a Grade II* listed building. It bears lines from the Elegy. The monument stands adjacent to St Giles' church and owned by the National Trust. A lychgate which is now located in the middle of the churchyard was designed by John Oldrid Scott and completed in 1887. In 2022 it became a national heritage asset being Listed Grade II. A gothic style rectory having a battlemented parapet was built by James Wyatt, 1802–1804 for John Penn of Stoke Park. It is now a private residence called Elegy House. Sport There are two public recreation grounds: Bells Hill and Plough Lane. In the late 20th century, large private sports facilities operated for the main benefit of Glaxo Laboratories staff at Sefton Park and for Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) Paints Division at Duffield House, Stoke Green. Badminton: Stoke Poges Badminton Club has for many decades run in the Village Centre. Bowls: Stoke Poges Bowls Club was founded in 1978 and closed in 2020. The bowling green was situated in the grounds of the Polish Association in Church Lane. The bowling green had opened in 1949 by St. Helens Cable and Wire Company. Cricket: Stoke Green Cricket Club in Stoke Green has been playing there since 1879 with support of the then landowner, Howard-Vyse of Stoke Place. Stoke Poges Golf Club at Stoke Park used to run a cricket club in the early 20th century, playing home matches in Farnham Royal. Darts: In 2023 darts teams from the Village Centre and the Rose and Crown public house in Stoke Poges, compete in the Chalfont and District Darts League. Football: Stoke Poges Football Club plays on the Bells Hill recreation ground. Golf: Stoke Park golf course was designed by Harry Colt for Nicholas Lane Jackson who founded it in 1908 as part of England's first golf and country club. It was known as Stoke Poges Golf Club. The South Buckinghamshire Golf Academy consisted of a 9 holes golf course and a golf driving range. It was opened in 1994 and owned by Buckinghamshire County Council. It closed down after the granting of a planning application in 2018 to turn it into a public Country Park. The South Buckinghamshire Golf Course, formerly known as Farnham Park Golf Course, is an 18-hole pay and play course, set in 130 acres of mature wooded parkland owned by Buckinghamshire Council. In 2023 there were two golf clubs using the course: South Buckinghamshire Golf Club and Farnham Park Golf Club. The latter was established at the course in 1977. Wexham Park Golf Centre in Wexham Street, straddles Stoke Poges and Wexham Parishes. It has a variety of golf facilities with a nine hole course being located in Stoke Poges Parish. Padel: In 2023 Buckinghamshire Council submitted plans to build two padel tennis courts at the South Buckinghamshire Golf Course. Table Tennis: Stoke Poges Table Tennis Club was founded in 1950. Play used to take place in the pavilion at Sefton Park. In the 21st century it plays at St Andrew's Church Centre in Rogers Lane. Tennis: Stoke Poges Lawn Tennis Club operates on Bells Hill recreation ground and commenced there in 1949. In media In 1931 Aldous Huxley wrote his book Brave New World which mentions Stoke Poges in it. He frequently visited Stoke Poges golf course. In 1957, British Pathé filmed ‘The Vital Vaccine’ at Sefton Park where Glaxo Laboratories created and manufactured the 'Polyvirin', Britain's Polio vaccine. The Chairman of Glaxo’, Sir Harry Jephcott is filmed. It is announced at the start of the film, that it is the former home of the music hall star, Vesta Tilley In 1963 the film I Could Go On Singing with Judy Garland's character visits St Giles' parish church with her son. In 1964 the golf course at Stoke Park was the setting of a golf match in the James Bond film Goldfinger, played between the principal characters. In 1969, Pinewood film studios hired a chemistry laboratory at Fulmer Research Institute for use as a film set for the film "The Chairman" (also known as "The Most Dangerous Man in the World"), starring Gregory Peck. In 1981 the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only filmed its opening sequence, when Bond visits his wife's grave, in the graveyard at St Giles' Church. In 1990 'Inspector Lynley' crime novel Well-Schooled in Murder by Elizabeth George, and its television adaptation, are set in Stoke Poges. In 1996, Nick Hancock's Football Nightmares Nick Hancock is trying to hitchhike to the Victoria Ground in Stoke-on-Trent, but keeps getting dropped off in, or just outside, Stoke Poges. In 1997 James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies, Stoke Park hotel doubles as the interior of the Hamburg hotel, where Bond (Pierce Brosnan) drinks his vodka, renews his past relationship with Carver's wife Paris (Teri Hatcher) and struggles with Dr. Kaufman (Götz Otto). In 1998, the novel Sharpe's Triumph by Bernard Cornwell was published. In the novel, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington's dragoon orderly Daniel Fletcher mentions that he is from Stoke Poges: Sharpe replies- "Never heard of it.” In 2004 Stoke Park is also featured in the films Layer Cake. also filmed there was Wimbledon (2004), Bride and Prejudice, (2004) and Bridget Jones's Diary.(2001) In 2007, Part of the 2007 series Jekyll was filmed on the boardwalk and surrounding area. In 2010, the BBC drama series Vexed (Series 1, Ep.2, TX 22 Aug 2010 – with Toby Stephens and Lucy Punch) was largely filmed in the grounds and inside Stoke Court – which had earlier been Bayer Group UK's conference centre. In 2017 the British media caused a furore after the National Galleries of Scotland had bought The Monarch of the Glen painting by Sir Edwin Landseer for £4 million and the view by some that it may have been painted at Stoke Park. In 2021, the lease of Stoke Park was bought by Reliance Industries (RIL) for £57 million from the International Group. Later in the year Stoke Park closed for refurbishment. In 2021, Stoke Poges Memorial Gardens featured in the BBC programme Great British Railway Journeys presented by Michael Portillio In 2021, Prime Minister, Boris Johnson in his keynote speech at the Conservative Party Conference referred to Thomas Gray and Stoke Poges, about a levelling up vision in terms of an imbalanced society. Notable natives and residents Augustus Henry Eden Allhusen (1867–1925), English politician, resident at Stoke Court, Rogers Lane (1867–1925) Christian Allhusen (1806–1890), Danish-English chemical manufacturer, resident at Stoke Court, Rogers Lane. John Charles Bell (1844–1924), 1st Baronet, Lord Mayor of London and businessman, resident at Framewood Manor, Framewood Road (1905–1924). John Beresford (1866–1944), 5th Baron Decies, Army officer, civil servant and baron, resident at Sefton Park (1905–1917) Robert Brooke-Popham (1878–1953), Air Chief Marshal in the Royal Air Force and Governor of Kenya, resident at The Woodlands, Hollybush Hill. Wilberforce Bryant (1837–1906), English businessman, owner of Bryant & May match manufacturer and Quaker, resident at Stoke Park (1887-1906). Edward Coke (1552–1634), Lord Chief Justice of England and politician, resident at the Manor House (1598-1634). Abraham Darby IV (1804–1878), English ironmaster, resident at Stoke Court, Rogers Lane (1851–1872). Walter de Frece (1870-1935), British theatre impresario and politician, resident at Sefton Park with his wife, Vesta Tilley in the 1920s. Wallace Charles Devereux (1893–1952), English businessman and engineer, founder of Fulmer Research Institute in Stoke Poges and resident at The Meads, Park Road. John Thomas Duckworth (1748–1817), Admiral in the Royal Navy and baronet spent his childhood at the Vicarage, Park Road, where his father lived, being the Vicar of Stoke Poges (1754–1748). Ruth Durlacher (1876-1946), Irish tennis player and golfer, resident at the White House and Pinegrove, Stoke Green, in early 20th century. Walter Evelyn Gilliat (1869-1963), England footballer and Minister in the Church of England, resident at Duffield House where his father, Algernon, lived, Stoke Green Henry Godolphin (1648-1733) Dr., Provost of Eton College and Dean of St Paul's cathedral, resident at Baylis House in 18th century. Alfred Frank Hardiman (1891-1949), sculptor, resident at Farthing Green house. Francis Hastings (1514–1561), 2nd Earl of Huntingdon, politician, 1555 completed building of the Manor house. Elizabeth Hatton (1578-1646), 2nd wife of Edward Coke, resident at the Manor House. George Howard (1718–1796), Field Marshal in British Army and politician, resident at Stoke Place, Stoke Green (c.1764–1796). Richard Howard-Vyse (1883–1962), Major General and Honorary Colonel of the Royal Horse Guards, resident at Stoke Place, Stoke Green (1883–1962) Richard William Howard Howard Vyse (1784–1853), Major General and Egyptologist, born in Stoke Poges and resident at Stoke Place, Stoke Greens. Nick 'Pa' Lane Jackson (1849–1937), founder of Stoke Park, sports administrator and author, resident Stoke Park (1908–1928). Alfred Webster 'Morgan' Kingston (1875-1936), tenor, opera singer, resident in Templewood Lane. Henry Labouchere (1798–1869), 1st Baron Taunton, British Whig politician, resident at Stoke Park (1848–1863). Jacques Laffite (born 1943) the French Formula One racing driver who won six Grands Prix for Ligier during the late 1970s and early 1980s, lived in Stoke Poges during some of his racing career. Henry Martin (Marten) (c.1562–1641), King's Advocate for James I and Judge of Admiralty Court is reported to have been born at Stoke Poges. Noel Mobbs (1878–1959), businessman, founder of Slough Estates, resident at Stoke Park (1928–1959). William Moleyns (1378–1425), politician, administrator, knight to Henry V, resident at the Manor House. William Molyneux (1772–1838), sportsman and gambler, resident at Stoke Farm, now known as Sefton Park (1795–1838). Bernard Oppenheimer (1866–1921), diamond merchant and philanthropist, resident at Sefton Park, Bells Hill (1917-1921). Sydney Godolphin Osborne (1808–1889), Lord, cleric, writer, philanthropist, vicar of Stoke Poges (1832–1841). Edward Hagarty Parry (1855–1931), International footballer & school headmaster, resident at Stoke House School, Stoke Green, (1855-1913). Granville Penn (1761–1844), author, scriptural geologist and civil servant, resident at Stoke Park (1761-1844). John Penn (1760–1834), Chief Proprietor of Province of Pennsylvania, politician and writer, resident at Stoke Park (1760–1834). Thomas Penn (1702–1775), son of William Penn and proprietor of Province of Pennsylvania, with three-fourths holding, resident at the Manor House, Stoke Park (1760–1775). Borradaile Savory (1855–1906), English clergyman and baronet, resident at The Woodlands, Hollybush Hill (1855–1906). William Scovell Savory (1826–1895), British Surgeon and baronet, resident at The Woodlands, Hollybush Hill (1884–1895). Philip Stanhope (1694-1773), 4th Earl of Chesterfield, British statesman and diplomat, resident at Baylis house in 18th century. Vesta Tilley (Matilda Alice Powles) (1864–1952), music hall performer, resident at Sefton Park in the 1920s with her husband Walter de Frece. Alexander Wedderburn (1733-1805), 1st Earl of Rosslyn, Lord High Chancellor, resident at Baylis House, late 18th century and early 19th century. Notable organisations Comer Group, is a real estate company which c.2010 became the owner of Stoke Court for part of its residential portfolio. Hitachi Data Systems, is a subsidiary of Hitachi. It provides technology and services relating to digital data. UK Headquarters at Sefton Park, Bells Hill, Stoke Poges. International Group operates a group of companies in the leisure, sales, marketing, management, healthcare services and property development and ownership. Registered at Stoke Park until 2021, when the lease was sold to Reliance Industries Reliance Industries Limited (RIL), an Indian multinational conglomerate, on the Global 500 list, bought the lease of Stoke Park in 2021 Servier Laboratories Ltd, is part of a French centric international pharmaceutical group. UK Headquarters at Sefton Park, Bells Hill, Stoke Poges. Urenco Ltd, a nuclear fuel company, operating internationally running uranium enrichment plants. Headquarters at Sefton Park, Bells Hill, Stoke Poges. Fulmer Research Institute, a pioneer contract research and development organisation. Its Headquarters was in Hollybush Hill, Stoke Poges from 1946 to 1990. Glaxo Laboratories Ltd, now part of GSK, a fermentation and vaccine research laboratory at Sefton Park, Bells Hill, Stoke Poges from 1948 to 1982: (NB: see 'In Media' section above - 1957, British Pathé filmed ‘The Vital Vaccine’ at Sefton Park) Miles Laboratories, a USA pharmaceutical and life sciences company. UK headquarters in Stoke Court, Rogers Lane, Stoke Poges from 1959 to 1978 when Bayer acquired it. Demography At the 2001 UK census, the Stoke Poges electoral ward had a population of 4,839. The ethnicity was 93.3% white, 1.3% mixed race, 4.8% Asian, 0.3% black and 0.3% other. The place of birth of residents was 88.1% United Kingdom, 1.6% Republic of Ireland, 2.5% other Western European countries, and 7.8% elsewhere. Religion was recorded as 76.5% Christian, 0.2% Buddhist, 0.7% Hindu, 2.7% Sikh, 0.5% Jewish, and 1.1% Muslim. 10.6% were recorded as having no religion, 0.2% had an alternative religion and 7.6% did not state their religion. The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 40.8% in full-time employment, 11.6% in part-time employment, 12.6% self-employed, 1.8% unemployed, 1.5% students with jobs, 3.1% students without jobs, 16.8% retired, 6.7% looking after home or family, 2.5% permanently sick or disabled and 2.5% economically inactive for other reasons. The industry of employment of residents was 15.4% retail, 13.4% manufacturing, 6.9% construction, 21.1% real estate, 9.2% health and social work, 7.3% education, 8.8% transport and communications, 3.5% public administration, 3.4% hotels and restaurants, 2.8% finance, 0.8% agriculture and 7.4% other. Compared with national figures, the ward had a relatively high proportion of workers in real estate, transport and communications. According to Office for National Statistics estimates, during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households was £870, compared with an average of £660 in South East England. Of the ward's residents aged 16–74, 28.4% had a higher education qualification or the equivalent, compared with 19.9% nationwide. In 2011, The Daily Telegraph deemed Stoke Poges as Britain's eighth richest village and the third richest village in Buckinghamshire. Geography Hamlets within Stoke Poges parish include: Hollybush Hill Stoke Green West End Wexham Street References External links Stoke Poges Parish Council Stoke Poges Village Centre Stoke Poges Parish Church of St Andrew and St Giles The Stoke Poges Society Villages in Buckinghamshire Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire
419402	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20philosophy%20articles%20%28R%E2%80%93Z%29	Index of philosophy articles (R–Z)	R R. B. Braithwaite R. De Staningtona R. Edward Freeman R. G. Collingwood R. James Long R. Jay Wallace R. M. Hare R. R. Rockingham Gill Rabbinic law Rabia al-Adawiyya Rabindranath Tagore Rabirius (Epicurean) Race (classification of human beings) Race to the bottom Rachel Elior Rachida Triki Racialism (Racial categorization) Racism Rada Iveković Radical Aristotelianism Radical behaviorism Radical behaviourism Radical democracy Radical empiricism Radical Evolution Radical feminism Radical interpretation Radical Philosophy Radical Philosophy Review Radical skepticism Radical translation Radical Unintelligibility Radio libertaire Rado Riha Radovan Richta Radulfus Ardens Radulphus Brito Raegan Butcher Rafael Calvo Serer Rafe Champion Raghavan N. Iyer Raghunatha Siromani Rahbani brothers Raili Kauppi Raimo Tuomela Raimond Gaita Raimundo Teixeira Mendes Rainer Forst Rainer Maria Rilke Raïssa Maritain Raja Yoga Rajas Ralph Barton Perry Ralph Cudworth Ralph Johnson (philosopher) Ralph of Longchamp Ralph Strode Ralph Tyler Flewelling Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralstonism Ramanuja Ramchandra Gandhi Rameau's Nephew Ramification problem Ramified type theory Ramin Jahanbegloo Ramism Ramist movement Ramón José Sender Garcés Ramon Llull Ramon Vila Capdevila Ramón Xirau Ramsey–Lewis method Ramsey Kanaan Randal Marlin Randall Auxier Randall Swingler Randian hero Random act of kindness Randomness Range of a function Ranjana Khanna Raoul Vaneigem Raphaël Enthoven Raphael M. Robinson Raphael von Koeber Rasa (aesthetics) Rate of exploitation Rate of profit Ratio (journal) Ratio scale Ratiocination Rational agent Rational animal Rational choice theory Rational consequence relation Rational egoism Rational fideism Rational ignorance Rational love Rational mysticism Rational number Rational reconstruction Rational Response Squad Rationalism Rationality Rationalization Rationalization (psychology) Ratnatraya Ravachol Raven paradox Raw feels Ray Brassier Ray Jackendoff Ray Monk Raymond Aron Raymond Duncan Raymond Geuss Raymond Klibansky Raymond Polin Raymond Ruyer Raymond Smullyan Raymond Tallis Razor (philosophy) Re.press Reaction Reactionary Reading Capital Real Real atheism Real freedom Real number Real self Real socialism Realism Realism in international relations Reality Reality enforcement Reality in Buddhism Reality principle Reality tunnel Realizability Realization Really Really Free Market Realphilosophie Reason Reason (argument) Reason (logic) Reason 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419467	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20the%20Philippines	Religion in the Philippines	Christianity is the predominant religion in the Philippines, with Roman Catholicism being its largest denomination. Sizeable minorities adhering to Islam, Indian religions, and indigenous Philippine folk religions (Anito or Anitism) are also present. The country is secular and its constitution guarantees freedom of religion. Before the arrival of Spanish missionaries, the various ethnic groups residing in the territory of modern-day Philippines practiced a variety of faiths. Overview According to the 2020 census, at least 84% of the population is Christian; about 79% belong to the Catholic Church while about 5% belong to Protestantism and other denominations such as Philippine Independent Church, Iglesia ni Cristo, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Apostolic Catholic Church, United Church of Christ in the Philippines, Members Church of God International (MCGI) and Pentecostals. Indigenous Philippine folk religions (collectively referred to as Anitism or Bathalism), the traditional religion of Filipinos which predates Philippine Christianity and Islam, is practiced by an estimated 2% of the population, made up of many indigenous peoples, tribal groups, and people who have reverted into traditional religions from Catholic/Christian or Islamic religions. These religions are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Buddhism is practiced by % of the Philippine population by the Japanese-Filipino community, and, together with Taoism and Chinese folk religion, is also dominant in Chinese communities. There are also smaller number of followers of Sikhism, Hinduism as well. Irreligion in the Philippines is very low, with % of the Philippine population self-reporting in 2020 as having no religion. According to the 2015 census, Evangelicals comprised 2% of the population. It is particularly strong among American and Korean communities, Northern Luzon especially in Cordillera Administrative Region, Southern Mindanao and many other tribal groups in the Philippines. Protestants both mainline and evangelical have gained significant annual growth rate up to 10% since 1910 to 2015. About 6.4% of the population of the Philippines is Muslim as of 2020, making Islam the second largest religion in the country. The majority of Muslims live in parts of Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago – an area known as Bangsamoro or the Moro region. Some have migrated into urban and rural areas in different parts of the country, and are highly visible in and around Metro Manila (especially in the 'Muslim Town' district of Quiapo in Manila, Baclaran in Parañaque, parts of Las Piñas, and Maharlika in Pasig), Metro Cebu, Baguio and the Calabarzon region (notably in urbanized towns and cities in Cavite, Laguna, and Batangas). Most Muslim Filipinos practice Sunni Islam according to the Shafi'i school. There are some Ahmadiyya Muslims in the country. Demographics The Philippine Statistics Authority reported in October 2015 that, based on the 2010 census, % of the total Filipino population were Catholics, 10.8% were Protestant and % were Muslims. Of the 108,667,043 household population in 2020, nearly four fifths or 85,645,362 persons (78.8%) reported Roman Catholic as their religious affiliation. It was followed by Islam with 6,981,710 persons (6.4%), and Iglesia ni Cristo with 2,806,524 persons (2.6%). Christianity Christianity arrived in the Philippines with the landing of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain, who was then Prince of Girona and of Asturias under his father, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who, as Charles I, was also King of Spain. Missionary activity during the country's colonial rule by Spain and the United States led the transformation of the Philippines into the first and then, along with East Timor, one of two predominantly Catholic nations in East Asia, with approximately 88.66% of the population belonging to the Christian faith. Catholicism Catholicism (; ) is the predominant religion and the largest Christian denomination in the Philippines comprising 78.8% of the population (or 85,645,362 million adherents) in 2020. Spanish efforts to convert many on the islands were aided by the lack of a significant central authority, and by friars who learnt local languages to preach. Some traditional animistic practices blended with the new faith. The Catholic Church has great influence on Philippine society and politics. One typical event is the role of the Catholic hierarchy during the bloodless People Power Revolution of 1986. Then-Archbishop of Manila and de facto Primate of the Philippines, Cardinal Jaime Sin appealed to the public via radio to congregate along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue in support of rebel forces. Some seven million people responded to the call between February 22-25, and the non-violent protests successfully forced President Ferdinand E. Marcos out of power and into exile in Hawaii. Several Catholic holidays are culturally important as family occasions, and are observed in the civil calendar. Chief among these are Christmas, which includes celebrations of the civil New Year, and the more solemn Holy Week, which may occur in March or April. Every November, Filipino families celebrate All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day as a single holiday in honour of the saints and the dead, visiting and cleaning ancestral graves, offering prayers, and feasting. As of 2018, Feast of the Immaculate Conception on December 8 was added as a special non-working holiday. Papal visits Pope Paul VI was the target of an assassination attempt at Manila International Airport in the Philippines in 1970. The assailant, a Bolivian Surrealist painter named Benjamín Mendoza y Amor Flores, lunged toward Pope Paul with a kris, but was subdued. Pope John Paul II visited the country twice, 1981 and 1995. The final Mass of the event was recorded to have been attended by 5 million people, and was at the time the largest papal crowd in history. Pope Benedict XVI declined the invitation of Cardinal Gaudencio Rosales and CBCP President Ángel Lagdameo to visit because of a hectic schedule. Pope Francis visited the country in January 2015, and the concluding Mass at the Quirino Grandstand had an estimated 7 million attendees, breaking the record at Pope John Paul's Mass at the same site twenty years prior. Philippine Independent Church The Philippine Independent Church (officially Spanish: Iglesia Filipina Independiente, IFI; colloquially known as the Aglipayan Church) is an independent Christian denomination in the form of a nationalist church in the Philippines. Its schism from the Roman Catholic Church was proclaimed in 1902 by the members of the Unión Obrera Democrática Filipina due to the mistreatment of Filipinos by Spanish priests and the execution of nationalist José Rizal under Spanish colonial rule. Isabelo de los Reyes was one of the initiators of the separation, and suggested that former Roman Catholic priest Gregorio Aglipay be the head of the church. It is also known as the "Aglipayan Church" after its first Obispo Maximo, Gregorio Aglipay. Commonly shared beliefs in the Aglipayan Church are the rejection of the Apostolic Succession solely to the Petrine Papacy, the acceptance of priestly ordination of women, the free option of clerical celibacy, the tolerance to join Freemasonry groups, and the advocacy of contraception and same-sex civil rights among its members. Many saints canonised by Rome after the schism are also not officially recognised by the Aglipayan church and its members, but they recognise the popes that have been universally canonised as saints before the schism. In 2020, the Philippine Independent Church had around adherents (% of the Philippine population). Aglipayans in the Philippines claim to number at least 6 to 8 million members, with most from the northern part of Luzon, especially in the Ilocos Region and in the parts of Visayas like Antique, Iloilo and Guimaras provinces. Congregations are also found throughout the Philippine diaspora in North America, Europe, Middle East and Asia. The church is the second-largest single Christian denomination in the country after the Roman Catholic Church (some 80.2% of the population), comprising about 6.7% of the total population of the Philippines. It has 48 dioceses plus the dioceses outside the Philippines such as the Diocese of Tampa (USA) and the Diocese of Western USA, Western Canada, and Pacific Islands. It has Fellowship congregations in the United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong and Singapore. IFI is in full communion with the Anglican Churches and The Episcopal Church. Iglesia ni Cristo Iglesia ni Cristo (; ) is the largest entirely locally initiated religious organisation in the Philippines comprising roughly 2.6% of religious affiliation in the Philippines. Felix Y. Manalo officially registered the church with the Philippine Government on July 27, 1914 and because of this, most publications refer to him as the founder of the church. Felix Manalo claimed that he was restoring the church of Christ that was lost for 2,000 years. He died on April 12, 1963, aged 76. The Iglesia ni Cristo is known for its large evangelical missions. The largest of which was the Grand Evangelical Mission (GEM) which also occurred simultaneously on 19 sites across the country. In Manila site alone, more than 600,000 people attended the event. Other programs includes the Lingap sa Mamamayan (Aid to Humanity), The Kabayan Ko Kapatid Ko (My Countrymen, My Brethren) and various resettlement projects for affected individuals. The church has been embroiled in corruption scandals, as well as allegations of illegal detentions in 2015, leading to widespread protests. Issues about the idolization of the group's founder and the church establishment over the Bible have also surfaced, as well as the outcasting of members who question the leaders of the church. Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry The Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry (JMCIM) is an apostolic Pentecostal religious group from the Philippines which believes in the gospel of Jesus Christ with signs, wonders, miracles and faith in God for healing. JMCIM was founded by evangelist Wilde E. Almeda on February 14, 1975. Members Church of God International Members Church of God International (Filipino: Mga Kaanib sa Iglesia ng Dios Internasyonal) is a religious organization popularly known through its Filipino television program, Ang Dating Daan (English Program "The Old Path", in Spanish "El Camino Antiguo", in Portuguese "O Caminho Antigo"). Members Church of God International are one of the Christian majority in the Philippines with more than a million members internationally. The church is known for their "Bible Expositions", where guests and members are given a chance to ask any biblical question to the "Overall Servant" Eliseo Soriano. He and his associates refute teachings of asked religions which are, according to Soriano, "not biblical" and discuss controversial passages. Besides general preaching, they also established charity works. Among these humanitarian services are The Legacy Continues Wish granting activity, MCGI Free Store, Free Meal and Free Potable Water; charity homes for the senior citizens and orphaned children and teenagers; transient homes; medical missions; full college scholarship; start-up capital for livelihood projects; vocational training for the differently-abled; free legal assistance; free bus, jeepney, and train rides for commuters and senior citizens, and; free Bibles for everyone. MCGI is now one of the major blood donor in the Philippines, as acknowledged and awarded by the Philippine National Red Cross' Jose Rizal Award, the highest honor given by PNRC. Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus The Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus (Filipino: Kabanalbanalang Iglesia ng Dios kay Kristo Hesus), is an independent Christian denomination officially registered in the Philippines by Teofilo D. Ora in May 1922. The church claims to restore the visible church founded in Jerusalem by Christ Jesus. It has spread to areas including California, USA; Calgary, Canada, Dubai, UAE and other Asian countries. According to the 2020 census, the church had 9,585 members in the Philippines. The church was founded by Bishop Teofilo D. Ora in 1922. He, along with Avelino Santiago and Nicolas Perez, split off from the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) in 1922. They initially called their church Iglesia Verdadera de Cristo Hesus (True Church of Christ Jesus). However, following a religious doctrine controversy, Nicolas Perez split off from the group and registered an offshoot called Iglesia ng Dios kay Kristo Hesus, Haligi at Suhay ng Katotohanan (Church of God in Christ Jesus, the Pillar and Support of the Truth). Teofilo D. Ora was bishop until his death in 1969. He was officially succeeded by Bishop Salvador C. Payawal who led the church until 1989. Subsequent bishops were Bishop Gamaliel T. Payawal (1989 to 2003) and Bishop Isagani N. Capistrano (2003–present). It was during Gamaliel Payawal's tenure when the church was renamed as Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus. Apostolic Catholic Church Apostolic Catholic Church (Filipino: Apostolika't Katolikang Simbahan) is an Independent Catholic denomination established in 1992 by John Florentine L. Teruel. The ACC has its origin as a Catholic organisation founded in the 1970s in Hermosa, Bataan. The church started as a mainstream Catholic lay organization that was founded in Hermosa, Bataan in the early 1970s by Maria Virginia P. Leonzon Vda. De Teruel. In 1991 the organisation and the Roman Catholic Church had a schism; due to varying issues, it formally separated itself from the Roman Catholic Church, when John Florentine Teruel was consecrated as a patriarch and registered the church as a Protestant and Independent Catholic denomination. , the Apostolic Catholic Church has 54,543 members in the Philippines. The National Council of Churches in the Philippines reports that the Apostolic Catholic Church has more than 5 million members worldwide. The largest international congregations are in Japan, United States and Canada. Orthodoxy Orthodoxy has been continuously present in the Philippines for more than 200 years. It is represented by two groups, by the Exarchate of the Philippines (a jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople governed by the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia), and by the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Mission in the Philippines (a jurisdiction of the Antiochian Orthodox Church governed by the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand, and All Oceania). In 1999, it was asserted that there were about 560 Orthodox church members in the Philippines. Protestantism Protestantism arrived in the Philippines with the take-over of the islands by Americans at the turn of the 20th century. In 1898, Spain lost the Philippines to the United States. After a bitter fight for independence against its new occupiers, Filipinos surrendered and were again colonized. The arrival of Protestant American missionaries soon followed. , Protestants comprised about 10%-15% of the population, with an annual growth rate of 10% since 1910 and constitute the largest Christian grouping after Catholicism. Protestants were 10.8% of the population in 2010. Protestant church organizations established in the Philippines during the 20th century include the following: Ang Iglesia Metodista sa Pilipinas (Methodist) Association of Fundamental Baptist Churches in the Philippines (Baptist/Evangelical) Awake International Ministries (Evangelical) Baptist Bible Fellowship in the Philippines (Baptist/Evangelical) Bread of Life Ministries International (Evangelical) Cathedral of Praise (Pentecostal) Christ's Commission Fellowship (Evangelical) Christ Living Epistle Ministries Inc. (Full Gospel/Pentecostal). Christian and Missionary Alliance Churches of the Philippines Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) Church of God in Christ (Memphis, Tennessee) Church of the Foursquare Gospel in the Philippines (Full Gospel/Pentecostal) Church of the Nazarene (Holiness movement) Citichurch Cebu (Pentecostal) Conservative Baptist Association of the Philippines (Baptist) Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches (Baptist) Day by Day Christian Ministries (Evangelical) Episcopal Church in the Philippines (Anglican) Every Nation Churches and Ministries (Pentecostal/Evangelical) Grace Christian Church of the Philippines Greenhills Christian Fellowship (Conservative Baptist) Heartland Covenant Church (formerly Jesus Cares Ministries) Iglesia Evangelica Metodista en las Islas Filipinas Iglesia Evangelica Unida de Cristo Jesus Flock Gateway Church (Full Gospel) Jesus Is Lord Church Worldwide (Pentecostal) Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry (Full Gospel) Jesus the Anointed One Church (Pentecostal) Lutheran Church in the Philippines (Lutheran) Luzon Convention of Southern Baptist Churches (Baptist) Convention in Visayas and Mindanao of Southern Baptist Churches (Baptist) New Life Christian Center (Pentecostal) Pentecostal Global Ministries Full Gospel Church (Pentecostal) Pentecostal Missionary Church of Christ (4th Watch) (Pentecostal) Philippine Evangelical Holiness Churches Philippines General Council of the Assemblies of God Presbyterian Church of the Philippines Redeeming Grace Christian Centre The Salvation Army Seventh-day Adventist Church TEAM Ministries international The Blessed Word International Church (Evangelical) The United Methodist Church (Methodist) Union Church Manila Union Espiritista Cristiana de Filipinas (established on 1905) United Church of Christ in the Philippines (Congregationalist, Presbyterian, Disciples, United Brethren, Methodist). United Evangelical Church of the Philippines United Methodist Church Victory Christian Fellowship (Evangelical) Vineyard Christian Fellowship (Evangelical) Word for the World Christian Fellowship (Evangelical) Word of Life World Mission Church (Pentecostal) Words of Life Christian Ministries His Life Ministries (Non-Denominational) His Life City Church (Pentecostal) City of God Celebration Church (Pentecostal) The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in the Philippines was founded during the Spanish-American War in 1898. Two men from Utah who were members of the United States artillery battery, and who were also set apart as missionaries by the Church before they left the United States, preached while stationed in the Philippines. Missionary work picked up after World War II, and in 1961 the Church was officially registered in the Philippines. In 1969, the Church had spread to eight major islands and had the highest number of baptisms of any area in the Church. Membership was 805,209 in 2019. A temple was built in 1984 which is located in Manila, and a second temple was completed in Cebu City in 2010. As of 2019, four more LDS temples have been announced, they are planned to be built in Urdaneta, Cagayan de Oro, Davao, as well as a second temple in the greater Manila area. Other Christians The Bible Student movement, from which Jehovah's Witnesses later developed, was introduced to the Philippines in 1912, when the president of the Watch Tower Society, Charles Taze Russell, gave a talk at the former Manila Grand Opera House. In 1993, a Supreme Court case involving the Witnesses resulted in the reversal of an earlier 1959 Supreme Court decision and in upholding "the right of children of Jehovah's Witnesses to refrain from saluting the flag, reciting the pledge of allegiance, and singing the national anthem." As of 2021, there were officially 235,736 active members in the Philippines in 3,504 congregations nationwide. Their 2021 observance of the annual Memorial of Christ's death attracted an attendance of 739,439 in the country. The Kingdom of Jesus Christ, the Name Above Every Name was founded by Pastor Apollo C. Quiboloy on September 1, 1985. Pastor Quiboloy claims to be the "Appointed" Son of God, that salvation is through him, that he is the residence of the God the Father and that he restores the Kingdom of God in the gentile settings. The Seventh-day Adventist Church was founded by Ellen G. White, which is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath, and that the second advent of Christ is imminent. Colloquially called Sabadístas by outsiders, Filipino Adventists numbered 571,653 in 88,706 congregations as of 2007, and with an annual membership growth rate of 5.6%. United Pentecostal Church International (Oneness) originated in the United States as an offshoot of the Pentecostal movements in the 1920s. The church is a proponent of the belief of modalism to describe God, and is non-trinitarian in its conception of God. Jesus Christ To God be the Glory (Friends Again) was founded by Luis Ruíz Santos in 1988. Churches of Christ (Churches of Christ 33 AD/the Stone-Campbellites) is a restorationist movement that distinctly believes in a set of steps or ways to attain salvation, among of which is prerequisite immersion baptism. Loyal Singles for Jesus Ministry, founded by EJ Tingey in 2018. He claims that true salvation is achieved by being loyal to God and women. True Jesus Church a "oneness" movement that started in the People's Republic of China. Jesus is Our Shield Worldwide Ministries (commonly known as Oras ng Himala, "Hour of Miracle[s]") was founded by Renato D. Carillo, who claims to be the end-times apostle. Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (UCKG Help Center) was founded by Edir Macedo in 1977 in Brazil. Unification Church, founded by Sun Myung Moon in what is today South Korea. Islam Islam reached the Philippines in the 14th century with the arrival of Muslim traders from the Persian Gulf, Southern India, and their followers from several sultanate governments in Maritime Southeast Asia. Islam's predominance reached all the way to the shores of Manila Bay, home to several Muslim kingdoms. During the Spanish conquest, Islam had a rapid decline as the predominant monotheistic faith in the Philippines as a result of the introduction of Roman Catholicism by Spanish missionaries and via the Spanish Inquisition. The southern Filipino tribes were among the few indigenous Filipino communities that resisted Spanish rule and conversions to Roman Catholicism. The vast majority of Muslims in Philippines follow Sunni Islam of Shafi and Ash'ari school of jurisprudence and Theology, with small Shia and Ahmadiyya minorities. Islam is the oldest recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, the Muslim population of the Philippines in 2020 was 6.98 million (6.4%). However, a 2012 estimate by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (NCMF) stated that there were 10.7 million Muslims, or approximately 11 percent of the total population. Some Muslim scholars have observed that difficulties in getting accurate numbers have been compounded in some Muslim areas by the hostility of the inhabitants to government personnel, leading to difficulty in getting accurate data for the Muslim population in the country. The majority of Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands. Other Abrahamic religions Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith in the Philippines started in 1921 with the first Baháʼí first visiting the Philippines that year, and by 1944 a Baháʼí Local Spiritual Assembly was established. In the early 1960s, during a period of accelerated growth, the community grew from 200 in 1960 to 1000 by 1962 and 2000 by 1963. In 1964 the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the Philippines was elected and by 1980 there were 64,000 Baháʼís and 45 local assemblies. The Baháʼís have been active in multi/inter-faith developments. The 2010 World Christian Encyclopedia estimates the Philippines has the world's sixth largest population of Baháʼís, at just over 275,000. Judaism In the 1590s some Jews fleeing from the Inquisition were recorded to have come to the Philippines. In 2006, Metro Manila boasted the largest Jewish community in the Philippines, which consisted of roughly 100 families. , the Jewish population comprised between 100 and 300 individuals, depending on one's definition of "Jew". The country's only synagogue, Beth Yaacov, is located in Makati. There are other Jews elsewhere in the country, but these are much fewer and almost all transients, either diplomats or business envoys, and their existence is almost totally unknown in mainstream society. There are a few Israelis in Manila recruiting caregivers for Israel, some work in call centers, entrepreneurs, and a few other executives. Indian religions Buddhism No written records exist about the early Buddhism in the Philippines. However, archaeological discoveries and the few scant references in the other nations' historical records can tell about the existence of Buddhism from the 9th century onward in the islands. These records mention the independent states that comprise the Philippines and which show that they were not united as one country in the early days. Archaeological finds include Buddhist artifacts. The style are of Vajrayana influence. Loanwords with Buddhist context appear in languages of the Philippines. Archaeological finds include Buddhist artifacts. The style are of Vajrayana influence. The Philippines's early states must have become the tributary states of the powerful Buddhist Srivijaya empire that controlled the trade and its sea routes from the 6th century to the 13th century in Southeast Asia. The states's trade contacts with the empire long before or in the 9th century must have served as the conduit for introducing Vajrayana Buddhism to the islands. Both Srivijaya empire in Sumatra and Majapahit empire in Java were unknown in history until 1918 when the Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient's George Coedes postulated their existence because they had been mentioned in the records of the Chinese Tang and Sung imperial dynasties. Ji Ying, a Chinese monk and scholar, stayed in Sumatra from 687 to 689 on his way to India. He wrote on the Srivijaya's splendour, "Buddhism was flourishing throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. Many of the kings and the chieftains in the islands in the southern seas admire and believe in Buddhism, and their hearts are set on accumulating good action." Both empires replaced their early Theravada Buddhist religion with Vajrayana Buddhism in the 7th century. In 2016, Buddhism was practiced by around 2% of the population, according to the Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations. concentrated among Filipinos of Chinese descent and Filipinos of Japanese descent and there are several prominent Buddhist temples in the country like Seng Guan Temple in Manila and Lon Wa Buddhist Temple in Mindanao. Hinduism The Srivijaya Empire and Majapahit Empire on what is now Malaysia and Indonesia, introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the islands. Ancient statues of Hindu-Buddhist gods have been found in the Philippines dating as far back as 600 to 1600 years from present. The archipelagos of Southeast Asia were under the influence of Hindu Tamil people, Gujarati people and Indonesian traders through the ports of Malay-Indonesian islands. Indian religions, possibly an amalgamated version of Hindu-Buddhist arrived in Philippines archipelago in the 1st millennium, through the Indonesian kingdom of Srivijaya followed by Majapahit. Archeological evidence suggesting exchange of ancient spiritual ideas from India to the Philippines includes the 1.79 kilogram, 21 carat gold Hindu goddess Agusan (sometimes referred to as Golden Tara), found in Mindanao in 1917 after a storm and flood exposed its location. Another gold artifact, from the Tabon caves in the island of Palawan, is an image of Garuda, the bird who is the mount of Vishnu. The discovery of sophisticated Hindu imagery and gold artifacts in Tabon caves has been linked to those found from Oc Eo, in the Mekong Delta in Southern Vietnam. These archaeological evidence suggests an active trade of many specialized goods and gold between India and Philippines and coastal regions of Vietnam and China. Golden jewelry found so far include rings, some surmounted by images of Nandi – the sacred bull, linked chains, inscribed gold sheets, gold plaques decorated with repoussé images of Hindu deities. Today Hinduism is largely confined to the Indian Filipinos and the expatriate Indian community. There are temples also for Sikhism, also located in the provinces and in the cities, sometimes located near Hindu temples. The two Paco temples are well known, comprising a Hindu temple and a Sikh temple. There are two Hindu temples in Manila city: Hari Ram Temple (Paco) and Saya Aur Devi Mandir Temple (Paco). There is a Hindu temple called "Indian Hindu Temple" in Cebu City, Philippines. There is a Hindu Temple in Baguio, Philippines called "Baguio Hindu Temple". The population of Hindus in the Philippines is 30,634 Indigenous religions (Dayawism) Indigenous Philippine folk religions, also referred to as Anitism, are a diverse group of native religions that have existed in the islands as the people's original faiths. Each possess their own set of belief systems and religious stories and narratives, mostly originating from beliefs held during the pre-Hispanic era, although many are also modern. Some of these beliefs have been influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism and were falsely regarded by the Spanish and American colonizers as "myths" and "superstitions" in an effort to de-legitimize the precolonial beliefs of Filipinos against Filipinos. Today, some of these native beliefs are still held by many Filipinos, both in urban and rural areas. These religions tell the story of various narratives originating from various sources, having similarities with Indonesian and Malay religious narratives, as well as Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist, and Christian traditions. Beliefs include the notions of heaven (kaluwalhatian, kalangitan, kamurawayan, etc.), hell (kasamaan, sulad, etc.), and the human soul (kaluluwa, kaulolan, etc.). They explain the nature of the world through the lives and actions of deities (gods, goddesses), heroes, and other beings. The majority of these religious narratives are passed on through oral tradition, and preserved through the aid of community spiritual leaders or shamans (babaylan, katalonan, mumbaki, baglan, machanitu, walian, mangubat, bahasa, etc.) and community elders. Today, many ethnic peoples continue to practice and conserve their unique indigenous religions, notably in ancestral domains, although foreign and foreign-inspired Hispanic and Arabic religions continue to interfere with their life-ways through conversions, land-grabbing, inter-marriage, and/or land-buying. Various scholarly works have been made regarding Anitism and its many religious aspects, although much of its stories and traditions are still undocumented by the international community. The 2020 census recorded 0.23% of the population adhering to the Indigenous Philippine folk religions, an increase from the previous 2010 census which notes a 0.19% adherence. Revitalization attempts In search of a national culture and identity, away from those imposed by Spain during the colonial age, Filipino revolutionaries during the Philippine revolution proposed to revive the indigenous Philippine folk religions and make them the national religion of the entire country. The Katipunan opposed the religious teachings of the Spanish friars, saying that they "obscured rather than explained religious truths." After the revival of the Katipunan during the Spanish–American War, an idealized form of the folk religions was proposed by some, with the worship of God under the ancient name of Bathala, which applies to all supreme deities under the many ethnic pantheons in the Philippines. Irreligion The Philippine Statistics Authority in 2020 reported the number of irreligious at less than 0.1%. The Philippine Atheists and Agnostics Society (PATAS) is a nonprofit organization for the public understanding of atheism and agnosticism in the Philippines which educates society, and eliminates myths and misconceptions about atheism and agnosticism. In February 2009, Filipino Freethinkers was formed. Since 2011, the Philippine Atheists and Agnostics Society has held its OUT Campaigns in Rizal Park and Quezon Memorial Circle. Also it held two feeding programs "Good without Religion" in Bacoor, Cavite. The society also is a member affiliate and associate of various international atheist organizations such as the Atheist Alliance International, Institute for Science and Human Values, and the International Humanist and Ethical Union, as one among secular organizations that promotes free thought and scientific development in the Philippines. The 2015 Philippine Census reported the religion of about 0.02% of the population as "none". As of 2021, the Philippine Atheists and Agnostics Society is dormant and non-active, following a major internal scandal on finance matters. Religion and politics The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines declares: The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable. (Article II, Section 6), and, No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights. (Article III, Section 5). Joaquin Bernas, a Filipino Jesuit specializing in constitutional law, acknowledges that there were complex issues that were brought to court and numerous attempts to use the separation of Church and State against the Catholic Church, but he defends the statement, saying that "the fact that he [Marcos] tried to do it does not deny the validity of the separation of church and state". On April 28, 2004, the Philippines Supreme Court reversed the ruling of a lower court ordering five religious leaders to refrain from endorsing a candidate for elective office. Manila Judge Conception Alarcon-Vergara had ruled that the "head of a religious organization who influences or threatens to punish members could be held liable for coercion and violation of citizen's right to vote freely". The lawsuit filed by Social Justice Society party stated that "the Church's active participation in partisan politics, using the awesome voting strength of its faithful flock, will enable it to elect men to public office who will in turn be forever beholden to its leaders, enabling them to control the government". They claimed that this violates the Philippine constitution's separation of Church and State clause. The named respondents were the Archbishop of Manila Cardinal Luis Antonio Tagle, El Shaddai Movement Leader Mike Velarde, Iglesia ni Cristo Executive Minister Eduardo V. Manalo and Jesus Is Lord Church Worldwide leader Eddie Villanueva. Manalo's Iglesia ni Cristo practices bloc voting. Former Catholic Archbishop Cardinal Jaime Sin had been instrumental in rallying support for the assumption to power of Corazon Aquino and Gloria Arroyo. Velarde supported Fidel V. Ramos, Joseph Estrada, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and Benigno Aquino III while Villanueva endorsed Fidel Ramos and Jose De Venecia. The papal nuncio agreed with the decision of the lower court while the other respondents challenged the decision. Freedom of religion In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom. See also Freedom of religion in the Philippines Funeral practices and burial customs in the Philippines Religion in pre-colonial Philippines Notes References
419478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wacky%20Packages	Wacky Packages	Wacky Packages are a series of humorous trading cards featuring parodies of consumer products. The cards were produced by Topps beginning in 1967, first in die-cut, then in peel-and-stick sticker format. There were 16 series produced between 1973 and 1977, with some reprints and several new series released up to the present day. At the height of their popularity from 1973 to 1975, Wacky Packages were the best-selling Topps product, even more popular than Topps baseball cards, when they were by far the most sold trading card items in the United States. Relying on the talents of such cartoonists and comics artists as Kim Deitch, George Evans, Drew Friedman, Bill Griffith, Jay Lynch, Norman Saunders, Art Spiegelman, Bhob Stewart and Tom Sutton, the cards spoofed well-known brands and packaging. History First releases (1960s) The very first Wacky Packages series was produced in 1967 and featured 44 die-cut cards that were made to be punched out, licked on the back and stuck to surfaces. This series featured parodies created by Art Spiegelman and primarily painted by Norm Saunders. Two of the cards – "Cracked Animals" and "Ratz Crackers" – were pulled from production after the initial run. "Moron Salt" was pulled later and replaced by "Jolly Mean Giant", which was also pulled soon after that. In all, 14 of the 44 cards were pulled from the series, all of them due to cease-and-desist letters sent to Topps by the companies that, at the time, owned the products being parodied. This series was followed by a somewhat different series called Wacky Ads in 1969, featuring parodies and roughs by Jay Lynch and Kim Deitch, with finished paintings by Tom Sutton. 30 of the 36 cards were designed to look like miniature billboards with a die-cut around the parodied product, so it could be punched out of the horizontal billboard scene, then also be licked on the back and stuck to surfaces. There were two different printings of the Ads, the first with long perforations on the stickers' die-cuts and the second with short perforations. Card no. 25, "Good and Empty", was pulled from the first printing and never replaced after Leaf Brands, which then owned the parodied product Good & Plenty, sued Topps. At least two extra Ads, "Mixwell Hearse Coffee" and "Muleburro Cigarettes", are now known to have been finished, but were never released as actual cards. 1970s Wacky Packages returned in 1973 as peel-and-stick stickers. From 1973 to 1977, 16 different series were produced and sold, originally (with Series 1–15) in 5-cent packs containing three (later reduced to two) stickers, a stick of bubble gum (reportedly not chewed by the majority of collectors), and a puzzle piece with a sticker checklist on the back of it. For Series 16, the price rose to 10 cents per pack containing three stickers, a stick of bubble gum, and a puzzle piece/sticker checklist. Series 7 was also available in some areas in packs without bubble gum for a short period of time. There were, on average, between 27 and 33 cards in each series and nine puzzle/checklist cards in each series, each puzzle parodying a Topps product that was always one of the stickers in each series (thus avoiding potential complaints that would often lead to the aforementioned cease-and-desist letters; see First releases (1960s) above). Series 1 re-used 30 designs from the 1967 die-cut series and Series 2 re-used 25 designs from the 1969 Wacky Ads, plus eight new parodies. From Series 3 to Series 16, each new release had original parodies. All in all, there were 488 different cards over 16 series (one card from Series 2 was re-released in Series 14 for unknown reasons). These cards can be distinguished from all later releases by a lack of a number on the front of the cards and having mostly tan or white backs. 1985, 1991 and cancelled 1992 series Two newly designed series were produced later in both 1985 and 1991. A 1992 series was planned, started and even nearly completed, but was halted in mid-production and never released, according to Fred Wheaton, one of the many recent artists for the modern Wacky Packages run. 2004 and beyond Wacky Packages returned in 2004 with the release of the first All-New Series (ANS) set of stickers. New series have appeared almost annually, on average, between then and 2018. ANS1 and ANS2 consisted of 55 base cards with one level of chase cards, then, from ANS3 to ANS5, two levels of chase cards. ANS6 was released as a Jumbo Series and consists of 80 base cards and four levels of chase cards. ANS7 saw the return of the 55-card base set, but with more levels of chase cards, as well as border color variations and sketch cards. Card backs in this run had a mixture of puzzle pieces, checklists and parodies of coupons, websites and billboards depending on the series and, from ANS7 onward, had both multiple levels of chase cards and multiple border color variations. The ANS sets also saw the return of original 1970s Wacky Packages cartoonist Jay Lynch, plus newcomers David Gross, Strephon Taylor, Neil Camera, Fred Wheaton, Smokin' Joe McWilliams, Mark Parisi, Brent Engstrom, Mark Pingitore, Sam Gambino and Joe Simko. ANS3 and ANS4 both included the work of underground artist M. Wartella. In 2017, a new series was released to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Wacky Packages. This new series included 90 new base cards, including modern-day remakes of classic 1967 cards, plus exclusive "Best of the 80's", "Best of the 90's" and "Best of the 00's" subsets. It also included the usual border color variations. In 2018, Topps released a new series spoofing various film genres. This set included 300 cards in separate subsets. Reprints Many of the original 1973–1977 cards have been reissued over the years in various series. 1979 and 1980 rerun series Four rerun series with 66 cards each were produced – the first two in 1979 and the last two in 1980 – for a total of 264 cards. These series consisted of images from the 1973–77 cards, as well as one previously unpublished image – Series 4 card no. 235 "Frosted Ice Krunkles" – which was exclusive to the rerun series (and was one of three previously unpublished stickers originally intended for Series 12 (the other two, along with this one, were published in Wacky Pack Flashback; see 2008 Flashback series below)). Each card can be distinguished easily by its number (e.g., "No. 1 of 66") printed on the front. These four series were the first since the 1967 die-cut series and the 1969 Wacky Ads series to number their cards, in this case on the front instead of the back as the die-cuts did; the Ads were the first series to be numbered on the front. Front-of-the-card numbering has continued from this point on all the way up to the most recent series. 1982 and 1986 album series Two series of album stickers were produced for 1982 and 1986 and consisted of 120 and 77 stickers, respectively. These stickers also consisted of images from the 1973–77 cards, as well as one previously unpublished image – card no. 85 ("Schnozmopolitan") in the 1982 album series (which was intended for Series 11) and four new images that were exclusive to the same series and based on Ralston Purina cereals of the time. The stickers were of a reduced size in comparison to the standard cards () and were designed to be affixed to a display album that was sold separately. Only the 1982 album series and matching album was actually released to stores; the 1986 album series was cancelled for unknown reasons and no album is known to exist for it. 2008 Flashback series On March 30, 2008, Topps released a series called Wacky Pack Flashback. This series contained parodies from previously released series, including nine of the 14 pulled parodies from the die-cuts released as peel-and-stick stickers for the first time (see First releases (1960s) above), 20 from the 1973 posters also released as peel-and-stick stickers for the first time (see Wacky Package Posters below), one from one of the rerun series (the fourth and final series from 1980; see 1979 and 1980 rerun series above) and two from the 1982 album series (see 1982 and 1986 album series above), as well as eight unreleased parodies from the original run (titled Lost Wackys), to make a series of 72 base cards. This set also featured a number of chase cards and border color variations outside of the main set (this was the first Wacky Packages series to feature such variations, though definitely not the last). Its card backs republished many of the Wacky Ads (again, see First releases (1960s) above). On December 10, 2008, Topps released a second series called Wacky Pack Flashback 2. This set also contained more parodies from previously released series, including two more from the 1973 posters again released as peel-and-stick stickers for the first time, six based on a 1980 test-marketed (and given a very limited release to stores) Wacky Cans series (a series of 12 small plastic cans of fruit-flavored candy shapes with a paper label adhered to each of them) released as peel-and-stickers for the first time, another one from the 1982 album series, one from a 1985 "Irish" series (this series was actually released exclusively in the United Kingdom and never released in the United States) and nine unreleased parodies from the cancelled 1992 series (also titled Lost Wackys), to make another series of 72 base cards. Wacky Pack Flashback 2 again featured a number of chase cards and border color variations outside of the main set. Its card backs republished a few of the Wacky Ads and a few previously unpublished coupon parodies (other coupon parodies of a similar nature were previously included on card backs for ANS1; both of these sets of parodies were probably originally intended as card backs for the cancelled 1992 series). 2014 Chrome series On July 23, 2014, Topps released a series called Wacky Packages Chrome. This series contained a metallic chromium non-sticker card set of 110 base cards consisting of the 1967 die-cuts, the 1973 Series 2 and 3 and the checklists for all three series (with each checklist having its respective series' Topps product parody on the front of the card (minus a black border)), as well as four metallic chromium non-sticker card subsets consisting of the 36 1969 Wacky Ads, 10 Lost Wackys, 20 Cutting Room Floor parodies, and five Where Are They Now? parodies (the last one taken from five of the base cards, with all five of them re-done with contemporary (as of 2014) packaging artwork), for a total of 181 cards. Like the two Flashback series, this one featured a number of chase cards outside of the main set, but it had no border variations. Promotional items Wacky Packages promotional stickers have been placed in numerous products since the 1970s as incentives to purchase the product or to promote a new series release. Some of these promotional stickers were used as inserts in bags of Wonder Bread (easily identifiable today by their greasy surfaces) during 1973–74, running for three series of stickers. Other promotional stickers have also appeared at different times in Hostess pastries, Shedd's Peanut Butter plastic containers, Ralston Purina cereals and, more recently, in a number of DC Comics publications (to promote the then-new ANS1) and in the Abrams Books line of products. Spin-off items Topps has created a variety of additional Wacky Packages spin-off products over the years. Wacky Package Posters In 1973, a series of 24 oversized paper posters was produced. 22 of the 24 parodies re-used artwork from the original run (the other two were brand new parodies). These posters were created from new artwork painted at a significantly larger size than was done for the stickers. In addition to being sold in stores, the posters were also advertised on various Wacky Packages series wrappers and could be obtained by sending $2.00 to Topps. A second series of 24 posters was produced in 1974 with a differently colored wrapper, but it was nearly identical to the first series, except that three of the original posters (all three of them General Mills breakfast cereal parodies, with one of the three being one of the two brand new ones) were replaced with three new ones that were especially made for that series (again re-using artwork from the original run for all three of them). Packs in the 1973 series contained one poster and a piece of bubble gum, while packs in the 1974 series also contained one poster, but no piece of bubble gum. On August 30, 2012, a modern-day series of 24 oversized paper posters was produced as a new set called Wacky Packages Posters Series One, with 21 of them depicting enlargements of re-used artwork from the ANS card sets, as well as including three new parodies that were especially made for this series. As this series maintained the aspect ratio of the original art, the posters were significantly wider than the 1973–74 posters. This new series was sold exclusively through the Topps Online Store. This run of posters has not been continued since 2012. Wacky Packages Postcards, Wacky Halloween Postcards and Wacky Packages Postcards April Fools On November 21, 2007, Topps released the first of its various Wacky Packages Postcards series. Originally created by artist Neil Camera, the first three-card series was released in two editions: a limited edition of 100 autographed and numbered sets and a regular unautographed edition. Since then, the Postcards series have been expanded to include additional titles and artists. As of 2023 nine regular series (which were all released between 2007 and 2013), six special Halloween series called Wacky Halloween Postcards (which parodied mostly candy products in connection with the holiday, with the first five series released on a one-series-a-year basis between 2009 and 2013 and the sixth series released seven years later in 2020) and two special April Fools' Day series called Wacky Packages Postcards April Fools 2020 and Wacky Packages Postcards April Fools Edition! 2023, as well as several promotional cards that were released at various trading card shows, have appeared. Each series (except for Wacky Halloween Postcards 2009, which was originally released as a subset of Wacky Packages Postcards Series 4, presumably to test the concept) had two editions: a limited edition of autographed and numbered sets and a regular edition of unautographed sets. Two Limited Edition Official Collector Binder three-ring binders (the first one with a mostly red cover and the second one with a mostly yellow cover) were made for the Postcards series and one Limited Edition Official Collector Binder three-ring binder (with a mostly orange cover containing a black spider web background pattern) was made for the Halloween Postcards series. These series also included various sketch cards by Wacky Packages artists such as Neil Camera, Smokin' Joe McWilliams, Sam Gambino and Brent Engstrom. Wacky Packages Postcards, Wacky Halloween Postcards, Wacky Packages Postcards April Fools 2020 and Wacky Packages Postcards April Fools Edition! 2023 were all sold exclusively through the Topps Online Store. Wacky Packages Old School On February 23, 2010, Topps released Series 1 of an ongoing series called Wacky Packages Old School that was (and still is) sold exclusively through the Topps Online Store. This line, created by David Gross, was initially designed to resemble the boxes, wrappers, stickers and puzzle pieces/checklists of the original 1973–1977 run. Some, but not all, of the series included 33 stickers, along with a nine-piece puzzle with checklists on the backs, with the parodies based on products from the 1970s that Topps did not parody in the original 1970s run (Series 8 from 2019, Series 9 from 2020 and Series 10 from 2022, however, had parodies based on products from the 1980s that Topps did not parody in the 1985 series). Also included in some of the series were various chase cards and a sketch card in every box. The Old School Series 1 sketch cards were all done by Jay Lynch. As of 2023, 10 Old School series (with 33 stickers in Series 1–5 and 30 stickers in Series 6–10) and one subset in Topps' Wacky Packages 50th Anniversary Series (2017) (with 10 stickers) have been released, for a total of 330 stickers. Wacky Packages Erasers Topps released two eraser series, one on March 23, 2011, and one on October 12, 2011, each with 24 Wacky Packages All-New Series parody designs; each pack included an eraser with a paper label of the design wrapped around it and a miniature sticker of that eraser. Four of the erasers in each series were rare ones. No further series have been released since 2011. Wacky Packages Comics As of 2023, Topps has released six issues of Wacky Packages Comics. Issue No. 5 was released on April 1, 2013 – Topps' self-proclaimed Wacky Packages Day – with an April Fool's Day theme illustrated by Brent Engstrom. Wacky Packages Minis In March 2020, Super Impulse USA licensed the Wacky Packages brand through Topps and created Wacky Packages Minis, a miniature 3D plastic model of various parody products. The items are about an inch in length, and were sold in various quantities. They contain information on each side. Each package contains the miniatures, a sticker, and a checklist showing all the collectable items. There were a total of 82 different collectables available, with some more rare than others. Garbage Pail Kids connection One unreleased sticker, created by John Pound for the 1985 series, spawned the various Garbage Pail Kids trading card series. Merchandise There have been numerous other types of Wacky Packages-related merchandise made through the years such as T-shirts, art books, wall calendars, wall graphics, canvas art, three-ring binders and collector albums. Bibliography Fleer Corp. v. Topps Chewing Gum, Inc. and Major League Baseball Players' Association, 501 F. Supp. 485 (E.D. Pennsylvania, 30 June 1980). "Digging in the Vault for the Secrets of Wacky Packages: Topps Goes Back to Class in Wacky Packages Old School Series 2", Non-Sport Update Vol. 21, No. 6, December 2010 – January 2011. (Roxanne Toser Non-Sport Enterprises, Inc.) References External links wackypackages.org Black comedy Parodies of advertising Products introduced in 1967 Stickers Topps franchises Trading cards
419482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Electric%20Light%20Association	National Electric Light Association	The National Electric Light Association (NELA) was a national United States trade association that included the operators of electric central power generation stations, electrical supply companies, electrical engineers, scientists, educational institutions and interested individuals. Founded in 1885 by George S. Bowen, Franklin S. Terry and Charles A. Brown, it represented the interests of private companies involved in the fledgling electric power industry that included companies like General Electric, Westinghouse and most of the country's electric companies. The NELA played a dominant role in promoting the interests and expansion of the U.S. commercial electric industry. The association's conventions became a major clearinghouse for technical papers covering the entire field of electricity and its development, with a special focus on the components needed for centralized power stations or power plants. In 1895 the association sponsored a conference that led to the issue of the first edition of the U.S. National Electrical Code. Its rapid growth mirrored the development of electricity in the U.S. that included regional and statewide affiliations across the country and Canada. It was the forerunner of the Edison Electric Institute (founded in 1933). Its highly aggressive battle against municipal ownership of electric production led to extensive federal hearings between 1928 and 1935 that led to its demise. Its logo is an early depiction of Ohm's law which is "C equals E divided by R," or "the current strength in any circuit is equal to the electromotive force divided by the resistance," or the basic law of electricity. It was established in 1827 by Dr. G. S. Ohm. Structure During its first convention, the NELA set up a formal structure that included a constitution and a governing body made up of elected officers using committees to carry out the interests of its members. By 1904, the NELA had 588 members that were broken down into major classes. The membership included all of the major electric suppliers, like Edison Electric Company that later became General Electric as well as most of the larger electric generating companies from the east to west coast. The list of honorary members included Baron Alphonse James de Rothschild, Charles A. Coffin (the head of General Electric), George Westinghouse, Lord Kelvin, Charles F. Brush, Thomas A. Edison, Prof. Elihu Thomson, and Nikola Tesla. Tesla read his technical paper on "Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena" at the 1893 convention in St. Louis. By 1921, the NELA had eight different classes of membership with over 11,000 members including companies, associations and individuals from other countries. The NELA had nearly 30 different committees in place that came together during its conventions. These committees that included geographical representatives from the industry broken down by region and state-affiliated associations and industry representatives coordinated the distribution of reports on best practices and standards of the industry from the ratings of light bulbs, safety, accounting practices, engineering designs of equipment to advertizing, public relations and legislative campaigns. Each year, the NELA selected a new president to lead the association from an executive of a major electric power company. For example, in 1898 Sam Insull from the Commonwealth Edison Company was selected the same year that his hometown of Chicago hosted the June 7–9 event. The president would preside over the convention that included an introductory speech that summarized the major events of the year. Part of Insull's speech stunned attendees as he promoted the idea that electric companies were natural monopolies that should be regulated at the state rather than local level. Within fifteen years, his idea would sweep the nation. The association maintained a modest year-round staff in New York City. They managed the group's budget, produced and distributed its reports and coordinated the conventions along with the host electric company. Prior to 1905, events were three days long but jumped to five-days by 1910. In 1907, the association introduced a monthly Bulletin that was distributed to all members. By 1910, the NELA was approaching 7,000 members, with its main office maintaining an exchange network of 114 trade and company journals being produced by its members in 1922. Each convention was organized to draw prominent media coverage. Exhibitions that included dazzling displays of lighting and the latest electric appliances were modeled after the wildly popular 1893 Chicago World's Fair. It was always held at a high-profile luxury hotel. The convention's publicity included local and national celebrities. Opening ceremonies for the convention and exhibition included a welcome speech by the host city's mayor. Each day would have a morning and evening session that started with a live presentation of a major paper followed by a discussion on the topic by those in attendance. This was followed by entertainment, trips to the exhibition hall or local company's central electric power station. History The National Electric Light Association's (NELA) formation and activities parallel the history of the U.S. electric industry and early development of energy use via electricity and its role in lighting. Electric lighting started with the use of Arc lamps, soon followed by Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan's incandescent light bulb. Most indoor lighting prior to this was done by wood fireplaces, candles, Whale oil, or kerosene in buildings. While the invention of arc lamps for street lighting in larger urban areas date back to the beginning of the 19th century. The first Power stations used hydro-electric power that evolved from watermills and centuries of mechanical development. Edison's Pearl Street Station was the first commercial steam powered central station where coal-fed boilers were used to produce electricity by generators. On February 25, 1885, NELA held its first convention in Chicago Illinois with an estimated 90 people in attendance. Its first president was J. Frank Morrison. The founding meeting was organized by George S. Bowen, Franklin S. Terry, and Charles A. Brown. Franklin S. Terry was known for having organized a number of local and then regional Incandescent light bulb companies that included the National Electric Lamp Company that was merged with General Electric in 1911. Charles Brown was the head of the Western Electric Company, an electrical engineering and manufacturing company that served as the primary supplier to AT&T and the Bell Operating Companies. George Bowen was the founder of the Elgin Electric Light Company of Elgin Illinois and the head of the Chicago & Pacific railway company. From its founding, until 1891, the NELA held semi-annual conventions, when it switched to annual events that were hosted by various cities across the United States. These conventions had a number of major goals that included formal presentations by scientists and engineers on the subjects of municipal street lights, residential lights, appliances, central power station construction and operations. The conventions also included major exhibitions of the latest appliances, motors, and equipment being produced by electric supply companies. In addition, the convention was meant to help newly formed electric generating companies discuss the latest innovations in the transmission of electricity. The conventions with its lighting exhibitions quickly became a major promotional tool for the electric industry that NELA would soon represent as membership expanded nationwide over the next few years. The turnout from around the country for the first convention convinced the attendees that this should become a regular event as a constitution was set up along with committees to coordinate future conventions. The second convention was August 18–19, 1885 in New York City. At this convention discussions were held about how to run a central power station, what kinds of members could join and debates between Electric arc vs. incandescent lighting. It was reported that roughly 350,000 arc and incandescent lights were already in operation around the country by 1886. The NELA's earliest public relations concern was with Insurance Companies as a result of Edison's public demonstrations known as the war of the currents. Its conventions were already starting to include exhibitions by supply companies. A number of committees were set up to deal with a broad variety of issues that were rapidly evolving at this early date of the industry's development with a strong focus on statistics, both as internal feedback for the industry but also for promotion. By the third convention at Baltimore, finding a space big enough for all the exhibitors became a problem. The 1887 convention at Philadelphia was the first year the NELA took up the issue of Alternating current as a possible source of long-distance transmission and power, while the number of delegates jumped to 344 with its summer convention at Boston. Topics from how to insulate wires to storage batteries and motors were just beginning to be discussed. By 1888, one of the major issues was whether put all electrical wiring underground as was the demand in New York City and the growing problem of competing electric company lines on a single electric pole. During their 1889 convention in Chicago, the NELA statistics bureau pointed out that there were now 2.7 million arc and incandescent lights in the country or nearly a tenfold increase in three years. By 1892 the NELA had 26 Honorary members, 90 active members and 111 associate members in the association. Between 1900 and 1902 the NELA conventions included 16 papers, 4 reports and their first discussions about appliances, standardized accounting practices and consumer complaints. In 1903, however, the number of published papers and reports started to skyrocket with 14 papers and 5 reports that were published in two volumes with major pieces on corporate consolidation and the promotion of electric signs. This grew again in 1904 with 16 papers, 18 reports 3 discussions and 3 additional special reports (appendixes) with the convention expanding to a week-long event. The highlights included presentations on legislation, long-distance transmission, electric heating, advertising methods and remote control of appliances. 1905 had 16 papers and 16 reports with more discussions on advertising and networking with alliances as well as a separate report on municipal ownership that was not released as well as the introduction to the idea of co-operation within the industry to organize and promote its agenda across a broad array of issues. Electric Industry Co-operation 1890–1905 NELA's conventions played a prominent role in bringing manufacturers, engineers and central station companies together to share information about issues the newly emerging industry faced. The three-day conventions would include around five technical papers and debates on lighting, motors, circuits and central station hardware that included the popular exhibits of equipment being produced. During this early period, there were no appliances being produced. In one of its most important early contributions between 1890 and 1897, the NELA led a campaign that brought seven other national associations together, including the Underwriters National Electric Association, known today as the National Fire Protection Association, along with the insurance industry to produce the National Electrical Code. In 1893, NELA's St. Louis convention had its first paper on Alternating Current, a presentation by Nikola Tesla that drew a large crowd and the morals of corporations. The presentation on Corporate Morals was NELA's first paper mentioning the tension between private vs. public ownership of electric generating facilities. At the time, only the very wealthiest members of the country could afford electric lighting while the only other market was for street lighting. A.E. Armstrong started his presentation on corporate morals with a joke about how a preacher told him that “the first corporation of which mention is ever made, and it is in the Bible, brought death and misery into the world, and that same history has ever repeated itself." He then acknowledged that he couldn't kill the preacher, but reassured him that his business wasn't actually a corporation, just a partnership. During his presentation, he spoke of moral obligations required by both the public and corporations, but also about tactics against the cooperative movement that distrusted corporations and how easily a few organized men can disperse mobs. NELA's president then stated that the industry had failed to understand or promote the importance of Corporate personhood to the public. From 1894 until the end of the century, 42 formal papers and five lectures were presented at NELA conventions on technical subjects from Lightning arresters, meter rates, lighting large cities to electrical safety issues. In 1896, a few special topics stuck out like a lecture on Roentgen Rays, electrolysis and standardized electric sockets. Besides the usual business of the conventions which was handled by committee, the association's 1898 president, Samuel Insull introduced the heretical idea of Europe's public regulation of electric companies as a way to legitimize the industry's promotion of its natural monopoly business model. Between 1900 and 1902 the NELA conventions included 16 papers, 4 reports and their first discussions about appliances, standardized accounting practices and consumer complaints. In 1903, however, the number of published papers and reports started to skyrocket with 14 papers and 5 reports that were published in two volumes with major pieces on corporate consolidation and the promotion of electric signs. This grew again in 1904 with 16 papers, 18 reports 3 discussions and 3 additional special reports (appendixes) with the convention expanding to a week long event. The highlights included presentations on legislation, long-distance transmission, electric heating, advertising methods and remote control of appliances. 1905 had 16 papers and 16 reports with more discussions on advertising and networking with alliances as well as an separate report on municipal ownership that was not released as well as the introduction to the idea of co-operation within the industry to organize and promote its agenda across a broad array of issues. Electric Industry Co-operation Campaign 1905–07 In February 1905, the light bulb industry's National Electric Lamp Association (not to be confused with the NELA) financed the formation of the Co-operative Electrical Development Association with the goal of making it the coordinator of a public relations campaign for the entire electric industry. In June 1905, J.R. Crouch, a prominent leader of the lamp industry (who helped form Nela Park) took the proposal to the National Electric Light Association's convention in Denver Colorado. After investigating the proposal for a year, NELA agreed to a three-year test period that set aside .02% of the industry's national income for the Co-operative plan with Crouse in charge. On March 23, 1906, 65 representatives from major east coast electric companies met to hear Crouse's latest presentation on the Co-operation campaign that had been given a $60,000 budget to proceed for 3 years. Crouse made a 45-page presentation that included 10 papers on major aspects of the plan by the acting president of NELA, General Electric, Westinghouse, Western Electric and other segments of the industry as a whole. NELA then created a new Commercial Section committee with a budget of $30,000 for the Co-operative Electrical Development Association's office in New York City. The next step was to have Crouse announce details of the project at the June 1906 NELA Convention. Crouse's presentation at the NELA convention for the Co-operative Electrical Development Association's goal to promote a dramatic expansion in the consumption of electricity by coordinating a nationwide public relations campaign aimed at the American public was the first step. He then laid out the major parts of the plan: The distribution of 26 pamphlets on best practices that would eventually go into the formation of a national handbook; The formation of a national quarterly magazine – the NELA Bulletin that started production in 1907; The formation of central station commercial departments that integrate their work with national advertising agencies; A nationwide news clipping and Press Bureau to monitor public opinion and distribute PR pieces to the national media; Coordinated advertising campaigns between trade journals, appliance wholesalers, manufacturers and electric companies; Establishment of a statistics department to distribute and promote industry growth and projected goals; Networking with other trades, the country's magazine industry and the Chamber of Commerce; Networking with the architectural and engineering communities on electrical designs in new and old buildings. The movement's slogan would be: All Together, All the Time, for Everything Electrical. As part of the plan, one of NELA's largest ongoing campaigns against Municipal ownership which had its own committee was renamed to the Committee on Public Policy during the convention. In 1907 J.R Crouse became seriously ill so the industry partially shelved the larger project, not just because of him but due to the dramatic changes taking place nationwide - The change in how the industry would be regulated. The electric power industry gets regulated 1907 Prior to 1907, city governments across the country were in charge of electric company's licenses (franchises) and setting rates. The country's central stations were tiny compared to modern electric power companies, with larger cities having a number of competing companies. This politicized situation led to major scandals from New York to San Francisco. One public reaction to this was the growing number of cities like San Francisco, Cleveland and Seattle that built their own power stations. The other response was regulation reform which was first proposed by Samuel Insull in 1898 at NELA's convention. His proposal was to shift regulatory control from the city to the state in exchange for monopoly control over service territories. In 1905, the National Civic Federation did a two-year investigation of municipal vs. private electric stations. They ended up promoting Insull's plan which he'd gotten from Europe. In 1907, model legislation giving regulatory control of all "public utilities" to the state was adopted by Wisconsin, New York and Massachusetts. It quickly spread nationwide. In September 1912 industry leaders met at the NELA's Association Island (located on Lake Ontario) and agreed to restart J.R. Crouse's national public relations campaign as laid out in 1906. The new organization, known as the Society for Electrical Development Inc., with an initial budget of $150,000 had its first meeting on October 12 at the offices of the National Electric Light Association. A committee led by H.L. Doherty from the association Island meeting setup its bylaws including the twenty board of governors placed in charge that were selected from across the entire electrical industry. In September 1913, a second meeting chaired by NELA's president J.B. McCall known as Camp Co-operation was held. Attendees included the head of National City Bank, General Electric, Westinghouse, Western Electric, Senators, academics, patent lawyers and state regulatory commissioners. Even Thomas Edison sent a letter in support. The four-day retreat's informal settings were similar to the Bohemian Club. Twenty prominent speakers from the industry and government spoke including Samuel Insull and J.R. Crouse. Details of the event were published and circulated to NELA members nationwide. There were four "Camp Co-operation" meetings held at Association Island between 1912 and 1920. The Society held a competition that ended on May 5, 1913, for the best slogan and logo with the winner being "Do It Electrically". James Wakemen was made the manager of the Society with Henry L Doherty president. By June 1913 the Society had 180 members with and $125,000 pledged. During the June NELA convention an example from Cleveland known as the "People's Electrical Page" with a full page of advertisements and publicity pieces three times a week by local companies was demonstrated as a new model for coordinating newspaper content. The ad campaigns for residential and commercial clients included 25 rotating subjects during the year ending with Christmas. By 1917, the Society's annual Christmas campaign that started on November 29 sent its 1,300 members 450,000 pieces of material with their annual Electrical Prosperity Week. One of the most popular items were stamps (see color stamp image below) as well as colorful window posters and movies. The 38th annual NELA convention was held between June 7 and 11, 1915 in San Francisco at the same time as the Panama Pacific International Exposition. By 1915, the NELA had 29 standing committees made up of 500 working members that produced 2,500 pages of reports and 17 technical papers. Besides the regular convention where the papers and reports were shared, many other events took place, including daily ceremonies at the Expo with special light shows, parades, tours, and evening balls. A specially lit electric temple was erected in downtown Union Square, while addresses by industry leaders, regulators and politicians covering a wide variety of topics including the state of the west coast's massive hydro-electric development. One of the four major NELA sections on accounting practices demonstrated the latest technique of punched cards and accounting machines to handle large numbers of ratepayers, another section demonstrated the latest electric cars, while an entirely new section was opened up to begin active relationships with technical colleges and institutions nationwide. Reports claimed that NELA's total membership at over 13,000 by the time of the convention with its public relations section being increasingly important. Goodwin Plan - California Electric Co-operation Campaign During World War I, William L. Goodwin conceived of the California Electric Co-operation campaign to coordinate appliance sales between major segments of the electric industry. The campaign spread across California, Australia and then to the rest of the U.S. via the industry's trade journals. The model was first devised in Fresno California using Hoover vacuum cleaners but was used for other appliances as well. The plan started with local newspaper advertisements developed by the manufacturer for use by the electric company. The manufacturer would then also work with the local wholesaler of the product to make sure supplies were in place when the campaign began. Trained door to door salesmen driving company cars with logos of the product used the electric company's database so the peddlers knew the names of the customers when they knocked on their door. The last part of the deal was to sell the appliance on credit. Five dollars down and it's yours for monthly payments. The strategy increased appliance sales five times higher than appliance stores and resulted in increased electric use for the utility company. 1925 San Francisco Convention NELA's 1925 annual convention was held between June 16 and 19 in San Francisco California. Besides being two weeks later than usual, it just happened to coincide with the San Francisco Board of Supervisors vote the day after the convention that gave away 30 years of work by the city to build its own municipal power facility. On May 26, 1898, after years of political struggle, San Francisco passed a new city charter calling for the public ownership of all utility services. It was in need of a new water supply and the replacement of the corrupt Spring Valley Water Company. The city identified a candidate site in Yosemite National Park for the construction of a new water and power supply known as Hetch Hetchy. It would take years of fighting the water company, private interests and John Muir before the dust settled and construction began in 1914. By the spring of 1925, the dam was complete, the city's new water supply was almost done and power lines had been strung within a mile of a newly constructed Pacific Gas & Electric Company substation, when the mayor lied about the city running out of wire. With 4,000 electric company executives from across the U.S. in town, the conservative San Francisco Chronicle filled its front pages with speeches touting the benefits of private ownership of electricity. On June 20, openly defying the 1913 federal Raker Act that banned private sale of Hetch Hetchy power, the Board of Supervisors voted to lease all power from the facility to the Pacific Gas & Electric Company. Attempts to reverse the contract, including a 1940 U.S. Supreme Court decision, and decades of political campaigns have failed to break the agreement. Federal Trade Commission Investigation According to the March 21st, 1927 New York Herald Tribune, "Power Trust" opponents met on March 11 in the Washington D.C. office of Nebraska's Republican Senator George W. Norris. Norris, along with former Pennsylvania governor Gifford Pinchot, U.S. senators, house members, "leaders of radical organizations and movements" came together to plan a government ownership drive. In reality, the group was developing plans for a senate investigation of the electric industry. In June, just as the Federal Trade Commission's (FTC) report on the country's most controversial electric holding company, the Electric Bond and Share Company was released, Montana Senator Thomas J. Walsh introduced a resolution calling for a Senate investigation of the country's electric utilities. The reasons for Senator Walsh's investigation was clear: General Electric's (GE) central role in the 1925 global Phoebus cartel's planned obsolescence of light bulbs The 1926 U.S. Dept. of Justice light bulb price-fixing lawsuit (United States v. General Electric Co.) GE's ownership of over 10% of the country's electric utilities via its Electric Bond and Share Company GE's leading role with NELA in the long-standing war against municipal ownership of electric stations State attempts to regulate holding company abuses had failed while over 95% of America's 6.5 million farmers and most of the country's urban poor had no access to electricity Walsh's initial legislation failed but the coalition did not give up. He reintroduced his resolution on December 17, 1927 that received positive support from newspapers around the country. The electric industry was initially opposed to any investigation but then reversed its strategy, using its senate allies to amend the resolution, transferring the investigation to the Federal Trade Commission. On February 15, 1928, the Walsh resolution, or Senate Resolution 83 passed with the requirement for public hearings. It directed the Federal Trade Commission to investigate the U.S. electric industry and make monthly written status reports to the Senate on the following: The capital assets and liabilities of gas and electric holding companies or any of its subsidiaries doing interstate or international business; all financial activities surrounding the above-mentioned corporation's securities or stocks; all connections between stockholders, holding companies and subsidiaries; all services, earnings, and expenses between holding companies and its subsidiaries; and the value or detriment to the public of holding companies and any proposed corrective legislation. And The utility industry and its association's effort to manipulate opinion of public ownership of electrical generation; and since 1923, any attempt to influence the outcome of federal elections. The commission's public hearings started on March 8, 1928, and ended on December 12, 1935, spanning three different presidential administrations. The investigation was overseen by the Federal Trade Commission's Chief Counsel Robert E. Healy and Commissioner Edgar A. McCulloch (former Chief Justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court). It was one of the largest federal investigations ever undertaken with a starting budget of $85,000 that increased to over $1 million annually. The seven-year (1928–1936) investigation produced 63,000 pages of testimony and 6,000 exhibits in 94 volumes. The commission sent out dozens of accountants to all 48 states to inspect the financial records of 29 holding companies, 70 sub-holding companies and 278 gas & electric companies with assets of over $19 billion. In addition to the monthly reports, the commission also produced annual summaries of the probe. The 94 volumes are broken down as follows: Volumes 1–19 March 1928 – Jan. 1930: the National Electric Light Assoc., committee members, and affiliated company activities. Volumes 20–80 Feb. 1930 – Sept. 1935: investigations of specific electric companies. Volumes 81–84 A-D Oct. – Dec. 1935: the Natural Gas Industry investigation, conclusions and recommendations. Volumes containing Exhibits Numbers 1–4047. Volumes 69-A through 81-A Sept. 1934 – Dec. 1935: seven special reports including the FTC's conclusions and Recommendations. Volume 69-A 9-15 1934: Pros and cons of federal ownership Volume 71-A 11-15 1934: Propaganda Part I: Efforts by Associations and Agencies of Electric and Gas Utilities to Influence Public Opinion Volume 71-B 11-15 1934: Propaganda Part II: Index of names and exhibits Vol 1-20 Volume 72-A 6-17 1935: Financial Investigation Phase of Holding Companies Volume 73-A 1-28 1935: Conclusions and Recommendations for governing holding Companies Volume 77-A 5-16 1935: Propaganda Index for testimony & exhibits Vol. 21-45 Volume 81-A 11-14 1935: Propaganda Part III Efforts by Electric and Gas Utilities to Influence Public Opinion The Federal Trade Commission's final conclusions called the electric utility industry's practices "evil" and recommended that holding companies working across state lines be broken up. The industry's decades-old "propaganda" campaign which was led by NELA and the very largest holding companies actively worked to undermine public ownership of power stations, using every conceivable strategy and medium. The report states that "the record establishes that, measured by quantity, extent, and cost, this was probably the greatest peace-time propaganda campaign ever conducted by private interests in this country. The NELA's handbook was used to train thousands of industry proponents of private ownership. Its tactics included fear-based red-baiting attacks that were deployed using every possible medium. The campaign included both free and paid for advertising in the hundreds of thousands of pieces costing ten's of millions of dollars annually, and in most cases paid for out of the ratepayers pocket. Millions more were spent to influence government officials and elections. From ownership of newspapers, and radio stations, all the way to editorial control over the nation's textbooks, the industry promoted itself while leaving no stone unturned in its brutal attack against the country's municipally owned power stations. Once the investigation was underway, most of the country's newspapers went silent on the investigation. On May 5, 1928 Senator George Norris attacked the press for failing to cover the dramatic issues being exposed during the public hearings. One major controversy was the industry's veto power over what was allowed in the country's school text books. As a result, the National Education Association denounced this activity. One of the largest parts of the investigation focused on the industry's decades-old propaganda war hidden behind their deceptive "co-operation campaign". The multiple volumes and thousands of pages of exhibits and testimony on the subject was summarized by Jack Levin in one of the few books to have ever been written about the results of the FTC's investigation. In Chapter twelve, he detailed how NELA's national network of Public Utility Information Committees stigmatized the democrats, republicans and cities supporting public power as un-American, resulting in the country's media freely giving away ten's of thousands of stories mixed in with the $30 million a year advertising budget of the industry. The investigation concluded on the last day of 1935. According to the FTC, the investigation resulted in the "enactment of such remedial legislation as the Securities Act of 1933, the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, the Federal Power Act of 1935, and the Natural Gas Act of 1938.” The Investigation resulted in 94 volumes of reports up to 2,000 pages in length, with its last report issued in 1936. On March 12, 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt released a report based on the Federal Trade Commission investigation he commissioned by the National Power Policy Committee. This report became the template for the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935. Closure On April 4, 1932, three major utility groups rejoined NELA after its executive director Paul Clapp resigned. Clapp was associated with Samuel Insull, who was a past president of NELA and one of its most powerful leaders. Four days later, Insull's massive Middle West Utility empire failed to obtain a critical loan from National City Bank. On April 16, Middle West which was made up of 24 holding companies and 239 operating companies, covering 30 U.S. states went into receivership. Two months later, Insull fled to Europe after resigning his chairmanship of Middle West. Its bankruptcy was the largest electric company failure in U.S. history until the 2001 collapse of Enron. During NELA's June 1932 convention, a committee was formed to investigate the potential of merging with the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies. NELA was dissolved on February 15, 1933, at the end of its 56th convention in New York City. However, on January 12, 1933, the Edison Electric Institute was formed to take over as the association representing the U.S. electric industry. Sources Early Incandescent Lamps Electric Charges: The Social Construction of Rate Systems FTC Milestones: Making the case for reform of public utility holding company laws 1928–35 Federal Trade Commission Annual Reports document the 7-year investigation of the National Electric Light Association and the electric industry External links NELA Online Books Page Ontario Hydro. (1922). Re "Murray report" on electric utilities: refutation of unjust statements contained in a report published by the National electric light association entitled, "Government owned and controlled compared with privately owned and regulated electric utilities in Canada and the United States" respecting the Hydro-electric power commission of Ontario. Toronto. Society for Electrical Development 1909-1922 Proceedings of National Electric Light Association 1924 NELA's role in the Hawthorne Effect Scandal and coverup 1928 NELA Handbook 1931 6-12 NELA: Utilities to Wage War on Political Agitators 1935 Federal Trade Commission Report that NELA and utilities spend $25 million a year on advertising and national Propaganda Campaign at public schools nationwide Merlin Aylesworth and the Saga of NBC Sam Insull's role in NELA's nationwide propaganda campaign - Origin Power ethics; an analysis of the activities of the public utilities by Jack Levin 'Of limited use?': The role of motion pictures in the National Electric Light Association’s campaign against public ownership Gallery References Trade associations based in the United States
419485	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elgin%20Baylor	Elgin Baylor	Elgin Gay Baylor ( ; September 16, 1934 – March 22, 2021) was an American professional basketball player, coach, and executive. He played 14 seasons as a forward in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers. Baylor was a gifted shooter, a strong rebounder, and an accomplished passer, who was best known for his trademark hanging jump shot. The No. 1 draft pick in 1958, NBA Rookie of the Year in 1959, 11-time NBA All-Star, and a 10-time member of the All-NBA first team, Baylor is regarded as one of the game's all-time greatest players. In 1977, Baylor was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. In 1996, Baylor was named as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History. In October 2021, Baylor was again honored as one of the league's greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA's 75th Anniversary Team. Baylor spent 22 years as general manager of the Los Angeles Clippers, having managed the team for the majority of the Donald Sterling ownership period. He won the NBA Executive of the Year Award in 2006. Two years later, the Clippers relieved him of his executive duties shortly before the 2008–09 season began. His popularity led to appearances on the television series Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In in 1968; the Jackson 5's first TV special in 1971; a Buck Rogers in the 25th Century episode "Olympiad"; and an episode of The White Shadow titled "If Your Number's Up, Get Down". Early life Elgin "Rabbit" Baylor was born in Washington, D.C., on September 16, 1934, the son of Uzziel (Lewis) and John Wesley Baylor. He began playing basketball when he was 14. Although he grew up near a D.C. city recreation center, African Americans were banned from using the facilities, and Baylor had limited access to basketball courts growing up. He had two basketball-playing brothers, Sal and Kermit. After stints at Southwest Boys Club and Brown Jr. High, Baylor was a three-time All-City player in high school. Baylor played his first two years of high school basketball at Phelps Vocational High School in the 1951 and 1952 seasons. At the time, public schools in Washington, D.C., were segregated, so he only played against other black high school teams. There, Baylor set his first area scoring record of 44 points, versus Cardozo H.S. During his two All-City years at Phelps, he averaged 18.5 and 27.6 points per season. He did not perform well academically and dropped out of school (1952–53) to work in a furniture store and play basketball in the local recreational leagues. Baylor reappeared for the 1954 season as a senior playing for the recently opened all-black Spingarn High School. The , senior was named first-team Washington All-Metropolitan, and was the first African-American player named to that team. Baylor also won the SSA's Livingstone Trophy as the area's best basketball player for 1954. He finished with a 36.1 average for his eight Interhigh Division II league games. On February 3, 1954, in a game against his old Phelps team, Baylor scored 31 in the first half. Playing with four fouls the entire second half, Baylor scored 32 more points to establish a new DC-area record with 63 points. This broke the point record of 52 that Western's Jim Wexler had set the year before when he broke Baylor's previous record of 44. However, because Wexler was white and Baylor was black, Baylor's record did not receive the same press coverage from the media, including the Washington Post, as Wexler's. College career Despite his success as a high school basketball player, no major college recruited Baylor because at the time, college scouts did not recruit at black high schools. While some colleges were willing to accept Baylor, he did not qualify academically. A friend of Baylor's who attended the College of Idaho helped arrange a football scholarship for Baylor for the 1954-55 academic year. Baylor never played football for the school, however; instead, he was accepted to the college's basketball team without having to try out. He outperformed the other players on the team that season, averaging over 31 points and 20 rebounds per game. After the season, the College of Idaho dismissed its head basketball coach and restricted the scholarships. A Seattle car dealer interested Baylor in Seattle University, and Baylor sat out a year to play for Westside Ford, an Amateur Athletic Union team in Seattle, while establishing eligibility at Seattle. The Minneapolis Lakers drafted him in the 14th round of the 1956 NBA draft, but Baylor opted to stay in school instead. During the 1956–57 season, Baylor averaged 29.7 points per game and 20.3 rebounds per game for Seattle. The next season, Baylor averaged 32.5 points per game and led the Seattle University Chieftains (now known as the Redhawks) to the NCAA championship game, Seattle's only trip to the Final Four, falling to the Kentucky Wildcats. Following his junior season, Baylor was drafted again by the Minneapolis Lakers, with the No. 1 pick in the 1958 NBA draft, and this time he opted to leave school to join them for the 1958–59 NBA season. Over three collegiate seasons, one at College of Idaho and two at Seattle, Baylor averaged 31.3 points per game and 19.5 rebounds per game. He led the NCAA in rebounds during the 1956–57 season. Professional career Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers (1958–1971) Rookie of the Year (1958–1959) The Minneapolis Lakers used the No. 1 overall pick in the 1958 NBA draft to select Baylor, then convinced him to skip his senior year at SU and instead join the pro ranks. The team had been unsuccessful since the retirement of its star center George Mikan in 1954. The year prior to Baylor's arrival, the team finished 19–53the worst record in the leaguewith a squad that was slow, bulky and aging. It had no permanent home arena to play in, was losing popularity, and in financial trouble. Owner Bob Short, who was ready to sell the team, believed Baylor's star athletic talents and all-around game could save the franchise. Short told the Los Angeles Times in a 1971 interview: "If he had turned me down then, I would have been out of business. The club would have gone bankrupt." Baylor signed with the Lakers for $20,000 per year (), a large sum in the NBA at the time. According to basketball historian James Fisher, by virtue of his exceptional skills and his central role in the team's business plan, Baylor became the NBA's first franchise player. Baylor immediately exceeded expectations and ultimately saved the Lakers franchise. As a rookie in 1958–59, Baylor finished fourth in the league in scoring (24.9 points per game), third in rebounding (15.0 rebounds per game), and eighth in assists (4.1 assists per game). He scored 55 points in a single game, then the third-highest mark in league history behind Joe Fulks' 63 and Mikan's 61. On January 16, 1959, Baylor refused to play in a road game in Charleston, West Virginia, after the hotel the team booked denied lodging to the team's three black players. When a teammate tried to convince Baylor to play in the game, Baylor said, "I'm a human being, I'm not an animal put in a cage and let out for the show." Baylor won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award and led the Lakers to the NBA finals, where they lost to the Boston Celtics in the first four-game sweep in finals history, kicking off the greatest rivalry in NBA history. Peak years (1959–1965) In 1960, the Lakers moved from Minnesota to Los Angeles, drafted Jerry West to play point guard, and hired Fred Schaus who was also the coach during West’s college career. The duo of Baylor and West, joined in 1968 by center Wilt Chamberlain, led the Lakers to success in the Western Division throughout the 1960s. From the 1960–61 to the 1962–63 seasons, Baylor averaged 34.8, 38.3, and 34.0 points per game, respectively. On November 15 of the 1960–61 season, Baylor set an NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks, while also grabbing 25 rebounds. In doing so, Baylor became the first NBA player to score more than 70 points in a game, breaking his own NBA record of 64 points that he had set the previous November. Baylor held the record until 1962, when Chamberlain scored 100 points. Baylor, a United States Army Reservist, was called to active duty during the 1961–62 season, and being stationed at Fort Lewis in Washington, he could play for the Lakers only when on a weekend pass. He was unable to practice with the team before or during the season, and had to fly coach across the country on weekends to join the team at whichever arena they were appearing. Despite playing only 48 games that season, he still managed to score over 1,800 points, averaging 38.3 points (the highest average in NBA history by any player other than Chamberlain), 18.6 rebounds, and 4.6 assists per game. Later that season, in a Game Five NBA Finals victory against the Boston Celtics, Baylor set the still-standing NBA record for points in an NBA Finals game with 61. Basketball historian James Fisher described Baylor's performance that season as: "Not bad for a part-time job." Baylor later said he "kind of enjoyed that season." Knee injury and later seasons (1965–1971) Baylor suffered a severe knee injury during the opening game of the 1965 Western Division playoffs, which required surgery and left him unable to play in the remainder of the playoffs. Although he scored more than 24 points in each of the next four seasons despite his injury, the limitations of knee surgery at the time and the lack of meaningful rehab left him with nagging knee problems, ultimately resulting in surgery on both knees, which impaired his playing ability for the rest of his career. Baylor played just two games in 1970–71 before rupturing his Achilles tendon, and finally retired nine games into the subsequent 1971–72 season because of his nagging injuries. Baylor told the press that he could no longer play at the highest level of the sport and wanted to free up room on the Lakers' roster for other players. In 14 seasons as the Lakers' forward, Baylor helped lead the team to the NBA Finals eight times, but the team lost each time. As a result of his retirement at the beginning of the season, Baylor missed two historic achievements: the Lakers' first game afterwards began an NBA record 33-game win streak, after which they won the 1972 championship. The organization awarded Baylor a championship ring despite the early retirement. Coaching career In 1974, Baylor was hired to be an assistant coach and later the head coach for the New Orleans Jazz, but had a lackluster 86–135 record and was fired following the 1978–79 season, shortly before the team moved to Salt Lake City, Utah. Executive career In 1986, Baylor was hired by the Los Angeles Clippers as the team's vice president of basketball operations. He was selected as the NBA Executive of the Year in 2006. During his tenure, the Clippers managed only two winning seasons and amassed a win–loss record of 607–1153. They made the playoffs only four times, and won only one playoff series. He stayed in that capacity for 22 years until October 2008. Later life and death In 2009 Baylor filed an employment discrimination lawsuit against the Clippers, team owner Donald Sterling, team president Andy Roeser, and the NBA. He alleged that he was underpaid during his tenure with the team and then fired because of his age and race. Baylor later dropped the racial discrimination claims in the suit. In 2011, a jury decided in the Clippers' favor on Baylor's remaining claims, finding Baylor's termination was based on the team's poor performance. However, Baylor felt vindicated when Sterling was banned for life from the NBA in 2014 after recordings of him making racist comments were publicized by the press. Baylor died in a Los Angeles hospital of natural causes on March 22, 2021, aged 86. He is interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Hollywood Hills. He was surrounded by his wife Elaine and their daughter Krystle; two children from a previous marriage, Alan and Alison; and a sister, Gladys. Player profile Baylor was known as an all-around player, excelling at defense, offense, rebounding, and passing. At 6'5", 225lbs, he was short for a forward even for the time period in which he played, but he had the strength to "muscle through" defenders, and the finesse and creativity to maneuver around them, including to rebound missed shots and score second chance points. Baylor was known for his superior leaping abilities that allowed him to score by staying in the air longer than defenders; Bill Russell called him "the godfather of hang time." He invented "moves" to deceive defenders, involving changing hands or changing direction, even mid-air. Baylor's offensive repertoire included a running bank shot and a left-handed hook shot, though he was right-handed. He had an on-court facial twitch that he used as a head fake. Baylor credited his success to a talent for jumping and the creativity to spontaneously react to the defense. Legacy Since the beginning of his NBA career, Baylor has been considered one of the best basketball players in the world, and his reputation as one of the greatest in history has endured. Before Baylor joined the NBA in 1958, the league's play was methodical but mechanical, dominated by set jump shots and running hook shots. Baylor introduced a creative and acrobatic playing style that would later be emulated by other NBA superstars such as Julius Erving and Michael Jordan. Bill Simmons wrote, "Along with Russell, Elgin turned a horizontal game into a vertical one." Baylor's skill was esteemed by his contemporaries: Oscar Robertson wrote Baylor "was the first and original high flier"; Bill Sharman said Baylor was "the greatest cornerman who ever played pro basketball"; Tom Heinsohn said, "Baylor as forward beats out Bird, Julius Erving and everybody else". Baylor was the last of the great undersized forwards in a league where many guards are now his size or bigger. He finished his playing days with 23,149 points, 3,650 assists and 11,463 rebounds over 846 games. His signature running bank shot, which he was able to release quickly and effectively over taller players, led him to numerous NBA scoring records, several of which still stand. The 71 points Baylor scored on November 15, 1960, was a record at the time; it was also a team record that would not be surpassed until Kobe Bryant scored 81 points against the Toronto Raptors in January 2006. The 61 points he scored in Game 5 of the NBA Finals in 1962 is still an NBA Finals record. Over his career, he averaged 27.4 points and 4.3 assists per game. An underrated rebounder, Baylor averaged 13.5 rebounds per game during his career, including a remarkable 19.8 rebounds per game during the 1960–61 season—a season average exceeded by only five other players in NBA history, all of whom were or taller. A 10-time All-NBA First Team selection and 11-time NBA All-Star, Baylor was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1977. He was named to the NBA 35th Anniversary All-Time Team in 1980, the NBA 50th Anniversary All-Time Team in 1996 and the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021. in 2009, SLAM Magazine ranked him number 11 among its Top 50 NBA players of all time. In 2022, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Baylor as the 23rd greatest player in NBA history. He is often listed as the greatest NBA player never to win a championship, although this is not technically true. Baylor was a member of the 1971-1972 Los Angeles Lakers team that won the NBA championship, and although he was not on the roster when they won the championship that year, he is still technically an NBA champion due to playing for the team at the beginning of the season. As such, Baylor was awarded a championship ring by the Lakers front office due to his leadership and contributions at the start of the season. Fifty-one years after Baylor left Seattle University, they named its basketball court in honor of him on November 19, 2009. The Redhawks now play on the Elgin Baylor Court in Seattle's KeyArena. The Redhawks also host the annual Elgin Baylor Classic. In June 2017, The College of Idaho had Baylor as one of the inaugural inductees into the school's Hall of Fame. The first biography of Baylor was written by Slam Online contributor Bijan C. Bayne in 2015, and published by Rowman and Littlefield. On April 6, 2018, a statue of Baylor, designed by Gary Tillery and Omri Amrany, was unveiled at the Staples Center prior to a Lakers game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. NBA career statistics Source: Source: Head coaching record \|- \|align="left"\|New Orleans \|align="left"\| \| 1 \|\| 0 \|\| 1 \|\| \|\| style="text-align:center;"\|(interim)\|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|– \|- \|align="left"\|New Orleans \|align="left"\| \| 56 \|\| 21 \|\| 35 \|\| \|\| style="text-align:center;"\|5th in central\|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed Playoffs \|- \|align="left"\|New Orleans \|align="left"\| \| 82 \|\| 39 \|\| 43 \|\| \|\| style="text-align:center;"\|5th in central\|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed Playoffs \|- \|align="left"\|New Orleans \|align="left"\| \| 82 \|\| 26 \|\| 56 \|\| \|\| style="text-align:center;"\|6th in central\|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed Playoffs \|- class="sortbottom" \|align="left"\|Career \| \|\| 221 \|\| 86 \|\| 135 \|\| \|\| \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| \|\| Source: See also List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career triple-double leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff triple-double leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most points in a game List of National Basketball Association players with 50 or more points in a playoff game List of National Basketball Association top rookie scoring averages List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season rebounding leaders List of NCAA Division I men's basketball career rebounding leaders List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 30 or more rebounds in a game List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 2000 points and 1000 rebounds List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 60 or more points in a game References External links NBA.com bio 1934 births 2021 deaths 20th-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century African-American people African-American basketball coaches African-American basketball players African-American sports executives and administrators All-American college men's basketball players Amateur Athletic Union men's basketball players American men's basketball coaches American men's basketball players American military sports players American sports executives and administrators Basketball coaches from Washington, D.C. Basketball players from Washington, D.C. Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) College basketball announcers in the United States College of Idaho Coyotes men's basketball players Los Angeles Clippers executives Los Angeles Lakers players Minneapolis Lakers draft picks Minneapolis Lakers players Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association broadcasters National Basketball Association general managers National Basketball Association players with retired numbers New Orleans Jazz assistant coaches New Orleans Jazz head coaches Seattle Redhawks men's basketball players Small forwards United States Army reservists United States Army soldiers National Basketball Association first-overall draft picks

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