id
stringlengths 2
8
| url
stringlengths 31
206
| title
stringlengths 1
130
| text
stringlengths 16.4k
435k
|
|---|---|---|---|
416425
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20New%20Hampshire
|
List of United States senators from New Hampshire
|
New Hampshire was admitted to the Union on June 21, 1788. It elects United States senators to class 2 and class 3. The state's current senators are Democrats Jeanne Shaheen and Maggie Hassan. Senator Shaheen is currently serving her third term (since 2009); Senator Hassan is currently serving her second term (since 2017). Jacob Harold Gallinger was New Hampshire's longest-serving senator (1891–1918).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 align=left | Paine Wingate
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1793
| rowspan=2 | Josiah Bartlett was at first elected in 1788, but "declined the appointment." Elected in 1789.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 | 1
|
| rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1788.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1801
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=6 align=right | John Langdon
! rowspan=6 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=5 align=left | Samuel Livermore
| | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1793 –Jun 12, 1801
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1792.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|
| | Anti-Admin.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Federalist
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Re-election year unknown.
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1798.Resigned.
| rowspan=7 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1800.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1801 –Jun 14, 1802
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | James Sheafe
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 12, 1801 –Jun 17, 1801
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 3
| rowspan=4 align=left | Simeon Olcott
| rowspan=4 | Federalist
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jun 17, 1801 –Mar 3, 1805
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1801 to finish Livermore's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 14, 1802 –Jun 17, 1802
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1802 to finish Sheafe's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jun 17, 1802 –Mar 3, 1807
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Plumer
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 4
| rowspan=9 align=left | Nicholas Gilman
| rowspan=9 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1805 –May 2, 1814
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1804.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1807.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1807 –Jun 1, 1810
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right nowrap | Nahum Parker
! rowspan=2 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 1, 1810 –Jun 21, 1810
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1810 to finish Parker's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 21, 1810 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right nowrap | Charles Cutts
! rowspan=4 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1810.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=9 | 5
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Apr 2, 1813
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue the term.Retired when successor elected.
| nowrap | Apr 2, 1813 –Jun 10, 1813
| | Federalist
| align=right nowrap | Charles Cutts
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1813 to finish Cutts's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 10, 1813 –Jun 16, 1817
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 align=right | Jeremiah Mason
! rowspan=5 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 2, 1814 –Jun 24, 1814
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 align=left | Thomas W. Thompson
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 24, 1814 –Mar 3, 1817
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1814 to finish Gilman's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 align=left | David L. Morril
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Mar 3, 1823
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1816.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 16, 1817 –Jun 27, 1817
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1817 to finish Mason's term.
| nowrap | Jun 27, 1817 –Mar 3, 1819
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | Clement Storer
! 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1818.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Fabyan Parrott
! rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 7
| rowspan=7 align=left | Samuel Bell
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1823 –Mar 3, 1835
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1823.
| rowspan=4 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 7
|
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1825 –Mar 16, 1825
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1825.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 16, 1825 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | Levi Woodbury
! rowspan=3 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1828 or 1829.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1831.Resigned to become Governor of New Hampshire.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –May 30, 1836
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | Isaac Hill
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=5 align=left | Henry Hubbard
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1835 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1835.Retired to run for Governor of New Hampshire.
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 30, 1836 –Jun 8, 1836
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1836 to finish Hill's term.Lost re-election.
| nowrap | Jun 8, 1836 –Mar 3, 1837
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | John Page
! 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1837.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1837 –Feb 28, 1842
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Franklin Pierce
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=4 align=left | Levi Woodbury
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Sep 20, 1845
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1841.Resigned to become a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
| rowspan=7 | 10
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Pierce's term.Elected in 1842 to finish Pierce's term.
| nowrap | Mar 1, 1842 –Mar 3, 1843
| | Democratic
| align=right | Leonard Wilcox
! 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1843.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Charles G. Atherton
! rowspan=6 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 20, 1845 –Dec 1, 1845
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 10
| align=left | Benning W. Jenness
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Dec 1, 1845 –Jun 13, 1846
| Appointed to continue Woodbury's term.Lost election to finish Woodbury's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | Joseph Cilley
| | Liberty
| nowrap | Jun 13, 1846 –Mar 3, 1847
| Elected in 1846 to finish Woodbury's term.Lost election to next term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | John P. Hale
| | IndependentDemocratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1846.Retired to run for President of the United States.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Free Soil
|
| rowspan=8 | 11
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1848 or 1849.Died.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Jan 11, 1855
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Moses Norris Jr.
! rowspan=6 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 13
| align=left | Charles G. Atherton
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Nov 15, 1853
| Elected in 1852.Died.
| rowspan=11 | 12
| rowspan=6
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 15, 1853 –Nov 29, 1853
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 14
| align=left | Jared W. Williams
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Nov 29, 1853 –Jul 15, 1854
| Appointed to continue Atherton's term.Appointment expired without election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jul 15, 1854 –Jul 30, 1855
| rowspan=4 |
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 11, 1855 –Jan 16, 1855
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Norris's term.
| nowrap | Jan 16, 1855 –Mar 3, 1855
| | Democratic
| align=right | John S. Wells
! 16
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=6 | 12
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Jul 29, 1855
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 15
| rowspan=7 align=left | John P. Hale
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jul 30, 1855 –Mar 3, 1865
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1855 to finish Atherton's term.
| rowspan=2 | Elected late in 1855.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 30, 1855 –May 26, 1857
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | James Bell
! rowspan=2 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 26, 1857 –Jun 27, 1857
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1857 to finish Bell's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 27, 1857 –Jul 27, 1866
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Daniel Clark
! rowspan=5 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1859.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1861.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 16
| rowspan=8 align=left | Aaron H. Cragin
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1865 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1864.
| rowspan=5 | 14
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 27, 1866 –Aug 31, 1866
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Clark's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Aug 31, 1866 –Mar 3, 1867
| | Republican
| align=right | George G. Fogg
! 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1866 or 1867.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –Mar 3, 1873
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | James W. Patterson
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1870.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1872.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Bainbridge Wadleigh
! rowspan=3 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 17
| rowspan=6 align=left | Edward H. Rollins
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Mar 3, 1883
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1876.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=7 | 16
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1879 –Mar 18, 1879
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to fill vacancy caused by legislature's failure to elect.Retired.
| nowrap | Mar 18, 1879 –Jun 18, 1879
| | Republican
| align=right | Charles H. Bell
! 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 18, 1879 –Jun 20, 1879
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1879 to finish the vacant term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jun 20, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Henry W. Blair
! rowspan=12 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1883 –Aug 2, 1883
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=8 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 align=left | Austin F. Pike
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Aug 2, 1883 –Oct 8, 1886
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1883.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=8 | 17
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1885 –Mar 5, 1885
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Appointed to continue the vacant term.Elected in 1885 to finish the vacant term.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 5, 1885 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | Henry W. Blair
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 8, 1886 –Nov 14, 1886
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 19
| rowspan=2 align=left | Person Colby Cheney
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 14, 1886 –Jun 14, 1887
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Pike's term.Retired when successor qualified.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! 20
| align=left | Bill Chandler
| | Republican
| nowrap | Jun 14, 1887 –Mar 3, 1889
| Elected in 1887 to finish Pike's term.Legislature failed to elect.
|- style="height:2em"
! 21
| align=left | Gilman Marston
| | Republican
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1889 –Jun 18, 1889
| Appointed to start term when legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 18
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 align=left | Bill Chandler
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jun 18, 1889 –Mar 3, 1901
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1889 to finish the term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1891.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Aug 17, 1918
| rowspan=15 | Republican
| rowspan=15 align=right | Jacob H. Gallinger
! rowspan=15 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1895.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1897.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 23
| rowspan=6 align=left | Henry E. Burnham
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1901.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1903.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1907.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1909.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 – Mar 13, 1913
| Legislature elected late.
| rowspan=7 | 22
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=6 align=left | Henry F. Hollis
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 13, 1913 –Mar 3, 1919
| rowspan=6 | Elected late in 1913.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1914.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 17, 1918 –Sep 2, 1918
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Gallinger's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Sep 2, 1918 –Nov 5, 1918
| | Republican
| align=right | Irving W. Drew
! 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1918 to finish Gallinger's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Nov 6, 1918 –Mar 3, 1933
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 align=right | George H. Moses
! rowspan=8 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 25
| rowspan=9 align=left | Henry W. Keyes
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Jan 3, 1937
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1918.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1924.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1926.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1930.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Jan 3, 1939
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Fred H. Brown
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=16 | 26
| rowspan=16 align=left | Styles Bridges
| rowspan=16 | Republican
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Jan 3, 1937 –Nov 26, 1961
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1936.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1938.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 3, 1939 –Jul 24, 1953
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 align=right | Charles W. Tobey
! rowspan=8 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1942.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1948.
| rowspan=6 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 28
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1950.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 24, 1953 –Aug 14, 1953
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Tobey's term.Lost nomination to finish Tobey's term.
| nowrap | Aug 14, 1953 –Nov 7, 1954
| | Republican
| align=right | Robert W. Upton
! 29
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1954 to finish Tobey's term.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Nov 8, 1954 –Dec 31, 1974
| rowspan=14 | Republican
| rowspan=14 align=right | Norris Cotton
! rowspan=14 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 29
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1960.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 30
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 26, 1961 –Jan 10, 1962
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 27
| align=left | Moe Murphy
| | Republican
| nowrap | Jan 10, 1962 –Nov 6, 1962
| Appointed to continue Bridges's term.Lost nomination to finish Bridges's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 28
| rowspan=12 align=left | Thomas J. McIntyre
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Nov 7, 1962 –Jan 3, 1979
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1962 to finish Bridge's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.Retired, then resigned early.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1972.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 32
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Cotton's term.
| nowrap | Dec 31, 1974 –Jan 3, 1975
| | Republican
| align=right | Louis Wyman
! 31
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 32
| Contested election.
| nowrap | Jan 3, 1975 –Aug 8, 1975
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue term after contested election.
| nowrap | Aug 8, 1975 –Sep 18, 1975
| | Republican
| align=right | Norris Cotton
! 32
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish contested term.Lost re-election and resigned early.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Sep 18, 1975 –Dec 29, 1980
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Durkin
! rowspan=3 | 33
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 29
| rowspan=7 align=left | Gordon Humphrey
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 3, 1979 –Dec 4, 1990
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1978.
| rowspan=4 | 33
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Durkin's term, having been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Dec 29, 1980 –Jan 3, 1993
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Warren Rudman
! rowspan=9 | 34
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.Retired and resigned early to take his seat in the New Hampshire Senate.
| rowspan=5 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 34
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1986.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 4, 1990 –Dec 7, 1990
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 30
| rowspan=7 align=left | Bob Smith
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Dec 7, 1990 –Jan 3, 2003
| Appointed to finish Humphrey's term, having already been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1990.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1992.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1993 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Judd Gregg
! rowspan=9 | 35
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 align=left | John E. Sununu
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2003 –Jan 3, 2009
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2002.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 32
| rowspan=9 align=left | Jeanne Shaheen
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2009 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2008.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2011 –Jan 3, 2017
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Kelly Ayotte
! rowspan=3 | 36
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2016.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2017 –present
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Maggie Hassan
! rowspan=6 | 37
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 |Re-elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3|40
| rowspan=3| Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
United States congressional delegations from New Hampshire
List of United States representatives from New Hampshire
Elections in New Hampshire
References
United States Senators
New Hampshire
|
416434
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20New%20York
|
List of United States senators from New York
|
Below is a list of U.S. senators who have represented the State of New York in the United States Senate since 1789. The date of the start of the tenure is either the first day of the legislative term (senators who were elected regularly before the term began), or the day when they took the seat (U.S. senators who were elected in special elections to fill vacancies, or after the term began). New York's current U.S. senators are Democrats Chuck Schumer (serving since 1999, also serving as Senate Democratic Leader since 2017, and the longest serving senator in the state) and Kirsten Gillibrand (serving since 2009).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! 1
| align=left | Philip Schuyler
| | Pro-Admin.
| Jul 27, 1789 –Mar 3, 1791
| Elected in 1789.Lost re-election.
| 1
|
| rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1789.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jul 25, 1789 –May 23, 1796
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=4 align=right | Rufus King
! rowspan=4 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=5 align=left | Aaron Burr
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Mar 3, 1797
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1791.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
|
| rowspan=14 | 2
| Re-elected in 1795.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Great Britain.
| | Federalist
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | May 23, 1796 –Dec 8, 1796
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=10 | Elected to finish King's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Dec 8, 1796 –Aug 1800
| rowspan=10 | Federalist
| rowspan=10 align=right | John Laurance
! rowspan=10 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | Philip Schuyler
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1797 –Jan 3, 1798
| Elected in 1797.Resigned due to ill health.
| rowspan=14 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 3, 1798 –Jan 11, 1798
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 4
| align=left | John Sloss Hobart
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Jan 11, 1798 –Apr 16, 1798
| Elected to finish Schuyler's term.Resigned to become federal judge.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 16, 1798 –May 5, 1798
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 5
| align=left | William North
| | Federalist
| nowrap | May 5, 1798 –Aug 17, 1798
| Appointed to continue Hobart's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 6
| rowspan=2 align=left | James Watson
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Aug 17, 1798 –Mar 19, 1800
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Hobart's term.Resigned to become Naval Officer of the Port of New York.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 19, 1800 –May 3, 1800
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan=6 align=left | Gouverneur Morris
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
| rowspan=6 nowrap | May 3, 1800 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=6 | Elected to finish Watson's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 1800 –Nov 6, 1800
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Laurance's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 6, 1800 –Feb 5, 1802
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Armstrong Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=12 | 3
| Re-elected in 1801.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 5, 1802 –Feb 23, 1802
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Armstrong's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 23, 1802 –Nov 4, 1803
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | DeWitt Clinton
! rowspan=2 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | Theodorus Bailey
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Jan 16, 1804
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1803.Resigned.
| rowspan=10 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 4, 1803 –Dec 8, 1803
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Clinton's term.Resigned; Elected to the class 1 seat.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 8, 1803 –Feb 23, 1804
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Armstrong Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 16, 1804 –Feb 25, 1804
| rowspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Armstrong's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Feb 23, 1804 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=8 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 align=right | John Smith
! rowspan=8 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
! 9
| align=left | John Armstrong Jr.
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Feb 25, 1804 –Jun 30, 1804
| Elected to finish Bailey's term.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to France.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 30, 1804 –Nov 23, 1804
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 align=left | Samuel L. Mitchill
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 23, 1804 –Mar 3, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Armstrong's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1807.Retired or lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 align=left | Obadiah German
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1809 –Mar 3, 1815
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1809.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1813.Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | Rufus King
! rowspan=7 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 12
| rowspan=4 align=left | Nathan Sanford
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Mar 3, 1821
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1815.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 6
| Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Jan 25, 1820
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected late.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 25, 1820 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | Rufus King
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=5 align=left | Martin Van Buren
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican/Bucktail
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Dec 20, 1828
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1821.
| rowspan=4 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=6 | 7
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Jan 31, 1826
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected late.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 31, 1826 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=5 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Nathan Sanford
! rowspan=5 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1827.Resigned to become N.Y. Governor.
| rowspan=7 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 20, 1828 –Jan 15, 1829
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 14
| rowspan=5 align=left | Charles E. Dudley
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 15, 1829 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Van Buren's term.Retired or lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 8
| Elected in 1831.Resigned; elected N.Y. Governor.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Jan 1, 1833
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | William L. Marcy
! 9
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 1, 1833 –Jan 14, 1833
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Marcy's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 4, 1833 –Nov 26, 1844
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=9 align=right | Silas Wright Jr.
! rowspan=9 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 15
| rowspan=3 align=left | Nathaniel P. Tallmadge
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Mar 3, 1839
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1833.Legislature failed to re-elect.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1837.
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Jan 27, 1840
| Vacant
| rowspan=9 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 align=left | Nathaniel P. Tallmadge
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 27, 1840 –Jun 17, 1844
| rowspan=3 | Elected late.Resigned to become Governor of Wisconsin Territory.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=8 | 10
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1843.Resigned when elected N.Y. Governor.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jun 17, 1844 –Dec 9, 1844
| rowspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 26, 1844 –Nov 30, 1844
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Wright's term.Lost election for remainder of Wright's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 30, 1844 –Jan 27, 1845
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Henry A. Foster
! rowspan=2 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan=5 align=left | Daniel S. Dickinson
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 9, 1844 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Tallmadge's term.Elected to finish Tallmadge's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Wright's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 27, 1845 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Adams Dix
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1845.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 11
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1849.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Mar 3, 1861
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=7 align=right | William H. Seward
! rowspan=7 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Dec 1, 1851
| Vacant
| rowspan=4 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 nowrap align=left | Hamilton Fish
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 1, 1851 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=3 | Elected late.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1855.Retired to become Secretary of State
| rowspan=3 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 align=left | Preston King
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Mar 3, 1863
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1857.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1861.Lost re-nomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 3, 1867
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ira Harris
! rowspan=3 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Edwin D. Morgan
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1863.Lost re-nomination.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 14
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1867.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –May 16, 1881
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Roscoe Conkling
! rowspan=9 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 20
| rowspan=4 align=left | Reuben Fenton
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1869.Not an active candidate for renomination in 1875.
| rowspan=4 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|-style="height:2em"
| | Liberal Republican
|- style="height:2em"
| | Republican
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1873.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 align=left | Francis Kernan
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1875.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1879.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
! 22
| align=left | Thomas C. Platt
| | Republican
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –May 16, 1881
| Elected in 1881.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 16, 1881 –Jul 27, 1881
| Vacant
| Vacant
| nowrap | May 16, 1881 –Jul 29, 1881
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | Warner Miller
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 27, 1881 –Mar 3, 1887
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Platt's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Conkling's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 29, 1881 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Elbridge G. Lapham
! rowspan=2 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1885.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William M. Evarts
! rowspan=3 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 24
| rowspan=4 align=left | Frank Hiscock
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1887 –Mar 3, 1893
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1887.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 18
| Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Jan 7, 1892
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1891, but took his seat only after term as N.Y. Governor ended.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 7, 1892 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | David B. Hill
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 align=left | Edward Murphy Jr.
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1893 –Mar 3, 1899
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1893.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected Jan 20, 1897.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Mar 3, 1909
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Thomas C. Platt
! rowspan=6 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 26
| rowspan=6 align=left | Chauncey Depew
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1899.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected Jan 20, 1903.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1905.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=4 | Elected Jan 19, 1909.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –Mar 3, 1915
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Elihu Root
! rowspan=4 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1911 –Apr 4, 1911
| Vacant
| rowspan=4 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 align=left | James A. O'Gorman
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Apr 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=3 | Elected Mar 31, 1911.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1914.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1915 –Mar 3, 1927
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | James W. Wadsworth Jr.
! rowspan=6 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 align=left | William M. Calder
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Mar 3, 1923
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 29
| rowspan=8 align=left | Royal S. Copeland
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Jun 17, 1938
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1922.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1926.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Mar 4, 1927 –Jun 28, 1949
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 align=right | Robert F. Wagner
! rowspan=14 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1928.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em
|
| rowspan=5 | 25
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1934.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 17, 1938 –Dec 3, 1938
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 30
| rowspan=5 align=left | James M. Mead
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 3, 1938 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Copeland's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Retired to run for N.Y. Governor.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.Resigned due to ill health.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 31
| rowspan=10 align=left | Irving Ives
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1959
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=6 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 28, 1949 –Jul 7, 1949
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Wagner's term.Lost election to finish Wagner's term.
| nowrap | Jul 7, 1949 –Nov 8, 1949
| | Republican
| align=right | John Foster Dulles
! 23
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Wagner's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 9, 1949 –Jan 3, 1957
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Herbert H. Lehman
! rowspan=4 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1952.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 29
| Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 3, 1957 –Jan 9, 1957
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1956, but took seat late to remain N.Y. Attorney General.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 9, 1957 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=15 | Republican
| rowspan=15 align=right | Jacob Javits
! rowspan=15 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 align=left | Kenneth Keating
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1959 –Jan 3, 1965
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 30
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 33
| rowspan=2 align=left | Robert F. Kennedy
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 3, 1965 –Jun 6, 1968
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1964.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 6, 1968 –Sep 10, 1968
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 34
| rowspan=2 align=left | Charles Goodell
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Sep 10, 1968 –Jan 3, 1971
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to finish Kennedy's term.Lost election to a full term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 35
| rowspan=4 align=left | James L. Buckley
| rowspan=3 | Conservative
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1971 –Jan 3, 1977
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1970.Changed parties in 1976.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 32
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1974.Lost renomination and then lost re-election as a Liberal.
|-
| | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 36
| rowspan=12 align=left | Daniel Patrick Moynihan
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 3, 1977 –Jan 3, 2001
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 1999
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Al D'Amato
! rowspan=9 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1998.
| rowspan=17 nowrap | Jan 3, 1999 –present
| rowspan=17 | Democratic
| rowspan=17 align=right | Chuck Schumer
! rowspan=17 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 37
| rowspan=5 align=left | Hillary Clinton
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 2001 –Jan 21, 2009
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 37
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 2004.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 2006.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=5 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 21, 2009 –Jan 26, 2009
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 38
| rowspan=8 align=left | Kirsten Gillibrand
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 26, 2009 –present
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Clinton's term.Elected in 2010 to finish Clinton's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from New York
United States congressional delegations from New York
Elections in New York
Notes
References
United States Senators
New York
|
416437
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20North%20Carolina
|
List of United States senators from North Carolina
|
North Carolina ratified the Constitution on November 21, 1789, after the beginning of the 1st Congress. Its current senators are Republicans Thom Tillis and Ted Budd. Jesse Helms was North Carolina's longest-serving senator (1973–2003).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1789 –Nov 27, 1789
| North Carolina ratified the Constitution Nov 21, 1789 but didn't elect its senators until Nov 27, 1789.
| rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 1
| North Carolina ratified the Constitution Nov 21, 1789 but didn't elect its senators until Nov 27, 1789.
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1789 –Nov 27, 1789
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 align=left | Samuel Johnston
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 27, 1789 –Mar 3, 1793
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1789.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1789.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 27, 1789 –Mar 3, 1795
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 align=right | Benjamin Hawkins
! rowspan=3 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 align=left | Alexander Martin
| | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1793 –Mar 3, 1799
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1792.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|
| | Anti-Admin.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1795.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1795 –Mar 3, 1801
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Timothy Bloodworth
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jesse Franklin
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1799 –Mar 3, 1805
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1799.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1800.Resigned to return to the State Superior Court.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1801 –Feb 17, 1807
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | David Stone
! rowspan=4 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1805 –Dec 22, 1805
| Montfort Stokes was elected in 1804 but refused the position.
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 4
| rowspan=11 align=left | James Turner
| rowspan=11 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Dec 22, 1805 –Nov 21, 1816
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish the vacant term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Feb 17, 1807 –Mar 3, 1807
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1806.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1807 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Jesse Franklin
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1810.Resigned due to ill health.
| rowspan=9 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=9 | 5
| Elected in 1812.Resigned.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Dec 24, 1814
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | David Stone
! 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 24, 1814 –Dec 1814
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Stone's term.Resigned without having qualified.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 1814 –Dec 5, 1815
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Francis Locke Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 5, 1815 –Dec 13, 1815
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Locke's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Dec 13, 1815 –Nov 14, 1828
| rowspan=7 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Nathaniel Macon
! rowspan=9 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1816 –Dec 4, 1816
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 5
| rowspan=4 align=left | Montfort Stokes
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 4, 1816 –Mar 3, 1823
| Elected to finish Turner's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1816.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1818.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 6
| rowspan=6 align=left | John Branch
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1823 –Mar 9, 1829
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1822.
| rowspan=5 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=7 | 7
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1825.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 14, 1828 –Dec 15, 1828
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Macon's term.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 15, 1828 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=4 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=4 align=right | James Iredell Jr.
! rowspan=4 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1828.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Navy.
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 9, 1829 –Dec 9, 1829
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 7
| rowspan=8 align=left | Bedford Brown
| rowspan=6 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 9, 1829 –Nov 16, 1840
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Branch's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1830.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Mar 19, 1836
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | Willie P. Mangum
! rowspan=3 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1835.Resigned.
| rowspan=7 | 9
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 19, 1836 –Dec 5, 1836
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Mangum's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 5, 1836 –Nov 16, 1840
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | Robert Strange
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=2 | Elected to full term in 1836.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 16, 1840 –Nov 25, 1840
|
|
| nowrap | Nov 16, 1840 –Nov 25, 1840
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 8
| rowspan=9 align=left | Willie P. Mangum
| rowspan=9 | Whig
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Nov 25, 1840 –Mar 3, 1853
| Elected to finish Brown's term.
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Strange's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 25, 1840 –Mar 3, 1843
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Graham
! rowspan=2 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1841.
| rowspan=5 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1843.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Jul 25, 1846
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Henry Haywood Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 25, 1846 –Nov 25, 1846
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Haywood's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 25, 1846 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=6 | Whig
| rowspan=6 align=right | George Badger
! rowspan=6 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1847.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 11
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1849.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Dec 6, 1854
| Legislature failed to elect
| rowspan=7 | 12
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 9
| rowspan=6 align=left | David S. Reid
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Dec 6, 1854 –Mar 3, 1859
| rowspan=6 | Elected to finish vacant term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 12
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1855.Resigned to become U.S. District Court Judge.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –May 5, 1858
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Asa Biggs
! rowspan=2 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 5, 1858 –May 7, 1858
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Biggs's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | May 7, 1858 –Mar 11, 1861
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Thomas L. Clingman
! rowspan=4 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected Nov 23, 1858 to finish Biggs's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 align=left | Thomas Bragg
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1859 –Mar 8, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1858 or 1859.Resigned and subsequently expelled for support of the Confederacy.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 13
| Re-elected in 1861.Resigned and subsequently expelled for support of the Confederacy.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 11, 1861 –Jul 14, 1868
| rowspan=5 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jul 11, 1861 –Jul 14, 1868
| rowspan=4 | Civil War and Reconstruction
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=5 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 11
| rowspan=2 align=left | Joseph C. Abbott
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 14, 1868 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1868 to finish vacant term.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1868 to finish vacant term.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jul 14, 1868 –Mar 3, 1873
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | John Pool
! rowspan=4 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Jan 30, 1872
| Legislature failed to elect
| rowspan=4 | 15
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=15 | 12
| rowspan=15 align=left | Matt W. Ransom
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 30, 1872 –Mar 3, 1895
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish vacant term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1872.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Augustus S. Merrimon
! rowspan=3 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1876.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1879.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Apr 14, 1894
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 align=right | Zebulon Vance
! rowspan=8 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1883.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1884.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1889.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1890.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 14, 1894 –Apr 19, 1894
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Vance's term.Successor qualified.
| nowrap | Apr 19, 1894 –Jan 23, 1895
| | Democratic
| align=right | Thomas J. Jarvis
! 19
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1894 to finish Vance's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 23, 1895 –Mar 3, 1903
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Jeter C. Pritchard
! rowspan=5 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 align=left | Marion Butler
| rowspan=3 | Populist
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 –Mar 3, 1901
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1894.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1897.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=16 | 14
| rowspan=16 align=left | F. M. Simmons
| rowspan=16 | Democratic
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 3, 1931
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1901.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1903.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Mar 4, 1903 –Dec 12, 1930
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 align=right | Lee S. Overman
! rowspan=14 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1907.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1909
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1913
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1918.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1924.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=4 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1926.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Overman's term.Lost election to finish Overman's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 13, 1930 –Dec 4, 1932
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Cameron A. Morrison
! rowspan=2 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 15
| rowspan=9 align=left | Josiah Bailey
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Dec 15, 1946
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1930.
| rowspan=4 | 25
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Overman's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Dec 5, 1932 –Jan 3, 1945
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Robert Reynolds
! rowspan=7 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1936.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1942.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=9 | 27
| rowspan=9 | Elected in 1944.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jan 3, 1945 –May 12, 1954
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 align=right | Clyde R. Hoey
! rowspan=11 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 15, 1946 –Dec 18, 1946
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 16
| rowspan=2 align=left | William B. Umstead
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 18, 1946 –Dec 30, 1948
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Bailey's term.Lost election to finish Bailey's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 17
| rowspan=2 align=left | J. Melville Broughton
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 31, 1948 –Mar 6, 1949
| Elected to finish Bailey's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to full term in 1948.Died.
| rowspan=11 | 28
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 6, 1949 –Mar 29, 1949
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 18
| align=left | Frank Graham
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 29, 1949 –Nov 26, 1950
| Appointed to continue Broughton's term.Lost nomination to finish Broughton's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 19
| rowspan=5 align=left | Willis Smith
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 27, 1950 –Jun 26, 1953
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Broughton's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=8 | 28
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1950.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 12, 1954 –Jun 5, 1954
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Appointed to continue Hoey's term.Elected in 1954 to finish Hoey's term.
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Jun 5, 1954 –Dec 31, 1974
| rowspan=16 | Democratic
| rowspan=16 align=right | Sam Ervin
! rowspan=16 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 26, 1953 –Jul 10, 1953
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 20
| align=left | Alton Lennon
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jul 10, 1953 –Nov 28, 1954
| Appointed to continue Smith's term.Lost nomination to finish Smith's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 align=left | W. Kerr Scott
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 29, 1954 –Apr 16, 1958
| Elected in 1954 to finish Smith's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to full term in 1954.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 29
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 16, 1958 –Apr 19, 1958
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 22
| rowspan=8 align=left | B. Everett Jordan
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Apr 19, 1958 –Jan 3, 1973
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Scott's term.Elected in 1958 to finish Scott's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.Retired and resigned early.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=19 | 23
| rowspan=19 align=left | Jesse Helms
| rowspan=19 | Republican
| rowspan=19 nowrap | Jan 3, 1973 –Jan 3, 2003
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1972.
| rowspan=4 | 32
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 31, 1974 –Jan 3, 1975
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1974.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1975 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Robert Morgan
! rowspan=3 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jun 29, 1986
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John East
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1984.
| rowspan=6 | 34
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 29, 1986 –Jul 14, 1986
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue East's term.Lost election to finish East's term.
| nowrap | Jul 14, 1986 –Nov 4, 1986
| | Republican
| align=right | Jim Broyhill
! 28
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish East's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 5, 1986 –Jan 3, 1993
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Terry Sanford
! rowspan=4 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected to full term in 1986.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1992.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1993 –Jan 3, 1999
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Lauch Faircloth
! rowspan=3 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1998.Retired to run for U.S. President.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1999 –Jan 3, 2005
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Edwards
! rowspan=3 | 31
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 align=left | Elizabeth Dole
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2003 –Jan 3, 2009
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2002.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2004.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2005 –Jan 3, 2023
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Richard Burr
! rowspan=9 | 32
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 align=left | Kay Hagan
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2009 –Jan 3, 2015
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2008.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 26
| rowspan=6 align=left | Thom Tillis
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2015 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2014.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3| 40
| rowspan=3| Elected in 2022.
| rowspan=3 nowrap| Jan 3, 2023 –present
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ted Budd
! rowspan=3| 33
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
United States congressional delegations from North Carolina
List of United States representatives from North Carolina
Elections in North Carolina
References
External links
United States senators
North Carolina
|
416442
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Ohio
|
List of United States senators from Ohio
|
Ohio was admitted to the Union on March 1, 1803, and elects U.S. senators to class 1 and class 3. Its current U.S. senators are Democrat Sherrod Brown (serving since 2007) and Republican J. D. Vance (serving since 2023), making it one of six states to have a split United States Senate delegation; these states being Maine, Montana, Ohio itself, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Not counting Vermont, where independents have caucused with the Democrats since 2001, Ohio has had the longest current split delegation, having had two senators from the opposite parties since 2007. John Sherman was Ohio's longest-serving senator (1861–1877; 1881–1897).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Smith
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Apr 1, 1803 –Apr 25, 1808
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1803.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 1
|
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1803.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Apr 1, 1803 –Mar 3, 1807
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Thomas Worthington
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=9 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1807.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1807 –Mar 3, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Edward Tiffin
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 25, 1808 –Dec 12, 1808
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 align=left | Return J. Meigs Jr.
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 12, 1808 –Dec 8, 1810
| Elected in 1808 to finish Smith's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1808 to full term.Resigned to become Governor of Ohio.
| rowspan=9 | 2
|
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1809 –May 18, 1809
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to finish Tiffin's term.Retired when successor elected.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 18, 1809 –Dec 11, 1809
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Stanley Griswold
! rowspan=2 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 8, 1810 –Dec 15, 1810
| rowspan=2 |
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Tiffin's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 11, 1809 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Alexander Campbell
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 align=left | Thomas Worthington
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 15, 1810 –Dec 1, 1814
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Meigs's term.Resigned to become Governor of Ohio.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1813.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Jeremiah Morrow
! rowspan=5 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 1, 1814 –Dec 10, 1814
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 4
| align=left | Joseph Kerr
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Dec 10, 1814 –Mar 3, 1815
| Elected to finish Worthington's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 5
| rowspan=13 align=left | Benjamin Ruggles
| rowspan=7 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1815.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1819.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Dec 13, 1821
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | William A. Trimble
! rowspan=2 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1821.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 13, 1821 –Jan 3, 1822
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Trimble's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 3, 1822 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Ethan Allen Brown
! rowspan=2 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | NationalRepublican
|
| rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1824.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Colombia.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –May 20, 1828
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Henry Harrison
! rowspan=2 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1827.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 20, 1828 –Dec 10, 1828
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Harrison's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 10, 1828 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Jacob Burnet
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1830.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Mar 3, 1837
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Thomas Ewing
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 align=left | Thomas Morris
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Mar 3, 1839
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1833.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|
| rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1837.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1837 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | William Allen
! rowspan=6 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 align=left | Benjamin Tappan
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Mar 3, 1845
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1838.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1842.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | Thomas Corwin
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Jul 20, 1850
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1844.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.
| rowspan=4 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1849.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=5 | Free Soil
| rowspan=5 align=right | Salmon P. Chase
! rowspan=5 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! 9
| align=left | Thomas Ewing
| | Whig
| nowrap | Jul 20, 1850 –Mar 3, 1851
| Appointed to finish Corwin's term.Lost election to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Mar 15, 1851
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 10
| rowspan=11 align=left | Benjamin Wade
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Mar 15, 1851 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1851.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=9 | Republican
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1854Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Mar 3, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | George E. Pugh
! rowspan=3 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1856.
| rowspan=5 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 11
| Elected in 1860.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 6, 1861
| | Republican
| align=right | Salmon P. Chase
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 6, 1861 –Mar 21, 1861
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Chase's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 21, 1861 –Mar 8, 1877
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | John Sherman
! rowspan=9 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1863.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1866.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 11
| rowspan=8 align=left | Allen G. Thurman
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1868.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1872.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1874.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 8, 1877 –Mar 21, 1877
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Sherman's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Mar 21, 1877 –Mar 3, 1879
| | Republican
| align=right | Stanley Matthews
! 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Election date unknown.Lost renominiation.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | George H. Pendleton
! rowspan=3 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 12
| rowspan=9 align=left | John Sherman
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 4, 1897
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1881.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1884.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Henry B. Payne
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1886.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1890.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Calvin S. Brice
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1892.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=4 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 17
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1896.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Mar 3, 1909
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Joseph B. Foraker
! rowspan=9 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 13
| rowspan=4 align=left | Mark Hanna
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 5, 1897 –Feb 15, 1904
| Appointed to continue Sherman's term.Elected in 1898 to finish Sherman's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1898 to the next term.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 18
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1902.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 15, 1904 –Mar 23, 1904
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 14
| rowspan=4 align=left | Charles W. F. Dick
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 23, 1904 –Mar 3, 1911
| Elected in 1904 to finish Hanna's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1904 to the next term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected Jan 12, 1909.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –Mar 3, 1915
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Theodore E. Burton
! rowspan=3 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 15
| rowspan=7 align=left | Atlee Pomerene
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1923
| rowspan=3 | Elected Jan 10, 1911.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1914.Retired to run for U.S. President.Resigned to become U.S. President.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1915 –Jan 13, 1921
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Warren G. Harding
! rowspan=3 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1916.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Harding's term, having been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 14, 1921 –Mar 30, 1928
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Frank B. Willis
! rowspan=5 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1920.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 16
| rowspan=12 align=left | Simeon D. Fess
| rowspan=12 | Republican
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1922.
| rowspan=6 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=9 | 22
| Re-elected in 1926.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 30, 1928 –Apr 5, 1928
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Willis's term.Lost nomination to finish Willis's term.
| nowrap | Apr 5, 1928 –Dec 14, 1928
| | Democratic
| align=right | Cyrus Locher
! 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Willis's term.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 15, 1928 –Oct 28, 1929
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Theodore E. Burton
! rowspan=2 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 28, 1929 –Nov 5, 1929
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Willis's term.Lost election to finish Willis's term.
| nowrap | Nov 5, 1929 –Nov 30, 1930
| | Republican
| align=right | Roscoe C. McCulloch
! 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1930 to finish Willis's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 1, 1930 –Jan 3, 1939
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Robert J. Bulkley
! rowspan=5 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 align=left | Vic Donahey
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 3, 1941
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1938.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jan 3, 1939 –Jul 31, 1953
| rowspan=11 | Republican
| rowspan=11 align=right | Robert A. Taft
! rowspan=11 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 align=left | Harold H. Burton
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1941 –Sep 30, 1945
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1940.Resigned when appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
| rowspan=6 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 25
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1944.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 30, 1945 –Oct 8, 1945
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 19
| align=left | James W. Huffman
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Oct 8, 1945 –Nov 5, 1946
| Appointed to continue Burton's term.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! 20
| align=left | Kingsley Taft
| | Republican
| nowrap | Nov 5, 1946 –Jan 3, 1947
| Elected to finish Burton's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 21
| rowspan=10 align=left | John W. Bricker
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1959
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 26
| rowspan=2|Re-elected in 1950.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1952.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=7 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 31, 1953 –Nov 10, 1953
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Taft's term.Lost election to finish Taft's term.
| nowrap | Nov 10, 1953 –Dec 2, 1954
| | Democratic
| align=right | Thomas Burke
! 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 2, 1954 –Dec 16, 1954
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Taft's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 16, 1954 –Jan 3, 1957
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | George H. Bender
! rowspan=2 |30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1956.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1957 –Jan 3, 1969
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Frank Lausche
! rowspan=6 | 31
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 align=left | Stephen M. Young
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1959 –Jan 3, 1971
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1968.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1969 –Jan 3, 1974
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Saxbe
! rowspan=3 | 32
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=5 align=left | Robert Taft Jr.
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 1971 –Dec 28, 1976
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1970.Lost re-election and resigned early.
| rowspan=6 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Saxbe's term.Lost nomination to full term and resigned early.
| nowrap | Jan 4, 1974 –Dec 23, 1974
| | Democratic
| align=right | Howard Metzenbaum
! 33
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Saxbe's term, having been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Dec 24, 1974 –Jan 3, 1999
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 align=right | John Glenn
! rowspan=14 | 34
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 30
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1974.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 24
| rowspan=10 align=left | Howard Metzenbaum
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Dec 29, 1976 –Jan 3, 1995
| Appointed to finish Taft's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 25
| rowspan=6 align=left | Mike DeWine
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1995 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1998.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1999 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | George Voinovich
! rowspan=6 | 35
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 26
| rowspan=9 align=left | Sherrod Brown
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2011 –Jan 3, 2023
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Rob Portman
! rowspan=6 | 36
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3| Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2022.
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2023 –present
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | J. D. Vance
! rowspan=3 | 37
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 38
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Ohio
List of United States Senate elections in Ohio
United States congressional delegations from Ohio
Notes
References
United States senators from Ohio
Ohio
United States senators
|
416445
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Pennsylvania
|
List of United States senators from Pennsylvania
|
Pennsylvania ratified the United States Constitution on December 12, 1787, and elects its U.S. senators to class 1 and class 3. Officeholders are popularly elected, for a six-year term, beginning January 3. Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. Before 1914, they were chosen by the Pennsylvania General Assembly; before 1935, their terms began March 4. The state's current U.S. senators are Democrats Bob Casey Jr. (since 2007) and John Fetterman (since 2023). Arlen Specter was Pennsylvania's longest-serving senator (1981–2011).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! 1
| align=left | William Maclay
| | Anti-Admin.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1791
| Elected in 1788.Lost re-election.
| 1
|
| rowspan=6 | 1
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1788.Retired.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1795
| rowspan=6 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=6 align=right | Robert Morris
! rowspan=6 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Dec 1, 1793
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 2
| rowspan=2 align=left | Albert Gallatin
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 2, 1793 –Feb 28, 1794
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish the vacant term.Election voided.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 1, 1794 –Apr 23, 1794
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=7 align=left | James Ross
| | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Apr 24, 1794 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Gallatin's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1795.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1795 –Mar 3, 1801
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Bingham
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1797.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 3
| Elected in 1801.Resigned to become Supervisor of Revenue of Pennsylvania.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1801 –Jun 30, 1801
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | Peter Muhlenberg
! 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 30, 1801 –Dec 17, 1801
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Muhlenberg's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 17, 1801 –Mar 3, 1807
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | George Logan
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 align=left | Samuel Maclay
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Jan 4, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1802.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1806.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1807 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Andrew Gregg
! rowspan=5 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 4, 1809 –Jan 9, 1809
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 5
| rowspan=4 align=left | Michael Leib
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 9, 1809 –Feb 14, 1814
| Elected in 1809 to finish Maclay's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1808.Resigned to become Postmaster of Philadelphia.
| rowspan=5 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1812.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Abner Lacock
! rowspan=5 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 14, 1814 –Feb 24, 1814
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 6
| rowspan=4 align=left | Jonathan Roberts
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Feb 24, 1814 –Mar 3, 1821
| Elected to finish Leib's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in late 1814.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 6
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1818.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Walter Lowrie
! rowspan=4 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Dec 10, 1821
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 7
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Findlay
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 10, 1821 –Mar 3, 1827
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1821.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1825.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Marks
! rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | Isaac D. Barnard
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1827 –Dec 6, 1831
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1826.Resigned to due ill health.
| rowspan=5 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=8 | 8
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1830.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Russia.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Jun 30, 1834
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 align=right | William Wilkins
! rowspan=5 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 6, 1831 –Dec 13, 1831
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 9
| align=left | George M. Dallas
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Dec 13, 1831 –Mar 3, 1833
| Elected to finish Barnard's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 – Dec 7, 1833
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=6 | 9
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=5 align=left | Samuel McKean
| rowspan=4 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 7, 1833 –Mar 3, 1839
| rowspan=5 | Elected late in 1833.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 30, 1834 –Dec 6, 1834
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Wilkins's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 6, 1834 –Mar 5, 1845
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=8 align=right | James Buchanan
! rowspan=8 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1836.
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Jan 14, 1840
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 10
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 11
| rowspan=8 align=left | Daniel Sturgeon
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 14, 1840 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1840.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1843.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1845.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 5, 1845 –Mar 13, 1845
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1845.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 13, 1845 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Simon Cameron
! rowspan=2 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1849.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 align=right | James Cooper
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 12
| rowspan=4 align=left |Richard Brodhead
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1851.
| rowspan=4 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 12
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Jan 14, 1856
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1856.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 14, 1856 –Mar 3, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Bigler
! rowspan=3 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 13
| rowspan=2 align=left | Simon Cameron
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Mar 4, 1861
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1857.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of War.
| rowspan=4 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 14, 1861
|
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 13
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1861.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 3, 1867
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Edgar Cowan
! rowspan=4 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
! 14
| align=left | David Wilmot
| | Republican
| nowrap | Mar 14, 1861 –Mar 3, 1863
| Elected in 1861 to finish Cameron's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 align=left | Charles R. Buckalew
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1863.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1867.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –Mar 12, 1877
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Simon Cameron
! rowspan=6 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Scott
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1869.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1873.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=5 align=left | William A. Wallace
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1875.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 12, 1877 –Mar 20, 1877
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1877 to finish his father's term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 20, 1877 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 align=right | J. Donald Cameron
! rowspan=10 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1879.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 align=left | John I. Mitchell
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1887
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1881.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1885.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 19
| rowspan=6 align=left | Matthew Quay
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1887 –Mar 3, 1899
| rowspan=3 | Elected in early 1887.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1891.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1893.Legislature failed to re-elect.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 19
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1897.
| rowspan=18 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Dec 31, 1921
| rowspan=18 | Republican
| rowspan=18 align=right | Boies Penrose
! rowspan=18 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Jan 16, 1901
| Quay was appointed to continue the term, but the Senate rejected his appointment.
| rowspan=5 | 20
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 align=left | Matthew Quay
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 16, 1901 –May 28, 1904
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1901.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 20
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1903.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 align=left | Philander C. Knox
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jun 10, 1904 –Mar 3, 1909
| Appointed to continue Quay's term.Elected in 1905 to finish Quay's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1905.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=4 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –Mar 17, 1909
|
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1909.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=4 align=left | George T. Oliver
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 17, 1909 –Mar 3, 1917
| Elected to finish Knox's term
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1911.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 align=left | Philander C. Knox
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Oct 12, 1921
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.Died.
| rowspan=9 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7
| rowspan=9 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 12, 1921 –Oct 24, 1921
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | William E. Crow
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 24, 1921 –Aug 2, 1922
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Knox's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 31, 1921 –Jan 9, 1922
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Appointed to continue Penrose's term.Elected to finish Penrose's term.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 9, 1922 –Mar 3, 1927
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | George W. Pepper
! rowspan=5 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 2, 1922 –Aug 8, 1922
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 24
| rowspan=9 align=left | David A. Reed
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Aug 8, 1922 –Jan 3, 1935
| Appointed to continue Knox's term.Elected to finish Knox's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1922.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=2 | William Scott Vare (R) was elected in 1926, but the Governor refused to certify the election and the Senate refused to qualify him.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1927 –Dec 9, 1929
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 25
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Vare's term.Lost nomination to finish Vare's term.
| nowrap | Dec 11, 1929 –Dec 1, 1930
| | Republican
| align=right | Joseph R. Grundy
! 19
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1930 to finish Vare's term
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 2, 1930 –Jan 3, 1945
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 align=right | James J. Davis
! rowspan=8 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 25
| rowspan=6 align=left | Joe Guffey
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1944.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1945 –Jan 3, 1951
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Francis Myers
! rowspan=3 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 26
| rowspan=6 align=left | Edward Martin
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1959
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1950.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1951 –Jan 3, 1957
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | James H. Duff
! rowspan=3 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1956.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1957 –Jan 3, 1969
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Joseph S. Clark Jr.
! rowspan=6 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 27
| rowspan=9 align=left | Hugh Scott
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1959 –Jan 3, 1977
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1968.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1969 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Richard Schweiker
! rowspan=6 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 28
| rowspan=8 align=left | John Heinz
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 3, 1977 –Apr 4, 1991
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
| rowspan=18 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=17 | Republican
| rowspan=18 align=right | Arlen Specter
! rowspan=18 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 34
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1988.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 4, 1991 –May 9, 1991
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 29
| rowspan=2 align=left | Harris Wofford
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 9, 1991 –Jan 3, 1995
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Heinz's term.Elected to finish Heinz's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 30
| rowspan=6 align=left | Rick Santorum
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1995 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 37
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 2004.Changed party on Apr 28, 2009.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 31
| rowspan=10 align=left | Bob Casey Jr.
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –present
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=4 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2011 –Jan 3, 2023
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Pat Toomey
! rowspan=6 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2022.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2023 –present''
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Fetterman
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
Notes
References
See also
List of United States representatives from Pennsylvania
List of United States Senate elections in Pennsylvania
United States congressional delegations from Pennsylvania
External links
Members of Congress from Pennsylvania, govtrack.us
U.S. Senate members from Pennsylvania, civil.services
United States Senators
Pennsylvania
|
416451
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Rhode%20Island
|
List of United States senators from Rhode Island
|
Rhode Island ratified the United States Constitution on May 29, 1790 and elects its U.S. senators to class 1 and class 2. The state's current U.S. senators are Democrats Jack Reed (since 1997) and Sheldon Whitehouse (since 2007). Claiborne Pell was Rhode Island's longest-serving senator (1961–1997).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 29, 1790 –Jun 7, 1790
| Rhode Island did not elect its U.S. senators until Jun 7, 1790.
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=3 | 1
| Rhode Island did not elect its U.S. senators until Jun 7, 1790.
| nowrap | May 29, 1790 –Jun 7, 1790
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 1
| rowspan=11 align=left | Theodore Foster
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jun 7, 1790 –Mar 3, 1803
| Elected in 1790.
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1790.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 7, 1790 –Mar 3, 1793
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 align=right | Joseph Stanton Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1791.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1793.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1793 –Oct 1797
| | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Bradford
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=8 | Federalist
|
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1797.Retired.
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 1797 –Nov 13, 1797
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=1 | Elected in 1797 to finish Bradford's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 13, 1797 –Mar 5, 1801
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ray Greene
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1798.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 5, 1801 –May 6, 1801
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1801 to finish Greene's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | May 6, 1801 –Mar 3, 1805
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Christopher Ellery
! rowspan=4 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! 2
| align=left | Samuel J. Potter
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Oct 14, 1804
| Elected in 1802.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 4
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 14, 1804 –Oct 29, 1804
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=5 align=left | Benjamin Howland
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Oct 29, 1804 –Mar 3, 1809
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1804 to finish Potter's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 4
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1804.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1805 –Sep 1807
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | James Fenner
! rowspan=2 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 1807 –Oct 26, 1807
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Fenner's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Oct 26, 1807 –Mar 3, 1811
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Elisha Mathewson
! rowspan=4 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
! 4
| align=left | Francis Malbone
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1809 –Jun 4, 1809
| Elected in 1808.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 5
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 4, 1809 –Jun 26, 1809
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 align=left | Christopher G. Champlin
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 26, 1809 –Oct 12, 1811
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1809 to finish Malbone's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1810.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1811 –Mar 3, 1817
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Jeremiah B. Howell
! rowspan=5 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 12, 1811 –Oct 28, 1811
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 6
| rowspan=7 align=left | William Hunter
| rowspan=7 | Federalist
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Oct 28, 1811 –Mar 3, 1821
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1811 to finish Champlin's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1814.
| rowspan=5 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1816.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Dec 25, 1820
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right | James Burrill Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 25, 1820 –Jan 9, 1821
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1821 to finish Burrill's term.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 9, 1821 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=12 align=right | Nehemiah R. Knight
! rowspan=12 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 align=left | James DeWolf
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Oct 31, 1825
| rowspan=3 | Election date unknown.Resigned.
| rowspan=4 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 7
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1823.
|- style="height:2em"
| | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=7 | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 8
| rowspan=7 align=left | Asher Robbins
| rowspan=6 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Oct 31, 1825 –Mar 3, 1839
| Elected in 1825 to finish DeWolf's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1827.
| rowspan=3 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1829.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1833.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1835.
|- style="height:2em"
| | Whig
|
| rowspan=2 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 9
| rowspan=2 align=left | Nathan F. Dixon I
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Jan 29, 1842
| rowspan=2 | Election date unknown.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 10
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1841.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Mar 3, 1847
| rowspan=7 | Whig
| rowspan=7 align=right | James F. Simmons
! rowspan=7 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 29, 1842 –Feb 18, 1842
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 10
| rowspan=2 align=left | William Sprague III
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 18, 1842 –Jan 17, 1844
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1842 to finish Dixon's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 17, 1844 –Jan 25, 1844
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | John Brown Francis
| | Law and Order
| nowrap | Jan 25, 1844 –Mar 3, 1845
| Elected in 1844 to finish Sprague's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | Albert C. Greene
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=3 | Election date unknown.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Election date unknown.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Hopkins Clarke
! rowspan=3 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 13
| rowspan=4 align=left | Charles T. James
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=4 | Election date unknown.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 12
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Jul 20, 1853
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 20, 1853 –Mar 3, 1859
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Philip Allen! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | James F. Simmons
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Aug 15, 1862
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1856.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1858.
| rowspan=17 nowrap | Mar 4, 1859 –Sep 2, 1884
| rowspan=17 | Republican
| rowspan=17 align=right | Henry B. Anthony
! rowspan=17 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 15, 1862 –Dec 1, 1862
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 15
| align=left | Samuel G. Arnold
| | Republican
| nowrap | Dec 1, 1862 –Mar 3, 1863
| Elected in 1862 to finish Simmons's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 16
| rowspan=6 align=left | William Sprague IV| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1862.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1864.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1868.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1870.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 17
| rowspan=4 align=left | Ambrose Burnside| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Sep 13, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1874.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1876.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1880.Died.
| rowspan=8 | 17
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 13, 1881 –Oct 5, 1881
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=20 | 18
| rowspan=20 align=left | Nelson W. Aldrich| rowspan=20 | Republican
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Oct 5, 1881 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1881 to finish Burnside's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 17
| Re-elected in 1882.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 2, 1884 –Nov 19, 1884
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Anthony's term.
| nowrap | Nov 19, 1884 –Jan 20, 1885
| | Republican
| align=right | William P. Sheffield! 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1885 to finish Anthony's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 20, 1885 –Apr 9, 1889
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Jonathan Chace! rowspan=4 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1886.
| rowspan=4 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 18
| Re-elected in 1888.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1889 to finish Chace's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Apr 10, 1889 –Mar 3, 1895
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Nathan F. Dixon III! rowspan=3 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1892.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1894.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 –Mar 3, 1907
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | George P. Wetmore! rowspan=10 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1898.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1900.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected Jan 18, 1905.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 21
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1907 –Jan 22, 1908
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1908 to finish the vacant term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 22, 1908–Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | George P. Wetmore|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Henry F. Lippitt
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1910.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1913.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Aug 18, 1924
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | LeBaron Bradford Colt
! rowspan=6 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 20
| rowspan=8 align=left | Peter G. Gerry
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Mar 3, 1929
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1918.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1922.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 18, 1924 –Nov 4, 1924
| colspan=7 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1924 to finish Colt's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Nov 4, 1924 –Jan 3, 1937
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | Jesse H. Metcalf
! rowspan=7 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1924.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 align=left | Felix Hebert
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1929 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1930Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 align=left | Peter G. Gerry| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1936.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 3, 1937 –Jan 3, 1961
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 align=right | Theodore F. Green! rowspan=15 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1942.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 23
| rowspan=2 align=left | J. Howard McGrath
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Aug 23, 1949
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1946.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=6 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 28
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1948.
|- style="height:2em"
! 24
| align=left | Edward L. Leahy
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Aug 24, 1949 –Dec 10, 1950
| Appointed to continue McGrath's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 10, 1950 –Dec 19, 1950
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 25
| rowspan=14 align=left | John Pastore| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Dec 19, 1950 –Dec 28, 1976
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1950 to finish McGrath's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1960.
| rowspan=19 nowrap | Jan 3, 1961 –Jan 3, 1997
| rowspan=19 | Democratic
| rowspan=19 align=right | Claiborne Pell! rowspan=19 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.Retired and resigned earlyto give successor preferential seniority.
| rowspan=4 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 32
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1972.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 26
| rowspan=13 align=left | John Chafee| rowspan=13 | Republican
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Dec 29, 1976 –Oct 24, 1999
| Appointed to finish Pastore's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.Died, having planned to retire at the end of term.
| rowspan=5 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 36
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1996.
| rowspan=17 nowrap | Jan 3, 1997 –present
| rowspan=17 | Democratic
| rowspan=17 align=right | Jack Reed! rowspan=17 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 24, 1999 –Nov 2, 1999
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 27
| rowspan=4 align=left | Lincoln Chafee| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 2, 1999 –Jan 3, 2007
| Appointed to finish his father's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2000 to a full term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 28
| rowspan=9 align=left | Sheldon Whitehouse'''
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3| Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2|41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Rhode Island
United States congressional delegations from Rhode Island
Elections in Rhode Island
References
External links
Congressional Biographical Directory
United States Senators
Rhode Island
|
416452
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20South%20Carolina
|
List of United States senators from South Carolina
|
South Carolina ratified the United States Constitution on May 23, 1788. Its Senate seats were declared vacant in July 1861 owing to its secession from the Union. They were again filled from July 1868. The state's current U.S. senators are Republicans Lindsey Graham, serving since 2003, and Tim Scott, serving since 2013. Strom Thurmond was the state's longest-serving senator (1954–1956, 1956–2003).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 1
| rowspan=4 align=left | Pierce Butler
| | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Oct 25, 1796
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1789.
| rowspan=2 | 1
|
| rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1789.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1795
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ralph Izard
! rowspan=3 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1793.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic-Republican
|
| rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1794 or 1795.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1795 –Mar 3, 1801
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
| rowspan=6 align=right | Jacob Read
! rowspan=6 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 25, 1796 –Dec 8, 1796
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 2
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Hunter
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 8, 1796 –Nov 26, 1798
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Butler's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 align=left | Charles Pinckney
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 6, 1798 –Jun 6, 1801
| Elected to finish Butler's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1799.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Spain.
| rowspan=9 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=9 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1800.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1801 –Oct 26, 1802
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John E. Colhoun
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 6, 1801 –Dec 15, 1801
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 4
| rowspan=9 align=left | Thomas Sumter
| rowspan=9 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Dec 15, 1801 –Dec 16, 1810
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1801 to finish Pinckney's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 26, 1802 –Nov 4, 1802
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Colhoun's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 4, 1802 –Nov 21, 1804
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Pierce Butler
! rowspan=2 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1804 –Dec 6, 1804
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Butler's term.
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Dec 6, 1804 –Feb 26, 1826
| rowspan=15 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=16 align=right | John Gaillard
! rowspan=16 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1804.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1806.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 16, 1810 –Dec 31, 1810
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 5
| rowspan=4 align=left | John Taylor
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 31, 1810 –Nov 1816
| Elected to finish Sumter's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1810.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1812.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 1816 –Dec 4, 1816
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 6
| rowspan=4 align=left | William Smith
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 4, 1816 –Mar 3, 1823
| Elected to finish Taylor's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1816.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1818.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 7
| rowspan=8 align=left | Robert Y. Hayne
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1823 –Dec 13, 1832
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1822.
| rowspan=6 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=6 | 7
| Re-elected in 1824.Died.
| | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Feb 26, 1826 –Mar 8, 1826
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Gaillard's term.
| nowrap | Mar 8, 1826 –Nov 29, 1826
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | William Harper
! 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Gaillard's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 29, 1826 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Smith
! rowspan=3 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1828.Resigned to become South Carolina Governor.
| rowspan=6 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Nullifier
|
| rowspan=6 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1830.Resigned due to ill health.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=3 | Nullifier
| rowspan=3 align=right |
Stephen Decatur Miller
! rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 13, 1832 –Dec 29, 1832
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 8
| rowspan=9 align=left | John C. Calhoun
| rowspan=4 | Nullifier
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Dec 29, 1832 –Mar 3, 1843
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Hayne's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1833 –Nov 26, 1833
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Miller's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 26, 1833 –Nov 29, 1842
| rowspan=2 | Nullifier
| rowspan=5 align=right | William C. Preston
! rowspan=5 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1834.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
|
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1837.
| rowspan=3 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1840.Resigned.
| rowspan=8 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 29, 1842 –Dec 23, 1842
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Preston's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 23, 1842 –Aug 17, 1846
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | George McDuffie
! rowspan=4 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
! 9
| align=left |
Daniel Elliott Huger
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Mar 3, 1845
| Elected to finish Calhoun's term.Resigned.
|
| rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1842 or 1843.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1845 –Nov 26, 1845
|
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=5 align=left | John C. Calhoun
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 26, 1845 –Mar 31, 1850
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected to finish his own term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 17, 1846 –Dec 4, 1846
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue McDuffie's term.Elected to finish McDuffie's term.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Dec 4, 1846 –May 25, 1857
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 align=right | Andrew Butler
! rowspan=15 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1846.Died.
| rowspan=11 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=11 | 11
| rowspan=11 | Re-elected in 1848.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 31, 1850 –Apr 11, 1850
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | Franklin H. Elmore
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 11, 1850 –May 29, 1850
| Appointed to continue Calhoun's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 29, 1850 –Jun 4, 1850
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 12
| align=left | Robert W. Barnwell
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jun 4, 1850 –Dec 8, 1850
| Appointed to continue Elmore's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 8, 1850 –Dec 18, 1850
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 13
| rowspan=2 align=left | Robert Rhett
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 18, 1850 –May 7, 1852
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Elmore's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 7, 1852 –May 10, 1852
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 14
| align=left | William F. De Saussure
| | Democratic
| nowrap | May 10, 1852 –Mar 3, 1853
| Appointed to continue Rhett's term.Elected Nov 29, 1852
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 15
| rowspan=5 align=left | Josiah Evans
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –May 6, 1858
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1852 or 1853.Died.
| rowspan=8 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=10 | 12
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1854.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 25, 1857 –Dec 7, 1857
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Elected to finish Butler's term.Withdrew.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Dec 7, 1857 –Nov 11, 1860
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | James H. Hammond
! rowspan=6 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 6, 1858 –May 11, 1858
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 16
| align=left | Arthur P. Hayne
| | Democratic
| nowrap | May 11, 1858 –Dec 2, 1858
| Appointed to continue Evans' term.Retired when his successor was elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 17
| rowspan=2 align=left | James Chesnut Jr.
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 3, 1858 –Nov 10, 1860
| Elected to finish Evans' term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1858.Withdrew and was later expelled for his support of the Confederacy.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 10, 1860 –Jul 15, 1868
| rowspan=6 | Civil War and Reconstruction.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Civil War and Reconstruction.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 11, 1860 –Jul 16, 1868
| rowspan=6 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=6 align=left | Thomas J. Robertson
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jul 15, 1868 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish the vacant term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish the vacant term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 16, 1868 –Mar 3, 1873
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Frederick A. Sawyer
! rowspan=3 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1870.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1872 or 1873.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John J. Patterson
! rowspan=3 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 19
| rowspan=9 align=left | Matthew Butler
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Mar 3, 1895
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1876.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1878.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Wade Hampton III
! rowspan=6 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1882.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1884.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1888.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1890.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John L. M. Irby
! rowspan=3 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=16 | 20
| rowspan=16 align=left | Benjamin Tillman
| rowspan=16 | Democratic
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 –Jul 3, 1918
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1894.
| rowspan=5 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 19
| Elected in 1897.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –May 20, 1897
| | Democratic
| align=right | Joseph Earle
! 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 20, 1897 –May 27, 1897
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Earle's term.Elected in 1898 to finish Earle's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | May 27, 1897 –Mar 3, 1903
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John McLaurin
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1901.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1903.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1903 –Feb 20, 1908
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Asbury Latimer
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1907.
| rowspan=5 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Feb 20, 1908 –Mar 6, 1908
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1908 to finish Latimer's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Mar 6, 1908 –Mar 3, 1909
| | Democratic
| align=right | Frank B. Gary
! 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1909.
| rowspan=25 nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –Nov 17, 1944
| rowspan=25 | Democratic
| rowspan=25 align=right | Ellison D. Smith
! rowspan=25 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1913.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1914.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 3, 1918 –Jul 6, 1918
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 21
| align=left | Christie Benet
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jul 6, 1918 –Nov 5, 1918
| Appointed to continue Tillman's term.Lost election to finish Tillman's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! 22
| align=left | William P. Pollock
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Nov 6, 1918 –Mar 3, 1919
| Elected to finish Tillman's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | Nathaniel Dial
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Mar 3, 1925
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1918.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 align=left | Cole L. Blease
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1925 –Mar 3, 1931
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1924.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1926.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 25
| rowspan=6 align=left | James F. Byrnes
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Jul 8, 1941
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1936.Resigned to become a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
| rowspan=7 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=9 | 26
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1938.Lost renomination before dying.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 8, 1941 –Jul 22, 1941
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 26
| align=left | Alva Lumpkin
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jul 22, 1941 –Aug 1, 1941
| Appointed to continue Byrnes's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
! 27
| align=left | Roger Peace
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Aug 5, 1941 –Nov 4, 1941
| Appointed to continue Byrnes's term.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 28
| rowspan=9 align=left | Burnet R. Maybank
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Nov 5, 1941 –Sep 1, 1954
| Elected to finish Byrnes's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1942.
| rowspan=5 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 17, 1944 –Nov 20, 1944
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Smith's term.Retired when successor was elected to the next full term.
| nowrap | Nov 20, 1944 –Jan 3, 1945
| | Democratic
| align=right | Wilton E. Hall
! 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1944.
| rowspan=17 nowrap | Jan 3, 1945 –Apr 18, 1965
| rowspan=17 | Democratic
| rowspan=17 align=right | Olin D. Johnston
! rowspan=17 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=8 | 28
| rowspan=8 | Re-elected in 1950.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 1, 1954 –Sep 6, 1954
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 29
| align=left | Charles E. Daniel
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Sep 6, 1954 –Dec 23, 1954
| Appointed to finish Maybank's term.Resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 30
| rowspan=2 align=left | Strom Thurmond
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 24, 1954 –Apr 4, 1956
| Appointed to finish Maybank's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1954.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 31
| align=left | Thomas A. Wofford
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 5, 1956 –Nov 6, 1956
| Appointed to continue Thurmond's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=28 | 32
| rowspan=28 align=left | Strom Thurmond
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=28 nowrap | Nov 7, 1956 –Jan 3, 2003
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1956 to finish his own term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3| 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1960.Changed party on Sep 16, 1964.
| rowspan=7 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=23 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 18, 1965 –Apr 22, 1965
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Johnston's term.Lost nomination to finish Johnston's term.
| nowrap | Apr 22, 1965 –Nov 8, 1966
| | Democratic
| align=right | Donald S. Russell
! 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Johnston's term.
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Nov 9, 1966 –Jan 3, 2005
| rowspan=20 | Democratic
| rowspan=20 align=right | Fritz Hollings
! rowspan=20 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3| 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1972.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 33
| rowspan=13 align=left | Lindsey Graham
| rowspan=13 | Republican
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Jan 3, 2003 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2002.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2004.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 2005 –Jan 2, 2013
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Jim DeMint
! rowspan=4 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 2008.
| rowspan=4 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 38
| Re-elected in 2010.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue DeMint's term.Elected in 2014 to finish DeMint's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 2, 2013 –present
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Tim Scott
! rowspan=9 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3|Re-elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 |40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3|40
| rowspan=3| Re-elected in 2022. Retiring at the end of the term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2 |41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from South Carolina
United States congressional delegations from South Carolina
Elections in South Carolina
Notes
References
United States senators
South Carolina
|
416456
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Tennessee
|
List of United States senators from Tennessee
|
Tennessee was admitted to the Union on June 1, 1796. Its United States Senate seats were declared vacant in March 1862 owing to its secession from the Union. They were again filled from July 1866. Tennessee's current senators are Republicans Marsha Blackburn and Bill Hagerty. Kenneth McKellar was Tennessee's longest-serving senator (1917–1953).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Jun 1, 1796 –Aug 2, 1796
| Tennessee did not elect its senators until two months .
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=7 | 1
| Tennessee did not elect its senators until two months .
| Jun 1, 1796 –Aug 2, 1796
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Cocke
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Aug 2, 1796 –Sep 26, 1797
| Elected in 1796.
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1796.Expelled for conspiracy with the Kingdom of Great Britain.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Aug 2, 1796 –Jul 8, 1797
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Blount
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to begin the term due to legislature's failure to elect.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=7 | 2
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 8, 1797 –Sep 26, 1797
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 2
| align=left | Andrew Jackson
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Sep 26, 1797 –Apr 1, 1798
| Elected to finish Cocke's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Blount's term.Resigned when elected to the class 1 seat.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Sep 26, 1797 –Mar 3, 1799
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Joseph Anderson
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 1, 1798 –Oct 6, 1798
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | Daniel Smith
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Oct 6, 1798 –Mar 3, 1799
| Appointed to finish Jackson's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 4
| rowspan=2 align=left | Joseph Anderson
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1799 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1798 to finish Jackson's term.
|
| rowspan=4 | 2
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1798.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1799 –Mar 3, 1805
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | William Cocke
! rowspan=4 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Sep 22, 1803
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 3
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=11 align=left | Joseph Anderson
| rowspan=11 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Sep 22, 1803 –Mar 3, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected late in 1803.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected early in 1803.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1805 –Mar 31, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Daniel Smith
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1809 –Apr 11, 1809
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to begin the term due to legislature's failure to elect.
| rowspan=8 | 4
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 1, 1809 –Apr 11, 1809
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Apr 11, 1809 –Mar 3, 1815
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected late in 1809.Retired.
| Elected to finish Smith's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Apr 11, 1809 –Oct 8, 1811
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Jenkin Whiteside
! rowspan=2 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=7 | 4
| Re-elected early in 1809.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1811 to finish Whiteside's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Oct 8, 1811 –Feb 11, 1814
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | George W. Campbell
! rowspan=2 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Feb 12, 1814 –Mar 16, 1814
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Campbell's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 17, 1814 –Oct 10, 1815
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Jesse Wharton
! rowspan=2 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Oct 10, 1815
|
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 align=left | George W. Campbell
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Oct 10, 1815 –Apr 20, 1818
| rowspan=2 | Elected late in 1815.Resigned.
| Elected to finish Campbell's term.Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Oct 10, 1815 –Mar 3, 1823
| rowspan=7 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | John Williams
! rowspan=7 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=6 | Appointed to begin the term.Elected in 1817 to finish the term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 20, 1818 –Sep 27, 1818
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 6
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Eaton
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Sep 5, 1818 –Mar 4, 1821
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Campbell's term.Elected in 1819 to finish Campbell's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Sep 27, 1821
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=6 | 6
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 align=left | John Eaton
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Sep 27, 1821 –Mar 9, 1829
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected late in 1821.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1823.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1823 –Oct 14, 1825
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Andrew Jackson
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3
| | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 15, 1825 –Oct 27, 1825
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Jackson's term.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Oct 28, 1825 –Jan 13, 1840
| rowspan=7 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=13 align=right | Hugh Lawson White
! rowspan=13 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1826.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of War.
| rowspan=5 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 7
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1829.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 9, 1829 –Oct 19, 1829
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 7
| rowspan=5 align=left | Felix Grundy
| rowspan=4 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Oct 19, 1829 –Jul 4, 1838
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Eaton's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1833.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=5 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=10 | 8
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1835.Resigned.
| | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 5, 1838 –Sep 16, 1838
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 8
| align=left | Ephraim H. Foster
| | Whig
| nowrap | Sep 17, 1838 –Mar 3, 1839
| Elected to finish Grundy's term.Re-elected but resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1839 –Nov 19, 1839
|
| rowspan=10 | 9
| rowspan=6
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 align=left | Felix Grundy
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 19, 1839 –Dec 19, 1840
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1839.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 13, 1840 –Feb 25, 1840
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish White's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Feb 25, 1840 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Alexander O. Anderson
! rowspan=3 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 19, 1840 –Dec 25, 1840
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 10
| rowspan=2 align=left | Alfred O. P. Nicholson
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 25, 1840 –Feb 7, 1842
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Grundy's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Oct 17, 1843
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 7, 1842 –Oct 17, 1843
| rowspan=2 |
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | Ephraim H. Foster
| | Whig
| nowrap | Oct 17, 1843 –Mar 3, 1845
| Elected to finish Grundy's term.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish the vacant term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Oct 17, 1843 –Mar 3, 1847
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | Spencer Jarnagin
! rowspan=2 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 12
| rowspan=4 align=left | Hopkins L. Turney
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1844.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 10
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Nov 21, 1847
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1847
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Nov 22, 1847 –Mar 3, 1859
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=7 align=right | John Bell
! rowspan=7 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 align=left | James C. Jones
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1851.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 11
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1853.Retired or lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Oct 8, 1857
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=5 | 12
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=2 | Know-Nothing
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | Andrew Johnson
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 8, 1857 –Mar 4, 1862
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1857 to finish the term.Resigned to become Military Governor of Tennessee.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 12
| Elected in 1858.Withdrew in anticipation of secession.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1859 –Mar 3, 1861
| | Democratic
| align=right | Alfred O. P. Nicholson
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Jul 24, 1866
| rowspan=4 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1862 –Jul 24, 1866
| rowspan=3 | Civil War and Reconstruction
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 15
| rowspan=2 align=left | David T. Patterson
| | Unionist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 24, 1866 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish the vacant term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish the vacant term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 24, 1866 –Mar 3, 1871
| | Unionist
| rowspan=3 align=right | Joseph S. Fowler
! rowspan=3 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|
| rowspan=2 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 align=left | Parson Brownlow
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1867.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 14
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1870 or 1871.Retired.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Henry Cooper
! rowspan=6 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 17
| align=left | Andrew Johnson
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Jul 31, 1875
| Elected in 1875.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 15
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 31, 1875 –Aug 18, 1875
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 18
| align=left | David M. Key
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Aug 18, 1875 –Jan 19, 1877
| Appointed to continue Johnson's term.Lost election to finish Johnson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | James E. Bailey
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 19, 1877 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Johnson's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1877.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Jul 8, 1897
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 align=right | Isham G. Harris
! rowspan=13 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 align=left | Howell Jackson
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Apr 14, 1886
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1880 or 1881.Resigned to become U.S. Circuit Judge.
| rowspan=5 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1883.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 14, 1886 –Apr 16, 1886
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 21
| align=left | Washington Whitthorne
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 16, 1886 –Mar 3, 1887
| Appointed to finish Jackson's term.Retired to serve in the U.S. House.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 22
| rowspan=12 align=left | William B. Bate
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1887 –Mar 9, 1905
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1887.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1889.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1893.
| rowspan=5 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 18
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1895.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 9, 1897 –Jul 19, 1897
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Harris's term.Elected in 1898 to finish Harris's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 20, 1897 –Mar 3, 1901
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Thomas B. Turley
! rowspan=2 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1899
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 19
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1901.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 3, 1907
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Edward W. Carmack
! rowspan=5 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1905.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 20
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 10, 1905 –Mar 20, 1905
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | James B. Frazier
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 21, 1905 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bate's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1907.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1907 –Mar 31, 1912
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Robert Love Taylor
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=6 align=left | Luke Lea
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1911.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=6 | 21
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 1, 1912 –Apr 10, 1912
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Taylor's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
| nowrap | Apr 11, 1912 –Jan 24, 1913
| | Republican
| align=right | Newell Sanders
! 21
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Taylor's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Jan 24, 1913 –Mar 3, 1913
| | Democratic
| align=right | William R. Webb
! 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1913.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 3, 1925
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | John K. Shields
! rowspan=6 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=23 | 25
| rowspan=23 align=left | Kenneth McKellar
| rowspan=23 | Democratic
| rowspan=23 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Jan 3, 1953
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1918.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1922.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1924.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1925 –Aug 24, 1929
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Lawrence Tyson
! rowspan=3 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1928.
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 25, 1929 –Sep 1, 1929
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Tyson's term.Elected in 1930 to finish Tyson's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Sep 2, 1929 –Mar 3, 1931
| | Democratic
| align=right | William E. Brock
! 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| Elected in 1930.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Mar 3, 1933
| | Democratic
| align=right | Cordell Hull
! 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Hull's term.Elected in 1934 to finish Hull's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Apr 23, 1937
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Nathan L. Bachman
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1934.
| rowspan=6 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 25
| Re-elected in 1936.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 24, 1937 –May 5, 1937
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Bachman's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
| nowrap | May 6, 1937 –Nov 8, 1938
| | Democratic
| align=right | George L. Berry
! 28
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bachman's term.Did not take his seat until 1939 in order to remain District Attorney General.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 9, 1938 –Jan 3, 1949
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Tom Stewart
! rowspan=6 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1942.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1946.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1948.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 3, 1949 –Aug 10, 1963
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 align=right | Estes Kefauver
! rowspan=8 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 26
| rowspan=12 align=left | Albert Gore Sr.
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 3, 1953 –Jan 3, 1971
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1958.
| rowspan=6 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 29
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1960.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 10, 1963 –Aug 20, 1963
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Kefauver's termRetired
| nowrap | Aug 20, 1963 –Nov 3, 1964
| | Democratic
| align=right | Herbert S. Walters
! 31
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Kefauver's term.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 4, 1964 –Jan 3, 1967
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Ross Bass
! rowspan=2 | 32
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1966.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1967 –Jan 3, 1985
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Howard Baker
! rowspan=9 | 33
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 align=left | Bill Brock
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1971 –Jan 3, 1977
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1970.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1972.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 28
| rowspan=11 align=left | Jim Sasser
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jan 3, 1977 –Jan 3, 1995
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1984.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1985 –Jan 2, 1993
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Al Gore
! rowspan=4 | 34
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1988.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=5 | 34
| Re-elected in 1990.Resigned to become U.S. Vice President.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Gore's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 2, 1993 –Dec 2, 1994
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Harlan Mathews
! rowspan=2 | 35
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1994 to finish Gore's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 2, 1994 –Jan 3, 2003
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Fred Thompson
! rowspan=5 | 36
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 29
| rowspan=6 align=left | Bill Frist
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1995 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected to a full term in 1996.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2002.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2003 –Jan 3, 2021
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Lamar Alexander
! rowspan=9 | 37
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 30
| rowspan=6 align=left | Bob Corker
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –Jan 3, 2019
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 align=left | Marsha Blackburn
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2019 – present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2021 –present
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Bill Hagerty
! rowspan=3 | 38
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2|40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 40
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
United States congressional delegations from Tennessee
List of United States representatives from Tennessee
Elections in Tennessee
Notes
References
U.S. senators
Tennessee
|
416469
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Virginia
|
List of United States senators from Virginia
|
Virginia has sent senators to the U.S. Senate since 1789. Its Senate seats were declared vacant in March 1861, due to its secession from the Union, but senators representing its western counties continued to sit until March 1865. Virginia's Senate seats were again filled from January 1870. Virginia's current senators are Democrats Mark Warner and Tim Kaine. Harry F. Byrd was Virginia's longest-serving senator (1933–1965).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! 1
| align=left | William Grayson
| | Anti-Admin.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 12, 1790
| Elected in 1788.Died.
| rowspan=4 | 1
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=7 | 1
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1788.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Oct 8, 1792
| rowspan=5 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=5 align=right | Richard H. Lee
! rowspan=5 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 12, 1790 –Mar 31, 1790
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 2
| align=left | John Walker
| | Pro-Admin.
| nowrap | Mar 31, 1790 –Nov 9, 1790
| Appointed to continue Grayson's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=5 align=left | James Monroe
| rowspan=5 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 9, 1790 –May 27, 1794
| Elected to finish Grayson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1791.Resigned to become U.S. Minister Plenipotentiary to France.
| rowspan=9 | 2
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 8, 1792 –Oct 18, 1792
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Lee's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 18, 1792 –May 11, 1794
| rowspan=3 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Taylor
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=8 | 2
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1793.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 27, 1794 –Nov 18, 1794
| rowspan=2 |
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 11, 1794 –Dec 29, 1794
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 4
| rowspan=9 align=left | Stevens T. Mason
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Nov 18, 1794 –May 10, 1803
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Monroe's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Taylor's term.Re-elected in 1798, but died before new term began.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 29, 1794 –Jan 24, 1799
| | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=3 align=right | Henry Tazewell
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Democratic-Republican
|
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1796.
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 24, 1799 –Dec 5, 1799
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=11 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Elected to finish Tazewell's term.Resigned to become collector of the port of Norfolk.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Dec 5, 1799 –May 22, 1804
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Wilson C. Nicholas
! rowspan=6 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1803.Died.
| rowspan=10 | 4
| rowspan=8
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 10, 1803 –Jun 4, 1803
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 5
| align=left | John Taylor
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Jun 4, 1803 –Dec 7, 1803
| Appointed to continue Mason's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 6
| rowspan=2 align=left | Abraham B. Venable
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 7, 1803 –Jun 7, 1804
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Mason's term.Resigned to become President of the Bank of Virginia.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 22, 1804 –Aug 11, 1804
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 7, 1804 –Aug 11, 1804
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 7
| align=left | William B. Giles
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Aug 11, 1804 –Dec 3, 1804
| Appointed to continue Mason's term.Resigned when elected to finish Tavewell's class 2 term.
| Appointed to continue Tazewell's term.Resigned when elected to finish Stevens T. Mason's class 1 term.
| nowrap | Aug 11, 1804 –Dec 3, 1804
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | Andrew Moore
! 5
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | Andrew Moore
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 4, 1804 –Mar 3, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Mason's term.Retired.
| Elected to finish Tazewell's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 4, 1804 –Mar 3, 1815
| rowspan=8 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 align=right | William B. Giles
! rowspan=8 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1804.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 align=left | Richard Brent
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1809 –Dec 30, 1814
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1809.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1811.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 30, 1814 –Jan 2, 1815
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 10
| rowspan=14 align=left | James Barbour
| rowspan=13 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Jan 2, 1815 –Mar 7, 1825
| Elected to finish Brent's term, having already been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1814.
| rowspan=6 | 6
| rowspan=2
| John Eppes (DR) was elected in 1815, but declined to serve.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Jan 3, 1816
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Giles's term.Lost re-election.
| nowrap | Jan 3, 1816 –Mar 3, 1817
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | Armistead T. Mason
! 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 6
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1816.Resigned because of ill health.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Dec 4, 1819
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Eppes
! rowspan=2 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 4, 1819 –Dec 14, 1819
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1819 to finish Eppes's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 14, 1819 –Dec 15, 1822
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | James Pleasants
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1821.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of War.
| rowspan=9 | 7
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 15, 1822 –Dec 18, 1822
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Eppes's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 18, 1822 –Aug 21, 1824
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Taylor
! rowspan=2 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 7
| Re-elected in 1823.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 21, 1824 –Dec 7, 1824
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Taylor's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Dec 7, 1824 –Jul 16, 1832
| | Democratic–Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | Littleton Tazewell
! rowspan=7 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 7, 1825 –Dec 26, 1825
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | John Randolph
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Dec 26, 1825 –Mar 3, 1827
| Appointed to finish Barbour's term.Lost election to next term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 12
| rowspan=9 align=left | John Tyler
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1827 –Feb 29, 1836
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1827.
| rowspan=5 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 8
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1829.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 16, 1832 –Dec 10, 1832
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Tazewell's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 10, 1832 –Feb 22, 1834
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 align=right | William C. Rives
! rowspan=2 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1833.Resigned.
| rowspan=10 | 9
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Feb 22, 1834 –Feb 26, 1834
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Tavewell's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Feb 26, 1834 –Jul 4, 1836
| rowspan=4 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Benjamin W. Leigh
! rowspan=4 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=9 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1835.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 29, 1836 –Mar 3, 1836
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 13
| rowspan=5 align=left | William C. Rives
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1836 –Mar 3, 1839
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Tyler's term
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 4, 1836 –Dec 12, 1836
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Leigh's term.Resigned to become judge of the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 12, 1836 –Mar 13, 1837
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 align=right | Richard E. Parker
! rowspan=2 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2
| | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Leigh's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 14, 1837 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | William H. Roane
! rowspan=3 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1839 –Jan 18, 1841
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 10
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 align=left | William C. Rives
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 18, 1841 –Mar 3, 1845
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected late in 1841.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1840.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Mar 3, 1847
| rowspan=6 | Whig
| rowspan=6 align=right | William S. Archer
! rowspan=6 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Dec 3, 1845
|
| rowspan=6 | 11
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
! 14
| align=left | Isaac S. Pennybacker
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Dec 3, 1845 –Jan 12, 1847
| Elected to finish the vacant term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 12, 1847 –Jan 21, 1847
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 15
| rowspan=9 align=left | James M. Mason
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 21, 1847 –Jul 11, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish the vacant term that happened in 1845.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1846.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Jul 11, 1861
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 align=right | Robert M. T. Hunter
! rowspan=8 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1850.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1852.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1856.Expelled for his support of the Confederacy.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 13
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1858.Expelled for his support of the Confederacy.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 11, 1861 –Jul 13, 1861
|
|
| nowrap | Jul 11, 1861 –Jul 13, 1861
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 16
| align=left | Waitman T. Willey
| | Unionist
| nowrap | Jul 13, 1861 –Mar 3, 1863
| Elected to finish Mason's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Hunter's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 13, 1861 –Mar 3, 1865
| rowspan=3 | Unionist
| rowspan=3 align=right | John S. Carlile
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
! 17
| align=left | Lemuel J. Bowden
| | Unionist
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Jan 2, 1864
| Elected in 1863.Died.
| rowspan=4 | 14
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 2, 1864 –Jan 26, 1870
| rowspan=4 | Joseph Segar (U) presented his credentials, but was not seated.Civil War and Reconstruction.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 14
| rowspan=3 | John Underwood (U) presented his credentials, but was not seated.Civil War and Reconstruction.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1865 –Jan 26, 1870
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | 15
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 18
| rowspan=4 align=left | John F. Lewis
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 26, 1870 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=4 |Elected to finish the vacant term.Retired.
| Elected to finish the vacant term.
| nowrap | Jan 26, 1870 –Mar 3, 1871
| | Democratic
| align=right | John W. Johnston
! rowspan=8 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 15
|
| Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 15, 1871
| rowspan=1 colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected late in 1871.
| rowspan=6 | Mar 15, 1871 –Mar 3, 1883
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | John W. Johnston
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Robert E. Withers
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1875.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1877.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Mahone
| rowspan=3 | Readjuster
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1887
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1881.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Elected early in 1881.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1883 –Mar 3, 1889
| rowspan=3 | Readjuster
| rowspan=3 align=right | Harrison H. Riddleberger
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 21
| rowspan=14 align=left | John W. Daniel
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Mar 4, 1887 –Jun 29, 1910
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1887.
| rowspan=5 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 18
| rowspan=2 | Elected early in 1887.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1889 –May 14, 1892
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | John S. Barbour Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 14, 1892 –May 28, 1892
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Barbour's term.Elected in 1893 to finish Barbour's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 28, 1892 –Mar 3, 1895
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Eppa Hunton
! rowspan=2 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected early in 1891.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected early in 1893.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 –Nov 12, 1919
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 align=right | Thomas S. Martin
! rowspan=15 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1899.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected early in 1899.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1904.Re-elected in 1910, but died.
| rowspan=5 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 21
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1906.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 29, 1910 –Aug 1, 1910
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 22
| rowspan=14 align=left | Claude A. Swanson
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Aug 1, 1910 –Mar 3, 1933
| Appointed to finish Daniel's last term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-appointed to begin Daniel's next term.Elected in 1912 to finish Daniel's next term.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1912.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1916.
| rowspan=5 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 23
| Re-elected in 1918.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 12, 1919 –Feb 2, 1920
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed Nov 18, 1919 to continue Martin's term, but remained U.S. Secretary of the Treasury until he resigned and then he became United States Senator.Elected in 1920 to finish Martin's term.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Feb 2, 1920 –May 28, 1946
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 align=right | Carter Glass
! rowspan=14 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1922.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1924.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1928.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Navy.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1930.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=20 | 23
| rowspan=20 align=left | Harry F. Byrd
| rowspan=20 | Democratic
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Nov 10, 1965
| Appointed to continue Swanson's term.Elected in 1933 to finish Swanson's term.
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1936.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1940.
| rowspan=6 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 27
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1942.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 28, 1946 –May 31, 1946
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Glass's term.Retired.
| nowrap | May 31, 1946 –Nov 5, 1946
| | Democratic
| align=right | Thomas G. Burch
! 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Glass's term.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Nov 5, 1946 –Dec 30, 1966
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 align=right | A. Willis Robertson
! rowspan=13 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 30
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1960.Lost re-nomination and resigned early to give his successor preferential seniority.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1964.Resigned for health reasons.
| rowspan=6 | 31
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 10, 1965 –Nov 12, 1965
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 24
| rowspan=11 align=left | Harry F. Byrd Jr.
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Nov 12, 1965 –Jan 3, 1983
| rowspan=4 | Appointed to continue his father's term.Elected in 1966 to finish his father's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Robertson's term, having been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 31, 1966 –Jan 3, 1973
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | William Spong
! rowspan=4 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1966.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Independent
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970 as an Independent.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1972.Retired and resigned early to give his successor preferential seniority.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1973 –Jan 1, 1979
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Scott
! rowspan=3 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1976.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 33
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Scott's term, having been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Jan 2, 1979 –Jan 3, 2009
| rowspan=16 | Republican
| rowspan=16 align=right | John Warner
! rowspan=16 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1978.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 align=left | Paul Trible
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1983 –Jan 3, 1989
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1982.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 26
| rowspan=6 align=left | Chuck Robb
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1989 –Jan 3, 2001
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 align=left | George Allen
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2001 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2000.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jim Webb
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –Jan 3, 2013
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2008.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2009 –present
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Mark Warner
! rowspan=9 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 29
| rowspan=6 align=left | Tim Kaine
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2013 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2 |41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
United States congressional delegations from Virginia
List of United States representatives from Virginia
Elections in Virginia
References
United States Senators
Virginia
|
416470
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Vermont
|
List of United States senators from Vermont
|
Vermont was admitted to the Union on March 4, 1791. From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, Vermont was always represented by members of the Republican Party. Democrat Patrick Leahy (served 1975–2023) is the longest serving senator. Its current members of the United States Senate are Independent Bernie Sanders (since 2007) and Democrat Peter Welch (since 2023). Both senators served in the United States House of Representatives immediately prior, where they represented Vermont's only House district.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Oct 17, 1791
| Vermont elected its senators several months after statehood.
| rowspan=6 | 1
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=3 | 1
| Vermont elected its senators several months after statehood.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Oct 17, 1791
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 align=left | Moses Robinson
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 17, 1791 –Oct 15, 1796
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1791.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1791.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Oct 17, 1791 –Mar 3, 1795
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 align=right | Stephen R. Bradley
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1794.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1795 –Sep 1, 1801
| rowspan=7 | Federalist
| rowspan=7 align=right | Elijah Paine
! rowspan=7 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 15, 1796 –Oct 18, 1796
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 2
| rowspan=2 align=left | Isaac Tichenor
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Oct 18, 1796 –Oct 17, 1797
| Elected in 1796 to finish Robinson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1796 to full term.Resigned to become Governor of Vermont.
| rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=5 align=left | Nathaniel Chipman
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Oct 17, 1797 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1797 to finish Tichenor's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 3
| Re-elected in 1800.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 1, 1801 –Oct 15, 1801
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Paine's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Oct 15, 1801 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=8 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 align=right | Stephen R. Bradley
! rowspan=8 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 align=left | Israel Smith
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Oct 1, 1807
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1802.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1806.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 1, 1807 –Oct 10, 1807
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 5
| rowspan=4 align=left | Jonathan Robinson
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Oct 10, 1807 –Mar 3, 1815
| Elected to finish Smith's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1808.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1812.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Nov 3, 1817
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Dudley Chase
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 6
| rowspan=6 align=left | Isaac Tichenor
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Mar 3, 1821
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1814.Retired.
| rowspan=6 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Chase's term.Resigned to serve as collector of customs for the district of Vermont.
| nowrap | Nov 4, 1817 –Jan 8, 1818
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | James Fisk
! 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 8, 1818 –Oct 20, 1818
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Chase's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Oct 20, 1818 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | William A. Palmer
! rowspan=4 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1818 to the following term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan=6 align=left | Horatio Seymour
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1821.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | NationalRepublican
|
| rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1825.Declined to run for reelection.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Dudley Chase
! rowspan=3 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1827.Retired to run for Governor of Vermont
| rowspan=3 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1831.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Apr 11, 1842
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Samuel Prentiss
! rowspan=6 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | Benjamin Swift
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Mar 3, 1839
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1833.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Whig
|
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1837.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 9
| rowspan=8 align=left | Samuel S. Phelps
| rowspan=8 | Whig
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1839.
| rowspan=5 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 11, 1842 –Apr 23, 1842
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Prentiss's term.Elected in 1842 to finish Prentiss's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Apr 23, 1842 –Mar 3, 1843
| | Whig
| align=right | Samuel C. Crafts
! 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1843.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Jan 14, 1853
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 align=right | William Upham
! rowspan=5 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1845.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 11
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1848.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 10
| rowspan=14 align=left | Solomon Foot
| rowspan=6 | Whig
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Mar 28, 1866
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1850.
| rowspan=7 | 11
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 14, 1853 –Jan 17, 1853
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Upham's term.Lost entitlement to sit.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 17, 1853 –Mar 16, 1854
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | Samuel S. Phelps
! rowspan=2 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 16, 1854 –Oct 14, 1854
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Upham's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Oct 14, 1854 –Mar 3, 1855
| | Free Soil
| align=right | Lawrence Brainerd
! 12
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=8 | Republican
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1855.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Nov 9, 1865
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Jacob Collamer
! rowspan=6 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1856.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1861.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1862.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 9, 1865 –Nov 21, 1865
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Collamer's term.Elected in 1866 to finish Collamer's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 21, 1865 –Mar 3, 1867
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Luke P. Poland
! rowspan=3 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 28, 1866 –Apr 3, 1866
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 11
| rowspan=14 align=left | George F. Edmunds
| rowspan=14 | Republican
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Apr 3, 1866 –Nov 1, 1891
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Foot's term.Elected in 1866 to finish Foot's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1866.
| rowspan=17 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 – Dec 28, 1898
| rowspan=17 | Republican
| rowspan=17 align=right | Justin S. Morrill
! rowspan=17 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1868.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1872.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1874.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1878.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1880.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1884.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1886.Resigned to start a law practice.
| rowspan=4 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 18
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1890.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 12
| rowspan=12 align=left | Redfield Proctor
| rowspan=12 | Republican
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Nov 2, 1891 –Mar 4, 1908
| Appointed to continue Edmunds's term.Elected in 1892 to finish Edmunds's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1892.
| rowspan=5 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 19
| Re-elected in 1896.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 28, 1898 –Jan 11, 1899
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Morrill's term.Retired when successor elected.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 11, 1899 –Oct 18, 1900
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Jonathan Ross
! rowspan=2 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1898.
| rowspan=4 | 19
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Morrill's term.
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Oct 18, 1900 –Jul 12, 1923
| rowspan=16 | Republican
| rowspan=16 align=right | William P. Dillingham
! rowspan=16 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 20
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1902.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1904.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|-
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1908 –Mar 24, 1908
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 13
| align=left | John W. Stewart
| | Republican
| nowrap | Mar 24, 1908 –Oct 21, 1908
| Appointed to continue Proctor's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 14
| rowspan=8 align=left | Carroll S. Page
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Oct 21, 1908 –Mar 3, 1923
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Proctor's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1908.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1910.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1916.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1920.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 15
| rowspan=6 align=left | Frank L. Greene
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Dec 17, 1930
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1922.
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 12, 1923 –Nov 7, 1923
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Dillingham's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Nov 7, 1923 –Oct 6, 1933
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Porter H. Dale
! rowspan=9 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1926.
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1928.Died.
| rowspan=8 | 24
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 17, 1930 –Dec 23, 1930
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 16
| rowspan=2 align=left | Frank C. Partridge
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 23, 1930 –Mar 31, 1931
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Greene's term.Lost nomination to finish Greene's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 17
| rowspan=12 align=left | Warren Austin
| rowspan=12 | Republican
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Apr 1, 1931 –Aug 2, 1946
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Greene's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 25
| Re-elected in 1932.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 6, 1933 –Nov 21, 1933
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Dale's term.Elected in 1934 to finish Dale's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 21, 1933 –Jun 20, 1940
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Ernest W. Gibson
! rowspan=4 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1934.
| rowspan=5 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 26
| Re-elected in 1938.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 20, 1940 –Jun 24, 1940
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue his father's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Jun 24, 1940 –Jan 3, 1941
| | Republican
| align=right | Ernest Gibson Jr.
! 20
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Resigned to become U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations
| rowspan=5 | 26
|
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1940 to finish Gibson's term.Didn't take seat until Jan 10, 1941, in order to remain Governor of Vermont.
| rowspan=21 nowrap | Jan 3, 1941 –Jan 3, 1975
| rowspan=21 | Republican
| rowspan=21 align=right | George Aiken
! rowspan=21 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 27
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1944.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 2, 1946 –Nov 1, 1946
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 18
| rowspan=7 align=left | Ralph Flanders
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Nov 1, 1946 –Jan 3, 1959
| Appointed to finish Austin's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 19
| rowspan=7 align=left | Winston L. Prouty
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 3, 1959 –Sep 10, 1971
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 31
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1968.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1970.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 31
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 10, 1971 –Sep 16, 1971
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 20
| rowspan=9 align=left | Robert Stafford
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Sep 16, 1971 –Jan 3, 1989
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Prouty's term.Elected in 1972 to finish Prouty's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1974.
| rowspan=25 nowrap | Jan 3, 1975 –Jan 3, 2023
| rowspan=25 | Democratic
| rowspan=25 align=right | Patrick Leahy
! rowspan=25 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 21
| rowspan=10 align=left | Jim Jeffords
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 1989 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 36
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:3em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 2000. Left the Republican Party on May 24, 2001.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 36
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Independent
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 22
| rowspan=9 align=left | Bernie Sanders
| rowspan=9 | Independent
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016. Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3| 40
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2022.
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2023 – present
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Peter Welch
! rowspan=3 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3| 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Vermont
United States congressional delegations from Vermont
Elections in Vermont
Notes
References
Sources
United States Senators
Vermont
|
416499
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20Rapid%20Transit%20%28Singapore%29
|
Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)
|
The Mass Rapid Transit system, locally known by the initialism MRT, is a rapid transit system in Singapore and the island country's principal mode of railway transportation. The system commenced operations in November 1987 after two decades of planning with an initial stretch consisting of five stations. The network has since grown to span the length and breadth of the country's main island – with the exception of the forested core and the rural northwestern region – in accordance with Singapore's aim of developing a comprehensive rail network as the backbone of the country's public transportation system, averaging a daily ridership of 3.4 million in 2019.
The MRT network encompasses of grade-separated route on standard gauge. There are 134 operational stations (30 of which are interchange stations) dispersed across six lines arrayed in a circle-radial topology. The network is scheduled to double in length to about by 2040 as a result of ongoing extension works to its existing lines and the construction of three new lines. The island-wide heavy rail network interchanges with a series of automated guideway transit networks localised to select suburban towns—collectively known as the Light Rail Transit (LRT) system—that complement the mainline by providing a last mile link between MRT stations and HDB public housing estates.
The MRT is the oldest, busiest, and most comprehensive metro system in Southeast Asia. Capital expenditure on its rail infrastructure reached a cumulative S$150 billion in 2021, making the network one of the world's costliest on both a per-kilometre and absolute basis. The system is managed in conformity with a semi-nationalised hybrid regulatory framework; construction and procurement fall under the purview of the Land Transport Authority (LTA), a statutory board of the government that allocates operating concessions to the for-profit private corporations SMRT and SBS Transit. These operators are responsible for asset maintenance on their respective lines, and also run bus services, facilitating operational synchronicity and the horizontal integration of the broader public transportation network.
The MRT is fully automated and has an extensive driverless rapid transit system. Asset renewal works are periodically carried out to modernise the network and ensure its continued reliability; all stations feature platform screen doors, Wi-Fi connectivity, lifts, climate control, and accessibility provisions, among others. Much of the early network is elevated above ground on concrete viaducts, with a small portion running at-grade; newer lines are largely subterranean, incorporating several of the lengthiest continuous subway tunnel sections in the world. A number of underground stations double as purpose-built air raid shelters under the operational authority of the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF); these stations incorporate deep-level station boxes cast with hardened concrete and blast doors fashioned out of reinforced steel to withstand conventional aerial and chemical ordnance.
History
Planning and inception
The origins of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) were derived from a forecast by the country's planners back in 1967 which stated the need for a rail-based urban transport system by 1992. However, opposition from the government on the feasibility of the MRT from prominent ministers, among them Finance Minister Goh Keng Swee and Trades and Industry Minister Tony Tan, nearly shuttered the program due to financial grounds and concerns of jobs saturation in the construction industry. Dr Goh instead endorsed the idea of an all-bus system recommended by Harvard University specialists, who argued would reduce the cost by 50% compared to the proposed MRT system. Public opinion was split on the matter, with several expressing concerns on the high cost and others being more focused on increasing the standard of living. Following a debate on whether a bus-only system would be more cost-effective, Communications Minister Ong Teng Cheong came to the conclusion that an all-bus system would be inadequate, as it would have to compete for road space in a land-scarce country. Ong was an architect and town planner by training and through his perseverance and dedication became the main figure behind the initial construction of the system.
Construction begins
Singapore's MRT infrastructure is built, operated, and managed in accordance with a hybridised quasi-nationalised regulatory framework called the New Rail Financing Framework (NRFF), in which the lines are constructed and the assets owned by the Land Transport Authority, a statutory board of the Government of Singapore.
The network was planned to be constructed and opened in stages, even as plans had already indicated the decision for two main arterial lines. The North–South Line was given priority because it passed through the Central Area that has a high demand for public transport. The Mass Rapid Transit Corporation (MRTC)—later renamed SMRT Corporation—was established on 14 October 1983 and took over the roles and responsibilities of the former provisional Mass Rapid Transit Authority. On 7 November 1987, the first section of the North–South Line started operations, consisting of five stations over six kilometres. Within a year, 20 more stations had been added to the network and a direct service existed between Yishun and Lakeside stations, linking up Central Singapore to Jurong in the west by the end of 1988. The direct service was eventually split into the North–South and East–West lines after the latter's completion of the eastern sector to Tanah Merah station. By the end of 1990, the Branch line has further linked Choa Chu Kang to the network while the inauguration of Boon Lay station on 6 July 1990 marked the completion of the initial system two years ahead of schedule.
Subsequent expansions
The MRT has been continuously expanded ever since. On 10 February 1996, a S$1.2 billion expansion of the North–South Line into Woodlands was completed, merging the Branch Line into the North–South Line and joining Yishun and Choa Chu Kang stations. The concept of having rail lines that bring people almost directly to their homes led to the introduction of the Light Rail Transit (LRT) lines connecting with the MRT network. On 6 November 1999, the first LRT trains on the Bukit Panjang LRT went into operation. The Expo and Changi Airport stations were opened on 10 January 2001 and 8 February 2002 respectively. The very first infill station of the MRT network to be built on an existing line, Dover station opened on 18 October 2001.
The North East Line, the first line operated by SBS Transit, opened on 20 June 2003, is one of the first fully automated heavy rail lines in the world. On 15 January 2006, after intense two-and-a-half years lobbying by the public, Buangkok station was opened, followed by Woodleigh station much later on 20 June 2011. The Boon Lay Extension of the East–West Line, consisting of Pioneer and Joo Koon stations, opened on 28 February 2009.
The Circle Line opened in four stages with Stage 3 on 28 May 2009, Stages 1 and 2 on 17 April 2010, Stages 4 and 5 on 8 October 2011 and the Marina Bay Extension on 14 January 2012. Stage 1 of Downtown line opened on 22 December 2013 with its official opening made on 21 December 2013 by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong. Stage 2 opened on 27 December 2015, after being officially opened on 26 December by Prime Minister Lee. The Tuas West Extension of the East–West Line, consisting of Gul Circle, Tuas Crescent, Tuas West Road, and Tuas Link stations, opened on 18 June 2017. Stage 3, the final stage of the Downtown Line, opened on 21 October 2017 with its official opening made on 20 October 2017 by Coordinating Minister for Infrastructure and Minister for Transport Khaw Boon Wan. The second infill station, Canberra station opened on 2 November 2019. Stage 1 of the Thomson–East Coast Line opened on 31 January 2020. Stage 2 of the Thomson–East Coast Line opened on 28 August 2021, extending the line from Woodlands South to Caldecott. Stage 3 of the Thomson–East Coast Line opened on 13 November 2022, extending the line from Caldecott to Gardens by the Bay.
Network and infrastructure
Line names
The lines are named based on its directions and location. The names were envisioned to be user-friendly, as shown in a survey in which 70% of the respondents expressed such a preference. The Land Transport Authority (LTA) had considered other naming methods in June 2007, whether by name, colour or numbers. After the survey, however, the naming scheme was retained and used for subsequent future MRT lines.
Facilities and services
Except for the partly at-grade Bishan MRT station (North–South Line), the entirety of the MRT is either elevated or underground. Most below-ground stations are deep and hardened enough to withstand conventional aerial bomb attacks and to serve as bomb shelters. Mobile phone, 3G and 4G services are available in every part of the network. Underground stations and trains are air-conditioned, while above-ground stations have ceiling fans installed.
Every station is equipped with General Ticketing Machines (GTMs), a Passenger Service Centre and LED or plasma displays that show train service information and announcements. All stations are equipped with restrooms and payphones; some restrooms are located at street level. Some stations, especially the major ones, have additional amenities and services, such as retail shops and kiosks, supermarkets, convenience stores, automatic teller machines, and self-service automated kiosks for a variety of services. Most heavy-duty escalators at stations carry passengers up or down at a rate of 0.75 m/s, which is 50% faster than conventional escalators. The Land Transport Authority (LTA) announced a plan to introduce dual speeds to escalators along the North–South and East–West lines, to make it safer for senior citizens using them. As a result, all escalators on the two lines, through a refurbishment programme, will be able to operate at a different speed of 0.5 m/s during off-peak hours, with completion being targeted for 2022.
All stations constructed before 2001 initially lacked barrier-free facilities and wider AFC faregates such as lifts, ramps and tactile guidance systems for the elderly and disabled. A retrofitting programme was completed in 2006, with every station provided with at least one barrier-free access route. Over the years, additional barrier-free facilities have been constructed in stations. Since 2020, newer MRT stations have been fitted with a minimum of two lifts.
Safety
Operators and authorities have stated that numerous measures had been taken to ensure the safety of passengers, and SBS Transit publicised the safety precautions on the driverless North East line before and after its opening. Safety campaign posters are highly visible in trains and stations, and the operators frequently broadcast safety announcements to passengers and to commuters waiting for trains. Fire safety standards are consistent and equivalent with the guidelines of the National Fire Protection Association in the United States.
Full-height platform screen doors were already installed in underground stations since 1987, supplied by Westinghouse. There were calls for platform screen doors to be installed at elevated stations after several incidents in which passengers were killed by oncoming trains when they fell onto the railway tracks at elevated stations. The authorities initially rejected such calls by casting doubts over functionality and concerns about the high installation costs. Nevertheless, the LTA reversed its decision and made plans to install half-height platform screen doors in all elevated stations on 25 January 2008. The first platform screen doors by ST Electronics were installed at Jurong East, Pasir Ris, and Yishun stations in 2009 under trials to test their feasibility.
By 14 March 2012, all elevated stations have been retrofitted with the doors and are operational. These doors prevent suicides and unauthorised access to restricted areas. Under the Rapid Transit Systems Act, acts such as smoking, eating or drinking in stations and trains, the misuse of emergency equipment and trespassing on the railway tracks are illegal, with penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment.
There were a few major incidents in the history of the MRT, which opened in 1987. On 5 August 1993, two trains collided at Clementi station because of an oil spillage on the track, which resulted in 132 injuries. During the construction of the Circle Line on 20 April 2004, a tunnel being constructed under Nicoll Highway collapsed and led to the deaths of four workers. On 15 November 2017, two trains, one being empty, collided at low speed at Joo Koon station due to a malfunction with the communications-based train control (CBTC).
Prior to the 2020 circuit breaker measures during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the public transport operators and LTA were criticised by some commuters for its delayed actions of crowd control and the enforcement of social distancing on public transport. In response, the LTA rolled out a series of precautionary measures, such as social distancing measures and making the wearing of masks in public transport mandatory. Social distancing markers were progressively implemented in the MRT trains and stations which commuters must adhere to; enforced by auxiliary officers and transport ambassadors. The significant reduction of commuters as remote work increased resulted in the transport operators reducing train frequencies and closing stations earlier from 17 April. However, train frequencies were shortly reverted to normal upon review and feedback from the public.
Since June 2020, the MRT system has resumed pre-circuit breaker operations. Regulations for social distancing on public transport are no longer applicable by law. Social distancing stickers on seats were removed. However, commuters are encouraged to social distance wherever possible. Mask wearing continues to be mandatory on public transport and all other public places in Singapore. This is because all employees are being required to report back to work as soon as possible and all students resume physical schooling. Cleaning efforts on the trains and MRT stations have since been stepped up, with hand sanitizers provided at the stations.
Hours of operation
MRT lines operate from 5:30am to 1:00am daily, with the exception of selected periods, such as New Year's Eve, Chinese New Year, Deepavali, Hari Raya, Christmas, eves of public holidays and special occasions such as the state funeral of Lee Kuan Yew (2015), when most of the lines stay open throughout the night or extended till later (before the COVID-19 pandemic began in 2020). Additionally, some stretches of the line ends earlier, opens later and closes on a few days of the weekend. The nightly closures are used for maintenance. During the COVID-19 pandemic across the country, train services ended earlier and service extensions on the eves of public holidays ceased from 7 April 2020. However, from 1 June, train services were reverted to the usual hours from 5.30am to 12am (except for CNY Eve, where it ended at 30 minutes earlier from then on), and train services were no longer extended on all eves of public holidays.
Architecture and art
Early stages of the MRT's construction paid scant attention to station design, with an emphasis on functionality over aesthetics. This is particularly evident in the first few stages of the North–South and East–West lines that opened between 1987 and 1988 from Yio Chu Kang to Clementi. An exception to this was Orchard, chosen by its designers to be a "showpiece" of the system and built initially with a domed roof. Architectural themes became more important only in subsequent stages, and resulted in such designs as the cylindrical station shapes on all stations between Kallang and Pasir Ris except Eunos, and west of Boon Lay, and the perched roofs at Boon Lay, Lakeside, Chinese Garden, Bukit Batok, Bukit Gombak, Choa Chu Kang, Khatib, Yishun, and Eunos stations.
Expo station, located on the Changi Airport branch of the East–West Line, is adjacent to the 100,000-square-metre Singapore Expo exhibition facility. Designed by Foster and Partners and completed in January 2001, the station features a large, pillarless, titanium-clad roof in an elliptical shape that sheathes the length of the station platform. This complements a smaller 40-metre reflective stainless-steel disc overlapping the titanium ellipse and visually floats over a glass elevator shaft and the main entrance. The other station with similar architecture is Dover.
Changi Airport station, the easternmost station on the MRT network, has the widest platform in any underground MRT station in Singapore. In 2011, it was rated 10 out of 15 most beautiful subway stops in the world by BootsnAll. Various features have been incorporated into the design to make the station aesthetically pleasing to travellers. The station is designed by architectural firm Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, featuring a large interior space and an illuminated link bridge spanning over the island platform.
Two Circle Line stations—Bras Basah and Stadium—were commissioned through the Marina Line Architectural Design Competition, which was jointly organised by the Land Transport Authority and the Singapore Institute of Architects. The competition did not require any prior architectural experience from competitors and is acknowledged by the industry as one of the most impartial competitions held in Singapore to date. The winner of both stations was WOHA. In 2009, "Best Transport Building" was awarded to the designers at WOHA Architects at the World Architecture Festival for their design of Bras Basah station.
Many MRT stations have specially commissioned artworks in a wide variety of art styles and mediums, including sculptures, murals and mosaics. With over 300 art pieces across 80 stations, it is Singapore's largest public art programme.
In the early stages of the MRT, artworks were seldom included; primarily consisting of a few paintings or sculptures representing the recent past of Singapore, mounted in major stations. The opening of the Woodlands Extension introduced bolder pieces of artwork, such as a 4,000 kg sculpture in Woodlands. With the opening of the North East line in 2003, a series of artworks under a programme called "Art in Transit" were commissioned by the Land Transport Authority (LTA). Created by 19 local artists and integrated into the stations' interior architecture, these works aim to promote the appreciation of public art in high-traffic environments. The artwork for each station is designed to suit the station's identity. Subsequently, all stations on the North East, Circle and Downtown lines have taken part in this programme during their construction, with additional artworks installed at stations on other MRT lines.
Rolling stock and signalling
Rolling stock
This table lists the network's rolling stock.
At present, all lines run with fixed-length trains between three and six cars, with the Thomson–East Coast Line using four cars. Since the system's conception in 1987, all train lines have been powered by the 750 volt DC third rail, with the exception of the North East Line which is powered by 1500 volt DC overhead lines. The North–South and East–West lines use an automatic train operation system similar to London Underground's Central line.
The first 19 of the oldest trains (5 of the C151, 10 of the C651, 4 of the C751B) in the network were phased out between June 2020 and October 2022. Older trains have been renewed over the years under refurbishment schemes to enhance their lifespan as well as to adhere to updated safety and usability codes.
Refurbished and new trains have improved passenger information systems such as the SMRT Active Route Map Information System, more grab poles, wider seats, more space near the doors, spaces for wheelchairs, and CCTV cameras. As a trial run, luggage racks were installed on the C751B trains to serve travellers on the Changi Airport branch line. The scheme was withdrawn in July 2003 and the luggage racks were removed.
All trains are contracted by open tender, with their contract numbers forming the most recognised name of the stock. Official sources occasionally refer to the trains of the North–South and East–West lines as numbered generation trains, with the C151 train being the first and the newest R151 train being the seventh.
In addition to aforementioned passenger electric multiple units, MRT operators also have their own engineering rolling stock used for maintenance purposes. These include Plasser & Theurer tamping machines, multi-function vehicles for rail inspection, Speno railgrinders, cranes, tunnel cleaning wagons, viaduct inspection wagons, CKG diesel locomotives for shunting purposes and Deli diesel locomotives and Schöma electric locomotives for hauling maintenance trains.
Signalling
A key component of the signalling system on the MRT is the automatic train control (ATC) system, which in turn is made up of two sub-systems: the automatic train operation (ATO) and automatic train protection (ATP). The ATC has trackside and trainborne components working together to provide safe train separation by using train detection, localisation, and end of authority protection. It also provides safe train operation and movement by using train speed determination, monitoring, over-speed protection and emergency braking. The safety of alighting and departing passengers will also be provided by using a station interlocking system. The ATO drives the train in automatic mode, providing the traction and braking control demands to the train rolling stock system, adjusts its speed upon approaching the station, and provides the control of opening and closing of train and platform screen doors once the train has stopped at the station. The ATP ensures safe train separation by using the ATP track circuit status and by location determination, monitors the speed of the train to maintain safe braking distance, and initiate emergency braking in the event of overspeed. The MRT also uses an automatic train supervision system to supervise the overall operation of the train service according to a prescribed timetable or train interval.
The oldest lines, the North–South Line and East–West Line, were the only lines running with fixed block signalling. The North–South Line was upgraded to moving block/CBTC in 2017, and the East–West line upgraded in 2018. As of 27 May 2018, all MRT lines use the CBTC/moving block system in normal daily operations and from 2 January 2019, the old signalling system ceased operations. In comparison to the original fixed block system, the CBTC can reduce train intervals from 120 seconds to 100 seconds, allowing for a 20% increase in capacity and is able to support bidirectional train operations on a single track, enabling trains to be diverted onto another track in the event of a fault on one track. The CBTC system also permits for improved braking performance in wet weather as compared to the original fixed-block ATC.
All new MRT lines built since the North East Line in 2003 were equipped with CBTC from the outset, and have the capability to be completely driverless and automated, requiring no on-board staffing. Operations are monitored remotely from the operations control centre of the respective lines. Trains are equipped with intercoms to allow passengers to communicate with staff during emergencies.
Depots
SMRT Corporation has six train depots: Bishan Depot is the central maintenance depot for the North–South Line with train overhaul facilities, while Changi Depot and Ulu Pandan Depot inspect and house trains overnight. The newer Tuas Depot, opened in 2017, provides the East–West Line with its own maintenance facility, while Mandai Depot services trains for the Thomson–East Coast line. The underground Kim Chuan Depot houses trains for the Circle and Downtown lines, now jointly managed by the two MRT operators.
SBS Transit has three depots: Sengkang Depot houses trains for the North East line, the Sengkang LRT line, and the Punggol LRT line. Tai Seng Facility Building, connected to and located east of Kim Chuan Depot, is currently used for the Downtown line. While major operations were shifted to the main Gali Batu Depot in 2015, the Tai Seng Facility Building resumed stabling operations with the extension of the Downtown line in 2017. It currently operates independently from Kim Chuan Depot. Gali Batu Depot is the first MRT depot in Singapore to achieve the certification of Building and Construction Authority (BCA) Green Mark Gold.
In August 2014, plans for the East Coast Integrated Depot, the world's first four-in-one train and bus depot were announced. It will be built at Tanah Merah beside the original Changi Depot site to serve the East–West, Downtown, and Thomson–East Coast lines. The new 36 ha depot can house about 220 trains and 550 buses and integrating the depot for both buses and trains will help save close to , or 60 football fields of land.
The Tengah Depot for the Jurong Region Line will be situated at the western perimeter of Tengah, and an additional depot facility will be added near Peng Kang Hill station to support the operations of the JRL. Rolling stock for the Jurong Region Line will be stabled at both facilities. Tengah Depot will house the JRL Operations Control Centre and have a bus depot integrated with it to optimise land use.
The Changi East Depot will serve the future Cross Island Line, and the depot is to be placed at the eastern end of the line.
An Integrated Train Testing Centre with several test tracks for different situations and workshops for maintenance and refurbishment is also to be built at Tuas by 2022, with the main function being to test trains and integrated systems robustly before they are deployed on operational lines.
Future expansion
Infrastructure
The following table lists the upcoming lines and stations that have been officially announced:
The MRT system relied on its two main lines, the North–South and East–West lines, for more than a decade until the opening of the North East line in 2003. While plans for these lines as well as those currently under construction were formulated long before, the Land Transport Authority's publication of a White Paper titled "A World Class Land Transport System" in 1996 galvanised the government's intentions to greatly expand the system. It called for the expansion of the 67 kilometres of track in 1995 to 360 in 2030. It was expected that daily ridership in 2030 would grow to 6.0 million from the 1.4 million passengers at that time.
New lines and extensions are mostly announced as part of the Land Transport Master Plan, which is announced every five years and outlines the government's intentions for the future of the transport network in Singapore. The latest plan, the Land Transport Master Plan 2040, was announced on 25 May 2019, and provides for line extensions to the Downtown and Thomson–East Coast lines, a new MRT line under study, and 2 new stations on the North–South line.
Downtown line
The , 34 station fully underground Downtown line connects the north-west and eastern regions of Singapore with a loop travelling through the city center. It commenced operations in three stages, with the initial Bugis to Chinatown segment in 2013, Bukit Panjang to Rochor in 2015 and Fort Canning to Expo in 2017. An extension from Expo is planned to begin operations in 2025, adding an additional and 2 stations to the line, terminating at Sungei Bedok and interchanging with the Thomson–East Coast line. Hume is an infill station between Hillview and Beauty World and expected to open by 2025. Upon Hume's opening, the entire line will be long and have 37 stations in total.
A proposal has been further mooted to extend the line from Bukit Panjang towards Sungei Kadut which will interchange with the North–South line. The extension is expected to be completed by the mid-2030s.
Thomson–East Coast line
The , 32 station fully underground Thomson–East Coast line is designed to connect the northern region of Singapore to the south, running parallel to the existing North–South line passing through Woodlands, Sin Ming, Upper Thomson, and Marina Bay before turning east and running through Tanjong Rhu, Siglap, Marine Parade, and Bedok. It commenced operations starting with Stage 1 from Woodlands North to Woodlands South on 31 January 2020. The other four stages follow suit, with Stage 2 from Springleaf to Caldecott opened on 28 August 2021, Stage 3 from Mount Pleasant to Gardens by the Bay opened on 13 November 2022 (excluding Mount Pleasant and Marina South, which will open at a later date), Stage 4 from Tanjong Rhu to Bayshore in 2024 and Stage 5 from Bedok South to Sungei Bedok in 2025.
The northern terminus of Woodlands North is expected to interchange with the Johor Bahru–Singapore Rapid Transit System to provide access to Johor Bahru and the future Iskandar Malaysia Bus Rapid Transit. Founders' Memorial station is an infill station along Stage 4, but is scheduled to instead open in tandem with the Founders' Memorial in 2027. In addition, this line and the Canberra MRT station were the first to use top-up kiosks (TUK) that only allows cashless payments, while GTMs were retained for traditional modes of payment.
Line extension to Changi Airport
In addition to the previously announced alignment of the Thomson–East Coast line, an extension has been proposed to connect it to Changi Airport, with the line passing through Terminal 5, and eventually absorbing the existing Changi Airport branch on the East–West line. With such an extension, there would be a direct connection between Changi Airport and the city. This extension is expected to start operating by 2040. Tunneling works are tendered out by the Land Transport Authority (LTA) Singapore and Shanghai Tunnel Engineering Corporation was awarded with the tunneling package for Terminal 5.
Jurong Region line
First proposed as an LRT line when originally announced in 2001, the Jurong Region Line has since been upgraded to be a medium capacity line after the project was revived in 2013. The new configuration encompasses West Coast, Tengah and Choa Chu Kang and Jurong.
West Coast extension
Besides the original announced alignment of the line, a West Coast extension to the Circle line from the Jurong Region line is currently under study, linking the West Coast region directly to Haw Par Villa, and allowing commuters on the Jurong Region line access to the central area of the city easily. If feasible, the extension would be ready by 2030.
Cross Island line
The Cross Island line is expected to span the island of Singapore, passing through Tuas, Jurong, Sin Ming, Ang Mo Kio, Hougang, Punggol, Pasir Ris, and Changi. The new line provides commuters with another alternative for east–west travel to the current East–West line and Downtown line. Connected to all the other major lines, it is designed to serve as a key transfer line, complementing the role currently fulfilled by the orbital Circle line.
Stage 1 of the line was announced in 2019 and consists of and 12 stations, and is planned to be completed in 2030. In addition, the extension to Punggol announced in 2020 consists of three stations spanning , and is planned to be completed by 2032. Completion of the line is expected to take an even longer timeframe due to the environmental study aspects, targeted to be completed by 2030.
Circle line stage 6
The extension Stage 6 from Marina Bay through Keppel, ending at HarbourFront, effectively completes the circle and links the current ends of the line, allowing for through service through the future Southern Waterfront City without the need to change to other lines. Stage 6 comprises the Keppel, Cantonment, and Prince Edward Road stations. It is forecast to commence operations by 2026.
North East Line extension
Originally scheduled to be completed by 2030, the extension is being built from Punggol through Punggol North including the new Punggol Downtown to the new tentatively named Punggol Coast station. It was projected to open in 2023, a few years ahead of the expected opening date. Construction of the extension commenced in the first half of 2018. The station has since been delayed to 2024 due to delays from the COVID-19 pandemic.
Brickland and Sungei Kadut MRT stations
Two new stations are planned along the existing North–South line. Brickland station is expected to be built between Bukit Gombak and Choa Chu Kang stations, while Sungei Kadut station is expected to be built between Yew Tee and Kranji stations. Both MRT stations are expected to be completed by mid-2030s.
Proposed new line along north-east corridor
As part of the Land Transport Master Plan 2040, feasibility studies are ongoing for a possible new MRT line which is proposed to link the north and northeastern regions of Singapore to the south of the island. The new line is proposed to run from Woodlands North via Sembawang, Sengkang, Serangoon North, Whampoa and Kallang to the Greater Southern Waterfront. The official alignment has yet to be confirmed.
Fares and ticketing
Stations are divided into two areas, paid and unpaid, which allow the rail operators to collect fares by restricting entry only through the fare gates, also known as access control gates. These gates, connected to a computer network, can read and update electronic tickets capable of storing data, and can store information such as the initial and destination stations and the duration for each trip. General Ticketing Machines sell standard tickets that can be used up to 6 times within 30 days from the day of purchase. The machines also allow the customer to buy additional value for stored-value smartcards. Such smartcards require a minimum amount of stored credit.
As the fare system has been integrated by TransitLink, commuters need to pay only one fare and pass through two fare gates (once on entry, once on exit) for an entire journey for most interchange stations, even when transferring between lines operated by different companies. Commuters can choose to extend a trip mid-journey, and pay the difference when they exit their destination station.
Fares
Because the rail operators are government-assisted, profit-based corporations, fares on the MRT system are pitched to at least break-even level. The operators collect these fares by selling electronic data-storing tickets, the prices of which are calculated based on the distance between the start and destination stations. These prices increase in fixed stages for standard non-discounted travel. Fares are calculated in increments based on approximate distances between stations, in contrast to the use of fare zones in other subway systems, such as the London Underground.
Although operated by private companies, the system's fare structure is regulated by the Public Transport Council (PTC), to which the operators submit requests for changes in fares. Fares are kept affordable by pegging them approximately to distance-related bus fares, thus encouraging commuters to use the network and reduce heavy reliance on the bus system. Fare increases have caused public concern. Historically, fares on the fully underground North East, Circle, and Downtown lines had been higher than those of the North–South and East–West lines (NSEWL), a disparity that was justified by citing higher costs of operation and maintenance on a completely underground line. However, the Public Transport Council (PTC) announced in 2016 that fares for the three underground lines would be reduced to match those on the NSEWL, which took effect along with the yearly-applied fare changes, on 30 December 2016.
After the opening of Downtown line Stage 3, Transport Minister Khaw Boon Wan announced that public transport fare rules will be reviewed to allow for transfers across MRT lines at different stations due to the increasing density of the rail network. At the time, commuters were charged a second time when they made such transfers. He added that the PTC would review distance-based fare transfer rules to ensure they continue to facilitate "fast, seamless" public transport journeys. The review of distance-based fare rules on MRT lines was completed, and a waiver on the second boarding fee incurred when making such transfers was announced on 22 March 2018. The scheme was implemented on 29 December of the same year.
Ticketing
The ticketing system uses the EZ-Link and NETS FlashPay contactless smart cards based upon the Symphony for e-Payment (SeP) system for public transit built on the Singapore Standard for Contactless ePurse Application (CEPAS) system. This system allows for up to 4 card issuers in the market. The EZ-Link card was introduced on 13 April 2002 as a replacement for the original TransitLink farecard, while its competitor the NETS FlashPay card entered the smartcard market on 9 October 2009.
A card may be purchased at any TransitLink ticket office or passenger service centre for immediate use. The card may be topped up via cashless means at ticketing machines and ATMs or via cash at several stations or convenience stores. Additional credit of a predetermined value may also be automatically credited into the card when the card value runs low via an automatic recharge service provided by Interbank GIRO or credit card. An Adult Monthly Travel Card for unlimited travel on MRT, LRT, and buses may also be purchased and is non-transferable.
In 2017, TransitLink became the first public transport provider in Southeast Asia to accept contactless bank cards and the use of mobile wallets such as Apple Pay, Google Pay and Samsung Pay. The system, named SimplyGo, allows commuters to tap their contactless debit or credit cards, or smartphones/smart watches to pay for fares on the MRT, LRT and Bus network. Support for EZ-Link cards has been added since 2021, while the usage has been low.
A Standard Ticket contactless smart card for single or return journeys, which have been phased out to encourage the use of contactless cards like EZ-LINK or NETS, were made available at the GTM for the payment of MRT and LRT fares. A S$0.10 deposit is levied on top of the fare to be paid. The deposit will be automatically refunded through an offset of the fare to be paid for the third journey on the same ticket while an additional discount of S$0.10 will be given for the sixth journey on the same ticket. No refund of the deposit is provided if the card is used for fewer than 3 journeys. The ticket can be used for the purchase of single or return journeys to and from pre-selected stations up to a maximum of six journeys over 30 days. Fares for the Standard Ticket are always higher than those charged for the stored-valued CEPAS (EZ-Link and NETS FlashPay) cards for the same distance traveled. The ticket is retained by the user after each journey and does not need to be returned. Identical to the usage of CEPAS cards, the ticket is tapped onto the faregate reader upon entry and exit. It is being in the process of discontinuance due to the low usage, and mitigating factors such as top-ups for $2 were possible, as well as the Singapore Tourist Pass, The Singapore Pass and SimplyGo.
For tourists, a Singapore Tourist Pass contactless smartcard may be purchased for use on the public transport network. The card may be bought at selected TransitLink ticket offices and Singapore Visitors Centres.
Performance
The MRT system did not experience any major performance issues during its first quarter-century of operations. However, there were occasional disruptions around the period from 2011 to 2018, the cause of which was often attributed to the system aging coupled with increased ridership due to population growth. Service reliability of the MRT system is great, achieving second in Asia after the MTR system in Hong Kong which scored 99.9%. Singapore's MRT system shares its second place title with Malaysia's MRT (RapidKL) system under the Klang Valley Integrated Transit, both scoring a reputable 99.7% in service reliability.
Beginning with the train disruptions in 2011, this incident led to a committee of inquiry which uncovered serious shortcomings in SMRT's maintenance regime. For the December 2011 disruptions, the Land Transport Authority imposed a maximum penalty of S$2 million on SMRT (approximately US$1.526 million) for the two train disruptions along the North–South line on 15 and 17 December 2011. A Committee of Inquiry discovered shortcomings in the maintenance regime and checks, prompting then-CEO Saw Phaik Hwa to resign.
A much larger power-related incident than the December 2011 event occurred on 7 July 2015, when train services on both the North–South and East–West lines were shut down in both directions following a major power trip. The disruption lasted for more than 3 hours, affecting 413,000 commuters. This was considered the worst disruption to the MRT network since it first began operations in 1987 – surpassing the December 2011 event. Independent experts from Sweden and Japan were hired to conduct investigation into the cause of the disruption. The cause was identified as damage to a third rail insulator due to a water leak at Tanjong Pagar station. Consequently, a program was implemented to replace insulators liable to similar failure. For the July 2015 disruption, LTA imposed a higher penalty of S$5.4 million on SMRT.
On 22 March 2016, a fatal accident occurred off Pasir Ris station. Two of SMRT's track-maintenance trainee staff were lethally run over by an approaching C151 at a signalling box of the station. They were part of a technical team of 15 staff led by a supervisor and were asked to go down to the tracks to investigate an alarm triggered by a possible signalling equipment fault. The operator said the team had permission to access the tracks, but did not coordinate with a signal unit in the station control to ensure train captains in the area where the team was exercised caution while pulling into Pasir Ris station. This incident resulted in a 2.5-hour service delay between Tanah Merah and Pasir Ris Stations, affecting at least 10,000 commuters.
On 7 October 2017, a dilapidated float and pump system at Bishan station caused a tunnel flood after heavy torrential rainstorms. It was the worst train disruption since 2011 and was the first ever flooding incident in the history of the MRT. This resulted in criticism on the public transport operators among Singaporeans once again, and a huge debate about the "high rankings" that manage the system, with calls being made for the resignation of then Transport Minister Khaw Boon Wan. Urban transport expert Park Byung Joon from the Singapore University of Social Sciences added that the negligence displayed by SMRT in this regard was tantamount to a criminal offence, and after an internal investigation, found that the maintenance crew of the Bishan Station's pump system had submitted maintenance records for nearly a year without actually carrying out the works.
Responses
The December 2011 disruptions brought the state of public transportation as a whole to national prominence among Singaporeans, who had previously considered the system to be reliable and robust since its inception in 1987. LTA also noted a marked increase in dissatisfaction with public transport with the release of the 2012 Public Transport Customer Satisfaction Survey, and promised government action to deal with issues relating to system disruptions.
The government reviewed the penalties for train disruptions, and made free travel available for all bus services passing MRT stations affected during any train disruptions. Exits were also made free. In addition, to increase satisfaction with public transport, free off-peak morning travel, later changed to a discount, was introduced with further improvements continuing to be discussed.
Since 2018, efforts in both maintenance and renewal are starting to pay off with the MRT system clocking an average of 690,000 km between delays in 2018 – a 3.8 times improvement than in 2017. The North–South line, which was hit by the tunnel flood in 2017, in particular saw its train-km between delays increase by ten-fold from 89,000 km between delays in 2017 to 894,000 km in 2018. By July 2019, the Mean Kilometres Between Failure (MKBF) for the North–South and East–West lines had jumped to 700,000 km and 1,400,000 km respectively. The new challenges encountered by the government were now on keeping the funding of such renewals required sustainable in the decades ahead.
Security
Security concerns related to crime and terrorism were not high on the agenda of the system's planners at its inception. After the Madrid train bombings in 2004 and the foiled plot to bomb the Yishun MRT station in 2001, the operators deployed private, unarmed guards to patrol station platforms and conduct checks on the belongings of commuters, especially those carrying bulky items.
Recorded announcements are frequently made to remind passengers to report suspicious activity and not to leave their belongings unattended. Digital closed-circuit cameras (CCTVs) have been upgraded with recording-capability at all stations and trains operated by SMRT Corporation. Trash bins and mail boxes have been removed from station platforms and concourse levels to station entrances, to eliminate the risk of bombs planted in them. Photography without permission was also banned in all MRT stations since the Madrid bombings, but it was not in the official statement in any public transport security reviews.
In 2005, the Singapore Police Force announced plans to step up rail security by establishing a specialised security unit for public transport, then known as the Police MRT unit. The unit today expanded to become Public Transport Security Command (TRANSCOM) since 2009. These armed officers began overt patrols on the MRT and LRT systems on 15 August 2005, conducting random patrols in pairs in and around rail stations and within trains. They are trained and authorised to use their firearms at their discretion, including deadly force if deemed necessary. The unit over time went on to handle other crimes committed on the MRT network, such as theft and molestation. Recently, on its tenth anniversary in 2019, it has formally evolved to become a hybrid, community-based force, and has launched an initiative to get commuters to aid Transcom officers. Since then, 26,000 people have volunteered, far above the 3000 target.
Civil exercises are regularly conducted to maintain preparedness for contingencies. In January 2006, Exercise Northstar V involved over 2,000 personnel from 22 government agencies responding to simulated bombings and chemical attacks at Dhoby Ghaut, Toa Payoh, Raffles Place and Marina Bay stations. In August 2013, Exercise Greyhound tested the response of SBS Transit's Operations Control Centre and the implementation of its contingency plans for bus bridging, free bus service and deployment of goodwill ambassadors (GAs) during a simulated prolonged train service disruption. About 300 personnel including representatives from LTA, SBST, SMRT, the Singapore Police Force's Transport Command (TransCom), Traffic Police and Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) participated in the exercise.
Security concerns were brought up by the public when two incidents of vandalism at train depots occurred within two years. In both incidents, graffiti on the affected trains was discovered after they entered revenue service.
The first incident, on 17 May 2010, involved a breach in the perimeter fence of Changi Depot and resulted in the imprisonment and caning of a Swiss citizen, and an Interpol arrest warrant for his accomplice. SMRT Corporation received a S$50,000 fine by the Land Transport Authority for the first security breach. Measures were put in place by the Public Transport Security Committee to enhance depot security in light of the first incident, but works were yet to be completed by SMRT Corporation when the second incident, on 17 August 2011, occurred at Bishan Depot.
Controversies
Priority seats
There are generally a number of seats in each MRT carriage designated as 'priority seats' located near the train doors which are intended to be used by the elderly, pregnant women, parents with infants and others with mobility problems. The use of such seats by persons who do not fit the foregoing description or who do not outwardly appear to be in need of a seat on the MRT, has repeatedly been the subject of public debate in Singapore.
In 2019, the LTA launched the "May I have a seat please?" initiative. Under the initiative, upon request, LTA provides commuters with non-visible health conditions or disabilities or short-term or temporary conditions (such as where they are on medical leave), with a lanyard or sticker respectively reading "May I have a seat please?".
Eating or drinking
Under Regulation 14 of the Rapid Transport Systems Regulations, consumption of any food or drinks in MRT carriages or in MRT stations is prohibited. Offenders may be fined up to S$500. SMRT has stated that this prohibition extends to the consumption of small snacks (such as sweets) as well as the drinking of plain water. Some commentators have suggested that SMRT's strict enforcement of this prohibition, especially during hot weather or against persons with legitimate needs (such as where consumption of food or drink is needed for medical reasons), is disproportionate and unnecessary.
See also
List of Singapore MRT stations
Light Rail Transit (Singapore)
Transport in Singapore
List of metro systems
Medium-capacity rail transport system
Rail transport in Singapore
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Academic publications
Corporate and governmental sources
External links
and
LTA MRT/LRT Network Information
Mass Rapid Transit
Underground rapid transit in Singapore
750 V DC railway electrification
1500 V DC railway electrification
1987 establishments in Singapore
Automated guideway transit
|
416501
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20Division%20%28Australia%29
|
3rd Division (Australia)
|
The 3rd Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army. Existing during various periods between 1916 and 1991, it is considered the "longest serving Australian Army division". It was first formed during World War I, as an infantry division of the Australian Imperial Force and saw service on the Western Front in France and Belgium. During this time it fought major battles at Messines, Broodseinde Ridge, Passchendaele, Amiens, and the St Quentin Canal.
After the war the division was demobilised in 1919 before being re-raised in 1921 as part of the Citizen Forces, based in central Victoria. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the division's establishment fluctuated due to the effects of the Great Depression and a general apathy towards military matters.
During World War II, the division was mobilised for war in December 1941 and initially undertook defensive duties in Australia before being deployed to New Guinea in 1943 where they took part in the Salamaua–Lae campaign against the Japanese in 1943–1944, before returning to Australia for rest and reorganisation. In late 1944 they were sent to Bougainville to take part in their final campaign of the war. There they undertook a series of advances across the island before the war came to an end in August 1945.
Following the end of hostilities the division was disbanded in December 1945 as part of the demobilisation process, but was it later re-raised in 1948 as part of the Citizens Military Force. It subsequently served through the Cold War as a reserve formation until 1991 when the division was disbanded for a final time as the Australian Army was restructured and the focus of Australian field force operations shifted from the divisional-level to brigades.
History
World War I
Formation and training
In early 1916, following the unsuccessful Gallipoli campaign, the decision was made to expand the size of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). At the time there were two divisions in Egypt—the 1st and 2nd—and of these, one of them (the 1st) was split up to provide a cadre upon which to raise the 4th and 5th Divisions. Around this time the decision to raise a fifth division from fresh volunteers in Australia was also made and as a result the 3rd Division was officially raised on 2 February 1916.
Upon formation, the division drew its personnel from all Australian states and consisted of three four-battalion infantry brigades—the 9th, 10th and the 11th—and a number of supporting elements including engineers, artillery and medical personnel. Only rudimentary initial training was undertaken before elements of the division began the embarkation process in May and June 1916 as they were moved to the United Kingdom, where the individual sub units concentrated for the first time, received arms and other equipment and began the task of undertaking further training at Lark Hill, on Salisbury Plain. In July the division's artillery component was formed, consisting of three batteries of 18-pounders and one 4.5 inch howitzer battery. The process of raising and training took some time and consequently the division was not transferred to France until mid November 1916. Prior to this, however, the division endured proposals to break it up to provide reinforcements to the other four Australian divisions that were already in France. Although these threats passed, in early September 1916, following losses around Pozières, almost 3,000 men from the 3rd Division were transferred. Throughout October it seemed likely that further drafts would be siphoned away from the division, however, this did not occur and in early November two divisional exercises were undertaken. Finally, on 21 November 1916, the 3rd Division crossed the English Channel and arrived in France.
Under the command of Major General John Monash, the division was assigned to II ANZAC Corps. For the next two years they would take part in most of the major battles that the Australians fought on the Western Front. Initially they were deployed around Armentières in a "quiet" sector of the line, where they gained their first experiences of trench warfare, conducting patrols into No Man's Land and minor raids on the German trenches opposite them during the winter months.
Early engagements, 1917
By January 1917 the 3rd Division's artillery had been reorganised so that it consisted of two field artillery brigades, each of which consisted of three six-gun 18-pounder batteries and twelve 4.5 inch howitzers. These brigades were the 7th (consisting of the 25th, 26th, 27th and 107th Batteries) and the 8th (29th, 30th, 31st and 108th Batteries). In April 1917 the division was moved to the Messines–Wytschaete Ridge section of the line in Belgium, taking up a position on the extreme right of II ANZAC Corps, with the New Zealand Division to its left. It was here, in early June 1917, that the division undertook its first major engagement of the war when it was committed to the fighting during the Battle of Messines. Monash tasked the 9th and 10th Brigades to provide the assault force for the 3rd Division's part of the operation, while the 11th Brigade was to act as the divisional reserve.
As the division's assault units began their approach march towards the Line of Departure late on the evening of 6 June, the German artillery opened up with a gas bombardment that severely hindered the march, breaking up the assaulting units as men became lost. Suffering over 2,000 casualties before the battle even began, many of the division's assault units reached their assembly points with less than 200 men, nevertheless they arrived on time and at the appointed hour, after a number of mines were exploded in front of their positions, the assault began. The exploding mines had destroyed a large part of the German line and as a result initial resistance was quickly overcome by the division's lead battalions—the 33rd, 34th, 38th and 39th—and by 5 am, the division had gained the crest of the Messines ridge and began digging in to defend against a possible counter-attack. In the engagements that followed the division largely played only a supporting role.
Following this, the division's next major engagement came on 4 October 1917 when it took part in the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge. This time the 9th Brigade was held back in reserve, while the 10th and 11th Brigades led the division forward. Attacking on the left of the Australian 2nd Division and the right of the New Zealand Division, early on the morning of the scheduled start of the attack the German artillery opened up on the division's eight assaulting infantry battalions as they stood to in the open ready to step off. Conserving their artillery for the main attack, the supporting Allied artillery only provided limited counter-battery fire and the division suffered heavily as they were forced to endure an hour-long barrage before zero hour came at 6 am. As the 37th and 43rd Battalions led the advance towards the German lines, supported by small teams of mortarmen and machine gunners, the Germans launched their own attack, however, the Australian assault had taken them by surprise and after some initial resistance, the German assault troops began to fall back or surrender. As the follow-on battalions exploited the ground gained in the initial assault the advance continued and by 9:15 am the 3rd Division had carried the ridge and begun to dig in, having advanced . A counterattack late in the day on the 11th Brigade's position was turned back, sealing a stunning success for the 3rd Division. Nevertheless, the division's casualties were high, with over 1,800 men killed or wounded. For his actions during the attack, Walter Peeler, a Lewis-gunner from the 3rd Pioneer Battalion who was attached to 37th Battalion for anti-aircraft duties received the Victoria Cross after he personally led the assault on a number of German positions.
They held the line for a further three days before being withdrawn for rest and reorganisation. On 10 October 1917 the division returned to the front and began to make preparations to assault Passchendaele Ridge, an advance of over . Heavy rain, however, had turned the battlefield into a thick, muddy morass and as a result transportation and resupply efforts were hampered as were attempts to reposition the supporting artillery and as a consequence when the attack went in at 5:25 am on 12 October the 9th and 10th Brigades had only limited fire support. With only a fraction of the guns required and limited ammunition, the artillery that was supposed to provide a creeping barrage behind which the infantry were to advance could only provide a thin bombardment. Nevertheless, the mud was so thick that the infantry were unable to keep up with the barrage and, unable to maintain the required rate of advance, they eventually they fell behind the barrage and lost any cover that it might otherwise have provided.
Upon reaching the Bellevue Spur, the assaulting infantry, caught in the open upon the barbed wire in front of the German positions, suffered heavily at the hands of the German artillery that was able to fire without answer from the British batteries that had run out of ammunition. Nevertheless, the 10th Brigade managed to reach its first objective, as did the 9th which even pushed on to its second, however, as they began to receive enfilade fire from their left flank where the New Zealand Division's attack had ground to a halt, the Germans began massing for a counterattack and the Australian positions quickly became untenable. On the division's right flank another gap had begun to develop as they lost contact with the Australian 4th Division and as a result the order to retire was passed. As they returned to the start line, the assault units were relieved by the 11th Brigade, which had formed the divisional reserve. By the end of the day, the division had lost almost 3,200 men killed or wounded. They played no further offensive role in the battle and were eventually removed from the line on 22 October as the Canadians took over from them.
The fighting around Passchendaele proved to be the division's last offensive actions for 1917 and they spent the winter months in the rear training, or undertaking defensive duties in reasonably quiet sectors of the line as they were reformed and brought back up to strength. Around this time also, the five Australian divisions on the Western Front were reorganised into a unified command structure under the Australian Corps.
German Spring Offensive, 1918
In March 1918 the Germans launched their Spring Offensive near Saint-Quentin and as the Allied line collapsed, the German forces advanced swiftly into the Somme valley. Believing that another attack would be directed against the forces in the Flanders sector, in an effort to reinforce the British forces there, the Allied commanders recalled the 3rd Division was recalled from its quiet sector around Armentières and sent it to Ypres. The attack came, however, at the Somme and so on 24 March the division was transferred south to help stem the advance and defend the approaches towards the important railhead at Amiens. Temporarily placed under the command of the British VII Corps, the division took up position to the east of Amiens in between the Ancre and Somme Rivers.
Lacking any reserves and possessing only limited artillery support, the division's engineers prepared the bridges over the rivers for detonation. From 27 March onwards minor actions were fought along the line as the German advance began to reach the Australians. On 30 March, during the First Battle of Morlancourt, a serious attempt at penetrating the line around Sailly-Laurette was held and broken up by the 11th Brigade, with German losses being assessed at around one and a half brigades, or roughly between 3,000 and 4,000 men. Meanwhile, the 9th Brigade was detached from the division and sent south, where it participated in a counter-attack around Villers-Bretonneux. On 6 April, further attempts were made and in the confusion the charges that had been placed on the Bouzencourt Bridge were fired and it was dropped into the Somme Canal. Nevertheless, the attempt was beaten off by the 10th Brigade. Following this the Australians were able to begin taking the initiative and throughout May they began to slowly recapture some of the ground that had been lost earlier as they undertook a series of Peaceful Penetration operations, including the Second Battle of Morlancourt.
In June 1918, the 3rd Division's commander, Monash, was promoted to take over command of the Australian Corps and as a result Major General John Gellibrand took over as divisional commander.
Battle of Amiens, 1918
On 8 August 1918, the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive around Amiens and the 3rd Division was tasked with leading the Australian Corps part in the attack. By this stage, the divisional artillery consisted of three field brigades, and under the cover of a heavy artillery bombardment provided by nine field brigades that were organised in three supporting sub-groups, and supported by tanks and gas, the attack began at 4:20 am. The weight of the Allied fire support was intense as over 2,000 artillery pieces opened up on the German defences. The assaulting infantry battalions were each assigned a frontage of about which they assaulted with two companies forward and two in support. Thick smoke meant that the attackers found it difficult to maintain their spacing and some of the supporting armour was also delayed. Nevertheless, the attack proved successful, as the Australians overwhelmed the German defenders and by the end of the day the division had achieved all of its objectives.
Throughout the rest of August, they continued offensive operations, even launching daylight raids upon the German positions. On 22 August they attacked once more, advancing through the village of Bray, capturing a number of German prisoners. After a brief lull in the fighting, they continued the advance again on 25 August capturing Clery at the end of the week before taking Allaines on 2 September. Throughout September the Germans began to withdraw back towards the Hindenburg Line and the 3rd Division took part in the operations undertaken to follow them up and harass the rearguard. Casualties during this phase had been high, however, and as a result the division's pioneers were used as infantry and even led the advance towards Buire on 6 September.
As operations continued throughout the month, casualties amongst the Australian Corps became critical and the decision was made to disband some of the 3rd Division's battalions and use them to reinforce the remaining units. This decision saw the reduction of the strength of division's infantry brigades from four battalions to three, bringing the Australians into line with the British, who had made a similar decision earlier in the war. Nevertheless, the decision was not popular amongst the soldiers and when the 42nd Battalion received the order to disband, the attempt was rejected by its personnel and the order disobeyed. As a result, the proposed reorganisation was postponed until after the division's final offensive actions were fought in early October 1918. These came around the St Quentin Canal when the division attacked the Beaurevoir Line in concert with American troops from the US 27th Division, who would lead the assault in. The attack went awry, however, when the lead assault units failed to adequately clear the forward positions and subsequently when the 3rd Division was committed they came under fire almost immediately and instead of passing through the American positions, they had to complete the mopping up process before they could advance. Nevertheless, by nightfall on 1 October, the division had captured the northern end of the tunnel that ran under the canal.
On 2 October the majority of the 3rd Division was removed from the line for rest and reorganisation, although a number of its artillery batteries would continue to support the operations of the II American Corps until they were withdrawn. Following this they continued to participate in the fighting in support of the British 6th Division. The 27th Battery fired the division's last shot of the war on 4 November at Wassigny. Nevertheless, the division was out of the line when news of the Armistice came on 11 November 1918. Following the end of hostilities the demobilisation process began and as men were repatriated back to Australia, the division was eventually disbanded on 28 May 1919.
Inter-war years
Following the end of the war, the AIF was disbanded and the focus of Australia's military forces was the units of the Citizens Force. Between 1918 and 1921, as the demobilisation process was completed, this force existed in a state of flux, however, in 1921 planning for the post war Army was finally completed. On 1 May 1921 the 3rd Division was re-raised in Victoria as part of the 3rd Military District. Upon formation it consisted of three four-battalion brigades—the 4th Brigade, 10th Brigade and 15th Brigade—and various supporting units including artillery, engineers, signals, transport and medical.
At this time, the existing infantry battalions of the Citizens Force were redesignated to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF, and although an attempt was made to allocate these designations based on regional considerations, ultimately this was not always possible and ultimately when the 3rd Division was re-established, only two of its component battalions—the 37th and 39th Battalions—had previously been assigned to the division.
With a peacetime establishment of about 16,000 personnel (18,400 upon mobilisation), the division was brought up to strength through the compulsory training scheme. Initially the system worked well and a number of the division's subunits reported being above establishment, however, this did not last long. In 1922, the Washington Naval Treaty was signed and theoretically alleviated Australia's security concerns about Japanese expansion in the Pacific. As a result, the Army's budget was halved and as the scope of the compulsory training scheme was scaled back, the authorised strength of each infantry battalion was reduced to just 409 men of all ranks. The division's artillery was also reduced, with one field battery in each artillery brigade being disbanded at this time. As a result of the subsequent reorganisation, the 3rd Division's artillery consisted of three artillery brigades, the 2nd, 4th and 8th.
In 1929 the compulsory training scheme was suspended following the election of the Scullin Labor government. In its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Force would be maintained on a part-time, voluntary basis only. It was also renamed the "Militia" at this time. The decision to suspend compulsory training, coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and as a result a number of units were amalgamated. As a part of this process, the division was reduced from 12 infantry battalions to nine as six battalions were merged to form new amalgamated units—29th/22nd, 37th/52nd and 57th/60th Battalions. To a large extent, however, these were hollow structures and by 1931 the 3rd Division's overall establishment was just 4,505 men all ranks.
Throughout the 1930s the number of active personnel remained low and out of necessity training opportunities were limited. After 1936, however, the Army attempted to improve the conditions of service for its members and to reinvigorate the training program, while individual units began to undertake their own recruiting campaigns. Nevertheless, it was not until 1938, as tensions grew in Europe and the prospect of war became more likely, that an attempt was made to expand the establishment of the Militia. At this time an effort was made to determine the readiness of the Militia to expand if mobilised. During the continuous training camps undertaken throughout 1938, each component unit was assessed with mixed results. The following year, 1939, saw further expansion and by the end of April of that year, the division's posted strength had grown to 9,589 personnel. As a part of this expansion, the divisional artillery was expanded by the re-raising of the batteries that had been disbanded in 1922.
World War II
Home duties
On 3 September 1939, Australia found itself once again at war, after attempts at finding a diplomatic solution to the German invasion of Poland had failed. Following the outbreak of World War II, mobilisation began slowly as the government called up a force of about 8,000 Militia personnel to undertake security duties in the days following the declaration of war. A short time later, the decision was made to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service, known as the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF). This was necessary due to the provisions of the Defence Act (1903) which precluded deploying the Militia outside of Australian territory, and as a result the government decided to use the Militia to provide a small cadre upon which the 2nd AIF would be raised, as well as to provide training to conscripts as part of the compulsory training scheme which was re-established in early 1940. Nevertheless, during this time large numbers of officers and senior non-commissioned officers from the 3rd Division volunteered for service with the 2nd AIF and many units lost a large amount of their experienced personnel at this time.
Throughout 1940–41, the Militia were called up in cohorts for periods of continuous training, and the 3rd Division, still consisting of the 4th, 10th and 15th Brigades, undertook a series of training camps around Seymour, Victoria. In March 1941, the division's artillery was reorganised to bring it in line with the British organisational system with each artillery brigade being converted to a field regiment. Numerical designations stayed the same, however, and by late 1941 the division had completed its transition. This saw its infantry brigades once again reduced from four battalions to three, while various supporting elements were inserted at brigade-level, however, training at this time was still rudimentary and limited mainly to individual skills, and the division's establishment was recorded as being only half of its authorised wartime establishment. There was also a shortage of modern equipment.
With Japan's entry into the war following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and Malaya, it became more likely that the division would be called upon to undertake active service overseas, and the division was mobilised for war. In early January 1942, Major General Stanley Savige, an experienced officer who had commanded the 17th Brigade in combat against the Germans in the Middle East earlier in the war, took over command of the division. Savige set about the task of preparing the division for combat and he began by removing officers that he did not think were physically fit enough or competent to lead in battle and replacing them with men who had gained experience in AIF units. A comprehensive training program was established and in April 1942 the division was assigned to the Australian I Corps, and to enable divisional exercises to begin, the 3rd Division moved to Bonegilla, Victoria. To toughen the men up, Savige decided that they would march on foot to the new camp.
The following month they were relocated once more, this time to Queensland where they undertook training exercises and defensive duties along the coast between Brisbane and Tweed Heads on the New South Wales border. At this time, the Army began to rectify the deficiencies in the division's equipment lists and battalions began receiving new machine guns, motor transport and Bren carriers. As the situation in New Guinea grew worse, the decision was made to reorganise the 3rd Division and throughout August, four battalions were amalgamated—the 37th, 52nd, 58th and 59th. In September, the 10th Brigade was disbanded and its battalions reallocated to the 4th and 15th Brigades. In October, the 29th and 46th Battalions were also amalgamated, leaving the division with just six infantry battalions in two brigades.
New Guinea, 1943–1944
In early 1943 the division was despatched to New Guinea, with the 15th Brigade being sent to Port Moresby and the 4th Brigade going to Milne Bay. At this point the 4th Brigade was reassigned to the 5th Division. It would later be replaced within the division by the 29th Brigade. The division's stay in Port Moresby was brief and in April it began moving to Wau where they subsumed the units assigned to Kanga Force, including the 17th Brigade, a 2nd AIF formation, and began operations as part of the Salamaua–Lae campaign.
Initially operations were limited to the area immediately surrounding Bulolo, but as the division became established the headquarters was shifted to Tambu Bay and brigades were pushed out towards Mubo, and the Komiatum and Bobdui Ridges, while defensive patrols were undertaken through the Wampit Valley, around the Bulwa and Zenag airstrips and towards the Markham River. Stretched across a front of over , in June the division was reinforced by the US 162nd Infantry Regiment. Following this the division took on primary responsibility for Allied operations in New Guinea. Eventually Lae fell in September and soon afterwards, its elements were moved back to Port Moresby, before being sent to support the 7th Division's campaign in the Markham and Ramu Valleys and the advance on Madang.
In August 1944 the 3rd Division's brigades were withdrawn back to Australia for leave and reorganisation. After this, preparations began for the division's next campaign. Around this time, the 3rd Division adopted the Jungle divisional establishment, and was reorganised around three infantry brigades: the 7th, 15th and 29th Brigades. It was also assigned to the Australian II Corps.
Bougainville 1944–1945
In late 1944 it was decided that the Australians would take over responsibility from the Americans for operations against the Japanese on Bougainville. From November–December 1944, the 3rd Division, along with two independent brigades, the 11th and 23rd, began to relieve the units of the US XIV Corps that were to be transferred elsewhere in the Pacific. Allied intelligence of Japanese strengths on the island varied at the time, although it was believed that there were around 17,500 Japanese on Bougainville. Although this was later proved to be grossly incorrect, nevertheless the Allies believed that the Japanese formations in the area, despite being under strength, were still capable of carrying out effective combat operations. As a result, it was decided that II Corps would go on the offensive to clear the Japanese from the island and a three pronged campaign was planned in the northern, central and southern sectors of the island.
The division was supported by a number of artillery units including the 2nd and 4th Field Regiments and the 2nd Mountain Battery, and various anti-aircraft units. Later, also 'U' Heavy Battery, with four 155 mm howitzers was transferred from Lae, as was the 2/11th Field Regiment. To provide organic fire support during the advance, the decision was made at this time to place the divisional artillery assets directly underneath the subunits they were supporting. At the outset, the division's allocation of engineers consisted of only two field companies, the 5th and 11th, however over the course of the campaign others arrived including the 10th, 15th and the 7th, which was the last to arrive in June 1945. Ultimately the division had almost 1,600 engineers across five field companies and various supporting plant, park and other units. This represented one of the largest engineer contingents within an Australian division during the war. Initially the division was deployed without armoured support. However, in December 1944, 'B' Squadron, 2/4th Armoured Regiment, equipped with Matilda II tanks, arrived and subsequently took part in operations on the island attached to elements of the division.
The 7th Brigade, supported by the 2nd Field Regiment, was the first to commence operations, as the 9th Battalion launched a surprise attack in the central sector of the island upon a Japanese outpost at Little George Hill on 25 November. The following month the battalion seized control of Artillery Hill, while the 29th Brigade began patrolling operations in the southern sector.
Following the capture of Pearl Ridge by the 25th Battalion, the focus of the 3rd Division's operations on Bougainville was shifted on the northern and southern sectors. The 11th Brigade, independent of the 3rd Division, assumed control of the drive to the north, while the 3rd Division concentrated on the drive south towards Buin, where the main Japanese force was concentrated. Rotating his brigades, the division's commander, Major General William Bridgeford, advanced south from Torokina towards the Puriata river. After crossing it, the Japanese launched a significant counterattack around Slater's Knoll, which was eventually beaten off in early April.
In April 1945 the 15th Brigade took over from the 7th Brigade and resumed the advance on the Hongorai and Mivo rivers. In early July, the 29th Brigade relieved the 15th and continued the advance and as they attempted to cross the Mivo, the Japanese launched a ferocious counter-attack upon the 15th Battalion which was turned back by desperate defence. Following this the advance came to a halt as torrential rain turned the axis of advance into "a sea of mud" and many of the bridges upon which the Australian supply system was dependent were washed away. As the situation became worse, briefly even patrolling operations had to be stopped. These patrols were resumed, however, in late July and into August, as isolated pockets of Japanese began to attack the 3rd Division's supply lines and support units. As preparations were made to resume the advance, the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan's subsequent unconditional surrender brought the fighting on Bougainville to an end and a cease fire came into effect.
Following the end of hostilities, the demobilisation process began and eventually the 3rd Division was disbanded on 4 December 1945. During the division's campaign in Bougainville, one of its soldiers, Reg Rattey, earned the Victoria Cross for his actions during the fighting around Slater's Knoll. Some personnel from the division later served in the 67th Infantry Battalion, undertaking occupation duties as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.
Cold War
In 1948, with demobilisation of Australia's wartime army complete, the decision was made to re-raise the part-time forces of the Militia, albeit with the new name of the Citizens Military Force (CMF), and on a reduced establishment of two infantry divisions, an armoured brigade and various corps-level support units. During this time the 3rd Division was re-raised and based around a nucleus of three infantry brigades—the 4th, 6th and 9th Brigades—it was once again based in central Victoria, although subunits were also based in South Australia and Tasmania. Once again the division's component units bore little resemblance to those that had fought with it during the two World Wars. Service in the post war CMF was initially on a voluntary basis and recruitment remained poor until 1951 when conscription was introduced once again in an effort to improve the readiness of the Australian military during the Korean War. The 3rd Division was not deployed during this time, however, and although national service was instituted, service in Korea was undertaken on a voluntary basis, and conscription was used only as a means to expand the CMF and provide a base upon which mobilisation could be achieved if it proved necessary.
Nevertheless, the resulting influx of manpower revitalised the CMF to the point that during the 1950s the division experienced a remarkable level of manning and resources that saw many units achieve full strength, with full equipment allocations. On 23 March 1958 a divisional parade was conducted at Puckapunyal, bringing together all of the division's Victorian-based units in a concentration of force not seen in the division since 1916. The following year the division conducted a live-fire exercise at Puckapunyal based upon the 4th Brigade and involving over 3,500 men, tanks, artillery, aircraft, and various supporting arms. Despite the success demonstrated by the exercise, it would be the last time that the division mounted something similar the national service scheme was modified to limit the size of each yearly intake of trainees and the size of the CMF was reduced by over 30,000 men in an effort to free up Regular personnel to raise the 1st Brigade. The 1957 reforms, however, did not achieve the efficiencies required to free up Regular personnel to meet the strategic requirements to maintain a regular field force that was ready to respond to the exigencies of the Cold War. As a result, in 1959 the decision was made to suspend national service as it was realised that further changes were required to expand the size of the Regular army. Further changes came with the introduction of the Pentropic divisional establishment into the Australian Army. This saw the reduction of the Army to just two divisions, the 1st and 3rd Divisions, and as a part of this the division was reorganised into five battalion-plus sized battle groups, and resulted in the removal of brigade-level formations and the disbandment and amalgamation of a number of smaller regionally based infantry battalions, into larger units that were part of State-based regiments.
With an authorised peacetime establishment of 13,621 personnel, the 3rd Division included formations in five different military command districts including Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australia as well as those in South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria. The main infantry components at this time were: 2nd Battalion, Royal Queensland Regiment (RQR); 1st Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment (RVR); 2nd Battalion, RVR; 1st Battalion, Royal South Australia Regiment (RSAR); and 1st Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment.
The Australian Army's experiment with the Pentropic establishment did not last long, however, as it created a number of planning issues including lack of interoperability with other Western allies, none of whom used it. As a result, it was abandoned in late 1964 and into early 1965 and the 3rd Division was once again reorganised. The resulting changes saw the establishment of brigade-level formations, briefly known as "task forces", however, due to other planning considerations only one was raised for the 3rd Division at this time: the 4th Task Force, consisting of four infantry battalions: 1, 2, 5 and 6 RVR.
At the same time, the Australian government announced that the national service scheme would be implemented once again, however, instead of focusing upon expanding the CMF, the scheme was set up so that national servicemen would serve limited terms of service in Australian Regular Army (ARA) units with a view to service overseas in Vietnam and Malaysia. This highlighted the changing focus of Australia's military planning towards Regular forces, however, it had a negative impact upon the division as essentially it was forced to compete with the ARA for manpower and although some gains were made from men that chose to serve longer national service terms in the CMF to defer their service in ARA units, these were negligible and arguably of limited quality. The government's decision not to deploy CMF units to these conflicts meant that many of the division's experienced personnel chose to transfer to ARA units to gain operational experience, although some attempts were made to rectify this situation by offering CMF officers the opportunity to undertake a short attachment to an ARA unit serving in Vietnam and a number of 3rd Division officers took up this opportunity, a few even saw combat.
When the national service scheme was ended following the election of the Whitlam government in late 1972, the 3rd Division lost a large number of personnel. At this time, the division's artillery assets included two artillery field regiments, a medium regiment, and a divisional locating battery, and although on paper the division was a large, combined arms formation, in reality many of its units were hollow and inadequately equipped, and in the decades following this the division, and indeed the CMF in general, underwent a period of uncertainty as the government attempted to solve the issues that the organisation faced, the most pressing of which was the question of its role and strategic relevance, as well as those concerning conditions of service, centralisation of training and access to equipment.
In 1976 the division's combat strength had dropped to the extent that it was really only a brigade-group formation, possessing only two infantry battalions: 1 and 2 RVR, as well as two field artillery regiments, a medium regiment and a locating battery. As a result, in February the division's headquarters were merged with the 4th Task Force's headquarters as the 3rd Division was redesignated as the "3rd Division Field Force Group". At the same time, the position of formation commander was downgraded to the rank of brigadier rather than major general. This remained the case until April 1984 when the divisional headquarters was re-established.
In the late 1980s the division was given the task of vital asset protection under the Defence of Australia doctrine and the division undertook a number of exercises in the north of Australia, including "Kangaroo 89" in which more than 3,000 of its personnel took part. Nevertheless, in June 1991, following a force structure review, the 3rd Division was finally removed from the Australian Army's order of battle, and its remaining units were transferred to the command of the 4th Brigade.
Commanding officers
The following is a list of the 3rd Division's commanding officers:
See also
Military history of Australia during World War I
Military history of Australia during World War II
1916 Pioneer Exhibition Game
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
Australian 3rd Division Vehicle Marking
First AIF Order of Battle 1914–1918: Third Division
3rd Australian Division AASC
03
03
03
Military units and formations established in 1916
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
1916 establishments in Australia
Military units and formations established in 1921
Military units and formations disestablished in 1946
1946 disestablishments in Australia
Military units and formations established in 1948
Military units and formations disestablished in 1991
|
416509
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th%20Division%20%28Australia%29
|
4th Division (Australia)
|
The Australian 4th Division was formed in the First World War during the expansion of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) infantry brigades in February 1916. In addition to the experienced 4th Brigade (previously in the original New Zealand and Australian Division) were added the new 12th and 13th Brigades (spawned from the battalions of the 4th and 3rd Brigades respectively). From Egypt the division was sent to France, where it took part in the fighting on the Western Front during 1916–1918. After the war ended, the AIF was demobilised and the division was dissolved.
In 1921, the 4th Division was reactivated as a Citizen Military Forces (militia/reserve) formation. The division performed home defence duties for most of World War II. The division's composition during World War II changed frequently, as brigades were rotated between different divisions and moved to different locations as the need arose. The division spent the majority of the war in Western Australia, before moving to Queensland prior to its deactivation in late 1944.
World War I
Formation in Egypt, 1916
In January 1916, in the aftermath of the Gallipoli Campaign, the Australian government decided to expand the Australian Imperial Force, then based in Egypt, prior to the force's deployment to the Western Front. At the time, two divisions already existed in Egypt: the 1st and 2nd. The 3rd Division was also being raised in Australia. The 2nd Division had only been partially raised by the time it was sent to Gallipoli late in the campaign, so it was left to complete its formation, while the 1st Division, and the spare 4th Brigade (which had formed part of the composite New Zealand and Australian Division and had served at Gallipoli) were used to provide an experienced cadre to form the 4th and 5th Divisions. The 4th Division subsequently gained the experienced 4th Brigade, and two newly raised brigades – the 12th and 13th – which were formed from cadres from the 4th and 3rd Brigades respectively.
Under the command of Major General Vaughan Cox, a British Indian Army officer, the 4th Division began forming at Tel el Kebir, in Egypt in February 1916. In addition to three infantry brigades, the new division included various support troops, including the 4th Field Company, 4th Field Ambulance and 7th Army Service Corps Company, which had previously served at Gallipoli. Together with the 5th Division, the 4th Division formed II ANZAC Corps under Lieutenant General Alexander Godley.
There were delays in assembling the divisional artillery as I ANZAC Corps, which was to proceed to France first, received priority for personnel and artillery pieces. Consequently, the division could not depart for France before June 1916. In the meantime, the 4th Division undertook defensive duties along the Suez Canal, around Serapeum, to defend against a possible Ottoman attack. As it was necessary for elements of the division to take over as soon as possible, the 16th Battalion was sent ahead by train, while the rest of the division completed the move on foot, marching through the desert from Tel el Kebir to take up their positions, arriving in late March. At Serapeum, the division absorbed a batch of reinforcements that had been left behind by the departed 1st and 2nd Divisions, consisting of men with poor conduct records, who were deemed to need further training prior to employment in combat.
Somme, 1916
Personnel deficiencies amongst the division's artillery units were hastily rectified by bolstering numbers from the division's infantry units, as well as light horse reinforcements. Throughout May, these units received rudimentary training and by the end of the month, the 4th Division received its orders to deploy to the Western Front. The following month, the division moved to France, taking over part of the "nursery" sector near Armentières, where they could be introduced to trench warfare in a relatively quite area. The 4th Brigade was first into the line, taking over a sector from the 2nd Division on 15 June.
The division was transferred to I ANZAC Corps around this time, swapping with the New Zealand Division. The division's stay at Armentières was brief and it soon accompanied the 1st and 2nd Divisions to the Somme sector where the British had launched an offensive in July. In August 1916, it relieved the 2nd Division on the Pozières heights, arriving in time to fight off a determined German counterattack. The attack fell largely on a small number of battalions, with the South Australian 48th Battalion losing nearly 600 men killed or wounded; the New South Welshman of the 45th Battalion were called upon to help a neighbouring British unit capture a position dubbed "Munster Alley", during which they lost 345 men. Meanwhile, an attack on the 14th Battalion was repulsed after an individual effort by Lieutenant Albert Jacka, who had previously received the Victoria Cross for actions at Gallipoli.
Following this, the division was brought back up to two thirds strength, and after relieving the 2nd Division, launched an attack to the north of Mouquet Farm. After a rest, the division returned to Mouquet Farm in late August and early September; the division's losses during these two periods amounted to over 7,000 killed or wounded. After a rest around Ypres, the division undertook a third tour of the front at Flers in the final months of 1916. In December 1916, Major General William Holmes assumed command of the division, arriving in January 1917.
Hindenburg Line, 1917
The 4th Division remained on the Somme during the winter of 1916–1917, enduring extreme cold and damp conditions. In the early part of 1917, after winter had passed, the division took part in operations on the Ancre, before the Germans sought to reduce the length of their line, withdrawing to prepared positions along the Hindenburg Line. In response, the Allied units began a brief pursuit, the Australian contribution to which involved columns from the 2nd and 5th Divisions being sent forward in pursuit. A period of rapid movement followed until the outposts were reached, and resistance grew. In April, the Fifth Army, to which the 4th Division was assigned, was ordered to attack the Hindenburg Line south of Arras. As part of this, on 11 April, two of the division's brigades – the 4th and 12th – assaulted the new line in the First Battle of Bullecourt, supported by British tanks for the first time. Due to break downs and other mishaps, the tanks were largely ineffective; nevertheless, the initial assault proved successful in capturing the first trench line, and also partially capturing the second. Lacking artillery support, which had been held back due to incorrect reports about the location of Allied troops, and enfiladed from the flanks, the Australians became cut off and came under heavy counter-attack from the 27th Division. Ultimately the battle was a disaster for the 4th Division, with 3,200 casualties, and 1,170 captured.
Following the failed attack around Bullecourt, the division was withdrawn from the line for rest and reinforcement. The next major attack it took part in came in June, when it participated in the Battle of Messines, in Flanders, Belgium. Fought as part of efforts to secure the Wytschaete – Messines Ridge, which existed south of a salient in the line around Ypres, providing the Germans with observation of the Allied positions, the battle saw the 4th Division brought in to reinforce the British 25th Division, the Australian 3rd and the New Zealand Division. Although slated to be the corps reserve, during the attack, launched on 7 June, the division was called upon to secure a large gap that developed in the line after the neighbouring British corps was held up. In this effort, the division was tasked with attacking the Oosttaverne Line late in the day. Enduring shelling by their own guns, and coming up against German pillboxes for the first time, the division took heavy casualties, but managed to secure all but a small part of the line where the Australian sector joined the neighbouring British sector.
Following the Battle of Messines, the division remained in the line around the town. On 2 July, the divisional commander, Holmes, was fatally wounded by a stray shell while escorting the New South Wales premier, William Holman, around the battlefield at Messines. Holmes was replaced temporarily by Brigadier General Charles Rosenthal until a new permanent commander could arrive, in the form of Major General Ewen Sinclair-Maclagan, who took over the division on 16 July 1917.
In September, the Australians took part in the Third Battle of Ypres. Within this wider battle, the Australian divisions took part in several subsidiary actions. The 1st and 2nd Divisions undertook the first attack around the Menin Road, which was followed up by the 4th and 5th Divisions around Polygon Wood on 26 September. Attacking in the centre of the Allied line, the two divisions were flanked by the British V Corps to the north, and X Corps to the south. The 4th Division was the more northern of the two Australian divisions for the assault, and tasked with capturing the northern part of Polygon Wood, and the high ground beyond it, and tying-in with the British around the edge of Zonnebeke while the 5th Division captured the remainder of the wood. Supported by a well co-ordinated artillery barrage, which rolled ahead of the assault, and then broke up the subsequent German counter-attack, the attack proved successful, albeit costly. The 4th Division's attack was carried by the 4th and 13th Brigades, with the 12th in reserve, and resulted in 1,700 casualties amongst the division.
On 12 October, the 12th Brigade was assigned to protect the 3rd Division's flank during the First Battle of Passchendaele, and took part in an effort to capture the Keiberg ridge. Although, elements of the 3rd were able to enter Passchendaele, and the 12th gained their objective, both groups were eventually forced back. The unsuccessful effort cost the 12th Brigade around 1,000 casualties. The Canadians then took over responsibility for the sector, and were eventually able to secure the village in November, while the Australians were withdrawn to Messines for a rest. In the wake of considerable losses, which could not be made up from voluntary recruitment, Australian authorities considered breaking up the 4th Division to provide reinforcements, although this did not eventuate. In November 1917, the division became part of the Australian Corps, initially under Lieutenant General William Birdwood and then later under Lieutenant General John Monash.
German Spring Offensive, 1918
Throughout the winter of 1917–1918, the Australians rotated between the front and rest areas around Flanders and northern France, during which time it was largely quiet, apart from occasional shelling and aerial attacks. In early 1917, the Australians moved back to the front around Messines, after a rest in the rear areas. The 4th Division spent a short period in the line around Hollebeke in the northern part of the Australian sector during this time. In late March, the division was rushed to the Somme region to stem the German spring offensive, which had been launched on 21 March and was threatening Amiens. The Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions had been ordered to proceed to Amiens to strengthen the retreating British 5th Army. There it repulsed the advancing Germans in several hard-fought battles at Hebuterne and Dernancourt.
The 4th Brigade was detached from the division during this time, and fought a sharp action alongside the New Zealanders at Hebuterne, holding off several German attacks in late March and early April. Meanwhile, the 12th and 13th Brigades established themselves south of Albert, around the railway embankment and cuttings of the Albert–Amiens railway at Dernancourt, where they joined troops of the British VII Corps. The 12th Brigade was positioned forward, taking over from the British 9th (Scottish) Division, while the 13th held a support position around Bresle and Ribemont-sur-Ancre. On 28 March, during the First Battle of Dernancourt, the 12th brigade helped fight off an attack by the 50th Reserve Division, with 137 Australian casualties. A week later, on 5 April, the Second Battle of Dernancourt was fought. In the lead up, the 13th Brigade moved forward beside the 12th, taking over from the 35th Division. Together, the two brigades faced an attack by two and a half German divisions in what was described by historian Chris Coulthard-Clark as "the strongest attack mounted against the Australians in the war". The Australian 48th Battalion soon found itself outflanked by Germans to its rear. The 48th was ordered to hold at all costs but by midday was facing annihilation and the senior officer ordered a withdrawal, which was completed in good order. The two brigades then committed their reserves, which restored the situation for the Allies. In the action, the division lost 1,230 casualties, and afterwards it was relieved by the 2nd Division.
In April, the 13th Brigade was involved in the counterattack at Villers-Bretonneux. On 21 April, in the lead up to the battle, the German fighter pilot, Manfred von Richthofen (the "Red Baron") was shot down over Australian lines, north of Villers-Bretonneux at Corbie. There are many theories as to who shot him down, one of which is that an Australian Vickers machine gunner, Sergeant Cedric Popkin of the 24th Machine-Gun Company, 4th Division, fired the actual bullet that killed von Richthofen. At dawn on 24 April, the Germans launched their attack, supported by armoured vehicles and a heavy artillery bombardment, that included mustard gas. With the situation urgent, the British III Corps ordered a counter-attack from the Australian 13th and 15th Brigades to retake the town. The attack was launched around 10 pm that night, with the two brigades isolated the town, enveloping it from the north and south, before entering it on Anzac Day to begin mopping up operations, with the Australians penetrating from the east, while British troops came from the opposite direction. The 14th Brigade, from the 5th Division, also filled a supporting role, securing flanking positions to the north of the town. In early May, the 12th Brigade carried out a follow-up attack around Monument Wood, to the east of Villers-Bretonneux, which made little headway against the defending Jager troops; nevertheless, the recapture of Villers-Bretonneux had restored the Allied line in the sector.
Hundred Days offensive, 1918
Following the defeat of the German Spring Offensive, a brief lull followed while the Allies prepared to launch their own offensive, which ultimately would bring an end to the war. During this time, the division went on to fight in the Battle of Hamel in July. The 4th Division was responsible for planning and commanding the attack, but the decision was made the only one of its brigades would take part with the 4th Brigade being reinforced by brigades from both the 3rd and 5th Divisions, as well as four companies from the US 33rd Infantry Division for the attack. A combined arms assault, including armour and air support, the attack proved successful in capturing the town, in just over 90 minutes, for around 1,400 casualties.
After the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive in August 1918, the division took part in the Battle of Amiens, the Battle of Albert, the Battle of Épehy and the battles against the Hindenburg Line outposts, finally reaching the town of Bellenglise. Withdrawn in late September, the division was replaced by the 3rd and 5th Divisions for the Battle of St Quentin Canal, and then the 2nd Division for the assault on the Beaureviour Line. For these final battles, the 4th Division provided 200 advisers to assist the inexperienced US troops that were assigned to Monash's corps. In early October, the remainder of the Australian Corps was withdrawn from the line for rest at the insistence of Prime Minister Billy Hughes.
After the armistice in November 1918, the division was not selected to advance into Germany. Demobilisation commenced in late 1918, and in March 1919 the division merged with 1st Australian Division, under the designation A Divisional Group, as personnel were repatriated back to Australia and individual units were demobilised. During the war, the division suffered 41,048 casualties, including 8,360 killed in action. Another 2,613 men died of wounds, and 872 died from other causes. A total of 2,076 men were captured, and 27,127 were wounded.
Inter-war years and World War II
In 1921, following the demobilisation of the AIF, Australia's part-time military forces were reorganised to replicate the numerical designations of the AIF. At this time, the 4th Division name was revived and was assigned to a Citizen Military Forces (reserve) formation headquartered in Melbourne, and assigned to the 3rd Military District. This formation consisted of three brigades spread across two states: the 2nd and 6th were based in Victoria, while the 3rd was based in South Australia. The division's commander upon re-establishment was Major General William Glasgow.
After the outbreak of war with Japan, the division was mobilised for war service and undertook defensive duties in southern Victoria, as part of Southern Command. In April 1942, the division became part of III Corps, which was responsible for the defence of Western Australia. The division occupied positions around Guildford, Geraldton, Moora and Perth. Following the arrival of the 2nd Division in July 1942, the division handed over the Perth region to them, although several rotations occurred over the next six months. In October 1942, the division took part in a large-scale anti-invasion exercise around Geraldton, which involved over 20,000 troops. Headquartered around Moora, the 2nd Brigade was positioned outside Geraldton, while the 6th held Irwin and Mingenew, and the 13th Brigade was around Dandaragan and Jurien Bay. Responding to a landing at Dongara, by a simulated Japanese division (played by the 8th Brigade) the exercise lasted four days and was the largest anti-invasion exercise undertaken by the Australian Army during the war.
In January 1943, the division was slowly broken up with the 6th Brigade being sent to Queensland and the 13th deploying to the Northern Territory. In April and May 1943, the division's headquarters was transferred to north Queensland, establishing itself around Townsville, absorbing personnel from the disbanded Yorkforce headquarters. At this time, the division assumed control of a broad area, with many dispersed brigades: the 6th at Kuranda, the 11th at Cairns, the 12th at Smyth's Siding, and the 14th at Cluden.
Over time all of these brigades were transferred elsewhere (Milne Bay, Darwin, and Merauke), meanwhile the division gained the 3rd Brigade. As the war advanced north, the need for strong garrison forces on the mainland of Australia diminished. As more garrison troops were moved to the Torres Strait, the 4th Division's headquarters was moved to Thursday Island in October 1943, and then to Cape York. At this time, the division assumed control of Torres Strait Force and Merauke Force, although both forces were reduced or redesignated shortly after, with Merauke Force being redesignated as the 11th Brigade and later being withdrawn back to Brisbane, and Torres Strait Force being reduced to an area command. By February 1944, the division reported directly to the First Army. As further Allied advances in New Guinea reduced the threat posed to the area the 4th Division became redundant and its headquarters elements were withdrawn to Atherton and disbanded in October 1944.
Commanders
The following officers commanded the division during World War I:
Major General Herbert Cox (1916)
Major General William Holmes (1916–1917)
Major General Ewen Sinclair-Maclagan (1917–1919)
The following officers commanded the division during World War II:
Major General Francis Derham (1940–1942)
Major General Jack Stevens (1942)
Major General John Murray (1942–1944)
See also
Military history of Australia during World War I
1916 Pioneer Exhibition Game
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Hatwell, Jeff (2021) Brave Days: The Fourth Australian Division in the Great War. Melbourne, Victoria: Echo Books. .
External links
Battles involving the 4th Division, Digger History
4th Division Memorial , Department of Veterans Affairs
Australian 4th Division Vehicle Marking
04
04
04
Military units and formations established in 1916
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
1916 establishments in Australia
Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1921
Military units and formations disestablished in 1944
|
416514
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen%20Page
|
Karen Page
|
Karen Page is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She serves as the original love interest for Daredevil, under Matt Murdock's employ as his legal secretary. In 1999, Page was killed by Bullseye, and since the 1980s her role as primary love interest has been superseded by Elektra Natchios.
Karen Page was portrayed by Ellen Pompeo in the 2003 feature film Daredevil, and by Deborah Ann Woll in the Marvel Television streaming television productions Daredevil, The Defenders, and The Punisher, set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).
Publication history
Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Bill Everett, she first appeared in Daredevil #1 (April 1964).
Character overview
In her first appearances, Karen is the beautiful secretary for the law firm of Daredevil's alter ego Matt Murdock, and the mutual love interest of both Murdock and his partner Foggy Nelson. Her relationship with Murdock hits a downward spiral when he reveals his secret identity to her in Daredevil #57 (October 1969), setting off a long break-up which concluded with her departure from the series in issue #86 (April 1972). Within these final stories, she trades her profession of secretary to become a film actress.
After three years' absence from published stories, Karen returned for a considerable stint as a supporting character in Ghost Rider, starting with vol. 2 #13 (August 1975) and continuing through to #26 (October 1977). During this time, a crossover with Daredevil #138 afforded her a brief return appearance in the series where she got her start. A 1978 appearance in Marvel Two-in-One would prove the character's last showing for over seven years.
Karen returned in Born Again, the award-winning storyline beginning in Daredevil #227 (February 1986) that would ultimately restore her earlier role as Daredevil's love interest. Writer Ann Nocenti gave considerably more development to their relationship, and even had Karen acting as a sidekick to Daredevil for the first time in issue #259, in which she goes undercover to help take down a child pornography ring. She was again dropped from the series in issue #263 (February 1989) for another long-term breakup from Murdock, but this time was brought back just two years later, for Daredevil #294 (July 1991).
Karen is killed by Daredevil's adversary Bullseye in Daredevil vol. 2 #5, (March 10, 1999).
Fictional character biography
Karen Page is hired to be the secretary by Foggy Nelson for the new law firm Nelson and Murdock. She is infatuated with Matt Murdock from the moment they meet. When Matt introduces her to the adventuring, wisecracking aspect of his personality, in the guise of his "twin brother" Mike, she finds herself equally charmed by this side of Murdock.
Dr. Paxton Page (Karen's father) fakes his own kidnapping and death in order to assume the guise of the villain Death's Head. Karen returns to her parents' home in Fagan Corners, Vermont, to investigate her father's disappearance. Daredevil follows her. In the ensuing battle between Daredevil and Death's Head, Death's Head spills a vat of molten cobalt over Daredevil, but realizes that Karen is endangered. This brings Paxton back to his own senses, pushing Daredevil and Karen to safety. He appears to die in this act of self-sacrifice, when he is coated in the molten cobalt. After the battle with Death's Head, Daredevil's true identity is revealed to Karen. She constantly fears for Matt's safety, but Daredevil cannot give up fighting crime. Karen eventually leaves Matt and moves to California to pursue an acting career. She finds work as an actress in a daytime soap opera.
Karen appears alongside Johnny Blaze in a film. After a scene is interrupted by The Uncanny Orb, Katy Milner (Karen's stuntwoman) confides in Johnny about Karen's history of "unhappy romances" including the ones with Murdock and Phil Hickock. Later on, Karen herself falls under the Orb's control.
Karen is offered a role on The Incredible Hulk TV show which was on its first season at the time. She is kidnapped by three ex-stuntmen on the show, but is saved by the Thing (who is looking for his own TV show), and the Hulk (who is annoyed at having this show).
Karen becomes addicted to heroin and starts making pornographic movies. In need of a fix, she sells Daredevil's secret identity to a drug dealer who in turn sells this to the Kingpin. Karen is forced to return to New York, where she meets up again with Matt. Matt helps Karen beat her addiction, and they resume their relationship and begin sharing an apartment.
Realizing that Matt is incomplete without work as a lawyer, Karen founds a free drug and legal clinic, where she counsels drug addicts and Matt provides legal advice and "ghost lawyering". The clinic is destroyed during a demonic invasion of Manhattan, and Karen discovers hours later that Matt has been having an affair with Typhoid Mary. These combined blows leave her psychologically lost, and she runs away.
She becomes an anti-pornography activist, assists Daredevil and the Black Widow in fighting crime on separate occasions, and reluctantly begins dating Matt. At this point, she becomes a radio show host under the name "Paige Angel". She eventually realizes that she is too dependent on Matt and that her past is a constant barrier between them. Karen leaves Matt to accept a talk show host position in Los Angeles.
While in California, Karen has a routine blood test as part of an insurance policy application. The supervillain Mysterio, as part of a plan to psychologically destroy Daredevil for one last scheme, disguises himself as a doctor, performs the blood test, and tells her that she is HIV positive. Devastated, Karen returns to New York and tells Matt about the diagnosis. Using another disguise, Mysterio suggests to Karen that her infection is due to an infant that Matt is currently protecting, as the child is 'really' the Antichrist, but Matt forces her to acknowledge that she is just trying to avoid facing her own responsibility for her state. Later, during a fight between Daredevil and Bullseye, Karen is murdered by Bullseye when she moves to intercept a billy-club thrown at Daredevil's head and is impaled in the heart.
Devastated by Karen's death, Matt briefly contemplates suicide but is given new strength to keep going by remembering some of their times together, such as when she convinced Matt to take a night off on his birthday and when she said that she didn't want Daredevil to quit as she always felt safer knowing the vigilante was out there. After Mysterio's role in the scheme is revealed and the villain commits suicide, Matt attempts and fails to give Karen's eulogy, finding himself overwhelmed at the memory of her loss. Initially bitter at Karen dying simply so that Mysterio could feel better about himself, a later conversation with Spider-Man helps Daredevil realize that the infant he's saved represents something positive that has come of the whole affair. The baby is placed for adoption to a couple in New Jersey. Before leaving, Matt names the baby after Karen and hopes that her new parents will allow the occasional visit from her "Uncle Matt".
Other versions
"What If Karen Page Had Lived?"
In the What If comic "What If Karen Page Had Lived?", Karen is narrowly saved from death when Bullseye hits her in the shoulder rather than the head. However, driven by his rage at the fear of losing her rather than his focused grief when he actually lost her, Matt beats the Kingpin to death for his part in Mysterio's scheme, and is subsequently arrested. When Matt is sentenced to 44 years in the Raft for the crime, Karen leaves town and disappears. Matt assumes that she had become severely depressed and may have killed herself. He never sees her again. However, in the beginning of the comic book, it is revealed that the entire story is the speculation of the main Marvel Universe version of Brian Michael Bendis, the writer himself, who makes a cameo as narrator.
Secret Wars: Secret Lovers
In a one-off book of the Secret Wars storyline called Secret Wars: Secret Lovers, a universe that became the Battleworld domain of Limbo is shown where Matt and Karen have grown close to the point of living with each other. Daredevil finds himself in a battle with Typhoid Mary after having nightmares about her prior that Karen is aware of. Karen follows the two only to discover that Mary is actually Mephisto, who wants to spend the final evening before Inferno psychologically and physically torturing Matt. Karen saves Matt by cutting off Mephisto's head with Mary's sword and the two embrace one last time as the world burns around them.
In other media
Film
Karen appears in the 2003 feature film Daredevil, portrayed by Ellen Pompeo. Most of her scenes were deleted from the final theatrical cut, but they can be seen in the Director's Cut. In the film, she is attracted to Matt, as shown when she presents two invitations to a business party and demonstrates disappointment when Foggy promptly takes the second invitation. When Matt is tracking the Kingpin's forces, Karen helps Foggy determine the meaning of a key piece of evidence in a case.
Television
In the Marvel Cinematic Universe's Netflix shows, Karen Page is portrayed by Deborah Ann Woll.
Background
Born in Fagan Corners, Vermont, Karen works as a waitress at Penny's Place, a diner run by her mother Penelope and father Paxton, with her brother Kevin running the kitchen. After Penelope dies from cancer, Karen is left to run the diner with her father and brother. To cope with the stress and the fear that her father will drive the diner into bankruptcy without her around to do bookkeeping, she turns to drugs and hooks up with a dealer named Todd Neiman. One night, after a heated argument over dinner, Kevin stages an intervention by burning down Todd's trailer. An enraged Todd attacks him with a tire iron, and Karen is forced to shoot him with the gun in his truck to keep him from killing Kevin. While driving away, Karen gets into an argument with Kevin, during which she drifts off the road and crashes into a guardrail. The car rolls over several times before coming to rest on its roof, injuring Karen and killing Kevin. The local sheriff, Bernie Cohen, takes sympathy on the Page family and falsifies the accident report to say that Kevin was alone in the car, so that Karen does not face prison time. Karen leaves town after being disowned by her father, and bounces around before arriving in New York City and landing a job as a secretary at Union Allied Construction, a construction company rebuilding Midtown Manhattan after the alien invasion of 2012.
Daredevil season 1
In the first season of Daredevil, Karen discovers evidence that Union Allied's pension fund is being used by Wilson Fisk to launder criminal money. In response, Fisk has her framed for fatally stabbing a coworker, Daniel Fisher, in her apartment, and intends to have a lawyer on his payroll approach Karen to extort her into giving up her copy of the pension file. However, Matt and Foggy show up and agree to take Karen on as a client thanks to a tipoff from Brett Mahoney. As a result, Fisk instead settles for trying to kill Karen, first by having James Wesley intimidate a guard into trying to hang Karen in her jail cell, an attempt that fails when Karen fights back, drawing blood from one of the guard's eyes. Undeterred, he makes a second attempt by sending an assassin to Karen's apartment to attack her when she sneaks out of Matt's apartment to retrieve the pension file, but Matt saves her and delivers the pension file to the New York Bulletin so that Union Allied's criminal dealings are publicly exposed. Feeling indebted to Matt and Foggy for getting her out of jail, Karen offers to work for them as Nelson & Murdock's secretary.
While Fisk orders the deaths of everyone involved in the scheme and the attempts to kill Karen, he settles for buying Karen's silence by coercing her into signing a nondisclosure agreement with six months' salary attached to it. While she reluctantly signs the agreement, she is angered that the people who tried to have her killed have not been brought to justice, so she approaches Ben Urich, the New York Bulletin reporter who broke the Union Allied story, and works with him to follow the money trail. She refuses to back down even after Ben makes clear that her prior activities in Vermont will be used against her to discredit her as a source. Eventually, she finds out that Union Allied has ties to Westmeyer Holt, a development company that Fisk is using to strongarm tenants into vacating tenements in Hell's Kitchen that he intends to develop into high-rise condominiums. One of these tenants, Elena Cardenas, is a client of Nelson & Murdock's. On one occasion, two Westmeyer contractors attack Karen while she is paying a visit to Elena, though she is saved when Foggy turns up and beats the men unconscious with his softball bat. Elena is later murdered on Fisk's orders as part of a trap to lure Matt into an ambush.
After Fisk makes himself a public figure at Vanessa's urging, Karen begins digging into his life looking for incriminating evidence against him. She finds out that his mother Marlene Vistain is in fact alive and well, and living in a nursing home in upstate New York. Accompanied by Ben, she talks to Marlene and learns about how when Fisk was 12, he beat his abusive father to death with a hammer. Marlene informs Wesley of this visit, prompting Wesley to abduct Karen as she is returning to her apartment. He takes her to a warehouse, and tries to intimidate her into backing down by threatening to have her friends and loved ones killed. However, he makes the mistake of leaving a loaded gun (which he procured from the head of Fisk's security detail) within arm's reach of Karen. When Wesley is distracted by his phone picking up an incoming call from Fisk, Karen grabs the gun and shoots him to death. She is deeply traumatized over taking a life, having nightmares in which Fisk appears in her living room and strangles her to death with his bare hands. She is further wracked with guilt when Fisk personally murders Ben after finding out from a mole at the Bulletin about his and Karen's visit to Marlene. Nonetheless, Karen composes herself and helps Matt and Foggy track down the hiding place of Carl Hoffman, one of the corrupt detectives who investigated her for Fisher's murder and who in the interim has been coerced by Fisk into killing his own partner, allowing Matt to bring him in and have him give up Fisk.
Daredevil season 2
In season 2 of Daredevil, Karen comes into contact with and befriends Frank Castle when the firm takes Castle as a client after being charged with multiple murders of different low-level criminals and she helps defend him in court. She and Matt also briefly date before Matt's double-life as Daredevil causes a falter in contributing to Frank's trial and Karen finds Elektra Natchios in Matt's bed when she tells Matt about it. When Nelson and Murdock falls apart, Karen joins the New York Bulletin with the intention of writing Castle's true story, however during her investigation, she is almost killed by Colonel Schoonover, only being saved by Castle's intervention. In the second-season finale, Karen and several others that Daredevil has saved are kidnapped by the Hand as bait for Matt, who is able to track them down and rescue them after Karen convinces Turk Barrett to turn on his ankle bracelet.
The Defenders
By the start of The Defenders, Matt and Karen are back on speaking terms, although it is clear Karen is hesitant to resume a relationship due to her own secrets. Later, when Matt believes the Hand are targeting his loved ones, he visits Karen at her office to take her to the 29th precinct. Karen is angered when she finds out he has resumed Daredevil activities, but agrees to hide with Foggy in the 29th precinct until the Hand have been taken down. While there, she bonds with Trish Walker over their complicated relationships with Matt and Jessica Jones. When Matt is presumed killed in the destruction of Midland Circle, Karen refuses to believe Matt has died and holds out hope that he somehow survived the collapse.
The Punisher season 1
In the first season of The Punisher, Karen is a recurring character. Caught up in her grief over losing Matt, she agrees to help Frank when he approaches her for help identifying Micro, the hacker who has been shadowing him and knows about his past activities in Kandahar. When Lewis Wilson (Daniel Webber) goes on a bombing spree, he delivers a manifesto to the Bulletin explicitly citing Karen's defense of Frank in her coverage. Incensed, Karen talks down to Lewis when she appears on a radio show to debate Senator Stan Ori. This prompts Lewis to try and attack Karen in a hotel, though he is driven off by Frank, who later goads him into killing himself in a meat locker in the hotel's kitchen.
Daredevil season 3
At the start of season 3, Karen is still refusing to believe that Matt is dead. To that end, she is hyperfixating on the Midland Circle collapse to a degree that Ellison begins to take notice, and is paying rent on Matt's apartment. Ellison and his wife also try to set Karen up for a date with his nephew Jason, with minimal success. Her belief that Matt is still alive is piqued when Ellison sends her to interview Neda Kazemi, a socialite whose father was assaulted on Fisk's orders to keep him from repurchasing a hotel he sold to one of Fisk's shell companies, and learns that Matt fought off the assailants.
Upon Fisk's release from prison, Ellison tries to sideline Karen, seeing as her past involvement with Fisk gives her a conflict of interest. Against Ellison's wishes, Karen manages to determine Fisk secretly owns the hotel he's being kept under house arrest in, but is threatened by Fisk's fixer Felix Manning when she tries to get him on record regarding Fisk's money laundering. When Fisk frames Matt as a scapegoat for Ray Nadeem, Karen reluctantly helps Matt bring in Jasper Evans, a lifer Fisk hired to stab him as part of his plan to get out of prison. Learning of this from a mole in the FBI, Fisk realizes Evans is a liability that needs to be eliminated, and sends Benjamin "Dex" Poindexter to the Bulletin dressed in a fake Daredevil costume. Despite Matt's efforts to fight him off, Dex kills several of Karen's coworkers, as well as wounds Matt, Foggy and Ellison, before shooting Evans dead with Karen's gun.
Karen later loses her job at the Bulletin when she refuses to give Matt's identity over to Ellison. Incensed, Karen decides to visit Fisk at his penthouse and try to provoke him into attacking her in front of the FBI by revealing the truth about Wesley. Fisk attempts to murder her on the spot, but is stopped by Foggy's timely intervention. Fisk vows revenge, and orders a hit on Karen, sending Dex to attack her in Matt's church. Matt thwarts the attempt, but Father Lantom is killed taking a baton meant for Karen. Matt and Karen are forced to hide in the church's crypt afterwards as Dex and other corrupt FBI agents search the place looking for them, and are only able to escape with assistance from Foggy, Brett, and Nadeem, who they persuade to testify in front of a grand jury. After Nadeem is subsequently killed by Dex at his house on Vanessa's orders, his wife passes on a video confession he made hours before his death over to Foggy, which Karen works with Ellison to publish on the Internet so as to publicize evidence of Fisk's latest crimes.
The Punisher season 2
Karen's last appearance is in the second season of The Punisher, where she shows up to help Frank escape the hospital after Pilgrim puts a bounty out on him.
Other appearances
Karen is mentioned on several occasions in other shows, but does not appear onscreen.
Karen is mentioned three times in the first season of Iron Fist.
In the second season of Luke Cage, a story Karen runs about Mariah Dillard's massacre of a restaurant owned by Bushmaster's aunt and uncle leads to Mariah learning that Bushmaster's aunt survived the shooting.
Karen is mentioned in a newspaper article about Luke Cage in the second season of Cloak & Dagger.
References
Characters created by Bill Everett
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1964
Daredevil (Marvel Comics) characters
Fictional actors
Fictional heroin users
Fictional pornographic film actors
Fictional prostitutes
Fictional secretaries
Fictional radio personalities
Fictional female sex workers
Marvel Comics female characters
|
416517
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imad%20Mughniyeh
|
Imad Mughniyeh
|
Imad Fayez Mughniyeh (; 7 December 1962 – 12 February 2008), alias al-Hajj Radwan (), was the founding member of Lebanon's Islamic Jihad Organization and number two in Hezbollah's leadership. Information about Mughniyeh is limited, but he is believed to have been Hezbollah's chief of staff and understood to have overseen Hezbollah's military, intelligence, and security apparatuses. He was one of the main founders of Hezbollah in the 1980s. He has been described as "a brilliant military tactician and very elusive". He was often referred to as an ‘untraceable ghost’.
U.S. and Israeli officials have long accused Mughniyeh of being directly and personally involved in terrorist attacks which has resulted in many suicide bombings, murders, kidnappings, and assassinations. It began with the Beirut barracks bombing and US embassy bombings, both of which took place in 1983 and killed over 350, as well as the kidnapping of dozens of foreigners in Lebanon in the 1980s. He was indicted in Argentina for his alleged role in the 1992 Israeli embassy attack in Buenos Aires. The highest-profile attacks for which it is claimed he is responsible took place in the early 1980s, shortly after the founding of Hezbollah, when Mughniyeh was in his early twenties. U.S. intelligence officials have accused him of killing more United States citizens than any other man prior to the September 11 attacks, and the bombings and kidnappings he is alleged to have organized are credited with all but eliminating and completely removing the US military presence in Lebanon in the 1980s.
Mughniyeh was known by his nom de guerre Al-Hajj Radwan. Mughniyeh was included in the European Union's list of wanted terrorists and had a US$5 million bounty on the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list. To many in his home country, Lebanon and the Middle East, he’s seen to be a national symbol and hero.
As part of a joint CIA – Mossad operation, Mughniyeh was killed on the night of 12 February 2008 by a car bomb that was detonated as he passed by on foot, in the Kafr Sousa neighbourhood of Damascus, Syria.
Early life
Mughniyeh was born in the village of Tayr Dibba, near Tyre, on 7 December 1962 to a family of poor farmers who harvested olives and lemons in the orchards of Lebanon's southern Shi'a heartland. His father's name was Fayez. For some time it was mistakenly thought that he was the son of Jawad (or Javad) Mughniyeh, a religious figure and author. His birth date had also been given as July 1962. Mughniyeh had two younger brothers, Jihad and Fouad. About a decade after Mughniyeh's birth, his father moved the family to southern Beirut. CIA South Group records state that Mughniyeh lived in Ayn Al-Dilbah, an impoverished neighborhood in South Beirut. Mughniyeh is described as having been a popular boy and a "natural entertainer" who cracked jokes at family weddings and "worked the crowd with a confidence unusual for a youth his age."
Mughniyeh and his cousin Mustafa Badr Al Din became active in the Palestinian Fatah movement at an early age. Mughniyeh was discovered by fellow Lebanese Ali Abu Hassan Deeb (who would later become a leader in Hezbollah) and quickly rose through the ranks of the movement. In the mid-1970s, Mugniyeh organized the "Student Brigade," a unit of 100 young men which became part of Yasser Arafat's elite Force 17. Mughniyeh temporarily left Fatah in 1981 due to differences of opinion on the regime of Saddam Hussein. Mughniyeh was a Shiite and deeply religious and was upset by the murder of the Iraqi Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir as-Sadr in 1980 as well as a previous attempt by the Iraqi intelligence on the life of Lebanese Ayatollah Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah.
Fatah was formally in alliance with the Lebanese National Movement, which included the Lebanese pro-Iraqi branch of the Ba’th party. Mughniyeh and some of his Lebanese Shiite comrades were forced to leave Fatah after engaging in armed confrontations with Ba’th party activists. They had previously organized a body guard unit for Ayatollah Fadlallah and other Shiite clerics in Lebanon. Mughniyeh accompanied Ayatollah Fadlallah on a Hajj pilgrimage in 1980 and thus earned his Hajj title.
Mughniyeh was briefly a student in the engineering department at the American University of Beirut. After the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982, he joined Fatah. He participated in the defence of West Beirut, where he was wounded in the fighting. After the withdrawal of PLO forces from Beirut in September 1982, Mughniyeh acquired an important position in the nascent resistance to the Israeli occupation, due to his knowledge of arms caches left behind by the Palestinians. He remained a Fatah member during this period but also worked with other factions, such as the leftist Lebanese National Movement and Islamic resistance groups. Mughniyeh remained a member of Fatah until 1984, when he joined the newly created Islamic Resistance of Hezbollah. However, he remained close to Fatah leader Khalil al-Wazir (Abu Jihad) until the latter's assassination in 1988. He also remained deeply committed to the Palestine cause throughout his life and apparently founded the secret "Committee for Elimination of Israel" inside Hezbollah in 2000. In later years, and especially after the Oslo accords, Mughniyeh and Hezbollah sided with the more militant Palestinian factions such as Hamas and the Islamic Jihad.
Mughniyeh worked as the chief security for Sayyed Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, a Shiia cleric and a spiritual mentor to many in Lebanon's Shi'a community, whose political consciousness was on the rise. Fadlallah held no formal political role, "opposed violence and sectarian division, and defied growing Iranian influence in Lebanon."
Personal life
In 1983, Mughniyeh married his cousin, Saada Badr Al Din, who is the sister of Mustafa Badr Al Din. Mughniyeh had three children according to his mother: Fatima (born August 1984), Mustafa (born January 1987), and Jihad (estimated to have been age 25 at death). In September 1991, Mugniyeh's wife and children were sent to Tehran for security reasons. Later his family began to live in south Lebanon. Mughniyeh also married an Iranian woman, Wafaa Mughniyeh, with whom he lived in Damascus.
On 21 December 1994 a car bomb in Chyah, Beirut, killed Mughniyeh’s brother, Fuad. Two other people were killed in the explosion and sixteen wounded.
Mughniyeh's younger son, Jihad, was killed in the January 2015 Mazraat Amal incident in the Syrian Golan sector on 18 January 2015. Five other Hezbollah members and an Iranian Quds Force general were also killed in the attack.
Personality
According to former CIA agent Robert Baer, "Mughniyah is probably the most intelligent, most capable operative we’ve ever run across, including the KGB or anybody else. He enters by one door, exits by another, changes his cars daily, never makes appointments on a telephone, never is predictable. He only uses people that are loyal to him that he can fully trust. He doesn't just recruit people." He was described as "tall, slender, well-dressed and handsome ... penetrating eyes," speaking some English but better French.
"Both bin Laden and Mughniyeh were pathological killers," 30-year veteran CIA officer Milton Bearden said. "But there was always a nagging amateurishness about bin Laden—his wildly hyped background, his bogus and false claims. … Bin Laden cowered and hid. Mughniyeh spent his life giving us the finger."
Nasrallah also stated that, "Hajj Imad is among the best leaders and commanders in the Lebanese arena. He had an important role during the occupation [of southern Lebanon by Israel] by 2000. But as for his relationship with Hezbollah, we maintain the tradition of not discussing names." Iranian General Qasem Soleimani, who commanded the elite Quds Force, described Mugniyeh as "the legend of our time," grief caused by whose loss was only second to that of Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Soleimani stated that what made Mugniyeh unique was not his expertise in guerrilla warfare but "his attachment to something superterrestrial." According to Soleimani, Mugniyeh was so courteous that he was never seen boasting to fellow Hezbollah leaders about his unique military record in fighting Israel.
After his death, Mugniyeh acquired a storied and folkloric persona. To many in his home country, Lebanon, and in the Middle East, he symbolizes resistance to foreign military occupation, a hero and a mastermind who single-handedly drove out the American and Israeli armies. The man behind the stabbing of Salman Rushdie, had a fake driver's license with the name Hassan Mughniyah, which suggests a mix between the forename and surname of Hassan Nasrallah and Imad Mughniyeh, respectively.
According to his family, he was a dedicated father and had a reputation for modesty, respect and humility, to the extent that his neighbors in Syria thought he was a driver for the Iranian embassy.
Allegations
U.S. and Israeli officials have implicated Mughniyeh of many terrorist attacks, primarily against American and Israeli targets. These include 18 April 1983 bombing of the United States embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, which killed 63 people including 17 Americans whom among them were 7 CIA officers which included Robert Ames, the head of the Near East Division.
Mughniyeh was also accused of planning and organising the 23 October 1983 truck bombings against French paratroopers and the U.S. Marine barracks, attacks which killed 60 French soldiers and 240 Marines. While a student at the American University of Beirut (AUB) on 18 January 1984, Mughniyeh allegedly assassinated Malcolm H. Kerr (father of former NBA player/current coach Steve Kerr), the school's president. On 20 September 1984, he is alleged to have attacked the US embassy annex building.
The United States indicted Mughniyeh (and his collaborator, Hassan Izz al-Din) for the 14 June 1985 hijacking of TWA Flight 847, in which he tortured and murdered the U.S. Navy Seabee diver Robert Stethem. Mughniyeh and his men allegedly tortured Stethem for hours, before killing him and dumping his body onto the airport tarmac.
U.S. and Israeli officials have also alleged that Mughniyeh was involved in numerous kidnappings of Americans in Beirut during the 1980s, most notably the kidnapping of Terry Anderson, Terry Waite, and William Francis Buckley, who was the CIA station chief in Beirut. Some of these individuals were killed by Mughniyeh directly, such as Buckley, who was subjected to extreme psychological and medical torture under the supervision of the psychiatrist Aziz al-Abub. The remainder were released at various times, with the last one, Terry Anderson, released in 1991. On 30 September 1985, Mughniyeh allegedly organised the kidnapping of four diplomats from the Soviet Embassy in Beirut, one of whom he personally killed. The result of the kidnapping was Soviet pressure on Syria to stop its operations in Northern Lebanon in exchange for the release of the remaining three hostages.
Mughniyeh was formally charged by Argentina for his alleged involvement in 17 March 1992 bombings of the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires, which killed 29, and of the AMIA cultural building in July 1994, killing 85 people. In March 2007, the Interpol issued "red notices" for his and others' alleged roles in the attack.
In addition, Mughniyeh allegedly planned the killing of Micha Tamir, the IDF general in Lebanon, and two IDF soldiers on 6 April 1992.
U.S. and Israeli officials have also alleged that Mugniyeh was the mastermind of the Khobar Towers bombing in 1996, which killed 19 American air force personnel and a Saudi civilian.
Israeli officials accuse Mughniyeh of orchestrating the October 2000 capture of three IDF soldiers in northern Israel, and of the kidnapping of IDF colonel Elchanan Tenenbaum. They also accuse Mughniyeh of overseeing the 2006 cross border raid that killed eight soldiers and abducted two during Israel's 2006 incursion into Lebanon.
Organizational affiliation
Mughniyeh has been allegedly linked to Palestinian actions such as the Karine A incident in 2002, where the Palestinian Authority was accused of importing fifty tons of weapons. He was a member of Force 17, an armed branch of the Fatah movement charged with providing security for Yasser Arafat and other prominent PLO officials.
In mid-February 1997, the pro-Israeli South Lebanese Army radio station reported that Iran's intelligence service had dispatched Mughniyeh to Lebanon to directly supervise the reorganisation of Hezbollah's security and military apparatus concerned with Palestinian affairs in Lebanon and to work as a security liaison between Hezbollah and Iranian intelligence. Mughniyeh also reportedly controlled Hezbollah's security apparatus, the Special Operations Command, which handles intelligence and conducts overseas terrorist acts. Allegedly, although he used Hezbollah as a cover, he reported to the Iranians. According to Jeffery Goldberg, writing in the New Yorker, "It is believed that Mugniyeh takes orders from the office of Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Khamenei, but that he reports to a man named Qasem Soleimani, the chief of a branch of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps called Al Quds, or the Jerusalem Force—the arm of the Iranian government responsible for sponsoring terror attacks on Israeli targets." In January 2002, a US cable also stated that Mughniyeh left Hezbollah and got closer to Iran. However, Mughniyeh was a member of Hezbollah's jihadist council until his death in February 2008. After the July 2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah, he was assigned by Hezbollah to improve the military capabilities of the resistance in Lebanon; Damascus was his centre for this activity.
The European Union listed him as "Hezbollah's Chief of Staff".
Arrest warrants and attempted assassination
Various law and intelligence enforcement agencies attempted to capture Mughniyeh. The United States tried to secure his capture in France in 1986, but were thwarted by French officials' refusal to arrest him.
The United States tried to capture him several times afterward, beginning with a 1995 US special forces Delta Force operation that was put in place after the CIA was tipped off that Mughniyeh was flying a Middle East Airlines charter flight Airbus A310 from Khartoum to Beirut after a meeting with several Hezbollah leaders, and was scheduled to make a stop-over in Saudi Arabia. But Saudi security officers refused to allow the plane to make its stop-over, thwarting American attempts to arrest Mughniyeh.
The following year, the U.S. Navy planned to seize him from a Pakistani ship in Doha, Qatar, but the operation was called off. The plan, dubbed Operation RETURN OX, was carried out by ships and sailors of Amphibious Squadron Three (USS Tarawa, USS Duluth, USS Rushmore), Marines of the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit, and Navy SEALs assigned to the U.S. Fifth Fleet. The operation was underway, but was cancelled at the last minute when it could not be fully verified that Mughniyeh was on board the Pakistani ship.
On 10 October 2001, Mughniyeh appeared on the initial list of the FBI's top 22 Most Wanted Terrorists, which was released to the public by President Bush, with a reward of up to $15 million offered for information leading to his arrest. The reward was later increased to $25 million. This reward remained outstanding as of 2006. Mughniyeh was on 42 countries' wanted lists.
The Israeli intelligence service Mossad made numerous attempts to assassinate Mughniyeh. His brother Fuad, a car shop owner, was killed in a 1994 Beirut car bombing, and another brother, Jihad, was killed in a car-bombing assassination attempt on the life of Hezbollah founder Sheikh Fadlallah in 1985, the work of the CIA via the South Lebanese Army. Israel planned to assassinate Mughniyeh when he attended the funeral of his brother Fuad, but he failed to show up.
Jeffrey Goldberg suggested that Mughniyeh, representing Hezbollah in Lebanon, attended a high-level meeting between Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.
Assassination
Imad Mughniyeh was killed on 12 February 2008 by a car bomb blast at around 23:00 in the Kafr Sousa neighborhood of Damascus, Syria. According to The Sunday Times, Mughniyeh was at a reception marking the 29th anniversary of the Iranian Revolution hosted by the Iranian ambassador to Syria, Ahmad Musavi. Mughniyeh left the party shortly after 22:30 and walked to his Mitsubishi Pajero. The spare tyre had been replaced by one with a high explosive, which was detonated as Mughniyeh walked past. The blast completely destroyed the car, left minimum damage on nearby buildings and killed only Mughniyeh. A Syrian government investigation found that he was killed by a car bomb that was parked nearby and that was detonated remotely.
Israel officially denied being behind the killing, but Mughniyeh reportedly had been a target of Mossad assassination attempts since the 1990s. On 27 February 2008, The Jerusalem Post reported that Al-Quds Al-Arabi had written that anonymous "Syrian sources" had claimed that "several Arab nations conspired with Mossad" in the assassination of Mughniyeh.
The U.S. Director of National Intelligence Mike McConnell has suggested that it was also possible that Syrian intelligence was responsible for the killing. Ba'athist dissident and former Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam stated in 2008 that Syrian intelligence orchestrated the killing of Mughniyeh under orders from the Assad regime. According to Khaddam, Assad's removal of Assef Shawkat as Syria's intelligence chief was due to Shawkat's investigation claiming that an explosion "had taken place inside the car" which went against official line toed by Assad, which was that the death was caused due to "the explosion of a gas tank". Without naming a source, the German newspaper Die Welt wrote that a story had been circulated amongst German diplomatic staff that it was possible that associates of late Assef Shawkat had assassinated Mughniyeh. This would have been in revenge for Mughniyeh tipping off Syrian President Bashar al-Assad regarding a coup plotted against him, which the Syrian government had foiled a couple of days before his assassination. Releasing the story in advance of going to print, Die Welt said the Syrian embassy in Berlin had rejected the coup story as utterly untrue. Lebanese politicians Walid Jumblatt and Saad Hariri as well as Mughniyeh's Iranian widow also accused Syrian officials. His widow, after returning to Iran from Damascus, stated "This is why the Syrian regime has refused the help of Iran and Hizbollah in the investigation of the murder... The Syrian traitors assisted in my husband’s murder." However, later she denied her statements. According to a leaked US official report, top Syrian officials were stunned by the assassination of Mughniyeh and engaged in an internecine struggle to blame each other for the breach of security that resulted in Mughniyeh's death.
The Kuwaiti newspaper Al Rai reported that Hezbollah intelligence sources said they would retaliate for Mughniyeh's death by assassinating Israeli leaders.
Newsweek reported that in 2007 Mossad's director general, Meir Dagan, tipped the CIA off about the location of Mughniyeh in Kafr Sousa, Damascus. The two Mossad agents had the roles of monitoring his movements and confirming Mughniyeh's identity using advanced facial recognition technology, while the CIA officer later detonated the bomb.
Reactions
Mughniyeh's body was taken to Beirut and buried in Rawdat al-Shahidain Cemetery. A funeral was organized by Hezbollah on 14 February. Senior Iranian officials attended the service; Ali Akbar Velayati representing the supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, and Foreign Minister Manuchehr Mottaki representing President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. At the funeral, Hassan Nasrallah appeared via video link and in the eulogy delivered for his fallen comrade, declared: "You crossed the borders. Zionists, if you want an open war, let it be an open war anywhere." Lebanese senior cleric Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah said that "the resistance has lost one of its pillars." Iran condemned the killing as "yet another brazen example of organised state terrorism by the Zionist regime" (Israel). A symbolic tomb was erected for Mughniyeh in the Behesht-e-Zahra cemetery of Tehran. Later the Iranian government named a street in Tehran after Imad Mughniyeh as well.
The assassination of Mughniyeh was condemned in some parts of the world. Then Italian Foreign Minister Massimo D'Alema termed the assassination "terror" in an interview, while Gideon Levy of the Israeli newspaper Haaretz claimed the assassination actually undermined Israel's security.
The Bush administration welcomed news of Mugniyeh's death. A spokesman of the U.S. State Department said: "The world is a better place without this man in it. He was a coldblooded killer, a mass murderer and a terrorist responsible for countless innocent lives lost. One way or another he was brought to justice." Danny Yatom, former head of the Israeli Mossad said: "He was one of the most dangerous terrorists ever on Earth."
On the 10th anniversary of Mugniyeh's killing, Major General Qasem Soleimani, commander of the Quds Force of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, described Mugniyeh as "the legend of our time," grief caused by whose loss was only second to that of Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Soleimani stressed that "the enemy must recognize that avenging Mughniyah's death won't be fulfilled by launching a missile or killing someone in response, but bloods like these will be only avenged by full destruction of the Zionist regime" which he said was "a definite Divine promise." Years later, Soleimani himself was assassinated in a targeted U.S. drone strike in January 2020 in Baghdad.
See also
2000–06 Shebaa Farms conflict
Hezbollah
List of assassinated Lebanese people
References
1962 births
2008 deaths
Hezbollah bombers
Lebanese Islamists
Hezbollah hijackers
People from South Lebanon
FBI Most Wanted Terrorists
Deaths by car bomb
Lebanese people murdered abroad
Assassinated Lebanese politicians
Assassinations in Syria
People murdered in Syria
Targeted killing
People killed in Mossad operations
CIA activities in Asia
Assassinated Hezbollah members
2000s assassinated politicians in Asia
|
416522
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20and%20Australian%20Division
|
New Zealand and Australian Division
|
The New Zealand and Australian Division was a composite army division raised for service in the First World War under the command of Major General Alexander Godley. Consisting of several mounted and standard infantry brigades from both New Zealand and Australia, it served in the Gallipoli Campaign between April and December 1915.
At Gallipoli, the division landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, coming ashore as follow-on troops to the initial assault force that had made it ashore earlier in the day, and later occupied the northern areas of the Allied lodgement. After the initial Allied assault at Anzac Cove, elements of the division were sent to Cape Helles in early May, where they participated in the Second Battle of Krithia, launching an unsuccessful attack towards the Achi Baba peak. The division's mounted units were sent to Gallipoli in mid-May without their horses, to serve as dismounted infantry, making up for previous losses. Later that month, the division helped repel an Ottoman counter-attack at Anzac Cove, after which it occupied the line until August, when the Allies launched an offensive designed to break the deadlock. During this period, the division attacked Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, and then later Hill 60. These efforts failed, and as winter set in on the peninsula, the division was evacuated from Gallipoli in mid-December 1915 as part of a general Allied withdrawal.
Returning to Egypt, the division was disbanded in early 1916 following a reorganisation of the Australian and New Zealand forces. The division's constituent infantry brigades were then used to form the Australian 4th Division and the New Zealand Division. These two formations would then be sent to the Western Front where they would take part in further fighting throughout 1916–1918, while the division's former mounted elements went on to serve in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign as part of the Anzac Mounted Division.
History
Formation
Following the outbreak of the First World War in early August 1914, the New Zealand government made an offer to the British War Office of a New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF), which was duly accepted. Mobilisation quickly followed and by late September, the NZEF consisted of two brigades – the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade. This was insufficient to form a conventional infantry division, which usually consisted of three infantry brigades. In contrast, in Australia there were more than enough volunteers for the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). The original intention had been to form a single infantry division, along with a light horse brigade; however, there were enough volunteers to meet this with a surplus of infantrymen being sufficient to form another brigade. Initially, it had been planned to send the NZEF and the AIF to the United Kingdom for training prior to their deployment to the Western Front in France; however, as the convoy carrying the troops transited the Suez Canal they were disembarked in Egypt to temporarily help defend the canal following the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war. Later, overcrowding and a shortage of equipment in the United Kingdom resulted in the decision for the Australians and New Zealanders to remain in the Middle East.
In December 1914, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, under Lieutenant General William Birdwood, was formed to command both the Australian and New Zealand components, which were under the respective commands of Major Generals William Bridges and Alexander Godley. The headquarters staff for this formation amounted to 70 officers and 550 men. These were mostly provided by the British and it was formally part of the British Army. A corps normally had a complement of two infantry divisions, but given the numbers of mounted troops in the AIF and NZEF, Birdwood envisaged that the corps would include a mounted division. As only one complete infantry division (the 1st Australian Division) was present in Egypt, the NZEF and remaining AIF forces in Egypt were to form the other infantry division. Birdwood decided to combine the New Zealand Infantry Brigade with the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade, with a third brigade to be included if one could be formed. By early 1915, Birdwood scrapped the plans for the corps to have an integral mounted division and instead included two mounted infantry brigades with the two standard infantry brigades to form the second infantry division. This was to be known as the New Zealand and Australian Division, with Godley as its commander. A British Army officer, Godley had previously served as commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces from 1910. As well as the four infantry and mounted brigades, the division also included artillery. This was contributed by the NZEF, but only consisted of 16 guns, including four howitzers, much less than the normal divisional complement of artillery. Headquarters staff were also drawn from the NZEF. Supporting arms included engineers, medical, signals, and service corps units. The division was initially short of engineers and transport personnel, with deficiencies being made good through recruitment of New Zealanders living in the United Kingdom, or through re-allocating reinforcements from other units.
While the division was forming and training in Egypt, elements were committed to the defence of the Suez Canal. On 26 January 1915, the four infantry battalions of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade – the Auckland, Canterbury, Wellington and Otago Battalions – and a supporting field ambulance were deployed in anticipation of an attack on the canal by Ottoman forces. This force was split between Ismailia and Kubri. On 2 February, after the Ottomans launched a raid on the Suez Canal, elements of the brigade took part in repelling the attack, with the Canterbury Battalion suffering the division's first losses in battle, with two men being wounded, one of whom later died.
Landing at Anzac Cove
The New Zealand and Australian Division was the second division of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps that landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. The Australian 1st Division made the initial landing and the New Zealand and Australian Division came ashore as the day progressed. For the initial landing, all troops coming ashore at Anzac Cove were under Bridges' command, although the division's headquarters was landed around 10:00 am. Command would revert to Godley the following day. The New Zealand Infantry Brigade, temporarily commanded by Colonel Harold Walker, began coming ashore at 10:45 am. Meanwhile, Colonel (later General Sir) John Monash's Australian 4th Brigade was held in reserve offshore. The first to enter the battle was the Auckland Battalion, followed by half of the Canterbury Battalion, which had completed its embarkation just after noon. Tasked with extending the Allied line to the left of the Australian 3rd Brigade to the north of the landing beach, they were directed towards Walker's Ridge, advancing by way of Shrapnel and Monash Valley.
The advance proved heavy going, but they soon found themselves involved in the struggle around Baby 700, amidst chaotic fighting as the Ottomans launched a counter-attack. Baby 700 was subsequently lost, and in the aftermath the New Zealanders took up positions along Walker's Ridge, which formed the extreme left flank of the landing area, reinforcing the Australians around Russell's Top. The Otago Battalion landed between noon and 5:00 pm, and moved up to support the Aucklanders. Having failed to secure the key ridges of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair, Godley and his Australian opposite, Bridges, advocated for the troops to be re-embarked at the end of the day; however, the decision was made to consolidate the lodgement despite the Ottomans holding the high ground.
The Wellington Battalion began arriving under darkness and were sent to Plugge's Plateau, while first elements of Australian 4th Brigade – three companies of the 15th Battalion – began coming ashore around midnight. As they arrived, they were sent to fill the gap between the left and right flanks of the Anzac perimeter, which required holding positions across the head of Monash Valley. As a result of these dispositions, by the end of the first day the New Zealand and Australian Division held the left flank of the landing and the 1st Division held the right and centre. Early morning on the second day, three battalions of the Australian 4th Brigade – the 13th, 15th and 16th – came ashore, along with some personnel from the Wellington Battalion and a section of the New Zealand Howitzer Battery, operating 4.5-inch howitzers. Due to the confused and haphazard landing, many units had become disorganised and mixed in together upon coming ashore. Throughout the day, efforts were made to rectify this, and by the end of the day the New Zealand and Australian Division largely held the northern part of the Allied line, from Courtney's Post and beyond. Throughout the day, the Allied line was subjected to localised attacks.
On 27 April, the Ottomans launched a second counter-attack at Anzac Cove, resulting in heavy fighting around the perimeter. It was eventually repulsed with heavy losses. During this fighting, the New Zealand machine gun sections that were attached to each battalion were heavily committed. Having pushed as close to the front as possible to support their battalions, the crews suffered heavy casualties from Ottoman snipers. Meanwhile, the division's field artillery was landed throughout the day and with great effort the guns were moved into position to begin providing the indirect fire support that had been desperately needed during the first two days of fighting.
Throughout the remainder of the week, the Allied troops continued to consolidate their positions around Anzac Cove, digging in and establishing lines of communication and supply. The Ottoman troops continued to hold the high ground, and the Anzac positions remained under observation and fire from snipers and machine guns. Ottoman mountain guns also kept up a steady bombardment. As the landing around Anzac was consolidated throughout the first week ashore, efforts were made to destroy two observation posts overlooking the cove from its flanks: Gaba Tepe to the south, and Nibrunesi Point to the north, near Suvla Bay. Early on 2 May, a party of around 50 New Zealanders, drawn from the Canterbury Battalion, were assigned to attack Nibrunesi Point. Landing from a destroyer, they quickly overcame the small party of Ottoman troops holding the position. Although no guns were located, several buildings were then destroyed before the party re-embarked around midday. Meanwhile, two days later, a detachment from the Australian 1st Division's 11th Battalion unsuccessfully attempted to raid the position around Gaba Tepe.
Consolidation at Anzac Cove
In the second week after the landing, efforts were made to straighten the Allied line, to prevent a salient from forming between Pope's Hill and Quinn's Post. Godley was ordered to recapture Baby 700, which was considered a key feature of the northern perimeter, allowing the Ottoman troops observation and fields of fire down important Allied avenues of approach. On 1 May, an Ottoman counter-attack was held off, and at 7:00 pm the following night, the division launched its attack on the left flank: the Canterbury Battalion around Walker's and the Otago Battalion around Pope's, tasked with maintaining contact with the Australian 4th Brigade, which was to advance around the far end of Monash Gully (sometimes also called Shrapnel Gully). Under Colonel Francis Johnston, who had been ill during the landing and had temporarily deferred his command to Walker, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade was tasked with assaulting the western aspect of Baby 700, while the Australians rushed the southern slope.
Commencing at 7:15 pm, the two Australian assault battalions – the 13th and 16th – were only able to push forward about , while the Otago Battalion was held up on its approach march from Walker's and were delayed by 90 minutes. Lacking artillery support to suppress the Ottoman defenders, upon their arrival the Otago Battalion took heavy fire. Almost half the battalion became casualties, but they managed to secure some of the lower parts of the feature, holding on overnight even though the Canterbury Battalion's attack was checked and turned back, having been hampered by poor maps and unfamiliarity with night attacks. Throughout the night, Ottoman troops attacked the Otago Battalion with grenades. At midnight, a company from the Australian 15th Battalion was pushed forward into the gap that had formed between the Otago Battalion and the Australian 13th. The following day a brief counter-attack was launched by the Ottomans, but the Anzac defensive line held, after which marines from the Royal Naval Division launched an attack between Quinn's and Pope's around Dead Man's Ridge, which was unsuccessful and resulted in heavy casualties. By the morning of 3 May, Dead Man's Ridge was firmly under Ottoman control.
The failure of the second attempt to take Baby 700 marked the end of the first phase of the fighting around Anzac Cove. Following this, the most forward part of the Anzac line was Quinn's Post. Having been occupied initially on the first day of the landing by troops from the Australian 4th Brigade, the position allowed Allied troops to move between several positions without observation. However, the Ottoman position around Dead Man's Ridge offered them a good firing position into the rear of the Allied position at Quinn's, and necessitated heavy sandbagging along the tracks to protect those moving up to the position. As a result, New Zealand engineers worked to build sandbag walls to protect the tracks around Quinn's, and to dig a sap trench to advance the Allied firing line.
Krithia
As the situation around Anzac Cove settled, the British commander, Hamilton, decided to advance the line that had been established around Cape Helles, south of the lodgement at Anzac. To assist the British, French and Indian troops, two brigades – the Australian 2nd and the New Zealand Infantry Brigades – were detached from Anzac Cove to help launch an attack on Krithia with a view to capturing the Achi Baba peak. Transported aboard several destroyers and barges from Anzac Cove south to Cape Helles, the detached New Zealanders were temporarily organised into an ad hoc composite division with the Australians and a naval brigade for the coming attack. On 7 May, ammunition and entrenching tools were issued before the New Zealanders began moving up towards Gully Beach, in the Gulf of Saros, on the Aegean side of the cape. Throughout the night, the brigade was tasked with forming a reserve for the 29th Division, but was not required to go into action.
On the morning of 8 May, the brigade received its orders to attack towards Krithia. Advancing along Fir Tree Spur, it would be a daylight assault with three battalions, while the Otago Battalion was placed in reserve, having suffered heavily at Baby 700. Planning for the attack was inadequate: there was no time given for preparation, and there was little knowledge of the objective, or the dispositions of the defending troops. Nevertheless, in the first effort, they attempted to charge across a position dubbed the Daisy Patch, near a dry creek bed and lacking any cover. As they went forward, the New Zealanders were engaged from both flanks. Coming under heavy machine gun and rifle fire from Ottoman defenders in the Gully Ravine, the attack was halted after only and the New Zealanders were forced to dig in by 3:00 pm. Throughout the afternoon, the New Zealanders endured constant fire on their positions, which continued to inflict casualties.
Around 5:00 pm, the Allies decided to make another effort, with the Australian 2nd Brigade launching a strong attack, which gained . The New Zealanders, on the left of the Australians, joined the attack, with the Auckland and Otago Battalions charging forward, alongside the British 88th Brigade, and clearing an Ottoman trench line with bayonets fixed. The main attack petered out after about two hours, having gained another , although the Canterbury Battalion worked throughout the evening to link up with the Australian 2nd Brigade. By the end of the day, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade had lost 835 casualties and was down to a strength of 1,700 men, having started the campaign with 4,000. Throughout the night, the New Zealanders consolidated their position and in the morning, took over part of the Allied line from the British 87th Brigade. They held this sector against several Ottoman counter-attacks until early morning on 12 May, when the New Zealanders were relieved by the British 42nd Division. Several days were then spent in camp around the Krithia road until the evening of 19 May when the brigade embarked to return to Anzac Cove, where an Ottoman counter-attack had begun. A New Zealand artillery battery, however, remained at Helles until August.
Reinforcement
Normally a British or dominion division contained three brigades. At the time of the landing at Anzac Cove, the intention had been to complete the New Zealand and Australian Division with the 29th Indian Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Vaughan Cox; however, as the situation at the Helles landing deteriorated, General Sir Ian Hamilton directed Cox's brigade there to support the British 29th Division. Casualties had been heavy amongst the Australians and New Zealanders in the first period of fighting, with 1,395 casualties (killed, wounded and missing) among Australian units attached to the division and 1,667 from the New Zealand elements up to 15 May 1915. Total losses amongst the ANZAC Corps amounted to around 8,000 casualties in the period from the landing to 3 May. To make up for the deficiencies caused by the detachment to Krithia, and the losses from disease and combat, in mid-May 1915, Australian and New Zealand mounted soldiers began arriving at Gallipoli as reinforcements. Arriving without their horses, they were to serve in a dismounted role as normal infantry. At this time, the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade, under Colonel Harry Chauvel, and Brigadier General Andrew Russell's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade joined the division. As mounted brigades contained fewer men than infantry brigades, and these brigades had left a portion of their strength in Egypt to attend to the horses, each brigade mustered only about 1,500 men. Chauvel's men had reinforced the Royal Marines and Australian 4th Brigade, around Monash Valley, while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles reinforced Walker's Ridge and Russell's Top. Shortly after their arrival, 100 men from the Canterbury Mounted Rifles carried out another raid of Nibrunesi Point, which was being used by Ottoman artillery observers to direct fire onto the beachhead, although the position was found to be deserted at the time of the raid.
Ottoman counter-attack at Anzac
On 19 May, at Anzac, the Ottomans launched a determined counter-attack with the intention of forcing the Allies to evacuate. Forewarned, the Allies were ready for the counter-attack, having moved reinforcements up behind the line. Just after midnight, heavy grenade attacks began along the positions held by the New Zealanders, and an artillery duel began. The assault began at around 3:00 am, as several waves of Ottoman troops charged the Allied line. Beaten back with determined machine gun and rifle fire, the effort was repelled with heavy losses being inflicted on the attackers. The defensive fighting during this period was the first major action fought by the newly arrived New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade who occupied a position around Walker's Ridge. The Australian 4th Brigade, at the head of Monash Valley, was also heavily involved in repulsing the attack, with the 14th Battalion heavily engaged around Courtney's Post and the 15th Battalion holding on around Quinn's. The 13th Battalion, and part of the 16th, were held in reserve in Monash Valley. One member of the 14th Battalion, Albert Jacka, received the Victoria Cross for his actions during the fighting on 19 May.
The attack had failed along the length of the line, and was halted the evening of the 19th. The attack was briefly resumed on 20 May, but again the machine guns turned back the attack, which was quickly halted. Losses during the counter-attack stretched the Allied reinforcement system and throughout May dismounted light horsemen arrived as replacements. A lull in the fighting followed, including a brief truce to bury the dead on 24 May, but the quiet was broken in the afternoon with a heavy exchange of fire before a quiet evening.
The next major action came on 28 May, when a squadron from the Canterbury Mounted Rifles attacked an Ottoman position which had been firing down on their position around Nelson Hill (No. 2 Post). Over the course of several days, during the Battle for No.3 Post the New Zealanders took the position and then attempted to hold it amidst heavy counter-attacks, before eventually retiring on 30 May. Meanwhile, on 29 May, the Ottomans attacked the Australian 4th Brigade around Quinn's. Mining operations had begun earlier in the month and although the Australians began counter-mining, early on 29 May, a large explosion destroyed part of the Australian line around Quinn's. A party of Turks then broke into the position, but after several hours of heavy close-quarters fighting, the Australian 15th Battalion restored their line. In the process, several trenches were heavily damaged and required repair. After the fighting, in early June, the Australian 4th Brigade – having been in the line for five weeks – was relieved by the New Zealand Infantry Brigade. Total losses for the division up to the end of June equated to 5,014 killed, wounded or missing.
August offensive
Chunuk Bair and Hill 971
After taking over the positions around Courtney's and Quinn's Posts, the New Zealanders sought to reorganise and improve each of these positions, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Malone. Throughout June, while the Third Battle of Krithia raged around Helles, operations around Anzac focused mainly on improving the positions around the Allied line, although there were several small scale skirmishes with both sides sniping at each other and making grenade attacks. Tunnelling and sapping was also undertaken, and several minor attacks were carried out by the Ottomans, with the last one coming on 29/30 June. In July, Allied efforts turned towards preparations for a final offensive around Anzac to break the deadlock. To provide cover to assaulting troops moving from the beachhead to the outposts in the northern sector of the perimeter, the communication trench was widened by the Australians and New Zealanders throughout July. Maoris from the Native Contingent (later known as the New Zealand (Māori) Pioneer Battalion) arrived during this time, and assisted with the construction work.
The plan for the offensive focused upon the capture of the Sari Bair Range, with preliminary objectives being Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair to its south-west. Meanwhile, another landing would be made by predominately British forces at Suvla Bay, to the north of Anzac Cove, under the command of Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford. Godley was placed in overall command of the offensive around Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair. In July, the New Zealand and Australian Division was reinforced by elements of the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade and the British 13th Division in preparation for the coming offensive. For the initial attack, the division was split into two elements. Johnston's New Zealand Infantry Brigade was to advance on the right up several steep features to capture Chunuk Bair via Rhododendron Ridge, while Monash and the Australian 4th Brigade was assigned to the left column under Cox, along with several British and Indian units, and was tasked with taking Hill 971.
Departing Anzac under cover of darkness on 6 August, the attack on Hill 971 went awry from the beginning. Hampered by poor maps and inadequate knowledge of the ground over which the assault was to take place, the 4th Brigade briefly became lost during the approach. In addition, as Monash's soldiers felt uncertainly for their objective, they were harassed by small groups of Ottoman troops. The Australians were still well short of Hill 971 by dawn on 7 August. The following day, the 4th Brigade drove towards the Abdel Rahman spur line, where they came under heavy machine gun fire which halted their advance.
Meanwhile, the drive on Chunuk Bair by the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, spearheaded by the Aucklanders made better progress, but was stopped short of the summit. The delay subsequently impacted upon the Australian attack at the Nek. A renewed attack was made on 8 August by the Wellington Battalion, during which the New Zealanders pushed forward from the Pinnacle and up Rhododendron Ridge to capture the summit. The Aucklanders and two British battalions then reinforced the Wellingtons. As the offensive failed elsewhere, the Ottomans poured reinforcements against Chunuk Bair, subjecting the New Zealanders and British troops there to several determined counter-attacks. Finally, late on 9 August, the New Zealanders were relieved by two battalions of British troops. The position was finally retaken by the Ottomans on 10 August, following heavy close quarters fighting. For his actions on the summit, a New Zealand signaller, Cyril Bassett, received the Victoria Cross.
Elsewhere, while the majority of the division was focused on Chunuk Bair, Brigadier General Frederic Hughes' 3rd Light Horse Brigade – allocated as corps troops at Anzac, but assigned to Godley for the offensive – undertook a costly attack towards Baby 700 and the Nek. Ultimately a futile effort, it resulted in heavy casualties for no gain, partially due to the delays elsewhere. In support, two regiments of the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade, positioned around Quinn's and Pope's, carried out several feint attacks. The attack around Quinn's began around 4:30 am on 7 August, when the 2nd Light Horse Regiment sent in the first of four waves of 50 troops. Coming under heavy machine gun fire, 49 of the 50 men in the first wave were killed and wounded, after which the attack was eventually called off. The attack around Pope's by the 1st Light Horse Regiment against the position dubbed the "Chessboard" fared little better, devolving into a series of grenade attacks that lasted three hours before the light horsemen withdrew, having lost 154 men out of the 200 that had been committed.
Hill 60
The final major attack at Gallipoli came at Hill 60, a small feature situated to the north-west of Hill 971, which offered the Allies a line of communications between the beach around Anzac Cove and Hill 971. This attack involved troops from the Australian 4th Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (largely the Canterbury and Otago Rifles), as well as a battalion (the 18th) from the newly arrived 2nd Division, and the British Connaught Rangers and Hampshire Regiment. A supporting attack towards Susak Kuyu was also carried out on the left flank by two battalions of Gurkhas from the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade.
The first attempt, which was made on 21 August, managed to secure part of the hill, although Ottoman forces remained in possession of the top. A renewed effort on 22 August by 2nd Division troops resulted in heavy casualties due to hasty and poor planning. Some gains were made throughout the morning, but heavy grenade attacks ultimately forced the newly arrived troops back around 9:00 am. Two hours later, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles attacked again on the left, and took about of trench line, which was then secured with sandbags. A lull followed for several days, during which the two sides traded grenade attacks and sniped at each other while working to improve their positions.
The Australian 4th Brigade had been heavily depleted by the earlier fighting, and only 250 men remained available for the renewed attack on 27 August, which also involved troops from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles, reinforced by the Australian 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments, and British troops from the Connaught Rangers. While the supporting preparatory artillery barrage proved ineffective, the assault eventually took some of the Ottoman trenches on the top of the hill. Nevertheless, it ultimately failed to secure the entire position. Three days of see-sawing close quarters fighting followed in which several counter-attacks were launched, and the position lost by the Allies, and then retaken. Finally, on 29 August, the fighting ended with the Allies occupying the southern half of the position, while the Ottomans held the northern half.
Losses during the fighting for Hill 60 had been heavy, and according to Harvey Broadbent it "effectively ended the fighting capacity of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles". Out of 2,000 troops originally assigned to the brigade, 730 had gone into the fighting around Hill 60, and only 365 were fit afterwards. Meanwhile, the Australian 4th Brigade had also been heavily depleted, with a strength of only 968.
Evacuation and disbandment
Following the failure of the August offensives, a period of stalemate followed around Gallipoli. As sickness rates began to rise British commanders began considering evacuation before winter, with some strategists arguing that they should focus their efforts on the Western Front. Between mid-September and early November, the New Zealand brigades – except the supporting engineers, artillery and medical personnel – were able to detach elements for rest at Sarpi, on Lemnos, as the Australian 2nd Division arrived to relieve the two original Anzac divisions. In November, now Major General Andrew Russell took over as division commander from Godley, who had been given command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. Later the same month a heavy blizzard blew, bringing snow to Gallipoli, and after Lord Kitchener carried out an inspection of the theatre, the decision was made to withdraw the Allied troops from Gallipoli. This was completed in several phases, with the final 3,000 rearguard troops from the division, which had been holding positions between Hill 60, Hill 100, Cheshire Ridge and the Apex, departing on 20 December 1915.
Following the division's evacuation, it moved back to Egypt via Lemnos. In January 1916, the two Australian divisions were moved to Tel-el-Kebir to help defend the Suez Canal, while the New Zealand and Australian Division was sent to Moascar camp, near Ismailia, in reserve. By this time, a large number of reinforcements from Australia and New Zealand had arrived in Egypt. Numbers were so large that they could not be absorbed into the existing formations; as a result, new formations were planned and permission was sought from both the Australian and New Zealand governments to begin the reorganisation, prior to their dispatch to the Western Front. The process of splitting the division began in late February 1916, when the Australian 4th Brigade and the Australian support troops departed Moascar to join the other Australian troops around Tel-el-Kebir. In their stead, replacement New Zealand units were brought on strength. On 1 March 1916, the process was completed with the division assuming its new designation of the New Zealand Division.
While the 4th Brigade would be used to form part the Australian 4th Division, the New Zealand components were formed into the standalone New Zealand Division. As part of this process, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade was formed into the 1st Infantry Brigade, keeping most of its experienced personnel, and was joined by the 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Rifle Brigade, formed mainly from reinforcements with a small cadre of veterans. Together with the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions, the New Zealand Division was then formed into II ANZAC Corps under Godley prior to its dispatch to the Western Front, where they would see further fighting over the course of 1916–1918. The division's mounted elements were re-united with their horses and organised into the Anzac Mounted Division, and took part in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign over the same period.
Commanders
The following officers commanded the division during the war:
Major General Alexander Godley
Major General Andrew Russell
See also
Military history of Australia during World War I
Military history of New Zealand during World War I
Notes
References
External links
Gallipoli campaign, NZ History
Gallipoli timeline, NZ History
Understanding Gallipoli, Australian War Memorial
Divisions of New Zealand in World War I
Divisions of Australia in World War I
ANZAC units and formations
Military units and formations established in 1915
Military units and formations disestablished in 1916
1915 establishments in Australia
1915 establishments in New Zealand
|
416605
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh%20National%20Opera
|
Welsh National Opera
|
Welsh National Opera (WNO) () is an opera company based in Cardiff, Wales; it gave its first performances in 1946. It began as a mainly amateur body and transformed into an all-professional ensemble by 1973. In its early days the company gave a single week's annual season in Cardiff, gradually extending its schedule to become an all-year-round operation, with its own salaried chorus and orchestra. It has been described by The New York Times as "one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe".
For most of its existence the company lacked a permanent base in Cardiff, but in 2004 it moved into the new Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff Bay. The company tours nationally and internationally, giving more than 120 performances annually, with a repertoire of eight operas each year, to a combined audience of more than 150,000 people. Its most frequent venues other than Cardiff are Llandudno in Wales and Bristol, Birmingham, Liverpool, Milton Keynes, Oxford, Plymouth, and Southampton in England.
Singers who have been associated with the company include Geraint Evans, Thomas Allen, Anne Evans, and Bryn Terfel. Guest artists from other countries have included Joan Hammond, Tito Gobbi and Elisabeth Söderström. Among the conductors have been Sir Charles Mackerras, Reginald Goodall, James Levine and Pierre Boulez. The company has been led by Aidan Lang as its General Director since 2019.
Background
Choral singing became increasingly popular in 19th-century Wales, principally owing to the rise of the eisteddfod as a symbol of its culture. The first Welsh National Opera Company was formed in 1890. A local newspaper commented that it was remarkable that "a race of people to whom vocal music is a ruling passion should not generations ago have established a permanent national opera". The company gave performances of operas by the Welsh composer Joseph Parry in Cardiff and on tour in Wales. The company, predominantly amateur with some professional guest singers from the London stage, gave numerous performances of Parry's Blodwen and Arienwen, composed in 1878 and 1890 respectively. An American tour was planned, but the company folded, and Parry's final opera, The Maid of Cefn Ydfa, was given at Cardiff by the Moody-Manners Opera Company in 1902.
A Cardiff Grand Opera Society ran from 1924 to 1934. It presented week-long annual seasons of popular operas including Faust, Carmen and Il trovatore, and like its predecessor was mainly an amateur body, with professional guest principals. Apart from the productions of these two enterprises, opera in Wales in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was generally presented by visiting companies from England.
In the 1930s Idloes Owen, a singing teacher and conductor, ran an amateur choir, the Lyrian Singers, based in Cardiff. In November 1941, together with John Morgan – a former Carl Rosa baritone – and Morgan's fiancée Helena Hughes Brown, Owen agreed to found the Lyrian Grand Opera Company, with Brown as secretary and Owen as conductor and general manager. They publicised their plan and held a general meeting of potential supporters in December 1943; at that meeting the name of the proposed organisation was changed to "Welsh National Opera Company". By January 1944 plans were far enough advanced for the company's first rehearsals to be held. Owen recruited a local businessman, W. H. (Bill) Smith (1894–1968), who agreed to serve as business manager. At first doubtful of the company's prospects, Smith became its dominant influence, leading fund-raiser, and chairman for twenty years from 1948.
Early years
The new company made its debut at the Prince of Wales Theatre, Cardiff on 15 April 1946 with a double bill of Cavalleria rusticana and Pagliacci. The orchestra was professional, mostly drawn from members of the BBC Welsh Orchestra; all the singers were amateurs, except for Tudor Davies, a tenor well known at Covent Garden and Sadler's Wells, who sang Canio in Pagliacci. During the week-long season the new company also staged Faust, with Davies in the title role. Although nearing the end of his career he was a considerable box-office draw, and the company played to full houses. Nevertheless, the expense of a professional orchestra and the hire of costumes and scenery outweighed the box-office receipts, and the season made a small loss. Finance remained a recurring problem over the succeeding decades.
Although Owen was the conductor for the performances of Cavalliera rusticana, and remained as musical director of the company until 1952, his health was fragile and he conducted none of the company's other productions. His colleague, the chorus master, Ivor John, was in charge of the first season's Pagliacci and Faust.
In 1948 the organisation was registered as a limited company, and the Cardiff season was extended from one week to two. The following year the company gave its first performances in Swansea. The chorus featured 120 performers by this time.
The company's first few seasons attracted little attention from the British musical establishment, but by the early 1950s London papers began to take notice. Picture Post hailed the WNO's chorus as the finest in Britain. The Times also praised the chorus: "It has body, lightness, rhythmic precision, and, most welcome of all, unflagging and spontaneous freshness." By this time the company had expanded its repertoire to take in Carmen, La traviata, Madame Butterfly, The Tales of Hoffmann, The Bartered Bride and Die Fledermaus. The Times commented that Smith, Owen and their colleagues were "making history for Wales. The shackles of puritanism, which had kept this country from an art-form perfectly suited to its national talents and predilections (for histrionics and dressing-up are as natural to the Welsh as singing) had been broken for ever".
Consolidating: 1950s and 60s
In 1952 the company moved its Cardiff venue to the Sophia Gardens Pavilion (built for the Festival of Britain), with the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra as the company's orchestra, replacing the previous ad hoc ensemble. The Pavilion was acoustically mediocre and lacked an orchestra pit; two years later the company moved again, to the New Theatre where it played Cardiff seasons across the next fifty years. The 1952 season attracted particular interest because it included what was then a rarity: Verdi's Nabucco. The company built a reputation for staging seldom-seen Verdi works, including The Sicilian Vespers staged in the same year, I Lombardi in 1956, and The Battle of Legnano, under the shortened title The Battle, in 1960. The 1952 Nabucco was the WNO's first production for which costumes and scenery were specially designed (by Patrick Robertson) rather than hired.
In 1953 the company staged its first work by a Welsh composer: Menna by Arwel Hughes. The composer conducted, and the leads were sung by two professional guest stars, Richard Lewis and Elsie Morison. The same year marked WNO's first appearances outside Wales, playing a week at Bournemouth in April, and a week at Manchester in October, when The Manchester Guardian found the soloists first-rate but the chorus disappointing, in both Nabucco and Il trovatore. A reviewer in The Musical Times commented on potential difficulties in assembling the wholly amateur chorus for performances beyond daily travelling range of their day jobs. By the time of the company's first London season – a week at Sadler's Wells in 1955 – the chorus was judged to be "lively and exciting" (The Musical Times), "vibrant" and "moving" (The Times) and "joyous" (The Manchester Guardian). The second season at Sadler's Wells in the summer of 1956, included productions of Nabucco, I Lombardi and Lohengrin, achieving rave reviews. Kenneth Loveland of the South Wales Argus wrote a glowing piece under his byline 'Stroller' "Tonight, amongst working-class streets of the Angel, Islington, I was privileged to witness a body of men and women doing more for Wales than all your sounding harps...or tub thumping politicians".
By the mid-1950s professional singers were cast in leading roles in most productions; they included Walter Midgley in Tosca and La bohème (1955), Raimund Herincx in Mefistofele (1957), Heather Harper in La traviata (1957), and Joan Hammond in Madame Butterfly (1958). A possibility of strengthening the professional element of the company was mooted in 1958, when a merger was proposed with the Carl Rosa Company, which was in financial difficulties. The proposal was not followed through and WNO continued independently while the Carl Rosa folded.
During the 1960s the company continued to widen its range. Its first Wagner production, Lohengrin, and its first Mozart, The Marriage of Figaro, were both performed in 1962, conducted by Charles Groves. Another Welsh opera, Hughes's Serch yw'r Doctor ("Love, the Doctor") was staged in 1960. The popular Italian repertoire remained the core of the annual seasons, mostly directed by the head of production, John Moody. Leading roles were taken by rising stars such as John Shirley-Quirk, Gwyneth Jones, Thomas Allen, Josephine Barstow and Margaret Price, the last of whom made her operatic debut with the company in 1962. Established singers guesting with the company included Geraint Evans who played the title role in Don Pasquale in 1966, and Ian Wallace in the same part the following year. Evans was also seen as Leporello in Don Giovanni in 1966 and as Falstaff in 1969.
The gradual switch from amateur to professional continued in 1968, when for the first time the chorus was supplemented by a smaller, professional group of singers; the mix of amateur and professional choristers continued over the next five years. At the end of the 1960s the main WNO company, now a year-round operation, consisted of 8 salaried principal singers, 57 guest soloists and a chorus of 90 amateurs and 32 professionals. As well as the Bournemouth players, the company engaged the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic, City of Birmingham Symphony and Ulster orchestras for different venues. In the last season of the decade 32 performances were given in Cardiff and 61 elsewhere in the UK. In addition to the main company, WNO maintained two smaller groups: one, with orchestra, toured Welsh towns, the other, consisting of 12 singers with piano, toured 79, mostly small, towns in Wales and England. WNO instituted its own training scheme for young singers during the decade.
Fully professional: 1970s
In 1970 WNO stopped using the Bournemouth and other orchestras and established its own, known at first as the Welsh Philharmonia. Three years later the last amateur element of the company was removed when the chorus became fully professional. A further broadening of the repertoire took place in the 1970s: in 1971 WNO staged the first performances in Britain of Berg's Lulu, directed by Michael Geliot, who had succeeded Moody in 1969. In the view of Malcolm Boyd in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Geliot, "unpredictable and often controversial", largely shaped the company's style in the 1970s. In collaboration with the company's musical director James Lockhart, Geliot is credited by The Times with introducing new young singers and "directing a host of groundbreaking productions" before leaving in 1978. The critic Rodney Milnes wrote in 1975 about WNO's productions:
In 1973 Geliot's WNO staging of Britten's Billy Budd with Allen in the title role was presented on a Swiss tour, and two years later it was given in Barcelona. The company returned to London with its participation in the Amoco Festival of Opera at the Dominion Theatre in 1979, presenting The Makropoulos Case, The Magic Flute, Ernani, Madame Butterfly, and Tristan and Isolde to capacity audiences.
The company's traditional preference for the Italian repertoire was partly redressed during the decade: productions include WNO's first staging of a Richard Strauss opera, Elektra, in 1978. A new Welsh work, Alun Hoddinott's The Beach of Falesá, was presented in 1974. In 1975, in co-production with Scottish Opera, WNO began a cycle of Janáček operas, directed by David Pountney. Beginning with Jenůfa, the cycle continued with The Makropoulos Case (1978), The Cunning Little Vixen (1980), Kátya Kabanová (1982) and From the House of the Dead (1982).
Among the guest artists who appeared with the company in the 1970s were the baritone Tito Gobbi, as Falstaff (1972), the sopranos Elisabeth Söderström as Emilia in The Makropoulos Case (1978) and Anne Evans as Senta in The Flying Dutchman (1972), and the conductors James Levine (Aida, 1970) and Reginald Goodall (Tristan and Isolde, 1979).
In the late 1970s WNO combined with the Cardiff-based Welsh Drama Company, becoming the Welsh National Opera and Drama Company. The work of the drama company came under continued criticism, the Welsh Arts Council cut its grant, and the partnership ended in 1979 with the formal closure of the Welsh Drama Company.
1980s
During the 1980s WNO continued to expand in scope. Handel (Rodelinda, 1981) and Martinů (The Greek Passion, 1981) were added to the company's repertoire, and in 1983 Das Rheingold was staged in the WNO's first Ring cycle, followed by the other three operas of the cycle over the next two years. Das Rheingold, Siegfried and Götterdämmerung were conducted by the company's musical director, Richard Armstrong; Die Walküre (1984) was conducted by Goodall; it was seen as a coup for the company to secure his services – he was described by The Guardian as the greatest living Wagnerian conductor – but the casting of the whole cycle was criticised for some serious weaknesses among the principal singers, and reviewers were generally unimpressed by Göran Järvefelt's production.
The chief executive, Brian McMaster, did not appoint a replacement to Geliot as principal director during the 1980s, preferring to engage guest producers. Boyd mentions Andrei Serban's Eugene Onegin (1980) among the successes and Lucian Pintilie's Carmen (1983) and Ruth Berghaus's Don Giovanni (1984) as productions that received more mixed responses. Sir Charles Mackerras, the conductor for Don Giovanni, was open in his contempt for Berghaus's production. Harry Kupfer's Fidelio (1981) was condemned by The Daily Telegraph as "a piece of Marxist polemic" making "political sport" of Beethoven's work. McMaster was thought by some too inclined to favour radical eastern European directors: Jonathan Miller, a leading English director, commented that he did not intend to take Bulgarian nationality, although it was "a must before Brian pays any attention".
Armstrong stepped down in 1986 after thirteen years as musical director; he was succeeded by Mackerras, whose association with the company dated back more than thirty years. Among the features of his six-year tenure was an increasing use of surtitles for performances not given in English. In the company's early days, all operas had been sung in English, but as more international stars began to appear as guest principals the language policy had to be reconsidered: few of the leading names in world opera were interested in relearning their roles in English. WNO steered a middle course between the practices of the two main London companies; after the 1960s The Royal Opera had generally given operas in the original language, and English National Opera was committed to opera in English. WNO's practice varied, after its early years. Examples from the 1980s include Wagner's Tristan und Isolde sung in German, and the Ring in English; and Verdi's The Force of Destiny given in English and Otello in Italian. Mackerras was a strong advocate of performance in the original language, with surtitles: "I can't imagine a greater advance for opera. … What a gift! It's like Siegfried understanding the woodbird."
1990s
McMaster resigned in 1991, having led the company to international status, with performances at La Scala, Milan; the Metropolitan Opera, New York; and in Tokyo. One of the last legacies of his tenure was the 1992 production of Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande, directed by Peter Stein and conducted by Pierre Boulez. The New York Times called WNO "one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe" and noted that the first night of the Debussy work, in Cardiff, "attracted 80 critics from all over the United Kingdom and the Continent ... the most prestigious, intensely awaited event of the British operatic season." The production was given at the Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris, a few weeks afterwards.
McMaster was followed as chief executive by Matthew Epstein, whose three years in charge (1991–94) were described in a 2006 study by Paul Atkinson as "a less happy and less successful period". Epstein was replaced by Anthony Freud, under whom, according to Atkinson, productions became "consistently strong, musically well prepared, intelligently staged and well cast." Mackerras was succeeded in 1992 by Carlo Rizzi, who was music director at the time of WNO's golden jubilee in 1996. When the occasion was marked with a new production of the "Cav and Pag" double bill that had launched the company in 1946, the BBC commented that WNO was "one of the most respected opera companies in the world". In The Observer, Michael Ratcliffe called the company "the most popular, populist and consistently successful arts organisation ever to come out of Wales ... with the loyalty and affection of audiences in Cardiff and across England … 'The people's opera' is not a myth. It happened here." The jubilee celebrations were overshadowed by the collapse of a plan for a purpose-built home for the company, the Cardiff Bay Opera House.
During the 1990s WNO made its Proms debut, with a complete performance of Mozart's Idomeneo, conducted by Mackerras in 1991. The company played three short seasons at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in the mid-1990s, featuring Tristan und Isolde and La favorita in 1993, The Yeomen of the Guard in 1995, and The Rake's Progress and the jubilee double bill of Cavalleria rusticana and Pagliacci in 1996. In 1996 WNO commissioned Sir Peter Maxwell Davies to write an opera for the occasion of the company's 50th anniversary. The resulting opera was The Doctor of Myddfai, whose libretto written by David Pountney and included Welsh-language songs, based on a 12th-century folk tale. It premiered on 10 July 1996 at the North Wales Theatre in Llandudno with following performances in 1996. It was designed by sure Huntley and Donna Muir.
21st century
The company entered the new millennium in a state of some turmoil. A financial crisis had led to redundancies in the orchestra and the curtailment of the touring schedule; the conservative works chosen for 2001–02 were condemned by the press as "the dullest programme in recent memory"; and Rizzi was about to be replaced by a young and untried successor, Tugan Sokhiev. Rizzi had gained great respect and affection during his nine-year term as musical director; his successor's reign was brief and unhappy. Having taken up post in 2003, Sohkiev resigned precipitately the following year. Rizzi agreed to reorganise his schedule, and, to public and critical acclaim, returned to the musical directorship in time to prepare the company for its long-awaited move into a permanent base in Cardiff.
After the collapse of the Cardiff Bay Opera House scheme, a new project, the Wales Millennium Centre, met with more success. The necessary consents and funding were obtained, and work began in 2002 on a new multipurpose arts centre on the Cardiff Bay site. The centre included a 1,900-seat theatre, which, among other uses, became WNO's home base from 2004, with its own rehearsal space and offices in the complex.
In the first decade of the 21st century WNO gave more than 120 performances a year, with a repertoire, generally, of eight full-scale operas. Its regular audience figures totalled over 150,000 annually, in ten principal venues, three of them in Wales and seven in England. During this period the company was criticised for being insufficiently Welsh. A local politician, Adam Price, said that WNO ought to have a Welsh musical director; Alun Hoddinott said in 2004, "WNO has put on perhaps four or five Welsh operas over 20 years. ... They just seem to have an anti-Welsh music bias. I am sad that they do not do something for Welsh composers, especially young ones." A more positive view of WNO came from Scotland, where the two main newspapers, The Scotsman and The Herald, greeted a visit from the company in 2005 with enthusiastic praise, contrasting the flourishing of opera in Wales with its neglect by politicians in Scotland and the consequent decline of Scottish Opera. In 2010 WNO commissioned Gair ar Gnawd ("Word on Flesh"), by Pwyll ap Siôn and Menna Elfyn, with words in Welsh, described as "a contemporary story about Wales today ... inspired by the translation of the Bible".
From 2006 to 2011 the chief executive (titled "artistic director") was John Fisher. His term overlapped with that of Lothar Koenigs who was musical director from 2009 to 2016. A highlight of this period was the 2010 production of Die Meistersinger, produced by Richard Jones, starring Bryn Terfel as Hans Sachs. The production won superlatives from reviewers.
In 2011 David Pountney was appointed to succeed Fisher as chief executive. He had worked with the company since the 1970s, most recently on a 2006 The Flying Dutchman with Terfel which was set in space. In 2013 he programmed a trilogy of operas set in Tudor England: Donizetti's Anna Bolena, Maria Stuarda and Roberto Devereux, with another trilogy the following year, on the theme of fallen women – Puccini's Manon Lescaut, Henze's Boulevard Solitude and Verdi's La traviata. For 2016 Pountney scheduled another trilogy, this time on the theme of Figaro, consisting of Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro and Rossini's The Barber of Seville and a new work, Figaro Gets a Divorce with music by Elena Langer and libretto by Pountney.
In September 2015 WNO announced the appointment of Tomáš Hanus as its next music director, taking office for the 2016–17 season. At the same time Carlo Rizzi was named the company's conductor laureate, with immediate effect.
In 2023 members of the orchestra were selected to play at the coronation of Charles III and Camilla.
Recordings
Although the chorus and orchestra of Welsh National Opera have appeared on many commercial recordings, often featuring regular WNO soloists, there have been few sets, either audio or video, of the company's own productions. Among those are Tristan und Isolde conducted by Goodall (1981), Pelléas et Mélisande conducted by Boulez (1992), The Yeomen of the Guard, conducted by Mackerras (1995), The Doctor of Myddfai conducted by Armstrong (1998), and Ariodante conducted by Ivor Bolton, directed by David Alden (1999). The BBC made a studio video recording of a WNO cast in Katya Kabanova, conducted by Armstrong in 1982.
The WNO chorus and orchestra have been engaged for studio opera recordings unconnected with the company's productions, including Hamlet (1983), Norma (1984), Anna Bolena (1987), Ernani (1987) and Adriana Lecouvreur (1988) conducted by Richard Bonynge, Faust (1993) and Katya Kabanova (1994) conducted by Rizzi; and Gloriana (1993), Eugene Onegin (1994) and Jenůfa (2004) conducted by Mackerras. For the WNO jubilee in 1996, Decca drew on some of its studio recordings for a celebratory CD set with contributions from many soloists who had appeared onstage with the company and some who had not, the latter including Joan Sutherland, Luciano Pavarotti, Montserrat Caballé and Thomas Hampson. The orchestra of WNO has made studio recordings of non-operatic music by Elgar, Delius, Coleridge-Taylor and George Lloyd, and several sets of traditional Welsh songs and crossover music.
Music directors
Idloes Owen (1943–52)
Leo Quayle (1952–53)
Frederick Behrend (1953–55)
Vilém Tauský (1955)
Warwick Braithwaite (1956–61)
Charles Groves (1961–63)
Bryan Balkwill (1963–66)
James Lockhart (1968–73)
Richard Armstrong (1973–86)
Sir Charles Mackerras (1987–92)
Carlo Rizzi (1992–2001)
Tugan Sokhiev (2003–04)
Carlo Rizzi (2004–07)
Lothar Koenigs (2009–16)
Tomáš Hanus (2016–)
Source: Oxford Dictionary of Music (1943–2009) and WNO (2009–16).
Awards
Welsh National Opera has been nominated for, or won nearly every UK opera prize, including winning the Olivier Award in 1998 and in 1999. The Royal Philharmonic Society awarded its Music Award for Outstanding Achievement in Opera in 1999, 2000 and 2001, giving the company the distinction as the only arts organisation to have won the Award for three consecutive years. WNO's production of Pelléas and Mélisande (1992) won the International Classical Music Awards. Phyllida Lloyd's production of Poulenc's The Carmelites for WNO won the Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award for Outstanding Achievement in Opera in 1999, winning jointly with ENO as co-producers. The production of The Coronation of Poppea in 1997 by David Alden won WNO more awards than any other production: winning, the Evening Standard Award, the Royal Philharmonic Society and the Barclays Theatre Awards.
Patrons
In 1982, WNO gained its first patron in Diana, Princess of Wales. As patron she attended many gala concerts in New Theatre, Cardiff; Dominion Theatre, London; Royal Opera House, Covent Garden; Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York and in 1984 she opened the new purpose-built headquarters, Princess of Wales Building in John Street, Cardiff. Her attendance at a performance by WNO in New York in 1989 caused much excitement and for road repairs to be immediately carried out. Their visit was seen in an episode of episode 10 'War', series 4 of The Crown.
When in 1996 Princess Diana resigned as patron, WNO welcomed HRH Charles Prince of Wales as their new patron.
See also
After Aida
List of opera houses
Lists of opera companies
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Wales Millennium Centre: Home to WNO
Welsh National Opera Theatre Breaks
"The First Digital Tristan – a talk with the Maestro, the Hero and the Boss" by Bruce Duffie. Wagner News, February 1982.
Economy of Cardiff
British opera companies
Music in Cardiff
Theatre companies in Wales
Classical music in Wales
Organisations based in Cardiff
Musical groups established in 1943
Companies based in Cardiff
1943 establishments in Wales
|
416612
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation%20%28statistics%29
|
Cross-validation (statistics)
|
Cross-validation, sometimes called rotation estimation or out-of-sample testing, is any of various similar model validation techniques for assessing how the results of a statistical analysis will generalize to an independent data set.
Cross-validation is a resampling method that uses different portions of the data to test and train a model on different iterations. It is mainly used in settings where the goal is prediction, and one wants to estimate how accurately a predictive model will perform in practice. In a prediction problem, a model is usually given a dataset of known data on which training is run (training dataset), and a dataset of unknown data (or first seen data) against which the model is tested (called the validation dataset or testing set). The goal of cross-validation is to test the model's ability to predict new data that was not used in estimating it, in order to flag problems like overfitting or selection bias and to give an insight on how the model will generalize to an independent dataset (i.e., an unknown dataset, for instance from a real problem).
One round of cross-validation involves partitioning a sample of data into complementary subsets, performing the analysis on one subset (called the training set), and validating the analysis on the other subset (called the validation set or testing set). To reduce variability, in most methods multiple rounds of cross-validation are performed using different partitions, and the validation results are combined (e.g. averaged) over the rounds to give an estimate of the model's predictive performance.
In summary, cross-validation combines (averages) measures of fitness in prediction to derive a more accurate estimate of model prediction performance.
Motivation
Assume a model with one or more unknown parameters, and a data set to which the model can be fit (the training data set). The fitting process optimizes the model parameters to make the model fit the training data as well as possible. If an independent sample of validation data is taken from the same population as the training data, it will generally turn out that the model does not fit the validation data as well as it fits the training data. The size of this difference is likely to be large especially when the size of the training data set is small, or when the number of parameters in the model is large. Cross-validation is a way to estimate the size of this effect.
Example: linear regression
In linear regression, there exist real response values , and n p-dimensional vector covariates x1, ..., xn. The components of the vector xi are denoted xi1, ..., xip. If least squares is used to fit a function in the form of a hyperplane ŷ = a + βTx to the data (xi, yi) 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then the fit can be assessed using the mean squared error (MSE). The MSE for given estimated parameter values a and β on the training set (xi, yi) 1 ≤ i ≤ n is defined as:
If the model is correctly specified, it can be shown under mild assumptions that the expected value of the MSE for the training set is (n − p − 1)/(n + p + 1) < 1 times the expected value of the MSE for the validation set (the expected value is taken over the distribution of training sets). Thus, a fitted model and computed MSE on the training set will result in an optimistically biased assessment of how well the model will fit an independent data set. This biased estimate is called the in-sample estimate of the fit, whereas the cross-validation estimate is an out-of-sample estimate.
Since in linear regression it is possible to directly compute the factor (n − p − 1)/(n + p + 1) by which the training MSE underestimates the validation MSE under the assumption that the model specification is valid, cross-validation can be used for checking whether the model has been overfitted, in which case the MSE in the validation set will substantially exceed its anticipated value. (Cross-validation in the context of linear regression is also useful in that it can be used to select an optimally regularized cost function.)
General case
In most other regression procedures (e.g. logistic regression), there is no simple formula to compute the expected out-of-sample fit. Cross-validation is, thus, a generally applicable way to predict the performance of a model on unavailable data using numerical computation in place of theoretical analysis.
Types
Two types of cross-validation can be distinguished: exhaustive and non-exhaustive cross-validation.
Exhaustive cross-validation
Exhaustive cross-validation methods are cross-validation methods which learn and test on all possible ways to divide the original sample into a training and a validation set.
Leave-p-out cross-validation
Leave-p-out cross-validation (LpO CV) involves using p observations as the validation set and the remaining observations as the training set. This is repeated on all ways to cut the original sample on a validation set of p observations and a training set.
LpO cross-validation require training and validating the model times, where n is the number of observations in the original sample, and where is the binomial coefficient. For p > 1 and for even moderately large n, LpO CV can become computationally infeasible. For example, with n = 100 and p = 30,
A variant of LpO cross-validation with p=2 known as leave-pair-out cross-validation has been recommended as a nearly unbiased method for estimating the area under ROC curve of binary classifiers.
Leave-one-out cross-validation
Leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) is a particular case of leave-p-out cross-validation with p = 1. The process looks similar to jackknife; however, with cross-validation one computes a statistic on the left-out sample(s), while with jackknifing one computes a statistic from the kept samples only.
LOO cross-validation requires less computation time than LpO cross-validation because there are only passes rather than . However, passes may still require quite a large computation time, in which case other approaches such as k-fold cross validation may be more appropriate.
Pseudo-code algorithm:
Input:
x, {vector of length N with x-values of incoming points}
y, {vector of length N with y-values of the expected result}
interpolate( x_in, y_in, x_out ), { returns the estimation for point x_out after the model is trained with x_in-y_in pairs}
Output:
err, {estimate for the prediction error}
Steps:
err ← 0
for i ← 1, ..., N do
// define the cross-validation subsets
x_in ← (x[1], ..., x[i − 1], x[i + 1], ..., x[N])
y_in ← (y[1], ..., y[i − 1], y[i + 1], ..., y[N])
x_out ← x[i]
y_out ← interpolate(x_in, y_in, x_out)
err ← err + (y[i] − y_out)^2
end for
err ← err/N
Non-exhaustive cross-validation
Non-exhaustive cross validation methods do not compute all ways of splitting the original sample. These methods are approximations of leave-p-out cross-validation.
k-fold cross-validation
In k-fold cross-validation, the original sample is randomly partitioned into k equal sized subsamples, often referred to as "folds". Of the k subsamples, a single subsample is retained as the validation data for testing the model, and the remaining k − 1 subsamples are used as training data. The cross-validation process is then repeated k times, with each of the k subsamples used exactly once as the validation data. The k results can then be averaged to produce a single estimation. The advantage of this method over repeated random sub-sampling (see below) is that all observations are used for both training and validation, and each observation is used for validation exactly once. 10-fold cross-validation is commonly used, but in general k remains an unfixed parameter.
For example, setting k = 2 results in 2-fold cross-validation. In 2-fold cross-validation, we randomly shuffle the dataset into two sets d0 and d1, so that both sets are equal size (this is usually implemented by shuffling the data array and then splitting it in two). We then train on d0 and validate on d1, followed by training on d1 and validating on d0.
When k = n (the number of observations), k-fold cross-validation is equivalent to leave-one-out cross-validation.
In stratified k-fold cross-validation, the partitions are selected so that the mean response value is approximately equal in all the partitions. In the case of binary classification, this means that each partition contains roughly the same proportions of the two types of class labels.
In repeated cross-validation the data is randomly split into k partitions several times. The performance of the model can thereby be averaged over several runs, but this is rarely desirable in practice.
When many different statistical or machine learning models are being considered, greedy k-fold cross-validation can be used to quickly identify the most promising candidate models.
Holdout method
In the holdout method, we randomly assign data points to two sets d0 and d1, usually called the training set and the test set, respectively. The size of each of the sets is arbitrary although typically the test set is smaller than the training set. We then train (build a model) on d0 and test (evaluate its performance) on d1.
In typical cross-validation, results of multiple runs of model-testing are averaged together; in contrast, the holdout method, in isolation, involves a single run. It should be used with caution because without such averaging of multiple runs, one may achieve highly misleading results. One's indicator of predictive accuracy (F*) will tend to be unstable since it will not be smoothed out by multiple iterations (see below). Similarly, indicators of the specific role played by various predictor variables (e.g., values of regression coefficients) will tend to be unstable.
While the holdout method can be framed as "the simplest kind of cross-validation", many sources instead classify holdout as a type of simple validation, rather than a simple or degenerate form of cross-validation.
Repeated random sub-sampling validation
This method, also known as Monte Carlo cross-validation, creates multiple random splits of the dataset into training and validation data. For each such split, the model is fit to the training data, and predictive accuracy is assessed using the validation data. The results are then averaged over the splits. The advantage of this method (over k-fold cross validation) is that the proportion of the training/validation split is not dependent on the number of iterations (i.e., the number of partitions). The disadvantage of this method is that some observations may never be selected in the validation subsample, whereas others may be selected more than once. In other words, validation subsets may overlap. This method also exhibits Monte Carlo variation, meaning that the results will vary if the analysis is repeated with different random splits.
As the number of random splits approaches infinity, the result of repeated random sub-sampling validation tends towards that of leave-p-out cross-validation.
In a stratified variant of this approach, the random samples are generated in such a way that the mean response value (i.e. the dependent variable in the regression) is equal in the training and testing sets. This is particularly useful if the responses are dichotomous with an unbalanced representation of the two response values in the data.
A method that applies repeated random sub-sampling is RANSAC.
Nested cross-validation
When cross-validation is used simultaneously for selection of the best set of hyperparameters and for error estimation (and assessment of generalization capacity), a nested cross-validation is required. Many variants exist. At least two variants can be distinguished:
k*l-fold cross-validation
This is a truly nested variant which contains an outer loop of k sets and an inner loop of l sets. The total data set is split into k sets. One by one, a set is selected as the (outer) test set and the k - 1 other sets are combined into the corresponding outer training set. This is repeated for each of the k sets. Each outer training set is further sub-divided into l sets. One by one, a set is selected as inner test (validation) set and the l - 1 other sets are combined into the corresponding inner training set. This is repeated for each of the l sets. The inner training sets are used to fit model parameters, while the outer test set is used as a validation set to provide an unbiased evaluation of the model fit. Typically, this is repeated for many different hyperparameters (or even different model types) and the validation set is used to determine the best hyperparameter set (and model type) for this inner training set. After this, a new model is fit on the entire outer training set, using the best set of hyperparameters from the inner cross-validation. The performance of this model is then evaluated using the outer test set.
k-fold cross-validation with validation and test set
This is a type of k*l-fold cross-validation when l = k - 1. A single k-fold cross-validation is used with both a validation and test set. The total data set is split into k sets. One by one, a set is selected as test set. Then, one by one, one of the remaining sets is used as a validation set and the other k - 2 sets are used as training sets until all possible combinations have been evaluated. Similar to the k*l-fold cross validation, the training set is used for model fitting and the validation set is used for model evaluation for each of the hyperparameter sets. Finally, for the selected parameter set, the test set is used to evaluate the model with the best parameter set. Here, two variants are possible: either evaluating the model that was trained on the training set or evaluating a new model that was fit on the combination of the training and the validation set.
Measures of fit
The goal of cross-validation is to estimate the expected level of fit of a model to a data set that is independent of the data that were used to train the model. It can be used to estimate any quantitative measure of fit that is appropriate for the data and model. For example, for binary classification problems, each case in the validation set is either predicted correctly or incorrectly. In this situation the misclassification error rate can be used to summarize the fit, although other measures like positive predictive value could also be used. When the value being predicted is continuously distributed, the mean squared error, root mean squared error or median absolute deviation could be used to summarize the errors.
Using prior information
When users apply cross-validation to select a good configuration , then they might want to balance the cross-validated choice with their own estimate of the configuration. In this way, they can attempt to counter the volatility of cross-validation when the sample size is small and include relevant information from previous research. In a forecasting combination exercise, for instance, cross-validation can be applied to estimate the weights that are assigned to each forecast. Since a simple equal-weighted forecast is difficult to beat, a penalty can be added for deviating from equal weights. Or, if cross-validation is applied to assign individual weights to observations, then one can penalize deviations from equal weights to avoid wasting potentially relevant information. Hoornweg (2018) shows how a tuning parameter can be defined so that a user can intuitively balance between the accuracy of cross-validation and the simplicity of sticking to a reference parameter that is defined by the user.
If denotes the candidate configuration that might be selected, then the loss function that is to be minimized can be defined as
Relative accuracy can be quantified as , so that the mean squared error of a candidate is made relative to that of a user-specified . The relative simplicity term measures the amount that deviates from relative to the maximum amount of deviation from . Accordingly, relative simplicity can be specified as , where corresponds to the value with the highest permissible deviation from . With , the user determines how high the influence of the reference parameter is relative to cross-validation.
One can add relative simplicity terms for multiple configurations by specifying the loss function as
Hoornweg (2018) shows that a loss function with such an accuracy-simplicity tradeoff can also be used to intuitively define shrinkage estimators like the (adaptive) lasso and Bayesian / ridge regression. Click on the lasso for an example.
Statistical properties
Suppose we choose a measure of fit F, and use cross-validation to produce an estimate F* of the expected fit EF of a model to an independent data set drawn from the same population as the training data. If we imagine sampling multiple independent training sets following the same distribution, the resulting values for F* will vary. The statistical properties of F* result from this variation.
The cross-validation estimator F* is very nearly unbiased for EF. The reason that it is slightly biased is that the training set in cross-validation is slightly smaller than the actual data set (e.g. for LOOCV the training set size is n − 1 when there are n observed cases). In nearly all situations, the effect of this bias will be conservative in that the estimated fit will be slightly biased in the direction suggesting a poorer fit. In practice, this bias is rarely a concern.
The variance of F* can be large. For this reason, if two statistical procedures are compared based on the results of cross-validation, the procedure with the better estimated performance may not actually be the better of the two procedures (i.e. it may not have the better value of EF). Some progress has been made on constructing confidence intervals around cross-validation estimates, but this is considered a difficult problem.
Computational issues
Most forms of cross-validation are straightforward to implement as long as an implementation of the prediction method being studied is available. In particular, the prediction method can be a "black box" – there is no need to have access to the internals of its implementation. If the prediction method is expensive to train, cross-validation can be very slow since the training must be carried out repeatedly. In some cases such as least squares and kernel regression, cross-validation can be sped up significantly by pre-computing certain values that are needed repeatedly in the training, or by using fast "updating rules" such as the Sherman–Morrison formula. However one must be careful to preserve the "total blinding" of the validation set from the training procedure, otherwise bias may result. An extreme example of accelerating cross-validation occurs in linear regression, where the results of cross-validation have a closed-form expression known as the prediction residual error sum of squares (PRESS).
Limitations and misuse
Cross-validation only yields meaningful results if the validation set and training set are drawn from the same population and only if human biases are controlled.
In many applications of predictive modeling, the structure of the system being studied evolves over time (i.e. it is "non-stationary"). Both of these can introduce systematic differences between the training and validation sets. For example, if a model for predicting stock values is trained on data for a certain five-year period, it is unrealistic to treat the subsequent five-year period as a draw from the same population. As another example, suppose a model is developed to predict an individual's risk for being diagnosed with a particular disease within the next year. If the model is trained using data from a study involving only a specific population group (e.g. young people or males), but is then applied to the general population, the cross-validation results from the training set could differ greatly from the actual predictive performance.
In many applications, models also may be incorrectly specified and vary as a function of modeler biases and/or arbitrary choices. When this occurs, there may be an illusion that the system changes in external samples, whereas the reason is that the model has missed a critical predictor and/or included a confounded predictor. New evidence is that cross-validation by itself is not very predictive of external validity, whereas a form of experimental validation known as swap sampling that does control for human bias can be much more predictive of external validity. As defined by this large MAQC-II study across 30,000 models, swap sampling incorporates cross-validation in the sense that predictions are tested across independent training and validation samples. Yet, models are also developed across these independent samples and by modelers who are blinded to one another. When there is a mismatch in these models developed across these swapped training and validation samples as happens quite frequently, MAQC-II shows that this will be much more predictive of poor external predictive validity than traditional cross-validation.
The reason for the success of the swapped sampling is a built-in control for human biases in model building. In addition to placing too much faith in predictions that may vary across modelers and lead to poor external validity due to these confounding modeler effects, these are some other ways that cross-validation can be misused:
By performing an initial analysis to identify the most informative features using the entire data set – if feature selection or model tuning is required by the modeling procedure, this must be repeated on every training set. Otherwise, predictions will certainly be upwardly biased. If cross-validation is used to decide which features to use, an inner cross-validation to carry out the feature selection on every training set must be performed.
Performing mean-centering, rescaling, dimensionality reduction, outlier removal or any other data-dependent preprocessing using the entire data set. While very common in practice, this has been shown to introduce biases into the cross-validation estimates.
By allowing some of the training data to also be included in the test set – this can happen due to "twinning" in the data set, whereby some exactly identical or nearly identical samples are present in the data set. To some extent twinning always takes place even in perfectly independent training and validation samples. This is because some of the training sample observations will have nearly identical values of predictors as validation sample observations. And some of these will correlate with a target at better than chance levels in the same direction in both training and validation when they are actually driven by confounded predictors with poor external validity. If such a cross-validated model is selected from a k-fold set, human confirmation bias will be at work and determine that such a model has been validated. This is why traditional cross-validation needs to be supplemented with controls for human bias and confounded model specification like swap sampling and prospective studies.
Cross validation for time-series models
Since the order of the data is important, cross-validation might be problematic for time-series models. A more appropriate approach might be to use rolling cross-validation.
However, if performance is described by a single summary statistic, it is possible that the approach described by Politis and Romano as a stationary bootstrap will work. The statistic of the bootstrap needs to accept an interval of the time series and return the summary statistic on it. The call to the stationary bootstrap needs to specify an appropriate mean interval length.
Applications
Cross-validation can be used to compare the performances of different predictive modeling procedures. For example, suppose we are interested in optical character recognition, and we are considering using either a Support Vector Machine (SVM) or k-nearest neighbors (KNN) to predict the true character from an image of a handwritten character. Using cross-validation, we could objectively compare these two methods in terms of their respective fractions of misclassified characters. If we simply compared the methods based on their in-sample error rates, one method would likely appear to perform better, since it is more flexible and hence more prone to overfitting compared to the other method.
Cross-validation can also be used in variable selection. Suppose we are using the expression levels of 20 proteins to predict whether a cancer patient will respond to a drug. A practical goal would be to determine which subset of the 20 features should be used to produce the best predictive model. For most modeling procedures, if we compare feature subsets using the in-sample error rates, the best performance will occur when all 20 features are used. However under cross-validation, the model with the best fit will generally include only a subset of the features that are deemed truly informative.
A recent development in medical statistics is its use in meta-analysis. It forms the basis of the validation statistic, Vn which is used to test the statistical validity of meta-analysis summary estimates. It has also been used in a more conventional sense in meta-analysis to estimate the likely prediction error of meta-analysis results.
See also
Boosting (machine learning)
Bootstrap aggregating (bagging)
Out-of-bag error
Bootstrapping (statistics)
Leakage (machine learning)
Model selection
Stability (learning theory)
Validity (statistics)
Notes and references
References
Model selection
Regression variable selection
Machine learning
|
416630
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ancient%20Celtic%20peoples%20and%20tribes
|
List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes
|
This is a list of Celtic tribes, organized in order of the likely ethnolinguistic kinship of the peoples and tribes.
In Classical antiquity, Celts were a large number and a significant part of the population in many regions of Western Europe, Southern Central Europe, the British Isles and parts of the Balkans, in Europe, and also Central Asia Minor or Anatolia.
Ancestors
Proto-Indo-Europeans (Proto-Indo-European speakers)
Proto-Celts (Proto-Celtic speakers)
Continental Celts
Continental Celts were the Celtic peoples that inhabited mainland Europe. In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, Celts inhabited a large part of mainland Western Europe and large parts of Western Southern Europe (Iberian peninsula), southern Central Europe and some regions of the Balkans and Anatolia. They were most of the population in Gallia, today's France, Switzerland, possibly Belgica – far Northern France, Belgium and far Southern Netherlands, large parts of Hispania, i.e. Iberian Peninsula – Spain and Portugal, in the northern, central and western regions; southern Central Europe – upper Danube basin and neighbouring regions, large parts of the middle Danube basin and the inland region of Central Asia Minor or Anatolia. They lived in these many regions forming a large arc stretching across from Iberia in the west to the Balkans and Anatolia in the east.
Many of the populations from these regions were called Celts by ancient authors. They are thought to have spoken Gaulish (P-Celtic type), Lepontic (P-Celtic type), Hispano-Celtic (Celtiberian and Western Hispano-Celtic or Gallaecian) (Q-Celtic type), Eastern Celtic or Noric (unknown type). P-Celtic type languages are more innovative (*kʷ > p) while Q-Celtic type languages are more conservative. However, it is not fully known if this grouping of peoples, such as their languages, is a genealogical one (phylogenetic), based on kinship, or if it is a simple geographically based group. Classical Antiquity authors did not describe the peoples and tribes of the British Islands as “Celts” or “Galli” but by the name “Britons”. They only used the name “Celts” or “Galli” for the peoples and tribes of mainland Europe.
Eastern Celts
They lived Southern Central Europe (in the Upper Danube basin and neighbouring regions) which is hypothesized as the original area of the Celts (Proto-Celts), corresponding to the Hallstatt Culture. Later they expanded towards the Middle Danube valley and to parts of the Balkans and towards inland central Asia Minor or Anatolia (Galatians). Hercynian Forest (Hercynia Silva), north of the Danube and east of the Rhine was in their lands. Celts, especially those from Western and Central Europe, were generally called by the Romans “Galli” i.e. “Gauls”, this name was synonym of “Celts”, this also means that not all of the peoples and tribes called by the name “Gauls” (Galli) were specifically Gauls in a narrower more regional sense. Their language is scarcely attested and can not be classified as a P-Celtic or Q-Celtic.
Some closely fit the concept of a tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Anartes/Anartoi – Areas of modern Slovakia and modern Northern Hungary, north of the river Tysia / Tibiscus (Tisza). They lived in the eastern part of the Hercynia Silva (Hercynian Forest). Areas of modern central Slovakia and modern Northern Hungary, north of the river Tysia/Tibiscus (Tisza), north of the Teuriscii. They were later assimilated by Dacians.
Arabiates - areas of modern Western Hungary and eastern Austria, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
Belgites - areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
Boii – a tribal confederation, originally from today's Bohemia (Western Czech Republic) that dwelt in the Hercynia Silva and dispersed through migrations to other regions of Europe, to areas of modern Slovakia, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Northern Italy. Another hypothesis is that they were a tribal confederation, originally from today's Southern France who migrated to Hercynia Silva under Segovesus, and dispersed through migrations to other regions of Europe, to areas of modern Slovakia, Germany, Austria, Poland and Hungary.
Boii tribes of unknown names in the Hercynia Silva - roughly in today's Bohemia
Boii (in Cisalpine Gaul) – Central Emilia-Romagna (Bologna).
Boii (in Transalpine Gaul) – Boui near Entrain - They were related to or a branch of the Boii.
Boii Boiates / Boviates / Boiates – La Tête de Buch, probably around Arcachon Bay and northwest of Landes (departement), in the Pays de Buch and Pays de Born. Although they dwelt in Aquitania Proper, they seem to have been a Celtic tribe and not a tribe of the Aquitani (a people that may have been ancestor of the Basques).
Boii (in Pannonia) - Pannonia, today's Western Hungary (west of the Danube) and part of eastern Austria
Tulingi (Tylangii?) – localization unclear, possibly Southern Germany, Switzerland, or Austria; an originally Boii Celtic tribe that migrated along the upper Danube and later allied with the Helvetii?; also, may have been a Germanic tribe.
Breuci
Carni – Carnic Alps, South Austria (Carinthia/Kärnten), Western Slovenia (Carniola/Kranjska) and Northern Friuli/Friûl (Carnia/Cjargna). A tribe related to the Carnutes? Also, may have been a Venetic tribe (the Veneti were a transitional people between Celts and Italics or a Celticized Italic people).
Catubrini - In the Alps Southeastern slopes, close to Plavis (Piave) and near Bellunum (Belluno), to the Southwest of the Carni. They came from Central Europe and not from Gaul (Gallia). (They were not Cisalpine Gaulish Celts).
Celts of Tylis / Tylisian Celts
Cornacates- areas of modern Western Hungary, west of river Danubius (Danube).
Cotini – areas of modern Slovakia, west of the Anartes, and areas of Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube), south of Lacus Pelsodis / Pelso (today's Lake Balaton).
Eravisci / Aravisci – areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube), Aquincum (modern Budapest) was in their territory.
Helvetii-Rauraci / Raurici
Helvetii – original dwellers of Agri Decumates region, in the western part of Hercynia Silva, to the east and north of the Rhine; later, possibly at the end of the 3rd century BC they expanded to the South and Southwest to land later called Helvetia (modern day Switzerland). They were possibly more related to the Celtic populations of the upper Danube basin than to the Celts of Gaul.
Decumates may have meant "Ten Cantons". La Tène, (tribal confederation of four tribes).
Tigurini – Yverdon
Tougeni
Verbigeni
Tribe of unknown name (Helvetii Proper?)
Rauraci / Raurici – Kaiseraugst (Augusta Raurica), a tribe closely related to the Helvetii.
Hercuniates / Hercuniatae - areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
Latobici / Latovici - not the same tribe as the Latobrigi but they could have been related, they dwelt in areas of modern Slovenia and Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
Latobrigi - uncertain location, maybe to the north or northeast of the Helvetii in the upper Danube (Danubius) and upper Rhine river basins, original dwellers of Agri Decumates region, in the western part of Hercynia Silva.
Scordisci - areas of modern Serbia, Croatia, Austria, Romania, west of the river Danubius (Danube). According to Livy, they were related to the Bastarnae.
Celegeri / Celengeri
Dindari or Dindarii (Greek Δινδάριοι), a tribe that was a branch of the Scordisci.
Serdi - in Serdica region (today's Sofiya, Bulgaria's Capital)
Serrapilli / Serapilli - areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
Serretes - areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
Tricornenses (a later formation tribe)
Norici / Taurisci / Varisci - a tribal confederation
Alauni - in the middle Aenus river basin (Inn), east of the Aenus in the Eastern Alps, Chiemsee and Attersee lakes region.
Ambidravi / Ambidrani - in the upper and middle Dravus (Drau/Drava) river basin in the Eastern Alps and also in the Mur/Mura river basin, today's Carinthia and Styria, Austria.
Ambilici - in the Dravus (Drau/Drava) river basin, east of the Ambidravi/Ambidrani (today's Southeast Austria and Northeast Slovenia).
Ambisontes / Ambisontii - in the Alpes Noricae (East Central Alps), in the upper Salzach river basin.
Norici (Narisci) / Nori - may have been a tribe of the larger Taurisci tribal federation; in the Eastern Alps and in the Mur/Mura and Schwarza rivers basins and other areas, today's Styria and Lower Austria (Austria) south of the Danubius (Danube), also may have been a Germanic tribe.
Sevaces - in the low Aenus river basin (Inn), east of the Aenus and south of the Danubius (Danube), roughly in today's Upper Austria.
Teuriscii - A branch of the Celtic Taurisci (originally from Noricum) in the Tysia/Tibiscus (Tisza) river basin south of the Anartes/Anartii/Anartoi. Celts assimilated by Dacians
Varciani – areas of modern Slovenia, Croatia.
Vindelici – a tribal confederation, areas of modern Southern Germany (Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), in the upper Danube basin. May have been a confederation of mixed Celtic and Germanic tribes.
Brigantii – in the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake Constance) area, Brigantia (Bregenz) was the main centre, in the border areas of modern Germany, Austria and Switzerland, north of the Vennonetes/Vennones/Vennonienses.
Catenates - South of the Danubius (Danube), in the low Licus (Lech) river area, Augusta Vindelicorum region (today's Augsburg), north of the Licates.
Consuanetae / Cosuanetes / Cotuantii - Upper and middle valley of fl. Isarus (r. Isar) (Bavarian Alps) in today's Upper Bavaria, Germany.
Estiones - South of the Danubius (Danube), in the Ilargus (Roth) and Riss rivers area, including today's Ulm area (between modern Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), Cambodunum (today's Kempten) was one of their towns.
Leuni - in the Isarus (Isar) and Ammer (Amper) river areas, Munich area, Bavaria.
Licates -in the Licus (Lech) river valley, south of the Catenates.
Rucinates / Rucantii - Between rivers Isarus (Isar) and Danuvius (Danube), Low Bavaria.
Vennones / Vennonienses / Vennonetes - Upper valley of fl. Rhenus (r. Rhine) in today's canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland, south of the Brigantii.
Vindelici Proper – a tribe to the north of the Upper Danube.
Volcae - a tribal confederation, originally from today's Moravia (Eastern Czech Republic), Central and Upper Danube basin (Slovakia, Austria, Southern Germany), also in Main river basin, to the west of the Boii. They dwelt in Hercynia Silva, north of the Danuvius (Danube) but dispersed through migrations to other regions of Europe (Southern Gaul) and Asia Minor/Anatolia (Galatia).
Volcae tribes of unknown names in Hercynia Silva - roughly in today's Moravia and Main river basin.
Volcae Arecomici / Volcae Arecomisci – in southern Gaul, in the Mediterranean coast of today's Languedoc.
Volcae Tectosages (in Southern Gaul and also in Galatia, Central Asia Minor or Anatolia, one of the main tribes that formed the Galatians)
Possible Volcae tribes
Volciani – may have been a tribe related to the Volcae and not to the Hispano-Celts / Iberian Celts (i.e., the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula). Located north of the river Iberus (Ebro), but not very precisely.
Galatians
In the middle 3rd century BC, Celts from the middle Danube valley, immigrated from Thrace into the highlands of central Anatolia (modern Turkey), which was called Galatia after that. These people, called Galatians, a generic name for “Celts”, were eventually Hellenized, but retained many of their own traditions. They spoke Galatian, a name derived from the generic name for “Celts”. Some closely fit the concept of a tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Aigosages, between Troy and Cyzicus
Daguteni, in modern Marmara region around Orhaneli
Inovanteni, east of the Trocnades
Okondiani, between Phrygia and Galatia northeast of modern Akşehir Gölü
Rigosages, unlocated
Trocnades, in Phrygia around modern Sivrihisar
Unknown tribe (Territory of Gaezatorix, a Celtic Chieftain), between Bithynia and Galatia at modern Bolu
Core Galatians
Tectosages, in Galatia
Tolistobogii, in Galatia
Trocmii, in Galatia (easternmost known Celtic tribe)
Gauls (Galli or Celtae)
Gauls were the Celtic people that lived in Gaul having many tribes but with some influential tribal confederations. Galli (Gauls), for the Romans, was a name synonym of “Celts” (as Julius Caesar states in De Bello Gallico) which means that not all peoples and tribes called “Galli” were necessarily Gauls in a narrower regional sense.
Gaulish Celts spoke Gaulish, a Continental Celtic language of the P Celtic type, a more innovative Celtic language - *kʷ > p.
Romans initially organized Gaul in two provinces (later in three):
Transalpine Gaul, meaning literally "Gaul on the other side of the Alps" or "Gaul across the Alps", is approximately modern Belgium, France, Switzerland, Netherlands, and Western Germany in what would become the Roman provinces of Gallia Narbonensis, Gallia Celtica (later Lugdunensis and Aquitania) and Gallia Belgica.
Some closely fit the concept of a tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Abrincatui - in Aremorica or Armorica
Aedui / Haedui - Gaulish Celts largest tribal confederation, roughly in the geographical centre of Gaul and controlling important land, river, and trade routes
Aedui / Haedui proper - Bibracte
Ambivareti
Parisii (Gaul) - Lutetia, today's Paris, was their capital. A tribe of similar name, the Parisi, dwelt in East Yorkshire, United Kingdom.
Senones – Sens
Agenisates / Angesinates – Angoumois
Agnutes – Vendée
Allobroges/Allobriges – Vienne, Southern Gaul
Ambarri (they were allies to the Aedui Confederation but not part of it)
Ambiliates / Ambilatres – Low Liger (Loire), in Aremorica or Armorica
Ambivarii / Ambibarii - in Aremorica or Armorica
Anagnutes
Andecamulenses
Andecavi/Andes – Angers
Antobroges
Arverni – Gergovia (tribal confederation)
Arverni proper
Gabali
Armoricani / Aremoricii - in Aremorica or Armorica (Land "Before the Sea” or “Close to the Sea” - Are Morica)
Arvii
Atacini – Aussière
Atesui
Aulerci (tribal confederation)
Aulerci Brannovices/Brannovii/Blannovii (a southern branch of the Aulerci but within the Aedui tribal confederation)
Aulerci Cenomani / Gaul Cenomani – Le Mans
Aulerci Diablintes
Aulerci Eburovices
Aulerci Sagii
Baiocasses / Boiocasses – Bayeux, in Aremorica or Armorica
Bebryces (Gauls) – in southern Gaul, south of the Volcae Arecomici, close to Narbo (Narbonne) region.
Bipedimui / Pimpedunni
Bituriges
Bituriges Cubi – Bourges (an eastern branch of the Bituriges but within the Aedui tribal confederation)
Bituriges Vivisci – Bordeaux (Burdigala)
Cadurci – Cahors
Caeresi
Cambolectres
Carnutes – Autricum (Chartres), Cenabum / Genabum (Orléans), in Aremorica or Armorica
Chalbici – Chablais, in Southern Gaul, south of Lake Leman
Corisopiti
Curiosolitae / Coriosolites – Corseul, in Aremorica or Armorica
Edenates – in Southern Gaul
Eleuterii
Elycoces
Epomandui
Esuvii / Esubii / Sesuvii
Helvii / Elvi - Southern Gaul
Lemovices – Limoges
Lexovii – Lisieux, in Aremorica or Armorica
Lingones
Mandubii – Alesia (under Aedui Confederation influence but not part of it)
Medulli Meduci – Médoc, southwestern Gaul
Namnetes – Nantes, in Aremorica or Armorica
Nantuates / Nantuatae
Nitiobroges/Nitiobriges
Osismii - Western end of Brittany Peninsula, in Aremorica or Armorica
Petrocorii – Périgueux
Pictones/Pictavi – Poitiers
Redones – Rennes, in Aremorica or Armorica
Ruteni – Rodez
Santones – Saintes
Seduni – High Rhône river valley, Sion (Middle Valais, Switzerland)
Segusiavi / Segobriges - Lugdunum (Lyon), that was to be capital of Gallia Lugdunensis, was in their land (they were allies to the Aedui Confederation but not part of it).
Segovellauni / Segovi – in Southern Gaul
Sequani – Besançon
Tornates / Turnates
Tricasses / Tricassini
Triviatii
Trones
Turones / Turoni – Tours
Uberi / Viberi – High Rhône river valley, Upper Valais
Vellavi / Velaunii – Ruessium
Veragri - High Rhône river valley, Lower Valais
Veroduni
Venelli / Unelli – Coutances, Cotentin Peninsula, in today's Western Normandy region, in Aremorica or Armorica
Veneti – Vannes, in Aremorica or Armorica
Viducasses / Vadicasses / Vadicassii – Vieux, in Aremorica or Armorica
Mix of several Gaulish tribes
Gaesatae – Numbering c. 30,000, they participated in the battle of Telamon a group of mercenary Celtic warriors from several tribes of the western Alps slopes, not a tribe.
Possible Gaulish tribes
Galli (tribe) – along Gallicus (Gállego) river banks, see place names (toponyms) like Forum Gallorum, Gallur, a different tribe from the Suessetani; may have been a tribe related to the Galli (Gauls) and not to the Hispano-Celts / Iberian Celts. Some Gaulish tribes may have migrated southward and crossed the Pyrenees (by the north, the central, or the south areas of the mountains) in a second or a third Celtic wave to the Iberian Peninsula. These tribes were different from the Hispano-Celtic / Iberian Celtic tribes.
Garumni – along the banks of the high Garumna (Garonne), southwest of the Volcae Tectosages, and in and around Lugdunum Convenarum, among the Convenae. Although they dwelt in Aquitania Proper, they seem to have been a Celtic tribe and not a tribe of the Aquitani (a people that may have been the ancestor of the Basques).
Cisalpine Gauls
Cisalpine Gauls (Celtae / Galli Cisalpini) - They lived in Cisalpine Gaul, most of today's northern Italy. Multiple waves of population movements from France. They spoke Cisalpine Gaulish (a Continental Celtic language of the P Celtic type) closely related to Gaulish or Gallic. They lived in Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina), also called Gallia Citerior or Gallia Togata, was the part of Italy continually inhabited by Celts since the 13th century BC. Conquered by the Roman Republic in the 220s BC, it was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was merged into Roman Italy. Until that time, it was considered part of Gaul, precisely that part of Gaul on the "hither side of the Alps" (from the perspective of the Romans), as opposed to Transalpine Gaul ("on the far side of the Alps").
Seven Gaulish tribes that according to Livy settled in Cisalpine Gaul around 600 BC. Led by Bellovesus, they defeated the Etruscans at the Ticino, settled in Insubria and founded the city of Mediolanum, the modern Milan. They were ancestors of Cisalpine Gauls.
Aedui (many Insubres descended from them)
Ambarri
Arverni
Aulerci (many Cisalpine Gaul Cenomani descended from them)
Bituriges
Carnutes
Salyes or Salluvii (Celto-Ligurians)
Anani – Western Emilia, Po Valley, (Fidentia, Province of Piacenza)
Anamares – Minor tribe whose precise location along the southern bank of the river Padus in Italy is uncertain
Anares – Middle Po Valley, Placentia (Piacenza, Province of Piacenza)
Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul) – Eastern Lombardy (Brixia, Cremona). Related to or a branch of the Cenomani (Aulerci Cenomani) that lived in Transalpine Gaul (Gallia Transalpina).
Insubres – Western Lombardy (Milan). Said by Pliny to descend from the Aedui.
Lingones – North-eastern Emilia-Romagna (Ferrara), Po Valley. Related to or a branch of the Lingones that lived in Gaul (Gallia).
Senones – South-eastern Emilia-Romagna (Rimini) and Northern Marche (Senigallia). Related to or a branch of the Senones that lived in Gaul (Gallia).
Lepontine Celts
They seem to have been an older group of Celts that lived in Cisalpine Gaul before the Gaulish Celtic migration. They spoke Lepontic (a Continental Celtic language) a Celtic language that seems to precede Cisalpine Gaulish.
Lepontii / Lepontii / Leipontii / Lepontes – Valle Leventina and Val d'Ossola in today's Province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola, Piemonte, North-eastern Piedmont, far Northwestern Lombardy, and Switzerland in the Lepontine Alps. They were not Gaulish Celts
Orobii or Orumbovii – Central Lombardy (Bergamo)
Celto-Ligurians / Gallo-Ligurians
May have been Celtic tribes influenced by Ligurians, heavily Celticized Ligurian tribes that shifted to a Celtic ethnolinguistic identity or mixed Celtic-Ligurian tribes. They dwelt in southeastern Transalpine Gaul and northwestern Cisalpine Gaul, mainly in the Western Alps regions, Rhodanus eastern basin and upper Po river basin.
Acitavones
Adenates / Adanates – slopes of the Western Alps (Maurienne-Modanne), Southern Gaul
Adunicates – Andon área, Southern Gaul
Albici – Middle and Lower Durance river valley, Southern Gaul (tribal confederation)
Albienses / Albici Proper
Vordenses
Vulgientes
Anatili
Avantices (Avantici)
Avatices / Avatici – Camargue – Rhodanus river delta, south of the Volcae Arecomici, in Southern Gaul
Belaci
Bodiontici – in Southern Gaul
Bormanni
Bramovices – Low Tarentaise, Savoy, Southern Gaul
Briganii / Brigianii – Briançon, High Durance river valley, Southern Gaul
Caburri
Camatulici
Casmonates / Cosmonates (in the area of Castellazzo Bormida)
Caturiges – Chorges, High Durance river valley, in Southern Gaul
Cavares/Cavari – North of Low Durance, Arausio (Orange), in Southern Gaul (tribal confederation)
Cavares Proper
Meminii / Menimii
Ceutrones / Centrones – Moûtiers, in the western Alps slopes, Southern Gaul
Coenicenses
Dexivates
Esubiani – Ubaye Valley, Southern Gaul
Euburiates
Gabieni
Glanici
Graioceli / Garocelli – Alps western slopes in part of eastern Savoy, and Alps eastern slopes, northwestern Piedmont in the Graian Alps
Iadatini
Iconii – Gap, in Southern Gaul
Irienses
Libii / Libici
Ligauni
Maielli
Medulli – upper valley of Maurienne, Southern Gaul
Naburni
Nearchi
Nemalones / Nemolani – in Southern Gaul
Nemeturii – High Var river valley, Southern Gaul
Orobii - in the northern Italian Alpine valleys of Bergamo, Como and Lecco
Quariates – in Southern Gaul
Reieni / Reii - in Southern Gaul
Salassi (Gallo-Ligurian people) – Aosta Valley and Canavese (Northern Piedmont) (Ivrea)
Salyes / Salluvii
Savincates
Sebagini
Segobriges
Segovi
Segusini - in Segusa (today's Susa, Piemonte)
Sentienes / Sentii – Senez, in Southern Gaul
Sigorii
Sogiontii
Suelteri / Sueltri
Suetrii
Taurini – parts of central Piedmont (Turin region)
Tebavii
Tricastini
Tricorii – in Southern Gaul
Tritolii
Ucenni
Veamini – in Southern Gaul
Vennavi
Vergunni – Vinon-sur-Verdon, Southern Gaul
Verucini
Vocontii / Transalpine Gaul Vertamocori – Vaison-la-Romaine, Southern Gaul (in modern Provence, on the east bank of the Rhône and Vercors, southern Gaul.
Vertamocorii – Eastern Piedmont (Novara). Said by Pliny to descend from the Vocontii.
Hispano-Celts / Celts of Hispania
They lived in large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, in the Northern, Central, and Western regions (half of the Peninsula's territory).
The Celts in the Iberian peninsula were traditionally thought of as living on the edge of the Celtic world of the La Tène culture that defined classical Iron Age Celts. Earlier migrations were Hallstatt in culture and later came La Tène influenced peoples. Celtic or (Indo-European) Pre-Celtic cultures and populations existed in great numbers and Iberia experienced one of the highest levels of Celtic settlement in all of Europe. They dwelt in northern, central and western regions of the Iberian Peninsula, but also in several southern regions.
They spoke Celtic languages - Hispano-Celtic languages which were of the Q-Celtic type, more conservative Celtic languages.
Romans initially organized the Peninsula in two provinces (later in three):
Hispania Citerior ("Nearer Hispania", "Hispania that is Closer", from the perspective of the Romans), was a region of Hispania during the Roman Republic, roughly occupying the northeastern coast and the Iberus (Ebro) Valley and later the eastern, central, northern and northwestern areas of the Iberian peninsula in what would become the Tarraconensis Roman province (of what is now Spain and northern Portugal).
Hispania Ulterior ("Further Hispania", "Hispania that is Beyond", from the perspective of the Romans) was a region of Hispania during the Roman Republic, roughly located in what would become the provinces of Baetica (that included the Baetis, Guadalquivir, valley of modern Spain) and extending to all of Lusitania (modern south and central Portugal, Extremadura and a small part of Salamanca province).
The Roman province of Hispania included both Celtic speaking and non-Celtic speaking tribes. Some closely fit the concept of a tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Western Hispano-Celts (Celts of Western Hispania)
Western Hispano-Celts were Celtic peoples and tribes that inhabited most of north and western Iberian Peninsula regions. They are often confused or taken as synonym of Celtiberians but, in fact, they were a distinct Celtic population that was most part of Iberian Peninsula Celtic populations. They spoke Gallaecian (a Continental Celtic language of the Q Celtic type, a more conservative Celtic language) which was not Celtiberian (Celtic languages of Iberian Peninsula are often lumped as Hispano-Celtic).
Allotriges / Autrigones – East Burgos (Spain), Northwestern La Rioja (Spain) to the Atlantic Coast
Astures – Asturias and northern León (Spain), and east of Trás os Montes (Portugal), (tribal confederation).
Cismontani
Amaci
Cabruagenigi
Gigurri
Lancienses
Lougei
Orniaci
Superatii
Susarri/Astures Proper
Tiburi
Zoelae – Eastern Trás-os-Montes (Portugal), (Miranda do Douro).
Transmontani
Baedunienses
Brigaentini
Cabarci
Iburri
Luggones/Lungones
Paenii
Paesici
Saelini
Vinciani
Viromenici. Might be related to the Viromandui.
Bebryaces / Berybraces – unknown location, may have been related to the Bebryces (gauls) or the Berones, there is also the possibility that it was an old name of the Celtiberians.
Berones – La Rioja (Spain). Could have been related to the Eburones.
Cantabri – Cantabria, part of Asturias and part of Castile and León (Spain); some consider them not Celtic, may have been Pre-Celtic Indo-European as could have been the Lusitani and Vettones . If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). A Tribal confederation.
Avarigines
Blendii / Plentusii / Plentuisii
Camarici / Tamarici
Concani / Gongani – two tribes of similar name (the Britannia Gangani and Hibernia Gangani) lived in Britannia and Hibernia, they could have been three branches of the same tribe, three related tribes with common ancestors or three different tribes that shared similar names.
Coniaci / Conisci
Moroecani
Noegi
Orgenomesci
Salaeni / Selaeni
Vadinienses
Vellici / Velliques
Caristii / Carietes – today's West Basque Country, they may have been Celtic (see Late Basquisation), they were later assimilated by the Vascones in the 6th and 7th centuries CE; Some consider them not Celtic, may have been a Pre-Celtic Indo-European people as the Lusitani and Vettones could have been. . If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic).
Carpetani – Central Iberian meseta (Spain), in the geographical centre of the Iberian Peninsula, in a large part of today's Castilla-La Mancha and Madrid regions. A tribal confederation with 27 identified tribes. (the name of these tribes is known today by archaeology discovery of their names in old stellae and not by mention of any known or survived works of Classical Antiquity authors)
Aelarici / Aelariques
Aeturici / Aeturiques
Arquioci - in Iplacea, Roman named Complutum (today's Alcalá de Henares) region.
Acualici / Acualiques
Bocourici / Bocouriques
Canbarici - in Toletum (Toledo) region.
Contucianci - in Segobriga region.
Dagencii
Dovilici / Doviliques
Duitici / Duitiques
Duniques
Elguismici / Elguismiques
Langioci
Longeidoci
Maganici / Maganiques
Malugenici / Malugeniques
Manucici / Manuciques
Maureici
Mesici
Metturici
Moenicci
Obisodici / Obisodiques - in Toletum (Toledo) region
Pilonicori
Solici
Tirtalici / Tirtaliques - in Segobriga region.
Uloci / Uloques
Venatioci / Venatioques
Celtici – Portugal south of the Tagus and north of Guadiana (Anas), Alentejo and Algarve (Portugal), western Extremadura (Spain), (tribal confederation).
Celtici of Arunda (Ronda) – in south Turdetania, later Baetica Roman province, (in today's western Málaga Province), Andalusia region (southernmost known Celtic tribe).
Cempsi
Conii – according to some scholars, Conii and Cynetes were two different peoples or tribes and the names were not two different names of the same people or tribe; in this case, the Conii may have dwelt along the northern banks of the middle Anas (Guadiana) river, in today's western Extremadura region of Spain, and were a Celtici tribe wrongly confused with the Cynetes of Cyneticum (Algarve) that dwelt from the west banks of the Low river Anas (Guadiana) further to the south (the celticization of the Cynetes by the Celtici confused the distinction between the two peoples or tribes).
Mirobrigenses
Saephes / Saefes / Sefes - people or tribe of the Celtici that has been identified as synonymous with the Ophi or Serpent People (their land was called Ophiussa), a people that migrated westward and conquered and expelled an older people known as the Oestrymni or Oestrimni (in a land that was called Oestriminis).
Unknown tribes
Gallaeci / Callaici (Gallecians) – Gallaecia (Portugal & Galicia). Western Hispano-Celts largest tribal confederation.
Abobrigenses
Addovi / Iadovi
Aebocosi
Aedui (Gallaecian tribe)
Albiones / Albioni – western Asturias (Spain).
Amphiloci
Aquaflavienses / Aquiflavienses - Vila Real District (Chaves), (Portugal)
Arroni / Arrotrebi
Arrotrebae / Artabri (Turodes Artabri) – Northern Galicia (Spain), They might be related to the Atrebates of Gallia Belgica.
Artodii
Aunonenses
Baedi
Banienses – around Baião Municipality, Eastern Porto District, (Portugal).
Barhantes
Bibali / Biballi
Bracari / Callaeci Bracari – roughly in today's Braga District, (Portugal).
Brassii
Brigantes (Gallaecian tribe) – Northern Bragança District, Bragança, (Portugal).
Caladuni
Capori / Copori
Celtici (Gallaecian)
Celtici Praestamarici
Celtici Supertamarici
Cibarci
Cileni
Coelerni – southwestern Ourense Province (Spain), south of Minho (river).
Cuci
Egi
Egovarri / Varri Namarini
Equaesi – Minho and Trás-os-Montes (Portugal).
Gallaeci or Callaeci Proper, this tribe gave name to the larger tribal confederation of the same name (not the same tribe as the Bracari) - roughly in today's Porto District (Portuguese District = County) west of the Tâmega.
Grovii / (Turodes Grovii) – Minho (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
Iadones
Interamici / Interamnici – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal).
Lapatianci
Lemavi
Leuni – Minho (Portugal).
Limici – Lima river banks, Minho (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
Louguei
Luanqui – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal).
Naebisoci / Aebisoci
Namarii
Narbasi -Minho (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
Nemetati – Minho (Portugal).
Nerii / Neri
Poemani, they might be related to the Paemani.
Quaquerni / Querquerni – Minho (Portugal).
Segodii
Seurbi – Minho (Portugal).
Seurri – Sarria Municipality, East Central Galicia (Spain)
Tamagani – Chaves (Portugal).
Tongobrigenses
Turodi / Turodes – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
Cynetes – Cyneticum (today's Algarve region) and Low Alentejo (Portugal); originally probably Tartessians or similar, later celtized by the Celtici; according to some scholars, Cynetes and Conii were two different peoples or tribes .
Oestrymni or Oestrimni or Oestrymini - They lived in far-western Iberian Peninsula in coastal Atlantic regions (today's Galicia and Portugal) before other Celtic peoples, their land was called Oestryminis or Oestriminis (their existence is not well proven, semi legendary people).
Osismii (Iberian Peninsula) - people mentioned along with the Oestrymni or may have been the same people.
Plentauri – Northwestern La Rioja (Spain).
Turduli – Guadiana valley (Portugal) and Extremadura (Spain); may have been related to Lusitanians, Callaeci or Turdetani.
Turduli Baetici / Turduli Baetures - Baeturia/Baeturia Turdulorum (ancient northern region of Baetica Province), south and east of the river Anas (Guadiana) and northern slope of Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena), Southern Extremadura region, Badajoz Province, Portugal Southeastern corner, East Beja District, Alentejo region.
Turduli Bardili – Setubal Peninsula (Portugal); may have been related to Lusitanians, Callaeci or Turdetani.
Turduli Oppidani – Estremadura and Beira Litoral (Portugal); may have been related to Lusitanians, Callaeci or Turdetani.
Turduli Veteres – Southern Douro banks, between Douro and Vouga River, Aveiro District, (Portugal); may have been related to Lusitanians, Callaeci or Turdetani.
Turmodigi or Turmogi - Central Burgos.
Vaccaei – North Central Iberian meseta (Spain), middle Duero river basin. A tribal confederation. Ptolemy mentions 20 vaccaean Civitates (that also had the meaning of tribes)
Cauci (Vaccaei) – in Cauca (Coca, Segovia)
Other tribes (19 other tribes mentioned by Ptolemy)
Varduli – today's East Basque Country, they may have been Celtic (see Late Basquisation), they were later assimilated by the Vascones in the 6th and 7th centuries AD; Some consider them not Celtic, may have been a Pre-Celtic Indo-European people as the Lusitani and Vettones could have been. If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). .
Eastern Hispano-Celts (Celtiberians)
Eastern Iberian meseta (Spain), mountains of the headwaters of the rivers Douro, Tagus, Guadiana (Anas), Júcar, Jalón, Jiloca and Turia, (tribal confederation). Mixed Celtic and Iberian tribes or Celtic tribes influenced by Iberians. Not synonymous of all the Celts that lived in the Iberian Peninsula but to a narrower group (the majority of Celtic tribes in the Iberian Peninsula) were not Celtiberians. They spoke Celtiberian (a Continental Celtic language of the Q Celtic type, a more conservative Celtic language).
Arevaci (Celtiberian Arevaci – Celtiberian tribe “Before or Close to the Vaccaei” – Are Vaci – Are Vaccaei)
Belli
Cratistii
Lobetani
Lusones – Western Zaragoza (province), Eastern Guadalajara (Spain).
Mantesani / Mentesani / Mantasani – La Mancha Plateau, Castilla-La Mancha (Spain); they were a different people from the Oretani.
Olcades
Oretani? – northeastern Andalusia, northwest Múrcia and southern fringes of La Mancha, (Spain), mountains of the headwaters of the Guadalquivir (ancient river Baetis); Some consider them not Celtic (see Germani (Oretania)).
Pellendones / Cerindones, in high Duero river course (Numantia) and neighboring mountains, may also have been related to the Pelendi/Belendi that dwelt in the middle of the river Sigmatis, today's Leyre.
Titii (Celtiberian)
Turboletae / Turboleti
Uraci / Duraci
Possible Celtiberian tribe
Belendi / Pelendi – Belinum territory (Belin-Béliet), in the middle Sigmatis river (in today's Leyre) river area, south of the Bituriges Vivisci and the Boii Boiates; they may have been related to the Pellendones (a Celtiberian tribe). Although they dwelt in Aquitania Proper, they seem to have been a Celtic tribe and not a tribe of the Aquitani (a people that may have been the ancestor of the Basques).
Insular Celts
Insular Celts were the Celtic peoples and tribes that inhabited the British Islands, Britannia (Great Britain), the main largest island to the east, and Hibernia (Ireland), the main smaller island to the west. There were three or four distinct Celtic populations in these islands, in Britannia inhabited the Britons, the Caledonians or Picts, the Belgae (not surely known if they were a Celtic people or a distinct but closely related one); in Hibernia inhabited the Hibernians or Goidels or Gaels. Britons and Caledonians or Picts spoke the P-Celtic type languages, a more innovative Celtic language (*kʷ > p) while Hibernians or Goidels or Gaels spoke Q-Celtic type languages, a more conservative Celtic language.
Classical Antiquity authors did not call the British islands peoples and tribes as Celts or Galli but by the name Britons (in Britannia). They only used the name Celts or Gauls for the peoples and tribes of mainland Europe.
Britons (Celts)
They spoke Brittonic (an Insular Celtic language of the P Celtic type).
They lived in Britannia, it was the name Romans gave, based on the name of the people: the Britanni.
Some closely fit the concept of a tribe but others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Ancalites (mentioned by Caesar; uncertain: speculatively Hampshire and Wiltshire) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
Attacotti (origin uncertain)
Bibroci (mentioned by Caesar; location uncertain but possibly Berkshire) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
Boresti (sometimes Horesti) (In or near Fife, Scotland according to Tacitus)
Brigantes (an important tribe in most of Northern England and in the south-east corner of Ireland)
Cantiaci (in present-day Kent which preserves the ancient tribal name)
Carvetii (Cumberland)
Cassi (mentioned by Caesar; possibly south-east England) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
Corieltauvi / Coritani (East Midlands including Leicester)
Corionototae (possibly a tribe, a subtribe of the Brigantes or a group of warriors) (Northumberland)
Cornovii (Midlands)
Damnonii (Southwestern Scotland)
Deceangli (Flintshire, Wales)
Demetae (Dyfed, Wales)
Dobunni (Cotswolds and Severn valley)
Dumnonii (Devon, Cornwall, Somerset)
Cornovii (Cornwall) (a sub-tribe of the Dumnonii)
Durotriges (Dorset, south Somerset, south Wiltshire, possibly the Isle of Wight
Gabrantovices
Gangani (Llŷn Peninsula, Wales) - A tribe of the same name, the Gangani (Ganganoi), lived in Hibernia's southwestern coast, they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names. A tribe of similar name, the Gongani or Concani, was a tribe of the Cantabri, they could have been another branch of the same tribe, related tribes with common ancestors or a different tribe that shared a similar name.
Iceni-Cenimagni (may have been the same tribe)
Cenimagni (Iceni Magni?) (mentioned by Caesar; perhaps the same as the Iceni)
Iceni (East Anglia) – under Boudica, they rebelled against Roman rule
Novantae (Galloway and Carrick)
Ordovices (Gwynedd, Wales) – they waged guerrilla warfare from the north Wales hills
Parisi (East Riding of Yorkshire). A tribe of similar name, the Parisii, dwelt in Paris region, France.
Segontiaci (mentioned by Caesar; probably south-east England) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
Selgovae (Dumfriesshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright)
Setantii (possibly a tribe) (Lancashire)
Silures (south Wales) – resisted the Romans in present-day south Wales
Trinovantes / Trinobantes (Essex) – neighbours of the Iceni, they joined in their rebellion
Votadini / Otadini (north-east England and south-east Scotland) – they later formed Gododdin
Picts / Caledonians
They were a different people from the Britons , but may have shared common ancestry. They lived as a tribal confederation in Caledonia (today's Northern Scotland); the Caledonian Forest (Caledonia Silva) was in their land.
Caledonians / Caledones - a tribal confederation
Caledones Proper / Caledonii Proper (along the Great Glen)
Taexali/Taezali (Angus and Grampian)
Vacomagi (in and around the Cairngorms)
Venicones (Fife and south-west Tayside in Scotland)
Carnonacae (western Highlands)
Carini or Caereni (far western Highlands)
Cateni (north and west of Sutherland) – they gave the county its Gaelic name Cataibh
Cornovii/Cornavii (far northern mainland Scotland) (northernmost known Celtic tribe)
Creones (Argyll)
Decantae or Ducantae (eastern Ross and Black Isle)
Epidii (Kintyre and neighboring islands)
Lugi (southern Sutherland)
Maeatae / Maetae (Miathi?)
Smertae (central Sutherland)
Tribe of unknown name in the Faroe Islands (may have been Picts)
Tribe of unknown name in the Orkney Islands (may have been Picts)
Tribe of unknown name in the Shetland Islands (may have been Picts)
Goidels / Gaels / Hibernians
They spoke Goidelic (an Insular Celtic language of the Q Celtic type.
According to Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century AD) (in brackets the names are in Greek as on the map):
Autini (Aouteinoi - Auteinoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Brigantes (Britons? A tribe of the same name lived in northern Britannia or they could have been two different tribes that shared the same name)
Cauci (Καῦκοι, Kaukoi on the map) A tribe of the same name (Chauci) lived in Northern Germany or they could have been two different tribes that shared the same name.
Coriondi (or Koriondoi) A tribe of a similar name (Corionototae) lived in Northern Britannia.
Darini (Darinoi)
Eblani (Eblanioi)
Erdini (Erdinoi)
Gangani (Ganganoi) (Britons? A tribe of the same name lived in western Britannia (today's northwestern Wales) they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names.
Iverni (Iouernoi - Iwernoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Manapii (Manapioi) (Belgae? A tribe of similar name, the Menapii, lived in the coast of Belgica province or they could have been two different tribes that shared similar names)
Nagnatae or Magnatae (Nagnatai or Magnatai)
Robogdii (Rhobogdioi)
Usdiae (Ousdiai - Usdiai on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Uterni (Outernoi - Uternoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Velabri or Vellabori (Ouellaboroi - Wellabrioi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Vennicnii (Ouenniknioi - Wenniknioi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Volunti (Ouolountioi - Woluntioi on the map, not the Greek spelling) – identifiable with the Ulaidh/Uluti
Later peoples
Scotti (western portion of Scotland, later they expanded for most part of the country) - a later people from late Classical antiquity and early Middle Ages, descendant from ancient North Ireland tribes (mostly from the Darini, Robogdii and Volunti / Uluti) that crossed the North Channel, they formed the kingdoms of Ulaid and Dál Riata.
Possible Para-Celts
Para-Celtic has the meaning that these peoples had common ancestors with the Celts but were not Celts themselves (although they were later Celticized and belong to a Celtic culture sphere of influence), they were not direct descendants from the Proto-Celts.
They may in fact have been Proto-Celto-Italic, predating the Celtic or Italic languages and originated earlier from either Proto-Celtic or Proto-Italic populations who spread from Central Europe into Western Europe after new Yamnaya migrations into the Danube Valley. Alternatively, a European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed "North-west Indo-European" and associated with the Beaker culture, may have been ancestral to not only Celtic and Italic, but also to Germanic and Balto-Slavic.
Belgae
A people or a group of related tribes that dwelt in Belgica, parts of Britannia, and may have dwelt in parts of Hibernia and also parts of Hispania (large tribal confederation).
According to classical authors works, like Caesar's De Bello Gallico, they were a different people and spoke a different language (Ancient Belgic) from the Gauls and Britons; they were clearly an Indo-European people and may have spoken a Celtic language. There is also the possibility that their language may have been a different language branch of Indo-European from the Nordwestblock culture, which may have been intermediary between Germanic and Celtic, and might have been affiliated to Italic (according to a Maurits Gysseling hypothesis).
Mainlander Belgae (in Belgica)
Ambiani – Amiens
Ambivareti
Atrebates (in Belgica) – Arras
Bellovaci – Beauvais
Caleti/Caletes – Harfleur (Caracotinum), later Lillebonne (Juliobona)
Catalauni / Gaul Catuvellauni – Châlons-en-Champagne
Catuslogi
Eburones (mixed Belgae and Germani cisrhenani people)
Leuci – Toul (Tullum Leucorum)
Mediomatrici – Metz
Meldi – Marne (Matrona) – Meaux
Menapii – Cassel. A tribe of similar name, the Manapii (Manapioi), lived in southeastern Hibernia (modern Ireland) coast, they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names.
Morini – Boulogne-sur-Mer
Nervii – Bavay, Belgae largest tribal confederation.
Ceutrones (Belgae)
Geidumni
Grudii
Levaci
Nervii Proper
Pleumoxii
Remi – Reims
Silvanectii – Senlis
Suessiones – Soissons (Suessetani may have been related, result of a migration towards south)
Tencteri – Rhine east bank, may have been a Celtic tribe (and not a Germanic one) or a mixed Belgae and Germani tribe.
Treveri – Trier
Usipetes – Rhine east bank, may have been a Celtic tribe (and not a Germanic one) or a mixed Belgae and Germani tribe.
Veliocasses/Velicasses/Velocasses – Rouen
Viromandui – Noyon
Islander Belgae (in south and southeast Great Britain)
Atrebates (in Britannia) – an important Belgic tribe of today's Southern England, in Berkshire. Related to or a branch of the Atrebates that lived in Gallia Belgica.
Belgae (tribe) (in Britannia) – Belgic tribe, in today's England's south coast, Isle of Wight, Hampshire, Wiltshire
Catuvellauni (Britannia, today's Hertfordshire) – Belgic tribe, neighbours of the Iceni, they joined in their rebellion. May have been related to the Catalauni. May have conquered and assimilated the Ancalites, Bibroci, Cassi, part of the Iceni (Cenimagni) and the Segontiaci, which were Brittonic or British tribes (Insular Celts).
Regni / Regnenses – Belgic tribe, in today's East Hampshire, Sussex and Surrey
Possible Belgae tribe
Suessetani - Far North Western Aragon and Far South Eastern Navarra (Spain), between the rivers Gallicus (Gállego) and Low Aragon, and between the river Ebro and Sierra de Santo Domingo mountains. Alba (Arba) river basin (a tributary of the Ebro) was in the centre of their territory that also included the Bardenas Reales. Corbio was their capital. They were north of the Celtiberians, south of the Iacetani and the Vascones, west of the Galli (tribe). They were later conquered by the Vascones in the 2nd Century B.C. which were allies of the Romans. Could have been related to the Suessiones (a tribe of the Belgae).
Ligurians
Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling South-east French and North-west Italian coasts, including far Northern and Northwestern Tuscany and Corsica. Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were known already in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians (in Greek , Keltolígues). Very little is known about this language, Ligurian (mainly place names and personal names remain) which is generally believed to have been Celtic or Para-Celtic; (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). They spoke ancient Ligurian.
Alpini / Montani
Apuani – Eastern Liguria from the Northern Apennines Mountains to the Mediterranean coast.
Bagienni (or Vagienni) – (in the area of Bene Vagienna)
Bimbelli
Briniates (or Boactes) – (in the area of Brugnato)
Celelates
Cerdiciates
Commoni
Cosmonates
Deciates – (a tribe that dwelt in the region of Antipolis (Antibes) west of the river Varus (Var), in modern Provence)
Epanterii
Euburiates
Friniates – (in the area now called Frignano)
Garuli – (in the area of Cenisola)
Genuates – (in the area of Genua - Genoa)
Hercates
Ilvates (or Iluates) – (if different from the Iriates) (on the island of Elba)
Iriates / Ilvates / Mainland Ilvates (Iluates?)
Ingauni – Western Liguria from the Northern Apennines Mountains and Ligurian Alps to the Mediterranean coast.
Intemelii - Western Liguria from the Ligurian Alps to the Mediterranean coast, west of the Ingauni, in the Albium Intemelium area (today's Ventimiglia).
Laevi – a Ligurian tribe that dwelt in the low river Ticinus (Ticino), according to both Livy & Pliny. According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century BC
Langates
Lapicini (or Lapicinii) – In the extreme northern regions of Liguria, as it was defined in Roman times, on a tributary of the Magra
Libici / Libui – Between the rivers Duria Bautica/Duria Maior (Dora Baltea) and Sesites/Sessites (Sesia).
Magelli
Marici – (near the confluence of the rivers Orba, Bormida and Tanaro)
Olivari
Oxybii - a Ligurian tribe that dwelt on the Mediterranean coast between Massalia (Marseille) and Antipolis.
Sabates
Segusini (or Cottii) – Western Piedmont on Cottian Alps (Susa)
Statielli / Statiellates – on the road from Vada Sabatia, near Savona to Dertona (Tortona) and Placentia
Sueltri / Suelteri
Tigulli – from the Northern Apennines Mountains to the Mediterranean coast, west of the Apuani.
Tricastini
Vediantii
Veiturii
Veleiates / Veliates
Veneni
Possible Ligurian tribes
Corsi
Belatones (Belatoni)
Cervini
Cilebenses (Cilibensi)
Corsi Proper
Cumanenses (Cumanesi)
Lestricones / Lestrigones (Lestriconi / Lestrigoni)
Licinini
Longonenses (Longonensi)
Macrini
Opini
Subasani
Sumbri
Tarabeni
Tibulati
Titiani
Venacini
Lusitanians-Vettones
Lusitanians (Lusitani/Bellitani) – Portugal south of the Douro and north of the Tagus, and northwestern Extremadura (Spain). They spoke Lusitanian, a now extinct language which was clearly Indo-European but the kinship of it as a Celtic language is not surely proven (although many tribal names and place names, toponyms, are Celtic). Attempts to classify the language have also pointed at an Italic origin or some kinship to the Nordwestblock culture language (Ancient Belgian). Hence Lusitanian language may have been a Para-Celtic Indo-European branch, like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). The Lusitanians have also been identified as being a pre-Celtic Indo-European speaking culture of the Iberian Peninsula closely related to the neighbouring Vettones tribal confederation. However, under their controversial theory of Celtic originating in Iberia, John T Koch and Barry Cunliffe have proposed a para-Celtic identity for the Lusitanian language and culture or that they spoke an archaic Proto-Celtic language and were Proto-Celtic in ethnicity.
Arabrigenses
Aravi
Coelarni/Colarni
Interamnienses
Lancienses
Lancienses Oppidani
Lancienses Transcudani
Ocelenses Lancienses
Meidubrigenses
Paesuri – Douro and Vouga (Portugal).
Palanti
Talures
Tangi
Elbocori
Igaeditani
Tapori/Tapoli – river Tagus, around the border area of Portugal and Spain.
Veaminicori
Other Lusitanian tribes? (According to some scholars, these tribes were Lusitanians and not Vettones)
Calontienses
Caluri
Coerenses
Vettones – Ávila and Salamanca (Spain), may have been a Pre-Celtic Indo-European people, closely related to the Lusitani. If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). A tribal confederation.
Bletonesii – Bletisama (today's Ledesma) was their main centre, Salamanca Province, Spain.
Other Vettonian tribes? (According to some scholars, these tribes were Lusitanians and not Vettones)
Calontienses
Caluri
Coerenses
Turdetanians
Today's Western Andalusia (Hispania Baetica), Baetis (Guadalquivir) river valley and basin, Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena), some consider them Celtic, may have been Pre-Celtic Indo-European people as the Lusitani and Vettones. If their language, called Turdetanian or Tartessian, was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). Also may have been a non-Indo-European people related to the Iberians, but not the same people. A tribal confederation but with much more centralized power, may have formed an early form of Kingdom or a Proto-civilisation (see Tartessos)
Cilbiceni – approximately in today's Cádiz Province
Elbisini / Eloesti / Olbisini – in today's Huelva Province
Etmanei – in the middle area of Baetis (Guadalquivir) river course and surrounding region, approximately in today's Córdoba Province
Gletes / Galetes / Ileates – in Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena), approximately in today's northern areas of the provinces of Huelva, Seville and Córdoba
Turdetani / Tartessii Proper – in the low course of the river Baetis (which they called Rherkēs or Kertis) (Guadalquivir) and surrounding region, approximately in today's Seville Province
Veneti (Adriatic Veneti)
Transitional people between Celts and Italics? Celticized Italic people? Para-Celtic people?
Catali
Catari
Histri
Liburnians
Caulici
Enchealae
Hymanes
Hythmitae
Ismeni
Lopsi
Mentores
Peucetiae
Syopii
Secusses
Subocrini
Veneti Proper
Venetulani
Possible Celts mixed with other peoples
Celto-Dacian-Germanic
Osi/Osii – areas of modern Slovakia
Celto-Germanic
Germani Cisrhenani / Tungri (etymologies of the tribes names were Celtic; Belgic people? Chiefs anthroponyms were also Celtic) Celts influenced by Germanics or the opposite? The name Germani for ancient authors such as Julius Caesar did not always had an accurate ethnic or linguistic meaning, they were not necessarily Germanic-speaking. (a collective name for 7 tribes)
Aduatuci / Atuatuci
Ambivaretes / Ambivareti
Caemani / Paemani
Caeraesi / Caeroesi / Caerosi
Condrusi
Eburones (later Toxandri / Texuandri?)
Segni
Lugii – north and northeast of the Boii and Volcae, areas of modern far southwestern and far southern Poland; also may have been a Germanic tribe.
Tencteri? (name etymology is Celtic)
Usipetes?
Celtic-Germanic-Iranian
Bastarnae, a Celto-Germanic people, and according to Livy "the bravest nation on earth". Possibly originating in Galicia (Eastern Europe) from the interaction between Celts, Germanics and Sarmatian Iranian peoples.
Peucini
Celto-Illyrians?
Iapydes / Iapodes / Japodes
Posenoi, a community of the Iapodes
Ibero-Celto-Ligurians
Elisyces / Helisyces - a tribe that dwelt in the region of Narbo (Narbonne) and modern northern Roussillon. May have been either Iberian or Ligurian or a Celto-Ligurian-Iberian tribe.
Non-Celtic people, heavily Celticized
Rhaetians
They lived in Central Alps, eastern parts of present-day Switzerland, the Tyrol in Austria, and the Alpine regions of northern Italy. They spoke the Rhaetian language. There is evidence that the non-Celtic (and Pre-Indo-European) elements (see Tyrsenian languages) had, by the time of Augustus, been assimilated by the influx of Celtic tribes and had adopted Celtic speech. In addition, the abundance of Celtic toponyms and the complete absence of Etruscan place names in the Rhaetian territory leads to the conclusion that, by the time of Roman conquest, the Rhaetians were completely Celticized.
Benlauni - Upper valley of fl. Aenus (r. Inn) in today's North Tirol, Austria, along with the Breuni (may have been older dwellers than the Breuni), not the same as the Breuni, Pons Aeni (modern Wasserburg) was their main centre.
Breuni / Brenni/Breones - Upper valley of fl. Aenus (r. Inn) in today's North Tirol, Austria, and Val Bregna and around Brenner Mountain; also may have been an Illyrian tribe and not a Rhaetian one.
Brixenetes / Brixentes / Brixantae - Upper valley of fl. Athesis (r. Adige) in today's South Tirol, Italy, around Bressanone/Brixen.
Calucones / Culicones - Calanda (upper valley of fl. Rhenus - r. Rhine) in today's Grisons canton, Switzerland and Valtellina, Colico.
Camunni / Camuni - Val Camonica (river Oglio) in today's Brescia Province (Lombardia, Italy); also may have been a tribe of the Euganei and not a Rhaetian tribe. *Camunni – in the Valcamonica and Valtellina valleys of the Central Alps. A celticized Rhaetic tribe. Some consider them to be Celtic.
Consuanetae / Cosuanetes/Cotuantii? - Upper and middle valley of fl. Isarus (r. Isar) (Bavarian Alps) in today's Upper Bavaria, Germany; also may have been a tribe of the Vindelici (a tribal confederacy), named Cotuantii (if they are the same).
Focunates - Upper valley of fl. Aenus (r. Inn) in today's North Tirol, Austria, neighbours to Genaunes and Breuni.
Genaunes / Genauni - Upper valleys of the fl. Aenus (r. Inn) and the Athesis (Adige) in today's Tirol (North Tirol and South Tirol); also may have been an Illyrian tribe and not a Rhaetian one; east of the Lepontii.
Isarci - Valley of fl. Isarcus (r. Isarco) in today's South Tirol, Italy.
Medoaci - close to the Meduacum (Brenta) source, Ausugum (Borgo Valsugana) was their main town.
Mesiales - south of the Lepontii.
Naunes - in Val di Non, Trento Province.
Querquani - in Quero area (today's Belluno Province, Veneto Region).
Rucinates / Rucantii? - Between rivers Isarus (Isar) and Danuvius (Danube), Low Bavaria; also may have been a tribe of the Vindelici (a tribal confederation).
Rugusci / Ruigusci/Rucantii? Upper Engadin (fl. Aenus - r. Inn) in today's Grisons canton, Switzerland.
Suanetes / Suanitae / Sarunetes - Upper Rhenus (Upper Rhine) and Valley of r. Albula in today's Grisons canton, Switzerland.
Tridentini - in the middle Athesis (Adige) river basin.
Trumpilini / Trumplini - Val Trompia in today's Brescia Province, Italy; also may have been a tribe of the Euganei and not a Rhaetian tribe.
Vennonetes / Vennones / Vennonienses - Upper valley of fl. Rhenus (r. Rhine) in today's canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland; also may not have been a Rhaetian tribe but instead a tribe of the Vindelici (a tribal confederation).
Venostes - Vinschgau (It. Val Venosta) (fl. Athesis - r. Adige) in today's South Tirol, Italy.
See also
The summary table on Celtic tribes
Celtic peoples
Irish clans
Scottish clan
Celticization
Late Basquisation
Illyrians
Thracians
Britannia
Caledonia
Hibernia
Scotia
Hispania
List of Germanic peoples
Iberia
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Notes
References
Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee, Center for Celtic Studies, 2005.
Haywood, John. (2001). Atlas of the Celtic World. London: Thames & Hudson.
Kruta, Venceslas. (2000). Les Celtes, Histoire et Dictionnaire. Paris: Éditions Robert Laffont, coll. « Bouquins ». .
Mallory, J.P. and Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. .
Further reading
Sims-Williams, Patrick. "The location of the Celts according to Hecataeus, Herodotus, and other Greek writers". In: Études Celtiques, vol. 42, 2016. pp. 7–32. [DOI:https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2016.2467]; [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2016_num_42_1_2467]
External links
https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/ - electronic Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies by the Center for Celtic Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/home.html – 51 complete works of authors from Classical Antiquity (Greek and Roman).
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Caesar/Gallic_War/home.html – Julius Caesar text of De Bello Gallico (Gallic War).
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Caesar/Spanish_War/home.html – Unknown author text (about Julius Caesar in Hispania) of De Bello Hispaniensi (Spanish War).
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html – Pliny the Elder text of Naturalis Historia (Natural History) – books 3–6 (Geography and Ethnography).
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html – Strabo's text of De Geographica (The Geography).
Celtic
Indo-European peoples
Lists of ethnic groups
|
416641
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20Isaacs
|
Jason Isaacs
|
Jason Isaacs (born 6 June 1963) is an English actor. His film roles include Colonel William Tavington in The Patriot (2000), Michael D. Steele in Black Hawk Down (2001), Lucius Malfoy in the Harry Potter film series (2002–2011), Captain Hook in Peter Pan (2003), Marshal Georgy Zhukov in The Death of Stalin (2017), and Vasili in Hotel Mumbai (2018). His other films include Event Horizon (1997), Divorcing Jack (1998), The End of the Affair (1999), Sweet November (2001), The Tuxedo (2002), Battle of the Brave (2004), Nine Lives (2005), Friends with Money (2006), Good (2008), Green Zone (2010), Abduction (2011), Cars 2 (2011), A Single Shot (2013), Fury (2014), A Cure for Wellness (2016), London Fields (2018), Occupation: Rainfall (2020), Scoob! (2020), and Mass (2021).
His television roles include Det. Michael Britten in the NBC series Awake (2012), Dr. Hunter Aloysius "Hap" Percy in the Netflix supernatural mystery drama streaming series The OA (2016–2019) and Captain Gabriel Lorca in Star Trek: Discovery (2017–2018). His voice acting roles include Admiral Zhao in the first season of Avatar: The Last Airbender (2005) and the second season of The Legend of Korra (2013), the Grand Inquisitor / Sentinel in Star Wars Rebels (2014–2016), The Judge in Castlevania (2020), and Billy Butcher in The Boys Presents: Diabolical (2022). His other television roles include Capital City (1989–1990), Civvies (1992), Dangerous Lady (1995), The Fix (1997), Scars (2006), Rosemary's Baby (2014), Dig (2015), The Great (2021), and Good Sam (2022).
Isaacs has appeared on stage as Louis Ironson in Declan Donnellan's 1992 and 1993 Royal National Theatre premiere of Tony Kushner's Pulitzer Prize-winning play Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes, and as hitman Ben in a 2007 revival of Harold Pinter's 1957 play The Dumb Waiter at Trafalgar Studios in the West End.
Isaacs was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film for The State Within (2006) and for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Harry H. Corbett in The Curse of Steptoe (2008). He also was nominated for the International Emmy Award for Best Actor and won the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film for Case Histories (2011–2013) and was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama for Brotherhood (2006–2008)
Early life
Jason Isaacs was born to Jewish parents in Liverpool on 6 June 1963. His father was a jeweller. He has two older brothers and one younger brother. He spent his earliest childhood years in the Liverpool suburb of Childwall, in an "insular and closely knit" Jewish community co-founded by his Eastern European Jewish great-grandparents. He has stated that being Jewish played a big role in his childhood, as he attended youth club in the local synagogue of King David High School in Liverpool's Childwall district, as well as a cheder twice a week as a young adult. When he was 11, he moved with his family to London and attended the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School in nearby Elstree at the same time as David Baddiel, Sacha Baron Cohen, Mark Kermode, and Matt Lucas. He describes the bullying and intolerance he observed during his childhood as "preparation" for portraying the "unattractive" villains he has most often played.
As a Jewish teenager in London, Isaacs endured antisemitism by the National Front, a far-right extremist organisation. His parents eventually immigrated to Israel. He later told an interviewer, "There were constantly people beating us up or smashing windows. If you were ever, say, on a Jewish holiday, identifiably Jewish, there was lots of violence around. But particularly when I was 16, in 1979, the National Front were really taking hold, there were leaflets at school, and Sieg Heiling and people goose-stepping down the road and coming after us." Following in the footsteps of his three brothers (one who became a doctor, one a lawyer, and one an accountant), he studied law at Bristol University from 1982 to 1985, becoming involved in the university's theatre club there; he eventually acted in over 30 plays and performed each summer at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, first with Bristol University and then twice with the National Student Theatre Company. After graduating, he went immediately to train at London's Central School of Speech and Drama from 1985 to 1988.
Career
Early work
After training as an actor, Isaacs immediately began appearing on the stage and on television; his film debut was in a minor role as a doctor in Mel Smith's The Tall Guy (1989). He was initially known as a television actor, with starring roles in the ITV drama Capital City (1989) and the BBC drama Civvies (1992) and guest roles in series such as Taggart, Inspector Morse and Highlander: The Series (1993). He also played Michael Ryan in ITV's adaptation of Martina Cole's novel Dangerous Lady, directed by Jack Woods and produced by Lavinia Warner in 1995.
On stage, he portrayed the "emotionally waffling" gay Jewish office temp Louis Ironson in Tony Kushner's Pulitzer-Prize-winning Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes, at the Royal National Theatre, in its London première, performing the role in both parts, Part One: Millennium Approaches, in 1992, and Part Two: Perestroika, in 1993. When auditioning for that role, he told the producers, "Look, I play all these tough guys and thugs and strong, complex characters. In real life, I am a cringing, neurotic Jewish mess. Can't I for once play that on stage?"
After appearing in Dragonheart (1996), Isaacs landed his first major Hollywood feature-film role alongside Laurence Fishburne in the horror film Event Horizon (1997) where he played the role of D.J., the doctor of Lewis and Clark. Subsequently, he appeared in the Bruce Willis blockbuster Armageddon (1998). Initially called upon to take a fairly substantial role, Isaacs was eventually cast in a much smaller capacity as a planet-saving scientist so that he could accommodate his commitment to Divorcing Jack (1998), a comedy-thriller he was making with David Thewlis. Isaacs played the charismatic honourable priest opposite Kirstie Alley in the miniseries The Last Don (1997). Following that he portrayed a priest opposite Julianne Moore and Ralph Fiennes in Neil Jordan's acclaimed adaptation of Graham Greene's The End of the Affair (1999).
2000s
In 2000, Isaacs starred in the historical epic film The Patriot, starring opposite Mel Gibson and Heath Ledger and playing a sadistic cavalry officer, Colonel William Tavington. His portrayal of Tavington was deemed "memorable" by critics". According to a Moviefone article, Isaacs' appearance in The Patriot was "his biggest international break to date". Although his performance in the film led to rumours that Isaacs would be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor at the 72nd Academy Awards, reaching beyond being typecast as an actor in historical films, Isaacs chose to play a drag queen in his next project, Sweet November (2001), a romantic comedy-drama.
Isaacs has appeared in many other films, most notably as Lucius Malfoy in the Harry Potter series of films (2002–2011). Regarding the Harry Potter books by J. K. Rowling, Isaacs has said: "I went off and read the books after the audition and I read the first four books in one sitting – you know – didn't wash, didn't eat, drove around with them on the steering wheel like a lunatic. I suddenly understood why my friends, who I'd thought were slightly backward, had been so addicted to these children's books. They're like crack" (from an interview in 2009 on ITV's The Justin Lee Collins Show).
In "The Naked and the Dead", an article published in the San Francisco Chronicle, on 26 November 2006, Neva Chonin names the character Lucius Malfoy one of the 12 "Sexiest Men Who Were Never Alive" and Isaacs one of the 13 "Sexiest Men Who Are Real and Alive".
Prior to the making of the film, when asked whether or not he would be in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2007), Isaacs replied, "I hope so – you'll have to ask David (producer David Heyman). I can't bear the idea that somebody else would get to wear my Paris Hilton wig, but you never know." Isaacs also talked to Rowling on the inclusion of Lucius Malfoy in the then unpublished Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, so that he would have a part in the seventh and final film: "The character does not appear in the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince; but ... [Isaacs joked], 'I fell to my knees and begged ... It didn't do any good. I'm sure she doesn't need plot ideas from me. But I made my point. We'll see. Like everybody else, I'm holding my breath to July to see what's in there. I just want to bust out of prison, that's all. I don't want to stay in Azkaban most of my life.' " Ultimately Isaacs did reprise the role of Malfoy as a cameo appearance in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2009), where he is seen in a moving portrait. Afterwards, Isaacs reprised the role again in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 (2010) and Part 2 (2011).
Isaacs appeared in Black Hawk Down (2001), Jackie Chan's The Tuxedo (2002), as George Darling and Captain Hook in P. J. Hogan's adaptation of Peter Pan (2003), and as the voice of Admiral Zhao in the first season of the animated Nickelodeon series Avatar: The Last Airbender (2005). He played the leading role of Sir Mark Brydon, the British Ambassador to the United States, in the BBC Four miniseries The State Within (2006), for which he was nominated for the Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini-Series or a Motion Picture Made for Television for the 65th Golden Globe Awards.
On television, he also portrayed actor Harry H. Corbett in The Curse of Steptoe, part of "a season of new one-off dramas for BBC Four revealing the stories behind some of Britain's best loved television entertainers, and their achievements", first broadcast in March 2008. On American television, Isaacs appeared in three episodes of The West Wing in 2004, prior to developing his most notable TV serial role, as Michael Caffee in Brotherhood (2006–08).
Between 2 February and 24 March 2007, Isaacs played Ben, opposite Lee Evans (Gus), in the critically acclaimed 50th-anniversary production of Harold Pinter's The Dumb Waiter, at Trafalgar Studios, in London, his first theatre performance since appearing in The Force of Change (2000).
Isaacs played Major Briggs, an American military officer, opposite Matt Damon and Greg Kinnear, in Paul Greengrass's thriller Green Zone (2010), a fictionalised drama set in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein based on the book Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Inside Baghdad's Green Zone (2006), by Rajiv Chandrasekaran, for which production began in Morocco, in January 2008.
In 2007, he was originally cast in Jan de Bont's then-still-upcoming film Stopping Power, to play its star John Cusack's "nemesis", but, on 31 August 2007, Variety reported that the film, which was also planned for release in 2009, had been cancelled after a financial backer pulled out. Isaacs appeared in one episode of the TV show Entourage in the autumn of 2008 as Fredrick Line. In 2009, he was nominated at the British Academy Television Awards for Best Actor for his role as Harry H. Corbett in The Curse of Steptoe.
On the evening of 2 May 2009, Isaacs performed the role of Ben again, opposite his Brotherhood co-star (and Tony Award winner) Brían F. O'Byrne (as Gus), in a "rehearsed reading" of The Dumb Waiter. Their reading capped off the Harold Pinter Memorial Celebration being curated by Harry Burton (who had directed him and Evans at Trafalgar Studios). This tribute to Harold Pinter co-sponsored by the Martin E. Segal Theatre Center (MESTC), of The Graduate Center of The City University of New York (CUNY), was part of the Fifth Annual PEN World Voices Festival of International Literature, held in New York City, from 27 April to 3 May 2009.
2010s
He provided the voice of Ra's al Ghul in the DC animated film, Batman: Under the Red Hood (2010), and also the voice of Sinestro in the DC animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights (2011). In 2011, he starred as Jackson Brodie in a BBC adaptation of Kate Atkinson's Case Histories. For his portrayal of the detective, Isaacs won a Satellite Award for Best Actor in a Miniseries or a Motion Picture Made for Television.
Isaacs starred as Detective Michael Britten in the NBC police procedural fantasy drama series Awake, which premiered on 1 March 2012, and ended in May 2012. After Britten gets into a terrible car wreck with his family, his dreams begin to take on two alternate realities, one in which his wife died in the crash and one in which his son died. Says Isaacs about the ambitious premise: "There's no question it's challenging. We've got a bunch of very experienced writers who have written things from HBO shows to The X-Files, to 24 and everything in between. And they are challenged. All of them have said that it's the hardest job that they've ever had. But sometimes that's a good thing. If it comes easily, that they could write in their sleep, I personally wouldn't want to act – and I think the audience wouldn't want to watch."
In 2015, Isaacs took the lead role in the USA Network action adventure drama series Dig. Isaacs plays an FBI agent (which was named Peter Connelly) stationed in Jerusalem who uncovers a 2,000-year-old conspiracy while investigating an archaeologist's murder. The ten-episode series premiered 5 March 2015. In February 2016, he starred in Medusa's Ankles, a film directed by Harry Potter co-star Bonnie Wright. In December 2016, he appeared in the Netflix series The OA as Dr. Hunter Aloysius "Hap" Percy.
It was announced in March 2017 that Isaacs would play the role of Captain Gabriel Lorca in the new CBS All Access (or Paramount+) series Star Trek: Discovery. The series premiered on 24 September 2017. Isaacs made his first appearance as Lorca on 1 October 2017 in the third episode, "Context Is for Kings". Lorca was exposed as his 'mirror universe' self in episode 13, "What's Past Is Prologue", in which the character was killed. In January 2019, showrunner Alex Kurtzman teased the possible return of Isaacs as 'Prime universe' Lorca at some point beyond season two. Isaacs also voices the character for the 2019 role-playing game Star Trek Online: Rise of Discovery.
In September 2017, Isaacs played Field Marshal Georgy Zhukov in The Death of Stalin, a political satire and dark comedy film directed by Armando Iannucci. The film depicts the internal social and political power struggle among the Council of Ministers following the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1953. Isaacs starred alongside Steve Buscemi, Simon Russell Beale, Jeffrey Tambor, Andrea Riseborough and Michael Palin. The film was a controversial yet critical success and Isaacs's performance earned him critical praise. For his performance he earned a Evening Standard British Film Awards nomination for Best Supporting Actor losing to his co-star Simon Russell Beale.
Isaacs also played the role of Dan in the 2018 psychological thriller, Look Away, starring Mira Sorvino and India Eisley. He also played the roles of Vasili in the action thriller Hotel Mumbai and Mark Asprey in the mystery thriller London Fields respectively. Throughout 2018 and 2019, Isaacs also voiced various characters such as the Slenderman, Alliser Thorne, Slinky and Jack the Donkey in the stop motion sketch comedy TV series Robot Chicken. In 2019, Isaacs provided the voice of Skekso, the Emperor in The Dark Crystal: Age of Resistance and in 2020, voiced Dick Dastardly in the Scooby-Doo film Scoob!.
In November 2019, it was announced that Isaacs will appear beside Jim Broadbent in the film The Dead Spit of Kelly.
2020s
In March 2020, Isaacs played in the lead role of Dr. Rob "Griff" Griffith in the CBS drama pilot Good Sam, which was later picked up to series in 2021 for a mid-season premiere on 5 January 2022.
In 2021, Isaacs played Carl in Dr. Bird's Advice for Sad Poets, Admiral John Henry Godfrey in Operation Mincemeat, Jay Perry in the drama film Mass, Ralph in the forthcoming biographical film Creation Stories and John in the short film Cera. He also voiced King Arthur Pendragon, Winston Pilkingstonshire and Thundarr the Barbarian in the Direct-to-DVD animated comedy film Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob. He also had a minor role in Series 3 of the British comedy-drama Sex Education and appeared in an episode of anthology series Inside No. 9.
Personal life
Isaacs moved in with his girlfriend, BBC documentary filmmaker Emma Hewitt, in 1987. They began dating while studying at the Central School of Speech and Drama and were married in 2001. They have two daughters, Lily (born 2002) and Ruby (born 2005).
Isaacs has described himself as "profoundly Jewish but not in a religious way". He does not keep kosher and is an atheist. He has spoken of travelling unrecognised to film premieres on the London Underground, but said that "as soon as [he] get[s] on the red carpet they start screaming and screaming". He is involved with a number of charities and is a patron of the Scottish veterans charity Bravehound.
In British politics, Isaacs has long supported the Labour Party and has said that he will never support the Conservative Party. In 2011, he said that he endorsed Labour on its educational policies but opposed its involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In 2019, he referred to U.S. President Donald Trump as a "vainglorious man" and described the British political scene as an "Etonian Lord of the Flies situation". He also called Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn's handling of antisemitic allegations about the Labour Party "appalling". Ahead of the 2019 UK general election, he campaigned for former Labour member Luciana Berger in her unsuccessful bid to become the Liberal Democrats' MP for the Finchley & Golders Green constituency.
In August 2020, Isaacs revealed that he had achieved sobriety after struggling with a drug and alcohol addiction for over two decades. He traced his experience back to being 12 years old, when a bartender gave him and his friends a bottle of Southern Comfort, after which he "woke up with a splitting headache, stinking of puke with a huge scab and the memory of having utterly shamed [himself]". He subsequently "chased the sheer ecstatic joy [he] felt that night for another 20 years with increasingly dire consequences". He eventually realised he needed help, but asked fans on Twitter not to congratulate him on his sobriety as "pride is the worst part".
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Jason Isaacs news and commentary on The Guardian
1963 births
Living people
Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama
Alumni of the University of Bristol
English people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
English people of Polish-Jewish descent
English people of Russian-Jewish descent
English Ashkenazi Jews
English atheists
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male voice actors
Jewish atheists
Jewish English male actors
Labour Party (UK) people
Male actors from Liverpool
Male actors from London
People educated at Haberdashers' Boys' School
People educated at King David High School, Liverpool
People from Childwall
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Secular Jews
|
416666
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface%20energy
|
Surface energy
|
In surface science, surface energy (also interfacial free energy or surface free energy) quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that occurs when a surface is created. In solid-state physics, surfaces must be intrinsically less energetically favorable than the bulk of the material (the atoms on the surface have more energy compared with the atoms in the bulk), otherwise there would be a driving force for surfaces to be created, removing the bulk of the material (see sublimation). The surface energy may therefore be defined as the excess energy at the surface of a material compared to the bulk, or it is the work required to build an area of a particular surface. Another way to view the surface energy is to relate it to the work required to cut a bulk sample, creating two surfaces. There is "excess energy" as a result of the now-incomplete, unrealized bonding between the two created surfaces.
Cutting a solid body into pieces disrupts its bonds and increases the surface area, and therefore increases surface energy. If the cutting is done reversibly, then conservation of energy means that the energy consumed by the cutting process will be equal to the energy inherent in the two new surfaces created. The unit surface energy of a material would therefore be half of its energy of cohesion, all other things being equal; in practice, this is true only for a surface freshly prepared in vacuum. Surfaces often change their form away from the simple "cleaved bond" model just implied above. They are found to be highly dynamic regions, which readily rearrange or react, so that energy is often reduced by such processes as passivation or adsorption.
Assessment
Measurement
Contact angle
The most common way to measure surface energy is through contact angle experiments. In this method, the contact angle of the surface is measured with several liquids, usually water and diiodomethane. Based on the contact angle results and knowing the surface tension of the liquids, the surface energy can be calculated. In practice, this analysis is done automatically by a contact angle meter.
There are several different models for calculating the surface energy based on the contact angle readings. The most commonly used method is OWRK which requires the use of two probe liquids and gives out as a result the total surface energy as well as divides it into polar and dispersive components.
Contact angle method is the standard surface energy measurement method due to its simplicity, applicability to a wide range of surfaces and quickness. The measurement can be fully automated and is standardized.
In general, as surface energy increases, the contact angle decreases because more of the liquid is being "grabbed" by the surface. Conversely, as surface energy decreases, the contact angle increases, because the surface doesn't want to interact with the liquid.
Other methods
The surface energy of a liquid may be measured by stretching a liquid membrane (which increases the surface area and hence the surface energy). In that case, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, , a quantity of work, , is needed (where is the surface energy density of the liquid). However, such a method cannot be used to measure the surface energy of a solid because stretching of a solid membrane induces elastic energy in the bulk in addition to increasing the surface energy.
The surface energy of a solid is usually measured at high temperatures. At such temperatures the solid creeps and even though the surface area changes, the volume remains approximately constant. If is the surface energy density of a cylindrical rod of radius and length at high temperature and a constant uniaxial tension , then at equilibrium, the variation of the total Helmholtz free energy vanishes and we have
where is the Helmholtz free energy and is the surface area of the rod:
Also, since the volume () of the rod remains constant, the variation () of the volume is zero, that is,
Therefore, the surface energy density can be expressed as
The surface energy density of the solid can be computed by measuring , , and at equilibrium.
This method is valid only if the solid is isotropic, meaning the surface energy is the same for all crystallographic orientations. While this is only strictly true for amorphous solids (glass) and liquids, isotropy is a good approximation for many other materials. In particular, if the sample is polygranular (most metals) or made by powder sintering (most ceramics) this is a good approximation.
In the case of single-crystal materials, such as natural gemstones, anisotropy in the surface energy leads to faceting. The shape of the crystal (assuming equilibrium growth conditions) is related to the surface energy by the Wulff construction. The surface energy of the facets can thus be found to within a scaling constant by measuring the relative sizes of the facets.
Calculation
Deformed solid
In the deformation of solids, surface energy can be treated as the "energy required to create one unit of surface area", and is a function of the difference between the total energies of the system before and after the deformation:
.
Calculation of surface energy from first principles (for example, density functional theory) is an alternative approach to measurement. Surface energy is estimated from the following variables: width of the d-band, the number of valence d-electrons, and the coordination number of atoms at the surface and in the bulk of the solid.
Surface formation energy of a crystalline solid
In density functional theory, surface energy can be calculated from the following expression:
where
is the total energy of surface slab obtained using density functional theory.
is the number of atoms in the surface slab.
is the bulk energy per atom.
is the surface area.
For a slab, we have two surfaces and they are of the same type, which is reflected by the number 2 in the denominator. To guarantee this, we need to create the slab carefully to make sure that the upper and lower surfaces are of the same type.
Strength of adhesive contacts is determined by the work of adhesion which is also called relative surface energy of two contacting bodies. The relative surface energy can be determined by detaching of bodies of well defined shape made of one material from the substrate made from the second material. For example, the relative surface energy of the interface "acrylic glass – gelatin" is equal to 0.03 N/m. Experimental setup for measuring relative surface energy and its function can be seen in the video.
Estimation from the heat of sublimation
To estimate the surface energy of a pure, uniform material, an individual region of the material can be modeled as a cube. In order to move a cube from the bulk of a material to the surface, energy is required. This energy cost is incorporated into the surface energy of the material, which is quantified by:
where and are coordination numbers corresponding to the surface and the bulk regions of the material, and are equal to 5 and 6, respectively; is the surface area of an individual molecule, and is the pairwise intermolecular energy.
Surface area can be determined by squaring the cube root of the volume of the molecule:
Here, corresponds to the molar mass of the molecule, corresponds to the density, and is the Avogadro constant.
In order to determine the pairwise intermolecular energy, all intermolecular forces in the material must be broken. This allows thorough investigation of the interactions that occur for single molecules. During sublimation of a substance, intermolecular forces between molecules are broken, resulting in a change in the material from solid to gas. For this reason, considering the enthalpy of sublimation can be useful in determining the pairwise intermolecular energy. Enthalpy of sublimation can be calculated by the following equation:
Using empirically tabulated values for enthalpy of sublimation, it is possible to determine the pairwise intermolecular energy. Incorporating this value into the surface energy equation allows for the surface energy to be estimated.
The following equation can be used as a reasonable estimate for surface energy:
Interfacial energy
The presence of an interface influences generally all thermodynamic parameters of a system. There are two models that are commonly used to demonstrate interfacial phenomena: the Gibbs ideal interface model and the Guggenheim model. In order to demonstrate the thermodynamics of an interfacial system using the Gibbs model, the system can be divided into three parts: two immiscible liquids with volumes and and an infinitesimally thin boundary layer known as the Gibbs dividing plane () separating these two volumes.
The total volume of the system is:
All extensive quantities of the system can be written as a sum of three components: bulk phase , bulk phase , and the interface . Some examples include internal energy , the number of molecules of the th substance , and the entropy .
While these quantities can vary between each component, the sum within the system remains constant. At the interface, these values may deviate from those present within the bulk phases. The concentration of molecules present at the interface can be defined as:
where and represent the concentration of substance in bulk phase and , respectively.
It is beneficial to define a new term interfacial excess which allows us to describe the number of molecules per unit area:
Wetting
Spreading parameter
Surface energy comes into play in wetting phenomena. To examine this, consider a drop of liquid on a solid substrate. If the surface energy of the substrate changes upon the addition of the drop, the substrate is said to be wetting. The spreading parameter can be used to mathematically determine this:
where is the spreading parameter, the surface energy of the substrate, the surface energy of the liquid, and the interfacial energy between the substrate and the liquid.
If , the liquid partially wets the substrate. If , the liquid completely wets the substrate.
Contact angle
A way to experimentally determine wetting is to look at the contact angle (), which is the angle connecting the solid–liquid interface and the liquid–gas interface (as in the figure).
If , the liquid completely wets the substrate.
If , high wetting occurs.
If , low wetting occurs.
If , the liquid does not wet the substrate at all.
The Young equation relates the contact angle to interfacial energy:
where is the interfacial energy between the solid and gas phases, the interfacial energy between the substrate and the liquid, is the interfacial energy between the liquid and gas phases, and is the contact angle between the solid–liquid and the liquid–gas interface.
Wetting of high- and low-energy substrates
The energy of the bulk component of a solid substrate is determined by the types of interactions that hold the substrate together. High-energy substrates are held together by bonds, while low-energy substrates are held together by forces. Covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds are much stronger than forces such as van der Waals and hydrogen bonding. High-energy substrates are more easily wetted than low-energy substrates. In addition, more complete wetting will occur if the substrate has a much higher surface energy than the liquid.
Modification techniques
The most commonly used surface modification protocols are plasma activation, wet chemical treatment, including grafting, and thin-film coating. Surface energy mimicking is a technique that enables merging the device manufacturing and surface modifications, including patterning, into a single processing step using a single device material.
Many techniques can be used to enhance wetting. Surface treatments, such as corona treatment, plasma treatment and acid etching, can be used to increase the surface energy of the substrate. Additives can also be added to the liquid to decrease its surface tension. This technique is employed often in paint formulations to ensure that they will be evenly spread on a surface.
The Kelvin equation
As a result of the surface tension inherent to liquids, curved surfaces are formed in order to minimize the area. This phenomenon arises from the energetic cost of forming a surface. As such the Gibbs free energy of the system is minimized when the surface is curved.
The Kelvin equation is based on thermodynamic principles and is used to describe changes in vapor pressure caused by liquids with curved surfaces. The cause for this change in vapor pressure is the Laplace pressure. The vapor pressure of a drop is higher than that of a planar surface because the increased Laplace pressure causes the molecules to evaporate more easily. Conversely, in liquids surrounding a bubble, the pressure with respect to the inner part of the bubble is reduced, thus making it more difficult for molecules to evaporate. The Kelvin equation can be stated as:
where is the vapor pressure of the curved surface, is the vapor pressure of the flat surface, is the surface tension, is the molar volume of the liquid, is the universal gas constant, is temperature (in kelvin), and and are the principal radii of curvature of the surface.
Surface modified pigments for coatings
Pigments offer great potential in modifying the application properties of a coating. Due to their fine particle size and inherently high surface energy, they often require a surface treatment in order to enhance their ease of dispersion in a liquid medium. A wide variety of surface treatments have been previously used, including the adsorption on the surface of a molecule in the presence of polar groups, monolayers of polymers, and layers of inorganic oxides on the surface of organic pigments.
New surfaces are constantly being created as larger pigment particles get broken down into smaller subparticles. These newly-formed surfaces consequently contribute to larger surface energies, whereby the resulting particles often become cemented together into aggregates. Because particles dispersed in liquid media are in constant thermal or Brownian motion, they exhibit a strong affinity for other pigment particles nearby as they move through the medium and collide. This natural attraction is largely attributed to the powerful short-range van der Waals forces, as an effect of their surface energies.
The chief purpose of pigment dispersion is to break down aggregates and form stable dispersions of optimally sized pigment particles. This process generally involves three distinct stages: wetting, deaggregation, and stabilization. A surface that is easy to wet is desirable when formulating a coating that requires good adhesion and appearance. This also minimizes the risks of surface tension related defects, such as crawling, cratering, and orange peel. This is an essential requirement for pigment dispersions; for wetting to be effective, the surface tension of the pigment's vehicle must be lower than the surface free energy of the pigment. This allows the vehicle to penetrate into the interstices of the pigment aggregates, thus ensuring complete wetting. Finally, the particles are subjected to a repulsive force in order to keep them separated from one another and lowers the likelihood of flocculation.
Dispersions may become stable through two different phenomena: charge repulsion and steric or entropic repulsion. In charge repulsion, particles that possess the same like electrostatic charges repel each other. Alternatively, steric or entropic repulsion is a phenomenon used to describe the repelling effect when adsorbed layers of material (such as polymer molecules swollen with solvent) are present on the surface of the pigment particles in dispersion. Only certain portions (anchors) of the polymer molecules are adsorbed, with their corresponding loops and tails extending out into the solution. As the particles approach each other their adsorbed layers become crowded; this provides an effective steric barrier that prevents flocculation. This crowding effect is accompanied by a decrease in entropy, whereby the number of conformations possible for the polymer molecules is reduced in the adsorbed layer. As a result, energy is increased and often gives rise to repulsive forces that aid in keeping the particles separated from each other.
Surface energies of common materials
See also
Contact angle
Surface tension
Sessile drop technique
Capillary surface
Wulff Construction
References
External links
What is surface free energy?
Surface Energy and Adhesion
Forms of energy
Condensed matter physics
Surface science
Area-specific quantities
|
416688
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20White
|
Jack White
|
John Anthony White (; born July 9, 1975) is an American musician who served as the lead singer, guitarist and primary songwriter of rock duo the White Stripes. White is widely credited as one of the key artists in the garage rock revival of the 2000s. He has won 12 Grammy Awards, and three of his solo albums have reached number one on the Billboard 200. Rolling Stone ranked him number 32 on its 2023 list of greatest guitarists of all time. David Fricke's 2010 list ranked him at number 17. In 2012, The New York Times called White "the coolest, weirdest and savviest rockstar of our time".
After moonlighting in several underground Detroit bands as a drummer, White founded the White Stripes with fellow Detroit native and then-wife Meg White in 1997. Their 2001 breakthrough album, White Blood Cells, brought them international fame with the single and accompanying music video for "Fell in Love with a Girl". White subsequently began collaborating with artists such as Loretta Lynn and Bob Dylan. In 2005, White founded the Raconteurs with Brendan Benson, and in 2009 founded the Dead Weather with Alison Mosshart of the Kills. In 2008, he recorded "Another Way to Die", the title song for the 2008 James Bond film Quantum of Solace, alongside Alicia Keys, making them the only duet to perform a Bond theme. White has released five solo studio albums, which have garnered critical and commercial success.
White is a board member of the Library of Congress' National Recording Preservation Foundation. His record label and studio Third Man Records releases vinyl recordings of his own work as well as that of other artists and local school children. His second studio album, Lazaretto (2014), broke the record for most first-week vinyl sales since 1991, holding that record until 2021. White has an extensive collection of guitars and other instruments and has a preference for vintage items that often have connections to famous blues artists. He is a vocal advocate for analog technology and recording techniques.
White has been known to create misdirection about his personal life. He and Meg White married in 1996, but divorced in 2000 before the height of the White Stripes' fame. They then began calling themselves siblings. He was married to model and singer Karen Elson from 2005 to 2013; they have a son and daughter. In 2022, he married musician Olivia Jean. He currently resides in Nashville, Tennessee.
Early life
John Anthony Gillis was born in Detroit, Michigan, on July 9, 1975, the youngest of ten children of Teresa (née Bandyk; born 1930) and Gorman M. Gillis. His mother's family was Polish, while his father was Scottish-Canadian. He was raised a Catholic, and both of his parents worked for the Archdiocese of Detroit as the building maintenance superintendent and secretary in the Cardinal's office, respectively. Gillis became an altar boy, which landed him an uncredited role in the 1987 movie The Rosary Murders, filmed mainly at Most Holy Redeemer parish in southwest Detroit. He attended Cass Technical High School in Detroit.
Gillis' early musical influences were his older brothers, who were in a band together called Catalyst, and he learned to play the instruments they abandoned; he began playing the drums in the first grade after finding a kit in the attic. As a child, he was a fan of classical music, but in elementary school, he began listening to the Doors, Pink Floyd, and Led Zeppelin. As a "shorthaired [teenager] with braces", Gillis began listening to the blues and 1960s rock that would influence him in the White Stripes, with Son House and Blind Willie McTell being among his favorite blues guitarists. He has said in interviews that Son House's "Grinnin' in Your Face" is his favorite song of all time. As a drummer, his heroes include Gene Krupa, Stewart Copeland, and Crow Smith from Flat Duo Jets.
In 2005, on 60 Minutes, he told Mike Wallace that his life could have turned out differently. "I'd got accepted to a seminary in Wisconsin, and I was gonna become a priest, but at the last second I thought, 'I'll just go to public school.' I had just gotten a new amplifier in my bedroom, and I didn't think I was allowed to take it with me." Instead, he got accepted into Cass Technical High School as a business major, and played the drums and trombone in the band. At 15, he began a three-year upholstery apprenticeship with a family friend, Brian Muldoon. He credits Muldoon with exposing him to punk music as they worked together in the shop. Muldoon goaded his young apprentice into forming a band: "He played drums", Gillis thought. "Well I guess I'll play guitar then." The two recorded an album, Makers of High Grade Suites, as the Upholsterers.
As a senior in high school, he met Megan White at the Memphis Smoke restaurant where she worked, and they frequented the coffee shops, local music venues, and record stores of the area. After a courtship, they married on September 21, 1996. In a reversal of tradition, he legally took her last name.
After completing his apprenticeship, he started a one-man business of his own, Third Man Upholstery. The slogan of his business was "Your Furniture's Not Dead" and the color scheme was yellow and black—including a yellow van, a yellow-and-black uniform, and a yellow clipboard. Although Third Man Upholstery never lacked business, he claims it was unprofitable due to his complacency about money and his business practices that were perceived as unprofessional, including making bills out in crayon and writing poetry inside the furniture.
Music career
Group projects
The White Stripes (1997–2011)
At 19 years old, Jack had landed his first professional gig as the drummer for the Detroit band Goober & the Peas, and was still in that position when the band broke up in 1996. It was in this band that he learned about touring and performing onstage. After the band's split, he settled into working as an upholsterer by day while moonlighting in local bands, as well as performing solo shows. Though a bartender by trade, Meg began to learn to play the drums in 1997 and, according to Jack, "When she started to play drums with me, just on a lark, it felt liberating and refreshing." The couple became a band, calling themselves the White Stripes, and two months later performed their first show at the Gold Dollar in Detroit.
Despite being married, Jack and Meg publicly presented themselves as siblings. They kept to a chromatic theme, dressing only in red, white, and black. They began their career as part of Michigan's underground garage rock music scene. They played along with and opened for more established local bands such as Bantam Rooster, the Dirtbombs, Two-Star Tabernacle, Rocket 455, and the Hentchmen. In 1998, the White Stripes were signed to Italy Records—a small and independent Detroit-based garage punk label—by Dave Buick. The band released its eponymous debut album in 1999, and a year later the album was followed up by the cult classic, De Stijl. The album eventually peaked at number 38 in Billboards Independent Albums chart.
In 2001, the band released White Blood Cells. The album's stripped-down garage rock sound drew critical acclaim in the US and beyond, making the White Stripes one of the more acclaimed bands of 2002, and forefront figures in the garage band revival of the time. John Peel, an influential DJ and the band's early advocate in the UK, said they were the most exciting thing he'd heard since Jimi Hendrix. The New York Times said of White, "beneath the arty facade lies one of the most cagey, darkly original rockers to come along since Kurt Cobain." The album was followed up in 2003 by the commercially and critically successful Elephant. The critic at AllMusic wrote that the album "sounds even more pissed-off, paranoid and stunning than its predecessor ... darker and more difficult than White Blood Cells". The album's first single, "Seven Nation Army", became the band's signature song, reaching number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart for three weeks, winning the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song, and becoming an international sporting and protest anthem. The band's fifth album, Get Behind Me Satan, was recorded in White's own home and marked a change in the band's musical direction, with piano-driven melodies and experimentation with marimba and a more rhythm-based guitar playing by White.
The band's sixth album, Icky Thump, was released in 2007, and unlike their previous lo-fi albums, it was recorded in Nashville at Blackbird Studio. The album was regarded as a return to the band's earlier blues and garage-rock sound. It debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one, selling over 300,000 vinyl copies in England alone. Of his excitement for vinyl, White explained, "We can't afford to lose the feeling of cracking open a new record and looking at large artwork and having something you can hold in your hands." In support of the album, they launched a Canadian tour, in which they played a gig in every one of the country's provinces and territories. However, later that year, the band announced the cancellation of 18 tour dates due to Meg's struggle with acute anxiety. A few days later, the duo canceled the remainder of their 2007 UK tour dates as well.
White worked with other artists in the meantime, but revealed the band's plan to release a seventh album by the summer of 2009. On February 20, 2009—and on the final episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien—the band made their first live appearance after the cancellation of the tour, and a documentary about their Canadian tour—titled The White Stripes: Under Great White Northern Lights—debuted later that year at the Toronto International Film Festival. However, almost two years passed with no new releases, and on February 2, 2011, the band reported on their official website that they were disbanding. White emphasized that it was not due to health issues or artistic differences, "but mostly to preserve what is beautiful and special about the band".
The Raconteurs (2005–2014, 2018–present)
In 2005, while collaborating with Brendan Benson—a fellow Michigan native whom White had worked with before—they composed a song called "Steady, as She Goes". This inspired them to create a full band, and they invited Jack Lawrence and Patrick Keeler of the Greenhornes to join them in what would become the Raconteurs. The musicians met in Benson's home studio in Detroit and, for the remainder of the year, they recorded when time allowed. The result was the band's debut album, Broken Boy Soldiers. Reaching the Top Ten charts in both the US and the UK, it was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards. The lead single, "Steady, As She Goes" was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The Raconteurs set out on tour to support the album, including eight dates as the opening act for Bob Dylan. The group's second album, Consolers of the Lonely, and its first single, "Salute Your Solution", were released simultaneously in 2008. The album reached number seven on the Billboard 200 chart, and received a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Album. The group rebanded to create the new album Help Us Stranger in 2019. This release was followed by a US tour.
The Dead Weather (2009–2015)
While on tour to promote Consolers of the Lonely, White developed bronchitis and often lost his voice. Alison Mosshart, the frontwoman for the Kills (who was touring with the Raconteurs at the time) would often fill in as his vocal replacement. The chemistry between the two artists led them to collaborate, and in early 2009, White formed a new group called the Dead Weather. Mosshart sang, White played drums and shared vocal duties, Jack Lawrence of the Raconteurs played bass, and the Queens of the Stone Age keyboardist and guitarist Dean Fertita rounded out the four-piece.
The group debuted a handful of new tracks on March 11, 2009, in Nashville from their debut album Horehound. It came out on July 13, 2009, in Europe and July 14, 2009, in North America on White's Third Man Records label. In October 2009, Mosshart confirmed that the second album was "halfway done", and the first single, "Die by the Drop", was released on March 30, 2010. The new album (again on the Third Man Records label) was titled Sea of Cowards and was released on May 7 of that year in Ireland, on May 10 in the United Kingdom, and on May 11 in the U.S.
Announcement of their third album, Dodge & Burn, was made in July 2015 for a worldwide release in September by Third Man Records. Along with four previously released tracks, remixed and remastered, the album features eight new songs.
Other collaborations
Rumors began to circulate in 2003 that White had collaborated with Electric Six for their song "Danger! High Voltage". He and the Electric Six both denied this, and the vocal work was credited officially to John S O'Leary. In subsequent interviews with Chris Handyside, however, Dick Valentine and Corey Martin (Electric Six band members) acknowledged White's involvement and confirmed that he received no payment.
White worked with Loretta Lynn on her 2004 album Van Lear Rose, which he produced and performed on. The album was a critical and commercial success. In 2008, White collaborated with Alicia Keys on the song "Another Way to Die", the theme song for the James Bond film Quantum of Solace. In 2009, Jack White was featured in It Might Get Loud, a film in which he, Jimmy Page, and the Edge come together to discuss the electric guitar and each artist's different playing methods. White's first solo single, "Fly Farm Blues", was written and recorded in 10 minutes during the filming of the movie that August. The single went on sale as a 7-inch vinyl record from Third Man Records and as a digital single available through iTunes on August 11, 2010. In November 2010, producer Danger Mouse announced that White—along with Norah Jones—had been recruited for his collaboration with Daniele Luppi entitled Rome. White provided vocals to three songs on the album: "The Rose with the Broken Neck", "Two Against One", and "The World". White finished and performed the song "You Know That I Know", and it was featured on The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams, released on October 4, 2011. In that same year, he produced and played on Wanda Jackson's album The Party Ain't Over. To her delight, his studio also released the album on a 7-inch vinyl. White also appeared on AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered, performing a cover of U2's "Love Is Blindness". White has worked with other artists as well, including Beck, the Rolling Stones, Jeff Beck, Bob Dylan, and Insane Clown Posse.
Solo career (2012–present)
Blunderbuss (2012)
On January 30, 2012, White released "Love Interruption" as the first single off his debut, self-produced solo album, Blunderbuss, which was released on April 24, 2012. The album ultimately debuted number one on the Billboard 200 chart, and in support of the album, he appeared on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest and played at select festivals during the summer of 2012, including the Firefly Music Festival, Radio 1's Hackney Weekend, the Sasquatch! Music Festival, the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan (one of the biggest festivals in the world), and Rock Werchter in Belgium. Later in the year, he headlined Austin City Limits Music Festival. During his tour for the album, White employed two live bands, which he alternated between at random. The first, called the Peacocks, was all female and consisted of Ruby Amanfu, Carla Azar, Lillie Mae Rische, Maggie Björklund, Brooke Waggoner, and alternating bassists Bryn Davies and Catherine Popper. The other, the Buzzards, was all male and consisted of Daru Jones, Dominic Davis, Fats Kaplin, Ikey Owens, and Cory Younts. White said maintaining two bands was too expensive, and abandoned the practice at the conclusion of the tour. Blunderbuss was ultimately nominated for several Grammys, including Album of the Year, Best Rock Album, and Best Rock Song for "Freedom at 21".
Lazaretto (2014)
On April 1, 2014, White announced his second solo album, Lazaretto, inspired by plays and poetry he had written as a teen. It was released on June 10, 2014, simultaneously with the first single off the album, "High Ball Stepper". The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart and, in a personal triumph for White, broke the record for the largest sales week for a vinyl album since SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991. The album was widely praised among critics, and was nominated for three Grammy Awards: Best Alternative Music Album, as well as Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance (for the song "Lazaretto"). During the supporting tour, he performed the longest show of his career on July 30, 2014, at the Detroit Masonic Temple, and later performed as one of the headliners at the Coachella Festival over two weekends in April 2015. On April 14, 2015, White announced that the festival would be his last electric set, followed by one acoustic show in each of the five U.S. states he had yet to perform in, before he would be taking a prolonged break from live performances. However, he performed on the inaugural episode of the radio show A Prairie Home Companion with the new host Chris Thile, on October 15, 2016, in support of his compilation album Acoustic Recordings 1998–2016. He co-wrote the song "Don't Hurt Yourself " with Beyoncé on her album Lemonade, and accompanied her on the vocals.
Boarding House Reach (2018)
Ahead of his next effort, White worked in isolation and without a cell phone; he rented an apartment in Nashville, recorded quietly so no one would know what he was working on, and slept on an army cot. He drew inspiration from rap artists of the 1980s and 1990s (as well as A Tribe Called Quest, Kanye West, and Nicki Minaj), and chose his backing musicians from talent that played supporting hip hop artists live. On December 12, 2017, he released a four-minute video titled "Servings and Portions from my Boarding House Reach", which featured short sound bites of new music interspersed with white noise. In January 2018, White released "Connected by Love", taken from his third solo album Boarding House Reach, which was released on March 23, 2018. Like its two preceding albums, it landed at number one on the Billboard 200 chart. In promotion of his album, White appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest, where he played "Over and Over and Over" and "Connected by Love". White released Jack White: Kneeling at The Anthem D.C., his first concert film as a solo artist, on September 21, 2018, exclusively on Amazon Prime Video.
Fear of the Dawn and Entering Heaven Alive (2022)
In October 2021, White released "Taking Me Back" – his first solo single since 2018 – which appeared in the game Call of Duty: Vanguard. In November, White revealed that he would release two solo albums in 2022: Fear of the Dawn, which will feature White's traditional rock sound, on April 8, and Entering Heaven Alive, a folk album, on July 22. White also released a video for "Taking Me Back" on November 11. White released 3 more singles from Fear of the Dawn; the title track on January 18, 2022, "Hi-De-Ho" on March 3, and "What's the Trick?" on April 7 (the day before the album released). Each of these singles was backed by a track from Entering Heaven Alive, promoting both albums in tandem. Together, the albums were named the dual number one album of the year by Rough Trade UK.
In December 2021, White announced the Supply Chain Issues Tour, which went on throughout North America and Europe and Asia, reaching a total of 103 shows. It kicked off with its first concert on April 8, 2022, in Detroit, Michigan – during which White proposed to his girlfriend Olivia Jean, with the two marrying onstage – and ended on February 24, 2023, in Aspen, Colorado. The tour covered North America and Europe, and. White performed on Saturday Night Live on February 25, 2023. He played two songs from his Fear of the Dawn album and was presented with a jacket for being a Five-Timer on the show.
Other ventures
Film and television work
White has also had a minor acting career. He appeared in the 2003 film Cold Mountain as a character named Georgia and performed five songs for the Cold Mountain soundtrack: "Sittin' on Top of the World", "Wayfaring Stranger", "Never Far Away", "Christmas Time Soon Will Be Over" and "Great High Mountain". The 2003 Jim Jarmusch film Coffee and Cigarettes featured both Jack and Meg in the segment "Jack Shows Meg His Tesla Coil". He also played Elvis Presley in the 2007 satire Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story. In 2016, he appeared as a special guest on the season one finale of The Muppets, and sang "You Are the Sunshine of My Life", which he later released on 7-inch vinyl. In June 2017, White appeared in the award-winning documentary film The American Epic Sessions, recording on the first electrical sound recording system from the 1920s. His performances of "Matrimonial Intentions", "Mama's Angel Child", "2 Fingers of Whiskey (with Elton John) and "On the Road Again' and "One Mic" (with Nas) appeared on Music from The American Epic Sessions: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. He was an executive producer of the film.
Third Man Records
White co-founded Third Man Records in 2001 with Ben Swank, formerly of the Ohio-based Soledad Brothers band. However, it was not until after he moved to Nashville that White purchased a space in 2009 to house his label. He explained, "For the longest time I did not want to have my own studio gear, mostly because with the White Stripes I wanted to have the constriction of going into a studio and having a set time of 10 days or two weeks to finish an album, and using whatever gear they happen to have there. After 10 to 15 years of recording like that I felt that it was finally time for me to have my own place to produce music, and have exactly what I want in there: the exact tape machines, the exact microphones, the exact amplifiers that I like, and so on." Using the slogan "Your Turntable's Not Dead", Third Man also presses vinyl records, for the artists on its label, for White's own musical ventures, as well as for third parties for hire.
In March 2015, Third Man joined in the launch of TIDAL, a music streaming service that Jay-Z purchased and co-owns with other major music artists. Later that year, White partnered with the watch manufacturer Shinola to open a retail location in Detroit.
Artistry
Instruments and equipment
White owns many instruments and, historically, has tended to use certain ones for specific projects or in certain settings. He has a preference for vintage guitars, many of which are associated with influential blues artists. Much of his equipment is custom-made, for both technical and aesthetic reasons. White is a proficient guitar, bass, mandolin, percussion and piano player.
During his career with the White Stripes, White principally used three guitars, though he used others as well. The red, "JB Hutto", Airline guitar was a vintage 1964 model originally distributed by Montgomery Ward department store. Though used by several artists, White's attachment to the instrument raised its popularity to the extent that Eastwood Guitars began producing a modified replica around 2000. The 1950s-era Kay Hollowbody was a gift from his brother in return for a favor. It was the same brand of electric guitar made popular by Howlin' Wolf, and White most famously used it on "Seven Nation Army". He began using a 1915 Gibson L-1 acoustic (often called the Robert Johnson model) on the Icky Thump album; in an interview for Gibson, he called the instrument his favorite. He also used a three-pickup Airline Town & Country (later featured in the "Steady As She Goes" music video), a Harmony Rocket, a 1970s-era Crestwood Astral II, and what would become the first of three custom Gretsch Rancher Falcon acoustic guitars. While with the Stripes, any equipment that did not match their red/black/white color scheme was painted red.
On Black Friday in 2013, Third Man Records diversified and launched the Bumble Buzz pedal an octave fuzz built for Third Man by Vancouver, British Columbia's Union Tube and Transistor. In 2014 the pedal was reviewed by Premier Guitar, and is found in Jack's pedal setup.
While the Raconteurs were still in development, White commissioned luthier Randy Parsons to create what White called the Triple Jet—a custom guitar styled after the Duo Jet double-cutaway guitar. Parsons's first product was painted copper color, however he decided to create a second version with a completely copper body, which White began to use instead. For the Raconteurs first tour, White also played a Gretsch Anniversary Jr. with a Bigsby vibrato tailpiece and three Filtertron pickups. He later added a custom Gretsch Anniversary Jr. with two cutaways, a lever-activated mute system, a built-in and retractable bullet microphone, and a light-activated theremin next to the Bigsby. White has dubbed this one the "Green Machine", and it is featured in It Might Get Loud. He sometimes played a Gibson J-160E, a Gretsch Duo Jet in Cadillac Green, and a second Gretsch Rancher acoustic guitar. For the Raconteurs' 2008 tour, he had Analog Man plate all of his pedals in copper. In 2020 White completed his Three-Wheel-Motion Low Rider - which is a highly customized Fender Telecaster B-Bender guitar.
He has since acquired another Gretsch, a custom white "Billy Bo" Jupiter Thunderbird with a gold double pickguard (as seen in the music video for "Another Way to Die"). White found a 1957 Gretsch G6134 White Penguin in 2007 while on tour in Texas—the same one he used in the music video for "Icky Thump"—which ultimately fit in with the Dead Weather's color scheme. He also uses a black left-handed one since the Dead Weather album Sea of Cowards came out. He has also been known to play Fender Telecasters, featuring one in the music video for Loretta Lynn's "Portland, Oregon".
White owns three Gretsch Rancher Falcons because he says that its bass tones make it his favorite acoustic to play live. They are collectively referred to as his "girlfriends", as each one has an image of a classic movie star on the back. Claudette Colbert is the brunette he used while with the Stripes, Rita Hayworth is the redhead he acquired with the Raconteurs, and Veronica Lake is the blonde he added in 2010 while with the Dead Weather.
Since 2018, White has been playing EVH Wolfgang guitars, which are Eddie Van Halen's signature model.
White uses numerous effects to create his live sound, most notably a DigiTech Whammy WH-4 to create the rapid modulations in pitch he uses in his solos. White also produces a "fake" bass tone by playing the Kay Hollowbody and JB Hutto Montgomery Airline guitars through a Whammy IV set to one octave down for a very thick, low, rumbling sound, which he uses most notably on the song "Seven Nation Army". He also uses an MXR Micro Amp and custom Electro-Harmonix Big Muff Distortion/Sustainer. In 2005, for the single "Blue Orchid", White employed an Electro-Harmonix Polyphonic Octave Generator (POG), which let him mix in several octave effects into one along with the dry signal. He plugs this setup into a 1970s Fender Twin Reverb "Silverface" and two 100-Watt Sears Silvertone 1485 6×10 amplifiers. He also used a 1960s Fender Twin Reverb "Blackface".
On occasion, White also plays other instruments, such as a Black Gibson F-4 mandolin ("Little Ghost"), piano (on most tracks from Get Behind Me Satan, and various others), and an electric piano on such tracks as "The Air Near My Fingers" and "I'm Finding it Harder to be a Gentleman". White also plays percussion instruments such as the marimba (as on "The Nurse"), drums and tambourine. For the White Stripes' 2007 tour, he played a custom-finish Hammond A-100 organ with a Leslie 3300 speaker, which was subsequently loaned to Bob Dylan, and currently resides at Third Man Studios. On the album Broken Boy Soldiers, both he and Benson are credited with playing the album's synths and organ.
With the Dead Weather, White plays a custom Ludwig Classic Maple kit in Black Oyster Pearl. Notably, it includes two-snare drums, which White calls "the jazz canon". For the 2009 Full Flash Blank tour, White used a drum head with the Three Brides of Dracula on the front, but in 2010, White employed a new drum head, upon the release of Sea of Cowards, which has an image of The Third Man himself: Harry Lime attempting to escape certain capture in the sewers of Vienna. During the American leg of the 2010 tour, White switched his drum head again featuring a picture of himself in the guise he wore on the cover of Sea of Cowards. This drum head is called Sam Kay by some fans, referring to the insert inside of the 12" LP.
Minimalist style
White has long been a proponent of analog equipment and the associated working methods. Beginning in the fifth grade, he and his childhood friend, Dominic Suchyta, would listen to records in White's attic on weekends and began to record cover songs on an old four-track reel-to-reel tape machine. The White Stripes' first album was largely recorded in the attic of his parents' home. As their fame grew beyond Detroit, the Stripes became known for their affected innocence and stripped-down playing style. In particular, White became distinguished for his nasal vocal delivery and loose, explosive guitar delivery. In an early New York Times concert review from 2001, Ann Powers said that, while White's playing was "ingenious", he "created more challenges by playing an acoustic guitar with paper taped over the hole and a less-than-high-quality solid body electric".
His home studio in Nashville contains two rooms ("I want everyone close, focused, feeling like we're in it together.") with two pieces of equipment: a Neve mixing console, and two Studer A800 2-inch 8-track tape recorders.
In his introduction in the documentary film, It Might Get Loud, White showcases his minimalist style by constructing a guitar built out of a plank of wood, three nails, a glass Coke bottle, a guitar string, and a pickup. He ends the demonstration by saying, "Who says you need to buy a guitar?" In a 2012 episode of the show, Portlandia, White made a cameo in a sketch spoofing home studio enthusiasts who prefer antique recording equipment.
Reception
White has enjoyed both critical and commercial success, and is widely credited as one of the key artists in the garage rock revival of the 2000s. Rolling Stone ranked him number 70 on its 2010 list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". David Fricke's 2011 list ranked him at number 17. He has won twelve Grammy Awards, with 33 nominations, and three solo albums have reached number one on the Billboard charts. Interviewers note the wide breadth of the music styles and eras he draws from for inspiration. In May 2015, the Music City Walk of Fame announced that it would be honoring White (along with Loretta Lynn) with a medallion at its re-opening in Nashville. On February 8, 2017, White was the honoree of the Producers and Engineers Wing of the Recording Academy during the annual Grammy Week celebration for his commitment "to working diligently to ensure that the quality and integrity of recorded music are captured and preserved".
Much has been made of White's "showmanship" and affectations. Since the beginning, critics have debated the "riddle" of White's self-awareness against his claims of authenticity, with people falling on both sides of the issue. Joe Hagan of The New York Times asked in 2001, "Is Mr. White, a 25-year-old former upholsterer from southwest Detroit, concocting this stuff with a wink? Or are the White Stripes simply naïve?" Alexis Petridis, of The Guardian, said that White "makes for an enigmatic figure. Not because he's particularly difficult or guarded, but simply because what he tells you suggests a lifelong penchant for inscrutable behavior." White himself confesses, "Sometimes I think I'm a simple guy, but I think the reality is I'm really complicated, as simple as I wish I was."
Personal life
White is protective of his privacy and gives few details of his family life, even going as far as to disseminate false information. He states that he does not consider his personal life relevant to his art, saying "It's the same thing as asking Michelangelo, 'What kind of shoes do you wear?' ... In the end, it doesn't really matter ... the only thing that's going to be left is our records and photos."
His collection of esoterica include Lead Belly's New York City arrest record, James Brown's Georgia driver's license from the 1980s, and a copy of the first Superman comic from June 1938. For $300,000 in January 2015, an online bidder won an auction for Elvis Presley's first recording ever—an acetate of the two cover songs: "My Happiness" and "That's When Your Heartaches Begin". In its edition of March 6, 2015, Billboard magazine announced the buyer had been White. The vinyl record was recorded at Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee in the summer of 1953 when Presley was 18 years old.
Raised in Detroit, White is a fan of the Detroit Tigers baseball team.
Relationships
Jack and Meg married on September 21, 1996, and divorced on March 24, 2000. Jack unusually took Meg's last name, legally changing his surname. After the White Stripes broke up, he mentions he "almost never talks to Meg", adding that she has been solitary.
In 2003, he had a brief relationship with actress Renée Zellweger, whom he met during the filming of Cold Mountain. That summer, the couple were in a car accident in which White broke his left index finger and was forced to reschedule much of the summer tour. He posted the footage of his finger surgery on the web for fans. White and Zellweger's breakup became public in December 2004.
White met British model Karen Elson when she appeared in the White Stripes' music video for "Blue Orchid". They married on June 1, 2005, in Manaus, Brazil. The wedding took place in a canoe on the Amazon River and was officiated by a shaman. A Roman Catholic priest later convalidated their marriage. Manager Ian Montone was the best man and Meg White was the maid of honor. Official wedding announcements stated that "it was the first marriage" for both. In 2006, the couple had a daughter. A son was born in 2007. The family resided in Brentwood, a suburb south of Nashville, where Elson managed a vintage clothing store called Venus & Mars. Elson provided vocals on White's first solo record. The couple announced their intention to divorce in June 2011, throwing "a positive swing bang humdinger" party to commemorate the split. On July 22, 2013, a Nashville judge barred White from having "any contact with Karen Elson whatsoever except as it relates to parenting time with the parties' minor children". A counter-motion was filed on August 2, 2013, stating that "The reason for filing this response is that Mr. White does not want to be portrayed as something he is not, violent toward his wife and children." The divorce was finalized on November 26, 2013. Elson later recanted the charges, attributing the "aggressive" proceedings to her divorce attorneys, and saying "those who gain of a marriage ending helped to create a downward spiral at my most vulnerable." White agreed, saying, "When shitty lawyers are in a situation like divorce, their goal is to villainize." The former couple reportedly remain on good terms.
On April 8, 2022, White played the national anthem for a Detroit Tigers game, then proposed to his girlfriend, Olivia Jean, near the end of a concert performance at the Detroit Masonic Temple, while "Hotel Yorba" was being played. Jean and White were married shortly afterward by White's business partner Ben Swank who officiated on stage.
Politics
In October 2016, upon learning that Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump had used the White Stripes song "Seven Nation Army" in video campaign materials, White denounced the presidential candidate and began selling shirts reading "Icky Trump"—a play on the White Stripes song "Icky Thump"—through the Third Man Records website. He publicly endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders for the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries and performed a six-song set at a Sanders event at Cass Technical High School on October 27, 2019. At the rally, White stated that he believes that "Sanders is telling the truth, and I really do trust him". He was drawn in by Sanders' view that the Electoral College should be abolished, also stating at the rally that "I have this silly notion that the person who gets the most votes should be elected" and "[the Electoral College] is the reason we're in the mess we're in now".
On November 20, 2022, White wrote a note to Elon Musk explaining his reason for leaving the Twitter platform, he said, "So you gave Trump his Twitter platform back. Absolutely disgusting, Elon. That is officially an asshole move".
Eccentricity
White has been called "eccentric".
He is known for creating a mythology around his endeavors; examples include his claim that the Stripes began on Bastille Day, that he and Meg are the two youngest of ten siblings, and that Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These assertions came into question or were disproven, as when, in 2002, the Detroit Free Press produced copies of both a marriage license and divorce certificate for him and Meg, confirming their history as a married couple. Neither addresses the truth officially, and Jack continues to refer to Meg as his sister in interviews, including in the documentary Under Great White Northern Lights, filmed in 2007. In a 2005 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, Jack alluded to this open secret, implying that it was intended to keep the focus on the music rather than the couple's relationship:
When you see a band that is two pieces, husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, you think, 'Oh, I see ... ' When they're brother and sister, you go, 'Oh, that's interesting.' You care more about the music, not the relationship—whether they're trying to save their relationship by being in a band.
He has an attachment to the number three, stemming from seeing three staples in the back of a Vladimir Kagan couch he helped to upholster as an apprentice. His business ventures frequently feature "three" in the title and he typically appends "III" to the end of his name. During the White Stripes 2005 tour in the UK, White began referring to himself as "Three Quid"—"quid" being British slang for pound sterling.
He maintains an aesthetic that he says challenges whether people will believe he is "real". He frequently color-codes his endeavors, such as the aforementioned Third Man Upholstery and the White Stripes, as well as Third Man Records, which is completely outfitted in yellow, black, red, and blue (including staff uniforms). As a taxidermy enthusiast—that correlates to his work as an upholsterer—he decorates his studio in preserved animals, including a peacock, giraffe, and Himalayan goat.
Controversies
On December 13, 2003, White was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer, lead singer of the Von Bondies, at the Magic Stick, a Detroit club. White was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault. He pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery, was fined $750 (including court costs), and was sentenced to take anger management classes.
White has repeatedly referenced conflicts that erupted between him and fellow artists in Detroit's underground music scene after the White Stripes gained international success. In a 2006 interview with the Associated Press, he said that he eventually left Detroit because, "he could not take the negativity anymore." However, in an effort to clarify his feelings towards the city of Detroit itself, he wrote and released a poem called "Courageous Dream's Concern". In it, he expresses his affection for his hometown.
During their 2013 divorce proceedings, Elson entered into evidence an email White had sent her that included disparaging remarks about the Black Keys. When asked about the email in a 2014 Rolling Stone magazine interview, White stood by the remarks saying, "I'll hear TV commercials where the music's ripping off sounds of mine, to the point I think it's me. Half the time, it's the Black Keys." He later apologized for the comments. However, in September 2015, Black Keys drummer Patrick Carney posted a series of tweets alleging that White tried to fight him in a bar. White denied the claim in a statement to the online magazine Pitchfork, saying that Carney should talk to him directly, and not on the internet. The following day, Carney posted a tweet saying, "Talked to jack for an hour he's cool. All good." White tweeted on the Third Man Twitter account, "From one musician to another, you have my respect Patrick Carney."
On February 1, 2015, the University of Oklahoma's newspaper OU Daily ran a story regarding White's show of February 2 at McCasland Field House that included the publication of White's tour rider. The rider, especially the guacamole recipe it included and White's ban of bananas backstage, received some media coverage. It was later reported that in response to the rider's publication White's booking agency, William Morris Endeavor Entertainment, had banned its acts from playing shows at the University of Oklahoma. On February 15, White released an open letter addressed to "journalists and other people looking for drama or a diva" in which he referred to the guacamole recipe as his tour manager's "inside joke with local promoters" and "just something to break up the boredom" and the ban of bananas being alluded to food allergies of an unnamed tour member, while criticizing journalists who wrote about the rider as "out of their element". In the same letter, he forgave OU Daily for publishing the story and reaffirmed his affinity for the state of Oklahoma and his desire to perform there.
Philanthropy
White has provided financial support to institutions in his hometown of Detroit. In 2009, White donated almost $170,000 towards the renovation of the baseball diamond in southwest Detroit's Clark Park. The Detroit Masonic Temple was nearly foreclosed on in 2013 after it was revealed that owners owed $142,000 in back taxes. In June 2013, it was revealed that White had footed the entire bill. To thank him for the donation, the temple has decided to rename its second largest theater the Jack White Theater.
The National Recording Preservation Foundation received an inaugural gift of $200,000 from White to use toward restoring and preserving deteriorating sound recordings on media such as reel-to-reel tape and old cylinders. The foundation's director, Eric J. Schwartz said the donation demonstrated a "commitment by a really busy songwriter and performer donating both his time on the board, and money to preserve our national song recording heritage". White also serves on the foundation's board.
In July 2016, White joined Nashville's 45-member Gender Equality Council.
On September 18, 2018, White donated $30,000 to The Outsiders House Museum for its preservation and restoration.
On May 3, 2019, Wayne State University of Detroit, Michigan awarded White with an honorary doctor of humane letters degree "for his dedication to Detroit and significant contributions to the arts as one of the most prolific and renowned artists of the past two decades".
Awards and nominations
For his various collaborations and solo work, White has won regional, national and international awards, including twelve Grammy Awards and has been nominated for 33. Nashville mayor Karl Dean awarded White the title of "Nashville Music City Ambassador" in 2011.
Backup band
Although a solo artist, White performs with a live band to provide additional instrumentation and vocals.
Current lineup
Dominic Davis – bass, backing vocals
Daru Jones – drums
Quincy McCrary – keyboards, samples, synthesizer, organ, backing vocals
Boarding House Reach-era lineup
Carla Azar – acoustic drums, percussion, backing vocals
Dominic Davis – bass
Neal Evans – piano, synthesizer, organ, keyboards, electronic drums, backing vocals
Quincy McCrary – keyboards, samples, backing vocals
Lazaretto-era lineup
Dominic Davis – bass
Dean Fertita – Hammond organ, piano, keyboards
Daru Jones – drums
Fats Kaplin – pedal steel guitar, fiddle, mandolin, theremin
Lillie Mae Rische – fiddle, mandolin, backing vocals
Lazaretto-era previous members
Isaiah "Ikey" Owens – B3 organ, piano, keyboards
Cory Younts – mandolin, harmonica, piano, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals
Blunderbuss-era lineup
Note: While on tour in support of Blunderbuss, White toured with two bands that he alternated between shows with.
The Buzzards (all-male band)
Dominic Davis – bass
Daru Jones – drums
Fats Kaplin – pedal steel guitar, fiddle, mandolin, theremin
Isaiah "Ikey" Owens – B3 organ, piano, keyboards
Cory Younts – mandolin, harmonica, piano, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals
The Peacocks (all-female band)
Ruby Amanfu – backing vocals
Carla Azar – drums
Maggie Bjorklund – pedal steel guitar, acoustic guitar
Catherine Popper – bass
Bryn Davies – bass
Lillie Mae Rische – fiddle, mandolin, backing vocals
Brooke Waggoner – piano, B3 organ, keyboards
Discography
Solo albums
Blunderbuss (2012)
Lazaretto (2014)
Boarding House Reach (2018)
Fear of the Dawn (2022)
Entering Heaven Alive (2022)
With the White Stripes
The White Stripes (1999)
De Stijl (2000)
White Blood Cells (2001)
Elephant (2003)
Get Behind Me Satan (2005)
Icky Thump (2007)
With the Raconteurs
Broken Boy Soldiers (2006)
Consolers of the Lonely (2008)
Help Us Stranger (2019)
With the Dead Weather
Horehound (2009)
Sea of Cowards (2010)
Dodge and Burn (2015)
Filmography
The Rosary Murders (1987) – uncredited altar boy
Cold Mountain (2003) – Georgia
Coffee and Cigarettes (2003) – Himself
Under Blackpool Lights (2004) – Himself
The Fearless Freaks (2005) – Himself
Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story (2007) – Elvis Presley
Shine a Light (2008) – Himself
It Might Get Loud (2009) – Himself
Mutant Swinger from Mars (2009) – Mikey
Under Great White Northern Lights (2010) – Himself
Conan O'Brien Can't Stop (2011) – Himself
American Pickers (2012) – Himself
Portlandia, season 3, episode 1 (2012) – Himself
The Muppets, season 1, episode 16 (2016) – Himself
American Epic (2017) – Himself
The American Epic Sessions (2017) – Himself
Jack White: Kneeling at The Anthem D.C. (2018) – Himself
Killers of the Flower Moon (2023) – Radio Show Actor
Books
We're Going to Be Friends (2017) – based on "We're Going to Be Friends" by the White Stripes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Third Man Records
Official site of the White Stripes
Official site of the Raconteurs
Official site of the Dead Weather
1975 births
American blues guitarists
Alternative rock guitarists
American male singers
American music video directors
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American male guitarists
American tenors
Cass Technical High School alumni
Wayne State University alumni
Grammy Award winners
Living people
American mandolinists
American marimbists
Slide guitarists
Lead guitarists
The White Stripes members
American people of Polish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Canadian descent
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
Third Man Records artists
XL Recordings artists
American male drummers
Upholsterers
Guitarists from Detroit
20th-century American drummers
21st-century American drummers
The Dead Weather members
The Raconteurs members
Goober & the Peas members
Two-Star Tabernacle members
|
416699
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Pakistanis
|
List of Pakistanis
|
Pakistan is the fifth most populous nation in the world. Below is a list of some notable people who relate to the country. See Pakistani people for a list of pages about notable Pakistanis by category.
Heads of state or government
Civil / democratically elected administrators
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, "Quaid-e-Azam"; first Governor General of Pakistan, and the main founder of Pakistan.
Liaquat Ali Khan
Khawaja Nazimuddin
Ghulam Muhammad
Iskander Mirza
Chaudhury Mohammad Ali
Chaudhry Fazal Ellahi
Muhammad Rafiq Tarar
Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy
Muhammad Ali Bogra
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar
Feroz Khan Noon
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Muhammad Khan Junejo
Ghulam Ishaq Khan
Benazir Bhutto
Farooq Leghari
Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi
Balakh Sher Mazari
Moeen Qureshi
Malik Meraj Khalid
Zafarullah Khan Jamali
Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain
Shaukat Aziz
Wasim Sajjad
Mohammad Mian Soomro
Yousaf Raza Gillani
Raja Pervez Ashraf
Nawaz Sharif
Mamnoon Hussain
Arif Alvi
Shahid Khaqan Abbasi
Asif Ali Zardari
Imran Khan
Shehbaz Sharif
Military / non-democratically elected administrators
Field Marshal Ayub Khan
General Agha Muhammed Yahya Khan
General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq
General Pervez Musharraf
Foreign ministers
Sir Chaudhry Muhammad Zafarullah Khan (27 December 1947—24 October 1954)
Aziz Ahmed (30 March 1977—5 July 1977)
Agha Shahi (14 January 1978—9 March 1982)
Sahabzada Yaqub Khan (21 March 1982—1 November 1987)
Abdul Sattar (23 July 1993—19 October 1993)
Sardar Asif Ahmad Ali (16 November 1993—4 November 1996)
Sahabzada Yaqub Khan (Caretaker: 11 November 1996—24 February 1997)
Gohar Ayub (25 February 1997—7 August 1998)
Sartaj Aziz
Abdul Sattar (23 July 1999—14 June 2002)
Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri (23 November 2002—15 November 2007)
Inam-ul-Haq (Caretaker: 15 November 2007—24 March 2008)
Shah Mehmood Qureshi (31 March 2008—February 2011)
Hina Rabbani Khar (18 July 2011—11 May 2013)
Shah Mehmood Qureshi (20 August 2018)
Khawaja Muhammad Asif
Nawaz Sharif
Bilawal Bhutto Zardari
Bureaucrats
Roedad Khan
Sartaj Aziz
Nargis Sethi
Tariq Bajwa
Fazalur Rehman
Mohammed Ikramullah
Rizwan Ahmed
Tasneem Noorani
Usman Ali Isani
Qudrat Ullah Shahab
Syed Abu Ahmad Akif
Jawad Rafique Malik
Sikandar Sultan Raja
Nasir Mahmood Khosa
Rabiya Javeri Agha
Fawad Hassan Fawad
Kamran Lashari
Diplomats
A. S. Bokhari
Agha Shahi
Jamsheed Marker
Jauhar Saleem
Javid Husain
Maliha Lodhi
Prince Ali Khan
Khalid Amir Khan, Ambassador to Hungary, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan
Riaz Khokhar
Najmuddin Sheikh
Tehmina Janjua
Tariq Azim Khan, High Commissioner to Canada (from 2015 to 2018)
Abdus Salim Khan
Shahryar Khan
Attorney General of Pakistan
Aziz A Munshi
Makhdoom Ali Khan
Malik Mohammad Qayyum
Latif Khosa
Ashtar Ausaf Ali
Salman Aslam Butt
Khalid Jawed Khan
Iqbal Haider
Mansoor Usman Awan
Shehzad Ata Elahi
Other major political figures
Fatima Jinnah, sister of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, coined the word "Pakistan"
Allama Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, Tahreek-e- Pakistan activist, associate of the Quaid-e-Azam and a scholar on the Quran
Allama Mashriqi
Ghulam Muhammad Khan Bhurgri
Abul A'la Maududi, writer of Tafhim-ul-Quran, founder of Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan
Anwar Kamal Khan, senior leader of political party PMLN
Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, leader of Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam
Mahmud Ali, leader in the Pakistan Movement, statesman and journalist
Sikandar Hayat Khan, Premier of the Province of Punjab and senior statesman
Sahib of Manki Sharif
Chaudhry Afzal Haq
Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar
Bahadur Yar Jung
Master Taj-ud-Din Ansari
Sheikh Hissam-ud-Din
Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman
Agha Shorish Kashmiri
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Maulana Mohammad Ali
Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani
Nawabzada Nasrullah Khan, Ahrari leader
Chaudhry Zahoor Elahi
Shahzada Mohiuddin
Ghulam Faruque Khan
Qazi Hussain Ahmed, ex-Chairman of Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan
Altaf Hussain, founding member of Muttahida Qaumi Movement – London
Imran Khan, ex-cricket player, former prime minister in Pakistan
Mufti Mahmud, founding member of Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam and former Chief Minister of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Naseer Khan Khoso
Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, founder of Jamiat Ulama-e-Islam.
Benazir Bhutto
Judges
Justice A. R. Cornelius
Justice Abdul Hameed Dogar
Justice Sir Abdur Rashid
Justice S. Anwarul Haq
Justice Dorab Patel
Justice Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim
Justice Hamoodur Rahman
Justice Ajmal Mian
Justice Saeeduzzaman Siddiqui
Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry
Justice Mohammad Haleem
Justice Muhammad Afzal Zullah
Justice Muhammad Munir
Justice Muhammad Rustum Kiani
Justice Muhammad Shahabuddin
Justice Muhammad Yaqub Ali
Justice Dr. Nasim Hasan Shah
Justice Qadeeruddin Ahmed
Justice Rana Bhagwandas
Justice Sajjad Ali Shah
Justice Mukhtiar Ahmad Junejo
Justice Chaudhry Muhammad Sharif
Justice Wajihuddin Ahmed
Justice Haziqul Khairi
Justice Zafar Hussain Mirza
Justice Saqib Nisar
Justice Asif Saeed Khosa
Justice Allama Khalid Mahmood
Justice Gulzar Ahmed
Justice Athar Minallah
Justice Ali Baqar Najafi
Justice Zahid Hussain
Justice Ali Baqar Najafi
Lawyers
Imtiaz Rashid Qureshi, founder of Bhagat Singh Memorial Foundation of Pakistan
S M Zafar
Akhtar Aly Kureshy
Hamid Khan
Asma Jahangir, Senior ASC
Aitzaz Ahsan
Ashtar Ausaf Ali
Khalid Ranjha
Abdul Hafeez Pirzada
Mahmud Ali Kasuri
Ahmad Awais
Wasim Sajjad
Ghulam Farooq Awan
Mirza Aziz Akbar Baig
Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada
Sahibzada Ahmed Raza Khan Kasuri
Akram Sheikh
Syed Ali Zafar
Naseer Ahmed Bhutta
Babar Awan
Rana Muhammad Akram Khan
Makhdoom Ali Khan
Khalid Anwer
Mohammed Jibran Nasir
Abid Hassan Minto
Shakeel ur Rahman
Abdul Ghafoor Bhurgri
Farooq Naek
Salman Aslam Butt
Suman Kumari, first Hindu woman judge in Pakistan
Asrar-ul-Haq Mian
Iqbal Haider
Hina Jilani
Azam Nazeer Tarar
Sher Afzal Khan Marwat
Human rights activists and philanthropists
Abdul Sattar Edhi, founder of Edhi Foundation
Ruth Pfau, founder of Marie Adelaide Leprosy Centre
Ramzan Chhipa, founder of Chhipa Welfare Association
Hakim Muhammad Saeed, founder of Hamdard Pakistan
Ansar Burney, founder of Ansar Burney Trust International
Dr. Amjad Saqib, founder of Akhuwat Foundation
Naimatullah Khan, advocate, former Chairman of Al-Khidmat Foundation
Imtiaz Rashid Qureshi, founder of Bhagat Singh Memorial Foundation of Pakistan
Irfan Pardesi, founder and President of Zee Foundation
Mushtaq Chhapra, founder of The Citizens Foundation
Sheema Kermani, founder of Tehrik-e-Niswan
Asma Jahangir
Hina Jilani
Abid Qaiyum Suleri
Shoaib Sultan Khan
Masood Ul Mulk
Fatima Lodhi
Begum Mahmooda Salim Khan, first woman minister in Pakistan and prominent social worker
Veeru Kohli
Dadi Leela (1916–2017), educationist, music teacher, philanthropist
Gulalai Ismail
Syeda Ghulam Fatima
Fouzia Saeed
Tabassum Adnan
Academia
Scientists, researchers and scholars
Abdus Salam, Nobel laureate in physics 1979, science advisor to the Government of Pakistan (1960–1974), founding director of Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO), received the Sitara-e-Pakistan for contribution to science in Pakistan (1959) and founded the International Center for Theoretical Physics in Trieste
Ahmad Hasan Dani, Distinguished National Professor and Professor Emeritus, Quaid-e-Azam University; historian and archaeologist
Jamal Malik, Professor and Chair of Islamic studies at the University of Erfurt in Germany
Tariq Rahman, linguistic historian, HEC Distinguished National Professor and Emeritus Professor, Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, scholar, critic, Vice Chancellor, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
Pirzada Qasim, scholar, Vice Chancellor, University of Karachi, Karachi
Attash Durrani, scholar, linguist, Director, Center of Excellence for Urdu Informatics, Islamabad, Pakistan
Atta ur Rahman
Alamgir Hashmi, literary scholar, historian, critic, translator
Chaudhry Faisal Mushtaq, chief executive officer (CEO) of Roots Millennium Schools, executive director of Roots School System, recipient of ‘Tamgha-e-Imtiaz’
Abdul Qadeer Khan, nuclear physicist
Munir Ahmad Khan, nuclear physicist, former Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), 1972–1991, chairman, IAEA Board of Governors, 1986–87
Ishfaq Ahmad, nuclear physicist and former Chairman of the PAEC
Abdullah Sadiq, nuclear physicist and AS-ICTP laureate
Samar Mubarakmand, nuclear physicist, Chairman of the National Engineering and Scientific Commission (NESCOM)
Anwar Ali, former Chairman of the PAEC
Shahid Hussain Bokhari, computer and aerospace engineer
Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, PhD in organic chemistry
Pervez Hoodbhoy, nuclear physicist
Javaid Laghari, aerospace engineer, former Chairman of Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan
Datuk Rahman Anwar Syed, entomologist responsible for discovering the biological method of oil palm pollination
Anwar Naseem, Advisor Science COMSTECH, Chairman National Commission on Biotechnology Pakistan, founding president of FABA
Atta ur Rahman, PhD in organic chemistry, awarded a Doctorate of Science by the University of Cambridge in 1987
Ismat Beg, mathematician, PhD University of Bucharest, 1982
Umar Saif, computer engineer, PhD University of Cambridge, 2001
Syed Waqar Jaffry, Computer Scientist, Academician, PhD in Artificial Intelligence, Vrije Universitiet, Amsterdam.
Ayub K. Ommaya, professor of neurosurgery at the Royal College of Surgeons of England; expert in traumatic brain injuries; inventor of the Ommaya reservoir, which is used to provide chemotherapy directly to brain tumors
Abdul Jamil Khan, Principal of Ayub Medical College, Bolan Medical College, Frontier Medical College, Former Minister of Population
Hasnat Khan, heart surgeon, head of Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences; also worked in Chelsea, London
Arif Alvi, Chairman of Pakistan Dental Federation
Roger H. Armour, inventor of the hand-held ophthalmoscope
Sania Nishtar, cardiologist, health policy expert and minister
Muhammed Suhail Zubairy, professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the Texas A&M University, USl;holder of Munnerlyn-Heep Chair in Quantum Optics
A G N Kazi
Mirza Muzaffar Ahmad (1913–2002), executive director of the World Bank for Pakistan and the Middle East
Mohammad Zubair Khan
Abdul-Majid Bhurgri, hero of Sindhi computing
Ahmed Hussain A. Kazi, former Chairman of Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation
Ghulam Faruque Khan
Hafeez A. Pasha
Mahbub ul Haq, economist and co-creator of the Human Development Index (HDI)
Ishrat Hussain
Salman Shah
Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi
Dr. Ziaul Haque
Asad Umar
Akhtar Hameed Khan
Matin Ahmed Khan, marketing expert and management educator
Bernadette Louise Dean, former Principal of Kinnaird College for Women
Mary Emily Gonsalves, Sitara-e-Imtiaz
Bhawani Shankar Chowdhry
Jacqueline Maria Dias
Rubina Gillani
Dr. Nergis Mavalvala, Kathleen Marble Professor of Astrophysics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and 2010 MacArthur Fellow; part of the team that made the first direct gravitational wave observation
Adil Najam, founding Dean of the Frederick S. Pardee School of Global Studies at Boston University; former Vice Chancellor of the Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS)
Prop. Dr. Ihsan Ali Sitara-i-Imtiaz Vice-Chancellor of Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
Sardar Mohammad Khan, scholar of linguistics
Zulfiqar Bhutta
Anita Zaidi
Asghar Zaidi
Eqbal Ahmed, political scientist, writer and academic known for his anti-war activism, his support for resistance movements globally and academic contributions to the study of Near East
Dr.Khalid Manzoor Butt, educationist and scholar, Dean of Political Science Department GCU
Hakim Syed Ali Ahmad Nayyar Wasty, scholar (history of medicine)
Amer Iqbal, Pakistani American theoretical physicist. He is primarily known for his work in string theory and mathematical physics
Syed Hamid Nawab, Professor of Electrical and Computer and Biomedical Engineering, Boston University; co-author of widely used textbook Signals and Systems (1997), published by Prentice Hall (Pearson); researcher in signal processing and machine perception with application to auditory, speech, and neuromuscular systems
Khaleel Chisty, virologist
School teachers
Oswald Bruno Nazareth
Zinia Pinto
Norma Fernandes, Tamgha-i-Imtiaz
Yolande Henderson
Salima Begum
Religious scholars
Muhammad Shafi Deobandi, former Grand Mufti of Pakistan.
Allama Khadim Hussain Rizvi, Islamic Scholar, Founder of TLP
Molana Tariq Jamil, religious leader and member of Tablighi Jamaat
Mufti Rafi Usmani, President of Darul Uloom Karachi
Engineer Muhammad Ali Mirza, Islamic scholar, speaker, and researcher. Founder of Islamic Research Academy, Jehlum.
Syed Adnan Kakakhail, Mufti, Muslim Scholar, Founder and CEO of Al-Burhan Institute
Muhammad Muneeb-ur-Rehman, Mufti, Chairman of Ruet-e-Hilal Committee
Saqib Raza Mustafai, founder of Idara-tul-Mustafa
Muhammad Ilyas Qadri, Ameer e Dawat-e-Islami, co-founder of Dawat-e-Islami
Muhammad Raza Saqib Mustafai, founder of Idara-tul-Mustafa
Israr Ahmed, religious leader and the founder of Tanzeem-e-Islami
Muhammad Hussain Najafi, religious leader
Allama Hussain Bakhsh Jarra, religious leader
Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, religious scholar, Al-Mawrid International, Pakistan
Mufti Jafar Hussain, religious leader
Talib Jauhari, Islamic scholar, religious leader, public speaker, Qur'anic interpreter, Urdu poet, historian and philosopher
Syed Munawar Hasan, former Chairman of the Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan
Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, law professor, Sufi Islamic scholar and founder of Minhaj-ul-Quran
Maulana Muhammad Shafee Okarvi, religious scholar, founder of Jamaa'at-e-Ahle Sunnat
Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, religious Quranic scholar, founder of Talu-e-Islam
Farhat Hashmi, founder of Al-Huda International
Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, Ameer-e-Shariat
Amin Ahsan Islahi
Ayesha Jalal, religious leader and scholar
Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, historian
Khurshid Ahmad, scholar, Vice President of the Jamaat-e-Pakistan
Muzaffar Iqbal
Ehsan Elahi Zaheer Islamic scholar, author and founder of the Jamiat-E-Ahlihadees in Pakistan
Muhammad Taqi Usmani
Khurram Zaki, scholar and journalist
Zafar Ishaq Ansari, Director General, Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad
Zubair Ali Zai
Moeen Nizami
Military personnel
Major Tufail Muhammad Shaheed (1914 – August 7, 1958), Nishan-E-Haider
Major Aziz Bhatti Shaheed, Nishan-E-Haider
Major Muhammad Akram Shaheed (1938–1971), Nishan-E-Haider
Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas Shaheed (1951 – August 20, 1971), Nishan-E-Haider
Major Shabbir Sharif Shaheed (1943 – December 6, 1971), Nishan-E-Haider
Sawar Muhammad Hussain Shaheed (1949 – December 10, 1971), Nishan-E-Haider
Lance Naik Muhammad Mahfuz Shaheed (1944 – December 17, 1971), Nishan-E-Haider
Captain Karnal Sher Khan Shaheed (1970 – July 5, 1999), Nishan-E-Haider
Lalak Jan Shaheed (1967 – July 7, 1999), Nishan-E-Haider
Major Malik Munawar Khan Awan (died May 1981), Sitara-e-Jurat, 1965 war hero who captured Area Rajouri, Budhil and Mehdar from India during Operation Gibraltar
General Muhammad Musa Khan Hazara, 4th Army Commander-in-Chief, 4th Governor of West Pakistan and 10th Governor of Balochistan
General Sawar Khan, former Vice Chief of Army Staff
General Iftikhar Janjua, Hilal-e-Jurat, 1971 war hero of Rann of Kutch operations
General Muhammad Shariff, former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) 1977
General Iqbal Khan, former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) 1980–1984
General Zafar H. Naqvi, Army Air Defence Commander
General Mirza Aslam Beg, former Chief of Army Staff (COAS), think tank head
General Asif Nawaz Janjua, former Chief of Army Staff (COAS)
General Abdul Waheed Kakar, former Chief of Army Staff (COAS)
General Jehangir Karamat former Chief of Army Staff (COAS), Ambassador to the United States
General Rahimuddin Khan, 7 year Martial Law Governor of Balochistan and provincial hero
General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, former Chief of Army Staff (COAS) & Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC)
General Raheel Sharif, former Chief of Army Staff (COAS), Commander-in-Chief of the Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition
General Qamar Javed Bajwa, Chief of Army Staff (COAS)
General Nadeem Raza, Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC)
Admiral Shahid Karimullah
Admiral Tariq Kamal Khan
Lieutenant General, Akhtar Hussain Malik (died August 22, 1969), Hilal-i-Jurat, 1965 war hero
Lieutenant General, Abdul Ali Malik, 1965 war hero for his role in the Battle of Chawinda
Lieutenant General Ahmad Shuja Pasha, former DG ISI
Lieutenant General Zaheer-ul-Islam, former DG ISI
Lieutenant General Rizwan Akhtar, former DG ISI
Lieutenant General Naveed Mukhtar, former DG ISI
Lieutenant General Asim Saleem Bajwa, former DG ISPR & Commander southern command, Chairman CPEC Authority
Lieutenant General Syed Asim Munir Ahmed Shah, former DG ISI, Commander XXX Corps (Pakistan)
Lieutenant General Faiz Hameed, DG ISI
Vice Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, former Governor of East Pakistan
Air Vice Marshall Eric Gordon Hall
Major General Athar Abbas former DG ISPR, Ambassador to Ukraine
Major General Julian Peter
Major General Noel Israel Khokhar
Major General Asif Ghafoor, former DG ISPR, GOC Okara 40th Infantry Division
Major General Babar Iftikhar, DG ISPR
Rear Admiral Leslie Mungavin
Brigadier Samson Simon Sharaf
Brigadier Mervyn Cardoza
Brigadier Daniel Austin
Air Vice Marshall (R) Farooq Umar
Air Commodore Nazir Latif
Air Commodore (R) Muhammad Mehmood Alam (M M Alam)
Group Captain Cecil Chaudhry
Wing Commander Mervyn Middlecoat
Squadron Leader Peter Christy
Squadron Leader Sarfraz Rafiqui
Captain Hercharn Singh
Rahul Dev, first person from the Hindu community to recruited in the Pakistan Air Force
Businesspeople and industrialists
Abdul Razaq Dawood, founder of Descon
Abdul Razzak Yaqoob, Chairman of the ARY Group
Bashir Ali Mohammad, Gul Ahmed Group
Byram Avari, Chairman of the Avari Group
Chaudhry Ahmed Saeed, Chairman of the Servis Group, former managing director in and Chairman of the Pakistan International Airlines Corporation (PIAC)
Fiza Farhan, co-founder of Buksh Foundation
Hussain Dawood, investor, educationalist and philanthropist
Iqbal Ali Lakhani, Lakson Group
Jahangir Khan Tareen, owner of sugar mills
Jahangir Siddiqui, owner of JS Group
Malik Riaz, Pakistani business tycoon who is the founder of Bahria Town
Mian Amir Mahmood, Pakistani politician and founder of the Punjab Group of Colleges
Mian Muhammad Latif, Chenab Group, ChenOne
Mian Muhammad Mansha, industrialist and businessman
Mir Shakil ur Rehman, Jang Group
Sadruddin Hashwani, founder and chairman of Hashoo Group
Shiza Shahid, co-founder of Malala Fund
Shahid Khan, owner of automobile parts manufacturer Flex-N-Gate Corp, in Urbana, Illinois; owner of the NFL team Jacksonville Jaguars
Sikandar Sultan, managing director of Shan Food Industries
Syed Babar Ali, former caretaker Finance Minister of Pakistan, founder of Packages Limited, Milkpak Limited–now Nestlé Pakistan and Lahore University of Management Sciences
Bankers
Agha Hasan Abedi
Ishrat Husain
Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi
Muhammad Mian Soomro
Shahid Javed Burki
Shamshad Akhtar
Zahid Hussain
Shaukat Aziz, banker and former Prime Minister
Mian Muhammad Mansha
Mir Mohammad Ali Khan, Pakistani investment banker
Arts, literature and other media personalities
Writers and poets
Syed Imtiaz Ali Taj
Faiz Ahmed Faiz
Rasul Bux Palejo
Syed Sibte Hassan
Saadat Hassan Manto
Khawar Rizvi
Patras Bokhari
Ibn-e-Insha
Syed Irfan Ali Shah
Chaudhry Afzal Haq
Mohsin Naqvi
Agha Shorish Kashmiri
Janbaz Mirza
Abdullah Hussain
Ahmad Faraz
Shaikh Ayaz
Amar Jaleel
Sohail Sangi
Anwar Pirzada
Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi
Afrasiab Khattak
Alamgir Hashmi
Qalandar Momand
Siddiq Ismail
Anwer Maqsood
Ashfaq Ahmad
Bano Qudsia
Daud Kamal
Fatima Surayya Bajia
Ghulam Abbas
Habib Jalib
Hakim Ahmad Shuja
Hakim Said
Ibn-e-Insha
Ibn-e-Safi
Idris Azad
Ishtiaq Ahmad
Iftikhar Arif
Ihsan Danish
Jon Elia
Kazi Zainul Abedin
Khurshid Rizvi
Majeed Amjad
Mazhar Kaleem
Mohsin Hamid
Mohammed Hanif
Mustansar Hussain Tarar
Noon Meem Danish
Noon Meem Rashid
Obaidullah Aleem
Mirza Ather Baig
Parveen Shakir
Qateel Shafai
Raees Warsi
Saadat Hasan Manto
Sufi Ghulam Mustafa Tabassum
Vazir Agha
Wasif Ali Wasif
Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah
Zamir Jafri
Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi
Amjad Islam Amjad
Anwar Masood
Moeen Nizami
Fatima Bhutto
Abdur Rauf Urooj (c. 1932–1990)
Mohiuddin Nawab
Actors and actresses
For a categorical listing of actors in film, see :Category:Pakistani film actors
Adeeb, actor
Adil Murad, actor
Afzal Khan, actor
Ajab Gul, actor
Anjuman, actress
Ayesha Sana, actress
Aamina Sheikh, actress
Babar Ali, actor
Babra Sharif, actress
Badar Munir, actor
Darpan, actor
Deeba, actor
Faysal Qureshi, actor
Fawad Khan, actor
Hamza Ali Abbasi, actor
Hareem Farooq, actress
Humayun Saeed, actor
Husna, actress
Imran Abbas, actor
Inayat Hussain Bhatti, actor
Ismat Zaidi, actress
Ismael Shah, actor
Javed Sheikh, actor
Kamal Irani, actor
Mahira Khan, actress
Marina Khan, actress
Maya Ali
Mohib Mirza, actor
Meera, actress
Mehmood Aslam, actor
Mohammad Ali, actor
Moin Akhter, actor
Munawar Zarif, actor
Mustafa Qureshi, actor
Nadeem Baig, actor
Nadia Khan, actress
Naeem Hashmi, actor
Kamal Irani, actor
Nasira Zuberi, actress
Neelo, actress
Rahat Kazmi, actor
Saba Qamar, actress
Sabiha Khanum, actress
Saeed Khan Rangeela, actor
Saima, actress
Sami Khan, actor
Samina Pirzada, actress
Sana Nawaz, actress
Sangeeta, actor
Shaan Shahid, actor
Shafi Muhammad Shah, actor
Shahid, actor
Shamim Ara, actress
Sohail Ahmad, actor
Somy Ali, actress
Sultan Rahi, actor
Talat Husain, actor
Talish, actor
Tariq Aziz, actor
Waheed Murad, actor
Yousaf Khan, actor
Zahid Ahmed (actor)
Zeba, actress
Amanullah Khan (actor)
Artists and painters
Abdur Rahman Chughtai
Ahmed Saeed Nagi
Ajaz Anwar
Anna Molka Ahmed
A. R. Nagori
Asim Butt
Allah Bakhsh (painter)
Bashir Mirza
Huma Mulji
Ijaz ul Hassan
Eqbal Mehdi
Ismail Gulgee
Jamil Naqsh
Laraib Atta
Lubna Agha
Moeen Faruqi
Rashid Rana
Sadequain
Saira Wasim
Sara Shakeel
Shahid Mahmood
Shakir Ali
Saeed Akhtar
Hanif Ramay
Shazia Sikander
Suhail Ahmad
Zahoor ul Akhlaq
Zubeida Agha
Iqbal Hussain
Khalid Iqbal
Photographers
Farah Mahbub
Huma Mulji
Zaigham Zaidi
Tapu Javeri
Sarfaraz K. Niazi
Film and TV directors and documentary filmmakers
Aehsun Talish
Anwar Kamal Pasha
Farooq Rind
Kashif Nisar
Khwaja Khurshid Anwar
Nazar-ul-Islam
Riaz Shahid
Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy
Sabiha Sumar
Sarmad Sultan Khoosat
Shoaib Mansoor
Usman Peerzada
Yawar Hayat Khan
Visual effects
Muqeem Khan
Laraib Atta
Fashion designers
Amir Adnan
Deepak Perwani
Hassan Sheheryar Yasin
Junaid Jamshed
Kamiar Rokni
Omar Mansoor
Models
Aminah Haq
Humaima Malick
Iffat Rahim
Iman Ali
Imran Abbas
Mehreen Raheel
Reema Khan
Tooba Siddiqui
Vaneeza Ahmad
Zara Sheikh
Ayaan Ali
Journalists
Agha Shorish Kashmiri
Janbaz Mirza
Ansar Abbasi
Ahmad Faruqui
Ahmed Rashid
Ardeshir Cowasjee, columnist and businessman
Arman Sabir, journalist working for BBC; earlier he was associated with DAWN for several years
Asghar Ali Engineer
Hassan Nisar
Hameed Nizami
Imran Aslam
Irfan Husain, columnist
Javed Malik, journalist, working for ARY
Kamal Siddiqi
Kamran Khan, Geo TV
Khalid Hasan
Maliha Lodhi
Mazhar Ali Khan, journalist, editor and publisher
Mehmood Sham, columnist
Mishal Hussain
Muhammad Farooq
Murtaza Razvi
Nadeem Malik
PJ Mir, journalist working for ARY
Shahid Javed Burki
Shahid Mahmood, journalist working for ARY
Dr.Shahid Masood, journalist, ex-Chairman of Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV)
Sohail Warraich, anchor on Geo TV
Surendar Valasai
Syed Saleem Shahzad
Tahir Mirza
Talat Hussain, journalist working for AAJ TV
Zamir Niazi
Ian Fyfe, DAWN sports reporter
Khurram Zaki, journalist and TV host
Abdullah Malik (1920–2003), journalist, writer
Musicians
Abida Parveen
Amjad Sabri, Qawwal and Naat Khawan
Aaroh
Abrar-ul-Haq
Atif Aslam
Ali Azmat
Alam Lohar and Arif Lohar
Ahmed Rushdi, film song singer
Ali Zafar
Amanat Ali Khan, ghazal singer
Amjad Bobby, film music composer
Atif Aslam
Attaullah Khan Esakhelvi
Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, ghazal singer
Bohemia, rapper and music producer
Hadiqa Kiyani
Hamid Ali Khan, ghazal singer
Imran Khan, Punjabi singer
Khawaja Khurshid Anwar, film music composer
Mehdi Hassan, film singer
Masood Rana, film singer
Mustafa Zahid
Nadia Ali, singer
Naser Mestarihi, hard rock musician
Naseebo Lal, film singer
Nashad, film music composer
Nisar Bazmi, film music composer
Noor Jehan
Noori
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
Robin Ghosh, film music composer
Rahat Fateh Ali Khan
Rahim Shah
Rohail Hyatt
Sabri Brothers, qawwali musicians
Sahir Ali Bagga
Sajjad Ali
Shamim Nazli
Shehzad Roy
Salman Ahmad
Sohail Rana, film music composer
Sheraz Uppal
Waqar Ali
Zeb and Haniya
Alamgir, pop music singer
Ali Haider (singer)
Fakhir
Farida Khanum
Hadiqa Kiani
Jawad Ahmed
Junaid Jamshed
Jassi Lailpuria
Malika Pukhraj
Najam Sheraz
Nazia Hasan, pop singer
Zohaib Hasan
Tina Sani
S. B. John
Jassi Lailpuria
Ahmad Raza Khan
Siddiq Ismail
Khursheed Ahmad
Video jockeys
Anoushey Ashraf
Ayesha Omar
Mahira Khan
Architects
Kausar Bashir Ahmed
Nayyar Ali Dada
Habib Fida Ali
Abdur Rahman Hye
Yasmeen Lari
Umar Farooq
Nasreddin Murat-Khan
YouTubers
Amna Riaz
Mooroo
Muhammad Ali Mirza
Qasim Ali Shah
Sports
Squash
Jansher Khan, 8 time world open champion, 4 time super series champion, 6 time British champion
Aamir Atlas Khan
Farhan Mehboob
Hashim Khan, 8 time British champion
Jahangir Khan, 6 time world champion, 10 time British champion
Carla Khan
Mansoor Zaman
Qamar Zaman, British champion
Zaheer Abbas, legendary cricketeer
Athletics
John Permal, sprinter
Kamal Salman Masud, swimmer
Lianna Swan, swimmer
Kiran Khan, swimmer
Boxing
Muhammad Waseem, WBC Silver Flyweight Champion
Amir Khan, undisputed light-welterweight world champion
Hussain Shah
Jan Mohammad Baloch (1950-2012), Pakistani former olympian boxer, coach
Cricket
Imran Khan
Anil Dalpat
Imam-ul-Haq
Salman Butt
Asif Ali (cricketer, born 1989)
Asif Ali (cricketer, born 1991)
Shaheen Afridi
Nasir Jamshed
Javed Miandad
Abdul Hafeez Kardar
Mohammad Hafeez
Abdul Qadir
Abdul Razzaq
Aamer Sohail
Danish Kaneria
Fazal Mahmood
Faisal Iqbal
Fawad Alam
Hanif Mohammad
Imran Abbas
Imran Nazir
Inzamam-ul-Haq
Javed Burki
Junaid Khan
Kamran Akmal
Khan Mohammad
Majid Khan
Misbah-ul-Haq
Mohammad Amir
Mohammad Asif
Mohammad Yousuf
Moin Khan
Mushtaq Ahmed
Rashid Latif
Saeed Ajmal
Saeed Anwar
Saqlain Mushtaq
Sarfraz Ahmed
Sarfraz Nawaz
Sajjida Shah
Shahid Afridi
Sohail Tanvir
Shahid Khan Afridi
Shoaib Akhtar
Shoaib Malik
Umar Akmal
Umar Gul
Waqar Younis
Wasim Akram
Yasir Hameed
Yasir Shah
Younis Khan
Zaheer Abbas
Zahid Ahmed (cricketer)
Zahid Fazal
Babar Azam
Fakhar Zaman
E-sports
Syed Sumail Hassan
Field hockey
Hassan Sardar
Samiullah
Shahbaz Ahmad
Shahid Ali Khan
Sohail Abbas
Tahir Zaman
Samiullah Khan
Basit Ali
Mohammad Zahid
Shahnaz Sheikh
Islahuddin
Jack Britto
Imran Mayo
Mahmood-ul Hassan
Golf
Taimur Hussain
Sailing
Munir Sadiq
Snooker
Khurram Hussain Agha
Mohammed Yousuf
Naveen Perwani
Saleh Mohammed
Muhammad Asif
Tennis
Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi
Haroon Rahim
Football
Masood Fakhri
Muhammad Essa
Kaleemullah Khan
Qayyum Changezi
Moideen Kutty
Jaffar Khan
Qazi Ashfaq
Abdul Wahid Durrani
Abdul Ghafoor Majna
Zesh Rehman
Easah Suliman
Abdullah Iqbal
Abdullah Shah
Alamgir Ghazi
Otis Khan
Muhammad Waheed
Hassan Bashir
Saddam Hussain
Mountaineers
Ashraf Aman
Nazir Sabir
Hassan Sadpara
Meherban Karim
Samina Baig
Amir Mehdi
Abdul Jabbar Bhatti
Ali Sadpara
Skiing
Amina Wali
Mixed martial arts
Bashir Ahmad
Police officers
Chaudhry Aslam Khan
Safwat Ghayur
Malik Saad
Allah Dino Khawaja
Nasir Durrani
Moazzam Jah Ansari
Pushpa Kumari Kohli, first Hindu woman police officer in Pakistan
Militants
Abdul Rauf Azhar
Ajmal Kasab, 2008 Mumbai terrorist attack
Fazlullah
Ghazi Baba, mastermind of 2001 Delhi parliament attack
Hafiz Saeed
Hakimullah Mehsud
Ilyas Kashmiri, Al Qaeda operative
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, architect of 9/11
Malik Ishaq
Masood Azhar
Qari Hussain
Ramzi Yousef, convict in world trade centre bombing
Rashid Rauf
Riaz Basra
Sufi Muhammad
Wali-ur-Rehman
Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi
Other
Abdul Sattar Edhi, social worker
Aitzaz Hasan, schoolboy who died blocking a suicide bomber
Arfa Karim, computer prodigy
Malala Yousafzai, education activist
Zubeida Habib Rahimtoola, women's rights activist
Tooba Syed, feminist, political worker
Abdus Salam, Nobel Laureate
See also
List of Punjabi Muslims
List of Pashtuns
List of Sindhis
List of Muhajirs
List of Kashmiris
References
External links
|
416729
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allie%20Reynolds
|
Allie Reynolds
|
Allie Pierce Reynolds (February 10, 1917 – December 26, 1994) was an American professional baseball pitcher in Major League Baseball (MLB). Reynolds pitched in MLB for the Cleveland Indians (1942–1946) and New York Yankees (1947–1954). A member of the Creek nation, Reynolds was nicknamed "Superchief".
Reynolds attended Capitol Hill High School and the Oklahoma Agricultural & Mechanical College (A&M), where he was a multi-sport athlete. Henry Iba, baseball coach of the Oklahoma A&M baseball team, discovered Reynolds while he was practicing his javelin throws. After excelling at baseball and American football at Oklahoma A&M, Reynolds chose to turn professional in baseball.
In his MLB career, Reynolds had a 182–107 win–loss record, 3.30 earned run average, and 1,423 strikeouts. Reynolds was a six-time MLB All-Star (1945, 1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954) and six-time World Series champion (1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953). He won the Hickok Belt in 1951 as the top American professional athlete of the year. He has also received consideration for induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, though he has not been elected.
Early years
Reynolds was born on February 10, 1917, in Bethany, Oklahoma. His father was a preacher in the Church of the Nazarene. His mother was a member of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation and he also became enrolled. As a young child, he did not play baseball because his father did not approve of playing sports on Sundays. Reynolds threatened to run away from home if his father wouldn't let him play football; his father relented. Reynolds attended Capitol Hill High School in Oklahoma City, where he starred in American football as a quarterback and running back, and at track and field, where he excelled at the javelin throw and 100-yard dash. He played fast-pitch softball for his father's church team, which did not play on Sundays. There, he began dating Dale Earleane Jones, who was named Capitol Hill High School's most outstanding female athlete; she had previously dated Reynolds's younger brother. The couple married on July 7, 1935.
Oklahoma Agricultural & Mechanical College (A&M) provided Reynolds a scholarship to attend and participate in track. Reynolds also played on the football team. He majored in education and graduated with a lifetime certification to teach public school in Oklahoma. Henry Iba, coach of the baseball team, first noticed Reynolds when he was practicing his javelin throws. Iba asked Reynolds to throw batting practice while his pitchers recovered from sore arms. Without taking any warmup pitches, Reynolds struck out the first four batters without any making contact. Reynolds was the team's captain playing as an outfielder–pitcher during his senior year in 1938, and he led the team to victory in the state conference baseball championship. Reynolds was drafted by the New York Giants of the National Football League as a halfback. Since Reynolds preferred baseball to football, and believed he could earn more money playing baseball, he chose not to sign.
Minor leagues (1939–1942)
Iba was friends with Hugh Alexander, a scout who worked for the Cleveland Indians. After Iba recommended Reynolds, the Indians signed Reynolds as an amateur free agent for a $1,000 signing bonus ($ in current dollar terms). He was assigned to the Springfield Indians of the Class-C Middle Atlantic League. In 1940, he pitched for the Cedar Rapids Raiders of the Class-B Illinois–Indiana–Iowa League. Reynolds played right field for the Raiders when he wasn't pitching, as roster sizes were reduced to 17 as a result of the Great Depression. The Indians wanted to convert Reynolds to catcher due to his athleticism, but Reynolds refused to change positions.
Reynolds started the 1941 season with the Wilkes-Barre Barons of the Class-A Eastern League, but was demoted to Cedar Rapids after three appearances. Becoming increasingly homesick and not wanting to spend his entire professional career in the minor leagues, Reynolds considered retiring after the 1942 season if he did not get promoted to the majors. In 1942, Reynolds went 18–7 with a 1.56 earned run average (ERA), 11 shutouts, 21 complete games, and 193 strikeouts in 231 innings pitched, earning a promotion to the major leagues to finish the 1942 season.
Major league career
Cleveland Indians (1942–1946)
Reynolds appeared in his first major league game on September 17, 1942, making two relief appearances for the Indians that season. With ace Bob Feller serving in the military during World War II, the Indians hoped that Reynolds would star for the Indians. Reynolds took a pre-enlistment physical, but due to his family and football injuries, he did not enlist in the military and was not eligible to be drafted.
He began the 1943 season in the Indians' bullpen, making his first start on June 20. Indians player-manager Lou Boudreau used Reynolds as a reliever in between starts due to his resiliency. Reynolds led the American League (AL) in strikeouts in 1943 with 151 and hits allowed per nine innings pitched with 6.34; however, he was third in walks allowed with 109. Reynolds led the AL in walks with 130 in 1945.
During his five years with the Indians he was primarily used as a starting pitcher, although he did display the versatility that would become his hallmark. He pitched in 139 games for the Indians, starting 100 and finishing 27. Early evidence of his versatility is demonstrated by his 41 complete games, 9 shutouts and 8 saves.
New York Yankees (1947–1954)
On October 11, 1946, Reynolds was traded to the New York Yankees for second baseman Joe Gordon. A possible trade was speculated throughout the 1946 season. The Yankees had a wealth of infield talent, but needed pitching help. The Indians were managed by player-manager Lou Boudreau who played shortstop, but they needed help at second base. Cleveland wanted Gordon and offered the Yankees any pitcher on their staff, with the exception of Bob Feller. Yankee executive Larry MacPhail discussed the potential trade with Yankees star Joe DiMaggio. Though MacPhail initially wanted Red Embree, DiMaggio replied: "Take Reynolds. I'm a fastball hitter, but he can buzz his hard one by me any time he has a mind to."
He promptly became the Yankees' best pitcher, recording the highest winning percentage in the AL in his first season as a Yankee. In 1949, joined by Vic Raschi and Eddie Lopat, he was a star of a Yankee team that won the first of five consecutive league championships, a feat that had never been achieved before. He played many important roles for those teams. In his first six years with the Yankees he averaged over 232 innings, 17.5 wins, and 14 complete games. As a swingman, he averaged 26 games started and 9 games finished per season.
In 1950, Reynolds won 16 games, even though he pitched with bone chips in his elbow for the entire season. His remarkable 1951 season began under very difficult conditions. Floating chips in his elbow prevented him from throwing a single pitch in spring training. He was resigned to having surgery which would have cost him at least half of the season. Dr. George Bennett of Johns Hopkins University recommended against surgery. Reynolds appeared in his first game one week after the season started.
On July 12 and September 28, 1951, Reynolds threw no-hitters. He was the first American League pitcher to throw two no-hitters in a season and only the second player to do so in baseball history, after Johnny Vander Meer threw consecutive no-hitters in 1938. This is still the major league record for most no-hitters in a single season, a record that he and Vander Meer share with Virgil Trucks (1952), Nolan Ryan (1973), Roy Halladay (2010), and Max Scherzer (2015).
His first no-hitter, on July 12, 1951, was a 1–0 defeat of his former team, the Indians. Gene Woodling's solo home run was the only run scored during the game. Reynolds retired the last 17 Indians he faced. Only four Indians reached base; he walked three and Bobby Ávila reached on an error by Phil Rizzuto. It was his third shutout of Cleveland that season. Bob Feller also threw a strong game and didn't allow a hit until the sixth inning, when Mickey Mantle doubled. Feller threw a complete game and allowed only four hits. Feller had thrown a no-hitter eleven days earlier.
His second no-hitter, on September 28, 1951, was an 8–0 defeat of the Boston Red Sox which allowed the Yankees to clinch at least a tie of the American League pennant. The Yankees clinched the pennant in the second half of the September 28 double-header. Reynolds struck out nine hitters. He walked four, but "not one Boston batter seemed close to getting a hit". With two outs in the ninth inning, Ted Williams hit a pop fly to Yankees catcher Yogi Berra. Berra dropped the ball and prolonged the at bat against the dangerous Williams. Reynolds remained calm, telling Berra, "Don't worry Yogi, we'll get him again." Reynolds was correct and Williams once again popped up, but Berra caught this one. In the spring of 1953, Stengel made Reynolds predominantly a reliever, although he notched 15 starts and 5 complete games, because of Reynolds' ability to pitch without much rest and to use his blazing fastball late in the Yankees' afternoon games when the shadows crept over the mound. However, Reynolds injured his back in July when the team bus was on the way to the train station after a game in Philadelphia—robbing Reynolds of his control. During the '53 World Series—his final one—Reynolds started the opener at home and struggled because of his back injury, but recovered to appear in two more as a reliever—winning the sixth and final game of the Series.
Reynolds led the AL in shutouts in 1951 with seven. In 1952, he had his greatest single season performance. He won twenty games for the only time in his career (against eight losses). He led the American League in earned run average (2.06), strikeouts (160), and shutouts (6). He also saved six games.
He also played in the MLB All-Star Games of 1949, 50, 52, 53, and 54 (no official All-Star selection or game was held in 1945). With the Yankees, Reynolds reached the World Series in 1947, 49, 50, 51, 52, and 53. Reynolds had a 7–2 record with a 2.79 ERA over 77 innings in the World Series. He made six relief appearances in the World Series, recording a win or save in each of them, including the clinching games of the 1950, 1952 and 1953 series. He also batted .308 in 26 at-bats in his World Series appearances.
Reynolds won the Hickok Belt as the top professional athlete of the year in 1951. He also was voted the Player Of Year in 1951 by the New York chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America, and finished third in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player Award, behind Berra and Ned Garver of the St. Louis Browns. In 1952, he was the MVP runner-up to Bobby Shantz of the Philadelphia Athletics.
Reynolds suffered a back injury when the Yankees' charter bus crashed into an overpass in Philadelphia during the 1953 season. He retired after the following season as a result of the injury.
Nickname
David Dupree explained a common view of how he was given the nickname, Superchief, "he was part Creek Indian and always in command on the pitching mound." At this time it was very common for baseball players with Native American heritage to be called 'Chief'. Jeffrey Powers-Beck explains that in the early half of the 20th century, "it appeared virtually impossible for a baseball player of admitted native origin to be known popularly as anything but "Chief".
Former teammate and American League President Bobby Brown noted his heritage and a popular railroad influenced the baseball media to use the nickname, "But for some of you too young to remember, the Santa Fe Railroad at that time had a crack train (called the Super Chief) that ran from California to Chicago, and it was known for its elegance, its power and its speed. We always felt the name applied to Allie for the same reasons."
Brown notes that Reynolds was not comfortable with the nickname because of the importance of the 'chief' title. He also explained that his teammates called him Chief. "When we talked with him, we called him Allie... But when he wasn't in the room, he was referred to as the Chief, because we felt he was the one at the top, the real leader."
Honors
The Yankees dedicated a plaque in Reynolds' honor, to hang in Monument Park at Yankee Stadium on August 26, 1989. Reynolds was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame in 1986. Oklahoma State renamed their baseball stadium after Reynolds.
In 1993, Reynolds received the Jim Thorpe Lifetime Achievement Award from the Jim Thorpe Association. The association established the "Allie P. Reynolds Award" in 1998. It is presented annually to the Oklahoma "high school senior who best reflects the spirit of Allie Reynolds by maintaining the highest standards in scholarship, leadership, civic contributions and character".
Baseball Hall of Fame candidacy
When Reynolds was eligible for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers' Association of America, his highest vote percentage was 33.6% in the 1968 balloting, short of the 75 percent required for election. That year, he finished ahead of future Hall of Famers Arky Vaughan, Pee Wee Reese, Phil Rizzuto, George Kell, Hal Newhouser, Bob Lemon, and Bobby Doerr.
Reynolds was named as one of the ten former players that began their careers before 1943 to be considered by the Hall of Fame's Veterans Committee for induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2009. He received eight votes, one shy of the nine votes required for election. Reynolds was on the new Golden Era Committee ballot in 2011 for 2012, (replaced the Veterans Committee) receiving fewer than three votes (12 votes are required for election to the Hall of Fame). The Committee meets and votes every three years on ten candidates selected from the 1947 to 1972 era. He was not a candidate in 2014 (none were elected by the committee).
Rob Neyer, in evaluating Reynolds' candidacy, believes Reynolds was "probably as good" as Jesse Haines, Lefty Gomez and Waite Hoyt, who have all been inducted into the Hall of Fame. However, he added that "they're all marginals." Adapting Bill James' sabermetric statistic known as win shares, Dr. Michael Hoban, a professor emeritus of mathematics at City University of New York, found that Reynolds falls short of his threshold for induction, and scored lower than Haines and Gomez.
On November 5, 2021, he was selected to the final ballot for the Baseball Hall of Fame's Early Days Committee for consideration in the Class of 2022. He received six of the necessary twelve votes.
Post-playing career
Reynolds became a successful oil businessman after his playing career. He began investing in oil wells during his playing career.
Despite retiring, Reynolds was allowed to remain a member of the Major League Baseball Players Association. He served as the American League player representative in the negotiations with owners to create the players' pension plan. He later sued administrators of the pension plan in federal court for "whittling away" the rights of retired players.
In 1969, Reynolds was named the President of the American Association, a Class AAA baseball league. The Association had been dormant for the previous six years. Reynolds served as president until 1971, when he resigned to spend more time with his family and due to competing business interests. He was also the President of the National Hall of Fame for Famous American Indians in Anadarko, Oklahoma, from 1978 until his death.
Reynolds was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1991.
Reynolds died in Oklahoma City due to complications of lymphoma and diabetes. He was survived by a son, a daughter, eight grandchildren and ten great-grandchildren.
See also
References
Bibliography
Inline citations
External links
Baseball Almanac page
1917 births
1994 deaths
American League All-Stars
American League ERA champions
American League strikeout champions
Cleveland Indians players
New York Yankees players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from Oklahoma
Springfield Indians (baseball) players
Cedar Rapids Raiders players
Wilkes-Barre Barons (baseball) players
Oklahoma State Cowboys baseball players
Muscogee (Creek) Nation people
Deaths from lymphoma
Deaths from diabetes
Deaths from cancer in Oklahoma
20th-century Native Americans
|
416737
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Alabama
|
List of people from Alabama
|
This is a listing of notable people born in, or notable for their association with the U.S. state of Alabama.
A
Hank Aaron, Hall of Fame Major League Baseball player (Mobile)
Ralph Abernathy, civil rights leader, Baptist Minister (Linden)
Act of Congress musical group
Austin Adams, MLB pitcher, Cleveland Indians (Montgomery)
Mario Addison, NFL player, Carolina Panthers (Birmingham)
Robert Aderholt, representative from Alabama's 4th congressional district since 1997 (Haleyville)
Tommie Agee, MLB player (Magnolia)
Tommie Agee, former NFL player, Dallas Cowboys (Maplesville)
Daniel Alarcón, novelist (Birmingham)
David Donald Albritton, Olympic medalist and politician (Danville)
Doyle Alexander, MLB player (Cordova)
Chalmers Alford, musician (Huntsville)
James B. Allen, U.S. senator (1969–1978) (Gadsden)
Jason Allen, NFL player (Muscle Shoals)
Jonathan Allen, NFL player, Washington Commanders (Anniston)
Maryon Pittman Allen, U.S. senator (1978) (Gadsden and Birmingham)
Mel Allen, sportscaster, Alabama football and New York Yankees (Birmingham)
Viola Allen, stage actress (Huntsville)
Bobby Allison, NASCAR driver (Hueytown)
Davey Allison, NASCAR driver (Hueytown)
David Allison, professor at University of Alabama at Birmingham (Birmingham)
Donnie Allison, NASCAR driver (Hueytown)
John Amari, circuit judge and former member of both houses of the Alabama legislature (Trussville)
Mary Anderson, actress (Birmingham)
Ray Anderson, boxer (Anniston)
Glenn Andrews, U.S. representative (1965–1967) (Anniston)
Ivy Andrews, MLB player (Dora)
Sheila Andrews, country music singer (Athens)
John Archibald, Pulitzer-prize-winning journalist, author (Birmingham)
Anthony J. Arduengo, III, chemist, material scientist, professor at University of Alabama (Tuscaloosa)
R.G. Armstrong, actor (Birmingham)
Lloyd Austin, Secretary of Defense nominee (Mobile, Alabama)
Ethel Ayler, actress (Whistler)
B
Spencer Bachus, representative from Alabama's 6th congressional district 1993–2015 (Vestavia Hills)
Mary Badham, actress (Birmingham)
David Baker, activist (Anniston)
Locy Baker, Alabama House of Representatives 1994–2010 (Abbeville)
Hank Ballard, singer (Bessemer)
Tallulah Bankhead, actress (Jasper)
Charles Barkley, Hall of Fame basketball player, television commentator (Leeds)
Reggie Barlow, NFL wide receiver, college football coach (Montgomery)
Desi Barmore (born 1960), American-Israeli basketball player
Mark Barron, NFL player, St. Louis Rams (Mobile)
Inez Baskin, African American journalist and civil rights activist (Florala)
Cynthia Bathurst, animal activist, founder of Safe Humane Chicago and the Court Case Dog Program
Bill Baxley, lieutenant governor (Dothan)
Lucy Baxley, lieutenant governor (2003–2007) (Vestavia Hills)
Colter Bean, former MLB player, New York Yankees (Birmingham)
Paul Bearer, WWE manager and wrestling promoter (Mobile)
Jere Beasley, born in Tyler, Texas, lieutenant governor (1971–1979) (Clayton)
Killer Beaz (born Truett Beasley Jr.), stand-up comedian (Andalusia)
Scott Beason, Alabama state senator (2006–2014) (Hartselle)
Barry Beckett, keyboardist, composer, record producer, original member of Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section (Muscle Shoals)
Ann Bedsole, member of both houses, consecutively, of the Alabama State Legislature 1979 to 1995 (Mobile)
Regina Benjamin, Surgeon General of the United States (Mobile)
Earl Bennett, NFL wide receiver (Birmingham)
Amber Benson, actress (Birmingham)
Bo Bice, singer, American Idol runner-up (Huntsville)
Michael Biehn, actor (Anniston)
James Gillespie Birney (1792–1857), planter, attorney, abolitionist (Huntsville)
Sanford Bishop, U.S. representative from Georgia's 2nd congressional district (Mobile)
Hugo Black, U.S. senator, United States Supreme Court justice (Harlan)
Lucas Black, actor (Speake)
Thomas Edwin Blanton Jr., white supremacist and co-conspirator in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing (Birmingham)
Eric Bledsoe, NBA player, Milwaukee Bucks (Birmingham)
Winton Blount, businessman, U.S. postmaster general (1969–1972) (Union Springs)
Michael Boley, NFL linebacker (Gadsden)
Jo Bonner, representative from Alabama's 1st congressional district (2003–2013) (Mobile)
Neil Bonnett, NASCAR driver (Hueytown)
Margaret Boozer, sculptor (Anniston)
Young Boozer, state treasurer (Montgomery)
Stephen "tWitch" Boss, freestyle hip-hop dancer, entertainer, and actor (Montgomery)
Th-resa Bostick, IFBB professional bodybuilder (Birmingham)
Albert Boutwell, lieutenant governor (1959–1963), mayor of Birmingham (1963–1967) (Birmingham)
Bobby Bowden, college football coach, Florida State (Birmingham)
Larry Bowie, former NFL player, Washington Redskins (Anniston)
Frank W. Boykin, former U.S. representative (Bladon Springs)
Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise, music group (Evergreen)
Rick Bragg, Pulitzer Prize-winning author (Possum Trot)
Debbie Bramwell-Washington, IFBB professional bodybuilder (Birmingham)
Jeff Brantley, MLB player, ESPN sportscaster
Albert P. Brewer, governor (1968–1971) (Birmingham)
Jeff Briggs, businessman, video game pioneer (Florence)
Bobby Bright, mayor of Montgomery (1999–2009), representative from Alabama's 2nd congressional district (2009–2011) (Montgomery)
Eric Brock, former NFL player (Alexander City)
David G. Bronner, CEO for Retirement Systems of Alabama (Montgomery), born in Cresco, Iowa
Mo Brooks, representative from Alabama's 5th congressional district since 2011 (Huntsville)
Janice Rogers Brown, U.S. Court of Appeals judge (Luverne)
Jerry Dolyn Brown, folk artist, traditional potter (Hamilton)
Johnny Mack Brown, football player for Alabama, actor (Dothan)
Mary Ward Brown, short story writer and memoirist, (Hamburg)
Michael Brown, astronomer (Huntsville)
Roger Brown, artist, member of the Chicago Imagists (Hamilton)
Paul "Bear" Bryant, iconic coach of Alabama football, born in Camden, Arkansas (Tuscaloosa)
John Hall Buchanan Jr., representative from Alabama's 6th congressional district (1965–1981) (Birmingham and thereafter Bethesda, Maryland)
Jimmy Buffett, singer-songwriter (Mobile), born in Pascagoula, Mississippi
Bill Burgess, college football head coach, Jacksonville State (Birmingham)
Edward M. Burgess, chemist (Birmingham), inventor of the Burgess reagent
Edward A. Burkhalter, admiral, United States Navy, Chief of Naval Intelligence, Chief of Staff, Defense Intelligence Agency (Roanoke)
Brett Butler, actress (Montgomery)
Keith Butler, NFL coach, Pittsburgh Steelers (Anniston)
Pat Buttram, actor (Addison)
Larry Byrom, rock music guitarist, Steppenwolf (Huntsville)
C
Matt Cain, baseball player, San Francisco Giants (Dothan)
Antoine Caldwell, NFL player, Houston Texans (Montgomery)
Sonny Callahan, representative from Alabama's 1st congressional district (1985–2003) (Mobile)
Julia Campbell, actress (Huntsville)
Eli Capilouto, twelfth president of the University of Kentucky (Montgomery)
Truman Capote, author of In Cold Blood, born in Louisiana (Monroeville)
Robert Daniel Carmichael, mathematician (born in Goodwater)
Edward Earl Carnes, judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (Albertville)
DeMarre Carroll, NBA player, Brooklyn Nets (Birmingham)
Clarence Carter, soul singer and musician (Montgomery)
Forrest Carter, writer
Jonathan Carter, former NFL player (Anniston)
Nell Carter, actress, singer (Birmingham)
George Washington Carver, scientist, botanist, born in Diamond, Missouri (Tuskegee)
Herman Frank Cash, white supremacist and co-conspirator in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing (Birmingham)
Tim Castille, NFL player, Kansas City Chiefs (Birmingham)
Reg E. Cathey, actor (Huntsville)
Quinton Caver, former NFL player (Anniston)
Robert Edward Chambliss, white supremacist and co-conspirator in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing (Birmingham)
Hosea Chanchez, actor (Montgomery)
Josh Chapman, NFL defensive lineman, Indianapolis Colts (Hoover)
Teresa Cheatham, Miss Alabama 1978 (Wellington)
Elaine Cheris (born 1946), Olympic fencer
Bobby Frank Cherry, white supremacist and co-conspirator in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing (Birmingham)
Fred Child, host of American Public Media's Performance Today (Huntsville)
Mark Childress, writer (Monroeville)
Stewart Cink, professional golfer (Huntsville)
Bill Clark, college football head coach, University of Alabama (Piedmont)
Bob Clark, actor, director, screenwriter (Birmingham)
Jeremy Clark, NFL player, Dallas Cowboys (Daphne)
Mattie Moss Clark, gospel artist, mother of gospel group The Clark Sisters (Selma)
Clever, rapper (Gadsden)
Nat King Cole, singer (Montgomery)
Ronnie Coleman, football player, Alabama A&M and NFL's Houston Oilers (Jasper)
Marva Collins, educator (Monroeville)
Commodores, funk/soul band (Tuskegee, Alabama)
Fred Cone, football player for Clemson and NFL's Green Bay Packers, Dallas Cowboys (Pine Apple)
Bull Connor, politician who opposed the activities of the Civil Rights Movement (Selma)
Jared Cook, NFL player, St. Louis Rams (Birmingham)
Jeff Cook, country music guitarist, Alabama (Fort Payne)
Tim Cook, CEO of Apple Inc. (Robertsdale)
Algernon J. Cooper, former Mayor of Prichard, Alabama (Mobile)
Charles J. Cooper, former Assistant United States Attorney General (Birmingham)
Miles Copeland Jr., musician, CIA officer (Birmingham)
Jerricho Cotchery, NFL player, Carolina Panthers (Birmingham)
DeMarcus Cousins, basketball player, Golden State Warriors (Mobile)
Dennis Covington, author (Birmingham)
Courteney Cox, actress (Mountain Brook)
Tony Cox, actor (Uniontown)
Clayne Crawford, actor (Clay)
Rick Crawford, NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series driver (Mobile)
Julia Pleasants Creswell, poet, novelist (Huntsville)
Howard Cross, football player for Alabama and NFL's New York Giants (Owens Cross Roads)
Ashley Crow, actress (Birmingham)
Brodie Croyle, NFL player, Kansas City Chiefs (Rainbow City)
Korey Cunningham, NFL player, New England Patriots (Montevallo)
Michael Curry, NBA coach, Philadelphia 76ers (Anniston)
D
Marcell Dareus, NFL player, Buffalo Bills (Birmingham)
Angela Davis, communist activist (Birmingham)
Artur Davis, representative from Alabama's 7th congressional district (2003–2011) (Birmingham)
Mollie Evelyn Moore Davis, poet, writer, educator (Talladega)
N. Jan Davis, astronaut, born in Cocoa Beach, Florida (Huntsville)
Russ Davis, baseball player (Birmingham)
Tae Davis, NFL player, New York Giants (Oxford)
Felicia Day, actress, writer, director, violinist, and singer (Huntsville)
Joe Dawson, American-Israeli basketball player, 1992 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP
Grant Dayton, baseball player (Huntsville)
Oscar Stanton De Priest, U.S. Congressman from Illinois, civil rights advocate (Florence)
Morris Dees, founder of Southern Poverty Law Center (Montgomery)
Sam Dees, soul music singer (Birmingham)
Diana DeGarmo, American Idol contestant (Birmingham)
David L. DeJarnette, influential archaeologist (Bessemer)
Jeremiah Denton, prisoner of war in Vietnam, U.S. Senator (1981–1987) (Mobile)
Donna D'Errico, actress (Dothan)
James Deshler, Confederate brigadier general (Tuscumbia)
Quinton Dial, NFL player, San Francisco 49ers (Andalusia)
Kim Dickens, actress (Huntsville)
Chris Dickerson, bodybuilder (Montgomery)
Mahala Ashley Dickerson, lawyer (Montgomery)
Parnell Dickinson, NFL quarterback, Tampa Bay Buccaneers (Brighton)
William Louis Dickinson, representative from Alabama's 2nd congressional district (1965 to 1993) (Montgomery)
Oliver W. Dillard, military leader (Margaret)
Larry Dixon, state representative and state senator, Oklahoma native (Montgomery)
Larry Donnell, football player, New York Giants (Ozark)
Vince Dooley, football coach (Mobile)
Nic Dowd, ice hockey player (Huntsville)
Deidre Downs, 2005 Miss America (Pelham)
John Drew, NBA player, Atlanta Hawks Utah Jazz (Vredenburgh)
DSharp, violinist, DJ (Anniston)
Erwin Dudley, basketball player (Uniontown)
Benjamin Minge Duggar, botanist, discoverer of tetracycline (Gallion)
Luther Duncan, 4-H pioneer, educator and administrator (Auburn)
Alan Dunn, MLB bullpen coach, Baltimore Orioles (Gadsden)
E
Bobby Eaton, pro wrestler (Huntsville)
Annie Easley, mathematician and rocket scientist (Birmingham)
Cleveland Eaton, jazz bassist (Birmingham)
Dennis Edwards, soul music singer (Birmingham)
Jack Edwards, state representative (1965–85) (Mobile)
Joe F. Edwards Jr., astronaut, born in Richmond, Virginia (Roanoke and Lineville)
Carl Elliott, state representative (1949–65) (Jasper)
Jake Elmore, MLB player, Tampa Bay Rays (Pleasant Grove)
Trae Elston, football player (Anniston)
Eric Esch, a.k.a. Butterbean, boxer (Jasper)
James Reese Europe, bandleader, composer (Mobile)
Rodney J. Evans, Medal of Honor recipient (Florala)
Terry Everett, state representative (1993–09) (Enterprise)
F
Nick Fairley, NFL defensive lineman, St. Louis Rams (Mobile)
Red Farmer, former NASCAR driver (Hueytown)
Paul Finebaum, columnist, author, radio personality, born in Memphis
Howard Finster, folk artist (Valley Head)
Zelda Fitzgerald, writer (Montgomery)
Fannie Flagg, author and actress (Birmingham)
Louise Fletcher, Oscar-winning actress (Birmingham)
Richmond Flowers Jr., football player (Dothan)
Richmond Flowers, Sr., attorney general and activist (Dothan)
Trey Flowers, NFL defensive end, New England Patriots (Huntsville)
Vonetta Flowers, Olympic gold medalist in bobsled, 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics (Birmingham)
Wayne Flynt, editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia of Alabama (Auburn)
Emory Folmar, mayor of Montgomery (1977–1999), Republican gubernatorial nominee in 1982 (Montgomery)
James Folsom Jr., governor (1993–1995), lieutenant governor (1987–1993 and 2007–2011) (Cullman)
Jim Folsom, governor (1947–1951 and 1955–1959) (Cullman)
Dee Ford, NFL player, Kansas City Chiefs (Odenville)
Joe Forehand, CEO of First Data (Alexander City)
George Foster, MLB player (Tuscaloosa)
Reuben Foster, NFL player, Washington Football Team (Roanoke)
Jalston Fowler, NFL player, Tennessee Titans (Mobile)
Melvin Franklin, soul music singer (Montgomery)
Chris Fryar, drummer for Zac Brown Band (Birmingham)
G
Noah Galloway, former United States Army soldier and contestant on Dancing with the Stars season 20 (Birmingham)
Oscar Gamble, Major League Baseball outfielder (Ramer)
Pat Garrett, sheriff of Lincoln County, New Mexico, killed Billy the Kid (Cusseta)
A.G. Gaston, businessman, civil rights activist (Birmingham)
Betty Lou Gerson, voice actress, "Cruella de Vil" of One Hundred and One Dalmatians (Birmingham)
Charles Ghigna, poet, author (Homewood)
Robert Gibbs, press secretary for President Barack Obama (Auburn)
Kenneth A. Gibson, first black mayor of major eastern city (Newark, New Jersey, 1970–1986) (Enterprise)
Kenneth R. Giddens, director of Voice of America, TV and radio station founder (Pine Apple)
Wallace Gilberry, NFL defensive end, Cincinnati Bengals (Bay Minette)
Horace Gillom, NFL player, Cleveland Browns (Roanoke)
Samuel Ginn, pioneer in wireless communications industry (Anniston)
Brian Ginsberg (born 1966), gymnast, two-time US junior national gymnastics champion
Mark Gitenstein, former U.S. Ambassador to Romania (Florala)
Mickell Gladness, NBA player, Miami Heat (Sylacauga)
Harvey Glance, track and field athlete (Phenix City)
Walton Goggins, actor (Birmingham)
Eli Gold, sportscaster, born in New York (Birmingham)
William Lee Golden, country music singer, The Oak Ridge Boys (East Brewton)
Bobby Goldsboro, singer (Dothan)
Tina Gordon, NASCAR driver (Cedar Bluff)
William C. Gorgas, U. S. Army Surgeon General (Mobile)
Vern Gosdin, country and gospel singer (Woodland)
Mike Gottfried, former college football coach, ESPN commentator (Mobile)
Charles Graddick, judge and Attorney General of Alabama (1975–1983) (Mobile)
Beth Grant, actress (Gadsden)
John Grass, college football coach, Jacksonville State University (Ashville)
Kendall Graveman, MLB player, Oakland A's (Alexander City)
Chris Gray, NFL player (Homewood)
Floride Green, photographer (Eutaw or Mobile)
Hank Green, vlogger and musician (Birmingham)
Leamon Green, visual artist (Anniston)
Urbie Green, jazz trombonist (Mobile)
Frances Nimmo Greene, educator and author (Tuscaloosa)
Kevin Greene, NFL player (Anniston), born in Schenectady, New York
Rusty Greer, MLB player, Texas Rangers (Albertville)
John Grenier, Republican politician (Birmingham)
Parker Griffith, representative from Alabama's 5th congressional district (2009–2011) (Huntsville)
David G. Grimes, insurance agent, Republican politician (Montgomery)
Dexter Grimsley, Alabama House of Representative since 2010 (Abbeville)
Steve Grissom, NASCAR driver (Gadsden)
Winston Groom, author of Forrest Gump (Fairhope)
Gabe Gross, MLB player, Oakland A's (Dothan)
Lafayette Guild, pioneer in research of yellow fever (Tuscaloosa)
Marquies Gunn, former NFL player (Alexander City)
Annabelle Gurwitch, actress (Mobile)
H
Rick Hall, record producer (Muscle Shoals)
Mary Katharine Ham, journalist, video blogger, Fox News contributor (Montgomery)
Mia Hamm, soccer player, Olympic and World Cup champion (Selma)
Chris Hammond, MLB pitcher (Vestavia Hills)
Cully Hamner, comic book artist and writer
Lionel Hampton, jazz musician (Birmingham)
Jon Hand, football player (Sylacauga)
W. C. Handy, jazz composer (Florence)
Charley Hannah, former NFL player (Albertville)
John Hannah, Hall of Fame football player, Alabama and NFL's New England Patriots, born in Georgia (Albertville)
John M. Harbert, billionaire businessman (construction, investments, coal mining properties) (Mountain Brook)
Marguerite Harbert, billionaire heiress (Mountain Brook)
George Hardy, actor, Troll 2 (Alexander City)
James Harman, singer (Anniston)
Roman Harper, NFL player, Carolina Panthers (Prattville)
Emmylou Harris, singer (Birmingham)
William R. Harvey, president of Hampton University (Brewton)
Gustav Hasford, writer, screenwriter (Russellville)
Erskine Hawkins, jazz composer (Birmingham)
George C. Hawkins, member of both houses of the Alabama legislature (Gadsden)
Alexander T. Hawthorn, Confederate States Army general (Conecuh County)
Glenn Hearn, mayor of Huntsville, Alabama, FBI special agent, Alabama legislator (Albertville)
Howell Heflin, Chief Justice, Alabama Supreme Court, United States Senator (1979–1997), born in Poulan, Georgia (Tuscumbia)
Kurt Heinecke, music composer, songwriter, voice actor, photographer (Cullman)
John S. Hendricks, founder, chair and CEO of Discovery Networks (Huntsville)
Richard Hendrix, basketball player (Athens)
Alexis Herman, former Secretary of Labor (Mobile)
Will Herring, NFL player, New Orleans Saints (Opelika)
Jake Hess, gospel quartet singer (Haleyville)
Taylor Hicks, singer, American Idol winner 2006 (Hoover)
Harlon Hill, football player, Chicago Bears (Killen)
Howard Hill, professional archer and stunt archer for films (Wilsonville)
J. Lister Hill, United States Senator (1938–1969) (Montgomery)
Sammie Lee Hill, football player, Detroit Lions (West Blocton)
Joe Hilley, author (Grand Bay)
Brent Hinds, singer, guitarist, Mastodon (Pelham)
Eddie Hinton, musician (Birmingham)
Sylvia Hitchcock, Miss USA and Miss Universe 1967 (Tuscaloosa)
Chandler Hoffman, Major League Soccer player, Los Angeles Galaxy (Birmingham)
Robert Hoffman, actor (Madison)
Bill Holbrook, syndicated comic strip artist (Huntsville)
Mitch Holleman, actor, Reba (Auburn)
Lonnie Holley, artist (Birmingham)
Polly Holliday, actress (Jasper)
Fred Nall Hollis, artist (Troy)
Condredge Holloway, CFL player (Huntsville)
Hardcore Holly, WWE star (Mobile)
Cliff Holman, television personality (Mobile)
Evander Holyfield, World Heavyweight Championship boxer (Atmore)
Perry O. Hooper Jr., member of the Alabama House of Representatives 1984–2003 (Montgomery)
Perry O. Hooper, Sr., former chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, first Republican to hold that office (Montgomery)
Robert Horry, basketball player (Andalusia)
Hunter Horton, disc golf player (Chelsea)
Frank House, baseball player and legislator (Bessemer)
Brittany Howard, musician (Athens, Alabama)
Jordan Howard, football player (Gardendale)
Linda Howard, romance writer (Gadsden)
Glenn Howerton, actor (Montgomery)
Freeman A. Hrabowski III, academic, university president (Birmingham)
Cooper Huckabee, actor (Mobile)
Delvin Lamar Hughley, former football player, Colorado Crush (Anniston)
William Bradford Huie, journalist, author (Hartselle)
Bobby Humphrey, former NFL player (Birmingham)
Guy Hunt, governor (1987–1993) (Cullman)
Alan Hunter, original MTV VeeJay (Birmingham)
Zora Neale Hurston, author (Notasulga)
I
Osmond Kelly Ingram, Gunner's Mate First Class, U.S. Navy, WWI Medal of Honor recipient (Oneonta)
Kay Ivey, politician and current governor (Camden)
J
Bo Jackson, multi-sport athlete (Bessemer)
Kate Jackson, actress (Birmingham)
Katherine Jackson, mother of the Jackson 5 (Barbour County)
Tarvaris Jackson, NFL player (Montgomery)
Henry James, former NBA player
Sonny James, country music singer (Hackleburg)
Mae C. Jemison, astronaut (Decatur)
Desmond Jennings, MLB player, Tampa Bay Rays (Birmingham)
Jerrel Jernigan, NFL player, New York Giants (Eufaula)
Brandon Johnson, former NFL player (Birmingham)
Frank Minis Johnson, federal judge (Haleyville)
Jamey Johnson, country music singer (Montgomery)
Lonnie Johnson, inventor (Mobile)
Michael Johnson, NFL player, Cincinnati Bengals (Selma)
Nico Johnson, former NFL player (Andalusia)
Rashad Johnson, NFL defensive back, Arizona Cardinals (Sulligent)
Samuel E. Johnson, businessman (Birmingham)
Christion Jones, football player (Adamsville)
Dean Jones, actor (Decatur)
Don Jones, NFL player, San Francisco 49ers (Town Creek, Alabama)
Julio Jones, NFL player, Atlanta Falcons (Foley)
Orlando Jones, actor (Mobile)
Robbie Jones, NFL player, New York Giants (Demopolis)
Walter Jones, NFL Hall of Famer, Seattle Seahawks (Aliceville)
Lee Roy Jordan, football player, Alabama and NFL's Dallas Cowboys (Excel)
Ralph "Shug" Jordan, football coach, Auburn University (Selma)
Tom Joyner, radio personality (Tuskegee)
Percy Lavon Julian, research chemist (Montgomery)
K
JJ Kaplan (born 1997), American-Israeli basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Helen Keller, author and activist (Tuscumbia)
Eddie Kendricks, soul music singer (Union Springs)
Jimmy Key, MLB pitcher (Huntsville)
Caitlín R. Kiernan, author (Birmingham)
Craig Kimbrel, MLB pitcher, Atlanta Braves (Huntsville)
Alveda King, minister, anti-abortion activist, author (Birmingham)
Brandon King, NFL safety, New England Patriots (Alabaster)
Coretta Scott King, civil rights leader (Marion)
Martin Luther King Jr., civil rights activist, lived in Alabama in the mid-1950s (Montgomery)
Reggie King, former NBA player (Birmingham)
Troy King, state attorney general (2004–2011) (Montgomery)
William R. King, United States Senator from Alabama (1848–1852), 13th Vice President under President Franklin Pierce (1853–1853) (born in Sampson County, North Carolina)
Woodie King Jr., director, producer (Baldwin Springs)
Dre Kirkpatrick, NFL cornerback, Cincinnati Bengals (Gadsden)
Freddie Kitchens, University of Alabama quarterback, NFL head coach of Cleveland Browns (Gadsden)
Corey Kluber, MLB pitcher, Cleveland Indians (Birmingham)
Mathew Knowles, father of Beyoncé and Solange (Gadsden)
Simmie Knox, painter (Aliceville)
David Koonce, rock musician, Within Reason (Pelham)
L
Larry Langford, former mayor of Birmingham (Birmingham)
Adam Lazzara, singer, Taking Back Sunday (Sheffield)
Terry Leach, MLB pitcher (Selma)
Harper Lee, Pulitzer Prize-winning writer of To Kill a Mockingbird (Monroeville)
Perry Lentz, author (Anniston)
Lash LeRoux, professional wrestler, painter, artist (Oxford)
Leon Lett, NFL defensive tackle (Fairhope)
Carl Lewis, track and field athlete, Olympic gold medalist (Birmingham)
David Peter Lewis, governor (1872–1874) (Huntsville)
John Lewis, U.S. Congressman, civil rights leader (Troy)
Monte Lewis, football player (Abbeville)
George Lindsey, actor (Jasper)
Angela Little, model, actress, Playboy Playmate of the Month (Albertville)
Tandy Little, Republican member of the Alabama House of Representatives (1962–1966), real estate developer (Montgomery)
Herman H. Long, college administrator (Birmingham)
Theodore Long, professional wrestling authority figure (Birmingham)
Sarah Ashley Longshore, painter
Joe Louis, boxer, 12-year world heavyweight champion (Lafayette)
Fred L. Lowery, Southern Baptist clergyman and author (Montevallo)
Joseph Lowery, civil rights leader (Huntsville)
Theodore J. Lowi, political scientist (Gadsden)
Rebecca Luker, singer and actress (Helena)
Shelby Lynne, country music singer, born in Virginia (Frankville)
M
Sunny Mabrey, model, actress (Gadsden)
Harry Mabry, television newscaster (Birmingham)
Everette Maddox "Rhett" Maddox, poet (Montgomery)
Anthony Madison, NFL player, Pittsburgh Steelers (Thomasville)
Boots Mallory, actress (Mobile)
Alfred Malone, NFL player, Houston Texans (Frisco City)
Gucci Mane, musician (Birmingham)
William March, writer, World War I hero (Mobile)
Sharon G. Markette, Illinois state representative, Montgomery
Sen'Derrick Marks, NFL player, Jacksonville Jaguars (Mobile)
Debra Marshall, WWE wrestler (Tuscaloosa)
Kerry James Marshall, artist (Birmingham)
Chris Martin, NFL player (Huntsville)
Harold E. Martin, newspaperman (Montgomery)
Hugh Martin, songwriter (Birmingham)
James D. Martin, U.S. representative from Alabama's 7th congressional district (1965 to 1967) (Gadsden)
Sonequa Martin-Green, actress (Russellville)
F. David Mathews, educator (Grove Hill)
Evan Mathis, NFL player, Denver Broncos (Birmingham)
Jordan Matthews, NFL player, Philadelphia Eagles (Madison)
Bruce Maxwell, MLB player (Huntsville)
Kivuusama Mays, former NFL player (Anniston)
Willie Mays, Hall of Fame center fielder (Birmingham)
Lewis McAllister, businessman and Republican former member of the Mississippi House of Representatives (Tuscaloosa)
Jim McBride, songwriter (Huntsville)
Robert R. McCammon, horror writer (Birmingham)
A. J. McCarron, football quarterback (Mobile)
Elvin McCary, politician (Anniston)
Antoine McClain, former NFL player (Anniston)
Rolando McClain, NFL player, Dallas Cowboys (Athens)
Mary Sue McClurkin, Alabama House of Representatives 1998–2014 (Abbeville)
Mitch McConnell, politician, long-time U.S. Senator from Kentucky since 1985, and Republican Leader of the United States Senate 2015–2021 (Sheffield/Athens)
Willie McCovey, Hall of Fame first baseman (Mobile)
Michael McCullers, screenwriter
K. J. McDaniels, NBA player (Birmingham)
Alexander McGillivray, Creek Indian Chief (Montgomery)
Lachlan McGillivray, Scots-Indian trader (Montgomery)
Garnie W. McGinty, Louisiana historian (Montevallo)
Joe McInnes, corporate and state executive (Wetumpka)
Frank McIntyre, U.S. Army general (Montgomery)
Ronald McKinnon, NFL player, Arizona Cardinals (Elba)
Steve McLendon, NFL player, Pittsburgh Steelers (Ozark)
Gertrude Michael, actress (Talladega)
Chuckie Miller, former NFL player (Anniston)
Don Mincher, MLB player (Huntsville)
Grover Mitchell, jazz trombonist (Whatley)
John Mitchell, NFL coach, Pittsburgh Steelers (Mobile)
Anthony Mix, NFL player (Bay Minette)
Wilmer Mizell, U.S. representative from North Carolina, Major League Baseball pitcher (Vinegar Bend)
Jamario Moon, basketball player (Goodwater)
Charles Moore, civil rights photojournalist (Hackleburg)
Mal Moore, University of Alabama athletic director, former quarterback and offensive coordinator (Dozier)
Roy Moore, chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court (2001–2003, 2013–2016) (Gadsden)
Thomas Hinman Moorer, admiral, U.S. Navy, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Mount Willing)
Kathryn Morgan, ballet dancer, former soloist with New York City Ballet
Lamar Morris, country singer (Andalusia)
Randall Morris, former NFL player, Seattle Seahawks (Anniston)
C. J. Mosley, NFL player, Baltimore Ravens (Mobile)
Eric Motley, public administrator (Montgomery)
Morgan Murphy, humorist and author (Mountain Brook)
Roger Murrah, songwriter, recording artist (Athens)
Albert Murray, writer (Nokomis)
Johnny Musso, football player (Birmingham)
Pete Myers, basketball player and coach (Mobile)
N
Jim Nabors, actor and singer (Sylacauga)
Joe Namath, Hall of Fame quarterback, Alabama and NFL player, born in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania (Tuscaloosa)
Siran Neal, NFL player, Buffalo Bills (Dothan)
Larry Nelson, PGA golfer (Fort Payne)
Bert Nettles, politician and lawyer, formerly from Monroeville and Mobile (Birmingham)
Elijah Nevett, NFL player (Bessemer)
Ozzie Newsome, football player, Alabama and NFL's Cleveland Browns, executive for Baltimore Ravens (Leighton)
Matthew Newton, conductor, professional railroader (Prattville)
Jimmy Nolen, guitarist (Roanoke)
O
Philip Ober, stage and screen actor (Fort Payne)
Benjamin Obomanu, NFL player, Seattle Seahawks (Selma)
Scott Oden, writer (Somerville)
Cathy O'Donnell, actress (Siluria)
Spooner Oldham, songwriter, keyboardist (Center Star)
Stan O'Neal, chairman and CEO of Merrill Lynch (Roanoke)
Katherine Orrison, screenwriter (Anniston)
Osceola, Seminole leader (Tallassee)
Victoria Osteen, co-pastor of Lakewood Church (Huntsville)
Randy Owen, lead singer for band Alabama (Fort Payne)
Jesse Owens, iconic track and field athlete, Olympic gold medalist (Oakville)
Terrell Owens, NFL Hall of Famer (Alexander City)
P
Satchel Paige, baseball player (Mobile)
Michael Papajohn, actor, stuntman (Vestavia Hills)
Rosa Parks, civil rights activist (Tuskegee)
Gail Patrick, actress and television producer (Birmingham)
Albert Patterson, Attorney General of Alabama (Phenix City)
John Malcolm Patterson, Governor of Alabama (Phenix City)
Jake Peavy, baseball pitcher (Mobile)
Charley Pell, head football coach at Clemson and Florida (Albertville)
Dan Penn, singer, songwriter, record producer (Vernon)
Blake Percival, Whistleblower (Montgomery)
Walker Percy, author (Birmingham)
Tito Perdue, author (Anniston)
Wayne Perkins musician (Birmingham)
Chuck Person, NBA player (Brantley)
Wesley Person, NBA player (Brantley)
Jesse Lee Peterson, minister, author (Midway)
Sidney Phillips, World War II veteran, physician (Mobile)
Wilson Pickett, R&B and soul singer (Prattville)
Juan Pierre, MLB outfielder (Mobile)
Charles Redding Pitt, attorney, politician (Decatur)
Adrian Pledger (born 1976), basketball player
Willie Pless, CFL Hall of Famer, Edmonton Eskimos Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]])
Nathan Poole, former NFL player (Alexander City)
Chris Porter, NBA player (Abbeville)
Monica Potter, actress (Arab)
Paula Poundstone, comedian (Huntsville)
Alma Powell, audiologist, children's author (Birmingham)
Michael Powell, attorney and politician (Birmingham)
Jerraud Powers, NFL player, Arizona Cardinals (Decatur)
Tyrone Prothro, football player, Alabama (Heflin)
Jeremy Pruitt, college football coach, University of Tennessee (Rainsville)
Q
I. T. Quinn, conservationist, one of the founders of the National Wildlife Federation (Belgreen)
R
Sun Ra, jazz musician (Birmingham)
Sam Raben (born 1997), soccer player
Anthony Radetic, professional water skier (Abbeville)
Max Rafferty, California Superintendent of Public Instruction (1963–1971), education dean at Troy University (Troy)
Thom S. Rainer, writer (Union Springs)
Howell Raines, former New York Times editor (Birmingham)
Albert Rains, representative of Alabama's 7th congressional district (1945–1965) (Gadsden)
Geoff Ramsey, voice actor and producer for Rooster Teeth Productions (Mobile)
LaJuan Ramsey, former NFL player (Anniston)
Levi Randolph (born 1992), basketball player for Hapoel Jerusalem of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Theo Ratliff, former center for the Charlotte Bobcats (Demopolis)
Ray Reach, jazz pianist, vocalist, arranger, composer, music producer, Director of Student Jazz Programs for the Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame (Birmingham)
Gary Redus, baseball player (Decatur)
Margaret Renkl, writer (Birmingham)
Scottie Reynolds, basketball player at Villanova
Condoleezza Rice, former United States Secretary of State (Birmingham)
Rich Boy, rapper (Mobile)
Al Richardson, former NFL player, Atlanta Falcons (Abbeville)
Tony Richardson, NFL player, New York Jets (Daleville)
Lionel Richie, singer, composer, instrumentalist, producer, and four-time Grammy award winner (Tuskegee)
Bob Riley, Governor of Alabama (2003–2011) (Ashland)
Chris Richards, soccer player (Birmingham)
Alex Ríos, MLB outfielder (Coffee County)
Philip Rivers, quarterback for NFL's San Diego Chargers and North Carolina State University (Decatur)
Robin Roberts, broadcaster on ABC's Good Morning America (Tuskegee)
David Robertson, pitcher for the New York Yankees (Birmingham)
Denard Robinson, NFL player, Jacksonville Jaguars (Birmingham)
Oliver Robinson, basketball player and politician (Birmingham)
Martha Roby, representative from Alabama's 2nd congressional district (2011–2021) (Montgomery)
Chester Rogers, NFL wide receiver (Huntsville)
Jim Rogers, businessman, investor (Demopolis)
Roy Rogers, former NBA player, assistant coach for the Houston Rockets (Linden)
Wayne Rogers, actor (Birmingham)
Michael Rooker, actor (Jasper)
Frank Rose, educator, former President of the University of Alabama (Tuscaloosa)
Marie Rudisill, a.k.a. "The Fruitcake Lady," Truman Capote's aunt (Monroeville)
Council Rudolph, former NFL player (Anniston)
Grayson Russell, actor, Diary of a Wimpy Kid (Clanton)
Jeff Rutledge, NFL quarterback (Birmingham)
Josh Rutledge, MLB infielder (Cullman)
Debby Ryan, actress (Huntsville)
DeMeco Ryans, NFL player, Philadelphia Eagles (Bessemer)
S
Warren St. John, author, journalist (Birmingham)
Ed Salem, football player, born in Tucson, Arizona (Birmingham)
Charles E. Samuels Jr., 8th director of the United States Federal Bureau of Prisons (Birmingham)
Chris Samuels, former NFL player for Washington Redskins (Mobile)
Sonia Sanchez, poet (Birmingham)
John Solomon Sandridge, painter, sculptor, author, born in Gadsden, Alabama (Chelsea)
David Satcher, Surgeon General of the United States, second ever and first African-America four-star admiral in United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (Anniston)
Eugene Sawyer, 53rd mayor of Chicago (Greensboro)
Bo Scarbrough, NFL player, Detroit Lions (Tuscaloosa)
Beverly Jo Scott, singer and coach on The Voice Belgique (Deer Park)
Richard M. Scrushy, founder and former CEO of HealthSouth (Selma)
Doc Scurlock, a.k.a. Josiah Gordon Scurlock, a founding member of the Lincoln County New Mexico Regulators, member of Billy the Kid's gang (Tallapoosa)
Jay Sebring, hair stylist, Charles Manson murder victim (Birmingham)
Waldo Semon, inventor of vinyl (Demopolis)
David Sessions, member of the Alabama Legislature (Grand Bay)
Jeff Sessions, longtime Alabama Senator 1997–2017; U.S. Attorney General
Joe Sewell, baseball player (Titus)
Luke Sewell, baseball player (Titus)
Rip Sewell, baseball player (Decatur)
Glenn Shadix, actor (Bessemer)
Earnie Shavers, former heavyweight boxer (Garland)
Tommy Shaw, rock musician (Montgomery)
Richard C. Shelby, United States Senator (Birmingham)
Ashton Shepherd, country singer (Coffeeville)
Danny Sheridan, sports broadcaster and prognosticator (Mobile)
Fred Shuttlesworth, civil rights activist (Birmingham)
George Siebels, mayor of Birmingham (1967–1975), state representative (1975–1990) (Birmingham)
Don Siegelman, former governor of Alabama (1999–2003) (Mobile)
Eugene Sledge, World War II veteran, teacher, writer (Mobile)
Percy Sledge, soul singer (Leighton)
Kirby Smart, football coach, defensive coordinator University of Alabama (Montgomery)
Rickey Smiley, comedian (Birmingham)
Albert Lee Smith Jr., representative from Alabama's 6th congressional district (1981–1983) (Birmingham)
Andre Smith, NFL offensive lineman, Cincinnati Bengals (Birmingham)
Ella Gaunt Smith, doll manufacturer (Roanoke)
Holland Smith, general, United States Marine Corps during World War II, father of amphibious warfare (Hatchechubbie)
Johnny Smith, jazz guitarist (Birmingham)
Leighton W. Smith Jr., admiral, United States Navy (Mobile)
Ozzie Smith, Hall of Fame baseball player (Mobile)
Patrick "j.Que" Smith, songwriter (Anniston)
Tremon Smith, NFL player, Indianapolis Colts (Saks)
Zeke Smith, football player (Uniontown)
Les Snead, general manager of the St. Louis Rams (Eufaula)
Dylan Riley Snyder, actor, singer (Tuscaloosa)
James Spann, meteorologist, podcast host (Huntsville)
John Sparkman, United States Senator (1946–1979) (Hartselle)
Chauncey Sparks, governor (1943–1947) (Eufaula)
Mark Spencer, president/CEO of Digium (Huntsville)
Octavia Spencer, Academy Awards and Golden Globes award-winning actress (Montgomery)
The Springs, band (Enterprise)
Ken Stabler, NFL player, The University of Alabama and Oakland Raiders (Foley)
Zac Stacy, NFL player, St. Louis Rams (Centreville)
John Stallworth, NFL player, Pittsburgh Steelers (Tuscaloosa)
Bart Starr, Hall of Fame football player, Alabama and Green Bay Packers (Montgomery)
Elizabeth Willisson Stephen, writer, novelist, poet (Marengo County)
Darian Stewart, NFL player, Denver Broncos (Huntsville)
Donald W. Stewart, United States Senator (Anniston)
Mike Stewart, author (Vredenburgh)
Dwight Stone, former NFL player (Florala)
Luther Strange, Attorney General of Alabama (2011–2017) (Mountain Brook)
J. Curry Street, physicist (Opelika)
T. S. Stribling, author (Florence)
Gail Strickland, actress (Birmingham)
Hut Stricklin, NASCAR driver (Calera)
Ruben Studdard, 2003 American Idol winner (Birmingham)
Jimmy Lee Sudduth, artist and blues musician (Fayette)
Pat Sullivan, football player (Birmingham)
Kevin Sumlin, football head coach, Texas A&M (Brewton)
Don Sutton, Hall of Fame baseball player (Clio)
Barret Swatek, actress and comedian (Birmingham)
Ward Swingle, jazz arranger and composer (Mobile)
Dabo Swinney, football head coach, Clemson (Pelham)
Destin Sandlin, host of YouTube channel Smarter Every Day (Huntsville)
T
Tua Tagovailoa, NFL player, Miami Dolphins (Alabaster)
Jaquiski Tartt, NFL football player (Mobile)
Channing Tatum, actor (Cullman)
Toni Tennille, singer of the duo Captain and Tennille (Montgomery)
Adalius Thomas, NFL football player (Equality)
Bryan Thomas, football player (Birmingham)
Fred Thompson, former United States senator from Tennessee, actor (Sheffield)
Fresco Thompson, former major league baseball player and executive
Myron Herbert Thompson, Senior United States District Judge
Neil Thrasher, country singer-songwriter (Birmingham)
Carson Tinker, NFL player, Jacksonville Jaguars (Decatur)
Frank Tipler, mathematical physicist and cosmologist (Andalusia)
Andre Tippett (born 1959), NFL Hall of Fame football player (Birmingham)
Mose Tolliver, artist (Pike Road)
Harry Townes, actor (Huntsville)
Pat Trammell, Alabama Crimson Tide football player, physician (Scottsboro)
William Barret Travis, Commander of the Alamo at San Antonio, Texas (Claiborne)
Jack Treadwell, World War II Medal of Honor winner (Ashland, Alabama)
Justin Tuck, NFL football player (Kellyton)
Cynthia Tucker, columnist and editor (Monroeville)
Joe Turnham, chairman of the Alabama Democratic Party (2005–2011) (Auburn)
Tom Turnipseed, Democratic political activist (Mobile)
Chief Tuskaloosa, Creek Indian chief and leader
Richard Tyson, actor (Mobile)
U
P. W. Underwood, football player and college coach (Cordova)
Courtney Upshaw, NFL player, Atlanta Falcons (Eufaula)
V
Robert J. Van de Graaff, engineer, physicist (Tuscaloosa)
Robert Smith Vance, federal judge (Talladega)
Ed Vaughn, Michigan House of Representatives 1979–1980, 1995–2000 (Abbeville)
Ned Vaughn, actor (Huntsville)
Mack Vickery, singer, songwriter (Town Creek)
Scottie Vines, former NFL player (Alexander City)
Wernher von Braun, engineer, physicist (Huntsville) born in Wirsitz, Province of Posen, Poland (then part of German Empire)
Hans A. von Spakovsky, attorney (Huntsville)
W
Mark Waid, writer (Hueytown)
Jimmy Wales, co-founder of Wikipedia (Huntsville)
Frank Walker, NFL player, Dallas Cowboys (Tuskegee)
Margaret Walker, poet, author (Birmingham)
Ben Wallace, NBA player (White Hall)
Bubba Wallace, NASCAR driver (Mobile)
Cornelia Wallace, second wife of George C. Wallace, First Lady of Alabama (1971–1978) (Montgomery)
Daniel Wallace, writer (Birmingham)
George C. Wallace, four-term governor and four-time presidential candidate (Clio and Montgomery)
George Wallace Jr., former Alabama Public Service Commission member (Montgomery)
Gerald Wallace, basketball player (Childersburg)
Lurleen Burns Wallace, governor (1967–1968) (Montgomery)
Eugene Walter, writer-actor (Mobile)
Jimmie Ward, NFL player, San Francisco 49ers (Mobile)
Kevin Ward, songwriter (Anniston)
DeMarcus Ware, NFL player, Denver Broncos (Auburn)
Adam Warren, MLB pitcher, New York Yankees (Birmingham)
Mervyn Warren, musician (Huntsville)
Dinah Washington, singer (Tuscaloosa)
Mary Burke Washington, economist (Tuskegee)
Ken Watters, jazz trumpeter (Huntsville)
William Weatherford, a.k.a. Red Eagle, Creek Indian leader
Joe Webb, NFL player, Carolina Panthers (Birmingham)
Katherine Webb, model, Miss Alabama USA (Montgomery)
Lardarius Webb, NFL player, Baltimore Ravens (Opelika)
Fred Wesley, musician (Mobile)
Mario West, NBA player, Atlanta Hawks (Huntsville)
Joseph Wheeler, Confederate and US General, US Congressman, namesake of Wheeler State Park and Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, author (Hillsboro)
Chris White, NFL player, Buffalo Bills (Mobile)
D. J. White, NBA player, Charlotte Bobcats (Tuscaloosa)
Pat White, NFL player, Miami Dolphins (Daphne)
Heather Whitestone, 1995 Miss America (Dothan)
Chase Whitley, MLB player, New York Yankees (Ranburne)
Joe Whitt Jr., NFL coach, Green Bay Packers (Auburn)
Barbara Wiedemann, poet and English professor (Montgomery)
Deontay Wilder, professional boxer (Tuscaloosa)
Oliver C. Wiley, U.S. Representative (Troy)
Mark Wilkerson, musician (Enterprise)
Billy Williams, Hall of Fame baseball player (Mobile)
Carnell Williams, NFL player, Tampa Bay Buccaneers (Attalla)
Cootie Williams, jazz trumpeter (Mobile)
Hank Williams, country musician (Georgiana)
Hank Williams Jr., country musician (Cullman)
Holly Williams, country musician (Cullman)
Lee Williams, professional golfer (Alexander City)
Nick Williams, NFL player, Kansas City Chiefs (Birmingham)
Paul Williams, soul singer (Birmingham)
Josh Willingham, MLB left fielder, Kansas City Royals (Florence)
James Willis, former NFL linebacker (Huntsville)
E. O. Wilson, biologist and writer (Birmingham)
Martha Loftin Wilson, missionary worker, educataor (Clarke County)
Kathryn Tucker Windham, storyteller and author (Dallas County)
Jameis Winston, NFL quarterback, Heisman Trophy winner (Bessemer)
Reynolds Wolf, meteorologist (Jemison)
Tobias Wolff, author (Birmingham)
Roy Wood Jr., stand-up comedian (Birmingham)
Ray Woodard, "Father of soccer in Alabama" (Pelham)
Tricia Woodgett, screenwriter (Anniston)
Mark Woodyard, MLB pitcher, Detroit Tigers (Mobile)
Wesley Wright, MLB pitcher, Baltimore Orioles (Montgomery)
Tammy Wynette, country singer (Red Bay)
Y
YBN Nahmir, rapper (Birmingham)
Yelawolf, rapper (Gadsden)
T. J. Yeldon, running back (Daphne)
Byron York, conservative political columnist (Birmingham)
Tom York, television personality (Hoover)
Coleman Young, former mayor of Detroit, Michigan (Tuscaloosa)
Delmon Young, baseball player (Montgomery)
Martevious Young, football player (Alexander City)
Z
John Zimmerman, professional pair skater and coach (Birmingham)
See also
By location
List of people from Birmingham, Alabama
List of people from Demopolis, Alabama
List of people from Gadsden, Alabama
List of people from Huntsville, Alabama
List of people from Mobile, Alabama
List of people from Montgomery, Alabama
List of people from Selma, Alabama
List of people from Tuskegee, Alabama
Other
Alabama Academy of Honor
List of Alabama suffragists
References
|
416754
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodynamic%20therapy
|
Photodynamic therapy
|
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a form of phototherapy involving light and a photosensitizing chemical substance, used in conjunction with molecular oxygen to elicit cell death (phototoxicity).
PDT is popularly used in treating acne. It is used clinically to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including wet age-related macular degeneration, psoriasis, atherosclerosis and has shown some efficacy in anti-viral treatments, including herpes. It also treats malignant cancers including head and neck, lung, bladder and particular skin.
The technology has also been tested for treatment of prostate cancer, both in a dog model and in human prostate cancer patients.
It is recognised as a treatment strategy that is both minimally invasive and minimally toxic. Other light-based and laser therapies such as laser wound healing and rejuvenation, or intense pulsed light hair removal do not require a photosensitizer. Photosensitisers have been employed to sterilise blood plasma and water in order to remove blood-borne viruses and microbes and have been considered for agricultural uses, including herbicides and insecticides.
Photodynamic therapy's advantages lessen the need for delicate surgery and lengthy recuperation and minimal formation of scar tissue and disfigurement. A side effect is the associated photosensitisation of skin tissue.
Basics
PDT applications involve three components: a photosensitizer, a light source and tissue oxygen. The wavelength of the light source needs to be appropriate for exciting the photosensitizer to produce radicals and/or reactive oxygen species. These are free radicals (Type I) generated through electron abstraction or transfer from a substrate molecule and highly reactive state of oxygen known as singlet oxygen (Type II).
PDT is a multi-stage process. First a photosensitiser, ideally with negligible toxicity other than its phototoxicity, is administered in the absence of light, either systemically or topically. When a sufficient amount of photosensitiser appears in diseased tissue, the photosensitiser is activated by exposure to light for a specified period. The light dose supplies sufficient energy to stimulate the photosensitiser, but not enough to damage neighbouring healthy tissue. The reactive oxygen kills the target cells.
Reactive oxygen species
In air and tissue, molecular oxygen (O2) occurs in a triplet state, whereas almost all other molecules are in a singlet state. Reactions between triplet and singlet molecules are forbidden by quantum mechanics, making oxygen relatively non-reactive at physiological conditions. A photosensitizer is a chemical compound that can be promoted to an excited state upon absorption of light and undergo intersystem crossing (ISC) with oxygen to produce singlet oxygen. This species is highly cytotoxic, rapidly attacking any organic compounds it encounters. It is rapidly eliminated from cells, in an average of 3 µs.
Photochemical processes
When a photosensitiser is in its excited state (3Psen*) it can interact with molecular triplet oxygen (3O2) and produce radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS), crucial to the Type II mechanism. These species include singlet oxygen (1O2), hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide (O2−) ions. They can interact with cellular components including unsaturated lipids, amino acid residues and nucleic acids. If sufficient oxidative damage ensues, this will result in target-cell death (only within the illuminated area).
Photochemical mechanisms
When a chromophore molecule, such as a cyclic tetrapyrrolic molecule, absorbs a photon, one of its electrons is promoted into a higher-energy orbital, elevating the chromophore from the ground state (S0) into a short-lived, electronically excited state (Sn) composed of vibrational sub-levels (Sn′). The excited chromophore can lose energy by rapidly decaying through these sub-levels via internal conversion (IC) to populate the first excited singlet state (S1), before quickly relaxing back to the ground state.
The decay from the excited singlet state (S1) to the ground state (S0) is via fluorescence (S1 → S0). Singlet state lifetimes of excited fluorophores are very short (τfl. = 10−9–10−6 seconds) since transitions between the same spin states (S → S or T → T) conserve the spin multiplicity of the electron and, according to the Spin Selection Rules, are therefore considered "allowed" transitions. Alternatively, an excited singlet state electron (S1) can undergo spin inversion and populate the lower-energy first excited triplet state (T1) via intersystem crossing (ISC); a spin-forbidden process, since the spin of the electron is no longer conserved. The excited electron can then undergo a second spin-forbidden inversion and depopulate the excited triplet state (T1) by decaying to the ground state (S0) via phosphorescence (T1→ S0). Owing to the spin-forbidden triplet to singlet transition, the lifetime of phosphorescence (τP = 10−3 − 1 second) is considerably longer than that of fluorescence.
Photosensitisers and photochemistry
Tetrapyrrolic photosensitisers in the excited singlet state (1Psen*, S>0) are relatively efficient at intersystem crossing and can consequently have a high triplet-state quantum yield. The longer lifetime of this species is sufficient to allow the excited triplet state photosensitiser to interact with surrounding bio-molecules, including cell membrane constituents.
Photochemical reactions
Excited triplet-state photosensitisers can react via Type-I and Type-II processes. Type-I processes can involve the excited singlet or triplet photosensitiser (1Psen*, S1; 3Psen*, T1), however due to the short lifetime of the excited singlet state, the photosensitiser can only react if it is intimately associated with a substrate. In both cases the interaction is with readily oxidisable or reducible substrates. Type-II processes involve the direct interaction of the excited triplet photosensitiser (3Psen*, T1) with molecular oxygen (3O2, 3Σg).
Type-I processes
Type-I processes can be divided into Type I(i) and Type I(ii). Type I (i) involves the transfer of an electron (oxidation) from a substrate molecule to the excited state photosensitiser (Psen*), generating a photosensitiser radical anion (Psen•−) and a substrate radical cation (Subs•+). The majority of the radicals produced from Type-I(i) reactions react instantaneously with molecular oxygen (O2), generating a mixture of oxygen intermediates. For example, the photosensitiser radical anion can react instantaneously with molecular oxygen (3O2) to generate a superoxide radical anion (O2•−), which can go on to produce the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (OH•), initiating a cascade of cytotoxic free radicals; this process is common in the oxidative damage of fatty acids and other lipids.
The Type-I process (ii) involves the transfer of a hydrogen atom (reduction) to the excited state photosensitiser (Psen*). This generates free radicals capable of rapidly reacting with molecular oxygen and creating a complex mixture of reactive oxygen intermediates, including reactive peroxides.
Type-II processes
Type-II processes involve the direct interaction of the excited triplet state photosensitiser (3Psen*) with ground state molecular oxygen (3O2, 3Σg); a spin allowed transition—the excited state photosensitiser and ground state molecular oxygen are of the same spin state (T).
When the excited photosensitiser collides with molecular oxygen, a process of triplet-triplet annihilation takes place (3Psen* →1Psen and 3O2 →1O2). This inverts the spin of one oxygen molecule's (3O2) outermost antibonding electrons, generating two forms of singlet oxygen (1Δg and 1Σg), while simultaneously depopulating the photosensitiser's excited triplet state (T1 → S0). The higher-energy singlet oxygen state (1Σg, 157kJ mol−1 > 3Σg) is very short-lived (1Σg ≤ 0.33 milliseconds (methanol), undetectable in H2O/D2O) and rapidly relaxes to the lower-energy excited state (1Δg, 94kJ mol−1 > 3Σg). It is, therefore, this lower-energy form of singlet oxygen (1Δg) that is implicated in cell injury and cell death.
The highly-reactive singlet oxygen species (1O2) produced via the Type-II process act near to their site generation and within a radius of approximately 20 nm, with a typical lifetime of approximately 40 nanoseconds in biological systems.
It is possible that (over a 6 μs period) singlet oxygen can diffuse up to approximately 300 nm in vivo. Singlet oxygen can theoretically only interact with proximal molecules and structures within this radius. ROS initiate reactions with many biomolecules, including amino acid residues in proteins, such as tryptophan; unsaturated lipids like cholesterol and nucleic acid bases, particularly guanosine and guanine derivatives, with the latter base more susceptible to ROS. These interactions cause damage and potential destruction to cellular membranes and enzyme deactivation, culminating in cell death.
It is probable that in the presence of molecular oxygen and as a direct result of the photoirradiation of the photosensitiser molecule, both Type-I and II pathways play a pivotal role in disrupting cellular mechanisms and cellular structure. Nevertheless, considerable evidence suggests that the Type-II photo-oxygenation process predominates in the induction of cell damage, a consequence of the interaction between the irradiated photosensitiser and molecular oxygen. Cells in vivo may be partially protected against the effects of photodynamic therapy by the presence of singlet oxygen scavengers (such as histidine). Certain skin cells are somewhat resistant to PDT in the absence of molecular oxygen; further supporting the proposal that the Type-II process is at the heart of photoinitiated cell death.
The efficiency of Type-II processes is dependent upon the triplet state lifetime τT and the triplet quantum yield (ΦT) of the photosensitiser. Both of these parameters have been implicated in phototherapeutic effectiveness; further supporting the distinction between Type-I and Type-II mechanisms. However, the success of a photosensitiser is not exclusively dependent upon a Type-II process. Multiple photosensitisers display excited triplet lifetimes that are too short to permit a Type-II process to occur. For example, the copper metallated octaethylbenzochlorin photosensitiser has a triplet state lifetime of less than 20 nanoseconds and is still deemed to be an efficient photodynamic agent.
Photosensitizers
Many photosensitizers for PDT exist. They divide into porphyrins, chlorins and dyes. Examples include aminolevulinic acid (ALA), Silicon Phthalocyanine Pc 4, m-tetrahydroxyphenylchlorin (mTHPC) and mono-L-aspartyl chlorin e6 (NPe6).
Photosensitizers commercially available for clinical use include Allumera, Photofrin, Visudyne, Levulan, Foscan, Metvix, Hexvix, Cysview and Laserphyrin, with others in development, e.g. Antrin, Photochlor, Photosens, Photrex, Lumacan, Cevira, Visonac, BF-200 ALA, Amphinex and Azadipyrromethenes.
The major difference between photosensitizers is the parts of the cell that they target. Unlike in radiation therapy, where damage is done by targeting cell DNA, most photosensitizers target other cell structures. For example, mTHPC localizes in the nuclear envelope. In contrast, ALA localizes in the mitochondria and methylene blue in the lysosomes.
Cyclic tetrapyrrolic chromophores
Cyclic tetrapyrrolic molecules are fluorophores and photosensitisers. Cyclic tetrapyrrolic derivatives have an inherent similarity to the naturally occurring porphyrins present in living matter.
Porphyrins
Porphyrins are a group of naturally occurring and intensely coloured compounds, whose name is drawn from the Greek word porphura, or purple. These molecules perform biologically important roles, including oxygen transport and photosynthesis and have applications in fields ranging from fluorescent imaging to medicine. Porphyrins are tetrapyrrolic molecules, with the heart of the skeleton a heterocyclic macrocycle, known as a porphine. The fundamental porphine frame consists of four pyrrolic sub-units linked on opposing sides (α-positions, numbered 1, 4, 6, 9, 11, 14, 16 and 19) through four methine (CH) bridges (5, 10, 15 and 20), known as the meso-carbon atoms/positions. The resulting conjugated planar macrocycle may be substituted at the meso- and/or β-positions (2, 3, 7, 8, 12, 13, 17 and 18): if the meso- and β-hydrogens are substituted with non-hydrogen atoms or groups, the resulting compounds are known as porphyrins.
The inner two protons of a free-base porphyrin can be removed by strong bases such as alkoxides, forming a dianionic molecule; conversely, the inner two pyrrolenine nitrogens can be protonated with acids such as trifluoroacetic acid affording a dicationic intermediate. The tetradentate anionic species can readily form complexes with most metals.
Absorption spectroscopy
Porphyrin's highly conjugated skeleton produces a characteristic ultra-violet visible (UV-VIS) spectrum. The spectrum typically consists of an intense, narrow absorption band (ε > 200000 L⋅mol−1 cm−1) at around 400 nm, known as the Soret band or B band, followed by four longer wavelength (450–700 nm), weaker absorptions (ε > 20000 L⋅mol−1⋅cm−1 (free-base porphyrins)) referred to as the Q bands.
The Soret band arises from a strong electronic transition from the ground state to the second excited singlet state (S0 → S2); whereas the Q band is a result of a weak transition to the first excited singlet state (S0 → S1). The dissipation of energy via internal conversion (IC) is so rapid that fluorescence is only observed from depopulation of the first excited singlet state to the lower-energy ground state (S1 → S0).
Ideal photosensitisers
The key characteristic of a photosensitiser is the ability to preferentially accumulate in diseased tissue and induce a desired biological effect via the generation of cytotoxic species. Specific criteria:
Strong absorption with a high extinction coefficient in the red/near infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum (600–850 nm)—allows deeper tissue penetration. (Tissue is much more transparent at longer wavelengths (~700–850 nm). Longer wavelengths allow the light to penetrate deeper and treat larger structures.)
Suitable photophysical characteristics: a high-quantum yield of triplet formation (ΦT ≥ 0.5); a high singlet oxygen quantum yield (ΦΔ ≥ 0.5); a relatively long triplet state lifetime (τT, μs range); and a high triplet-state energy (≥ 94 kJ mol−1). Values of ΦT= 0.83 and ΦΔ = 0.65 (haematoporphyrin); ΦT = 0.83 and ΦΔ = 0.72 (etiopurpurin); and ΦT = 0.96 and ΦΔ = 0.82 (tin etiopurpurin) have been achieved
Low dark toxicity and negligible cytotoxicity in the absence of light. (The photosensitizer should not be harmful to the target tissue until the treatment beam is applied.)
Preferential accumulation in diseased/target tissue over healthy tissue
Rapid clearance from the body post-procedure
High chemical stability: single, well-characterised compounds, with a known and constant composition
Short and high-yielding synthetic route (with easy translation into multi-gram scales/reactions)
Simple and stable formulation
Soluble in biological media, allowing intravenous administration. Otherwise, a hydrophilic delivery system must enable efficient and effective transportation of the photosensitiser to the target site via the bloodstream.
Low photobleaching to prevent degradation of the photosensitizer so it can continue producing singlet oxygen
Natural fluorescence (Many optical dosimetry techniques, such as fluorescence spectroscopy, depend on fluorescence.)
First generation
Porfimer Sodium
A drug used to treat some types of cancer. When absorbed by cancer cells and exposed to light, porfimer sodium becomes active and kills the cancer cells. It is a type of photodynamic therapy (PDT) agent and also called Photofrin.
PDT was first discovered more than a century ago in Germany, it was not until Thomas Dougherty's when PDT became more mainstream. Prior to Dr. Dougherty, researchers had ways of using light-sensitive compounds to treat disease. Dougherty successfully treated cancer with PDT in preclinical models in 1975. Three years later, he conducted the first controlled clinical study in humans. In 1994, the FDA approved PDT with the photosensitizer porfimer sodium for palliative treatment of advanced esophageal cancer, specifically the palliation of patients with completely obstructing esophageal cancer, or for patients with partially obstructing esophageal cancer. Porfimer Sodium is also FDA-approved for the treatment of types of lung cancer, more specifically for the treatment of microinvasive endobronchial non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in patients for whom surgery and radiotherapy are not indicated and also FDA approved in the US for high grade dysplasia in Barrett's Esophagus.
Disadvantages associated with first generation photosensitisers include skin sensitivity and absorption at 630 nm permitted some therapeutic use, but they markedly limited application to the wider field of disease. Second generation photosensitisers were key to the development of photodynamic therapy.
Second generation
5-Aminolaevulinic acid
5-Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) is a prodrug used to treat and image multiple superficial cancers and tumours. ALA a key precursor in the biosynthesis of the naturally occurring porphyrin, haem.
Haem is synthesised in every energy-producing cell in the body and is a key structural component of haemoglobin, myoglobin and other haemproteins. The immediate precursor to haem is protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), an effective photosensitiser. Haem itself is not a photosensitiser, due to the coordination of a paramagnetic ion in the centre of the macrocycle, causing significant reduction in excited state lifetimes.
The haem molecule is synthesised from glycine and succinyl coenzyme A (succinyl CoA). The rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis pathway is controlled by a tight (negative) feedback mechanism in which the concentration of haem regulates the production of ALA. However, this controlled feedback can be by-passed by artificially adding excess exogenous ALA to cells. The cells respond by producing PPIX (photosensitiser) at a faster rate than the ferrochelatase enzyme can convert it to haem.
ALA, marketed as Levulan, has shown promise in photodynamic therapy (tumours) via both intravenous and oral administration, as well as through topical administration in the treatment of malignant and non-malignant dermatological conditions, including psoriasis, Bowen's disease and Hirsutism (Phase II/III clinical trials).
ALA accumulates more rapidly in comparison to other intravenously administered sensitisers. Typical peak tumour accumulation levels post-administration for PPIX are usually achieved within several hours; other (intravenous) photosensitisers may take up to 96 hours to reach peak levels. ALA is also excreted more rapidly from the body (~24 hours) than other photosensitisers, minimising photosensitivity side effects.
Esterified ALA derivatives with improved bioavailability have been examined. A methyl ALA ester (Metvix) is now available for basal cell carcinoma and other skin lesions. Benzyl (Benvix) and hexyl ester (Hexvix) derivatives are used for gastrointestinal cancers and for the diagnosis of bladder cancer.
Verteporfin
Benzoporphyrin derivative monoacid ring A (BPD-MA), marketed as Visudyne (Verteporfin, for injection), has been approved by health authorities in multiple jurisdictions, including US FDA, for the treatment of wet AMD beginning in 1999. It has also undergone Phase III clinical trials (USA) for the treatment of cutaneous non-melanoma skin cancer.
The chromophore of BPD-MA has a red-shifted and intensified long-wavelength absorption maxima at approximately 690 nm. Tissue penetration by light at this wavelength is 50% greater than that achieved for Photofrin (λmax. = 630 nm).
Verteporfin has further advantages over the first generation sensitiser Photofrin. It is rapidly absorbed by the tumour (optimal tumour-normal tissue ratio 30–150 minutes post-intravenous injection) and is rapidly cleared from the body, minimising patient photosensitivity (1–2 days).
Purlytin
Chlorin photosensitiser tin etiopurpurin is marketed as Purlytin. Purlytin has undergone Phase II clinical trials for cutaneous metastatic breast cancer and Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Purlytin has been used successfully to treat the non-malignant conditions psoriasis and restenosis.
Chlorins are distinguished from the parent porphyrins by a reduced exocyclic double bond, decreasing the symmetry of the conjugated macrocycle. This leads to increased absorption in the long-wavelength portion of the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (650–680 nm). Purlytin is a purpurin; a degradation product of chlorophyll.
Purlytin has a tin atom chelated in its central cavity that causes a red-shift of approximately 20–30 nm (with respect to Photofrin and non-metallated etiopurpurin, λmax.SnEt2 = 650 nm). Purlytin has been reported to localise in skin and produce a photoreaction 7–14 days post-administration.
Foscan
Tetra(m-hydroxyphenyl)chlorin (mTHPC) is in clinical trials for head and neck cancers under the trade name Foscan. It has also been investigated in clinical trials for gastric and pancreatic cancers, hyperplasia, field sterilisation after cancer surgery and for the control of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Foscan has a singlet oxygen quantum yield comparable to other chlorin photosensitisers but lower drug and light doses (approximately 100 times more photoactive than Photofrin).
Foscan can render patients photosensitive for up to 20 days after initial illumination.
Lutex
Lutetium texaphyrin, marketed under the trade name Lutex and Lutrin, is a large porphyrin-like molecule. Texaphyrins are expanded porphyrins that have a penta-aza core. It offers strong absorption in the 730–770 nm region. Tissue transparency is optimal in this range. As a result, Lutex-based PDT can (potentially) be carried out more effectively at greater depths and on larger tumours.
Lutex has entered Phase II clinical trials for evaluation against breast cancer and malignant melanomas.
A Lutex derivative, Antrin, has undergone Phase I clinical trials for the prevention of restenosis of vessels after cardiac angioplasty by photoinactivating foam cells that accumulate within arteriolar plaques. A second Lutex derivative, Optrin, is in Phase I trials for AMD.
Texaphyrins also have potential as radiosensitisers (Xcytrin) and chemosensitisers. Xcytrin, a gadolinium texaphyrin (motexafin gadolinium), has been evaluated in Phase III clinical trials against brain metastases and Phase I clinical trials for primary brain tumours.
ATMPn
9-Acetoxy-2,7,12,17-tetrakis-(β-methoxyethyl)-porphycene has been evaluated as an agent for dermatological applications against psoriasis vulgaris and superficial non-melanoma skin cancer.
Zinc phthalocyanine
A liposomal formulation of zinc phthalocyanine (CGP55847) has undergone clinical trials (Phase I/II, Switzerland) against squamous cell carcinomas of the upper aerodigestive tract. Phthalocyanines (PCs) are related to tetra-aza porphyrins. Instead of four bridging carbon atoms at the meso-positions, as for the porphyrins, PCs have four nitrogen atoms linking the pyrrolic sub-units. PCs also have an extended conjugate pathway: a benzene ring is fused to the β-positions of each of the four-pyrrolic sub-units. These rings strengthen the absorption of the chromophore at longer wavelengths (with respect to porphyrins). The absorption band of PCs is almost two orders of magnitude stronger than the highest Q band of haematoporphyrin. These favourable characteristics, along with the ability to selectively functionalise their peripheral structure, make PCs favourable photosensitiser candidates.
A sulphonated aluminium PC derivative (Photosense) has entered clinical trials (Russia) against skin, breast and lung malignancies and cancer of the gastrointestinal tract. Sulphonation significantly increases PC solubility in polar solvents including water, circumventing the need for alternative delivery vehicles.
PC4 is a silicon complex under investigation for the sterilisation of blood components against human colon, breast and ovarian cancers and against glioma.
A shortcoming of many of the metallo-PCs is their tendency to aggregate in aqueous buffer (pH 7.4), resulting in a decrease, or total loss, of their photochemical activity. This behaviour can be minimised in the presence of detergents.
Metallated cationic porphyrazines (PZ), including PdPZ+, CuPZ+, CdPZ+, MgPZ+, AlPZ+ and GaPZ+, have been tested in vitro on V-79 (Chinese hamster lung fibroblast) cells. These photosensitisers display substantial dark toxicity.
Naphthalocyanines
Naphthalocyanines (NCs) are an extended PC derivative. They have an additional benzene ring attached to each isoindole sub-unit on the periphery of the PC structure. Subsequently, NCs absorb strongly at even longer wavelengths (approximately 740–780 nm) than PCs (670–780 nm). This absorption in the near infrared region makes NCs candidates for highly pigmented tumours, including melanomas, which present significant absorption problems for visible light.
However, problems associated with NC photosensitisers include lower stability, as they decompose in the presence of light and oxygen. Metallo-NCs, which lack axial ligands, have a tendency to form H-aggregates in solution. These aggregates are photoinactive, thus compromising the photodynamic efficacy of NCs.
Silicon naphthalocyanine attached to copolymer PEG-PCL (poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone)) accumulates selectively in cancer cells and reaches a maximum concentration after about one day. The compound provides real time near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging with an extinction coefficient of 2.8 × 105 M−1 cm−1 and combinatorial phototherapy with dual photothermal and photodynamic therapeutic mechanisms that may be appropriate for adriamycin-resistant tumors. The particles had a hydrodynamic size of 37.66 ± 0.26 nm (polydispersity index = 0.06) and surface charge of −2.76 ± 1.83 mV.
Functional groups
Altering the peripheral functionality of porphyrin-type chromophores can affect photodynamic activity.
Diamino platinum porphyrins show high anti-tumour activity, demonstrating the combined effect of the cytotoxicity of the platinum complex and the photodynamic activity of the porphyrin species.
Positively charged PC derivatives have been investigated. Cationic species are believed to selectively localise in the mitochondria.
Zinc and copper cationic derivatives have been investigated. The positively charged zinc complexed PC is less photodynamically active than its neutral counterpart in vitro against V-79 cells.
Water-soluble cationic porphyrins bearing nitrophenyl, aminophenyl, hydroxyphenyl and/or pyridiniumyl functional groups exhibit varying cytotoxicity to cancer cells in vitro, depending on the nature of the metal ion (Mn, Fe, Zn, Ni) and on the number and type of functional groups. The manganese pyridiniumyl derivative has shown the highest photodynamic activity, while the nickel analogue is photoinactive.
Another metallo-porphyrin complex, the iron chelate, is more photoactive (towards HIV and simian immunodeficiency virus in MT-4 cells) than the manganese complexes; the zinc derivative is photoinactive.
The hydrophilic sulphonated porphyrins and PCs (AlPorphyrin and AlPC) compounds were tested for photodynamic activity. The disulphonated analogues (with adjacent substituted sulphonated groups) exhibited greater photodynamic activity than their di-(symmetrical), mono-, tri- and tetra-sulphonated counterparts; tumour activity increased with increasing degree of sulphonation.
Third generation
Many photosensitisers are poorly soluble in aqueous media, particularly at physiological pH, limiting their use.
Alternate delivery strategies range from the use of oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions to carrier vehicles such as liposomes and nanoparticles. Although these systems may increase therapeutic effects, the carrier system may inadvertently decrease the "observed" singlet oxygen quantum yield (ΦΔ): the singlet oxygen generated by the photosensitiser must diffuse out of the carrier system; and since singlet oxygen is believed to have a narrow radius of action, it may not reach the target cells. The carrier may limit light absorption, reducing singlet oxygen yield.
Another alternative that does not display the scattering problem is the use of moieties. Strategies include directly attaching photosensitisers to biologically active molecules such as antibodies.
Metallation
Various metals form into complexes with photosensitiser macrocycles. Multiple second generation photosensitisers contain a chelated central metal ion. The main candidates are transition metals, although photosensitisers co-ordinated to group 13 (Al, AlPcS4) and group 14 (Si, SiNC and Sn, SnEt2) metals have been synthesised.
The metal ion does not confer definite photoactivity on the complex. Copper (II), cobalt (II), iron (II) and zinc (II) complexes of Hp are all photoinactive in contrast to metal-free porphyrins. However, texaphyrin and PC photosensitisers do not contain metals; only the metallo-complexes have demonstrated efficient photosensitisation.
The central metal ion, bound by a number of photosensitisers, strongly influences the photophysical properties of the photosensitiser. Chelation of paramagnetic metals to a PC chromophore appears to shorten triplet lifetimes (down to nanosecond range), generating variations in the triplet quantum yield and triplet lifetime of the photoexcited triplet state.
Certain heavy metals are known to enhance inter-system crossing (ISC). Generally, diamagnetic metals promote ISC and have a long triplet lifetime. In contrast, paramagnetic species deactivate excited states, reducing the excited-state lifetime and preventing photochemical reactions. However, exceptions to this generalisation include copper octaethylbenzochlorin.
Many metallated paramagnetic texaphyrin species exhibit triplet-state lifetimes in the nanosecond range. These results are mirrored by metallated PCs. PCs metallated with diamagnetic ions, such as Zn2+, Al3+ and Ga3+, generally yield photosensitisers with desirable quantum yields and lifetimes (ΦT 0.56, 0.50 and 0.34 and τT 187, 126 and 35 μs, respectively). Photosensitiser ZnPcS4 has a singlet oxygen quantum yield of 0.70; nearly twice that of most other mPCs (ΦΔ at least 0.40).
Expanded metallo-porphyrins
Expanded porphyrins have a larger central binding cavity, increasing the range of potential metals.
Diamagnetic metallo-texaphyrins have shown photophysical properties; high triplet quantum yields and efficient generation of singlet oxygen. In particular, the zinc and cadmium derivatives display triplet quantum yields close to unity. In contrast, the paramagnetic metallo-texaphyrins, Mn-Tex, Sm-Tex and Eu-Tex, have undetectable triplet quantum yields. This behaviour is parallel with that observed for the corresponding metallo-porphyrins.
The cadmium-texaphyrin derivative has shown in vitro photodynamic activity against human leukemia cells and Gram positive (Staphylococcus) and Gram negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. Although follow-up studies have been limited with this photosensitiser due to the toxicity of the complexed cadmium ion.
A zinc-metallated seco-porphyrazine has a high quantum singlet oxygen yield (ΦΔ 0.74). This expanded porphyrin-like photosensitiser has shown the best singlet oxygen photosensitising ability of any of the reported seco-porphyrazines. Platinum and palladium derivatives have been synthesised with singlet oxygen quantum yields of 0.59 and 0.54, respectively.
Metallochlorins/bacteriochlorins
The tin (IV) purpurins are more active when compared with analogous zinc (II) purpurins, against human cancers.
Sulphonated benzochlorin derivatives demonstrated a reduced phototherapeutic response against murine leukemia L1210 cells in vitro and transplanted urothelial cell carcinoma in rats, whereas the tin (IV) metallated benzochlorins exhibited an increased photodynamic effect in the same tumour model.
Copper octaethylbenzochlorin demonstrated greater photoactivity towards leukemia cells in vitro and a rat bladder tumour model. It may derive from interactions between the cationic iminium group and biomolecules. Such interactions may allow electron-transfer reactions to take place via the short-lived excited singlet state and lead to the formation of radicals and radical ions. The copper-free derivative exhibited a tumour response with short intervals between drug administration and photodynamic activity. Increased in vivo activity was observed with the zinc benzochlorin analogue.
Metallo-phthalocyanines
PCs properties are strongly influenced by the central metal ion. Co-ordination of transition metal ions gives metallo-complexes with short triplet lifetimes (nanosecond range), resulting in different triplet quantum yields and lifetimes (with respect to the non-metallated analogues). Diamagnetic metals such as zinc, aluminium and gallium, generate metallo-phthalocyanines (MPC) with high triplet quantum yields (ΦT ≥ 0.4) and short lifetimes (ZnPCS4 τT = 490 Fs and AlPcS4 τT = 400 Fs) and high singlet oxygen quantum yields (ΦΔ ≥ 0.7). As a result, ZnPc and AlPc have been evaluated as second generation photosensitisers active against certain tumours.
Metallo-naphthocyaninesulfobenzo-porphyrazines (M-NSBP)
Aluminium (Al3+) has been successfully coordinated to M-NSBP. The resulting complex showed photodynamic activity against EMT-6 tumour-bearing Balb/c mice (disulphonated analogue demonstrated greater photoactivity than the mono-derivative).
Metallo-naphthalocyanines
Work with zinc NC with various amido substituents revealed that the best phototherapeutic response (Lewis lung carcinoma in mice) with a tetrabenzamido analogue. Complexes of silicon (IV) NCs with two axial ligands in anticipation the ligands minimise aggregation. Disubstituted analogues as potential photodynamic agents (a siloxane NC substituted with two methoxyethyleneglycol ligands) are an efficient photosensitiser against Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. SiNC[OSi(i-Bu)2-n-C18H37]2 is effective against Balb/c mice MS-2 fibrosarcoma cells. Siloxane NCs may be efficacious photosensitisers against EMT-6 tumours in Balb/c mice. The ability of metallo-NC derivatives (AlNc) to generate singlet oxygen is weaker than the analogous (sulphonated) metallo-PCs (AlPC); reportedly 1.6–3 orders of magnitude less.
In porphyrin systems, the zinc ion (Zn2+) appears to hinder the photodynamic activity of the compound. By contrast, in the higher/expanded π-systems, zinc-chelated dyes form complexes with good to high results.
An extensive study of metallated texaphyrins focused on the lanthanide (III) metal ions, Y, In, Lu, Cd, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm and Yb found that when diamagnetic Lu (III) was complexed to texaphyrin, an effective photosensitiser (Lutex) was generated. However, using the paramagnetic Gd (III) ion for the Lu metal, exhibited no photodynamic activity. The study found a correlation between the excited-singlet and triplet state lifetimes and the rate of ISC of the diamagnetic texaphyrin complexes, Y(III), In (III) and Lu (III) and the atomic number of the cation.
Paramagnetic metallo-texaphyrins displayed rapid ISC. Triplet lifetimes were strongly affected by the choice of metal ion. The diamagnetic ions (Y, In and Lu) displayed triplet lifetimes ranging from 187, 126 and 35 μs, respectively. Comparable lifetimes for the paramagnetic species (Eu-Tex 6.98 μs, Gd-Tex 1.11, Tb-Tex < 0.2, Dy-Tex 0.44 × 10−3, Ho-Tex 0.85 × 10−3, Er-Tex 0.76 × 10−3, Tm-Tex 0.12 × 10−3 and Yb-Tex 0.46) were obtained.
Three measured paramagnetic complexes measured significantly lower than the diamagnetic metallo-texaphyrins.
In general, singlet oxygen quantum yields closely followed the triplet quantum yields.
Various diamagnetic and paramagnetic texaphyrins investigated have independent photophysical behaviour with respect to a complex's magnetism. The diamagnetic complexes were characterised by relatively high fluorescence quantum yields, excited-singlet and triplet lifetimes and singlet oxygen quantum yields; in distinct contrast to the paramagnetic species.
The +2 charged diamagnetic species appeared to exhibit a direct relationship between their fluorescence quantum yields, excited state lifetimes, rate of ISC and the atomic number of the metal ion. The greatest diamagnetic ISC rate was observed for Lu-Tex; a result ascribed to the heavy atom effect. The heavy atom effect also held for the Y-Tex, In-Tex and Lu-Tex triplet quantum yields and lifetimes. The triplet quantum yields and lifetimes both decreased with increasing atomic number. The singlet oxygen quantum yield correlated with this observation.
Photophysical properties displayed by paramagnetic species were more complex. The observed data/behaviour was not correlated with the number of unpaired electrons located on the metal ion. For example:
ISC rates and the fluorescence lifetimes gradually decreased with increasing atomic number.
Gd-Tex and Tb-Tex chromophores showed (despite more unpaired electrons) slower rates of ISC and longer lifetimes than Ho-Tex or Dy-Tex.
To achieve selective target cell destruction, while protecting normal tissues, either the photosensitizer can be applied locally to the target area, or targets can be locally illuminated. Skin conditions, including acne, psoriasis and also skin cancers, can be treated topically and locally illuminated. For internal tissues and cancers, intravenously administered photosensitizers can be illuminated using endoscopes and fiber optic catheters.
Photosensitizers can target viral and microbial species, including HIV and MRSA. Using PDT, pathogens present in samples of blood and bone marrow can be decontaminated before the samples are used further for transfusions or transplants. PDT can also eradicate a wide variety of pathogens of the skin and of the oral cavities. Given the seriousness that drug resistant pathogens have now become, there is increasing research into PDT as a new antimicrobial therapy.
Applications
Acne
PDT is currently in clinical trials as a treatment for severe acne. Initial results have shown for it to be effective as a treatment only for severe acne. A systematic review conducted in 2016 found that PDT is a "safe and effective method of treatment" for acne. The treatment may cause severe redness and moderate to severe pain and burning sensation in some people. (see also: Levulan) One phase II trial, while it showed improvement, was not superior to blue/violet light alone.
Cancer
The FDA has approved photodynamic therapy to treat: actinic keratosis, advanced cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, Barrett esophagus, basal cell skin cancer, esophageal (throat) cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, squamous cell skin cancer (Stage 0). Photodynamic therapy is also used to relieve symptoms of some cancers, including: esophageal cancer when it blocks the throat and non-small cell lung cancer when it blocks the airways.
When cells that have absorbed photosensitizers are exposed to a specific wavelength of light, the photosensitizer produces a form of oxygen, called an oxygen radical, that kills them. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) may also damage blood vessels in the tumor, which prevents it from receiving the blood it needs to keep growing. PDT may trigger the immune system to attack tumor cells, even in other areas of the body.
PDT is a minimally invasive treatment that is used to treat many conditions including: acne, psoriasis, age related macular degeneration, and several cancers such as skin, lung, brain, mesothelioma, bladder, bile-duct, esophageal, and head and neck cancers.
How photodynamic therapy treats cancer: When cells that have absorbed photosensitizers are exposed to a specific wavelength of light, the photosensitizer produces an oxygen radical, that kills them.
Photodynamic therapy may also damage blood vessels in the tumor, which prevents it from receiving the blood it needs to keep growing. PDT may trigger the immune system to attack tumor cells, even in other areas of the body.
In February 2019, medical scientists announced that iridium attached to albumin, creating a photosensitized molecule, can penetrate cancer cells and, after being irradiated with light, destroy the cancer cells.
Ophthalmology
As cited above, verteporfin was widely approved for the treatment of wet AMD beginning in 1999. The drug targets the neovasculature that is caused by the condition.
Photoimmunotherapy
Photoimmunotherapy is an oncological treatment for various cancers that combines photodynamic therapy of tumor with immunotherapy treatment. Combining photodynamic therapy with immunotherapy enhances the immunostimulating response and has synergistic effects for metastatic cancer treatment.
Vascular targeting
Some photosensitisers naturally accumulate in the endothelial cells of vascular tissue allowing 'vascular targeted' PDT.
Verteporfin was shown to target the neovasculature resulting from macular degeneration in the macula within the first thirty minutes after intravenous administration of the drug.
Compared to normal tissues, most types of cancers are especially active in both the uptake and accumulation of photosensitizers agents, which makes cancers especially vulnerable to PDT. Since photosensitizers can also have a high affinity for vascular endothelial cells.
Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT) or Photodisinfection
Numerous studies and literature reviews have found that photodynamic disinfection is effective at killing a broad spectrum of pathogens, including drug-resistant bacteria, viruses, and fungi, while also inactivating inflammatory cytokines, helping speed the process of healing. Photodynamic disinfection remains fully effective after many repeat treatments, showing no sign of engendering resistance formation. aPDT can effectively treat CRS polymicrobial antibiotic resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and MRSA biofilms in a maxillary sinus cavity model.
Some photosensitizers have been chemically modified to incorporate into the mycomembrane of mycobacteria. These molecules show promising in vitro activity and are potential candidates for targeted delivery of photosensitizers.
Furthermore, antibacterial photodynamic therapy has the potential to kill multidrug-resistant pathogenic bacteria very effectively and is recognized for its low potential to induce drug resistance in bacteria, which can be rapidly developed against traditional antibiotic therapy.
Antitumor Vaccines
Preclinical studies have shown that photodynamic therapy (PDT) of tumors augments the host antitumor immune response. However, the role of the PDT effect on tumor cells as opposed to the host tissues has not been determined. Research shows that the PDT-generated tumor cell lysates were potent vaccines and that PDT-generated vaccines may be more effective than other modes of creating whole tumor vaccines. PDT vaccines are tumor specific and appear to induce a cytotoxic T-cell response. Results show that PDT effects on tumor cells alone are sufficient to generate an antitumor immune response, indicating that the direct tumor effects of PDT play an important role in enhancing that host antitumor immune response. Studies also suggest that PDT-generated vaccines may have clinical potential as an adjuvant therapy.
History
Modern era
In the late nineteenth century. Finsen successfully demonstrated phototherapy by employing heat-filtered light from a carbon-arc lamp (the "Finsen lamp") in the treatment of a tubercular condition of the skin known as lupus vulgaris, for which he won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
In 1913 another German scientist, Meyer-Betz, described the major stumbling block of photodynamic therapy. After injecting himself with haematoporphyrin (Hp, a photosensitiser), he swiftly experienced a general skin sensitivity upon exposure to sunlight—a recurrent problem with many photosensitisers.
The first evidence that agents, photosensitive synthetic dyes, in combination with a light source and oxygen could have potential therapeutic effect was made at the turn of the 20th century in the laboratory of Hermann von Tappeiner in Munich, Germany. Germany was leading the world in industrial dye synthesis at the time.
While studying the effects of acridine on paramecia cultures, Oscar Raab, a student of von Tappeiner observed a toxic effect. Fortuitously Raab also observed that light was required to kill the paramecia. Subsequent work in von Tappeiner's laboratory showed that oxygen was essential for the 'photodynamic action' – a term coined by von Tappeiner.
Von Tappeiner and colleagues performed the first PDT trial in patients with skin carcinoma using the photosensitizer, eosin. Of six patients with a facial basal cell carcinoma, treated with a 1% eosin solution and long-term exposure either to sunlight or arc-lamp light, four patients showed total tumour resolution and a relapse-free period of 12 months.
In 1924 Policard revealed the diagnostic capabilities of hematoporphyrin fluorescence when he observed that ultraviolet radiation excited red fluorescence in the sarcomas of laboratory rats. Policard hypothesized that the fluorescence was associated with endogenous hematoporphyrin accumulation.
In 1948 Figge and co-workers showed on laboratory animals that porphyrins exhibit a preferential affinity to rapidly dividing cells, including malignant, embryonic and regenerative cells. They proposed that porphyrins could be used to treat cancer.
Photosensitizer Haematoporphyrin Derivative (HpD), was first characterised in 1960 by Lipson. Lipson sought a diagnostic agent suitable for tumor detection. HpD allowed Lipson to pioneer the use of endoscopes and HpD fluorescence. HpD is a porphyrin species derived from haematoporphyrin, Porphyrins have long been considered as suitable agents for tumour photodiagnosis and tumour PDT because cancerous cells exhibit significantly greater uptake and affinity for porphyrins compared to normal tissues. This had been observed by other researchers prior to Lipson.
Thomas Dougherty and co-workers at Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York, clinically tested PDT in 1978. They treated 113 cutaneous or subcutaneous malignant tumors with HpD and observed total or partial resolution of 111 tumors. Dougherty helped expand clinical trials and formed the International Photodynamic Association, in 1986.
John Toth, product manager for Cooper Medical Devices Corp/Cooper Lasersonics, noticed the "photodynamic chemical effect" of the therapy and wrote the first white paper naming the therapy "Photodynamic Therapy" (PDT) with early clinical argon dye lasers circa 1981. The company set up 10 clinical sites in Japan where the term "radiation" had negative connotations.
HpD, under the brand name Photofrin, was the first PDT agent approved for clinical use in 1993 to treat a form of bladder cancer in Canada. Over the next decade, both PDT and the use of HpD received international attention and greater clinical acceptance and led to the first PDT treatments approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration Japan and parts of Europe for use against certain cancers of the oesophagus and non-small cell lung cancer.
Photofrin had the disadvantages of prolonged patient photosensitivity and a weak long-wavelength absorption (630 nm). This led to the development of second generation photosensitisers, including Verteporfin (a benzoporphyrin derivative, also known as Visudyne) and more recently, third generation targetable photosensitisers, such as antibody-directed photosensitisers.
In the 1980s, David Dolphin, Julia Levy and colleagues developed a novel photosensitizer, verteporfin. Verteporfin, a porphyrin derivative, is activated at 690 nm, a much longer wavelength than Photofrin. It has the property of preferential uptake by neovasculature. It has been widely tested for its use in treating skin cancers and received FDA approval in 2000 for the treatment of wet age related macular degeneration. As such it was the first medical treatment ever approved for this condition, which is a major cause of vision loss.
Russian scientists pioneered a photosensitizer called Photogem which, like HpD, was derived from haematoporphyrin in 1990 by Mironov and coworkers. Photogem was approved by the Ministry of Health of Russia and tested clinically from February 1992 to 1996. A pronounced therapeutic effect was observed in 91 percent of the 1500 patients. 62 percent had total tumor resolution. A further 29 percent had >50% tumor shrinkage. In early diagnosis patients 92 percent experienced complete resolution.
Russian scientists collaborated with NASA scientists who were looking at the use of LEDs as more suitable light sources, compared to lasers, for PDT applications.
Since 1990, the Chinese have been developing clinical expertise with PDT, using domestically produced photosensitizers, derived from Haematoporphyrin. China is notable for its expertise in resolving difficult-to-reach tumours.
Photodynamic and photobiology organizations
International Photodynamic Association (IPA)
American Society for Photobiology (ASP)
PanAmerican PDT Association
European Society for Photobiology (ESP)
Miscellany
PUVA therapy uses psoralen as photosensitiser and UVA ultraviolet as light source, but this form of therapy is usually classified as a separate form of therapy from photodynamic therapy.
To allow treatment of deeper tumours some researchers are using internal chemiluminescence to activate the photosensitiser.
See also
Blood irradiation therapy
Laser medicine
Light Harvesting Materials
Photoimmunotherapy
Photomedicine
Photopharmacology
Photostatin
Sonodynamic therapy
Photosensitizer
Nanodumbbells, being studied for possible use in photodynamic therapy
References
External links
International Photodynamic Association
Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer from the NCI
Cancer treatments
Medical physics
Laser medicine
Light therapy
|
416764
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965%20Palm%20Sunday%20tornado%20outbreak
|
1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak
|
On April 10–12, 1965, a devastating severe weather event affected the Midwestern and Southeastern United States. The tornado outbreak produced 55 confirmed tornadoes in one day and 16 hours. The worst part of the outbreak occurred during the afternoon hours of April 11 into the overnight hours going into April 12. The second-largest tornado outbreak on record at the time, this deadly series of tornadoes, which became known as the 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak, inflicted a swath of destruction from Cedar County, Iowa, to Cuyahoga County, Ohio, and a swath from Kent County, Michigan, to Montgomery County, Indiana. The main part of the outbreak lasted 16 hours and 35 minutes and is among the most intense outbreaks, in terms of tornado strength, ever recorded, including at least four "double/twin funnel" tornadoes. In all, the outbreak killed 266 people, injured 3,662 others, and caused $1.217 billion (1965 USD) in damage.
Background
A vigorous extratropical cyclone centered over the northeastern High Plains, in the region of the Dakotas, was the primary catalyst for widespread severe weather on April 11, 1965. As early as the preceding day, a strong jet stream in the upper two-thirds of the troposphere traversed the southern Great Plains and was responsible for an outbreak of tornadoes from the Kansas–Missouri border to Central Arkansas, including a violent tornado that struck the town of Conway in Faulkner County, Arkansas, killing six people and injuring 200. The following morning, at 7:00 a.m. CDT (12:00 UTC), data from radiosondes indicated wind speeds of between the altitudes of over the Sonoran–Chihuahua Deserts and the Arizona/New Mexico Mountains. Meanwhile, at , winds of impinged on the southern Great Plains. Retreating northward, a warm front interacted with a shortwave to produce isolated thunderstorms from northern Missouri and Central Illinois to the Lower Peninsula of Michigan.
The well-defined surface cyclone over the High Plains intensified as it headed into Iowa, its central pressure decreasing from by 1:00 p.m. CDT (18:00 UTC). As the warm front bisected central Iowa and stretched into Illinois and Indiana, a cold front and very dry air aloft—indicative of a potent elevated mixed layer—departed from eastern Kansas. Strong winds transported steep lapse rates within the elevated mixed layer eastward across the Great Plains. Concomitant destabilization of the atmosphere occurred over the warm sector due to abundant sunshine from the elevated mixed layer. High temperatures ranged from from Chicago to St. Louis. Simultaneously, a strong low-level jet stream brought a moistening air mass northward: dew points of at least reached southernmost Illinois and Indiana by 10:00 a.m. CDT (15:00 UTC). Meanwhile, a pronounced dry line-like boundary near the cold front moved into eastern sections of Arkansas and Missouri. Weather stations from Topeka, Kansas, to Peoria, Illinois, showed very strong vertical shear that favored intense low-level convergence—combined with a moist dew point in the warm sector, an environment favorable for supercell thunderstorms.
A weather balloon launched from Dodge City, Kansas, recorded winds of aloft; another at Peoria, Illinois, subsequently measured . Minimum dew points of reached as far north as southern Michigan by mid afternoon. Volatile atmospheric conditions led to thunderstorm activity over eastern Iowa by 1:40–48 p.m. CDT (18:40–48 UTC), the first supercell of which produced the initial tornado of the day. By 6:00 p.m. CDT (23:00 UTC), instability reached record proportions for the time of year over a wide area, with convective available potential energy (CAPE) of at least 1,000 j/kg in the mixed layer over much of Indiana and southernmost Michigan. Record-breaking ambient vertical wind shear in the lowest of the atmosphere facilitated the explosive development of long-lived mesocyclones and thus long-tracked tornado families. The very strong shear and rapid forward speed of the storms—up to in some cases—may have enhanced the formation of cyclic supercells and could account for numerous reports of multiple mesocyclones and twin tornadoes, including the famous "twin tornadoes" near Elkhart, Indiana; similar conditions yielded the Tri-State Tornado, the longest-tracked and deadliest in U.S. history, on March 18, 1925.
At 11:45 a.m. CDT (16:45 UTC) on April 11, the Severe Local Storms Unit (SELS) in Kansas City, Missouri, issued an outlook that mentioned the possibility of tornadoes from northeastern Missouri to the northernmost two-thirds of Indiana. At 2:00 p.m. CDT (19:00 UTC)—fifteen minutes after the first tornado was spotted—the first tornado watch of the day was issued, covering portions of northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin. A total of four watches were issued on April 11–12. For the first time in the U.S. Weather Bureau's history, an entire Weather Bureau Office's jurisdiction, in Northern Indiana, was under a tornado warning; this was termed a "blanket tornado warning" and was later used by several National Weather Service (NWS) offices on April 3, 1974.
Confirmed tornadoes
Lakewood–Crystal Lake–Burtons Bridge–Island Lake, Illinois
This devastating tornado was first detected at 4:27 p.m. CDT (21:27 UTC), but officially touched down seven minutes earlier, in Lakewood. At that time the tornado first produced visible damage, at the Crystal Lake Country Club; two firs on the golf course were prostrated. Initially narrow, the tornado subsequently and rapidly widened to . Crossing Nash Street and McHenry Avenue in Crystal Lake, the tornado unroofed or severely damaged several houses. Alongside U.S. Route 14 the tornado claimed its first fatality, a man in a barn. Nearby gas stations and a strip mall were damaged. At the latter place, a roof sheltering a Piggly Wiggly and a Neisner's collapsed, trapping 20 or more people below. The tornado tossed cars about in the parking lot as well. Shortly afterward, the tornado struck the Colby subdivision, destroying or severely damaging 155 homes. F4-level damage occurred as several homes were completely swept off their foundations. Four deaths occurred in the neighborhood, including three in one family whose home was obliterated. Their bodies were located two blocks distant and a pickup truck was found to have landed in the basement. The tornado scattered debris from the Colby subdivision up to a away.
After ravaging the Colby neighborhood, the tornado destroyed a number of warehouses and shattered windows. A diesel plant, a wallpaper factory, and a manufacturer sustained damage ranging from light to heavy. The tornado then extensively damaged the Orchard Acres subdivision, crossed Illinois Route 31, and apparently weakened before impacting farmland. A few barns and isolated trees were damaged. The tornado may have dissipated and reformed as a new tornado near the Fox River. The tornado also struck the community of Burtons Bridge. The tornado, now wide, then restrengthened and felled mature oak trees as it crested a precipitous hill before striking Bay View Beach. There the tornado badly damaged a number of homes and downed willow trees. Finally, the tornado intersected Illinois Route 176 and produced its final swath of significant damage in Island Lake. In Island Lake the tornado tossed boats ashore, wrecked piers, and caused homes to collapse, resulting in one additional death. The tornado also displaced several homes from their foundations. The tornado neared U.S. Route 12 as it dissipated at 3:42 p.m. CST (21:42 UTC). Damage estimates were set at about $1.5 million.
Northern Goshen–Midway, Indiana
This was the most famous and well-publicized of the Palm Sunday tornadoes, often remembered as the first of two F4 tornadoes to hit the Dunlap (Elkhart)–Goshen area. It formed near the St. Joseph–Elkhart County border and tracked northeastward, striking Wakarusa, where it caused severe damage and killed a child. The tornado then intensified significantly as it moved toward northern Goshen and the Midway Trailer Court. As it neared the trailer park, Elkhart Truth reporter Paul Huffman, then reporting on severe weather, overheard a report of a tornado approaching his position on U.S. Route 33, about south of Midway. As Huffman awaited the storm, he noticed the tornado approaching from the southwest, so he began taking a series of photographs, six in all. The photographs captured the evolution of the storm into twin funnels as it struck the trailer park, with each funnel gyrating around a central point yet only producing one damage swath. The tornado struck the trailer park at 6:32 p.m. CDT (23:32 UTC). (Roughly 45 minutes later, another F4 tornado passed just to the north of the Midway Trailer Court, splitting into yet another pair of funnels as it struck the Sunnyside neighborhood in Dunlap.) The tornado obliterated roughly 80% of the trailer park, with 10 deaths, and caused F4 damage to numerous other homes near Middlebury, some of which were swept clean. Three more people died in the Middlebury area before the tornado ended. While officially considered one tornado, recent studies indicate that the event consisted of two tornadoes and was not a multiple-vortex event. Unofficial estimates of the death toll vary, with Grazulis listing 14 deaths instead of the 31 appearing in the official National Climatic Data Center/National Centers for Environmental Information (NCDC/NCEI) database. An airplane wing from Goshen Airport was found away in Centreville, Michigan.
Coldwater Lake–Southern Hillsdale–Manitou Beach–Devils Lake–Southern Tecumseh, Michigan (two tornadoes)
With the telephone lines down, emergency services in Elkhart County, Indiana, could not warn Michigan residents that the tornadoes were headed their way. From the Detroit Metropolitan Airport, the radar operator at the U.S. Weather Bureau Office (WBO) observed that the thunderstorms over Northern Indiana and western Lower Michigan were moving east-northeastward at . Of the southernmost counties of Michigan, all but three—Berrien, Cass, and St. Joseph—were hit.
Starting just south of the Indiana-Michigan state line, near Orland, the first, deadliest, and strongest of two massive tornadoes, each rated F4, debarked trees and leveled homes on the shoreline of Lake Pleasant in Steuben County. Crossing into Branch County, Michigan, the tornado damaged more homes in East Gilead. The tornado was up to wide as it obliterated homes on Coldwater Lake; 18 deaths occurred there. Debris from the empty foundations was strewn over the surface of the lake and deposited in a small cove. The tornado destroyed 200 homes and caused one additional death as it traversed Branch County. After striking Coldwater Lake, the tornado widened even further, up to across, destroying a century-old farmhouse and killing a family of six near Reading. The tornado then narrowed back to as it struck Baw Beese Lake, near the southern edge of Hillsdale. The tornado hurled a New York Central Railroad freight train into Baw Beese Lake. Across Hillsdale County the tornado killed 11 or more people and destroyed 177 homes.
Entering Lenawee County, the tornado traversed the Irish Hills and approached Manitou Beach–Devils Lake. As it struck Manitou Beach–Devils Lake, the tornado destroyed the Manitou Beach Baptist Church; of the 50 people then in attendance for Palm Sunday services, 26 failed to reach shelter in time and were stranded beneath debris for up to two hours. Eight fatalities occurred in the church. The local dance pavilion on Devils Lake was demolished, having recently been rebuilt after a fire on Labor Day in 1963. One of the tornadoes damaged parts of Onsted; in the nearby village of Tipton, which suffered a direct hit, 94% of the town's buildings were damaged or destroyed. Across Lenawee County the tornado destroyed 189 homes. About 30 minutes later, the Manitou Beach–Devils Lake area in Lenawee County was hit by the second of the two tornadoes, causing numerous fatalities, including a family of six in eastern Lenawee County. Many homes were hit twice.
One or both F4 tornadoes struck the then-Village of Milan, south of Ann Arbor. The Wolverine Plastics building on the Monroe County side of town, then the top employer in the village, was destroyed with the roof being completely removed in the process. The Milan Junior High School was seriously damaged along with the adjacent, senior high school, disused since 1958, at Hurd and North streets, on the Washtenaw County side of Milan. Milan became a city in 1967; opened a new Middle School in 1969, which replaced the old Junior High School; and eventually demolished the 1900 building that housed the former junior and senior high schools.
The first of the F4 tornadoes produced a wind gust at Tecumseh—the highest wind measurement in a tornado until a measurement of near Red Rock, Oklahoma, on April 26, 1991; a higher measurement of —later corrected to —in the F5 tornado of May 3, 1999, broke this record. Damage from the two tornadoes was difficult to separate and covered more than across, including much downburst and microburst destruction. Total damage estimates from the two tornadoes were $32 million with more than 550 homes, a church, and 100 cottages destroyed.
Southern Elkhart–Dunlap, Indiana
This was the second and deadliest of two violent tornadoes to strike the Elkhart–Goshen area, with the highest single-tornado death toll in the outbreak. It hit Dunlap about an hour after another F4 tornado hit the Midway trailer park a short distance to the southeast. Few people received warning due to the passage of the earlier storm, which disrupted communications and downed power lines, thereby affecting rescue efforts after the earlier tornado as well. The Dunlap tornado first produced tree damage beginning just west of State Road 331. Prior to crossing the St. Joseph–Elkhart county line, the tornado claimed its first two fatalities. As the tornado neared Dunlap, it intensified into an extremely violent tornado. It then devastated the Sunnyside Housing addition and the unoccupied Sunnyside Mennonite Church. The Sunnyside subdivision was completely destroyed, with many homes swept away. The Kingston Heights subdivision was similarly devastated. The death toll from the two subdivisions was 28 people, with another six killed in a home and truck stop at the junction of State Road 15 and U.S. Route 20. The Palm Sunday Tornado Memorial Park now exists near this location, at the corner of County Road 45 and Cole Street in Dunlap (). After striking Dunlap, the tornado apparently weakened somewhat, but still generated extensive damage eastward to Hunter Lake. Shortly before dissipating, the tornado tossed cars off the Indiana Turnpike near Scott. Like the Midway tornado, the Dunlap event was also witnessed as twin funnels: a photographer standing amidst the wreckage of the Midway Trailer Court captured the Dunlap tornado as it passed just to the north. It may have been the strongest tornado on April 11; in fact, Grazulis and other sources have assigned an F5 rating to the tornado, though it is officially rated F4.
Russiaville–Alto–Southern Kokomo–Greentown–Southern Marion, Indiana
As the Lafayette–Middlefork tornado dissipated, a new tornado developed nearby without a definite break in the damage path. Due to changes in the intensity of the damage, surveyors split the path into two separate tornadoes. At about 7:28 p.m. CDT (00:28 UTC), the new, rapidly strengthening tornado hit Russiaville, causing severe damage to the entire community. The tornado destroyed or damaged 90% of the community, though most of the damage ranged from F0–F3. The tornado then widened to across as it moved into nearby Alto, causing F4-level damage to homes, before striking the southern edge of the larger city of Kokomo. Collectively, the tornado destroyed 100 homes in Alto and Kokomo. The Maple Crest apartment complex was unroofed and incurred the collapse of its uppermost walls. As the tornado continued eastward, it apparently intensified and killed ten people in Greentown, most of whom had been in automobiles. The tornado destroyed 80 homes, many of which it obliterated and swept away, as it struck multiple subdivisions in the Greentown area. In all, the tornado killed 18 people and injured another 600 in Howard County alone. Just south of Swayzee, the tornado leveled some more homes and caused three additional deaths. As it struck the southern outskirts of Marion, the tornado leveled a pair of homes, partly unroofed a Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) hospital, and wrecked the Panorama shopping center. 20 injuries occurred at the VA hospital, and looters scavenged the shopping center. Several homes were destroyed and hundreds others damaged in Marion as well. The tornado killed five people as it traversed Grant County. Losses totaled $500.025 million, $12 million alone of which occurred near Marion.
Pittsfield–Grafton–Strongsville, Ohio
Shortly after 11:00 p.m. CDT (04:00 UTC), a tornado touched down in Lorain County, Ohio, and headed east-northeastward. Around 11:12 p.m. CDT (04:12 UTC), the tornado struck Pittsfield, Ohio, then located at the junction of Ohio State Route 303 and Ohio State Road 58. Of the settlement's 50 residents, the tornado killed seven. The tornado also killed two motorists whose arrival in town coincided with the tornado's. According to the U.S. Weather Bureau Office (WBO) in Cleveland, Ohio, the tornado produced "total" devastation as it struck Pittsfield. The tornado destroyed 12 homes, six of which "literally vanished," along with a combined gas station/grocery store, a pair of churches, and the town hall. The tornado also toppled a statue at a Civil War monument, but the concrete base of the statue remained standing.
After ravaging Pittsfield, the tornado damaged 200 homes in and near Grafton, some of which indicated F2-level intensity. A total of 17 homes were severely damaged in nearby LaGrange and Columbia Station. As the tornado reached the Cleveland metropolitan area, it diverged into two paths about a apart. Several witnesses also saw two funnels merging into one, similar to the Midway–Dunlap tornadoes. Large trees situated apart were found to have been felled in opposite directions. The tornado displayed borderline-F5-level damage in northernmost Strongsville. There, 18 homes were leveled, some of which were cleanly swept from their foundations, and 50 others were severely damaged in town. Damages amounted to at least $5 million and are officially listed as $50 million. Grazulis classified the tornado as an F5, but it is officially rated F4.
Non-tornadic effects
A vigorous, pre-frontal squall line generated severe thunderstorm winds from eastern Iowa to lakefront Illinois. Winds peaked at in Dixon, Illinois, and an anemometer at O'Hare International Airport in Chicago registered . The strong winds, coupled with hail, damaged or destroyed numerous structures, felled trees, and downed utility wires. Across Northern Illinois, numerous funnel clouds were sighted in Wheaton, Carol Stream, Winfield, West Chicago, Aurora, and Rockford, respectively. Thunderstorms also generated hail of up to in diameter as well; measurements occurred from South Dakota, Oklahoma, and Arkansas to Indiana, Mississippi, and Georgia on April 10–12.
Aftermath and recovery
In the Midwest, at least 266 people—some sources say 256–271—were killed and 1,500 injured (1,200 in Indiana). This is the fourth-deadliest day for tornadoes on record, behind April 3, 1974 (310 deaths), April 27, 2011 (324), and March 18, 1925 (747, including 695 by the Tri-State Tornado). It occurred on Palm Sunday, an important day in the Christian religion, and many people were attending services at church, one possible reason why some warnings were not received. There had been a late winter in 1965, much of March being cold and snowy; and as the day progressed, warm temperatures encouraged picnickers and sightseers. For many areas, April 11 marked the first day of above-average temperatures, so members of the public, being outdoors or attending services, failed to receive updates from radio and television. The high death toll in the outbreak despite accurate warnings led to changes in the dissemination of severe weather alerts by the Severe Local Storm Warning Center in Kansas City, Missouri, now the Norman, Oklahoma-based Storm Prediction Center. The U.S. Weather Bureau investigated the large number of deaths. Although weather-radar stations were few and far between in 1965, the severe nature of the thunderstorms was identified with adequate time to disseminate warnings. But the warning system failed as the public never received them. Additionally, the public did not know the difference between a Forecast and an Alert. Thus the terms tornado watch and tornado warning were implemented in 1966. Their discussion led to establishment of the official "watch" and "warning" procedures in use since 1966. Additionally, communities began activating civil defense sirens during tornado warnings, and storm spotting via amateur radio networks and other media received increased logistical support and emphasis, leading to the eventual creation of SKYWARN.
Five books on the 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak have been penned to date. David Wagler of Indiana released "The Mighty Whirlwind" in 1966, interviewing survivors and eyewitnesses within months after the tornadoes. Dan Cherry released "Night of the Wind" in 2002; Roger Pickenpaugh published "The Night of the Wicked Winds" in 2003; Cherry wrote "50 Years Later" in 2015 with all-color images of the aftermath; and Janis Thornton published "The 1965 Palm Sunday Tornadoes in Indiana" in 2022.
Oddities/records
Additionally, significant scientific data were gathered from aerial surveys of the tornado paths. The outbreak was the first to be studied in-depth aerially by tornado scientist Tetsuya Theodore Fujita, who proposed new theories about the structure of tornadoes based upon his study. Dr. Fujita discovered suction vortices during the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak. It had previously been thought the reason why tornadoes could hit one house and leave another across the street completely unscathed was because the tornado would "jump" from one house to another. However, Fujita discovered that the actual reason is most destruction is caused by suction vortices: small, intense mini-tornadoes within the main tornado.
The tornado outbreak generated 38 significant tornadoes, 18 of them violent—F4 or F5 on the Fujita scale of tornado intensity—and 22 deadly. Covering six states and about , the outbreak killed 266 people and became the deadliest to hit the United States since 1936, although more recently the 1974 and 2011 Super Outbreaks claimed that distinction. The 17 violent tornadoes on April 11, 1965, set a 24-hour record that stood until the first Super Outbreak produced 30 in 1974. With 137 people killed and 1,200 injured in Indiana alone, the outbreak set a 24-hour record for tornado deaths in that state; it also generated nine tornadoes of F4 or greater intensity in the same state, which set a single-state record for an outbreak until April 3, 1974.
An unusually pronounced elevated mixed layer (EML) was present over the Great Lakes region during the outbreak—a similar pattern having been observed on March 28, 1920, April 3, 1956, and April 3, 1974. A strong jet stream, combined with tornadoes, lofted topsoil from Illinois and Missouri eastward, producing hazy skies prior to the arrival of storms.
See also
Lists of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
Tornado outbreak of April 2–3, 1956 – Produced a powerful F5 tornado family in Michigan
1920 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – Generated deadly F4 tornadoes in the Great Lakes region
1994 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – Yielded long-tracked, intense tornadoes from Alabama to the Carolinas
1974 Super Outbreak – Associated with numerous violent tornadoes across much of Indiana and Greater Cincinnati
Notes
References
Sources
All articles with unsourced statements
F4 tornadoes by date
Tornadoes of 1965
Tornadoes in Illinois
Tornadoes in Indiana
Tornadoes in Michigan
Tornadoes in Ohio
Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak, 1965
Tornado outbreaks
Strongsville, Ohio
April 1965 events in the United States
1965 in Michigan
|
416768
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentley%20Arnage
|
Bentley Arnage
|
The Bentley Arnage is a full-size high performance luxury car manufactured by Bentley Motors in Crewe, England, from 1998 to 2009. The Arnage and its Rolls-Royce-branded sibling, the Silver Seraph, were introduced in the spring of 1998. They were the first entirely new designs for the two marques since 1980.
The Arnage was powered by a BMW M62 V8 engine, with Cosworth-engineered twin-turbo installation, and the Seraph employed a BMW M73 V12 engine. In September 2008, Bentley announced that production of the model would end during 2009.
Development
Following an uplift in sales for all of Rolls-Royce, and a resurgence of the Bentley marque, the then-owner, Vickers, set about developing a new model to replace the derivatives of the Rolls-Royce Silver Spirit/Bentley Mulsanne which it had been selling since 1980. In a complete switch from tradition, these new cars would have engines provided by a third-party vendor, and bodies built at the Crewe factory.
A number of potential engines were examined, including the GM Premium V engine and the Mercedes-Benz M119 engine, before, in late 1994, Vickers selected a pair of BMW power plants. It was decided that the Rolls-Royce model, to be called the Silver Seraph, would use BMW's naturally aspirated M73 V12 engine while the more-sporty Bentley model would use a special twin-turbocharged and of torque version of the company's 4.4-litre M62 V8 engine developed by Vickers subsidiary Cosworth Engineering.
This Arnage was renamed the Arnage Green Label for the 2000 model year. In addition, from 2000 to 2001, a special edition "Birkin" was produced, celebrating Tim Birkin of the "Bentley Boys."
Red Label and Green Label
During the takeover battle in 1998 between BMW and Volkswagen Group for ownership of Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motors, BMW had threatened to stop supply of their engines if Volkswagen Group won. While the threat was later withdrawn in conjunction with BMW acquiring the right to manufacture Rolls-Royce automobiles at a new location, it was clear that Volkswagen could not accept the business and reputation risks associated with having their rival as a long-term business partner. Furthermore, customers were uncertain about engine and part availability (of which there turned out to be no issue) and orders for new cars dropped precipitously. Volkswagen's response was to adapt the old 16-valve, 6.75-litre pushrod engine from the (Mulsanne) Turbo R for the Arnage body, which had been designed for the smaller and much lighter BMW 32-valve V8. Coupled with an outdated 4-speed automatic gearbox from General Motors, the engine was extremely thirsty, and would not meet government-imposed emissions standards without hasty modifications.
The revised version of the car was launched as the Arnage Red Label in October 1999. At the same time, but without fanfare, Bentley made several minor modifications to the original BMW engined cars, and designated them as the "Arnage Green Label" for the 2000 model year. The most important modifications, to both Red and Green Label cars, gave them stiffer body-shells, and larger wheels and brakes. Both the stiffer body-shells and the larger brakes were necessitated by the extra heft of the large old British engine. Despite the larger brakes, braking performance worsened with the extra weight of the 6.75 engine. The braking performance of the 1999 Green Label from 113–0 km/h was while the later Arnage T's performance was from the same speed. Revisions included:
Standard Alpine pop up navigation system.
Park distance control to the front and rear.
Increased rear seat leg room (by modifying the design of the front seatbacks).
Power folding exterior mirrors.
Modifications to the steering rack to reduce steering effort at low speeds.
The glass headlight lens covers (1998–99) were revised to plastic (2000 on).
Bentley cited customer demand as driving the reversion to the old two valve per cylinder 6.75-litre unit for the Red Label.
In reality, the outgoing BMW-powered Arnage was technically more modern, considerably more fuel efficient, and had 32 valves with double overhead camshafts, twin-turbochargers and Bosch engine management technology – as opposed to the 16-valve, single turbocharger and a pushrod engine with less advanced engine management. The Red Label's increase in motive power shaved less than a second of the 0 to acceleration time. However, the BMW twin-turbocharged unit remained noticeably more agile and responsive from a driver's perspective, due to its more responsive character, better weight balance (maintaining a 51.1/48.9 weight distribution) and almost lower curb weight. Ultimately the Green Label was more reliable and significantly less expensive to service in the long term. The key limiting factor of the BMW engine's output was the ZF 5HP30 transmission which was not rated to handle more than the of torque that the twin-turbocharged engine was tuned to produce.
Vickers had outsourced the production of the old 6.75-litre Rolls-Royce engine for use in the contemporary Continental R and Azure models to Cosworth, so reverting to the old standby engine was a natural choice for the company.
The Red Label model reverted to the old V8 engine, which boasted torque of with a single Garrett T4 turbocharger. This was the greatest amount of torque for a four-door car at the time. Also returning was the General Motors-sourced four-speed 4L80-E automatic transmission.
In total only seven Arnage Green Label units were built, all of which were left-hand-drive versions. There was a final series of cars built in 2000 with the 4.4-litre BMW engine designated the Arnage Birkin, of which 52 units were produced and are distinguishable by their three-dial as opposed to five-dial instrument center dashboard configuration.
A long-wheelbase version of the Red Label was launched at the North American International Auto Show in 2001. The Red Label models were replaced in 2002 by the Arnage R.
Model year updates
In 2001, the Arnage LWB (renamed the RL from MY2003), a long-wheelbase model ( longer than the Arnage), was launched. The extra length is added to the car at both its front and rear doors and its C-pillar to maintain its proportions. With the standard Arnage model, the rear wheel wells butt up against the rear door frames, but with the LWB & RL they are a few inches further back. The overall effect is a larger rear area inside the car. This style of saloon stretch is sometimes called "double-cut" in the United States, due to the two main points where the car is extended. (Jankel and Andy Hotton Associates, for example, are two aftermarket coachbuilders especially known for this style.) Available only as a bespoke ("Mulliner") model, each LWB & RL is customised to the desires of the buyer. The LWB, however, was also the first of a new series of Arnages which would finally cure the Bentley Arnage of the reliability and performance deficiencies experienced following its forced deprivation of the modern BMW engines it was designed to use. The RL would also present a credible challenge to BMW's attempts to revive the Rolls-Royce brand with its planned new model, the Phantom.
Wheelbases ranged from (or only slightly longer than the standard Arnage) to , and even , the latter two including a increase in the height of the roof. The wheelbase version is stretched between the front and rear doors (rather than at the C-pillar and at the rear doors). The suspension was retuned for the added weight, allowing the larger car to still handle well.
RL models were available with armoured elements, reflecting the car's clientele. A full B6 package was available for $243,000 to $300,000, offering protection from assault weapons and grenades.
Though not particularly well advertised for reasons stated above, the LWB&RL's introduction saw the introduction of an entirely reworked version of the 6.75-litre V8 engine. Where the engine used in the Red Label was a quickly and less-than-completely-satisfactorily modified version of the Turbo R's unit, the RL featured an entirely reworked version of the old 6.75-litre V8. More than half of the engine's parts were completely new, with Bosch Motronic ME7.1.1 engine management replacing the old Zytek system, and two small Garrett T3 turbochargers replacing the single large T4. This new engine was rated at and of torque and was said to be capable of meeting all future emissions requirements. The Arnage was now powered by a modern twin-turbocharged unit with state-of-the-art electronic management system similar to the original Cosworth-BMW unit developed for the model in 1998.
In 2002, Bentley updated the Red Label as the series two Arnage R. This model was launched to contrast the Arnage T, which was developed to be a more sporty variant. The Arnage R features two Garrett T3 turbochargers fitted to the engine as with the RL.
The Arnage T, also from 2002, was claimed to be the most powerful roadgoing Bentley at its launch at the Detroit Motor Show. As with the Arnage R, there were twin-turbochargers, but the engine was tuned and rated at a higher power output of and of torque. The Arnage T's 0–97 km/h (60 mph) time is 5.5 seconds and it has a claimed top speed of .
All Arnage R and T models share the same wheelbase. The Arnage range was facelifted in 2005, with a front end resembling that of the new Continental GT and old Continental R.
UK State Limousine
The Bentley State Limousine is an official state car developed by Bentley Motors Limited for Queen Elizabeth II on the occasion of her Golden Jubilee in 2002. Two were built. The car's twin-turbocharged, 6.75-litre V8 engine was modified and rated at and of torque.
2007 mechanical update
For the 2007 model year, the Garrett turbochargers were replaced with low-inertia Mitsubishi units designed to improve engine response. The engine was mated to a 6-speed ZF 6HP26 transmission also found in the Continental GT range. The new power output for the Arnage T was and of torque, while the milder Arnage R was and of torque. For the Arnage T, the factory stated a 0–97 km/h (60 mph) acceleration time of 5.2 seconds, and a top speed of .
Specifications
Arnage T
Max. power: at 4,200 rpm
Peak torque: at 3,200 rpm
0–97 km/h (0-60 mph): 5.2 seconds
0–100 km/h (0-62 mph): 5.5 s
max. speed:
Arnage R and Arnage RL
Max, power: at 4,100 rpm
Peak torque: at 1,800 rpm
0–97 km/h (0-60 mph): 5.5 seconds
0–100 km/h (0-62 mph): 5.8 seconds
max. speed:
Le Mans series
Bentley launched two limited Le Mans edition models to celebrate the occasion of Bentley's return after 71 years to racing at Le Mans. Production was planned of 50 Le Mans editions of the Continental R Mulliner and 150 of the Bentley Arnage Red label. Actually 46 copies were manufactured of the Continental R Le Mans and 153 of the Arnage Le Mans. Besides those planned models also 5 Le Mans editions were manufactured of the Continental T Le Mans and 4 of the Bentley Azure Le Mans.
The Le Mans editions didn't replace any other model but were special editions of existing models. The Arnage Le Mans was a specially enhanced edition of the Arnage Red label.
Exterior Le Mans Series Options
Exclusive quad exhaust pipes.
Ducting vents in the front wing.
Wide wheel arches and sports bumpers.
Red brake calipers.
"Le Mans Series" badges on the front quarter panel.
5-spoke sport wheels with red brake calipers.
Interior Le Mans Series Options
Unique instruments with a dark Racing Green background colour.
"Le Mans Series" lettering on the speedometer and rev counter.
Dark finished burr walnut on the Arnage Red Label with the Bentley wings etched in intricate detail and inlaid into the waist rails of the doors as well as into the dashboard.
Winged B motifs embroidered into the headrests of the two-tone, perforated hide upholstery.
Exclusive chrome and leather design of the gear lever.
Drilled pedals.
Unique door sill plaques.
Three unique colours: Silver Storm, Black Oriole, and Le Mans Racing Green, although any Arnage colour may have been selected.
Identification of the chassis number
The Bentley Arnage Le Mans chassis number follows the same identification as the Bentley Arnage Red label model:
the letter L on the fourth position,
the letter C on the fifth position, and
a number between 6341 and 8375.
Diamond series
Bentley marked its 60 years of production at the Crewe factory with a special Diamond Series Arnage model in 2006. 60 cars were planned, the majority for the United States, with diamond wood inlays, diamond quilted leather seats, a stainless steel front bumper, special 19 inch alloy wheels, and Union Jack badges on the front wings.
Final series
In September 2008, Bentley announced that Arnage production would cease in 2009, with a final run of 150 "Final Series" models.
The Arnage Final Series used the Arnage T powertrain, including the twin-turbo 6.75-litre V8 engine that is rated at and approximately of torque. The Arnage delivers power to the rear-wheels via the same ZF automatic transmission as used on the other Arnage models.
On the exterior, the Final Series features unique 20 inch alloy wheels, a retractable 'Flying B' hood ornament, body-coloured headlamp bezels, dark tint mesh upper and lower grilles, lower front wing vents, a 'Jewel-style' fuel filler cap and special badging.
The interior, designed by Mulliner, features Final Series kick plates, drilled alloy pedals, unique chrome trim, a rear cocktail cabinet and two picnic tables. The model also comes with four special umbrellas and a premium 1,000 watt audio system manufactured by Naim Audio.
The model is offered with 42 exterior colour choices, 25 interior hides and three wood veneers. It could also be selected with the bespoke colour-matching offered by Bentley.
The Final Series also marked the 50th anniversary of Bentley's V8 engine. The 2009 variant of the engine was still loosely based on the same design that was introduced in the 1959 Bentley S2. However, the updated engine in 2008 shares no interchangeable parts with the 1950 model, the last common item having been replaced in 2005. When the engine was first unveiled promotional literature described power and torque as 'adequate'. Now twin-turbocharged, the all-aluminium alloy engine delivered a 0–97 km/h (60 mph) in 5.3 seconds in a car weighing 2.5 tonnes. Fuel consumption was heavy, with Bentley stating that the model averages less than 10 mpg in the city and just over 20 on the highway in European testing.
A replacement model, which was called the Bentley Mulsanne was launched in August 2009, at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, in Monterey, California.
Reception
The Arnage was well received by the motoring press, with most critics admiring the unimpeachable image but criticising the price and running cost.
The AA 'The Arnage is hard to judge in the terms of ordinary cars due to its expense, but despite the price tag it offers a huge amount for the money. It has the image, the grace, performance, luxury and comfort in equal measure, yet it is a class apart from more modern rivals.'
Auto Express 'For: Huge performance, classic British luxury, modern safety aids''Against: Whopping price tag, hefty weight, [new Continental] Flying Spur'
Evo 'Positives – Improved dynamics, power delivery''Negatives – Fussy interior, almost too much power'
Parker's Car Guides 'Pros: Impressive agility for such a big car, sheer road presence, classy image''Cons: Size and running costs'
RAC (7.6/10)'The Bentley Arnage is the finest product ever to come out of the Crewe. Bang up to date where it needs to be and reassuringly anachronistic in other areas, it's mightily impressive'
Top Gear 'Imperious, untouchable, gilt-edged yet raw-powered motoring. When the cloud of dust settles this had better be the car you step from, or you're no gentleman'
What Car? 'For – The Arnage has lightning-quick acceleration, a luxury interior, and bags of standard kit''Against – It suffers from poor fuel consumption, it lacks practicality, and depreciation will be a huge cost'
Yahoo! Cars 'For potential owners of this car, it's not how fast you get there but how you get there that counts'
Successor
The Bentley Arnage was replaced by the Bentley Mulsanne. The design of the car is now completely independent from Rolls-Royce cars, because of separate parent companies, Bentley being held by the Volkswagen Group, Rolls-Royce by BMW.
References
External links
BentleyMotors.com official international portal
Bentley Motors UK
Arnage
Flagship vehicles
Full-size vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sedans
2000s cars
Cars introduced in 1998
Limousines
|
416787
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington%20Runestone
|
Kensington Runestone
|
The Kensington Runestone is a slab of greywacke stone covered in runes that was discovered in central Minnesota in 1898. Olof Öhman, a Swedish immigrant, reported that he unearthed it from a field in the largely rural township of Solem in Douglas County. It was later named after the nearest settlement, Kensington.
The inscription purports to be a record left behind by Scandinavian explorers in the 14th century (internally dated to the year 1362). There has been a drawn-out debate regarding the stone's authenticity, but since the first scientific examination in 1910, the scholarly consensus has classified it as a 19th-century hoax, with some critics directly charging Öhman with fabrication. Nevertheless, there remains a community convinced of the stone's authenticity.
Provenance
Swedish immigrant Olof Öhman said that he found the stone late in 1898 while clearing land he had recently acquired of trees and stumps before plowing. The stone was said to be near the crest of a small knoll rising above the wetlands, lying face down and tangled in the root system of a stunted poplar tree estimated to be from less than 10 to about 40 years old. The artifact is about 30 × 16 × 6 inches (76 × 41 × 15 cm) in size and weighs . Öhman's 10-year-old son Edward noticed some markings, and the farmer later said he thought they had found an "Indian almanac".
During this period, the journey of Leif Ericson to Vinland (North America) was being widely discussed and there was renewed interest in the Vikings throughout Scandinavia, stirred by the National Romanticism movement. Five years earlier Norway had participated in the World's Columbian Exposition by sending the Viking, a replica of the Gokstad ship, to Chicago. There was also friction between Sweden and Norway (which ultimately led to Norway's independence from Sweden in 1905). Some Norwegians claimed the stone was a Swedish hoax and there were similar Swedish accusations because the stone references a joint expedition of Norwegians and Swedes. It is thought to be more than coincidental that the stone was found among Scandinavian newcomers in Minnesota, still struggling for acceptance and quite proud of their Nordic heritage.
A copy of the inscription made its way to the University of Minnesota. Olaus J. Breda (1853–1916), professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature in the Scandinavian Department, declared the stone to be a forgery and published a discrediting article which appeared in Symra in 1910. Breda also forwarded copies of the inscription to fellow linguists and historians in Scandinavia, such as Oluf Rygh, Sophus Bugge, Gustav Storm, Magnus Olsen and Adolf Noreen. They "unanimously pronounced the Kensington inscription a fraud and forgery of recent date".
The stone was then sent to Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. Scholars either dismissed it as a prank or felt unable to identify a sustainable historical context and the stone was returned to Öhman. Hjalmar Holand, a Norwegian-American historian and author, claimed Öhman gave him the stone. However, the Minnesota Historical Society has a bill of sale showing Öhman sold them the stone for $10 in 1911. Holand renewed public interest with an article enthusiastically summarizing studies that were made by geologist Newton Horace Winchell (Minnesota Historical Society) and linguist George T. Flom (Philological Society of the University of Illinois), who both published opinions in 1910.
According to Winchell, the tree under which the stone was found had been destroyed before 1910. Several nearby poplars that witnesses estimated as being about the same size were cut down and, by counting their rings, it was determined they were around 30–40 years old. One member of the team who had excavated at the find site in 1899, county school superintendent Cleve Van Dyke, later recalled the trees being only 10 or 12 years old. The surrounding county had not been settled until 1858, and settlement was severely restricted for a time by the Dakota War of 1862 (although it was reported that the best land in the township adjacent to Solem, Holmes City, was already taken by 1867, by a mixture of Swedish, Norwegian and "Yankee" settlers).
Winchell estimated that the inscription was roughly 500 years old, by comparing its weathering with the weathering on the backside, which he assumed was glacial and 8000 years old. He also stated that the chisel marks were fresh. More recently geologist Harold Edwards has also noted that "The inscription is about as sharp as the day it was carved ... The letters are smooth showing virtually no weathering." Winchell also mentions in the same report that Prof. W. O. Hotchkiss, state geologist of Wisconsin, estimated that the runes were at least 50 to 100 years old. Meanwhile, Flom found a strong apparent divergence between the runes used in the Kensington inscription and those in use during the 14th century. Similarly, the language of the inscription was modern compared to the Nordic languages of the 14th century.
The Kensington Runestone is on display at the Runestone Museum in Alexandria, Minnesota.
Text and translation
The text consists of nine lines on the face of the stone, and three lines on the edge, read as follows:
Front:
8 : göter : ok : 22 : norrmen : po :
...o : opdagelsefärd : fro :
vinland : of : vest : vi :
hade : läger : ved : 2 : skjär : en :
dags : rise : norr : fro : deno : sten :
vi : var : ok : fiske : en : dagh : äptir :
vi : kom : hem : fan : 10 : man : röde :
af : blod : og : ded : AVM :
frälse : äf : illü.
Side:
här : (10) : mans : ve : havet : at : se :
äptir : vore : skip : 14 : dagh : rise :
from : deno : öh : ahr : 1362 :
The sequences rr, ll and gh represent actual digraphs. The AVM is written in Latin capitals.
The numbers given in Arabic numerals in the above transcription are given in pentadic numerals.
At least seven of the runes, including those transcribed a, d, v, j, ä, ö above, are not in any standard known from the medieval period (see below for details).
The language of the inscription is close to modern Swedish, the transliterated text being quite easily comprehensible to any speaker of a modern Scandinavian language. The language, being closer to the Swedish of the 19th than of the 14th century, is one of the main reasons for the scholarly consensus dismissing it as a hoax.
The text translates to:
"Eight Geats and twenty-two Norwegians on an exploration journey from Vinland to the west. We had camp by two skerries one day's journey north from this stone. We were [out] to fish one day. After we came home [we] found ten men red of blood and dead. AVM (Ave Virgo Maria) save [us] from evil."
"[We] have ten men by the sea to look after our ships, fourteen days' travel from this island. [In the] year 1362."
Linguistic analysis
Holand took the stone to Europe and, while newspapers in Minnesota carried articles hotly debating its authenticity, the stone was quickly dismissed by Swedish linguists.
For the next 40 years, Holand struggled to sway public and scholarly opinion about the Runestone, writing articles and several books. He achieved brief success in 1949, when the stone was put on display at the Smithsonian Institution, and scholars such as William Thalbitzer and S. N. Hagen published papers supporting its authenticity.
At nearly the same time, Scandinavian linguists Sven Jansson, Erik Moltke, Harry Andersen and K. M. Nielsen, along with a popular book by Erik Wahlgren, again questioned the Runestone's authenticity.
Along with Wahlgren, historian Theodore C. Blegen flatly asserted Öhman had carved the artifact as a prank, possibly with help from others in the Kensington area. Further resolution seemed to come with the 1976 published transcript of an interview of Frank Walter Gran, conducted by Paul Carson, Jr. on August 13, 1967, that had been recorded on audio tape. In it, Gran said his father John confessed in 1927 that Öhman made the inscription. John Gran's story, however, was based on second-hand anecdotes he had heard about Öhman, and although it was presented as a dying declaration, Gran lived for several more years, saying nothing more about the stone.
The possibility of the Runestone being an authentic 14th-century artifact was again raised in 1982 by Robert Hall, an emeritus professor of Italian language and literature at Cornell University, who published a book (and a follow-up in 1994) questioning the methodology of its critics. Hall asserted that the odd philological problems in the Runestone could be the result of normal dialectal variances in Old Swedish of the period. He further contended that critics had failed to consider the physical evidence, which he found leaning heavily in favor of authenticity.
In The Vikings and America (1986), Wahlgren again stated that the text bore linguistic abnormalities and spellings that he thought suggested the Runestone was a forgery.
Lexical evidence
One of the main linguistic arguments for the rejection of the text as genuine Old Swedish is the term
() 'journey of discovery'.
This lexeme is unattested in either Scandinavian, Low Franconian or Low German before the 16th century.
Similar terms exist in modern Scandinavian (Norwegian or , Swedish ).
is a loan from Low German , Dutch , which is in turn from High German , ultimately loan-translated from French 'to discover' in the 16th century.
The Norwegian historian Gustav Storm often used the modern Norwegian lexeme in late 19th-century articles on Viking exploration, creating a plausible incentive for the manufacturer of the inscription to use this word.
Grammatical evidence
Another characteristic pointed out by skeptics is the text's lack of cases.
Early Old Swedish (14th century) still retained the four cases of Old Norse, but Late Old Swedish (15th century) reduced its case structure to two cases, so that the absence of inflection in a Swedish text of the 14th century would be an irregularity.
Similarly, the inscription text does not use the plural verb forms that were common in the 14th century and have only recently disappeared: for example, (plural forms in parentheses) (), (), (), (), () and ().
Proponents of the stone's authenticity pointed to sporadic examples of these simpler forms in some 14th-century texts and to the great changes of the morphological system of the Scandinavian languages that began during the latter part of that century.
Paleographic evidence
The inscription contains pentadic numerals. Such numerals are known in Scandinavia, but nearly always from relatively recent times, not from verified medieval runic monuments, on which numbers were usually spelled out as words.
S. N. Hagen stated "The Kensington alphabet is a synthesis of older unsimplified runes, later dotted runes, and a number of Latin letters ... The runes for a, n, s and t are the old Danish unsimplified forms which should have been out of use for a long time [by the 14th century] ... I suggest that [a posited 14th century] creator must at some time or other in his life have been familiar with an inscription (or inscriptions) composed at a time when these unsimplified forms were still in use" and that he "was not a professional runic scribe before he left his homeland".
A possible origin for the irregular shape of the runes was discovered in 2004, in the 1883 notes of a then-16-year-old journeyman tailor with an interest in folk music, Edward Larsson. Larsson's aunt had migrated with her husband and son from Sweden to Crooked Lake, just outside Alexandria, Minnesota in 1870.
Larsson's sheet lists two different Futharks. The first Futhark consists of 22 runes, the last two of which are bind-runes, representing the letter-combinations EL and MW. His second Futhark consists of 27 runes, where the last three are specially adapted to represent the letters å, ä, and ö of the modern Swedish alphabet. The runes in this second set correspond closely to the non-standard runes in the Kensington inscription.
The abbreviation for Ave Maria consists of the Latin letters AVM.
Wahlgren (1958) noted that the carver had incised a notch on the upper right-hand corner of the letter V. The Massey Twins in their 2004 paper argued that this notch is consistent with a scribal abbreviation for a final -e used in the 14th century.
Purported historical context
Norse colonies are known to have existed in Greenland from the late 10th century to at least the 14th century, and at least one short-lived settlement was established in Newfoundland, at L'Anse aux Meadows, in the 11th century, but no other widely accepted material evidence of Norse contact with the Americas in the pre-Columbian era has yet emerged. Still, there is some limited documentary evidence for possible 14th-century Scandinavian expeditions to North America.
In a letter by Gerardus Mercator to John Dee, dated 1577, Mercator refers to a Jacob Cnoyen, who had learned that eight men returned to Norway from an expedition to the Arctic islands in 1364. One of the men, a priest, provided the King of Norway with a great deal of geographical information. In the early 19th century, Carl Christian Rafn mentioned a priest named Ivar Bardarsson who had previously been based in Greenland and turns up in Norwegian records from 1364 onward.
Furthermore, in 1354, King Magnus Eriksson of Sweden and Norway issued a letter appointing a law officer named Paul Knutsson as leader of an expedition to the colony of Greenland, in order to investigate reports that the population was turning away from Christian culture. Another of the documents reprinted by the 19th-century scholars was a scholarly attempt by Icelandic Bishop Gisli Oddsson, in 1637, to compile a history of the Arctic colonies. He dated the Greenlanders' fall away from Christianity to 1342 and claimed that they had turned instead to America. Supporters of a 14th-century origin for the Kensington Runestone argue that Knutson may, therefore, have travelled beyond Greenland to North America in search of renegade Greenlanders, whereupon most of his expedition was killed in Minnesota, leaving just the eight voyagers to return to Norway.
However, there is no evidence that the Knutson expedition ever set sail (the government of Norway went through considerable turmoil in 1355) and the information from Cnoyen as relayed by Mercator states specifically that the eight men who came to Norway in 1364 were not survivors of a recent expedition, but descended from the colonists who had settled the distant lands several generations earlier. Those early 19th-century books, which aroused a great deal of interest among Scandinavian Americans, would have been available to a late 19th-century hoaxer.
Hjalmar Holand adduced the "blond" Indians among the Mandan on the Upper Missouri River as possible descendants of the Swedish and Norwegian explorers. This was dismissed as "tangential" to the Runestone issue by Alice Beck Kehoe in her 2004 book The Kensington Runestone, Approaching a Research Question Holistically.
One possible route of such an expedition, connecting the Hudson Bay with Kensington, would lead up either Nelson River or Hayes River, through Lake Winnipeg, then up the Red River of the North. The northern waterway begins at Traverse Gap, on the other side of which is the source of the Minnesota River, which flows south to join the Mississippi River at Saint Paul/Minneapolis. This route was examined by Flom (1910), who found that explorers and traders had come from Hudson Bay to Minnesota by this route decades before the area was officially settled.
In popular culture
In May 2022, the St. Paul-based History Theatre premiered Runestone! A Rock Musical. The show, written by Mark Jensen and composed by Gary Rue, explores the impact of the runestone on Öhman and his family, but leaves the veracity of the carving up to the audience to judge.
See also
AVM Runestone, a hoax planted near the site of the Kensington runestone
Elbow Lake Runestone, a hoax planted in Minnesota
Beardmore Relics, Viking Age relics, supposedly found in Canada, associated with the Kensington runestone
Vérendrye Runestone, allegedly found west of the Great Lakes in the 1730s
Heavener Runestone, a runestone found in Oklahoma
Narragansett Runestone, marked stone visible during low tide in Rhode Island
Spirit Pond runestones, several small runestones found in Maine
Maine penny, a Norse coin that was found in Maine
References
Literature
External links
Kensington Runestone Park in Solem Township, Douglas County, Minnesota
Runestone Museum which houses the stone in Alexandria, Minnesota
360 View of Rune Stone Zoom into and view the stone just like you were at the museum.
History Channel UK interview with Peter Stormare about his TV series Secrets of the Viking Stone (originally The American Runestone)
1898 archaeological discoveries
19th-century hoaxes
19th-century inscriptions
Archaeological forgeries
Hoaxes in science
Hoaxes in the United States
Inscriptions of disputed origin
Minnesota folklore
Norse colonization of North America
North American runestone hoaxes
Pseudoarchaeology
|
416795
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandura
|
Bandura
|
A bandura () is a Ukrainian plucked-string folk-instrument. It combines elements of the zither and lute and, up until the 1940s, was also often called a kobza. Early instruments () had 5 to 12 strings and resembled lutes. In the 20th century, the number of strings increased initially to 31 strings (1926), then to 56 strings – 68 strings on modern "concert" instruments (1954).
Musicians who play the bandura are referred to as bandurists. In the 19th and early 20th centuries traditional bandura players, often blind, were called kobzars. It is suggested that the instrument developed as a hybrid of gusli (Eastern-European psaltery) and kobza (Eastern-European lute). Some also consider the kobza as a type or an instrument resembling the bandura. The term bandura occurs in Polish chronicles from 1441. The hybridization, however, occurred in the late-18th or early-19th centuries.
Etymology and terminology
Banduras are first recorded in a Polish chronicle of 1441, which mentioned that Sigismund III, king of Poland, employed the Ruthenian Taraszko at court to play the bandura and be his chess companion. Medieval Polish manuscripts recorded other court bandurists of Ukrainian descent.
The term bandura is generally thought to have entered the Ukrainian language via Polish, either from Latin or from the Greek pandora or pandura; some scholars believe the term was introduced directly from Greek.
The use of the term bandore (or bandora) stems from a now discredited assumption, initially made by Russian musicologist A. Famintsyn, that the word was borrowed directly from England. The word appeared in early 20th century Soviet Ukrainian-English and Russian-English dictionaries. Eastern European string instruments such as the hurdy-gurdy are occasionally referred to as banduras, and the five-string guitar as a bandurka.
History
The use of lute-like stringed instruments by Ukrainians dates back to 591. In that year, Byzantine Greek chronicles mention Bulgar warriors who travelled with lute-like instruments they called kitharas. There are iconographic depictions of lute-like instruments in the 11th-century frescoes of Saint Sophia's Cathedral, the capital of the Kievan Rus'. It is not known by what specific term these instruments were referred to in those early times, although it has been surmised that the lute-like instrument was referred to by the generic medieval Slavic term for a string instrument—"husli".
Early years
Up until the mid 18th century, the instrument known as the bandura had frets and was played in a manner similar to the lute or guitar. The instrument was similar to the German bandore with usually 5 single courses strung along the neck. In the mid 18th century additional strings known as "prystrunky" began to appear. Gradually the zither–like bandura replaced the lute–like bandura by the middle of the 19th century.
The invention of an instrument combining organological elements of lute and psaltery is sometimes credited to Francesco Landini, an Italian lutenist-composer during the trecento. Filippo Villani writes in his Liber de civitatis Florentiae, "...[Landini] invented a new sort of instrument, a cross between lute and psaltery, which he called the serena serenarum, an instrument that produces an exquisite sound when its strings are struck." Rare iconographic evidence (by artists such as Alessandro Magnasco) reveals that such instruments were still in use in Italy ca. 1700.
In the Hetman state in left-bank Ukraine, the bandura underwent significant transformations with the development of a professional class of itinerant blind musicians called kobzars. The first mentions of an institution for the study of bandura playing date back to 1738, to a music academy in Hlukhiv where the bandura and violin were taught to be played from sheet music. This was the first music school in Eastern Europe and prepared musicians and singers for the Tsarist Court in St Petersburg.
The construction and playing technique were adapted to accommodate its primary role as accompaniment to the solo singing voice. By the mid 18th century, the instrument had developed into a form with approximately four to six stoppable strings strung along the neck (with or without frets) (tuned in 4ths) and up to sixteen treble strings, known as prystrunky, strung in a diatonic scale across the soundboard. The bandura existed in this form relatively unchanged until the early 20th century.
Court years
Up until the 20th century, the bandura repertoire was an oral tradition based primarily on vocal works sung to the accompaniment of the bandura. These included folk songs, chants, psalms, and epics known as dumy. Some folk dance tunes were also part of the repertoire.
The instrument became popular in the courts of the nobility in Eastern Europe. There are numerous citations mentioning the existence of Ukrainian bandurists in both Russia and Poland. Empress Elisabeth of Russia (the daughter of Peter the Great) had a long-standing relationship and maybe a morganatic marriage with her Ukrainian court bandurist, Olexii Rozumovsky.
In 1908, the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama in Kyiv began offering classes in bandura playing, instructed by kobzar Ivan Kuchuhura Kucherenko. Kucherenko taught briefly until 1911, and attempts were made to reopen the classes in 1912 with Hnat Khotkevych; however, the death of Mykola Lysenko and Khotkevych's subsequent exile in 1912 prevented this from happening. Khotkevych published the first primer for the bandura in Lviv in 1909. It was followed by a number of other primers specifically written for the instrument, most notably those by Mykhailo Domontovych, Vasyl Shevchenko and Vasyl Ovchynnikov, published in 1913–14.
In 1910, the first composition for the bandura was published in Kyiv by Khotkevych. It was a dance piece entitled "Odarochka" for the folk bandura played in the Kharkiv style. Khotkevych prepared a book of pieces in 1912 but, because of the arrest of the publisher, it was never printed. Despite numerous compositions being written for the instrument in the late 1920s and early 30s, and the preparation of these works for publication, little music for the instrument was published in Ukraine. A number of bandura primers appeared in print in 1913–14, written by Domontovych, Shevchenko, and Ovchynnikov and containing arrangements of Ukrainian folk songs with bandura accompaniment.
Years of suppression
Tsarist sanctions
The persecution of Kobzars started in 1876 under Imperial Russia with the publication of the Ems Ukaz: stage performances by kobzars and bandurists were officially banned. Paragraph 4 of the decree was specifically aimed at preventing all music, including ethnographic performances in Ukrainian. As a result, blind professional musicians such as the kobzars turned to the street for their sustenance. In the major Russian speaking cities, they were often treated like common street beggars by the non-Ukrainian population, being arrested and having their instruments destroyed. The restrictions and brutal persecution were only halted in 1902 after a special delegation was sent to the Ministry of Internal Affairs from the Imperial Archaeological Society.
Sanctions introduced by the Russian government in 1876 (Ems ukaz) that severely restricted the use of Ukrainian language and in point 4, also restricted the use of the bandura on the concert stage since all of the repertoire was sung in Ukrainian. Many bandurists and kobzars were systematically persecuted by the authorities controlling Ukraine at various times. This was because of the association of the bandura with specific aspects of Ukrainian history, and also the prevalence of religious elements in the kobzar repertoire that eventually was adopted by the latter-day bandurists. Much of the unique repertoire of the kobzars idealized the legacy of the Ukrainian Cossacks. A significant section of the repertoire consisted of para-liturgical chants (kanty) and psalms sung by the kobzari outside of churches as the latter were often suspicious of, and sometimes hostile to, the kobzars' moral authority.
Because of these restrictions and the rapid disappearance of kobzars and bandurists, the topic of the minstrel art of the itinerant blind bandura players was again brought up for discussion at the XIIth Archeological Conference held in Kharkiv in 1902. It was believed that the last blind kobzar, (Ostap Veresai) had died in 1890; however, upon investigation, six blind traditional kobzars were found to be alive and performed on stage at the conference. Thereafter, the rise in Ukrainian self-awareness popularized the bandura, particularly among young students and intellectuals. Gut strings were replaced by metal strings, which became the standard after 1902. The number of strings and size of the instrument also began to grow, in order to accommodate both the sound production required for stage performances, and the performance of a new repertoire of urban, folkloric song which required more sophisticated accompaniment.
Use of the instrument fell into decline amongst the nobility with the introduction of Western musical instruments and Western music fashions, but it remained a popular instrument of the Ukrainian Cossacks in the Hetmanate. After the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich, the instrument continued to be played by wandering, blind musicians known as kobzari in Right-bank Ukraine. With the growing appreciation of bandurist capellas as an art form came the accelerated development of technology related to the performance on the bandura. At the beginning of the 20th century the instrument was thought to have gone into total disuse. At that time it had some 20 strings with wooden pegs (4 basses and 16 prystrunky). The volume obtained from the instrument was not loud enough for the concert stage.
Period of tolerance
In 1918–20 a number of bandurists were shot by Bolsheviks after the October Revolution, during the Russian Civil War. Most of these bandurists were members of the various Ukrainian Armed forces or played for Ukrainian soldiers. Current accounts list some 20 known bandurists who perished in this time period. Few kobzari are included in this list. Few records accurately document the deaths of bandurists from this period.
From 1923, there was a period of tolerance to Ukrainian language and culture existed whilst Soviet power was entrenched in the country. During this time the popularity of the bandura grew considerably.
The bandura underwent significant changes in the 20th century, in construction, technique and repertoire. Initial developments were made in making the range of the instrument greater and improving the sonority of the instrument. By 1911 instruments with 32 diatonically tuned strings had become common, almost replacing the traditional instruments played by the traditional kobzars. Metal tuning pegs made an appearance around 1914. This allowed the performer to tune his instrument accurately. This was crucial particularly when playing in an ensemble. By the mid-1920s, chromatic strings were also added to the instrument which allowed the performer to play accidentals and allowed the performer to modulate into close related keys. The construction of the instrument was modified to allow for the additional tension of these strings. The number of strings rose to about 56.
Subsequent developments included metal strings (introduced post-1891) and metal tuning pegs (introduced in 1912), additional chromatic strings (introduced from 1925) and a mechanical lever system for rapid re-tuning of the instrument (first introduced in 1931). In 1931 the first mechanisms were developed, which allowed the bandurist to retune his instrument quickly in a variety of more distinct keys.
In 1926, a collection of bandura compositions compiled by Mykhailo Teliha was published in Prague. Hnat Khotkevych also prepared a number of collections of pieces for the bandura in 1928; however, because of dramatic political changes within the Soviet Union, none of these collections was published.
Although workshops for the serial manufacture of banduras had been established earlier outside of Ukraine (in Moscow (1908), and Prague (1924)), continuous serial manufacture of banduras was only started in Ukraine, sometime in 1930.
Formal conservatory courses in bandura playing were re-established only after the Soviet revolution, when Khotkevych returned to Kharkiv and was invited to teach a class of bandura playing at the Muz-Dram Institute in 1926 and in Kyiv in 1938. Vasyl Yemetz established in 1923, a bandura school in Prague, with over 60 students. By 1932–33, however, the Soviets tried to control the rise of Ukrainian self-awareness with severe restrictions on Ukrainian urban folk culture. Bandura classes in Ukraine were disbanded, and many bandurists were repressed by the Soviet government.
Years of persecution
In 1926, the Communist Party of Soviet Union (bolsheviks) began to fight against presumed nationalist tendencies within the local Communist parties. In 1927, the Central Committee decreed that Russian was a special language within the Soviet Union. By 1928, restrictions came into force that directly affected the lifestyle of the traditional kobzars, and stopped them from traveling without a passport and performing without a license. Restrictions were also placed on accommodations that were not registered and also on the manufacturing or making of banduras without a license.
In July, 1929, many Ukrainian intellectuals were arrested for being supposed members of the (very likely fictional) Union for the Liberation of Ukraine.
A number of prominent bandurists disappeared at about this time. Most of these bandurists had taken part in the Revolution of 1918 on the side of the Ukrainian National Republic. With the prosecution of the members of the organization for the Liberation of Ukraine, a number of bandurists and also people who had helped organize bandura ensembles were included. Some were arrested and sent to camps in Siberia. Others were sent to dig the White Sea Canal. Some bandurists were able to escape from these camps. In the 1930s, there was also a wave of arrests of bandurists in the Kuban. Many of these arrested bandurists received relatively "light" sentences of 5–10 years camp detentions or exile, usually in Siberia.
In the 1930s, the authentic kobzar tradition of wandering musicians in Ukraine came to an end. In this period, documents attest to the fact that a large number of non-blind bandurists were also arrested at this time, however they received relatively light sentences of 2–5 years in penal colonies or exile.
In January 1934, the Ukrainian government decreed that the capital of the republic would move to Kyiv. As all government departments were moved, many government organizations did not work correctly or efficiently for significant periods of time. In the move, many documents were lost and misplaced. From January, the artists of the state funded Bandurist Capellas stopped being paid for their work. By October, without receiving any pay, the state funded Bandurist Capellas stopped functioning. In December, a wave of repressions against Ukrainian intellectuals also resulted in 65 Ukrainian writers being arrested.
In the 1930s, Soviet authorities took measures to control and curtail aspects of Ukrainian culture (see Russification) they deemed unsuitable. This also included any interest in the bandura. Various sanctions were introduced to control cultural activities that were deemed anti-Soviet. When these sanctions proved to have little effect on the growth in interest in such cultural artifacts, the carriers of these artefacts, such as bandurists, often came under harsh persecution from the Soviet authorities. Many were arrested and some executed or sent to labor camps. At the height of the Great Purge in the late 1930s, the official State Bandurist Capella in Kyiv was changing artistic directors every 2 weeks because of these political arrests.
Throughout the 1930s, bandurists were constantly being arrested and taken off for questioning which may have lasted some months. Many were constantly harassed by the authorities. Whereas in the early 1930s those incriminated received relatively light sentences of 2–5 years, after 1936, the sentences were often fatal and immediate – death by shooting.
In 1937–38, large numbers of bandurists were executed. Documents have survived of the many individual executions of bandurists and kobzars of this period. So far, the documentation of 41 bandurists sentenced to be shot have been found with documents attesting to approximately 100 receiving sentences of between 10–17 years. Often, those who were arrested were tortured to obtain a confession. Sentences were pronounced by a Troika and were dealt out swiftly within hours or days of the hearing. The families of those who were executed were often told that the bandurist had been sent to a camp without the right to correspond.
Mass murder
In recent years evidence of this has emerged, pointing to an event (often masked as an ethnographic conference) that was held in Kharkiv, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR, in December 1933 – January 1934. Many itinerant street musicians from all over the country, specifically blind kobzars and lirnyks, were invited to attend, amounting to an estimated 300 participants. All were subsequently executed as unwanted elements in the new Soviet Society.
In 1978, evidence came to light (Solomon Volkov's Testimony: The Memoirs of Shostakovych and Leonid Plyushch's History's Carnival) (1978) about the mass murder of the Ukrainian blind musicians by the Soviet authorities. Previous mentions of such a tragedy date back to 1981 in the writings of dissident Ukrainian poet Mykola Horbach.
According to a widespread version, the musicians were gathered under the guise of an ethnographic conference and then mass-executed. Various versions give different times for the conference and location. The confusion is exacerbated by the fact that little differentiation is made between the kobzari, bandurists and lirnyky. Archival documents attesting to the organisation of such a conference have been found which were affirmed by bandurist Mykhailo Polotay who had been one of the instigators and organisers of the conference. Although no documents directly attesting to the mass-execution of the kobzari has been found to date, we do have a significant list of kobzari and bandurists who died or disappeared at this time.
By one of the versions, the conference was organized near Kharkiv in December 1933, where 300 (c.50) blind kobzars and (c.250) lirnyks were gathered near Kharkiv and left to die of exposure in a gully outside of the city limits. The location of this atrocity has recently been discovered on the territory of recreation building owned by the KGB (or the NKVD) in the area of Piatykhatky, Kharkiv Oblast. A monument has also been erected in the centre of Kharkiv to mark this tragic event.
Years of stagnation
After World War II, and particularly after the death of Joseph Stalin, these restrictions were somewhat relaxed and bandura courses were again re-established in music schools and conservatories in Ukraine, initially at the Kyiv conservatory under the direction of Khotkevych's student Volodymyr Kabachok, who had returned to Kyiv after being released from a gulag labour camp in Kolyma.
After the death of Stalin, the draconian policies of the Soviet administration were halted. Many bandurists who, during that period, had been persecuted were "rehabilitated". Some of those exiled returned to Ukraine. Conservatory courses were re-established and, in time, the serial manufacture of banduras was rekindled by musical instrument factories in Chernihiv and Lviv.
Most accounts of Nazi persecution of kobzars and bandurists were Soviet fabrications, however a number of prominent bandurists did die at the hands of the Nazis. One notable bandurist was Teliha who was executed in the tragic Babi Yar massacre in Kyiv in February 1942. Soviet sources tried attribute the deaths of numerous kobzars such as I. Kucherenko to the German-Nazi occupation. Recent documents have disproved most of these versions of their deaths.
In the 1950s, a number of bandurists also either died or disappeared under strange and unexplained circumstances. Some had accidents (Singalevych, Kukhta, Konyk). A significant number, approximately 30–50 bandurists, were also deported to Siberia from Western Ukraine. By the 1960s, total Communist Party control of the bandura art was achieved. A period of feminisation of the bandura took place where males were not accepted into conservatory courses to study the bandura. The repertoire of those that played the bandura underwent a major change from history songs and epics to romantic love and lyric works and transcriptions of classical piano works.
After World War II, two factories dominated the manufacturing of banduras: the Chernihiv Musical Instrument Factory (which produced 120 instruments a month, over 30,000 instruments from 1954 to 1991) and the Trembita Musical Instrument Factory in Lviv (which has produced over 3,000 instruments since 1964). Other serially manufactured instruments were also made in workshops in Kyiv and Melnytso-Podilsk.
In Germany in 1948, the Honcharenko brothers in the workshops of the Ukrainian Bandurist Chorus continued to refine the mechanism to make it more reliable for the concert stage and also even out the tone of the instrument. Similar developments were also undertaken by Ivan Skliar in Ukraine who in 1956 developed the concert Kyiv bandura – an instrument which has become the workhorse of most professional bandurists in Ukraine. A slightly more refined instrument was also developed later by Vasyl Herasymenko in Lviv.
Although direct and open confrontation ceased, the Communist party continued to control and manipulate the art of the bandurist through a variety of indirect means. Bandura players now had to censor their repertoire and stop any cultural aspects that were deemed to be anti-Soviet. This included songs with religious texts or melodies, Christmas carols, historic songs about the cossack past, and songs with any hint of a nationalistic sub-text. Some bandurists rose in the ranks of the Communist Party to become high-level administrators. (e.g. Serhiy Bashtan was the first secretary of the Communist Party at the Kyiv conservatory for over 30 years and, in that position, restricted the development of many aspects of Ukrainian culture in the premier music establishment in Ukraine).
A policy of feminization of the bandura also severely restricted the number of male bandurists able to study the bandura at a professional level (kobzarstvo had originally been an exclusively male domain). This was perplexing as there was only one professional ensemble and it was made up exclusively of male players. The feminization of the instrument influenced a significant change in the repertoire of the bandurist from a heroic epic tradition to one singing romances. Restrictions existed in obtaining instruments and control was exercised in the publication of musical literature for the bandura. Only "trusted" performers were allowed to perform on stage with severely censored and restrictive repertoire. These restrictions continued to leave a significant impact on the contemporary development of the art form.
Restoration years
In the late 1970s these concert instruments began to be manufactured serially by the Chernihiv factory, and later the Lviv factory. In the mid-1970s artificial fingernails were also developed which allowed the bandurist to perform more professionally. In the 1960s the foundation of the modern professional bandura technique and repertoire were laid by Bashtan based on work he had done with students from the Kyiv Conservatory. Professional Ukrainian composers only started composing seriously for the instrument after World War II and specifically in the 1950-70's, including such composers as Mykola Dremliuha, Anatoly Kolomiyetz, Yuriy Oliynyk and Kost Miaskov, who have created complex works such as sonatas, suites, and concerti for the instrument.
In recent times, more Ukrainian composers have started to incorporate the bandura in their orchestral works, with traditional Ukrainian folk operas such as Natalka Poltavka being re-scored for the bandura. Contemporary works such as Kupalo by Y. Stankovych and The Sacred Dnipro by Valery Kikta also incorporated the bandura as part of the orchestra. Western composers of Ukrainian background, such as Oliynyk and Peter Senchuk, have also composed serious works for the bandura.
Today, all the conservatories of music in Ukraine offer courses majoring in bandura performance. Bandura instruction is also offered in all music colleges and most music schools, and it is now possible to get advanced degrees specialising in bandura performance and pedagogy. The most renowned of these establishments are the Kyiv and Lviv conservatories and the Kyiv University of Culture, primarily because of their well-established staff. Other centers of rising prominence are the Odessa Conservatory and Kharkiv University of Culture.
Present
The main modern band that plays bandura is Shpyliasti Kobzari. Most of compositions of Tin Sontsia contains bandura sound. That instrument sounds in some of HASPYD tracks.
Construction
The back of a traditional bandura is usually carved from a solid piece of wood (either willow, poplar, cherry or maple). Since the 1960s, glued-back instruments have also become common; even more recently, banduras have begun to be constructed with fiberglass backs. The soundboard is traditionally made from a type of spruce. The wrest planks and bridge are made from hard woods such as birch.
The instrument was originally a diatonic instrument and, despite the addition of chromatic strings in the 1920s, it has continued to be played as a diatonic instrument. Most contemporary concert instruments have a mechanism that allows for rapid re-tuning of the instrument into different keys. These mechanisms were first included in concert instruments in the late 1950s. Significant contributions to modern bandura construction were made by Khotkevych, Leonid Haydamaka, Peter Honcharenko, Skliar, Herasymenko and William Vetzal.
Today, there are four main types of bandura which differ in construction, holding, playing technique, repertoire, and sound.
Folk or Starosvitska Bandura
The Starosvitska bandura or traditional bandura, common from the late 18th century, is also sometimes referred to as folk or old-time bandura. These instruments usually have some 12-20-23 strings, tuned diatonically (4–6 bass strings and 16–18 treble strings known as prystrunky). These instruments are handmade, usually by local village violin makers with no two instruments being identical. The backs are usually hewn out of a single piece of wood, usually willow, and wooden pegs made of hard woods. The strings are tuned to a diatonic scale (major, minor, or modal) with bass strings tuned to corresponding I, IV, and V degrees of the diatonic row.
The instrument was used almost exclusively by itinerant blind epic singers in Ukraine, called kobzari. Traditionally these instruments had gut strings, however, after 1891 with the introduction of mass-produced violin strings steel strings began to become popular and by the beginning of the 20th century they were prevalent.
In the 1980s, there has been a revival of renewed interest in playing the authentic folk version of the bandura initiated by the students of Heorhy Tkachenko, notably Mykola Budnyk, Volodymyr Kushpet, Mykola Tovkailo, and Victor Mishalow. The movement has been continued by their students who have formed kobzar guilds Mikhailo Khai, Kost Cheremsky and Jurij Fedynskyj. Formal courses have been designed for the instrument as have been written handbooks. Several notable, present-day makers of the instrument include the late Budnyk, Tovkailo, Rusalim Kozlenko, Vasyl Boyanivsky, Fedynskyj, and Bill Vetzal. A category for authentic bandura playing has been included in the Hnat Khotkevych International Folk Instruments competition held in Kharkiv every 3 years.
Kyiv-style bandura
The Kyiv style or academic bandura is the most common instrument in use today in Ukraine. They have 55–65 metal strings (12 to 17 basses and 50 treble strings known as prystrunky) tuned chromatically through 5 octaves, with or without retuning mechanisms. The instruments are known as Kyiv-style banduras because they are constructed for players of the Kyiv-style technique pioneered by the Kyiv Bandurist Capella. Because the playing style was based on the techniques of the kobzars from Chernihiv, the instrument is occasionally referred to as the Chernihiv-style bandura.
Concert banduras are primarily manufactured by the Chernihiv Musical Instrument Factory or the Trembita Musical Instrument Factory in Lviv. Rarer instruments exist from the Melnytso-Podilsk and Kyiv workshops. These instruments exist in two main types: 'Standard Prima' instruments and 'concert' instruments, which differ from the 'Prima' instruments in that they have a re-tuning mechanism placed in the upper wrest plank of the instrument.
'Concert' Kyiv-style banduras were first manufactured in Kyiv at a music workshop organized by Ivan Skliar from 1948–1954 and from 1952 by the Chernihiv Musical Instrument Factory. The Chernihiv factory stopped making banduras in 1991. Another line of Kyiv-style banduras was developed by Vasyl Herasymenko and continues to be made by the Trembita Musical Instrument Factory in Lviv. Rarer instruments also exist from the now defunct Melnytso-Podilsk experimental music workshop.
Kharkiv-style bandura
These instruments are primarily made by craftsmen outside of Ukraine; however, in more recent times, they have become quite sought after in Ukraine. They are strung either diatonically (with 34–36 strings) or chromatically (with 61–68 strings).
The standard Kharkiv bandura was first developed by Khotkevych and Haydamaka in the mid-1920s. A semi-chromatic version was developed by the Honcharenko brothers in the late 1940s. A number of instruments were made in the 1980s by Herasymenko. The Hnat Khotkevych Ukrainian Bandurist Ensemble in Australia was the only ensemble in the West to exploit the Kharkiv-style bandura.
Currently, Canadian bandura-maker Bill Vetzal has focused on making these instruments with some success. His latest instruments are fully chromatic, with re-tuning mechanism, and the backs are made of fibreglass. Additionally, Andrij (Andy) Birko, an American bandura maker, is also making Kharkiv instruments, applying construction and acoustic principles from guitars (both flat-top and arch-top) in an attempt to provide a more balanced and even tone to the instrument. Currently, he produces chromatic instruments but without re-tuning mechanisms.
Kyiv-Kharkiv Hybrid bandura
Attempts have been made to combine aspects of the Kharkiv and Kyiv banduras into a unified instrument. The first attempts were made by the Honcharenko brothers in Germany in 1948. Attempts were made in the 1960s by Skliar, in the 1980s by V. Herasymenko, and more recently by Vetzal in Canada.
Orchestral banduras
Orchestral banduras were first developed by Leonid Haydamaka in Kharkiv 1928 to extend the range of the bandura section in his orchestra of Ukrainian folk instruments. He developed piccolo- and bass-sized instruments tuned, respectively, an octave higher and lower than the standard Kharkiv bandura.
Other Kyiv-style instruments were developed by Ivan Skliar for use in the Kyiv Bandurist Capella, in particular alto-, bass- and contrabass-sized banduras. However, these instruments were not commercially available and were made in very small quantities.
Ensembles
The premier ensemble pioneering the bandura in performance in the West is the Ukrainian Bandurist Chorus. Other important bandura ensembles in the West that have made significant contributions to the art form are the Canadian Bandurist Capella and the Hnat Khotkevych Ukrainian Bandurist Ensemble.
Numerous similar ensembles have also become popular in Ukrainian centres, with some small ensembles becoming extremely popular.
See also
Bandora
Bandurria
Kobza
Ukrainian folk music
References
Further reading
Diakowsky, M. A Note on the History of the Bandura. The Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S. 4, 3–4 no. 1419, N.Y. 1958, С.21–22
Diakowsky, M. J. The Bandura. The Ukrainian Trend, 1958, no. I, С.18–36
Diakowsky, M. Anyone can make a bandura – I did. The Ukrainian Trend, Volume 6
Haydamaka, L. Kobza-bandura – National Ukrainian Musical Instrument. "Guitar Review" no. 33, Summer 1970 (С.13–18)
Hornjatkevyč, A. The book of Kodnia and the three Bandurists. Bandura, #11–12, 1985
Hornjatkevyč A. J., Nichols T. R. The Bandura. Canada crafts, April–May 1979 p. 28–29
Mishalow, V. A Brief Description of the Zinkiv Method of Bandura Playing. Bandura, 1982, no. 2/6, С.23–26
Mishalow, V. The Kharkiv style #1. Bandura 1982, no. 6, С.15–22 #2; Bandura 1985, no. 13-14, С.20–23 #3; Bandura 1988, no. 23-24, С.31–34 #4; Bandura 1987, no. 19-20, С.31–34 #5; Bandura 1987, no. 21-22, С.34–35
Mishalow, V. A Short History of the Bandura. East European Meetings in Ethnomusicology 1999, Romanian Society for Ethnomusicology, Volume 6, С.69–86
Mizynec, V. Folk Instruments of Ukraine. Bayda Books, Melbourne, Australia, 1987, 48с.
Cherkaskyi, L. Ukrainski narodni muzychni instrumenty. (tr. "Ukrainian folk musical instruments ") Tekhnika, Kyiv, Ukraine, 2003, 262 pages.
External links
Ukrainian Bandurist Chorus
Folk Bandura Online
String instruments
Ukrainian musical instruments
Ukrainian words and phrases
National symbols of Ukraine
|
416796
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy%20Rich
|
Buddy Rich
|
Bernard "Buddy" Rich (September 30, 1917 – April 2, 1987) was an American jazz drummer, songwriter, conductor, and bandleader. He is considered one of the most influential drummers of all time.
Rich was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, United States. He discovered his affinity for jazz music at a young age and began drumming at the age of two. He began playing jazz in 1937, working with acts such as Bunny Berigan, Artie Shaw, Tommy Dorsey, Count Basie, and Harry James. From 1942 to 1944, Rich served in the U.S. Marines. From 1945 to 1948, he led the Buddy Rich Orchestra. In 1966, he recorded a big-band style arrangement of songs from West Side Story. He found lasting success in 1966 with the formation of the Buddy Rich Big Band, also billed as the Buddy Rich Band and The Big Band Machine.
Rich was known for his virtuoso technique, power, and speed. He was an advocate of the traditional grip, though he occasionally used matched grip when playing the toms. Despite his commercial success and musical talent, Rich never learned how to read sheet music, preferring to listen to drum parts and play them from memory.
Early life and career
Rich was born in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York, to Jewish parents Bess Skolnik and Robert Rich, both American vaudevillians. Before he turned two, he was part of his parents' act on vaudeville, but on breaks he would sneak into the orchestra pit and try to get the drummer's sticks. Rich would often sneak into jazz clubs at an age when he looked old enough to sit on the drum set. He was on Broadway as Baby Traps the Drum Wonder at age four, playing "The Stars and Stripes Forever" on a drum. He was a singer and tap dancer. In his teens he led a band and toured in the U.S. and Australia. At 15 he became the second highest paid child entertainer behind Jackie Coogan during the 1930s.
Career
Jazz career
His jazz career began in 1937 with clarinetist Joe Marsala. He became a member of big bands led by Bunny Berigan and Artie Shaw. Rich considered himself a featured performer and disliked bandleaders. He claimed that the musicians "hardly look at the bandleader," and that the drummer is the real "quarterback" of the band. For Shaw's part, he felt that Rich didn't follow direction and finally asked the drummer, "Who are you playing for? Me, yourself, who?" Rich admitted that he played for himself and his audience, whereupon Shaw suggested that Rich should accept the offer he had received from Tommy Dorsey: "I think you'd be happier there." Rich took Shaw's advice as a dismissal.
When Rich was home from touring with Shaw, he gave drum lessons to a 14-year-old Mel Brooks for six months. At 21, he participated in his first major recording with the Vic Schoen Orchestra who backed the Andrews Sisters.
In 1939 Rich joined the Dorsey band, leaving in 1942 to join the United States Marine Corps, in which he served as a judo instructor and never saw combat. He was discharged in 1944 for medical reasons. After leaving the Marines, he returned to the Dorsey band. In 1946, with financial support from Frank Sinatra, he formed a band and continued to lead bands intermittently until the early 1950s.
Following the war, Rich formed his own big band, which often played at the Apollo Theater and featured backing vocals from Frank Sinatra.
In addition to playing with Tommy Dorsey (1939–42, 1945, 1954–55), Rich played with Benny Carter (1942), Harry James (1953–56–62, 1964, 1965), Les Brown, Charlie Ventura, Jazz at the Philharmonic, and Charlie Parker (Bird and Diz, 1950).
In 1955, Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich recorded the collaboration album titled Krupa and Rich, which featured the song "Bernie's Tune", in which they traded drum solos for a total of six minutes.
From 1966 until his death, he led successful big bands in an era when their popularity had waned. He continued to play clubs but stated in interviews that the majority of his band's performances were at high schools, colleges, and universities rather than clubs. He was a session drummer for many recordings, where his playing was often less prominent than in his big-band performances. Especially notable were sessions for Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong, and the Oscar Peterson trio with bassist Ray Brown and guitarist Herb Ellis. In 1968, Rich collaborated with the Indian tabla player Ustad Alla Rakha on the album Rich à la Rakha.
He performed a big-band arrangement of a medley from West Side Story that was released on the 1966 album Swingin' New Big Band. The "West Side Story Medley", arranged by Bill Reddie, highlighted Rich's ability to blend his drumming into the band. Rich received the West Side Story arrangement of Leonard Bernstein's melodies from the musical in the mid-1960s; he found the music quite challenging and it took him almost a month of constant rehearsal to perfect. It later became a staple of his live performances. A six-minute performance of "Prologue/Jet Song" from the suite, performed during Frank Sinatra's portion of the Concert for the Americas on August 20, 1982, is on the DVD "Frank Sinatra: Concert for the Americas". In 2002, a DVD was released called The Lost West Side Story Tapes that captured a 1985 performance of this along with other numbers.
A live recording of the "Channel One Suite" is on the album Mercy, Mercy recorded at Caesars Palace in 1968. The album was acclaimed as the "finest all-round recording by Buddy Rich's big band".
TV appearances
In the 1950s, Rich was a frequent guest on The Steve Allen Show and other television variety shows, most notably on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Rich and Johnny were lifelong friends, and Johnny Carson was himself a drum enthusiast.
In 1973 PBS broadcast and syndicated Rich's February 6, 1973, performance at the Top of the Plaza in Rochester, New York. It was the first time thousands of drummers were exposed to Buddy in a full-length concert setting, and many drummers continue to name this program as a prime influence on their own playing. One of his most widely seen television performances was in a 1981 episode of The Muppet Show in which he engaged Muppet drummer Animal (performed by Frank Oz, drums played by Ronnie Verrell) in a drum battle. Rich's famous televised drum battles also included Gene Krupa, Ed Shaughnessy and Louie Bellson. Perhaps the most viewed television appearance was on "Here's Lucy" in the 1970 episode "Lucy And The Drum Contest".
Influences, technique, and performances
Rich cited Gene Krupa, Jo Jones, Chick Webb, Ray McKinley, Ray Bauduc, and Sid Catlett as influences.
He usually held his sticks with the traditional grip. He used the matched grip when playing floor toms around the drum set while performing cross-stickings (crossing arm over arm), which was one of his party tricks, often leading to loud cheers from the audience. Another technique he used to impress was the stick-trick, a fast roll performed by slapping two drumsticks together in a circular motion using "taps" or single-stroke stickings. He often used contrasting techniques to keep long drum solos from getting mundane. Aside from his energetic, explosive displays, he would go into quieter passages.
One passage he would use in most solos started with a simple single-stroke roll on the snare drum picking up speed and power, then slowly moving his sticks closer to the rim as he got quieter, and eventually playing on the rim itself while still maintaining speed. Then he would reverse the effect and slowly move towards the center of the snare while increasing power. Though well known as a powerful drummer, he did use brushes. On the album The Lionel Hampton Art Tatum Buddy Rich Trio (1955) he played with brushes almost exclusively.
In 1942, Rich and Henry Adler wrote Buddy Rich's Modern Interpretation of Snare Drum Rudiments, which is regarded as one of the more popular snare drum rudiment books. Adler met Rich through a former student. Adler said, "The kid told me he played better than Krupa. Buddy was only in his teens at the time and his friend was my first pupil. Buddy played and I watched his hands. Well, he knocked me right out. He did everything I wanted to do, and he did it with such ease. When I met his folks, I asked them who his teacher was. 'He never studied', they told me. That made me feel very good. I realized that it was something physical, not only mental, that you had to have."
Adler denied the rumor that he taught Rich how to play. "Sure, he studied with me, but he didn't come to me to learn how to hold the drumsticks. I set out to teach Buddy to read. He'd take six lessons, go on the road for six weeks and come back. He didn't practice. He couldn't, because wherever the guy went, he was followed around by admiring drummers. He didn't have time to practice. ...Tommy Dorsey wanted Buddy to write a book and he told him to get in touch with me. I did the book and Tommy wrote the foreword. Technically, I was Buddy's teacher, but I came along after he had already acquired his technique."
When asked if Rich could read music, Bobby Shew, lead trumpeter in Rich's mid-1960s big band replied, "No. He'd always have a drummer there during rehearsals to read and play the parts initially on new arrangements. Buddy would just sit in the empty audience seats in the afternoon and listen to the band. ... He'd only have to listen to a chart once and he'd have it memorized. We'd run through it and he'd know exactly how it went, how many measures it ran and what he'd have to do to drive it."
In a Modern Drummer interview, Buddy had this to say about practicing: "I don't put much emphasis on practice anyhow. I think it's a fallacy to believe that the more you practice, the better you become. You can only get better by playing. You can sit in a basement with a set of drums and practice rudiments all day long, but if you don't play with a band, you won't learn style, technique, and taste, and you won't learn how to play for a band and with a band. It's like getting a job, any kind of job, it's an opportunity to develop. And practice, besides that, is boring. I know teachers who tell their students to practice three, four, six hours a day. If you can't get what you want after an hour of practice, you're not going to get it in four days."
In the same article, Rich also discourages playing drums with one's bare hands. When asked if he could do such a thing, he replied, 'Yes, but why destroy your hands? I could think of a hundred ways to use my hands rather than to break them on the rim of a drum.'"
Personal life
Rich was married to Marie Allison, a dancer and showgirl, on April 24, 1953, until his death in 1987. They had a daughter in 1954, Cathy, who later became a vocalist and carried on her father's band. Rich was also cousin of actor Jonathan Haze.
Rich lived in Williamsburg, Brooklyn.
In March 1968 he was convicted of failing to report $50,000 of income in 1961 and was given five years' probation, fined $2,500 and ordered to pay the IRS $40,000. In July 1969, they placed a tax lien on him for $141,606 for back taxes. Rich filed for bankruptcy the next month, and the IRS seized his home in Las Vegas.
Personality
Rich was notoriously short-tempered. Singer Dusty Springfield slapped him after several days of "putting up with Rich's insults and show-biz sabotage". He had a rivalry with Frank Sinatra which sometimes ended in brawls when both were members of Tommy Dorsey's band. Nevertheless, they remained lifelong friends, and Sinatra delivered a eulogy at Rich's funeral in 1987. In 1983, Rich underwent quadruple bypass surgery, and was often visited by Sinatra in the hospital. Billy Cobham said that he met Rich in a club as a youth asking him to sign his snare drum, but Rich "dropped it down the stairs".
Rich held a black belt in karate, which proved beneficial to him, his temper, and his health. At the time, Rich was prone to heart attacks and poor back structure following a surgery removing two of his spinal disks.
According to bassist Bill Crow, Rich reacted strongly to Max Roach's increasing popularity when he was the drummer for Charlie Parker, especially when a jazz critic stated Roach had topped Rich as the world's greatest drummer. Drummer John JR Robinson told Crow he was with Roach when Rich drove by with a beautiful woman seated next to him and yelled, "Hey, Max! Top this!" Nonetheless, the two worked together on the 1959 album Rich Versus Roach, and Roach appeared on the 1994 Rich tribute album Burning for Buddy.
Rich's temper was documented in a series of secret recordings made on tour buses and in dressing rooms by pianist Lee Musiker, who concealed a compact tape recorder in his clothing while on tour with Rich in the early 1980s. On one recording, Rich threatens to fire trombonist Dave Panichi for having a beard. Although he threatened many times to fire members of his band, he seldom did so and, for the most part, praised his musicians in television and print interviews. The day before his death, April 1, 1987, Rich was visited by Mel Tormé, who claimed that one of Rich's last requests was to hear the tapes of his angry outbursts. Tormé was working on an authorized biography of Rich and included excerpts of the tapes in the book, but he never played the tapes for Rich.
In Mel Tormé's biography of Buddy, he notes that while Buddy was tough on his band, there were a few instances when some members stood up to him. One departing musician told Rich, "I came to this band to play music, not join the Marines!" Another instance was when an Australian musician loudly debated with Buddy in the bus.
Tormé also was familiar with Buddy's dislike of rock, but he states that "when some of these rock drummers came to greet Buddy after a show, he was always charming and polite. And he never, at least in my presence, disparaged them in any way." Rich held a low opinion of country music, considered "a giant step backwards" and "the young people ... need to realize that there's a lot more to music than just playing one chord or two chords". During medical therapy following a brain tumor operation, a nurse inquiring about drug allergies asked Rich whether there was anything he couldn't take. He replied, "Yes, country and western music."
Death
Rich toured and performed until the end of his life. In early March 1987, he was touring in New York when he was hospitalized after suffering a paralysis on his left side that physicians believed had been caused by a stroke. He was transferred to California to UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles for tests, where doctors discovered and removed a brain tumor on March 16. He was discharged a week later, but continued to receive daily chemotherapy treatments at the hospital. On April 2, 1987, he died of unexpected respiratory and cardiac failure after a treatment related to the malignant brain tumor. His wife Marie and daughter Cathy buried him in Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles. He was 69.
Since Rich's death, a number of memorial concerts have been held. In 1994, the Rich tribute album Burning for Buddy: A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich was released. Produced by Rush drummer/lyricist Neil Peart, the album features performances of Rich staples by a number of jazz and rock drummers such as Joe Morello, Steve Gadd, Max Roach, Billy Cobham, Dave Weckl, Simon Phillips, Steve Smith and Peart, accompanied by the Buddy Rich Big Band. A second volume was issued in 1997. Phil Collins was featured in a DVD tribute organized by Rich's daughter, A Salute to Buddy Rich, which included Steve Smith and Dennis Chambers.
Legacy
Rich's technique, including speed, smooth execution and precision, is one of the most coveted in drumming and has become a common standard. Gene Krupa described him as "the greatest drummer ever to have drawn breath". Roger Taylor, drummer of Queen, acknowledged Rich as the best drummer he ever saw for sheer technique. Blink-182 drummer Travis Barker has credited Rich as the greatest drummer of all time.
Rich's influence extends from jazz to rock music, including drummers such as Dave Weckl, Vinnie Colaiuta, Adam Nussbaum, Simon Phillips, Hal Blaine, John Bonham, Carl Palmer, Ian Paice, Gregg Bissonette, Jojo Mayer, Tré Cool, and Bill Ward. Phil Collins stopped using two bass drums and started playing the hi-hat after reading Rich's opinion on the importance of the hi-hat.
Awards and honors
In 1980, Rich was awarded an honorary doctorate of music from Berklee College of Music.
In 1986, a year before his death, Rich was elected into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in the category of bandleader, and drum set player.
On September 30, 2017, Rich was honored with a Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars.
In 2016, readers of Rolling Stone magazine ranked Rich No. 15 in their list of the 100 Greatest Drummers of all time. In a readers' poll in 2011, he ranked No. 6.
Instruments
Rich was known as a performer and endorser of Ludwig, Slingerland, and Rogers drums. While endorsing Slingerland in the '60s and '70s, Rich sometimes used a Fibes snare drum together with a Slingerland drum kit. He switched exclusively to Ludwig in the late 1970s through the early 1980s. While recovering from a heart attack in 1983, Rich was presented with a 1940s-vintage Slingerland Radio King set, refurbished by Joe MacSweeney of Eames Drums, which he used until his death in 1987. Rich's typical setup included a 14"×24" bass drum, a 9"×13" mounted tom, two 16"×16" floor toms (with the second tom usually serving as a towel holder), and a 5.5"×14" snare drum. His cymbals were typically Avedis Zildjian: 14" New Beat hi-hats, 20" medium ride, 8" splash, two 18" crashes (thin and medium-thin). Sometimes a 6" splash and later a 22" swish. He also used Remo drumheads and Slingerland drumsticks.
Discography
As leader/co-leader
The Flip Phillips Buddy Rich Trio (Clef, 1953)
The Swinging Buddy Rich (Norgran, 1954)
Buddy and Sweets (Norgran, 1955)
Sing and Swing with Buddy Rich (Norgran, 1955)
The Lester Young Buddy Rich Trio with Lester Young (Norgran, 1955)
Krupa and Rich (Clef, 1956)
Buddy Rich Sings Johnny Mercer (Verve, 1956)
The Lionel Hampton Art Tatum Buddy Rich Trio (Clef, 1956)
The Wailing Buddy Rich (Norgran, 1956)
This One's for Basie (Verve, 1957)
Buddy Rich Just Sings (Verve, 1957)
Buddy Rich in Miami (Verve, 1958)
Rich Versus Roach (Mercury, 1959
The Voice is Rich (Mercury, 1959)
Richcraft (Mercury, 1959)
Playtime (Argo, 1961)
Burnin' Beat with Gene Krupa (Verve, 1962)
Blues Caravan (Verve, 1962)
The Sounds of '66 with Sammy Davis Jr. (Reprise, 1966)
Swingin' New Big Band (Pacific Jazz, 1966)
Big Swing Face (Pacific Jazz, 1967)
The Driver (EmArcy, 1967)
The New One! (Pacific Jazz, 1968)
Mercy, Mercy (Pacific Jazz, 1968)
Rich à la Rakha (Liberty, 1968)
Buddy & Soul (Pacific Jazz, 1969)
Keep the Customer Satisfied (Liberty, 1970)
A Different Drummer (RCA Victor, 1971)
Are You Ready for This? (Roost, 1971)
Stick It (RCA Victor, 1972)
Rich in London (RCA Victor, 1972)
Conversations (EMI-Parlophone, 1972)
The Roar of '74 (Groove Merchant, 1974)
The Last Blues Album Volume 1 (Groove Merchant, 1974)
Transition with Lionel Hampton (Groove Merchant, 1974)
Very Live at Buddy's Place (Groove Merchant, 1974)
One Night Stand with Buddy Rich 1946 (Joyce, 1974)
One Night Stand with Buddy Rich 1946 Vol. 2 (Joyce, 1975)
Big Band Machine (Groove Merchant, 1975)
Film Tracks of Buddy Rich and Gene Krupa (Joyce, 1976)
Speak No Evil (RCA, 1976)
Buddy Rich Plays and Plays and Plays (RCA, 1977)
Lionel Hampton Presents Buddy Rich (Who's Who in Jazz, 1977)
Class of '78 (Century, 1978)
Together Again: For the First Time with Mel Tormé (Gryphon/Century, 1978)
The Bull (Chiaroscuro, 1980)
Live at Ronnie Scott's (DRG, 1980)
Buddy Rich Band (MCA, 1981)
I'm Always Chasing Rainbows (BL Enterprise, 1981)
Live at the 1982 Montreal Jazz Festival (Hudson Music, 1982) [DVD-Video +CD]
Rich and Famous (Amway, 1983)
Tuff Dude (Denon, 1986)
Mr. Drums: ... Live on King Street, San Francisco (Cafe, 1986)
Posthumous releases
Europe '77 (Magic, 1993)
Buddy Rich & His Big Band At Stadthalle Leonberg, Germany 10 July 1986 (Jazz Band, 1996)
Wham! The Buddy Rich Big Band Live (Label M, 2000)
No Funny Hats (Lightyear, 2004)
Time Out (Lightyear, 2007)
The Solos (Lightyear Entertainment, 2014)
Birdland (Lightyear Entertainment, 2015)
Just In Time: The Final Recording (Gearbox, 2019)
As sideman
With Count Basie
1952: Basie Jazz (Clef, 1954)
1952: The Swinging Count! (Clef, 1956)
compilation: Blues by Basie (Columbia, 1956)
With Benny Carter
1952: Alone Together (Norgran, 1955)
1954: Benny Carter Plays Pretty (Norgran, 1955)
1954: New Jazz Sounds (Norgran, 1955)
With Harry James
1953: Radio Discs of Harry James (Joyce LP 2002 [1975])
1953: One Night Stand With Harry James (Joyce LP 1014 [1977])
1953: One Night Stand (Sandy Hook SH 2004 [1978])
1953: One Night Stand With Buddy Rich & Harry James (Joyce LP 1078 [1980])
1953/1958: One Night Stand With Harry James at The Blue Note (Joyce LP 1124 [1983])
1953/1962: Live! (Sunbeam SB 230 [1979])
1953–54: Saturday Night Swing (Giants of Jazz Productions GOJ LP-1016 [1979])
1954: 1954 Broadcasts (Sunbeam SB 217 [1976])
1954?: Trumpet After Midnight (Columbia CL 553 and B-410 [1954])
1954?: Dancing In Person With Harry James At The Hollywood Palladium (Columbia CL 562 and B-428 [1954])
1953–54: Juke Box Jamboree (Columbia CL 615 [1955])
1956: Harry James and His New Jazz Band, Vol. 1 / Vol. 2 (Mr. Music MMCD 7010/7012 [2002])
1957: Wild About Harry! (Capitol T 874 / ST 874 [1967])
1963: Double Dixie (MGM E-4137 / SE-4137 [1963]).
1964: 1964 Live! In The Holiday Ballroom Chicago (Jazz Hour Compact Classics JH-1001 [1989]) – live
1964: One Night Stand With Harry James on Tour in '64 (Joyce LP 1074 [1979])
1964: In a Relaxed Mood (MGM SE-4274 [1964])
1964: New Versions of Down Beat Favorites (MGM SE-4265 [1964])
1965?: Harry James Plays Green Onions & Other Great Hits (Dot DLP 3634 / DLP 25634 [1965])
1965: Harry James, Buddy Rich, Woody Herman (Europa Jazz EJ 1041 [1981])
1966: The Ballads and the Beat! (Dot DLP 3669 / DLP 25669 [1966])
Notes
With Charlie Parker
1950–52: Big Band (Clef, 1954)
With others
1946: Lester Young, Nat King Cole (not originally credited) Lester Young Trio (Mercury, 1951)
1950: Bud Powell, The Genius of Bud Powell (Mercury/Clef, 1956)
1952: Gene Krupa, The Drum Battle (Verve, 1960)
1953?: Harry "Sweets" Edison, Sweets at the Haig (Pacific Jazz, 1953)
1954: Lionel Hampton, Lionel Hampton Plays Love Songs (Verve, 1956)
1954: Roy Eldridge, Little Jazz, (Clef, 1954)
1955: Lester Young and Harry Edison, Pres and Sweets (Norgran, 1955)
1955: Oscar Peterson, Oscar Peterson Plays Count Basie (Clef, 1956)
1956: Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong, Ella and Louis (Verve, 1956)
1958?: Tommy Dorsey, Having Wonderful Time (RCA Victor, 1958)
1969: Stan Getz, The Song Is You (Laserlight, 1996)
1982: Frank Sinatra, Sinatra: World On a String (Universal, 2016)
References
External links
Buddy Rich on Drummerworld.com
Doug Meriwether collection on Buddy Rich, Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University
Buddy Rich in 1942 with the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra Earliest appearance on film
1917 births
1987 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American drummers
20th-century American singers
American jazz bandleaders
American jazz drummers
American jazz singers
American male drummers
Bebop drummers
Big band bandleaders
Big band drummers
Mainstream jazz drummers
Swing drummers
Blue Note Records artists
EmArcy Records artists
Liberty Records artists
Mercury Records artists
RCA Records artists
MCA Records artists
Verve Records artists
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
Deaths from brain cancer in the United States
Jazz musicians from California
Jazz musicians from New York City
Jewish American jazz composers
Jewish American musicians
Jewish jazz musicians
United States Marines
Vaudeville performers
American male jazz composers
American jazz composers
20th-century American male musicians
Musicians from Williamsburg, Brooklyn
People from Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn
Black Lion Records artists
20th-century jazz composers
Hep Records artists
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
|
416798
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Poland
|
History of the Jews in Poland
|
The history of the Jews in Poland dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries, Poland was home to the largest and most significant Ashkenazi Jewish community in the world. Poland was a principal center of Jewish culture, because of the long period of statutory religious tolerance and social autonomy which ended after the Partitions of Poland in the 18th century. During World War II there was a nearly complete genocidal destruction of the Polish Jewish community by Nazi Germany and its collaborators of various nationalities, during the German occupation of Poland between 1939 and 1945, called the Holocaust. Since the fall of communism in Poland, there has been a renewed interest in Jewish culture, featuring an annual Jewish Culture Festival, new study programs at Polish secondary schools and universities, and the opening of Warsaw's Museum of the History of Polish Jews.
From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in 1025 until the early years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth created in 1569, Poland was the most tolerant country in Europe. Historians have used the label paradisus iudaeorum (Latin for "Paradise of the Jews"). Poland became a shelter for Jews persecuted and expelled from various European countries and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. According to some sources, about three-quarters of the world's Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. With the weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation), Poland's traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century. After the Partitions of Poland in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a sovereign state, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly antisemitic Russian Empire, as well as Austria-Hungary and Kingdom of Prussia (later a part of the German Empire). When Poland regained independence in the aftermath of World War I, it was still the center of the European Jewish world, with one of the world's largest Jewish communities of over 3 million. Antisemitism was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population. Throughout the interwar period, Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. The Polish state also supported Jewish paramilitary groups such as the Haganah, Betar, and Irgun, providing them with weapons and training.
In 1939, at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (see Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war. While the Holocaust occurred largely in German-occupied Poland, it was orchestrated by the Nazis. Collaboration by non-Jewish Polish citizens, while sporadic, is well documented and the topic has been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century. Polish attitudes to the Holocaust varied widely, from actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives, and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail, and in extreme cases, orchestrating and participating in pogroms such as the Jedwabne pogrom.
In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the Central Committee of Polish Jews or CKŻP (of whom 136,000 arrived from the Soviet Union) left the Polish People’s Republic for the nascent State of Israel or the Americas. Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions, post-war anti-Jewish violence, and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 1946–1947 Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the "anti-Zionist" campaign. After the fall of the Communist regime in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized and those who were Polish citizens before World War II were allowed to renew Polish citizenship. The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. The number of people with Jewish heritage of any sort is several times larger.
Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572
Early history: 966–1385
The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the Crusades. Travelling along trade routes leading east to Kyiv and Bukhara, Jewish merchants, known as Radhanites, crossed Silesia. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the Moorish town of Tortosa in Spanish Al-Andalus, known by his Arabic name, Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince Mieszko I. In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native Toledo in Muslim Spain to the Holy Roman Empire and then to the Slavic countries. The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century, where it appears that Jews then lived in Gniezno, at that time the capital of the Polish kingdom of the Piast dynasty. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from Prague. The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar Jehuda ha-Kohen in the city of Przemyśl.
As elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe, the principal activity of Jews in medieval Poland was commerce and trade, including the export and import of goods such as cloth, linen, furs, hides, wax, metal objects, and slaves.
The first extensive Jewish migration from Western Europe to Poland occurred at the time of the First Crusade in 1098. Under Bolesław III (1102–1139), Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border in Lithuanian territory as far as Kyiv. Bolesław III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the commercial interests of his country. Jews came to form the backbone of the Polish economy. Mieszko III employed Jews in his mint as engravers and technical supervisors, and the coins minted during that period even bear Hebraic markings. Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including Casimir the Just, Bolesław I the Tall and Władysław III Spindleshanks. Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of landlords (developing into szlachta, the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land.
Another factor for the Jews to emigrate to Poland was the Magdeburg rights (or Magdeburg Law), a charter given to Jews, among others, that specifically outlined the rights and privileges that Jews had in Poland. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. This made it very attractive for Jewish communities to pick up and move to Poland.
The first mention of Jewish settlers in Płock dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a Żydowska (Jewish) street in Kraków in 1304.
The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the Roman Catholic Church on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other. There were, however, among the reigning princes some determined protectors of the Jewish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the latter most desirable as far as the economic development of the country was concerned. Prominent among such rulers was Bolesław the Pious of Kalisz, Prince of Great Poland. With the consent of the class representatives and higher officials, in 1264 he issued a General Charter of Jewish Liberties (commonly called the Statute of Kalisz), which granted all Jews the freedom to worship, trade, and travel. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes, Henryk IV Probus of Wrocław in 1273–90, Henryk III of Głogów in 1274 and 1299, Henryk V the Fat of Legnica in 1290–95, and Bolko III the Generous of Legnica and Wrocław in 1295. Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating blood libels against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. If despite this a Jew should be accused of murdering a Christian child, such charge must be sustained by testimony of three Christians and three Jews."
During the next hundred years, the Church pushed for the persecution of Jews while the rulers of Poland usually protected them. The Councils of Wrocław (1267), Buda (1279), and Łęczyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. However, those church decrees required the cooperation of the Polish princes for enforcement, which was generally not forthcoming, due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes.
In 1332, King Casimir III the Great (1303–1370) amplified and expanded Bolesław's old charter with the Wiślicki Statute. Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in Lvov (1356), Sandomierz (1367), and Kazimierz near Kraków (1386). Casimir, who according to a legend had a Jewish lover named Esterka from Opoczno was especially friendly to the Jews, and his reign is regarded as an era of great prosperity for Polish Jewry, and was nicknamed by his contemporaries "King of the serfs and Jews." Under penalty of death, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of Jewish cemeteries. Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the Black Death. In 1348, the first blood libel accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in Poznań. Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in Western Europe, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland.
The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505
As a result of the marriage of Władysław II Jagiełło to Jadwiga, daughter of Louis I of Hungary, Lithuania was united with the kingdom of Poland. In , broad privileges were extended to Lithuanian Jews including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. Under the rule of Władysław II, Polish Jews had increased in numbers and attained prosperity. However, religious persecution gradually increased, as the dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the Synod of Constance. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia. There were accusations of blood libel by the priests, and new riots against the Jews in Poznań in 1399. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in Kraków in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue. Hysteria caused by the Black Death led to additional 14th-century outbreaks of violence against the Jews in Kalisz, Kraków and Bochnia. Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. In 1423, the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Kraków in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of Łuck, Wolczko of Drohobycz, Natko of Lviv, Samson of Zydaczow, Josko of Hrubieszów and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiełło's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also, Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors, meadows, fish ponds and mills. However, until the end of the 15th century, agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and the Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring).
In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in Bohemia's ethnically-German Wrocław and other Silesian cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar, John of Capistrano, who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. As a result, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Zbigniew Olesnicki then invited John to conduct a similar campaign in Kraków and several other cities, to lesser effect.
The decline in the status of the Jews was briefly checked by Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447–1492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the Statute of Nieszawa, which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. Two years later Casimir issued another document announcing that he could not deprive the Jews of his benevolence on the basis of "the principle of tolerance which in conformity with God's laws obliged him to protect them". The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors, John I Albert (1492–1501) and Alexander Jagiellon (1501–1506). In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Kraków and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In the same year, Alexander, when he was the Grand Duke of Lithuania, followed the 1492 example of Spanish rulers and banished Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until he reversed his decision eight years later in 1503 after becoming King of Poland and allowed them back to Lithuania. The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted "kings and rulers".
Center of the Jewish world: 1505–1572
Poland became more tolerant just as the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, as well as from Austria, Hungary and Germany, thus stimulating Jewish immigration to the much more accessible Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people.
The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572), mainly followed his father's tolerant policy and also granted communal-administration autonomy to the Jews and laid the foundation for the power of the Qahal, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from Italy, as well as Sephardi Jews and Romaniote Jews migrating there from the Ottoman Empire. Arabic-speaking Mizrahi Jews and Persian Jews also migrated to Poland during this time. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Pollak the first official Rabbi of Poland. By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power, to use it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry and its yeshivot achieved fame from the early 16th century.
Moses Isserles (1520–1572), an eminent Talmudist of the 16th century, established his yeshiva in Kraków. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. The Remuh Synagogue was built for him in 1557. Rema (רמ״א) is the Hebrew acronym for his name.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795
After the childless death of Sigismund II Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellon dynasty, Polish and Lithuanian nobles (szlachta) gathered at Warsaw in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of material prosperity and relative security experienced by Polish Jews – wrote Professor Gershon Hundert – witnessed the appearance of "a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures." Jewish academies were established in Lublin, Kraków, Brześć (Brisk), Lwów, Ostróg and other towns. Poland-Lithuania was the only country in Europe where the Jews cultivated their own farmer's fields. The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the Council of Four Lands.
Decline
In 1648, the multi-ethnic Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the country lost over a third of its population (over three million people). The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these large-scale atrocities was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, in which the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host under Bohdan Khmelnytsky massacred tens of thousands of Jews and Catholic Poles in the eastern and southern areas of Polish-occupied Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during this period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and jasyr (captivity in the Ottoman Empire). The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against the Polish nobility and landlords. The Jews, perceived as allies of the Poles, were also victims of the revolt, during which about 20% of them were killed.
Ruled by the elected kings of the House of Vasa since 1587, the embattled Commonwealth was invaded by the Swedish Empire in 1655 in what became known as the Deluge. The kingdom of Poland which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from the recurring invasions of the Russians, Crimean Tatars and Ottomans, became the scene of even more atrocities. Charles X of Sweden, at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Kraków and Warsaw. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the Siege of Kraków (1657) was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. The Polish general Stefan Czarniecki defeated the Swedes in 1660. He was equally successful in his battles against the Russians. Meanwhile, the horrors of the war were aggravated by pestilence. Many Jews along with the townsfolk of Kalisz, Kraków, Poznań, Piotrków and Lublin fell victim to recurring epidemics.
As soon as the disturbances had ceased, the Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that the Jewish population of Poland had decreased, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in Western Europe. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of Judaism. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population – approximately three million of its citizens.
The environment of the Polish Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. There was no isolation. The Jewish dress resembled that of their Polish neighbor. "Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Wealthy Jews had Polish noblemen at their table, and served meals on silver plates. By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million.
In 1768, the Koliivshchyna, a rebellion in Right-bank Ukraine west of the Dnieper in Volhynia, led to ferocious murders of Polish noblemen, Catholic priests and thousands of Jews by haydamaks. Four years later, in 1772, the military Partitions of Poland had begun between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth
The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in Hebrew, and as transliterated into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya ("God"), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund I the Old until the Holocaust, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. Many agreed with Rabbi David HaLevi Segal that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" (Divre David; 1689).
Jewish learning
Yeshivot were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasia, and their rabbi principals as rectors. Important yeshivot existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a Torah was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of Jewish law. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.
In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from Bohemia, particularly from the school of Jacob Pollak, the creator of Pilpul ("sharp reasoning"). Shalom Shachna (c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil Moses Isserles (known as the ReMA) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the Shulkhan Arukh, (the "Code of Jewish Law"). His contemporary and correspondent Solomon Luria (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the Kabbalah had become entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism; and such scholars as Mordecai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkis devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the [Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge.
The rise of Hasidism
The decade from the Khmelnytsky Uprising until after the Deluge (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle-workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously as Sabbatianism was succeeded by Frankism.
In this time of mysticism and overly formal Rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Eastern Europe and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of Judaism based on Kabbalah known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad, Aleksander, Bobov, Ger, Nadvorna, among others.
The Partitions of Poland
In 1742 most of Silesia was lost to Prussia. Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king, Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski in 1764. His election was bought by Catherine the Great for 2.5 million rubles, with the Russian army stationing only away from Warsaw. Eight years later, triggered by the Confederation of Bar against Russian influence and the pro-Russian king, the outlying provinces of Poland were overrun from all sides by different military forces and divided for the first time by the three neighboring empires, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during the annexations of 1772, and even more of its peoples. Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia.
The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more rational basis. The progressive elements in Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the very first step toward reform. The famous Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission, kanclerz Andrzej Zamoyski, along with others, demanded that the inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On the other hand, some szlachta and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before the French Revolution of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were too late: a Russian army soon invaded Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed.
A second partition of Poland was made on 17 July 1793. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by Berek Joselewicz, took part in the Kościuszko Uprising the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became subjects of that empire, although in the first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the Congress Poland (1815–1831).
Under foreign rule many Jews inhabiting formerly Polish lands were indifferent to Polish aspirations for independence. However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings. Polish Jews took part in the November Insurrection of 1830–1831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. Many Polish Jews were enlisted in the Polish Legions, which fought for the Polish independence, achieved in 1918 when the occupying forces disintegrated following World War I.
Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918)
Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain the home of many Jews, as, in 1772, Catherine II, the Tzarina of Russia, instituted the Pale of Settlement, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale.
Tsarist policy towards the Jews of Poland alternated between harsh rules, and inducements meant to break the resistance to large-scale conversion. In 1804, Alexander I of Russia issued a "Statute Concerning Jews", meant to accelerate the process of assimilation of the Empire's new Jewish population. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. They could own land in the territories annexed from Poland. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and from entering Russia. They were banned from the brewing industry. The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. Once the resettlement began, thousands of Jews lost their only source of income and turned to Qahal for support. Their living conditions in the Pale began to dramatically worsen.
During the reign of Tsar Nicolas I, known by the Jews as "Haman the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted. The 1827 decree by Nicolas – while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service – made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000 "souls" every 4 years. Unlike the general population that had to provide recruits between the ages of 18 and 35, Jews had to provide recruits between the ages of 12 and 25, at the qahal's discretion. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called Cantonist schools, where they were pressured to convert. "Many children were smuggled to Poland, where the conscription of Jews did not take effect until 1844."
Pale of Settlement
The Pale of Settlement (, , , , , ) was the term given to a region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. It extended from the eastern pale, or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the Kingdom of Prussia (later the German Empire) and with Austria-Hungary.
The archaic English term pale is derived from the Latin word , a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary.
With its large Catholic and Jewish populations, the Pale was acquired by the Russian Empire (which was a majority Russian Orthodox) in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. It comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and mostly corresponded to historical borders of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; it covered much of present-day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Moldova, Ukraine, and parts of western Russia.
From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the Caucasus. At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in Kyiv, Sevastopol and Yalta, excluded from residency at a number of cities within the Pale. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the shtetls.
Although the Jews were accorded slightly more rights with the Emancipation reform of 1861 by Alexander II, they were still restricted to the Pale of Settlement and subject to restrictions on ownership and profession. The existing status quo was shattered with the assassination of Alexander in 1881 – an act falsely blamed upon the Jews.
Pogroms in the Russian Empire
The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called pogroms (;) throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million rubles worth of property was destroyed. The new czar, Alexander III, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in partitioned Poland and throughout the world. In 1884, 36 Jewish Zionist delegates met in Katowice, forming the Hovevei Zion movement. The pogroms prompted a great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States.
An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, at least some of them believed to have been organized by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the Okhrana. They included the Białystok pogrom of 1906 in the Grodno Governorate of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in the pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families.
Haskalah and Halakha
The Jewish Enlightenment, Haskalah, began to take hold in Poland during the 19th century, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of Haskalah, the Maskilim, pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to the ethical problems of antisemitism and persecution, one form of which was the Musar movement. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by Haskalah, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on Halakha ("rabbis's law") following primarily Orthodox Judaism, Hasidic Judaism, and also adapting to the new Religious Zionism of the Mizrachi movement later in the 19th century.
Politics in Polish territory
By the late 19th century, Haskalah and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the Poale Zion socialist party as well as the religious Polish Mizrahi, and the increasingly popular General Zionists. Jews also took up socialism, forming the Bund labor union which supported assimilation and the rights of labor. The Folkspartei (People's Party) advocated, for its part, cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912, Agudat Israel, a religious party, came into existence.
Many Jews took part in the Polish insurrections, particularly against Russia (since the Tsars discriminated heavily against the Jews). The Kościuszko Insurrection (1794), November Insurrection (1830–31), January Insurrection (1863) and Revolutionary Movement of 1905 all saw significant Jewish involvement in the cause of Polish independence.
During the Second Polish Republic period, there were several prominent Jewish politicians in the Polish Sejm, such as Apolinary Hartglas and Yitzhak Gruenbaum. Many Jewish political parties were active, representing a wide ideological spectrum, from the Zionists, to the socialists to the anti-Zionists. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz.
In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist Poale Zion and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. The General Zionist party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the first Polish Sejm since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote.
In 1914, the German Zionist Max Bodenheimer founded the short-lived German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (Pufferstaat) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the former Polish provinces annexed by Russia, being de facto protectorate of the German Empire that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. The plan, known as the League of East European States, soon proved unpopular with both German officials and Bodenheimer's colleagues, and was dead by the following year.
Interbellum (1918–39)
Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence
While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state, many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during World War I; around 650 Jews joined the Legiony Polskie formed by Józef Piłsudski, more than all other minorities combined. Prominent Jews were among the members of KTSSN, the nucleus of the interim government of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile, Porucznik Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others. The donations poured in including 50,000 Austrian kronen from the Jews of Lwów and the 1,500 cans of food donated by the Blumenfeld factory among similar others. A Jewish organization during the war that was opposed to Polish aspirations was the Komitee für den Osten (Kfdo)(Committee for the East) founded by German Jewish activists, which promoted the idea of Jews in the east becoming "spearhead of German expansionism" serving as "Germany's reliable vassals" against other ethnic groups in the region and serving as "living wall against Poles separatists aims".
In the aftermath of the Great War localized conflicts engulfed Eastern Europe between 1917 and 1919. Many attacks were launched against Jews during the Russian Civil War, the Polish-Ukrainian War, and the Polish–Soviet War ending with the Treaty of Riga. Just after the end of World War I, the West became alarmed by reports about alleged massive pogroms in Poland against Jews. Pressure for government action reached the point where U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sent an official commission to investigate the matter. The commission, led by Henry Morgenthau, Sr., concluded in its Morgenthau Report that allegations of pogroms were exaggerated. It identified eight incidents in the years 1918–1919 out of 37 mostly empty claims for damages, and estimated the number of victims at 280. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on official government policy. Among the incidents, during the battle for Pińsk a commander of Polish infantry regiment accused a group of Jewish men of plotting against the Poles and ordered the execution of thirty-five Jewish men and youth. The Morgenthau Report found the charge to be "devoid of foundation" even though their meeting was illegal to the extent of being treasonable. In the Lwów (Lviv) pogrom, which occurred in 1918 during the Polish–Ukrainian War of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the Sich Riflemen – the report concluded – 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72).
In Warsaw, soldiers of Blue Army assaulted Jews in the streets, but were punished by military authorities. Many other events in Poland were later found to have been exaggerated, especially by contemporary newspapers such as The New York Times, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued elsewhere, especially in Ukraine. The above-mentioned atrocities committed by the young Polish army and its allies in 1919 during their Kiev operation against the Bolsheviks had a profound impact on the foreign perception of the re-emerging Polish state. The result of the concerns over the fate of Poland's Jews was a series of explicit clauses in the Versailles Treaty signed by the Western powers, and President Paderewski, protecting the rights of minorities in new Poland including Germans. In 1921, Poland's March Constitution gave the Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance and freedom of religious holidays.
The number of Jews immigrating to Poland from Ukraine and Soviet Russia during the interwar period grew rapidly. Jewish population in the area of former Congress of Poland increased sevenfold between 1816 and 1921, from around 213,000 to roughly 1,500,000. According to the Polish national census of 1921, there were 2,845,364 Jews living in the Second Polish Republic; but, by late 1938 that number had grown by over 16% to approximately 3,310,000. The average rate of permanent settlement was about 30,000 per annum. At the same time, every year around 100,000 Jews were passing through Poland in unofficial emigration overseas. Between the end of the Polish–Soviet War and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000.
Jewish and Polish culture
The newly independent Second Polish Republic had a large and vibrant Jewish minority. By the time World War II began, Poland had the largest concentration of Jews in Europe although many Polish Jews had a separate culture and ethnic identity from Catholic Poles. Some authors have stated that only about 10% of Polish Jews during the interwar period could be considered "assimilated" while more than 80% could be readily recognized as Jews.
According to the 1931 National Census there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. They made up about 50%, and in some cases even 70% of the population of smaller towns, especially in Eastern Poland. Prior to World War II, the Jewish population of Łódź numbered about 233,000, roughly one-third of the city's population. The city of Lwów (now in Ukraine) had the third-largest Jewish population in Poland, numbering 110,000 in 1939 (42%). Wilno (now in Lithuania) had a Jewish community of nearly 100,000, about 45% of the city's total. In 1938, Kraków's Jewish population numbered over 60,000, or about 25% of the city's total population. In 1939 there were 375,000 Jews in Warsaw or one-third of the city's population. Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw.
Jewish youth and religious groups, diverse political parties and Zionist organizations, newspapers and theatre flourished. Jews owned land and real estate, participated in retail and manufacturing and in the export industry. Their religious beliefs spanned the range from Orthodox Hasidic Judaism to Liberal Judaism.
The Polish language, rather than Yiddish, was increasingly used by the young Warsaw Jews who did not have a problem in identifying themselves fully as Jews, Varsovians and Poles. Jews such as Bruno Schulz were entering the mainstream of Polish society, though many thought of themselves as a separate nationality within Poland. Most children were enrolled in Jewish religious schools, which used to limit their ability to speak Polish. As a result, according to the 1931 census, 79% of the Jews declared Yiddish as their first language, and only 12% listed Polish, with the remaining 9% being Hebrew. In contrast, the overwhelming majority of German-born Jews of this period spoke German as their first language. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either Yiddish or Hebrew as the instructional language. Jewish political parties, both the Socialist General Jewish Labour Bund (The Bund), as well as parties of the Zionist right and left wing and religious conservative movements, were represented in the Sejm (the Polish Parliament) as well as in the regional councils.
The Jewish cultural scene was particularly vibrant in pre–World War II Poland, with numerous Jewish publications and more than one hundred periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably Isaac Bashevis Singer, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers; Singer won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature. His brother Israel Joshua Singer was also a writer. Other Jewish authors of the period, such as Bruno Schulz, Julian Tuwim, Marian Hemar, Emanuel Schlechter and Bolesław Leśmian, as well as Konrad Tom and Jerzy Jurandot, were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g. Jan Brzechwa (a favorite poet of Polish children). Singer Jan Kiepura, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including Henryk Wars, Jerzy Petersburski, Artur Gold, Henryk Gold, Zygmunt Białostocki, Szymon Kataszek and Jakub Kagan, are still widely known in Poland today. Painters became known as well for their depictions of Jewish life. Among them were Maurycy Gottlieb, Artur Markowicz, and Maurycy Trebacz, with younger artists like Chaim Goldberg coming up in the ranks.
Many Jews were film producers and directors, e.g. Michał Waszyński (The Dybbuk), Aleksander Ford (Children Must Laugh).
Scientist Leopold Infeld, mathematician Stanislaw Ulam, Alfred Tarski, and professor Adam Ulam contributed to the world of science. Other Polish Jews who gained international recognition are Moses Schorr, Ludwik Zamenhof (the creator of Esperanto), Georges Charpak, Samuel Eilenberg, Emanuel Ringelblum, and Artur Rubinstein, just to name a few from the long list. The term "genocide" was coined by Rafał Lemkin (1900–1959), a Polish-Jewish legal scholar. Leonid Hurwicz was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economics. The YIVO (Jidiszer Wissenszaftlecher Institute) Scientific Institute was based in Wilno before transferring to New York during the war. In Warsaw, important centers of Judaic scholarship, such the Main Judaic Library and the Institute of Judaic Studies were located, along with numerous Talmudic Schools (Jeszybots), religious centers and synagogues, many of which were of high architectural quality. Yiddish theatre also flourished; Poland had fifteen Yiddish theatres and theatrical groups. Warsaw was home to the most important Yiddish theater troupe of the time, the Vilna Troupe, which staged the first performance of The Dybbuk in 1920 at the Elyseum Theatre. Some future Israeli leaders studied at University of Warsaw, including Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir.
There also were several Jewish sports clubs, with some of them, such as Hasmonea Lwow and Jutrzenka Kraków, winning promotion to the Polish First Football League. A Polish-Jewish footballer, Józef Klotz, scored the first ever goal for the Poland national football team. Another athlete, Alojzy Ehrlich, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. Many of these clubs belonged to the Maccabi World Union.
Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine
In contrast to the prevailing trends in Europe at the time, in interwar Poland an increasing percentage of Jews were pushed to live a life separate from the non-Jewish majority. The antisemitic rejection of Jews, whether for religious or racial reasons, caused estrangement and growing tensions between Jews and Poles. It is significant in this regard that in 1921, 74.2% of Polish Jews spoke Yiddish or Hebrew as their native language; by 1931, the number had risen to 87%.
Besides the persistent effects of the Great Depression, the strengthening of antisemitism in Polish society was also a consequence of the influence of Nazi Germany. Following the German-Polish non-aggression pact of 1934, the antisemitic tropes of Nazi propaganda had become more common in Polish politics, where they were echoed by the National Democratic movement. One of its founders and chief ideologue Roman Dmowski was obsessed with an international conspiracy of freemasons and Jews, and in his works linked Marxism with Judaism. The position of the Catholic Church had also become increasingly hostile to the Jews, who in the 1920s and 1930s were increasingly seen as agents of evil, that is, of Bolshevism. Economic instability was mirrored by anti-Jewish sentiment in the press; discrimination, exclusion, and violence at the universities; and the appearance of "anti-Jewish squads" associated with some of the right-wing political parties. These developments contributed to a greater support among the Jewish community for Zionist and socialist ideas.
In 1925, Polish Zionist members of the Sejm capitalized on governmental support for Zionism by negotiating an agreement with the government known as the Ugoda. The Ugoda was an agreement between the Polish prime minister Władysław Grabski and Zionist leaders of Et Liwnot, including Leon Reich. The agreement granted certain cultural and religious rights to Jews in exchange for Jewish support for Polish nationalist interests; however, the Galician Zionists had little to show for their compromise because the Polish government later refused to honor many aspects of the agreement. During the 1930s, Revisionist Zionists viewed the Polish government as an ally and promoted cooperation between Polish Zionists and Polish nationalists, despite the antisemitism of the Polish government.
Matters improved for a time under the rule of Józef Piłsudski (1926–1935). Piłsudski countered Endecja's Polonization with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality. The years 1926–1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski's appointee Kazimierz Bartel. However, a combination of various factors, including the Great Depression, meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Piłsudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy. The Jewish industries were negatively affected by the development of mass production and the advent of department stores offering ready-made products. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency. The difficult situation in the private sector led to enrolment growth in higher education. In 1923 the Jewish students constituted 62.9% of all students of stomatology, 34% of medical sciences, 29.2% of philosophy, 24.9% of chemistry and 22.1% of law (26% by 1929) at all Polish universities. It is speculated that such disproportionate numbers were the probable cause of a backlash.
The interwar Polish government provided military training to the Zionist Betar paramilitary movement, whose members admired the Polish nationalist camp and imitated some of its aspects. Uniformed members of Betar marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and military, with their weapons training provided by Polish institutions and Polish military officers; Menachem Begin, one of its leaders, called for its members to defend Poland in case of war, and the organisation raised both Polish and Zionist flags.
With the influence of the Endecja (National Democracy) party growing, antisemitism gathered new momentum in Poland and was most felt in smaller towns and in spheres in which Jews came into direct contact with Poles, such as in Polish schools or on the sports field. Further academic harassment, such as the introduction of ghetto benches, which forced Jewish students to sit in sections of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them, anti-Jewish riots, and semi-official or unofficial quotas (Numerus clausus) introduced in 1937 in some universities, halved the number of Jews in Polish universities between independence (1918) and the late 1930s. The restrictions were so inclusive that – while the Jews made up 20.4% of the student body in 1928 – by 1937 their share was down to only 7.5%, out of the total population of 9.75% Jews in the country according to 1931 census.
While the average per capita income of Polish Jews in 1929 was 40% above the national average – which was very low compared to England or Germany – they were a very heterogeneous community, some poor, some wealthy. Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions; doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%). In 1929, about a third of artisans and home workers and a majority of shopkeepers were Jewish.
Although many Jews were educated, they were almost completely excluded from government jobs; as a result, the proportion of unemployed Jewish salary earners was approximately four times as great in 1929 as the proportion of unemployed non-Jewish salary earners, a situation compounded by the fact that almost no Jews were on government support. In 1937 the Catholic trade unions of Polish doctors and lawyers restricted their new members to Christian Poles. In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918. The bulk of Jewish workers were organized in the Jewish trade unions under the influence of the Jewish socialists who split in 1923 to join the Communist Party of Poland and the Second International.
Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the Second World War. Between 1935 and 1937 seventy-nine Jews were killed and 500 injured in anti-Jewish incidents. National policy was such that the Jews who largely worked at home and in small shops were excluded from welfare benefits. In the provincial capital of Łuck Jews constituted 48.5% of the diverse multiethnic population of 35,550 Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and others. Łuck had the largest Jewish community in the voivodeship. In the capital of Brześć in 1936 Jews constituted 41.3% of general population and some 80.3% of private enterprises were owned by Jews. The 32% of Jewish inhabitants of Radom enjoyed considerable prominence also, with 90% of small businesses in the city owned and operated by the Jews including tinsmiths, locksmiths, jewellers, tailors, hat makers, hairdressers, carpenters, house painters and wallpaper installers, shoemakers, as well as most of the artisan bakers and clock repairers. In Lubartów, 53.6% of the town's population were Jewish also along with most of its economy. In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life.
The national boycott of Jewish businesses and advocacy for their confiscation was promoted by the Endecja party, which introduced the term "Christian shop". A national movement to prevent the Jews from kosher slaughter of animals, with animal rights as the stated motivation, was also organized. Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. At the same time, persistent economic boycotts and harassment, including property-destroying riots, combined with the effects of the Great Depression that had been very severe on agricultural countries like Poland, reduced the standard of living of Poles and Polish Jews alike to the extent that by the end of the 1930s, a substantial portion of Polish Jews lived in grinding poverty. As a result, on the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals) also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe.
The main strain of antisemitism in Poland during this time was motivated by Catholic religious beliefs and centuries-old myths such as the blood libel. This religious-based antisemitism was sometimes joined with an ultra-nationalistic stereotype of Jews as disloyal to the Polish nation. On the eve of World War II, many typical Polish Christians believed that there were far too many Jews in the country, and the Polish government became increasingly concerned with the "Jewish question". According to the British Embassy in Warsaw, in 1936 emigration was the only solution to the Jewish question that found wide support in all Polish political parties. The Polish government condemned wanton violence against the Jewish minority, fearing international repercussions, but shared the view that the Jewish minority hindered Poland's development; in January 1937 Foreign Minister Józef Beck declared that Poland could house 500,000 Jews, and hoped that over the next 30 years 80,000-100,000 Jews a year would leave Poland.
As the Polish government sought to lower the numbers of the Jewish population in Poland through mass emigration, it embraced close and good contact with Ze'ev Jabotinsky, the founder of Revisionist Zionism, and pursued a policy of supporting the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. The Polish government hoped Palestine would provide an outlet for its Jewish population and lobbied for creation of a Jewish state in the League of Nations and other international venues, proposing increased emigration quotas and opposing the Partition Plan of Palestine on behalf of Zionist activists. As Jabotinsky envisioned in his "Evacuation Plan" the settlement of 1.5 million East European Jews within 10 years in Palestine, including 750,000 Polish Jews, he and Beck shared a common goal. Ultimately this proved impossible and illusory, as it lacked both general Jewish and international support. In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs Józef Beck declared in the League of Nations his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration. The common goals of the Polish state and of the Zionist movement, of increased Jewish population flow to Palestine, resulted in their overt and covert cooperation. Poland helped by organizing passports and facilitating illegal immigration, and supplied the Haganah with weapons. Poland also provided extensive support to the Irgun (the military branch of the Revisionist Zionist movement) in the form of military training and weapons. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. The training and support by Poland would allow the organisation to mobilise 30,000-40,000 men.
By the time of the German invasion in 1939, antisemitism was escalating, and hostility towards Jews was a mainstay of the right-wing political forces post-Piłsudski regime and also the Catholic Church. Discrimination and violence against Jews had rendered the Polish Jewish population increasingly destitute. Despite the impending threat to the Polish Republic from Nazi Germany, there was little effort seen in the way of reconciliation with Poland's Jewish population. In July 1939 the pro-government Gazeta Polska wrote, "The fact that our relations with the Reich are worsening does not in the least deactivate our program in the Jewish question—there is not and cannot be any common ground between our internal Jewish problem and Poland's relations with the Hitlerite Reich." Escalating hostility towards Polish Jews and an official Polish government desire to remove Jews from Poland continued until the German invasion of Poland.
World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45)
Polish September Campaign
The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people. One hundred thirty thousand soldiers of Jewish descent, including Boruch Steinberg, Chief Rabbi of the Polish Military, served in the Polish Army at the outbreak of the Second World War, thus being among the first to launch armed resistance against Nazi Germany. During the September Campaign some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed, while 61,000 were taken prisoner by the Germans; the majority did not survive. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the Nazi ghettos and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing Holocaust in Poland.
In 1939, Jews constituted 30% of Warsaw's population. With the coming of the war, Jewish and Polish citizens of Warsaw jointly defended the city, putting their differences aside. Polish Jews later served in almost all Polish formations during the entire World War II, many were killed or wounded and very many were decorated for their combat skills and exceptional service. Jews fought with the Polish Armed Forces in the West, in the Soviet formed Polish People's Army as well as in several underground organizations and as part of Polish partisan units or Jewish partisan formations.
Territories annexed by the USSR (1939–1941)
The Soviet Union signed a Pact with Nazi Germany on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland (generally known but denied by the Soviet Union for the next 50 years). The German army attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. The Soviet Union followed suit by invading eastern Poland on 17 September 1939. Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves under the German occupation, while 38.8% were trapped in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Based on population migration from West to East during and after the German invasion the percentage of Jews under the Soviet-occupation was substantially higher than that of the national census.
The Soviet annexation was accompanied by the widespread arrests of government officials, police, military personnel, border guards, teachers, priests, judges etc., followed by the NKVD prisoner massacres and massive deportation of 320,000 Polish nationals to the Soviet interior and the Gulag slave labor camps where, as a result of the inhuman conditions, about half of them died before the end of war.
Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings-on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally.
Many people from Western Poland registered for repatriation back to the German zone, including wealthier Jews, as well as some political and social activists from the interwar period. Instead, they were labelled "class enemies" by the NKVD and deported to Siberia with the others. Jews caught at border crossings, or engaged in trade and other "illegal" activities were also arrested and deported. Several thousand, mostly captured Polish soldiers, were executed; some of them Jewish.
All private property and – crucial to Jewish economic life – private businesses were nationalized; political activity was delegalized and thousands of people were jailed, many of whom were later executed. Zionism, which was designated by the Soviets as counter-revolutionary was also forbidden. In just one day all Polish and Jewish media were shut down and replaced by the new Soviet press, which conducted political propaganda attacking religion including the Jewish faith. Synagogues and churches were not yet closed but heavily taxed. The Soviet ruble of little value was immediately equalized to the much higher Polish zloty and by the end of 1939, zloty was abolished. Most economic activity became subject to central planning and the NKVD restrictions. Since the Jewish communities tended to rely more on commerce and small-scale businesses, the confiscations of property affected them to a greater degree than the general populace. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. The Jews, like other inhabitants of the region, saw a fall in their living standards.
Under the Soviet policy, ethnic Poles were dismissed and denied access to positions in the civil service. Former senior officials and notable members of the Polish community were arrested and exiled together with their families. At the same time the Soviet authorities encouraged young Jewish communists to fill in the newly emptied government and civil service jobs.
While most eastern Poles consolidated themselves around the anti-Soviet sentiments, a portion of the Jewish population, along with the ethnic Belarusian and Ukrainian activists had welcomed invading Soviet forces as their protectors. The general feeling among the Polish Jews was a sense of temporary relief in having escaped the Nazi occupation in the first weeks of war. The Polish poet and former communist Aleksander Wat has stated that Jews were more inclined to cooperate with the Soviets. Following Jan Karski's report written in 1940, historian Norman Davies claimed that among the informers and collaborators, the percentage of Jews was striking; likewise, General Władysław Sikorski estimated that 30% of them identified with the communists whilst engaging in provocations; they prepared lists of Polish "class enemies". Other historians have indicated that the level of Jewish collaboration could well have been less than suggested. Historian Martin Dean has written that "few local Jews obtained positions of power under Soviet rule."
The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. Some scholars note that while not pro-Communist, many Jews saw the Soviets as the lesser threat compared to the German Nazis. They stress that stories of Jews welcoming the Soviets on the streets, vividly remembered by many Poles from the eastern part of the country are impressionistic and not reliable indicators of the level of Jewish support for the Soviets. Additionally, it has been noted that some ethnic Poles were as prominent as Jews in filling civil and police positions in the occupation administration, and that Jews, both civilians and in the Polish military, suffered equally at the hands of the Soviet occupiers. Whatever initial enthusiasm for the Soviet occupation Jews might have felt was soon dissipated upon feeling the impact of the suppression of Jewish societal modes of life by the occupiers. The tensions between ethnic Poles and Jews as a result of this period has, according to some historians, taken a toll on relations between Poles and Jews throughout the war, creating until this day, an impasse to Polish-Jewish rapprochement.
A number of younger Jews, often through the pro-Marxist Bund or some Zionist groups, were sympathetic to Communism and Soviet Russia, both of which had been enemies of the Polish Second Republic. As a result of these factors they found it easy after 1939 to participate in the Soviet occupation administration in Eastern Poland, and briefly occupied prominent positions in industry, schools, local government, police and other Soviet-installed institutions. The concept of "Judeo-communism" was reinforced during the period of the Soviet occupation (see ).
There were also Jews who assisted Poles during the Soviet occupation. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet NKVD in the Katyń massacre there were 500–600 Jews. From 1939 to 1941 between 100,000 and 300,000 Polish Jews were deported from Soviet-occupied Polish territory into the Soviet Union. Some of them, especially Polish Communists (e.g. Jakub Berman), moved voluntarily; however, most of them were forcibly deported or imprisoned in a Gulag. Small numbers of Polish Jews (about 6,000) were able to leave the Soviet Union in 1942 with the Władysław Anders army, among them the future Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin. During the Polish army's II Corps' stay in the British Mandate of Palestine, 67% (2,972) of the Jewish soldiers deserted to settle in Palestine, and many joined the Irgun. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely. The Cemetery of Polish soldiers who died during the Battle of Monte Cassino includes headstones bearing a Star of David. A number of Jewish soldiers died also when liberating Bologna.
The Holocaust
Poland's Jewish community suffered the most in the Holocaust. Some six million Polish citizens perished in the war – half of those (three million Polish Jews, all but some 300,000 of the Jewish population) being killed at the German extermination camps at Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek, Belzec, Sobibór, and Chełmno or starved to death in the ghettos.
Poland was where the German program of extermination of Jews, the "Final Solution", was implemented, since this was where most of Europe's Jews (excluding the Soviet Union's) lived.
In 1939 several hundred synagogues were blown up or burned by the Germans, who sometimes forced the Jews to do it themselves. In many cases, the Germans turned the synagogues into factories, places of entertainment, swimming pools, or prisons. By war's end, almost all the synagogues in Poland had been destroyed. Rabbis were forced to dance and sing in public with their beards shorn off. Some rabbis were set on fire or hanged.
The Germans ordered that all Jews be registered, and the word "Jude" was stamped in their identity cards. Numerous restrictions and prohibitions targeting Jews were introduced and brutally enforced. For example, Jews were forbidden to walk on the sidewalks, use public transport, or enter places of leisure, sports arenas, theaters, museums and libraries. On the street, Jews had to lift their hat to passing Germans. By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. Rabbis were humiliated in "spectacles organised by the German soldiers and police" who used their rifle butts "to make these men dance in their praying shawls." The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate", made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland, nevertheless, German tabloids printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.
Following Operation Barbarossa, many Jews in what was then Eastern Poland fell victim to Nazi death squads called Einsatzgruppen, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941. Some of these German-inspired massacres were carried out with help from, or active participation of Poles themselves: for example, the Jedwabne pogrom, in which between 300 (Institute of National Remembrance's Final Findings) and 1,600 Jews (Jan T. Gross) were tortured and beaten to death by members of the local population. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. The Polish Institute for National Remembrance identified twenty-two other towns that had pogroms similar to Jedwabne. The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included antisemitism, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish-Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the Kresy regions, greed for the possessions of the Jews, and of course coercion by the Nazis to participate in such massacres.
Some Jewish historians have written of the negative attitudes of some Poles towards persecuted Jews during the Holocaust. While members of Catholic clergy risked their lives to assist Jews, their efforts were sometimes made in the face of antisemitic attitudes from the church hierarchy. Anti-Jewish attitudes also existed in the London-based Polish Government in Exile, although on 18 December 1942 the President in exile Władysław Raczkiewicz wrote a dramatic letter to Pope Pius XII, begging him for a public defense of both murdered Poles and Jews. In spite of the introduction of death penalty extending to the entire families of rescuers, the number of Polish Righteous among the Nations testifies to the fact that Poles were willing to take risks in order to save Jews.
Holocaust survivors' views of Polish behavior during the War span a wide range, depending on their personal experiences. Some are very negative, based on the view of Christian Poles as passive witnesses who failed to act and aid the Jews as they were being persecuted or liquidated by the Nazis. Poles, who were also victims of Nazi crimes, were often afraid for their own and their family's lives and this fear prevented many of them from giving aid and assistance, even if some of them felt sympathy for the Jews. Emanuel Ringelblum, a Polish-Jewish historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, wrote critically of the indifferent and sometimes joyful responses in Warsaw to the destruction of Polish Jews in the Ghetto. However, Gunnar S. Paulsson stated that Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in Western European countries. Paulsson's research shows that at least as far as Warsaw is concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnumbered those who sold out their Jewish neighbors to the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Warsaw 70,000–90,000 Polish gentiles aided Jews, while 3,000–4,000 were szmalcowniks, or blackmailers who collaborated with the Nazis in persecuting the Jews.
Ghettos and death camps
The German Nazis established six extermination camps throughout occupied Poland by 1942. All of these – at Chełmno (Kulmhof), Bełżec, Sobibór, Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz (Oświęcim) – were located near the rail network so that the victims could be easily transported. The system of the camps was expanded over the course of the German occupation of Poland and their purposes were diversified; some served as transit camps, some as forced labor camps and the majority as death camps. While in the death camps, the victims were usually killed shortly after arrival, in the other camps able-bodied Jews were worked and beaten to death. The operation of concentration camps depended on Kapos, the collaborator-prisoners. Some of them were Jewish themselves, and their prosecution after the war created an ethical dilemma.
Between October 1939 and July 1942 a system of ghettos was imposed for the confinement of Jews. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest in all of World War II, with 380,000 people crammed into an area of . The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 prisoners. Other large Jewish ghettos in leading Polish cities included Białystok Ghetto in Białystok, Częstochowa Ghetto, Kielce Ghetto, Kraków Ghetto in Kraków, Lublin Ghetto, Lwów Ghetto in present-day Lviv, Stanisławów Ghetto also in present-day Ukraine, Brześć Ghetto in present-day Belarus, and Radom Ghetto among others. Ghettos were also established in hundreds of smaller settlements and villages around the country. The overcrowding, dirt, lice, lethal epidemics such as typhoid and hunger all resulted in countless deaths.
During the occupation of Poland, the Germans used various laws to separate ethnic Poles from Jewish ones. In the ghettos, the population was separated by putting the Poles into the "Aryan Side" and the Polish Jews into the "Jewish Side". Any Pole found giving any help to a Jewish Pole was subject to the death penalty. Another law implemented by the Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops, and if they did they were subject to execution. Many Jews tried to escape from the ghettos in the hope of finding a place to hide outside of it, or of joining the partisan units. When this proved difficult escapees often returned to the ghetto on their own. If caught, Germans would murder the escapees and leave their bodies in plain view as a warning to others. Despite these terror tactics, attempts at escape from ghettos continued until their liquidation.
Since the Nazi terror reigned throughout the Aryan districts, the chances of remaining successfully hidden depended on a fluent knowledge of the language and on having close ties with the community. Many Poles were not willing to hide Jews who might have escaped the ghettos or who might have been in hiding due to fear for their own lives and that of their families.
While the German policy towards Jews was ruthless and criminal, their policy towards Christian Poles who helped Jews was very much the same. The Germans would often murder non-Jewish Poles for small misdemeanors. Execution for help rendered to Jews, even the most basic kinds, was automatic. In any apartment block or area where Jews were found to be harboured, everybody in the house would be immediately shot by the Germans. For this thousands of non-Jewish Poles were executed.
Hiding in a Christian society to which the Jews were only partially assimilated was a daunting task. They needed to quickly acquire not only a new identity, but a new body of knowledge. Many Jews spoke Polish with a distinct Yiddish or Hebrew accent, used a different nonverbal language, different gestures and facial expressions. People with physical characteristics such as dark curly hair and brown eyes were particularly vulnerable.
Some individuals blackmailed Jews and non-Jewish Poles hiding them, and took advantage of their desperation by collecting money, or worse, turning them over to the Germans for a reward. The Gestapo provided a standard prize to those who informed on Jews hidden on the 'Aryan' side, consisting of cash, liquor, sugar, and cigarettes. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "szmalcowniks" (the 'shmalts' people: from shmalts or szmalec, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). In extreme cases, the Jews informed on other Jews to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize. The extortionists were condemned by the Polish Underground State. The fight against informers was organized by the Armia Krajowa (the Underground State's military arm), with the death sentence being meted out on a scale unknown in the occupied countries of Western Europe.
To discourage Poles from giving shelter to Jews, the Germans often searched houses and introduced ruthless penalties. Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the Nazis formally imposed the death penalty for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews. The penalty applied not only to the person who did the helping, but also extended to his or her family, neighbors and sometimes to entire villages. In this way Germans applied the principle of collective responsibility whose purpose was to encourage neighbors to inform on each other in order to avoid punishment. The nature of these policies was widely known and visibly publicized by the Nazis who sought to terrorize the Polish population.
Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and black market prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of Righteous Among The Nations awards at the Yad Vashem Museum (6,339).
The Polish Government in Exile was the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier Jan Karski and through the activities of Witold Pilecki, a member of Armia Krajowa who was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz and who organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself. One of the Jewish members of the National Council of the Polish government in exile, Szmul Zygielbojm, committed suicide to protest the indifference of the Allied governments in the face of the Holocaust in Poland. The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (Żegota) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland.
The Warsaw Ghetto and its uprising
The Warsaw Ghetto and its 1943 Uprising represents what is likely the most known episode of the wartime history of the Polish Jews. The ghetto was established by the German Governor-General Hans Frank on 16 October 1940. Initially, almost 140,000 Jews were moved into the ghetto from all parts of Warsaw. At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. The Germans selected Adam Czerniakow to take charge of the Jewish Council called Judenrat made up of 24 Jewish men ordered to organize Jewish labor battalions as well as Jewish Ghetto Police which would be responsible for maintaining order within the Ghetto walls. A number of Jewish policemen were corrupt and immoral. Soon the Nazis demanded even more from the Judenrat and the demands were much crueler. Death was the punishment for the slightest indication of noncompliance by the Judenrat. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Adam Czerniakow who was the head of the Warsaw Judenrat committed suicide when he was forced to collect daily lists of Jews to be deported to the Treblinka extermination camp at the onset of Grossaktion Warsaw.
The population of the ghetto reached 380,000 people by the end of 1940, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was only about 2.4% of the size of the city. The Germans closed off the Ghetto from the outside world, building a wall around it by 16 November 1940. During the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Warsaw Ghetto, while diseases (especially typhoid) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal, and 669 kcal for Poles, as opposed to 2,613 kcal for Germans. On 22 July 1942, the mass deportation of the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began. During the next fifty-two days (until 12 September 1942) about 300,000 people were transported by freight train to the Treblinka extermination camp. The Jewish Ghetto Police were ordered to escort the ghetto inhabitants to the Umschlagplatz train station. They were spared from the deportations until September 1942 in return for their cooperation, but afterwards shared their fate with families and relatives. On 18 January 1943, a group of Ghetto militants led by the right-leaning ŻZW, including some members of the left-leaning ŻOB, rose up in a first Warsaw uprising. Both organizations resisted, with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Auschwitz and Treblinka. The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.
The Uprising was led by ŻOB (Jewish Combat Organization) and the ŻZW. The ŻZW (Jewish Military Union) was the better supplied in arms. The ŻOB had more than 750 fighters, but lacked weapons; they had only 9 rifles, 59 pistols and several grenades. A developed network of bunkers and fortifications were formed. The Jewish fighters also received support from the Polish Underground (Armia Krajowa). The German forces, which included 2,842 Nazi soldiers and 7,000 security personnel, were not capable of crushing the Jewish resistance in open street combat and after several days, decided to switch strategy by setting buildings on fire in which the Jewish fighters hid. The commander of the ŻOB, Mordechai Anielewicz, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street.
It took the Germans twenty-seven days to put down the uprising, after some very heavy fighting. The German general Jürgen Stroop in his report stated that his troops had killed 6,065 Jewish fighters during the battle. After the uprising was already over, Heinrich Himmler had the Great Synagogue on Tłomackie Square (outside the ghetto) destroyed as a celebration of German victory and a symbol that the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw was no longer.
A group of fighters escaped from the ghetto through the sewers and reached the Lomianki forest. About 50 ghetto fighters were saved by the Polish "People's Guard" and later formed their own partisan group, named after Anielewicz. Even after the end of the uprising there were still several hundreds of Jews who continued living in the ruined ghetto. Many of them survived thanks to the contacts they managed to establish with Poles outside the ghetto. The Uprising inspired Jews throughout Poland. Many Jewish leaders who survived the liquidation continued underground work outside the ghetto. They hid other Jews, forged necessary documents and were active in the Polish underground in other parts of Warsaw and the surrounding area.
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, was followed by other Ghetto uprisings in many smaller towns and cities across German-occupied Poland. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general Warsaw Uprising when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. Some of the survivors of 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, still held in camps at or near Warsaw, were freed during 1944 Warsaw Uprising, led by the Polish resistance movement Armia Krajowa, and immediately joined Polish fighters. Only a few of them survived. The Polish commander of one Jewish unit, Waclaw Micuta, described them as some of the best fighters, always at the front line. It is estimated that over 2,000 Polish Jews, some as well known as Marek Edelman or Icchak Cukierman, and several dozen Greek, Hungarian or even German Jews freed by Armia Krajowa from Gesiowka concentration camp in Warsaw, men and women, took part in combat against Nazis during 1944 Warsaw Uprising. Some 166,000 people lost their lives in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, including perhaps as many as 17,000 Polish Jews who had either fought with the AK or had been discovered in hiding (see: Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński and Stanisław Aronson). Warsaw was razed to the ground by the Germans and more than 150,000 Poles were sent to labor or concentration camps. On 17 January 1945, the Soviet Army entered a destroyed and nearly uninhabited Warsaw. Some 300 Jews were found hiding in the ruins in the Polish part of the city (see: Wladyslaw Szpilman).
The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. With the decision of Nazi Germany to begin the Final Solution, the destruction of the Jews of Europe, Aktion Reinhard began in 1942, with the opening of the extermination camps of Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, followed by Auschwitz-Birkenau where people were killed in gas chambers and mass executions (death wall). Many died from hunger, starvation, disease, torture or by pseudo-medical experiments. The mass deportation of Jews from ghettos to these camps, such as happened at the Warsaw Ghetto, soon followed, and more than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943 alone.
The Białystok Ghetto and its uprising
In August 1941, the Germans ordered the establishment of a ghetto in Białystok. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Białystok. The ghetto had two sections, divided by the Biala River. Most Jews in the Białystok ghetto worked in forced-labor projects, primarily in large textile factories located within the ghetto boundaries. The Germans also sometimes used Jews in forced-labor projects outside the ghetto.
In February 1943, approximately 10,000 Białystok Jews were deported to the Treblinka extermination camp. During the deportations, hundreds of Jews, mainly those deemed too weak or sick to travel, were killed.
In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Białystok ghetto. German forces and local police auxiliaries surrounded the ghetto and began to round up Jews systematically for deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. Those deemed fit to work were sent to the Majdanek camp. In Majdanek, after another screening for ability to work, they were transported to the Poniatowa, Blizyn, or Auschwitz camps. Those deemed too weak to work were murdered at Majdanek. More than 1,000 Jewish children were sent first to the Theresienstadt ghetto in Bohemia, and then to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were killed.
On 15 August 1943, the Białystok Ghetto Uprising began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the Anti-Fascist Military Organisation () started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation and deportation of the ghetto to the Treblinka extermination camp. The guerrillas were armed with only one machine gun, several dozen pistols, Molotov cocktails and bottles filled with acid. The fighting in isolated pockets of resistance lasted for several days, but the defence was broken almost instantly. As with the earlier Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of April 1943, the Białystok uprising had no chances for military success, but it was the second-largest ghetto uprising, after the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Several dozen guerrillas managed to break through to the forests surrounding Białystok where they joined the partisan units of Armia Krajowa and other organisations and survived the war.
Communist rule: 1945–1989
Number of Holocaust survivors
The estimates of Polish Jews before the war vary from slightly under 3 million to almost 3.5 million (the last nationwide census was conducted in 1931).
The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. The majority of Polish Jewish survivors were individuals who were able to find refuge in the territories of Soviet Union that were not overrun by Germans and thus safe from the Holocaust. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 800,000 Polish Jews survived the war, out of which between 50,000 and 100,000 were survivors from occupied Poland, and the remainder, survivors who made it abroad (mostly to the Soviet Union).
Following the Soviet annexation of over half of Poland at the onset of World War II, all Polish nationals including Jews were declared by Moscow to have become Soviet nationals regardless of birth. Also, all Polish Jews who perished in the Holocaust behind the Curzon Line were included with the Soviet war dead. For decades to come, the Soviet authorities refused to accept the fact that thousands of Jews who remained in the USSR opted consciously and unambiguously for Polish nationality. At the end of 1944, the number of Polish Jews in the Soviet and the Soviet-controlled territories has been estimated at 250,000–300,000 people. Jews who escaped to eastern Poland from areas occupied by Germany in 1939 were numbering at around 198,000. Over 150,000 of them were repatriated or expelled back to new communist Poland along with the Jewish men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust. Some of the soldiers married women with the Soviet citizenship, others agreed to paper marriages. Those who survived the Holocaust in Poland included Jews who were saved by the Poles (most families with children), and those who joined the Polish or Soviet resistance movement. Some 20,000–40,000 Jews were repatriated from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, up to 240,000 returning Jews might have resided in Poland mostly in Warsaw, Łódź, Kraków, Wrocław and Lower Silesia, e.g., Dzierżoniów (where there was a significant Jewish community initially consisting of local concentration camp survivors), Legnica, and Bielawa.
The Jewish community in post-war Poland
Following World War II Poland became a satellite state of the Soviet Union, with its eastern regions annexed to the Union, and its western borders expanded to include formerly German territories east of the Oder and Neisse rivers. This forced millions to relocate (see also Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II). Jewish survivors returning to their homes in Poland found it practically impossible to reconstruct their pre-war lives. Due to the border shifts, some Polish Jews found that their homes were now in the Soviet Union; in other cases, the returning survivors were German Jews whose homes were now under Polish jurisdiction. Jewish communities and Jewish life as it had existed was gone, and Jews who somehow survived the Holocaust often discovered that their homes had been looted or destroyed.
Anti-Jewish violence and discrimination
Some returning Jews were met with antisemitic bias in Polish employment and education administrations. Post-war labor certificates contained markings distinguishing Jews from non-Jews. The Jewish community in Szczecin reported a lengthy report of complaints regarding job discrimination. Although Jewish schools were created in the few towns containing a relatively large Jewish population, many Jewish children were enrolled in Polish state schools. Some state schools, as in the town of Otwock, forbade Jewish children to enroll. In the state schools that did allow Jewish children, there were numerous accounts of beatings and persecution targeting these children.
The anti-Jewish violence in Poland refers to a series of violent incidents in Poland that immediately followed the end of World War II in Europe. It occurred amid a period of violence and anarchy across the country, caused by lawlessness and anti-communist resistance against the Soviet-backed communist takeover of Poland.
The exact number of Jewish victims is a subject of debate with 327 documented cases, and range, estimated by different writers, from 400 to 2,000. Jews constituted between 2% and 3% of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country, including the Polish Jews who managed to escape the Holocaust on territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union, and returned after the border changes imposed by the Allies at the Yalta Conference. The incidents ranged from individual attacks to pogroms.
The best-known case is the Kielce pogrom of 4 July 1946, in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. Following the investigation, the local police commander was found guilty of inaction. Nine alleged participants of the pogrom were sentenced to death; three were given lengthy prison sentences. The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences.
In a number of other instances, returning Jews still met with threats, violence, and murder from their Polish neighbors, occasionally in a deliberate and organized manner. People of the community frequently had knowledge of these murders and turned a blind eye or held no sympathy for the victims. Jewish communities responded to this violence by reporting the violence to the Ministry of Public Administration, but were granted little assistance. As many as 1500 Jewish heirs were often murdered when attempting to reclaim property.
Several causes led to the anti-Jewish violence of 1944–1947. One cause was traditional Christian anti-semitism; the pogrom in Cracow (11 August 1945) and in Kielce followed accusations of ritual murder. Another cause was the gentile Polish hostility to the Communist takeover. Even though very few Jews lived in postwar Poland, many Poles believed they dominated the Communist authorities, a belief expressed in the term (Judeo-Communist), a popular anti-Jewish stereotype. Yet another reason for Polish violence towards Jews stemmed from the fear that survivors would recover their property.
Jewish property
After the war ended, Poland's Communist government enacted a broad program of nationalization and land reform, taking over large numbers of properties, both Polish- and Jewish-owned. As part of the reform the Polish People's Republic enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs. According to Dariusz Stola, the 1945 and 1946 laws governing restitution were enacted with the intention of restricting Jewish restitution claims as one of their main goals. The 1946 law carried a deadline of 31 December 1947 (later extended to 31 December 1948), after which unclaimed property devolved to the Polish state; many survivors residing in the USSR or in displaced-persons camps were repatriated only after the deadline had passed. All other properties that had been confiscated by the Nazi regime were deemed "abandoned"; however, as Yechiel Weizman notes, the fact most of Poland's Jewry had died, in conjunction with the fact that only Jewish property was officially confiscated by the Nazis, suggest "abandoned property" was equivalent to "Jewish property". According to Łukasz Krzyżanowski, the state actively sought to gain control over a large number of "abandoned" properties. According to Krzyżanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death". A 1945 memorandum by the Joint states that "the new economic tendency of the Polish government... is against, or at least makes difficulties in, getting back the Jewish property robbed by the German authorities." Later laws, while more generous, remained mainly on paper, with an "uneven" implementation.
Many of the properties that were previously owned or by Jews were taken over by others during the war. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death. Many who proceeded with the process were only granted possession, not ownership, of their properties; and completing the restitution process, given that most properties were already occupied, required additional, lengthy processes. The majority of Jewish claimants could not afford the restitution process without financial help, due to the filing costs, legal fees, and inheritance tax. While it is hard to determine the total number of successful reclamations, Michael Meng estimates that it was extremely small.
In general, restitution was easier for larger organizations or well connected individuals, and the process was also abused by criminal gangs.
"Movable" property such as housewares, that was either given by Jews for safekeeping or taken during the war, was rarely returned willfully; oftentimes the only resort for a returnee looking for reappropriation was the courts. Most such property was probably never returned. According to Jan Gross, "there was no social norm mandating the return of Jewish property, no detectable social pressure defining such behavior as the right thing to do, no informal social control mechanism imposing censure for doing otherwise."
Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process, many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation.
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, a law was passed that allowed the Catholic Church to reclaim its properties, which it did with great success. According to Stephen Denburg, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government".
Decades later, reclaiming pre-war property would lead to a number of controversies, and the matter is still debated by media and scholars as of late 2010s. Dariusz Stola notes that the issues of property in Poland are incredibly complex, and need to take into consideration unprecedented losses of both Jewish and Polish population and massive destruction caused by Nazi Germany, as well as the expansion of Soviet Union and communism into Polish territories after the war, which dictated the property laws for the next 50 years. Poland remains "the only EU country and the only former Eastern European communist state not to have enacted [a restitution] law," but rather "a patchwork of laws and court decisions promulgated from 1945-present." As stated by Dariusz Stola, director of the POLIN Museum, "the question of restitution is in many ways connected to the question of Polish-Jewish relations, their history and remembrance, but particularly to the attitude of the Poles to the Holocaust."
Emigration to Palestine and Israel
For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended. Many left for the West because they did not want to live under a Communist regime. Some left because of the persecution they faced in postwar Poland, and because they did not want to live where their family members had been murdered, and instead have arranged to live with relatives or friends in different western democracies. Others wanted to go to British Mandate of Palestine soon to be the new state of Israel, especially after General Marian Spychalski signed a decree allowing Jews to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. In 1946–1947 Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.
Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000–120,000 Jews left Poland. Their departure was largely organized by the Zionist activists including Adolf Berman and Icchak Cukierman, under the umbrella of a semi-clandestine Berihah ("Flight") organization. Berihah was also responsible for the organized Aliyah emigration of Jews from Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland, totaling 250,000 survivors. In 1947, a military training camp for young Jewish volunteers to Hagana was established in Bolków, Poland. The camp trained 7,000 soldiers who then traveled to Palestine to fight for Israel. The boot-camp existed until the end of 1948.
A second wave of Jewish emigration (50,000) took place during the liberalization of the Communist regime between 1957 and 1959. After 1967's Six-Day War, in which the Soviet Union supported the Arab side, the Polish communist party adopted an anti-Jewish course of action which in the years 1968–1969 provoked the last mass migration of Jews from Poland.
The Bund took part in the post-war elections of 1947 on a common ticket with the (non-communist) Polish Socialist Party (PPS) and gained its first and only parliamentary seat in its Polish history, plus several seats in municipal councils. Under pressure from Soviet-installed communist authorities, the Bund's leaders 'voluntarily' disbanded the party in 1948–1949 against the opposition of many activists. Stalinist Poland was basically governed by the Soviet NKVD which was against the renewal of Jewish religious and cultural life. In the years 1948–49, all remaining Jewish schools were nationalized by the communists and Yiddish was replaced with Polish as a language of teaching.
Rebuilding Jewish communities
For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the Central Committee of Polish Jews (Centralny Komitet Żydów Polskich, CKŻP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. A countrywide Jewish Religious Community, led by Dawid Kahane, who served as chief rabbi of the Polish Armed Forces, functioned between 1945 and 1948 until it was absorbed by the CKŻP. Eleven independent political Jewish parties, of which eight were legal, existed until their dissolution during 1949–50. Hospitals and schools were opened in Poland by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and ORT to provide service to Jewish communities. Some Jewish cultural institutions were established including the Yiddish State Theater founded in 1950 and directed by Ida Kaminska, the Jewish Historical Institute, an academic institution specializing in the research of the history and culture of the Jews in Poland, and the Yiddish newspaper Folks-Shtime ("People's Voice"). Following liberalization after Joseph Stalin's death, in this 1958–59 period, 50,000 Jews emigrated to Israel.
Some Polish Communists of Jewish descent actively participated in the establishment of the communist regime in the People's Republic of Poland between 1944 and 1956. Hand-picked by Joseph Stalin, prominent Jews held posts in the Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party including Jakub Berman, head of state security apparatus Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (UB), and Hilary Minc responsible for establishing a Communist-style economy. Together with hardliner Bolesław Bierut, Berman and Minc formed a triumvirate of the Stalinist leaders in postwar Poland. After 1956, during the process of destalinisation in the People's Republic under Władysław Gomułka, some Jewish officials from Urząd Bezpieczeństwa including Roman Romkowski, Jacek Różański, and Anatol Fejgin, were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms for "power abuses" including the torture of Polish anti-fascists including Witold Pilecki among others. Yet another Jewish official, Józef Światło, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through Radio Free Europe the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954. Solomon Morel a member of the Ministry of Public Security of Poland and commandant of the Stalinist era Zgoda labour camp, fled Poland for Israel in 1992 to escape prosecution. Helena Wolińska-Brus, a former Stalinist prosecutor who emigrated to England in the late 1960s, fought being extradited to Poland on charges related to the execution of a Second World War resistance hero Emil Fieldorf. Wolińska-Brus died in London in 2008.
The March 1968 events and their aftermath
In 1967, following the Six-Day War between Israel and the Arab states, Poland's Communist government, following the Soviet lead, broke off diplomatic relations with Israel and launched an antisemitic campaign under the guise of "anti-Zionism". However, the campaign did not resonate well with the Polish public, as most Poles saw similarities between Israel's fight for survival and Poland's past struggles for independence. Many Poles also felt pride in the success of the Israeli military, which was dominated by Polish Jews. The slogan "our Jews beat the Soviet Arabs" (Nasi Żydzi pobili sowieckich Arabów) became popular in Poland.
The vast majority of the 40,000 Jews in Poland by the late 1960s were completely assimilated into the broader society. However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with "Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland.
In March 1968 student-led demonstrations in Warsaw (see Polish 1968 political crisis) gave Gomułka's government an excuse to try and channel public anti-government sentiment into another avenue. Thus his security chief, Mieczysław Moczar, used the situation as a pretext to launch an antisemitic press campaign (although the expression "Zionist" was officially used). The state-sponsored "anti-Zionist" campaign resulted in the removal of Jews from the Polish United Worker's Party and from teaching positions in schools and universities. In 1967–1971 under economic, political and secret police pressure, over 14,000 Polish Jews chose to leave Poland and relinquish their Polish citizenship. Officially, it was said that they chose to go to Israel. However, only about 4,000 actually went there; most settled throughout Europe and in the United States. The leaders of the Communist party tried to stifle the ongoing protests and unrest by scapegoating the Jews. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. The so-called "Partisan" faction blamed the Jews who had held office during the Stalinist period for the excesses that had occurred, but the result was that most of the remaining Polish Jews, regardless of their background or political affiliation, were targeted by the communist authorities.
There were several outcomes of the March 1968 events. The campaign damaged Poland's reputation abroad, particularly in the U.S. Many Polish intellectuals, however, were disgusted at the promotion of official antisemitism and opposed the campaign. Some of the people who emigrated to the West at this time founded organizations that encouraged anti-Communist opposition inside Poland.
First attempts to improve Polish-Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. Poland was the first of the Eastern Bloc countries to restore diplomatic relations with Israel after these have been broken off right after the Six-Day's War. In 1986 partial diplomatic relations with Israel were restored, and full relations were restored in 1990 as soon as communism fell.
During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. Most prominent among them, Adam Michnik (founder of Gazeta Wyborcza) was one of the founders of the Workers' Defence Committee (KOR). By the time of the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, only 5,000–10,000 Jews remained in the country, many of them preferring to conceal their Jewish origin.
Since 1989
With the fall of communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship, have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Jedwabne pogrom, the Koniuchy massacre, the Kielce pogrom, the Auschwitz cross, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general).
Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the Ronald Lauder Foundation and the Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture. There are two rabbis serving the Polish Jewish community, several Jewish schools and associated summer camps as well as several periodical and book series sponsored by the above foundations. Jewish studies programs are offered at major universities, such as Warsaw University and the Jagiellonian University. The Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland was founded in 1993. Its purpose is the promotion and organization of Jewish religious and cultural activities in Polish communities.
A large number of cities with synagogues include Warsaw, Kraków, Zamość, Tykocin, Rzeszów, Kielce, or Góra Kalwaria although not many of them are still active in their original religious role. Stara Synagoga ("Old Synagogue") in Kraków, which hosts a Jewish museum, was built in the early 15th century and is the oldest synagogue in Poland. Before the war, the Yeshiva Chachmei in Lublin was Europe's largest. In 2007 it was renovated, dedicated and reopened thanks to the efforts and endowments by Polish Jewry. Warsaw has an active synagogue, Beit Warszawa, affiliated with the Liberal-Progressive stream of Judaism.
There are also several Jewish publications although most of them are in Polish. These include Midrasz, Dos Jidische Wort (which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal Jidele and "Sztendlach" for young children. Active institutions include the Jewish Historical Institute, the E.R. Kaminska State Yiddish Theater in Warsaw, and the Jewish Cultural Center. The Judaica Foundation in Kraków has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. With funds from the city of Warsaw and the Polish government ($26 million total) a Museum of the History of Polish Jews is being built in Warsaw. The building was designed by the Finnish architect Rainer Mahlamäki.
Former extermination camps of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Majdanek and Treblinka are open to visitors. At Auschwitz the Oświęcim State Museum currently houses exhibitions on Nazi crimes with a special section (Block Number 27) specifically focused on Jewish victims and martyrs. At Treblinka there is a monument built out of many shards of broken stone, as well as a mausoleum dedicated to those who perished there. A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis. Jewish Cemetery, Łódź is one of the largest Jewish burial grounds in Europe, and preserved historic sites include those located in Góra Kalwaria and Leżajsk (Elimelech's of Lizhensk ohel).
The Great Synagogue in Oświęcim was excavated after testimony by a Holocaust survivor suggested that many Jewish relics and ritual objects had been buried there, just before Nazis took over the town. Candelabras, chandeliers, a menorah and a ner tamid were found and can now be seen at the Auschwitz Jewish Center.
The Warsaw Ghetto Memorial was unveiled on 19 April 1948—the fifth anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw ghetto Uprising. It was constructed out of bronze and granite that the Nazis used for a monument honoring German victory over Poland and it was designed by Nathan Rapoport. The Memorial is located where the Warsaw Ghetto used to be, at the site of one command bunker of the Jewish Combat Organization.
A memorial to the victims of the Kielce Pogrom of 1946, where a mob murdered more than 40 Jews who returned to the city after the Holocaust, was unveiled in 2006. The funds for the memorial came from the city itself and from the U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad.
Polish authors and scholars have published many works about the history of Jews in Poland. Notable among them are the Polish Academy of Sciences's Holocaust studies journal as well as other publications from the Institute of National Remembrance. Recent scholarship has primarily focused on three topics: post-war anti-Semitism; emigration and the creation of the State of Israel, and the restitution of property.
There have been a number of Holocaust remembrance activities in Poland in recent years. The United States Department of State documents that:
In September 2000, dignitaries from Poland, Israel, the United States, and other countries (including Prince Hassan of Jordan) gathered in the city of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) to commemorate the opening of the refurbished Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue and the Auschwitz Jewish Center. The synagogue, the sole synagogue in Oświęcim to survive World War II and an adjacent Jewish cultural and educational center, provide visitors a place to pray and to learn about the active pre–World War II Jewish community that existed in Oświęcim. The synagogue was the first communal property in the country to be returned to the Jewish community under the 1997 law allowing for restitution of Jewish communal property.
The March of the Living is an annual event in April held since 1988 to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. It takes place from Auschwitz to Birkenau and is attended by many people from Israel, Poland and other countries. The marchers honor Holocaust Remembrance Day as well as Israel Independence Day.
An annual festival of Jewish culture, which is one of the biggest festivals of Jewish culture in the world, takes place in Kraków.
In 2006, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be approximately 20,000; most living in Warsaw, Wrocław, Kraków, and Bielsko-Biała, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. According to the Polish Moses Schorr Centre and other Polish sources, however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious. There are also people with Jewish roots who do not possess adequate documentation to confirm it, due to various historical and family complications.
Poland is currently easing the way for Jews who left Poland during the Communist organized massive expulsion of 1968 to re-obtain their citizenship. Some 15,000 Polish Jews were deprived of their citizenship in the 1968 Polish political crisis. On 17 June 2009 the future Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw launched a bilingual Polish-English website called "The Virtual Shtetl", providing information about Jewish life in Poland.
In 2013, POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened. It is one of the world's largest Jewish museums. As of 2019 another museum, the Warsaw Ghetto Museum, is under construction and is intended to open in 2023.
Numbers of Jews in Poland since 1920
However, most sources other than YIVO give a larger number of Jews living in contemporary Poland. In the 2011 Polish census, 7,353 Polish citizens declared their nationality as "Jewish," a big increase from just 1,055 during the previous 2002 census. There are likely more people of Jewish ancestry living in Poland but who do not actively identify as Jewish. According to the Moses Schorr Centre, there are 100,000 Jews living in Poland who don't actively practice Judaism and do not list "Jewish" as their nationality. The Jewish Renewal in Poland organization estimates that there are 200,000 "potential Jews" in Poland. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Jewish Agency for Israel estimate that there are between 25,000 and 100,000 Jews living in Poland, a similar number to that estimated by Jonathan Ornstein, head of the Jewish Community Center in Kraków (between 20,000 and 100,000).
See also
History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century
History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland
History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland
History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland
Timeline of Jewish-Polish history
Galician Jews
Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
History of the Jews in Austria
History of the Jews in Germany
History of the Jews in Russia
Israel–Poland relations
Jewish ethnic divisions
Jewish Roots in Poland
List of Polish Rabbis
Notes
References
Bibliography
Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, After the Holocaust, East European Monographs, 2003, .
Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947, Lexington Books, 2004, .
William W. Hagen, "Before the 'Final Solution': Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland", The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381.
Antony Polonsky and Joanna B. Michlic. The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland, Princeton University Press, 2003 . (The introduction is online)
Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Jews in Poland. A Documentary History, Hippocrene Books, Inc., 1998, .
David Vital, A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939, Oxford University Press, 2001.
M. J. Rosman, The Lord's Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth During the Eighteenth Century, Harvard University Press, 1990,
Edward Fram, Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Life and Culture in Poland 1550–1655, HUC Press, 1996,
Magda Teter, Jews and Heretics in Premodern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era, Cambridge University Press, 2006,
Laurence Weinbaum, The De-Assimilation of the Jewish Remnant in Poland, in: Ethnos-Nation: eine europäische Zeitschrift, 1999, pp. 8–25
New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Considerable amount of copy-pasted paragraphs lacking inline citations originate from the Chapter: "Russia" in this source. The encyclopedia was published when sovereign Poland did not exist following the century of Partitions by neighbouring empires. .
Further reading
Cichopek-Gajraj, A. (2021). Agency and Displacement of Ethnic Polish and Jewish Families after World War II. Polish American Studies, 78(1), 60–82.
Dynner, Glenn. Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Krajewski, Stanisław. Poland and the Jews: Reflections of a Polish Polish Jew, Kraków: Austeria P, 2005.
Nikžentaitis, Alvydas, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas (editors). The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews. Rodopi, 2004,
Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 1: 1350–1881 (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009)
Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 2: 1881–1914 (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009)
Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 3: 1914-2008 (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011)
Prokop-Janiec, E. (2019). Jewish Intellectuals, National Suffering, Contemporary Poland. The Polish Review, 64(2), 24–36.
Ury, Scott. Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry, Stanford University Press, 2012.
A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organization and the Polish Government 1936-1939 Laurence Weinbaum, East European Monographs; dist. Columbia University Press, 1993
External links
Maps
The Cossack Uprising and its Aftermath in Poland, Jewish Communities in Poland and Lithuania under the Council of the Four Lands, The Spread of Hasidic Judaism, Jewish Revolts against the Nazis in Poland (All maps from Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice)
History of Polish Jews
Museum of the History of Polish Jews
Virtual Shtetl
The Polish Jews Home Page
Virtual Jewish History Tour of Poland
Judaism in the Baltic: Vilna as the Spiritual Center of Eastern Europe
The Jews in Poland. Saving from oblivion – Teaching for the future
Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw
Polish-Jewish Relations section of the Polish Embassy in Washington
Joanna Rohozinska, A Complicated Coexistence:Polish-Jewish relations through the centuries, Central Europe Review, 28 January 2000.
Jewish organisations in Poland before the Second World War
Foundation for the Preservation of Jewish Heritage in Poland
Foundation for Documentation of Jewish Cemeteries in Poland
World War II and the Holocaust
Chronicles of the Vilna Ghetto: wartime photographs & documents – vilnaghetto.com
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising from the US Holocaust Museum. From the same source see:
Non-Jewish Polish Victims of the Holocaust
Bibliography of Polish Jewish Relations during the War
Chronology of German Anti-Jewish Measures during World War II in Poland
The Catholic Zionist Who Helped Steer Israeli Independence through the UN
Poland's Jews:A light flickers on, The Economist, 20 December 2005
History of ethnic groups in Poland
|
416803
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOSUS
|
SOSUS
|
Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) was the original name for a submarine detection system based on passive sonar developed by the United States Navy to track Soviet submarines. The system's true nature was classified with the name and acronym SOSUS classified as well. The unclassified name Project Caesar was used to cover the installation of the system and a cover story developed regarding the shore stations, identified only as a Naval Facility (NAVFAC), being for oceanographic research. The name changed to Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS) in 1985, as the fixed bottom arrays were supplemented by the mobile Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System (SURTASS) and other new systems. The commands and personnel were covered by the "oceanographic" term until 1991 when the mission was declassified. As a result, the commands, Oceanographic System Atlantic and Oceanographic System Pacific became Undersea Surveillance Atlantic and Undersea Surveillance Pacific, and personnel were able to wear insignia reflecting the mission.
The original system was capable of oceanic surveillance with the long ranges made possible by exploiting the deep sound channel, or SOFAR channel. An indication of ranges is the first detection, recognition and reporting of a Soviet nuclear submarine coming into the Atlantic through the Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom (GIUK) gap by an array terminating at NAVFAC Barbados on 6 July 1962. The linear arrays with hydrophones placed on slopes within the sound channel enabled beamforming processing at the shore facilities to form azimuthal beams. When two or more arrays held a contact, triangulation provided approximate positions for air or surface assets to localize.
SOSUS grew out of tasking in 1949 to scientists and engineers to study the problem of antisubmarine warfare. It was implemented as a chain of underwater hydrophone arrays linked by cable, based on commercial telephone technology, to shore stations located around the western Atlantic Ocean from Nova Scotia to Barbados. The first experimental array was a six-element test array laid at Eleuthera in the Bahamas in 1951, followed, after successful experiments with a target submarine, in 1952 by a fully-functional , forty-hydrophone array. At that time the order for stations was increased from six to nine. The then-secret 1960 Navy film Watch in the Sea describes the production arrays as being long. In 1954, the order was increased by three more Atlantic stations and an extension into the Pacific, with six stations on the West Coast and one in Hawaii.
In September 1954, Naval Facility Ramey was commissioned in Puerto Rico. Others of the first Atlantic phase followed, and in 1957 the original operational array at Eleuthera got an operational shore facility as the last of the first phase of Atlantic systems. The same year, the Pacific systems began to be installed and activated. Over the next three decades, more systems were added; NAVFAC Keflavik, Iceland in 1966 and NAVFAC Guam in 1968 being examples of expansion beyond the western Atlantic and eastern Pacific. Shore upgrades and new cable technology allowed system consolidation until by 1980 that process had resulted in many closures of the NAVFACs with centralized processing at a new type facility, Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF), that by 1981 saw one for each ocean and mass closing of the NAVFACs.
As the new mobile systems came on line, the original arrays were deactivated and some turned over for scientific research. The surveillance aspect continues with new systems under Commander, Undersea Surveillance.
History
SOSUS history began in 1949 when the US Navy approached the Committee for Undersea Warfare, an academic advisory group formed in 1946 under the National Academy of Sciences, to research antisubmarine warfare. As a result, the Navy formed a study group designated Project Hartwell, named for the University of Pennsylvania's Dr. G.P. Hartwell who was the Deputy Chairman of the Committee for Undersea Warfare, under Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) leadership. The Hartwell panel recommended spending of annually to develop systems to counter the Soviet submarine threat consisting primarily of a large fleet of diesel submarines.
That group also recommended a system to monitor low-frequency sound in the SOFAR channel using multiple listening sites equipped with hydrophones and a processing facility that could calculate submarine positions over hundreds of miles.
Research
As a result of the Hartwell group's recommendations, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) contracted with American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), with its Bell Laboratories research and Western Electric manufacturing elements, to develop a long range, passive detection system, based on bottom arrays of hydrophones. The system, using equipment termed Low Frequency Analyzer and Recorder and a process termed Low Frequency Analysis and Recording, both with the acronym LOFAR, was to be based on AT&T's sound spectrograph, developed for speech analysis and modified to analyze low-frequency underwater sounds. This research and development effort was given the name Project Jezebel. The origin of the project name was explained by Dr. Robert Frosch to Senator Stennis during a 1968 hearing. It was because of the low frequencies, "about the A below middle C on the piano" (about 100–150 cycles) and "Jezebel" being chosen because "she was of low character." This refers to A2 on the musical scale, which is technically two A's below middle C.
Jezebel and LOFAR branched into the localization of submarines with the AN/SSQ-28 passive omnidirectional Jezebel-LOFAR sonobuoy introduced in 1956 for use by the air antisubmarine forces. That sonobuoy gave the aircraft cued by SOSUS access to the same low frequency and LOFAR capability as SOSUS. Bell Telephone Laboratories time delay correlation was used to fix target position with two or more sonobuoys in a technique named COrrelation Detection And Ranging (CODAR). This, and later specialized, sonobuoys equipped with a small explosive charge could be used in an active mode to detect the echo off the target. The active mode was named by engineers developing the technique "Julie" after a burlesque dancer whose "performance could turn passive buoys active."
Related research, based at Columbia University's Hudson Laboratory, was designated Project Michael. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography were also tasked to develop an understanding of long-range sound transmission under Project Michael. The need to better understand the acoustic environment drove much of the oceanographic research by both the Navy and institutions with Navy funding for oceanography. A major, long-term research program spanning over 25 years, the Long Range Acoustic Propagation Program (LRAPP), made significant progress in such understanding and influenced decisions in SOSUS, significantly the SOSUS expansion into the eastern Atlantic.
Development and installation
The hardware technology was largely that of the commercial telephone system and oil exploration. Cable laying was a capability AT&T and other entities had developed for decades for commercial communications cables. The understanding of the ocean acoustic environment made the system possible rather than development of new technology. SOSUS was a case of new understanding of the environment and then application of largely existing technology and even equipment to the problem.
The forty hydrophones spaced on the array provided the aperture for signal processing to form horizontal azimuthal beams of two to five degrees wide, each beam with a LOFAR analyzer and capability to do narrow-band frequency analysis to discriminate signal from ocean noise and to identify specific frequencies associated with rotating machinery. The NAVFAC watch floor had banks of displays using electrostatic paper, similar to that used for echograms in depth finders.
The product of these displays was the LOFARgram which graphically represented acoustic energy and frequency against time. Those were examined by the personnel trained to identify submarine signatures. When two or more arrays held a target the bearings from each array gave an estimated target position by triangulation. The system could provide cuing information on the presence of the submarines and an approximate location for air or surface antisubmarine warfare assets to localize the target. The first Atlantic stations, ranging from Nova Scotia to Barbados, formed a long line semicircle looking into the Western Atlantic basin with geographic separation for contact correlation and triangulation.
Security
The combination of research and engineering under Jezebel and Michael into an actual broad area surveillance system as seen by Project Hartwell's Frederick V. Hunt became the Sound Surveillance System with the acronym SOSUS. Both the full name and acronym were classified. There were occasional slips. A contractor for the Office of Naval Research, Fleet Analysis and Support Division published an unclassified report with "SOSUS" in association with the system acronym "SOSS", defined as "Sound Search Station," and a capability to display data from sonobuoys side by side on either aircraft or SOSS displays in contact classification as either friendly or unfriendly targets. The unclassified name Project Caesar was given to cover development and installation of the resulting system.
A cover story was developed to explain the visible shore installations, the Naval Facilities, and the commands under which they fell. The cover explained that data gathered by oceanographic and acoustic surveys with ships could at times be collected "more expeditiously and more economically by means of shore stations. These are the U. S. Naval Facilities." The cover extended to the names of the commands and training of personnel with overall commands designated Ocean Systems Atlantic and Ocean Systems Pacific, and terms such as Ocean Technician [OT] and Oceanographic Research Watch Officer given to Naval Facility personnel. Despite being qualified for a warfare specialty and its symbols, the Navy personnel in the small SOSUS community could not do so for the sake of secrecy until the mission became public in 1991. The Ocean System commands, COMOCEANSYSLANT (COSL) and COMOCEANSYSPAC (COSP), then began to reflect their true nature as Undersea Surveillance commands COMUNDERSEASURVLANT (CUSL) and COMUNDERSEASURVPAC (CUSP) under the Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS) name that had come into effect in 1985 as systems other than fixed emerged.
SOSUS was closely held on a strict need-to-know basis that was close to Sensitive Compartmented Information even though it was classified at the Secret level. Even the Fleet had little knowledge of the system or its function. Contact data reaching the fleet was in a strictly formatted message designated RAINFORM, hiding the source, that the fleet often did not understand without reference to publications to understand the form's fields and codes. As a result, people in the fleet often did not know of the system's dedicated antisubmarine mission. Even when they knew they often did not know of its actual performance or exact role. This later had implications as the Cold War ended and budgets became an issue. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the system was opened to tactical use and the fleet began to see the contact information in other formats readily understandable by fleet antisubmarine forces. In 1997 the RAINFORM was abandoned and replaced.
For much of the system's operation, direct action based on SOSUS contacts was avoided. An example was subject to a box piece in the January 5, 1981 issue of Newsweek titled "A Soviet War of Nerves" concerning an incident from August 1978. An alert to Atlantic Fleet, Strategic Air Command (SAC) and the Pentagon came from "underwater listening devices at several secret Navy installations" that two Yankee class nuclear-armed submarines had left their usual patrol areas 1,200 miles out in the Atlantic and were getting dangerously close. That approach raised the threat level to several SAC bases along the coast. Rather than prosecute the contacts and reveal how closely the system could track the submarines, the SAC bases put more bombers on ready alert assuming the Soviets would notice. The submarines did not withdraw so SAC dispersed the bombers to bases as far away as Texas. Though there is no positive proof that action was the cause, the Yankees moved back to their usual areas and had not moved close to the U.S. coast again at the time of the piece.
The original Naval Facilities and later, consolidated, processing centers were high security installations characterized by an outer security fence and gate checkpoint. The terminal buildings within were double fenced with separate entry security. Not all personnel assigned to the facility had access to the operational part of the installations. The early arrangement can be seen in the vertical photograph of Naval Facility Nantucket and later in the photograph of Naval Facility Brawdy below. Equipment in the terminal buildings was installed by specially cleared Western Electric Company personnel.
Initial installations
Western Electric and ONR representatives met on 29 October 1950 to draft a contract that was signed as a letter contract on 13 November to build a demonstration system. The contract was managed by Bureau of Ships (BuShips) with then Ensign Joseph P. Kelly, later Captain and termed "Father of SOSUS," assigned. An experimental six-element hydrophone array was installed on the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas during 1951. Meanwhile, Project Jezebel and Project Michael focused on studying long range acoustics in the ocean.
From 2–19 January 1952 the British cable layer installed the first full sized, long, forty transducer element operational array in off Eleuthera in the Bahamas. Successful tests with a target submarine resulted in the order to install a total of nine arrays along the coast of the Western North Atlantic. The 1960 secret, limited distribution Navy film Watch in the Sea, contains a segment at about 9:22 minutes into the film concerning the search for a suitable array location and laying the array. It describes the operational arrays as being long. In 1954 ten additional arrays were ordered with three more in the Atlantic, six on the Pacific coast and one in Hawaii.
The cable ships Neptune and Albert J. Myer were acquired to support Project Caesar with later addition of the cable ships Aeolus and Thor. Other ships were added for acoustic and bathymetric surveys and cable support.
Operational systems
SOSUS systems consisted of bottom-mounted hydrophone arrays connected by underwater cables to facilities ashore. The individual arrays were installed primarily on continental slopes and seamounts at the axis of the deep sound channel and normal to the direction in which they were to cover. The combination of location within the ocean and the sensitivity of arrays allowed the system to detect acoustic power of less than a single watt at ranges of several hundred kilometres. SOSUS shore terminal processing stations were designated with the vague, generic name of Naval Facility (NAVFAC). By the 1980s improved communications technology allowed the array data once processed in individual Naval Facilities to be sent to central processing centers (Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF)) for centralized processing of multiple fixed and mobile array information.
The first systems were limited by the commercial telephone cable technology for the application requiring a shore facility within about from the array and thus within that distance from the continental shelf locations suitable for the array. The cable of the time consisted of multi-pair wire connected to the forty hydrophones of the array. New coaxial multiplexed commercial telephone system cable, designated SB, using a single wire for all hydrophones allowed major changes with the prototype installed in 1962 at Eleuthera. The upgrades made possible by the multiplexed coaxial cable were designated Caesar Phase III. Caesar Phase IV was associated with major upgrades in shore processing with Digital Spectrum Analysis (DSA) backfits at the stations replacing original equipment during the late 1960s. In September 1972 a third generation coaxial cable, again based on commercial developments at Bell Labs and designated SD-C, was installed for the system terminating at Naval Facility Centerville Beach, California. The SD-C cable was the basis for a fourth generation of sonar sets with installation of the Lightweight Undersea Components (LUSC) involving new shore equipment in 1984. In June 1994 an entirely new cable system was introduced with fiber optic cable.
Cable technology and signal processing improved and upgrades were made to the original installations. Cable technology made it possible to site arrays further from shore into the ocean basins. New signal processing capabilities allowed for innovations such as the split array in which a single line array was divided into segments, each separately processed, then electronically recombined to form narrower beams for better bearing and cross fixes between arrays. Augmenting these local improvements was the increased central processing in centers that eventually became the Naval Oceanographic Processing Facilities. There the contacts of multiple arrays were correlated with other intelligence sources in order to cue and provide the search area for air and surface antisubmarine assets to localize and prosecute.
The system was considered a strategic, not tactical, system at the time and part of continental defense. In military construction hearings during 1964 before the Senate Committee on Armed Services the request for funding of recreational and other support buildings for the Naval Facility Cape Hatteras the Navy noted it was part of a program supporting continental air and missile defense forces without mention of its role in tracking Soviet missile submarines.
Chronology
1950s
In 1954 the Fleet Sonar School at Key West established a Sound Search Course for training personnel. The highly classified program was behind the "Green Door" which became a name for the program itself as well as being seen as a term for the secrecy.
In 1954 three full systems to include a NAVFAC terminus were installed with arrays terminating at NAVFACs at Ramey Air Force Base, Puerto Rico in September, Grand Turk in October, and San Salvador in December. Systems terminating at Naval Facility Bermuda, Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Shelburne, Nova Scotia, Nantucket, and Cape May were installed during 1955. Systems terminating at Naval Facility Cape Hatteras and Naval Facility Antigua and two Evaluation Centers, forerunners of NOPFs, were established in New York and Norfolk during 1956. The initial array at Eleuthera got a fully functioning NAVFAC with an additional system for the Atlantic at Barbados and the first of the Pacific systems at San Nicolas Island came in 1957. During 1958 the remainder of the Pacific stations at Naval Facility Point Sur and Centerville Beach in California and Pacific Beach, Washington, and Coos Head near Coos Bay, Oregon were installed.
Six Pacific coast systems had been planned but only five Naval Facilities were constructed. The northernmost system off Vancouver Island was to terminate in Canada but a change in government there precluded a facility in Canada at the time. The sixth array, requiring redesign of the cable and repeater system, was thus terminated at Naval Facility Pacific Beach, making it a dual array facility.
From 1958 to 1960 Project Caesar assets began work installing the Missile Impact Location System (MILS), based on technology and installation methods similar to those for SOSUS, in support of Air Force ICBM tests. The survey and installation focus in that period was on installation of MILS in the Atlantic and Pacific test ranges. Arrays of hydrophones placed around the target area located the missile warhead by means of measuring arrival times of the explosion at the various hydrophones of a SOFAR charge in the test warhead. During that period an atypical SOSUS system was installed in 1959 at Argentia, Newfoundland to provide surveillance for approaches to Hudson Bay. It was a shallow water, curved array with ten eight-element arrays installed on two cables with each cable having the capacity for the usual forty elements.
1960s
In 1962 a new system was installed terminating at Naval Facility Adak in the Aleutians. The system terminating at Cape May was rerouted to a new Naval Facility Lewes, Delaware, with upgraded processing, after the NAVFAC Cape May had been destroyed in the "Ash Wednesday" Storm.
NAVFAC Argentia got a 2X20 element array in 1963. A 1965 decision to deploy systems to the Norwegian Sea was followed in 1966 with a system terminating at Keflavik, Iceland with the first 3X16 array system while Western Electric installed data links by land line to OCEANSYSLANT and OCEANSYSPAC. New systems were installed during 1968 at Midway Island and Guam. COMOCEANSYSPAC relocated to Ford Island, Hawaii from Treasure Island, California. The shallow water system at Argentia was deactivated.
In 1965 was acquired as a bathymetric survey ship. The satellite communications ship joined the project in 1967 for acoustic and bathymetric work.
1970s
The first NAVFAC decommissioning took place with the isolated duty station at NAVFAC San Salvador, Bahamas shut down on 31 January 1970. The old station is now home of the Gerace Research Center. NAVFAC Barbers Point is commissioned. A system wide modernization began in 1972. Argentia became a joint Canadian Forces and U.S. Navy facility. NAVFAC Ramey becomes NAVFAC Punta Borinquen in 1974. Further NAVFACs shut down in 1976 with NAVFACs Punta Borinquen and Nantucket decommissioned. NAVFAC Barbados was decommissioned in 1979.
In 1974 Naval Facility Brawdy, Wales was established as the terminus of new arrays covering the eastern Atlantic. NAVFAC Brawdy became the first "super NAVFAC" with some four hundred U.S. and United Kingdom military and civilian personnel assigned. The facility () was adjacent to the Royal Air Force Station Brawdy which had returned to RAF control during February 1974 after closure in 1971.
In 1975 left Naval Research Laboratory service and joined Project Caesar. In April 1974 the ship was reported as already being funded by Naval Electronics Systems Command (NAVELEX), where the project program management resided, and no longer funded as an oceanographic ship. By 1979 it was the most recently built ship of the five project ships that then included cable repair ships Albert J. Myer and Neptune due for modernization and the larger repair ship Aeolus that was uneconomical to repair and marginal as a cable ship. Kingsport was still with the project. The Navy was requesting four fully functional cable ships, the modernized Albert J. Myer and Neptune and two large new ships. The two new ships were to be designed as modern cable ships, fully capable of cable and survey work.
1980s
In 1980 consolidation and elimination of expensive individual facilities was made possible by the Wideband Acoustic Data Relay (WADR) first installed at Midway Island in January 1982 so that the two Midway arrays could eventually be remoted directly to NOPF Ford Island. This first generation WADR was used to consolidate array data from the California facilities at San Nicolas Island and Point Sur in 1984. Those were followed by remoting Hawaii's Barber's Point in 1985, the Pacific Northwest arrays at Pacific Beach and Coos Head in 1987, and Bermuda in the Atlantic in 1992. A second generation WADR allowed the consolidation of the Aleutian station at Adak in 1993, the North Atlantic's Argentia in 1995, and those termed "Special Projects" in 1997 and 1998.
The western Atlantic system consolidation was centered on the establishment of the Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF) at Dam Neck, Virginia beginning with closure of NAVFACs Eleuthera and Grand Turk. During 1981 Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF), Ford Island became operational and the decommissioning of NAVFAC Midway with that system's data routed to NAVFAC Barbers Point was completed. NAVFAC Lewes, Delaware closed that year. NAVFAC Cape Hatteras closed in 1982 and in 1983 Midway acoustic data was rerouted directly to Naval Ocean Processing Facility, Ford Island.
In 1984 the first SURTASS vessel, arrives at Little Creek, Virginia. , the one new cable ship of the requested two, enters the "Caesar fleet" for operations. Atlantic NAVFAC Antigua and Pacific NAVFACs at San Nicolas Island and Point Sur in California closed. Point Sur acoustic data was routed to NAVFAC Centerville. Consolidation and new systems brought further change in 1985. NAVFAC Barbers Point closes with acoustic data directed to NOPF, Ford Island. The Fixed Distributed System (FDS) test array, a new type of fixed bottom system, terminus was made at NAVFAC Brawdy, Wales. Stalwart makes first SURTASS operational patrol and system name is changed from SOSUS to Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS). Consolidation continued in 1987 with NAVFAC Whidbey Island, Washington, established with NAVFAC Pacific Beach's acoustic data routed to that facility. During 1991 NAVFAC Guam, Mariana Islands closed.
1990s
USNS Stalwart and monohull SURTASS ships were withdrawn with SWATH hull accepted by the Navy during 1992. That year the system got Chief of Naval Operations tasking to report whale detections.
More original NAVFACs closed during 1993 with NAVFACs Centerville Beach, California and Adak, Alaska closing with their acoustic data routed to NAVFAC Whidbey Island. The facility at Whidbey, with multiple systems terminating there became Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF) Whidbey. During 1994 Canadian Forces Shelburne, Nova Scotia closes as does NAVFAC Argentia with HMCS Trinity established at Halifax Nova Scotia with operation as Canadian Forces IUSS Centre (CFIC). NAVFAC Bermuda data is routed to Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF) at Dam Neck. The new Advanced Deployable System enters as a part of IUSS and NAVFAC Brawdy, Wales closes with equipment and operation transferred to Joint Maritime Facility St Mawgan during 1995. During 1996 NAVFAC Keflavik Iceland closes and the new Fixed Distributed System Initial Operational Capability is accomplished. In 1997 the Adak system reverts to "wet storage."
2000 to 2010
is commissioned as the first SURTASS/Low Frequency Active (LFA) surveillance ship in 2000. In 2003 the new Advanced Deployable System (ADS) completes dual array testing. Extensive changes both with shore and sea assets take place over the following years as post Cold War missions change and systems are applied in new ways. Further consolidation takes place such as in 2009 when Joint Maritime Facility, St. Mawgan in the U.K. has data remoted directly to NOPF Dam Neck and is decommissioned. British and US Forces then begin joint, combined operations at NOPF Dam Neck.
Management and commands
Project Caesar, from initial bathymetric and acoustical surveys through cable installation and turnover to operations, was managed by Bureau of Ships (BuShips) from 1951 until 1964. All the direct support through contracts with Western Electric, Bell Labs and ship schedules was under this management. In 1964 the project was placed under Industrial Manager, Potomac River Command and then Naval District Washington in 1965. In 1966 the project came under Naval Electronics Systems Command (NAVELEX PME-124) where it remained through the name change in 1986 to Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWARSYSCOM PMW 180) and a move from Arlington to San Diego in 1997.
The Navy operational side, taking over when the systems were accepted and turned over for operation, came under Commander, Oceanographic System Atlantic (COMOCEANSYSLANT) in 1954. Commander, Oceanographic System Pacific (COMOCEANSYSPAC) was established for the Pacific systems in 1964. Within the Office of Chief of Naval Operations the Director ASW Programs OP-95 was established in 1964. In 1970 COMOCEANSYSLANT and COMOCEANSYSPAC were designated as major commands by the Chief of Naval Operations.
With the new, mobile systems Towed Array Sensor System (TASS) and the Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System (SURTASS) entering the system, the SOSUS name was changed in 1984 to Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS) to reflect the change from bottom fixed systems alone. In 1990 officers were authorized to wear IUSS insignia. Finally, with "undersea surveillance" so openly displayed, the mission is declassified in 1991 and the commands reflect that with replacement of the "oceanographic systems" with the accurate "under sea surveillance," the commands renamed as Commander, Undersea Surveillance Atlantic and Commander, Undersea Surveillance Pacific. In 1994 the Atlantic and Pacific commands were merged into Commander Undersea Surveillance at Dam Neck, Virginia. In 1998 that command was placed under Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet.
The LOFARgram representation of acoustics in black, gray and white with an operator trained and adapted to interpreting that display was the critical link in the system. Experienced operators that could detect subtle differences and with practice could detect faint signatures of targets were vital to detection. It was even found that color blindness could be an advantage. It was soon apparent that the Navy's practice of short term tours and transfer out of the system was a problem. Commander Ocean Systems Atlantic launched an effort in 1964 to create a rating peculiar to SOSUS and allow personnel to remain within the community. It took five years for Bureau of Personnel to create the rating of Ocean Technician [OT]. That bureau did not do the same for officers thus forcing those with experience to either leave for new duties or leave the Navy. Some did so and remained in the system as civil service or contractor personnel.
The first women were assigned to NAVFAC Eleuthera when an officer and ten enlisted women were assigned in 1972. Due to the fact that the SOSUS community departed from the usual Navy cultural routine, with repeat assignments within the small community, women were able to serve in a warfare specialty without shipboard duty that was still being denied. That opened a new field for women outside the usual medical, education, or administrative specialties. SOSUS assignment qualified as important as sea duty on a Cold War front line.
Events
In 1961 the system proved its effectiveness when it tracked on her first North Atlantic transit to the United Kingdom. The first detection of a Soviet nuclear submarine occurred on 6 July 1962 when NAVFAC Barbados recognized and reported contact #27103, a Soviet nuclear submarine west of Norway coming into the Atlantic through the Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom (GIUK) gap.
When sank in 1963, SOSUS helped determine its location.
In 1968, the first detections of and class Soviet submarines were made, while in 1974 the first was observed.
Also in 1968, SOSUS played a key role in locating the wreckage of the American nuclear attack submarine , lost near the Azores in May.
Moreover, SOSUS data from March 1968 facilitated the discovery, and clandestine retrieval six years later, of parts of the Soviet Golf II-class ballistic missile submarine , that foundered that month north of Hawaii.
Operational issues
The secrecy of the system meant that it did not have the widespread fleet support of successful tactical systems despite its actual success. It was the primary cuing system that antisubmarine forces used to localize and potentially destroy targets for over forty years, but secrecy largely kept that fact from the fleet. The lack of strong fleet support was a factor when budget cuts after the Cold War fell heavily on the surveillance program.
The system's first station came on line before there was any signature library of Soviet submarine acoustic characteristics while submerged. The operators had no information on which to identify a hostile submerged submarine's unique signature while snorkeling on the LOFARgram. The signatures available were of surfaced submarines from other sources. It was not until the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, when the quarantine reduced other shipping noises, that operators recognized unusual signatures that were confirmed to be Soviet snorkeling submarines when aircraft sighted snorkels and sonobuoys confirmed the unusual acoustics as being from that submarine. Even then, others had doubts until 1963–1964 Norwegian data on submarines deploying or returning collected correlated signatures. SOSUS then became the major collector of Soviet submarine signatures and "bootstrapped" itself to becoming the primary signature library for itself and becoming the major intelligence source for all other Navy acoustic sensor systems.
Both undersea surveillance and the operation of U.S. submarines were tightly held secrets within the communities. That secrecy led to misunderstandings and even potential breaches of security. Despite periods of realization both communities fell back into assumptions as a result of secrecy. On the submarine force side, there was a recurrent idea that SOSUS/IUSS could not detect U.S. submarines, despite early SOSUS having tracked USS George Washington across the Atlantic. The realization that SOSUS could detect U.S. nuclear submarines led to the Navy's quieting program for those submarines and the assumption returned.
The opposite occurred when the surveillance community did not have information on U.S. submarine operations, and assumed they held a Soviet or unknown contact. In 1962 and 1973, U.S. submarines conducting covert operations off of the Soviet submarine base at Petropavlovsk were detected by NAVFAC Adak. In 1962, the detections were published at the secret level by Commander, Alaskan Sea Frontier, and these reports were pushed up the chain of command. Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC) recognized the contacts as U.S. submarines engaged in highly classified operations, and immediate changes were ordered for the reporting procedures. In 1973 such contacts were again almost published, but were stopped only when information was identified by a visiting civilian expert who recognized the acoustic signatures as that of a U.S. submarine. When that submarine put into Adak for a medical emergency the detection events were matched to the submarine's logs, ending the disbelief the "Soviet" contact was actually a U.S. submarine.
"Caesar fleet"
Other ships are mentioned as having "cameo" appearances and the project apparently made use of other Navy survey and civilian cable ships on occasion. The core fleet appears to be those listed below.
Cable ships:
Other:
Espionage
In 1988, Stephen Joseph Ratkai, a Hungarian-Canadian recruited by Soviet Intelligence, was arrested, charged and convicted in St. John's, Newfoundland for attempting to obtain information on the SOSUS site at Naval Station Argentia. John Anthony Walker, a US Navy Chief Warrant Officer and communications specialist, divulged SOSUS operational information to the Soviet Union during the Cold War which compromised its effectiveness.
Post-Cold War
By 1998 cable technology and shore processing allowed consolidation of shore stations to a few central processing facilities. Changes in Soviet operations, few hostile nuclear submarines at sea and the ending of the Cold War in the 1990s meant the need to maintain IUSS/SOSUS at full capability decreased. The focus of the US Navy also turned toward a new fixed system, the Fixed Distributed System, and systems deployable on a theater basis such as the Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System and Advanced Deployable System. Although officially declassified in 1991, by that time IUSS and SOSUS had long been an open secret.
Civilian science applications
Alternate or dual-use partnerships exist with a number of agencies and institutions. The Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington has used the system for Ocean Acoustic Tomography.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Vents program at its Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory was granted access to the system at the Naval Ocean Processing Facility at Whidbey Island in October 1990 to combine raw analog data from specific hydrophones with NOAA systems for continuous monitoring of the northeast Pacific Ocean for low-level seismic activity and detection of volcanic activity along the northeast Pacific spreading centers.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution detected and tracked a lone whale with a unique call over a period of years in the Pacific.
Texas Applied Research Laboratories, and several other organizations have used the system for research.
Associated systems
Colossus
Jezebel research had developed an additional short range, high frequency, upward-looking system using active transducers for direct plotting of ships passing over the array. Colossus was intended to be installed in narrows and straits.
Artemis
Artemis was an experiment with a large active source. It was not a part of the SOSUS development. The system used very large towers and unwieldy components while SOSUS provided more than adequate warning and coverage and thus the system did not come into operation. The word Artemis had been used as a code word in the first days before Jezebel, Michael and Caesar as an unclassified name. Artemis, goddess of the hunt, stood for those cleared for Frederick V. Hunt and his idea of a passive system like SOSUS in his May 1950 report. That old application of Artemis caused some confusion.
Footnotes
See also
Communication with submarines
Integrated Undersea Surveillance System insignia
SOFAR channel
Missile Impact Location System
Project Artemis
Gordon Eugene Martin, Navy physicist and executive officer of the prototype SOSUS station
References
External links
Past IUSS Sites Index to individual pages with location details, photos and badges of the shore sites.
CAESAR Fleet
The Terminal Equipment Building of the Navy Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) Photos and diagrams of NAVFAC Lewes, 21 quad cable cross section, LOFARGRAM photos
History of IUSS: Timeline
SOSUS/IUSS: Monitoring World's Oceans
"SOSUS: The 'Secret Weapon' of Undersea Surveillance", Undersea Warfare, Winter, 2005, Vol. 7, No. 2, article by Edward C. Whitman
The Acoustic Monitoring Project
A Letter from Joe Worzel to Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory regarding the establishment of Palisades Geophysical Institute, its work, and support of the education and research community
The SOund SUrveillance System, Federation of American Scientists, Intelligence Resource Program
Navy article on Sosus
Japanese LQO-3 SOSUS Arrays.
1953 Project Michael report: Transmission of 30 cps Sound in Deep Water
Submarine detection systems
Military sonar equipment of the United States
Anti-submarine warfare
Physical oceanography
Signals intelligence
United States Navy in the 20th century
United States Navy in the 21st century
Military history of the Atlantic Ocean
Military history of the Pacific Ocean
|
416813
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Minnesota
|
University of Minnesota
|
The University of Minnesota (formally the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities) is a public land-grant research university in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. The Twin Cities campus comprises locations in Minneapolis and Falcon Heights, a suburb of St. Paul, approximately apart. The Twin Cities campus is the oldest and largest in the University of Minnesota system and has the ninth-largest main campus student body in the United States, with 52,376 students at the start of the 2021–22 academic year. It is the flagship institution of the University of Minnesota System, and is organized into 19 colleges, schools, and other major academic units.
The Minnesota Territorial Legislature drafted a charter for the University of Minnesota as a territorial university in 1851, seven years before Minnesota became a state. Today, the university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Minnesota is a member of the Association of American Universities and is ranked 20th in research activity, with $1.04 billion in research and development expenditures in the fiscal year 2020. In 2001, the University of Minnesota was included in a list of Public Ivy universities.
The Minnesota Golden Gophers compete in 21 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division I Big Ten Conference and have won 29 national championships. As of 2021, Minnesota's current and former students have won a total of 76 Olympic medals.
History
The University of Minnesota was founded in Minneapolis in 1851 as a college preparatory school, seven years prior to Minnesota's statehood. It struggled in its early years and relied on donations to stay open from donors including South Carolina Governor William Aiken Jr.
In 1867, the university received land grant status through the Morrill Act of 1862.
An 1876 donation from flour miller John S. Pillsbury is generally credited with saving the school. Since then, Pillsbury has become known as "The Father of the University". Pillsbury Hall is named in his honor.
Academics
Organization and administration
The university is organized into 19 colleges, schools, and other major academic units:
Institutes and centers
Six university-wide interdisciplinary centers and institutes work across collegiate lines:
Center for Cognitive Sciences
Consortium on Law and Values in Health, Environment, and the Life Sciences
Institute for Advanced Study, University of Minnesota
Institute for Engineering in Medicine
Institute for Translational Neuroscience
Institute on the Environment
Minnesota Population Center
Rankings
Global
In 2021, the University of Minnesota was ranked as the 40th best university in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), which assesses academic and research performance. The same 2021 ranking by subject placed the University of Minnesota's ecology program as 2nd best in the world, management program as 10th best, biotechnology program as 11th best, mechanical engineering and medical technology programs as 14th best, law and psychology programs as 19th best, and veterinary sciences program as 20th best. The Center for World University Rankings (CWUR) for 2021–22 ranked Minnesota 46th in the world and 26th in the United States. The 2021 Nature Index, which assesses the institutions that dominate high-quality research output, ranked Minnesota 53rd in the world based on research publication data from 2020. U.S. News & World Report ranked Minnesota as the 47th best global university for 2021. The 2015 Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed Minnesota 46th worldwide, based primarily on teaching, research, knowledge transfer, and international outlook.
National
In 2021, Minnesota was ranked as the 24th best university in the United States by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, and 20th in the United States in Washington Monthlys 2021 National University Rankings. Minnesota's undergraduate program was ranked 68th among national universities by U.S. News & World Report for 2022, and 26th in the nation among public colleges and universities. The same publication ranked Minnesota's graduate Carlson School of Management as 28th in the nation among business schools, and 6th in the nation for its information systems graduate program. Other graduate schools ranked highly by U.S. News & World Report for 2022 include the University of Minnesota Law School at 22nd, the University of Minnesota Medical School, which was 4th for family medicine and 5th for primary care, the University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, which ranked 3rd, the Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs, which ranked 9th, the University of Minnesota College of Education and Human Development, which ranked 10th for education psychology and special education, and the University of Minnesota School of Public Health, which ranked 10th.
In 2020, the Center for Measuring University Performance ranked Minnesota 16th in the nation in terms of total research, 30th in endowment assets, 24th in annual giving, 28th in the number of National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine memberships, 9th in its number of faculty awards, and 14th in its number of National Merit Scholars.
Minnesota is listed as a "Public Ivy" in 2001 Greenes' Guides The Public Ivies: America's Flagship Public Universities.
Undergraduate admissions
The 2022 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes undergraduate admissions to Minnesota as "more selective". For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), Minnesota received 35,905 applications and accepted 26,295 (73.2%). Of those accepted, 6,883 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 26.2%. Minnesota's freshman retention rate is 92%, with 84% going on to graduate within six years.
The university started test-optional admissions with the Fall 2021 incoming class and has extended this through Fall 2025. Of the 41% of enrolled freshmen in 2021 who submitted ACT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite score was between 27 and 32. Of the 7% of the incoming freshman class who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1320–1470.
The University of Minnesota is a college sponsor of the National Merit Scholarship Program and sponsored 97 Merit Scholarship awards in 2020. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 112 freshman students were National Merit Scholars.
Discoveries and innovation
Inventions by University of Minnesota students and faculty have ranged from food science to health technologies. Most of the public research funding in Minnesota is funneled to the University of Minnesota as a result of long-standing advocacy by the university itself.
The university developed Gopher, a precursor to the World Wide Web which used hyperlinks to connect documents across computers on the internet. However, the version produced by CERN was favored by the public since it was freely distributed and could more easily handle multimedia webpages. The university also houses the Charles Babbage Institute, a research and archive center specializing in computer history. The department has strong roots in the early days of supercomputing with Seymour Cray of Cray supercomputers.
The university also became a member of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) in 2007 and has led data analysis projects searching for gravitational waves – the existence of which was confirmed by scientists in February 2016.
Discoveries and innovation by faculty or alumni include:
Puffed rice – Alexander P. Anderson performed work leading to the discovery of "puffed rice", a starting point for a new breakfast cereal later advertised as "Food Shot From Guns".
Transistorized cardiac pacemaker – Earl Bakken founded Medtronic, where he developed the first external, battery-operated, transistorized, wearable artificial pacemaker in 1957.
Green Revolution – Norman Borlaug was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution. Borlaug, often called "the father of the Green Revolution", is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation. Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Congressional Gold Medal.
ATP synthase – Paul D. Boyer elucidated the enzymatic mechanism for synthesis of the cellular "energy currency", adenosine triphosphate (ATP), leading to a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1997.
Point-contact transistor – Walter Houser Brattain and John Bardeen, later joined by William Shockley, invented the point-contact transistor in December 1947. For their invention, the trio was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.
Infusion pump – Henry Buchwald invented the world's first infusion port, peritoneovenous shunts, and specialty vascular catheters. He also invented the first implantable infusion pump, a precursor to implantable infusion pumps in use throughout the world today.
Photosynthesis – Melvin Calvin discovered the Calvin cycle along with Andrew Benson and James Bassham; for this, he won the 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Ecology – Raymond Lindeman revolutionized ecology, primarily through his 1942 paper "Trophic Dynamic Aspect of Ecology", which described how energy and nutrients cycled through ecosystems.
Supercomputer – Seymour Cray designed a series of computers that were the fastest in the world for decades, and founded Cray Research, which built many of these machines.
Taconite – Edward Wilson Davis developed an engineering process to economically extract iron ore from hard taconite rocks, making taconite valuable as iron ore for the iron and steel industries.
Cosmic rays – Phyllis S. Freier discovered the presence of heavy nuclei in cosmic rays, proving the similarity between the Solar System and the rest of the galaxy.
U.S. aviation – Robert Rowe Gilruth led the development of flying qualities for airplanes, the use of rockets to achieve data at supersonic speeds, and the establishment of many of the nation's leading flight research and human space flight operations facilities.
Bone marrow transplant – Robert A. Good in 1968 performed the first successful human bone marrow transplant between persons who were not identical twins and is regarded as a founder of modern immunology. In 2018 Minnesota Gov. Mark Dayton proclaimed August 24 as University of Minnesota Blood and Marrow Transplant Day.
Gore-Tex – Robert Gore invented Gore-Tex materials in 1969.
Disk drive – Reynold B. Johnson invented a method and machinery to score tests electronically.
K-rations – Ancel Keys developed the rations for the U.S. military and also conducted dietary studies: the Minnesota Starvation Study and the Seven Countries Study.
Synthetic rubber – Izaak Kolthoff developed the "cold process" for producing synthetic rubber, which he undertook under the U.S. synthetic rubber program during World War II.
Cyclotron – Ernest Lawrence won the Nobel Prize for Physics 1939 for inventing and developing the cyclotron.
Drosophila melanogaster – Edward Lewis won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995 for his work on the Drosophila bithorax complex of homeotic genes.
Cardiac surgery – C. Walton Lillehei pioneered open-heart surgery, as well as numerous techniques, equipment, and prostheses for cardiothoracic surgery.
POPmail – Mark P. McCahill led the development of the Gopher protocol, the effective predecessor of the World Wide Web; was involved in creating and codifying the standard for Uniform Resource Locators (URLs); and led the development of POPmail, one of the first e-mail clients, which had a foundational influence on later e-mail clients and the popularization of graphical user interfaces in Internet technologies more broadly.
MMPI – Starke R. Hathaway and J. C. McKinley created the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which was first published in 1943.
Zatocoding – Calvin Mooers developed a mechanical system using superimposed codes of descriptors for information retrieval called Zatocoding, 1948.
Atomic bomb – Edward P. Ney discovered cosmic ray heavy nuclei and solar proton events. After early work involving separating isotopes from uranium, he worked on the Manhattan Project.
Atomic bomb – Alfred O. C. Nier devised a method to isolate the isotopes of uranium, a critical discovery in the atomic age. Nier worked with Kellex Corporation in New York City on the design and development of efficient and effective mass spectrographs for use in the Manhattan Project to build the atomic bomb in World War II. He designed most of the spectrographs used for monitoring uranium separations during the war.
Atomic bomb – Frank Oppenheimer worked on uranium isotope separation in 1945 and joined the Manhattan Project.
Biotechnology – Ronald L. Phillips was the first to generate whole corn plants from cells grown in culture, which laid the foundation for, and sparked, a new industry using cell-culture methods to genetically modify corn plants and other cereals. The corn cell line most widely used for genetic modification of corn has greatly accelerated the improvement of corn as food, feed, and fuel.
Renewable energy – Lanny D. Schmidt designed a reactor to extract hydrogen from ethanol, offering the first real hope hydrogen could be a source of inexpensive and renewable energy.
Biomimetics – Otto Schmitt invented the Schmitt trigger, the cathode follower, the differential amplifier, and the chopper-stabilized amplifier.
NASA – Deke Slayton was one of the original NASA Mercury Seven astronauts and became NASA's first chief of the Astronaut Office. He served as NASA's director of flight crew operations, making him responsible for crew assignments at NASA, from November 1963 until March 1972. At that time, he was granted medical clearance to fly and was assigned as the docking module pilot of the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, at age 51 becoming the oldest person to fly in space at the time.
Bathythermograph – Athelstan Spilhaus fully developed the bathythermograph (BT) in 1938, an instrument he perfected that was of vital importance in World War II against the German U-boat. During the war, the BT became standard equipment on all U.S. Navy subs and vessels involved in antisubmarine warfare.
CDC 6600 – James Thornton developed the CDC 6600, the world's first supercomputer, designed with Seymour Cray.
Ziagen – Robert Vince worked on antiviral drug candidates at UMN, where he went on to develop carbocyclic nucleosides termed 'carbovirs.' This class of medicinal agents included the drug abacavir. Abacavir was commercialized by GlaxoSmithKline as Ziagen for the treatment of AIDS.
US3D – Graham Candler pioneered the future of hypersonics research with the development of the US3D CFD code which builds off of NASA's DPLR code, but uses unstructured grids and has many advanced numerical capabilities and physical models for multi-physics, highly coupled problems.
Campuses
Demographics: Twin Cities (Minneapolis and St. Paul) campus
Note: The flagship University of Minnesota campus is the Twin Cities campus, which comprises grounds in St. Paul and Minneapolis, the latter divided into areas on both the east and west banks of the Mississippi River. Administratively, these are all one campus, but for purposes of simplicity, this article will apply "campus" to its component parts where necessary to avoid confusion with the names of cities.
As the largest of five campuses across the University of Minnesota system, the Twin Cities campus has more than 50,000 students; this makes it the ninth-largest campus student body in the United States overall. It also has more than 300 research, education, and outreach centers and institutes, on everything from the life sciences to public policy and technology.
The university (system-wide) offers 154 undergraduate degree programs, 24 undergraduate certificates, 307 graduate degree programs, and 79 graduate certificates. The university offers the majority of these programs and certificates at its Twin Cities campus. The university has all three branches of the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC). The Twin Cities campus, as well as the campuses at Crookston, Duluth, Morris, and Rochester, are accredited by the Higher Learning Commission (HLC).
The racial/ethnic breakdown of the student population is: 65.3% White, 12.7% International Students (that are undesignated race/ethnicity), 9.2% Asian, 4.3% Black, 3.1% Hispanic/Latino, 1.2% American/Native American Indian, and 4.2% Unknown. Among matriculants to the university, 63% are considered Minnesota residents and 37% are considered out-of-state residents. According to the University Office of Institutional Research, as of fall 2019 there were 31,367 undergraduates at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities campus. Of that number, 6,278 were first-time, degree-seeking freshmen. There were 12,100 graduate students.
Minneapolis campus
The original Minneapolis campus overlooked the Saint Anthony Falls on the Mississippi River, but it was later moved about a mile (1.6 km) downstream to its current location. The original site is now marked by a small park known as Chute Square at the intersection of and Central Avenues. The school shut down following a financial crisis during the American Civil War, but reopened in 1867 with considerable financial help from John S. Pillsbury. It was upgraded from a preparatory school to a college in 1869. Today, the university's Minneapolis campus is divided by the Mississippi River into an East and West Bank. The East Bank, the main portion of the campus, covers . The West Bank is home to the University of Minnesota Law School, the Humphrey School of Public Affairs, the Carlson School of Management, various social science buildings, and the performing arts center.
The Minneapolis campus has several residence halls: 17th Avenue Hall, Centennial Hall, Frontier Hall, Territorial Hall, Pioneer Hall, Sanford Hall, Wilkins Hall, Middlebrook Hall, Yudof Hall, and Comstock Hall.
East Bank
To help ease navigation of the large campus, the university has divided the East Bank into several areas: the Knoll area, the Mall area, the Health area, the Athletic area, and the Gateway area.The Knoll area, the oldest extant part of the university, is in the northwestern corner of the campus. Many buildings in this area are well over 100 years old, such as some of the 13 in the Old Campus Historic District. Today, most disciplines in this area relate to the humanities. Burton Hall is home to the College of Education and Human Development. Folwell Hall and Jones Hall are primarily used by the language departments. A residence hall, Sanford Hall, and a student-apartment complex, Roy Wilkins Hall, are in this area. This area is just south of the Dinkytown neighborhood and business area.Northrop Mall, or the Mall area, is arguably the center of the Minneapolis campus. The plan for the Mall was based on a design by Cass Gilbert, although his scheme was too extravagant to be fully implemented. Several of the campus's primary buildings surround the Mall area. Northrop Auditorium provides a northern anchor, with Coffman Memorial Union (CMU) to the south. Four of the larger buildings to the sides of the Mall are the primary mathematics, physics, and chemistry buildings (Vincent Hall, Tate Laboratory and Smith Hall, respectively) and Walter Library. The Mall area is home to the College of Liberal Arts, which is Minnesota's largest public or private college, and the College of Science and Engineering. Behind CMU is another residence hall, Comstock Hall, and another student-apartment complex, Yudof Hall. The Northrop Mall Historic District was formally listed in the National Register of Historic Places in January 2018.The Health area is to the southeast of the Mall area and focuses on undergraduate buildings for biological science students, as well as the homes of the College of Pharmacy, the School of Nursing, the School of Dentistry, the Medical School, the School of Public Health, and M Health Fairview Hospitals and Clinics. This complex of buildings forms what is known as the University of Minnesota Medical Center. Part of the College of Biological Sciences is housed in this area.
Across the street from the University of Minnesota Medical Center Fairview is an area known as the "Superblock", a four-city-block space comprising four residence halls (Pioneer, Frontier, Centennial and Territorial Halls). The Superblock is one of the most popular locations for on-campus housing because it has the largest concentration of students living on campus and has a multitude of social activities between the residence halls.The Athletic area is directly north of the Superblock and includes four recreation/athletic facilities: the University Recreation Center, Cooke Hall, the University Fieldhouse, and the University Aquatic Center. These facilities are all connected by tunnels and skyways, allowing students to use one locker room facility. North of this complex is the Huntington Bank Stadium, Williams Arena, Mariucci Arena, Ridder Arena, and the Baseline Tennis Center.The Gateway area, the easternmost section of campus, is primarily composed of office buildings instead of classrooms and lecture halls. The most prominent building is McNamara Alumni Center. The university is also heavily invested in a biomedical research initiative and has built five biomedical research buildings that form a biomedical complex directly north of Huntington Bank Stadium.
Notable architecture
The Armory, northeast of the Mall area, is built like a Norman castle. It features a sally-port entrance facing Church Street and a tower that was originally intended to be the professor of military science's residence. Since it originally held the athletics department, the Armory also features a gymnasium. Today it is home to military science classes and the university's Reserve Officers' Training Corps.
Several buildings in the Old Campus Historic District were designed by early Minnesota architect LeRoy Buffington. One of the most notable is Pillsbury Hall, designed by Buffington and Harvey Ellis in the Richardsonian Romanesque style. Pillsbury Hall's polychromatic facade incorporates several sandstone varieties that were available in Minnesota during the time of construction. Buffington also designed the exterior of Burton Hall, considered one of the strongest specimens of Greek Revival architecture in Minnesota.
Many of the buildings on the East Bank were designed by the prolific Minnesota architect Clarence H. Johnston, including the Jacobean Folwell Hall and the Beaux-Arts edifices of Northrop Auditorium and Walter Library, which he considered the heart of the university. Johnston's son, Clarence Johnston Jr, was also an architect and designed the original Bell Museum building and Coffman Memorial Union in the 1930s.
The Malcolm Moos Health Sciences Tower, which is the tallest building on the Twin Cities campus, is a noted example of brutalist architecture.
In more recent years, Frank Gehry designed the Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum. Completed in 1993, the Weisman Art Museum is a typical example of his work with curving metallic structures. The abstract structure is considered highly significant because it was built prior to the widespread use of computer-aided design in architecture. It also ushered in a new era of architecture at the university, which continued with the completion of the McNamara Alumni Center in 2000 and Bruininks Hall (formerly STSS) in 2010.
Another notable structure is the addition to the Architecture building, designed by Steven Holl and completed in 2002. It won an American Institute of Architects award for its innovative design. The Architecture building was then renamed Rapson Hall after the local modernist architect and School of Architecture Dean Ralph Rapson.
The university also has a "Greek row" of historic fraternities and sororities located north of campus on University Avenue SE.
West Bank
The West Bank''' covers . The West Bank Arts Quarter includes:
Rarig Center (Theatre Arts & Dance)
The Barbara Barker Center for Dance
Ferguson Hall (School of Music)
Ted Mann Concert Hall
Regis Center for Art
The Quarter is home to several annual interdisciplinary arts festivals.
The Social Sciences are also on the West Bank and include the Carlson School of Management, the Law School, and the Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs.
Wilson Library, the largest library in the university system, is also on the West Bank, as is Middlebrook Hall, the largest residence hall on campus. Approximately 900 students reside in the building named in honor of William T. Middlebrook.
Getting around
The Washington Avenue Bridge crossing the Mississippi River provides access between the East and West Banks, on foot and via designated bike lanes and a free shuttle service. The bridge has two separate decks: the lower deck for vehicles and the newly constructed light rail, and the upper deck for pedestrian and bicycle traffic. An unheated enclosed walkway runs the length of the bridge and shelters pedestrians from the weather. Walking and riding bicycles are the most common modes of transportation among students. At times, the University Police has occasionally cited individuals for jaywalking or riding bicycles on restricted sidewalks in areas surrounding the university, resulting in fines as high as $250. This is often done at the beginning of a school year or after pedestrians interfere with traffic.
Several pedestrian tunnels ease the passage from building to building during harsh weather; they are marked with signs reading "The Gopher Way".
The Minneapolis campus is near Interstates 94 and 35W and is bordered by the Minneapolis neighborhoods of Dinkytown (on the north), Cedar-Riverside (on the west), Stadium Village (on the southeast), and Prospect Park (on the east).
Three light-rail stations serve the university along the Green Line: Stadium Village, East Bank, and West Bank. The university partnered with Metro to offer students, staff, and faculty members a Campus Zone Pass that enables free travel on the three stations that pass through campus, as well as a discounted unlimited pass for students. More recently, the university has instituted the Universal Transit Pass, which allows most students unlimited access to the Metro Transit light rail and bus networks as well as a number of other transit systems in the area.
St. Paul campus
The St. Paul campus is in the city of Falcon Heights, about from the Minneapolis campus. The default place name for the ZIP code serving the campus is "St. Paul", but "Falcon Heights" is also recognized for use in the street addresses of all campus buildings. The College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, including the University of Minnesota Food Industry Center and many other disciplines from social sciences to vocational education, are on this campus. It also includes the College of Continuing and Professional Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine, and College of Biological Sciences. The extensive lawns, flowers, trees, and surrounding University research farm plots create a greener and quieter campus. It has a grassy mall of its own and can be a bit of a retreat from the more urban Minneapolis campus. Prominent on this campus is Bailey Hall, the St. Paul campus' only residence hall. Campus Connector buses run every five minutes on weekdays when school is in session, and every 20 minutes on weekends, allowing students easy access to both campuses.
The Continuing Education and Conference Center, which serves over 20,000 conference attendees per year, is also on the St. Paul campus.
The St. Paul campus is home to the College of Design's Department of Design, Housing, and Apparel (DHA). Located in McNeal Hall, DHA includes the departmental disciplines of apparel design, graphic design, housing studies, interior design, and retail merchandising.
The St. Paul campus is known to University students and staff for the Meat and Dairy Salesroom, which sells animal food products (such as ice cream, cheese, and meat) produced in the university's state-certified pilot plant by students, faculty and staff.
The St. Paul campus borders the Minnesota State Fairgrounds, which hosts the largest state fair in the United States by daily attendance. The fair lasts 12 days, from late August through Labor Day. The grounds also serve a variety of functions during the rest of the year.
Although the Falcon Heights area code is 651, the university telephone system trunk lines use Minneapolis exchanges and its 612 area code.
Commuting between Minneapolis and St. Paul campuses
On regular weekdays during the school year, the Campus Connectors operate with schedule-less service as often as every five minutes during the busiest parts of the school day (between 7 am and 5:30 pm), slowing to once every 15 or 20 minutes during earlier or later hours. The estimated commute time between St. Paul and the East Bank is 15 minutes. In 2008, the system carried 3.55 million riders. Although the shuttle service is free, it is comparatively inexpensive to operate; with an operating cost of $4.55 million in 2008, the operating subsidy was only $1.28 per passenger. Even Metro Transit's busy Metro Blue Line light rail required a subsidy of $1.44 that year, and that was with many riders paying $1.75 or more for a ride.
Campus safety
The Step Up campaign is a program that helps students prevent excessive drinking, as well as sexual assault and other crimes, by teaching them how to intervene and prevent in a positive way. This is done, in part, by explaining the bystander effect. The U of M also has a TXT-U emergency notification text messaging system that sends out a notification to all faculty, staff, and students in case of emergency. Other resources help students get home safely. Calling 624-WALK secures an escort for walks to adjacent campuses and neighborhoods, and Gopher Chauffeur, a van service, offers rides near and on campus. Both are free and open to all students, staff, and faculty.
In addition, the campus has nearly 200 automated external defibrillators (AEDs) and 200 yellow phones for emergency-only calls. The University Police Station has 20 Code Blue phones around campus that immediately connect people to their office. There are also over 2,000 security cameras being monitored 24 hours a day.
Sexual assaults
Minnesota Gophers football player Dominic Jones was convicted of sexual assault in 2008. In July 2009, an appeals court upheld Jones' conviction, but reduced his four-year prison sentence to one year. More than 1,000 sexual assaults on campus were reported between 2010 and 2015. No prosecutions for rape occurred, according to Katie Eichele of the Aurora Center, until the conviction of Daniel Drill-Mellum in 2016, for the rapes of two fellow students. Drill-Mellum received a six-year prison sentence.
It has been alleged that few sexual assaults on campus are reported to University police. Six resulted in arrest from 2010 to 2015; one was determined to be unfounded. In a study by campus police, in the years between 2005 and 2015, sexual assaults at the university remained the same or increased despite six sexual assault resources and many anti-crime programs on campus. In August 2020, the University of Minnesota agreed to pay $500,000 to a woman who in the fall of 2016, accused several Gophers football players of sexually assaulting her. In February 2017, a University of Minnesota panel cleared four of the 10 Gopher football players the woman accused and agreed with investigators' recommendation that four other players be expelled and the other two players should be suspended for a year.
Student life and traditions
Greek life, professional and honor societies
The University of Minnesota has numerous fraternities and sororities. Including defunct branches, the Greek System numbers more than 200 organizations, approximately half of which operate today. The university's Greek societies include the residential Academic and Social chapters, including non-residential multicultural groups. The Greek System includes some but not all Professional Fraternities, Honor Societies, Religious and Service Fraternities. Fraternities and sororities have built several historically significant "Fraternity Row" homes along University Ave. SE, 10th Ave. SE, 4th Street SE, and 5th Street SE, all in Minneapolis, or along Cleveland Ave. near the St. Paul campus.
As of June 2018, approximately 3,900 system members made up about 11% of the campus population. Minnesota hosts 38 academic fraternities, 20 academic sororities, 56 honors societies, 31 professional societies, and two service-focused chapters.University of Minnesota, List of student organizations .
Media
PrintThe Minnesota Daily has been published twice a week during the normal school season since the fall semester 2016. It is printed weekly during the summer. The Daily is operated by an autonomous organization run entirely by students. It was first published on May 1, 1900. Besides everyday news coverage, the paper has also published special issues, such as the Grapevine Awards, Ski-U-Mah, the Bar & Beer Guide, Sex-U-Mah, and others.
A long-defunct humor magazine, Ski-U-Mah, was published from about 1930 to 1950. It launched the career of novelist and scriptwriter Max Shulman.
A relative newcomer to the university's print media community is The Wake Student Magazine, a weekly that covers UMN-related stories and provides a forum for student expression. It was founded in November 2001 in an effort to diversify campus media and achieved student group status in February 2002. Students from many disciplines do all of the reporting, writing, editing, illustration, photography, layout, and business management for the publication. The magazine was founded by James DeLong and Chris Ruen. The Wake was named the nation's best campus publication (2006) by the Independent Press Association.
Additionally, the Wake publishes Liminal, a literary journal begun in 2005. Liminal was created in the absence of an undergraduate literary journal and continues to bring poetry and prose to the university community.The Wake has faced a number of challenges during its existence, due in part to the reliance on student fees funding. In April 2004, after the Student Services Fees Committee had initially declined to fund it, the needed $60,000 in funding was restored, allowing the magazine to continue publishing. It faced further challenges in 2005, when its request for additional funding to publish weekly was denied and then partially restored.
In 2005 conservatives on campus began formulating a new publication named The Minnesota Republic. The first issue was released in February 2006, and funding by student service fees started in September 2006. The Republic is a biweekly newspaper run entirely by students, reporting on campus, state, and national news with commentary on sports, economics, and arts and entertainment.The Republic is a member of the Collegiate Network, a program that includes over 100 publications at colleges and universities around the United States.
Radio
The campus radio station, KUOM "Radio K", broadcasts an eclectic variety of independent music during the day on 770 kHz AM. Its 5,000-watt signal has a range of , but shuts down at dusk because of Federal Communications Commission regulations. In 2003, the station added a low-power (8-watt) signal on 106.5 MHz FM overnight and on weekends. In 2005, a 10-watt translator began broadcasting from Falcon Heights on 100.7 FM at all times. Radio K also streams its content at www.radiok.org. With roots in experimental transmissions that began before World War I, the station received the first AM broadcast license in the state on January 13, 1922, and began broadcasting as WLB, changing to the KUOM call sign about two decades later. The station had an educational format until 1993, when it merged with a smaller campus-only music station to become what is now known as Radio K. A small group of full-time employees are joined by over 20 part-time student employees who oversee the station. Most of the on-air talent consists of student volunteers.
Television
Some television programs made on campus have been broadcast on local PBS station KTCI channel 17. Several episodes of Great Conversations have been made since 2002, featuring one-on-one discussions between University faculty and experts brought in from around the world. Tech Talk'' was a show meant to help people who feel intimidated by modern technology, including cellular phones and computers.
Student Government
Undergraduate Student Government
The Undergraduate Student Government, formerly the Minnesota Student Association (MSA), is the undergraduate student government at the University of Minnesota. It advocates for student interests on local, state, and federal levels, and focuses on efforts that directly benefit the student population.
"Gopher Chauffeur", originally titled the MSA Express, is a student-operated late-night ride service. Piloted by MSA, the 2007–2008 administration of Emma Olson and Ross Skattum began the process of transitioning the service to the university's Boynton Health Services. This was done to ensure its longevity. Student response was overwhelmingly positive, and the program was expanded in recent years due to campus safety concerns.
MSA was instrumental in passing legislation in the 2013 Minnesota Legislature for medical amnesty, and has focused more heavily on legislative advocacy in recent years.
Graduate and Professional Student Assembly
The Graduate and Professional Student Assembly (GAPSA) was responsible for graduate and professional student governance at the University of Minnesota. It is the largest and most comprehensive graduate/professional student governance organization in the United States. GAPSA serves students in the Carlson School of Management, the Dental School, the Graduate School, the Law School, the Medical School, the School of Nursing, the College of Pharmacy, the School of Public Health, the College of Veterinary Medicine, and the College of Education and Human Development. GAPSA is also a member of the National Association of Graduate-Professional Students.
The University of Minnesota has the second-largest number of graduate and professional students in the United States at over 16,000. All registered graduate and professional students at UMN are members of GAPSA. It was established in 1990 as a nonprofit (IRS 501 (c)(3)) confederation of independent college councils representing all graduate and professional students at the University of Minnesota to the Board of Regents, the president of the university, the University Senate, UMN at large and the wider community. GAPSA served as a resource for member councils, as the primary contact point for administrative units, as a graduate and professional student policy-making and policy-influencing body, and as a center of intercollegiate and intracollegiate interaction among students.
In 2014, GAPSA split into two organizations and ceased to exist as such due to an increasing separation between the needs of graduate and professional students. COGS (the Council of Graduate Students) broke off from the larger body, which then renamed to PSG (Professional Student Governance). Both units continue to fulfill the former functions of GAPSA for the respective student bodies each represents.
Student activism
Student activism has played an important role at the university, including campaigns to desegregate campus housing in the 1930s and 1940s, Black students' take over of Morrill Hall in 1969, which led to the creation of the Department of Afro-American Studies, now known as the Department of African-American and African Studies, the 1970 student strike against war, campaigns to keep the General College open in the 2000s, campaigns against racism in 2014–2015 known as Whose Diversity?, and many graduate student unionization efforts. For example, labor coalition efforts in the 2021–2022 academic year highlighted poor wages, poor stipend conditions, and administrative disrespect for graduate student workers. In the 2022-2023 academic year, labor efforts materialized into a campaign and a vote that culminated in the formation of the Graduate Labor Union-United Electrical (GLU-UE), the labor union currently representing graduate student workers at the University of Minnesota.
Athletics
Minnesota's Twin Cities campus athletics teams are called the Minnesota Golden Gophers and are members of the Big Ten Conference and the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA) in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). As of 2019, they have won 19 NCAA championships and claim six national football championships.
Since the 2013–14 school year, the only Minnesota team that does not compete in the Big Ten is the women's ice hockey team, which competes in the WCHA. The Gophers men's ice hockey team was a longtime WCHA member, but left when the Big Ten began operating a men's ice hockey league with six inaugural members. The current athletic director is Mark Coyle.
The Golden Gophers' most notable rivalry is the annual college football game against the Wisconsin Badgers (University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin) for Paul Bunyan's Axe. The two universities also compete in the Border Battle, a year-long athletic competition in which each sport season is worth 40 points divided by the number of times the teams play each other (i.e. football is worth 40 points because they play each other only once, while women's ice hockey is worth 10 points per game because they play four times a year). Conference and postseason playoffs do not count in the point standings.
Goldy Gopher is the mascot for the Twin Cities campus and the associated sports teams. The gopher mascot is a tradition as old as the state, which was tabbed the "Gopher State" in 1857 after a political cartoon ridiculing the $5 million railroad loan that helped open up the West. The cartoon portrayed shifty railroad barons as striped gophers pulling a railroad car carrying the Territorial Legislature. Later, the university picked up the nickname with the first university yearbook, bearing the name "Gopher Annual", appearing in 1887.
The Minnesota Rouser is university's fight song. It is commonly played and sung by the 320-member Minnesota Marching Band at events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games. Other songs associated with the university include the Minnesota March, which was composed for the university by John Philip Sousa, and Hail! Minnesota, the university's alma mater and state song of Minnesota.
Football
The Minnesota Golden Gophers are one of the oldest programs in college football history. They have won seven national championships and 18 Big Ten Conference Championships. The Golden Gophers played their first game on September 29, 1882, a 4–0 victory over Hamline University, St. Paul. In 1887, the Golden Gophers played host to the Wisconsin Badgers in a 63–0 victory. With the exception of 1906, the Golden Gophers and the Badgers have played each other every year since. The 128 games played against each other make this the most played rivalry in NCAA Division I FBS college football.
In 1981, the Golden Gophers played their last game in Memorial Stadium. Between 1982 and 2008, the school played their home games in the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis. They moved back to campus on September 12, 2009, when their new home, TCF Bank Stadium, opened with a game against the Air Force Falcons of the U.S. Air Force Academy. Often referred to as The Bank, the stadium was renamed Huntington Bank Stadium in June 2021 to reflect the acquisition of TCF Bank by Huntington Bank.
Basketball
The Golden Gophers men's basketball team has won two National Championships, two National Invitation Tournament (NIT) Championships, and eight Big Ten Regular Season Championships. They also have six NCAA Tournament appearances, including a Final Four appearance in 1997 and three Sweet 16 appearances. However, because of NCAA sanctions for academic fraud, all postseason appearances from 1994 to 1998—in the NCAA Tournament in 1994, 1995, and 1997 and NIT in 1996 and 1998—were vacated. Most recently, in April 2014 the Golden Gophers defeated SMU to win the NIT championship at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
The Golden Gophers women's basketball team has enjoyed success in recent years under Pam Borton, including a Final Four appearance in 2004. Overall, they have six NCAA Tournament appearances and three Sweet 16 appearances.
Men's hockey
The Golden Gophers men's hockey program has won 5 Division I National Championships, and 24 conference championships (including 13 WCHA and 4 Big Ten Hockey season championships. They have won 14 WCHA Tournament Championships and have 20 NCAA Frozen Four appearances. A former Golden Gophers hockey tradition was to fill a majority of the team roster with Minnesota natives. Home games are played at Mariucci Arena. The Golden Gophers' big rivals are the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the University of North Dakota.
Women's hockey
The Golden Gophers women's hockey team has won six NCAA National Championships, most recently in 2016, and nine WCHA Regular Season Championships. They have also won seven WCHA Tournament Championships and have eleven NCAA Frozen Four appearances. They play their home games in Ridder Arena. They were the first collegiate women's hockey team to play in an arena dedicated solely to women's ice hockey. In the 2012–2013 season they finished undefeated at 41–0, and are the first and only NCAA women's hockey team to do so. After winning the NCAA tournament their winning streak stood at 49 games, dating back to February 17, 2012, when they lost to North Dakota.
Women's rugby
The first Division I collegiate women's rugby club in the state, the Golden Gophers women's rugby club team won the Midwest conference championship in 2015, 2016, and 2017.
Women's gymnastics
The Golden Gophers Women's Gymnastics team competes in the Maturi Pavilion. The team has won six Big Ten titles, the most recent in 2016, when they won the regular season championship with a 9–0 record.
Cross Country and Track and Field
The Cross Country and Track and Field programs have produced several professional runners, including Ben Blankenship and Gabriele Grunwald. They also host the Roy Griak meet, a large collegiate cross country meet.
Notable people
See also
List of colleges and universities in Minnesota
Notes
References
External links
University of Minnesota Athletics
University Digital Conservancy
Universities and colleges established in 1851
Flagship universities in the United States
Forestry education
Land-grant universities and colleges
Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Minnesota
University of Minnesota
Universities and colleges in Saint Paul, Minnesota
Minnesota populated places on the Mississippi River
1851 establishments in Minnesota Territory
|
416882
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Syria
|
Music of Syria
|
When speaking of the music of Syria, it is important to remember that there are certain musical traditions and practices that have been present in Syria longer than others. There have been musical influences introduced into Syria through multiple eras of conquest and influences from surrounding cultures in modern-day Syria (as opposed to Greater Syria). Lying near Egypt and Israel, and connected to southern Europe by the Mediterranean, Syria became host to many distinct cultural musics through trade and route. The music present in Syria is related greatly to poetry, influenced greatly by the Bedouin nomadic tribes, the maqam system in Arabic classical music, as well as influenced greatly by the geopolitical movement and conflict in the Middle East. Syrian music generally has a singer who is accompanied by three or four instruments. The texture is usually thin but can become denser depending on the use of each instrument. Music is tightly linked to poetry in Syria.
The classical music of Syria is part of the greater Arabic music world. The main components are a maqam and an iqa (rhythm/metre). A maqam is a set of scales made of up of three or four notes. A maqam will have two or three of these scales put together which is then played over the iqa (rhythm). Both the maqam and iqa can be advanced or simple to play. Both the maqam and iqa are to be thought of as a structure that the musicians would then ornament with the playing. Syria and the Middle East have a long history of conquest and conflict that have led to a diaspora, and modern diaspora has led to refugee camps. Music has become a means of consolation and preservation of culture in the refugee camps.
Characteristics of Syrian music
Syria borders the Mediterranean sea and is located in the Levant. This area has been culturally influenced by many conquests and geopolitical activity. The multiple influences and sweeping conquests have created many of the cultures to share particular practices or traditions. Music of the Middle East has a predominantly monophonic nature. This is more clearly understood as the music not having multiple melodies or harmonies playing. There can be a rich texture created if multiple instruments playing the same melody with slight variations or rhythmic ornamentations. Ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl describes this as more common style of music texture known as another style of texture which he calls parallel polyphony which consists of a singer improvising a melody and an instrument following behind with the that same melody. Many of the tones played are played as an interpretation of the music from the player, rather than the music notation or song. This gives the player the freedom to bend or mold the notes causing an improvisational effect on the structure of the music. This results in a personal interpretation of the players feelings towards the song. This causes an effect that connects the performer with the audience which can create a feeling of ecstasy in the listener. Compared to western music, this may be similar to a solo produced by a player during a song or a rendition of a song that keeps the same form but is changed slightly creating an effect that is predictable enough to the listener while revealing new variations of the song. This style of song in Syrian music creates a feeling of excitement for how the musician will play the upcoming sections.
Music and poetry
A significant part of Syrian music is sung in prose that participates in the distinctness of the Middle Eastern sound. There is an intersection of elements in Syrian music that give it a distinct sound as well as being a driving force in many of the music traditions found in Syria. These elements are:
the music being played predominantly as a monophonic texture;
the music is near-inseparable to poetry;
although the music follows particular maqam'at (the plural of maqam which is the music mode system used in the Middle East), there is melodic improvisation that is to be expected;
last, the music is highly ornamented with quartertone's and microtones that provide the player with the necessary tones to accurately account for every possible emotion that may be drawn from the music.
Throughout time, history, and cultural amalgamation, the Syrian musical style has been constructed as a platform to create the perfect sonic environment for the listener to fully emerge in the stories told in the poetry. The story's narrative is told in the poetry and then enhanced by the music involving such accuracy in emotional effect from the quarter and microtones that it would provide the listener with the greatest understanding of the story.
A particularly influential group in Syrian music and specifically values, ideologies, folklore, and the poetic customs of the Levant are the Bedouin tribes.
Bedouin influence on Syrian music
Bedouin is a name given to the nomadic tribes that lived in the Levant which have played an important role in shaping the music present in the countries of the Levant. The Bedouin influence can be seen in the ideologies, customs, and musical genres. One such impact of Bedouin culture is in the music genres of rural Syria and Lebanon. Within the encounters of the Bedouin and surroundings regions, there was cultural exchange throughout the many years of these practices. The music genres reflecting the ideologies are as follows.
Ideologies that were adopted from the Bedouin culture into the musical genres were hospitality, chivalry, bravery, and militancy. These types of ideologies were sung in a song form or genre called shruqi.
Ideologies like love, heartache, and sentiment, were sung in a genre called ataba.
Nadb is funeral music that honours the departed and war chants are sung when applicable.
The Bedouin culture was transmitted from the travel to places either pillaging or trading with the settled communities for centuries. This ended during the French colonialist era following the treaty of Versailles.
Historic Bedouin cultural music, if sung, was always accompanied with the rababah. Bedouin music is near-inseparable from poetry as is much of the music traditions in the Middle East. Many of the songs are kept in an oral tradition due to the nomadic nature of the Bedouin tribes, however, some songs and stories were written down by al-Atrash (a cultural hero for the Syrian people who was defiant to opposing forces) who transcribed his work while imprisoned by the Ottoman Empire. al-Atrash wrote his work in the Shruqi genre which is used to tell of heroine tales of rebellion to an enemy or of captive poets who have been humiliated by the enemy. This written work had a great effect on southern Syrians bringing Shruqi and other Bedouin ideologies and practices to urban areas. Due to the geopolitical climate of the Middle East, urbanization has caused many of the nomadic cultures and rural regions to cluster or move altogether. This has brought more modernized musical instruments and oral poetry together which collaborate and are currently played throughout regions of the Middle East.
Instruments
Folk music of Syria is, for the most part, based on the oud, which is a stringed instrument considered to be the ancestor of the European lute.
The ney (flute).
Hand-held percussion instruments, such as the darbouka, daf or riq.
Other typical instruments are the qanun and kamanjah.
In semi-Nomadic regions, Bedouin music is based on the Mizmar, mijwiz and rababah is popular.
Syrian classical Arabic music
Institutions
Syria's capital, Damascus, and the northern metropolis of Aleppo have long been one of the Arab world's centers of classical Arab music. In 1947 The Institute for Eastern Music was established, and in 1961 an institute teaching music was opened under the direction of Solhi al-Wadi. In 1963 a local branch of the Institute for Eastern Music was opened in Aleppo that included faculties for Western as well as for Arab music. In 1990, the Higher Institute of Music in Damascus was established as a conservatory for both Western and for Arabic music.
Muwashshah
A typical Syrian classical genre is the Muwashshah that goes back to around the 9th or 10th century. Performed by a lead singer or a choir, it consists of a classical form of Arabic poetry set to music. It usually consists of a multi-lined strophic verse poem written in classical Arabic, mostly consisting of five stanzas, which alternates with a refrain with a running rhyme. The muwashshah is usually opened with one or two lines matching the second part of the poem in rhyme and meter. The Al-Thurath ensemble specializes in this genre.
The city of Aleppo in Northern Syria is considered to be the centre of muwashshah.
Maqam
The classical music notation style of Syria is shared throughout the Arab world. This is known as maqam music which has first studies dating back to the 9nth century. Maqam'at (plural of maqam) were first theorized by al-Kindi between 801-873 and al-Farabi 870-950 where the music became more standardized. In the Arab world, as well as Turkey and Iran, there are a multitude of religions and cultures that have been present for centuries. Although there has been influence from empires and colonial forces bringing different musical traditions, countries like Syria and Lebanon have remained with the maqam tradition. Music in the Middle East differs to Eurocentric music in that it is usually played monophonically, that is, as a single melody. The monophic style allows most songs to be sung or played with the expectation that the melodic line will have improvisation or musical ornamentation. Arabic music is made up of small scales called jins/ajnas which are melodic motifs that have three or four pitches attributed to them. A maqam is a musical notation mode which is made of these three or four note jins/ajnas/scales. These tri,three-note, tetra, and four-note, scales are combined with usually two, sometimes three, jins/ajans (scales/modes) to create the maqam.
To understand the notation in maqamat musical style, it is easily understood when compared to the western notational style. The western notation is divided into twelve separate intervals creating a musical octave. The notation used in maqamat systems is divided into twenty-four intervals creating a distinction of the whole-tone, halftone and quarter-tone. Further into this division is the use of microtones which divide the quarter-tone making an even more subtle tone to express emotion through ornamentation. A maqam will use of the tones, half tones and quarter-tones in its construct.
Iqa'at
Iqa'at, or the singular iqa, is a particular rhythm that is to be played for every bar of a song. These rhythms are just a structure of what is usually played in the live performance. Ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl describes Iqa'at as separated by order of stressed and unstressed patterns. Further, musicians will play a song that drifts from nonmetric (free time/metre) to metric (in a metre) and then change in its metre again depending on the song. Iqa'at has even and odd time signatures that go anywhere from no rhythm, to 2/4 time to 32/4 time.
Syriac Christian music
Syria, being one of the countries where Christianity had originated, has a long history of church music. It is the origin of the Christian hymnody, which was entirely developed in Syria. And its style of chant, the Syrian chant which continues to be the liturgical music of some of the various Syrian Christians, is the oldest in the world.
There was formerly a distinctive tradition of Syrian Jewish religious music, which still flourishes in Syrian-Jewish communities around the world, such as New York City, Mexico City and Buenos Aires: see The Weekly Maqam, Baqashot and Pizmonim.
Much of the Syrian chant and other genres of Syrian music has been spread widely across the world due to the continual growth of the Syrian diaspora.
Music of refugees
In contemporary times, Syria has become a country of great conflict. From this conflict has come a great diaspora of refugees leaving to find safety. Many have sought refuge in distant countries from their own, however, a number close to 622,000 Syrians are found in Jordan alone. The majority of the refugees travel to Jordan from Aleppo, Homs, and Dara'a. These are areas that have been greatly influenced by both Arabic classical music and Bedouin folk music. This is due to the amalgamation of culture that happened from the French mandate rule and its effects on Bedouin nomadic tribes losing their ability to travel freely. Further amalgamation is from the recent conflicts causing rural regions to enter the cities for geopolitical purposes. Through the displacement of their homes, Syrians have been on the move finding new places to seek asylum.
As the diaspora has increased in recent times due to increasing conflict, neighboring countries have taken in many refugees and provided temporary housing in refugee camps. In the Zaatari refugee camp there are 79,000 people. From the displacement of their homes, Syrians have turned to music for the purpose of mourning and comfort. Also, reporting on the events was made illegal with punishment of jail time making Syrian song the only platform of which to tell any source of information. Syrians have also kept their traditions and culture alive through the ancient practice of music playing.
This use of culture resembles possibly another influence that the Bedouin people have had on Syria as they have turned to ataba music to comfort and mourn their losses. There are many similarities between the Syrian refugee lifestyle and that of the traditional Bedouin culture.
The first similarity is between the refugee camper and the Bedouin tent.
Both are in the Levant desort.
The nomadic nature of the recent refugees and the Bedouin people along with the oral culture that Bedouin and refugee people both share.
However, the most direct similarity is between the types of music that the Syrian refugees play and a traditional Bedouin genre. In the YouTube video Songs of Syrian Refugees - Documentary | Recording Earth written about in Alex Petropoulos's article in the Guardian, there are two men who sing in a traditional Bedouin genre known as ataba. Ataba music is reserved for the sentimental feelings usually associated with lamentations over loss. The YouTube video plays in this style of music varying only in the musicians use of the oud and not the Bedouin traditional rababah. This subtle difference can be explained by the modern diaspora of culture and the amalgamation of culture in the urban centers of the Middle East.
Modern amalgamation and diaspora
Due to the rise in geopolitical conflict in the Middle East, there has been an amalgamation of cultures in the urban centres of the Levant. This has created a mixture of cultures that have borrowed styles and sounds from one another with a mixture of classical music and instruments, Bedouin genres and poetical traditions, and the more subtle yet distinct differences that each community and region has in the Levant. This amalgamation has been going on for many centuries as a product of the historical conflicts that have happened throughout Middle Eastern history. This has made Syrian traditions change in style while also becoming necessary to practice for the survival of culture and traditions as was/ is the case for Syriac chant. There is now Syrian music played throughout the world due to the historical diaspora and movement by the Syrian people.
As in other countries, modern Syrian music notably contrasts its folk music. It uses an orchestra of mostly European instruments with one lead vocalist and sometimes a backup chorus. This type of music is very popular in the Middle East. Famous singers are Assala Nasri, Farid al-Atrash, Fahd Ballan, Sabah Fakhri, Mayada El Hennawy and George Wassouf.
Syrian dances
One of the most popular dances in Syria is the Dabkeh, a folk dance combining circle dancing and line dancing formed from right to left and headed by a leader which alternates between facing the audience and other dancers. It is mostly performed at weddings and other joyous occasions, but also has accompanied protest meetings during the Syrian Civil War. Other popular folklore dances include the "Arāḍa" (), a dance performed with swords, as well as oriental dance for women.
See also
Culture of Syria
Arabic music
Syrian Chant
Muwashshah
References
Badley, Bill and Zein al Jundi. "Europe Meets Asia". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 391–395. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Further reading
Shannon, Jonathan H. “Metonyms of Modernity in Contemporary Syrian Music and Painting.” Ethnos 70, no. 3 (2005): 361–86. doi:10.1080/00141840500294466.
External links
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Damascus. Accessed November 25, 2010.
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Islamic sufi in Aleppo. Accessed November 25, 2010.
Sephardic Pizmonim Project. Accessed March 10, 2018.
Wikipedia Student Program
|
416912
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Church%20of%20Jesus%20Christ%20%28Bickertonite%29
|
The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)
|
The Church of Jesus Christ is an international Christian religious denomination headquartered in Monongahela, Pennsylvania, United States. The church is a Christian Restorationist church and accepts the Book of Mormon as scripture. The church considers itself the gospel restored, or the original church and good news as established by Jesus Christ in the New Testament, restored upon the earth. It also claims to be the spiritual successor to the Church of Christ, organized by Joseph Smith on April 6, 1830. The church sees Sidney Rigdon as Smith's rightful successor following the assassination of Smith because Rigdon was Smith's first counselor in the First Presidency. The church is not officially affiliated with any other church, organization or denomination.
As of August 2023, members of the church are located throughout the world including North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa—for a membership total of 22,992. The Church of Jesus Christ is considered "the third largest Restoration church to have resulted from the 1844 succession crisis", describing Joseph Smith's death that year without a clear line of succession. It has sometimes been referred to as a "Bickertonite church" or "Rigdonite organization" based upon the church's historical succession through William Bickerton and Sidney Rigdon. However, the church does not use these terms in referring to itself.
The stated purpose of the church is "to share the gift of salvation through Jesus Christ, His promises and His redeeming love with all nations and races throughout the world and to carry out God’s plans in the latter days."
Mission and purpose
Stated Mission:
"The Church of Jesus Christ will teach the Gospel to all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe all things commanded by Jesus Christ, while working to draw Israel to Christ through efforts focused on the indigenous peoples of North, Central, and South America."
Stated Purpose:
"To fulfill the plan of God by bringing salvation through Christ to all people."
Stated Vision:
"Living and worshipping in unity and righteousness will result in the fullness of God’s spirit and power among the saints, culminating in continuous growth of the Church and fulfillment of Christ’s promises concerning His kingdom on Earth."
Use of descriptive terms
The church refers to itself only as "The Church of Jesus Christ", its legal and official name. This name comes from Jesus Christ's words in the text of the Book of Mormon, who names his church after himself. The Church of Jesus Christ believes itself to be the restored self-same church as established in both the New Testament and Book of Mormon. The belief system of being Jesus Christ's church upon the earth is the reason for avoiding any other names as descriptive terms, even in a historical context.
The church is sometimes referred to as a "Bickertonite" or "Rigdonite" organization by non-members, and occasionally used in scholarly works to distinguish from other denominations with similar names. These terms have reference to the church tracing its historical succession through William Bickerton and Sidney Rigdon. The use of these terms are discouraged by the church as detracting from Jesus Christ. Although the church acknowledges the Book of Mormon to be scripture, it does not consider itself to be a "Mormon church" as it is distinct from the largest Latter Day Saint church, based in Utah.
History
The Church of Jesus Christ sees itself as a continuation of the Church of Christ, which was the original church organization established by Joseph Smith informally in 1829 and then as a legal entity on April 6, 1830 in northwestern New York. On April 6, 1830, Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and a group of approximately 30 believers met to formally organize the Church of Christ into a legal institution. Traditionally, this is said to have occurred at the home of Peter Whitmer Sr. in Fayette, New York, but some early accounts place it in Manchester. Soon after this formal organization, small branches were formally established in Fayette, Manchester and Colesville.
Smith and his associates intended that the Church of Christ would be a restoration of the 1st-century Christian church, which Smith taught had fallen from God's favor and authority because of a Great Apostasy. In late 1830, Smith envisioned a "city of Zion" in Native American lands near Independence, Missouri. In October 1830, he sent his second-in-command Oliver Cowdery and others on a mission to the area. Passing through Kirtland, Ohio, the missionaries converted a congregation of Disciples of Christ led by Sidney Rigdon, and in 1831, Smith decided to temporarily move his followers to Kirtland until the Missouri area could be colonized. The church headquarters remained in Kirtland from 1831 to 1838.
Many of Smith's followers attempted to colonize Missouri throughout the 1830s, and Smith himself moved there in 1838. The church faced political and military opposition by other Missouri settlers. After the Mormon War of 1838, the religion was expelled from Missouri under an Extermination Order signed by the governor. The church then established its new headquarters in Nauvoo, Illinois, a city they built on drained swampland by the Mississippi River, where Smith served as mayor. There, the church thrived until Smith and his brother Hyrum were killed by a mob in 1844. They were in prison awaiting trial for crimes related to the destruction of the printing press of the Nauvoo Expositor. At the time, Smith was a minor candidate for President of the United States with Rigdon as his running mate.
After Smith was killed in 1844, there was confusion about who should succeed him in leading the church. Many of the leaders of the church were absent from Nauvoo at the time of his death, serving as missionaries or working on Smith's presidential campaign. Rigdon was in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when he heard of Smith's death, and hurried back to Nauvoo, becoming one of the first church leaders to return. He quickly announced that he had the right to lead the church as its "guardian" until proper proceedings could decide the next church president, and that the Quorum of the Twelve did not have the right to lead the church. Rigdon, like the Twelve, had been ordained by Smith as a "prophet, seer, and revelator".
The Church of Jesus Christ maintains that the First Presidency had made nearly all the major decisions and led the Church of Christ prior to Smith's death, and as first counselor to Smith at the time of Smith's death, Rigdon should naturally have been the leader of the church after Smith's death.
The Latter Day Saints who followed Rigdon separated themselves from the majority of the members, who followed Brigham Young and the Quorum of the Twelve. Rigdon and his followers settled in Monongahela, Pennsylvania. On April 6, 1845, Rigdon presided over a conference of the Church of Christ, which he saw as the rightful continuation of the church founded by Smith. William Bickerton was among those converted by Rigdon's preaching, and was baptized at Monongahela in 1845. Later that same year, Bickerton was ordained an elder and shortly after an evangelist in the church. Rigdon's organization disbanded shortly afterwards.
Bickerton continued to preach and by May 1851 a branch of the church was organized under Bickerton's leadership in West Elizabeth, Pennsylvania. At a conference on July 9, 1861, it was recorded that twelve of their number were chosen and called by the Holy Spirit to be apostles. The church was incorporated in Pittsburgh in June 1865 with the legal name, "Church of Jesus Christ of Green Oak, Pennsylvania." On April 5, 1941, the church was granted the name of "The Church of Jesus Christ" by Washington County, Pennsylvania. The church today is registered as "The Church of Jesus Christ" in the corporate registry of the state of Pennsylvania.
Organizational structure and membership
The Church of Jesus Christ is organized with twelve apostles, seventy evangelists (see Quorum of Seventy Evangelists), and elders as ordained offices within the general priesthood. Teachers, deacons and deaconesses are also ordained offices within the church. The church structures itself as closely as possible to the New Testament church according to the 4th and 5th articles of the Faith and Doctrine of The Church of Jesus Christ. Apostles lead the church; evangelists preach to the world; elders serve their various branches and missions. Teachers visit the membership, teach, and preach or lead services when elders are not present. All of these offices are considered the "ministry" of the church.
The church presidency is composed of apostles including the president of the church, first and second counselors. The president of the church and his two counselors are elected by the general priesthood in conference and selected from among the Quorum of Twelve Apostles. The president of the church, while being an ordained apostle, along with his counselors, also apostles, oversee the general operations of the church. In contrast, the Quorum of Twelve Apostles has its own president and officers elected among themselves, independent of the general priesthood. The Quorum of Twelve is primarily responsible for guiding the spiritual growth and development of the church in general, acting as advisers to key operating committees.
Today, The Church of Jesus Christ has a total worldwide membership of 23,200, with nearly 3,000 located in the United States. The church continues to experience significant growth in comparison to some of the other smaller Latter Day Saint organizations. Within the last decade, it has been engaged in the construction of new church buildings in Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Florida, California, New Jersey, and Arizona, along with similar construction efforts in many foreign countries.
Doctrines and practices
The Church of Jesus Christ is independent of any other church in the Latter Day Saint movement. The Church of Jesus Christ has long rejected plural marriage, celestial marriage, two separate priesthoods, and many other doctrines taught by some other Latter Day Saint movement denominations. The Church of Jesus Christ teaches that many of the doctrines and revelations Joseph Smith taught were not from God and were contrary to the Bible and the Book of Mormon. The church also teaches that many of the Latter Day Saint denominations fell into error by following these revelations. The Church of Jesus Christ views the nature of God as explained in the Bible and Book of Mormon, which the church distinguishes from the views taught by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Nature of God
Godhead: The Church of Jesus Christ believes, "...in God, the Eternal Father, and His Son, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. These three are the great matchless power that rules all things visible and invisible, for it is of Him and through Him that we receive all things both for this life, and that which is to come."
God the Father: God the Father, or God Almighty, is believed to be a personage of Glory.
Jesus Christ: Jesus Christ is the Son of God, the "...express image of the Father..." who "...came from the bosom of the Father, was born of the Virgin Mary...became man and suffered and died for the sins of the whole world." The church believes in the physical life, crucifixion, resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ who they believe now sits at the right hand of God the Father.
Holy Spirit: The Holy Spirit is considered to be a spirit and the very mind of the Father and the Son. He is not considered to be a personage itself, but can take upon himself many forms. "God, through His spirit, can be everywhere. He can observe and penetrate any part of the universe of His creation. This does not mean that God is physically everywhere, but His spirit, which is in communication with all things at all times, is everywhere. It is like the fragrance of a beautiful bouquet of flowers that permeates an entire house, although it is only in one room." It is considered to be the Power, Glory and Witness as referenced in New Testament Scriptures.
Scriptures
The Church of Jesus Christ teaches that the New Testament scriptures contain a true description of the church as established by Jesus Christ. The church teaches that this church is set up to be sufficient for life and salvation to all humankind. Both the Bible and Book of Mormon are considered to be the inspired word of God. All doctrines and faith of the church are referenced with these two books. No other books are accepted as scripture.
Salvation
The Church of Jesus Christ teaches that the church as setup by Christ in the New Testament contains all doctrines and practices essential for salvation. Adherents believe that the church today should contain every element of the early church. Humankind will be punished according to their own sins and not the sins of Adam and Eve. The church believes that in order to obtain salvation, one must obey the Gospel by fulfilling the commandment of Jesus Christ.
Principles of the gospel
Faith – Members must believe in Jesus Christ, that He died and was resurrected.
Repentance – A feeling of sorrow for sin and desire to sin no more.
Baptism (Water) – Done by immersion in water in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost for the remission of sins. Immersion is considered being buried in likeness of the death of Christ and arising in newness of life. The church teaches that baptism must be in a natural body of water such as a river or lake, and not in a pool or other artificial structure.
Laying on of hands to receive the Holy Ghost – The priesthood lay hands on the head of the candidate for this reception after the baptism of water.
Enduring to the End – Members must strive to serve God to the best of their ability for the rest of their time on this earth.
Priesthood and church structure
The Church of Jesus Christ teaches that the structure of the early church and that apostles, evangelists, elders, teachers, and deacons should still lead the church today. Apostles, Evangelists, and Elders are called after the holy order of the priesthood of Jesus Christ and have the responsibility to perform ordinances based on the example Jesus Christ provided as recorded in the Bible and The Book of Mormon. These three offices make up "The Priesthood". The leadership is not considered a hierarchy, but rather the church holds that those with greater responsibility are called to greater service, and the most important calling within the church is that of a member. The priesthood is responsible for the spiritual well-being of the church. As with most Restoration denominations, elders are never referred to as "Father" or "Reverend", as the belief of the church is that scripture forbids this practice (Matthew 23:9). Elders and all church officials (including the Church Presidency and Quorum of Apostles) receive no financial remuneration for their activities.
Teachers, deacons, and deaconesses are also called to support the ministry. Teachers, while considered a part of the broader ministry, cannot perform any ordinances. Their responsibilities include visiting the membership, teaching, and preaching or leading services when elders are not present. Deacons and deaconesses visit the sick, widows, and attend to many physical and spiritual duties for each branch of the church. Deaconesses also set the sacrament table and attend to the needs and development of the women of the church. Although women may serve as deaconesses in the church, in accordance with the church's interpretation of the scriptures, only men may become elders. Deaconesses do not have priesthood authority.
In worship services, members of the priesthood do not prepare written sermons prior to the meeting. Instead, the priesthood strives to speak under the inspiration from the Holy Spirit. Each week, church services begin with preaching from the priesthood and generally followed by a testimony portion of the meeting, during which time members of the congregation (and visitors) are given the opportunity to "praise God for what He has done for them."
According to the doctrine of the church, all ordained offices are called to their positions by revelation. No office within the church is paid, including the ministry.
Joseph Smith
The Church of Jesus Christ considers Joseph Smith to have been an instrument in the hands of God in the restoration of the gospel. The Church of Jesus Christ believes that many revelations began to enter into the church through Smith that were contrary to the scriptures and the will of God. In contrast with other Latter Day Saint denominations, the church does not believe that Smith was the "choice seer" predicted by the Book of Mormon (). Its members are still awaiting the coming of the choice seer whom many in the organization believe will be of Native American heritage.
One of the key reasons why The Church of Jesus Christ believes Smith received many revelations contrary to the word of God was described by one of the Three Witnesses to the Book of Mormon, David Whitmer. A revelation received by Smith to go to Toronto for business turned into a bankrupt expedition. Smith then was reportedly given a revelation clarifying that, "Some revelations are of God: some revelations are of men: and some revelations are of the devil." Thus, in order to strictly adhere to God's will, The Church of Jesus Christ only accepts revelation as supported by the Bible and the Book of Mormon. On this matter, church leader William Cadman wrote:
"There has been much said about Joseph Smith .... [A]ll people who manifest faith in the Restored Gospel of Jesus Christ, which includes the coming forth of the Book of Mormon, do acknowledge him to be inspired of God when but a youth .... He has been a much accused man, whether truly or falsely, eternity will reveal. If he taught plural marriage ... plural Gods, baptism for the dead, the Book of Mormon does not sustain him, neither does the teachings of our Savior in the New Testament .... The Church of Jesus Christ does not believe such teachings."
Ordinances
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ perform many ordinances as found in the New Testament and the Book of Mormon. Baptism, the Lord's Supper/Communion, feet washing, and others are all ways to remember Jesus Christ. The church claims these ordinances demonstrate remembrance, love, and humility before God and each other.
Like many Christian denominations, the church uses bread and wine for the Lord's Supper/Communion, which represents the body and blood of Christ, which it believes was sacrificed for the sins of humankind. Although the Book of Mormon provides an example of an appropriate prayer for communion ( and ), the ministry does not recite them verbatim and instead follows the "inspiration of the Holy Spirit" for the communion prayers. A first prayer is given prior to passing the bread and then another is offered prior to passing the wine. The communion is administered only to active, baptized members of the church. The wine is served in a communal cup. The ministers serve the congregation by walking around to each person in their seats, first with plate of bread and then with the cup of wine. The bread is not wafers or crackers, but leavened bread that has been broken into small pieces by the ministry during the ordinance. The ministers are the last to partake of the bread and the wine after the congregation has been served.
Church members follow the ordinance of feet washing () four times a year as a demonstration of personal humility. The church believes that this is a very important ordinance, citing Jesus' statement to Peter: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me." Church members greet each other with a "holy kiss", preferably on the cheek, to signify that they are greeting each other in the love of God, in accordance with the description given in the King James Version of the New Testament. Members of the church believe in the gifts of the Spirit, as described in their scriptures. These include but are not limited to: the word of wisdom, the word of knowledge, faith, healing, prophecy, discernment, witnessing of angels, speaking in tongues, and the interpretation of divers tongues.
Other
Members of the church refer to each other as "Brother" and "Sister." The church counsels members to be moderate in all things including their dress and appearance.
The church believes that little children have no need of baptism to obtain salvation, as they are without sin, and are commonly blessed by the priesthood. Young people are permitted to join the church when they reach an age of accountability and have a desire to obey the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
Elders perform administration to the sick through the laying on of hands, using oil if the illness is physical.
The church believes that serving God and following Jesus is a "365 day per year activity", not just a Sunday activity. Chapels of the church do not contain altars or crosses.
The Church of Jesus Christ teaches that hymns are often revealed through divine inspiration for the edification of the church. The hymnal The Songs of Zion consists of hymns that were given to a church member, Arlene Lea Buffington, through divine inspiration. The church also uses The Saints Hymnal, which contains many hymns sung in traditional Christian churches as well as hymns of the restoration. Many congregations also use additional hymnals from other Christian organizations.
The church maintains a publishing house in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, and prints its own edition of the Book of Mormon. The church publishes a monthly periodical called The Gospel News.
Racial integration
The Church of Jesus Christ has advocated full racial integration throughout all aspects of the church since its organization in 1862. While North America disputed over civil liberties and racial segregation, the church directed its message towards all races. In 1905, the church suspended an elder for opposing the full integration of all races.
Historian Dale Morgan wrote in 1949: "An interesting feature of the Church's doctrine is that it discriminates in no way against ... members of other racial groups, who are fully admitted to all the privileges of the priesthood. It has taken a strong stand for human rights, and was, for example, uncompromisingly against the Ku Klux Klan during that organization's period of ascendancy after the First World War."
At a time when racial segregation or discrimination was commonplace in most institutions throughout North America, two of the most prominent leaders of The Church of Jesus Christ were African American. Apostle John Penn, member of the Quorum of Twelve Apostles from 1910 to 1955, conducted missionary work with many Italian Americans, and was often referred to as "the Italians' Doctor". Matthew Miller, an evangelist ordained in 1937, traveled throughout Canada establishing missions with Native Americans.
References
Further reading
Entz, Gary R. "The Bickertonites: Schism and Reunion in a Restoration Church, 1880–1905," Journal of Mormon History 32 (fall 2006): 1–44.
External links
Official website
Locations
Auxiliaries/Media
Youth GMBA YouTube Channel
Youth GMBA Podcast
General Ladies' Uplift Circle
YouTube Channels
Christianity in Pennsylvania
Organizations based in Pennsylvania
Religious organizations established in 1862
Monongahela, Pennsylvania
Religion in Washington County, Pennsylvania
1862 establishments in Pennsylvania
|
416913
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate%20Hoey
|
Kate Hoey
|
Catharine Letitia Hoey, Baroness Hoey (born 21 June 1946), better known as Kate Hoey, is a Northern Irish politician and life peer who served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Home Affairs from 1998 to 1999 and Minister for Sport from 1999 to 2001. During the 1970s Hoey was involved in radical far-left groups but by the end of the decade became involved with the Labour Party. Hoey remained a member of the Labour Party for several decades while she was Member of Parliament (MP) for Vauxhall from 1989 to 2019, but resigned from the party in 2020.
Hoey has attracted a high level of attention throughout her career, but particularly in the 2010s, holding many socially conservative views that brought her into conflict with fellow members of Labour. Early in her life, Hoey was radically in favour of a United Ireland; however, in more recent decades she has pulled away from this view, declaring in 2017 "I’m pro-union, I’ll do anything to make sure that the United Kingdom has Northern Ireland as an integral part of it on the same terms as any other part of the United Kingdom when we leave the EU."
Early life
Hoey was born in Mallusk, County Antrim, and studied at Belfast Royal Academy and the Ulster College of Physical Education. She has a degree in Economics earned at London Guildhall University, and was a Vice-President of the National Union of Students.
Sport
Hoey has a longstanding interest in sport. She was the 1966 Northern Ireland high jump champion and has worked for football clubs including Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur, Queens Park Rangers, Chelsea and Brentford as an educational advisor. Before entering Parliament, she was educational adviser to Arsenal FC from 1985 to 1989.
Political career
Student politics
During the mid-1970s Hoey was one of the early members of the Newtownabbey Labour Party, which left its parent organisation, the Northern Ireland Labour Party (NILP), in 1974. Prior to being a member of the British Labour Party, Hoey was a member of the International Marxist Group (IMG), whose policies included support for a united Ireland with the slogan 'Victory for the IRA'. Hoey also ran for a seat on the National Union of Students as a candidate for a left-wing grouping called the Liaison Committee for the Defence of Student Unions (LDSCU). The LDSCU demanded the defence of student unions and "solidarity of students and workers". Another LCDSU demand was "Support for both wings of the IRA – unconditionally but not uncritically".
Member of the Labour Party
As a member of the Labour Party (UK), she unsuccessfully contested Dulwich at the 1983 and 1987 general elections, being defeated by the Conservative Gerald Bowden, on the second occasion by only 180 votes. In 1989, she was elected at the Vauxhall by-election precipitated by the resignation of Stuart Holland. Vauxhall Constituency Labour Party had wanted Martha Osamor, vice-chair of the Labour Party Black Sections, as the Party's candidate. Osamor did secure the most nominations, eighty in total, with Hoey only having one. However, the National Executive Committee declined to shortlist Osamor and imposed a shortlist on the constituency party. When the local party refused to choose from the shortlist, Hoey was imposed by the NEC as the Labour candidate.
Interviewed by a Belfast-based newspaper in 1989, Hoey claimed that she "yearned" for Irish unity, adding "I believe that there should be a united Ireland by consent and I think that there are a lot of people in Ireland who want this." Hoey also said she wanted to see an all-Ireland soccer team: "I believe that football supporters on both sides of the border would like to see this happen but it is football officials who are preventing it from coming about."<ref>Interview, Kate Hoey, 'Sunday News 18 June 1989.</ref>
Hoey was Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Home Office from 1998 to 1999, and Minister for Sport in the Department of Culture, Media and Sport from 1999 to 2001.
As the chairman of the all-party parliamentary group on Zimbabwe, Hoey was a vocal critic of the government of Robert Mugabe. In 2005, she called on Tony Blair to put diplomatic pressure on South Africa to condemn Zimbabwean government demolitions of townships, after an unsanctioned visit to the country. The Zimbabwean government threatened to jail her if she repeated her "sneak" visit.
On 29 April 2008, it was announced that Hoey would form part of the team of Conservative Boris Johnson, should he become Mayor, as an unpaid non-executive director advising on sport and the 2012 Olympics. The announcement was controversial both because Hoey had once said of London's Olympic bid "we don't deserve it and Paris does" and because it could have been perceived as endorsing an election candidate from a rival party.
Hoey nominated John McDonnell for the Labour leadership election of 2010, but on his withdrawal, she switched her nomination to Diane Abbott. However, she voted for Andy Burnham, giving Ed Miliband her second preference. In the 2015 Labour election, Hoey supported Andy Burnham and Caroline Flint for the leadership and deputy leadership, saying that she could not see Liz Kendall as a Prime Minister. In 2016, Hoey was one of few Labour MPs who did not vote no confidence in Jeremy Corbyn's leadership of the party. She supported him in the ensuing leadership contest.
On 8 July 2019, Hoey announced that she would retire from the House of Commons, and would not seek re-election as a Labour candidate at the next general election.
Independent politician
In December 2019 Hoey announced she was no longer a member of the Labour Party.
In July 2020, Hoey was nominated for a life peerage in the House of Lords in the 2019 Dissolution Honours and was created Baroness Hoey, of Lylehill and Rathlin in the County of Antrim, on 14 September 2020.
On 23 August 2021, Prime Minister Boris Johnson appointed Baroness Hoey as the UK's trade envoy to Ghana.
Political views
Hoey is a Eurosceptic and has often rebelled against her party. She was a prominent critic of the ban on handguns and, in an interview in Sporting Gun magazine, voiced her support for fox hunting. She has voted against Labour government policy on the war in Iraq, foundation hospitals, Trident, university tuition and top-up fees, ID cards and extended detention without trial. She was a leading Labour rebel supporting a referendum on the EU Lisbon Treaty. Hoey favours stricter controls on immigration, tougher welfare reform, withdrawal from the European Union, English votes for English laws, grammar schools, marriage tax allowances, free schools and academies.
LGBT+ rights
In 1994, Hoey successfully proposed an amendment to the Criminal Justice Bill to have Northern Ireland included in the gay age of consent reform which reduced the male age from 21 to 18. Her amendment passed by 254 votes to 141.
In 2010, Hoey was described as "the least gay-friendly of all Labour MPs" by the chief executive of Stonewall. However, she voted in favour of same-sex marriage in 2013.
In 2017, Hoey sparked criticism from LGBT advocates after it emerged she had liked a swastika-emblazoned Pride flag on Twitter. She stated that the tweet was "liked in error" and later apologised.
In March 2019, Hoey abstained on a vote to allow LGBT+ inclusive education in schools. When asked why by Vice News, she stated that it was "going to pass anyway".
In July 2019, she was the only Labour MP to have voted against allowing abortion and same-sex marriage in Northern Ireland.
Brexit
Hoey advocated the United Kingdom leaving the European Union during the campaign for the EU membership referendum held on 23 June 2016. She pointed to Labour's earlier Euroscepticism "from Attlee to Foot" in The Independent and changes in European bodies since Jacques Delors' advocacy of a "social Europe" to refute the claim that Eurosceptism was a movement of the right. She later extended these views, characterising the EU as a "part of the global movement to remove democratic resistance to capitalism" and as fascism, in a Heat Street/blog article written after the EU referendum, deleted from her blog.
Originally active in Labour Leave as a co-chair, Hoey resigned in February 2016 following internal disagreements. Soon afterwards, she became active in Grassroots Out, along with then-UKIP leader Nigel Farage and George Galloway, then-leader of the Respect Party. In her Vauxhall constituency, an estimated 78% voted to remain in the EU. Her Constituency Labour Party (CLP) stated in February 2017 that she was insufficiently opposing Conservative government policy on child refugees and the residency rights of EU nationals after the UK leaves.
The following month, Hoey was one of 70 parliamentary signatories to a letter sent to the Director-General of the BBC, Lord Hall of Birkenhead, along with two Labour colleagues and many Conservative politicians, which was critical of the BBC for running stories biased against Brexit. Since then she has continued to criticise the BBC, accusing them of being "embittered Remainers" "taking delight" in "undermining our country". Fellow Labour MP Wes Streeting responded that it was "Orwellian" to expect broadcasters to "act as cheerleaders for the government".
During an interview on BBC Radio 4's Today programme in November 2017, Hoey commented that the Irish border problem – how to avoid a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, post-Brexit, whilst avoiding a border in the Irish Sea between Northern Ireland and the rest of the UK – would be solved if the Republic of Ireland also left the EU. Addressing Senator Neale Richmond, Fine Gael spokesperson on European affairs in Seanad Éireann, Hoey said, "We joined the EU together, you joined when we joined, and I wouldn't be a bit surprised if we leave and when we are very successful that you don't start thinking about leaving as well".
Hoey attracted criticism again from within the Labour Party and from Irish political figures in February 2018 after she said the Good Friday Agreement was "not sustainable in the long term". These comments followed similar remarks by Eurosceptic Conservative politicians Daniel Hannan and Owen Paterson. Simon Coveney, the Republic of Ireland's Tánaiste (deputy head of government) and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, condemned the comments as "not only irresponsible but reckless". Owen Smith, the Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, said the remarks by Hannan, Paterson and Hoey were a "concerted, transparent effort to undermine the GFA... driven by their blind, misplaced faith in Brexit" and were "reckless and utterly wrong".
On 17 July 2018, Hoey was one of five Labour MPs who defied the Labour whip in order to vote with the government on a Brexit amendment, which, if passed, would have required the UK to remain a member of a customs union with the EU in the event of no other arrangements on free trade and no arrangements for no hard border in Ireland. The UK Government was against this amendment, but would have lost the vote without Hoey and the other Labour rebels, who possibly saved the Government from defeat. A few days later her CLP members passed a motion calling for her Labour whip to be withdrawn and for her to become ineligible to be a future Labour parliamentary candidate.
In March 2019, whilst taking part in a televised discussion about Brexit on the Andrew Neil show, Hoey was asked to "name any reputable independent study that show us better off if we leave". She admitted she could not produce any study that showed leaving the European Union would leave the UK in a better off position.
On 3 September 2019, Hoey and John Mann were the only Labour MPs to vote with the Government in an attempt to prevent MPs from taking control of the House in an attempt to block a potential no deal Brexit. In November 2019, Hoey said she would be voting for the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) in the December general election in Northern Ireland. She also endorsed the Conservative Party and Boris Johnson, stating that Labour "would not keep faith with the British people".
In June 2021, Hoey claimed that the Republic of Ireland "will probably decide to leave" in the short term following the UK's departure from the EU.
"Nationalist Persuasion" comments
In January 2022, Hoey faced widespread criticism after writing "there are very justified concerns that many professional vocations [in Northern Ireland] have become dominated by those of a nationalist persuasion, and this positioning of activists is then used to exert influence on those in power" in the foreword for a loyalist pamphlet. Hoey's comments initially incited a vocal reaction on social media, with some from a Catholic background posting their educational achievements in response. The Belfast branch of the National Union of Journalists (NUJ) accused her of adopting "an appallingly blinkered view of professional journalists". Sinn Féin vice-president and Deputy First Minister Michelle O'Neill labelled the piece "outrageous" and called on Hoey to withdraw the remarks, saying they were a throwback to a "bygone era". O'Neill added that "the days of nationalists being denied opportunities are gone". Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) MLA Matthew O'Toole accused Hoey of promoting a “McCarthyite tactic of othering members of the judiciary, lawyers, academics or journalists just because you disagree with them”. Ulster Unionist Party leader Doug Beattie dismissed Hoey's comments as "vacuous". Alliance Party MP Stephen Farry said she was espousing an 'enemy within' argument that was "inaccurate, sinister, and dangerous" and represented a "further shameful intervention" from Hoey.
DUP leader Jeffrey Donaldson endorsed the report and Hoey's foreword, describing it as a "welcome contribution".
Journalist Susan McKay described the remarks as sectarian and "distasteful" and linked them to historic Protestant resentment of increasing Catholic social mobility in Northern Ireland. The unionist-leaning News Letter claimed to have unearthed data "which appear[ed] to support" Hoey's comments, noting that according to the 2011 census, there were 2,474 legal professionals with a Catholic background practicing in Northern Ireland, compared with 1,665 from a Protestant background. The Newsletter was unable to find a similar breakdown for journalists.
Other interests
Hoey is known for her objection to the Labour Government's ban of fox hunting: a rare position among Labour MPs. On 22 July 2005, she was named the new chairman of the Countryside Alliance (a British group known for its pro-hunting stance). She said the appointment was a "great honour and a great challenge". The Alliance's headquarters are in Hoey's Vauxhall constituency. This appointment was controversial in the Labour Party as the Countryside Alliance was seen to be behind a campaign to unseat Labour MPs at the 2005 election. Hoey stepped down in 2015 saying "I am sad to be resigning after more than nine years as chairman of the Countryside Alliance. The organisation has achieved much in that time, but I will always be most proud that having joined when hunting faced such uncertainty, I leave with new generations queuing up to join the hunting field."
Hoey is patron of Roots & Shoots, a vocational training centre for young people in Lambeth.
Hoey has been a trustee of the Outward Bound charity since October 2002.
A vice-president of the Great Britain Wheelchair Basketball Association, Hoey is a supporter of the women's national team and the work of the charity.
In December 2018 she became patron of the Professional Paralegal Register.
In October 2013, Hoey was fined £240 for driving through a red light having previously criticised cyclists as "Lycra louts that run red lights". Hoey wants all cyclists to pay tax and be registered so they have a registration number:
Government and parliamentary positions
Member of Parliament for Vauxhall (1989–2019)
Opposition Spokesperson, Citizen's Charter and Women (1992–1993)
Parliamentary Private Secretary to Frank Field as Minister of State for Welfare Reform, Department of Social Security (1997–1998)
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home Office (1998–1999)
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for, Department of Culture, Media and Sport (Minister for Sport) (1999–2001)
Chair of the Northern Ireland Affairs Select Committee (2019)
Member of the House of Lords (2020–present)
Prime Ministerial Trade Envoy to Ghana (2021–present)
Additionally, Hoey was a member of several select committees during her time as a Member of Parliament, including: the European Scrutiny Committee, the Northern Ireland Affairs Committee, the Public Administration Committee, the Social Security Committee and the Science and Technology Committee.
In popular culture
Hoey's role on the Public Administration and Constitutional Affairs Select Committee was dramatised in the 2017 verbatim musical Committee: (A New Musical), which retold the downfall of the charity Kids Company and which was first performed at the Donmar Warehouse. Hoey was portrayed by actor Rosemary Ashe.
References
External links
Kate Hoey MP official constituency website''
Lambeth Labour Party
London Northern Ireland Supporters Club
Sunday Times Magazine profile, 8 August 1993
Hoey becomes Countryside Alliance Chairman, 22 July 2005
|- style="text-align: center;"
1946 births
21st-century British women politicians
Living people
Alumni of Ulster University
British Eurosceptics
Life peeresses created by Elizabeth II
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
International Marxist Group members
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
People educated at the Belfast Royal Academy
People from Newtownabbey
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
UK MPs who were granted peerages
Politicians from County Antrim
|
416927
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WGVX
|
WGVX
|
WGVX (105.1 MHz), WLUP (105.3 MHz) and WWWM-FM (105.7 MHz) are three separate radio stations that make up a trimulcast serving the Minneapolis-St. Paul radio market. The three stations are owned by Cumulus Media, along with sister stations KQRS-FM and KXXR. The three stations broadcast an adult contemporary radio format, with the moniker "Love 105."
The studios and offices are in Southeast Minneapolis in the Como district. WGVX's transmitter is located southeast of Apple Valley, WLUP's transmitter is located in Cambridge, and WWWM-FM's transmitter is located atop the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis.
History
Three signals, one station
Prior to their unification as REV105, the three stations were known by other names.
Today's WGVX was first licensed as KZPZ on November 15, 1990. It was officially signed on the air in late 1992 as WTCX by J. Tom Lijewski, who had previously worked at other Twin Cities stations. The station aired a Hot AC format targeting the south metro area of the Twin Cities. This was the initial FM station later purchased by Cargill Communications in 1993 to form REV105 a year later, when the call letters were changed to KREV.
WLUP is the oldest of the three stations, having signed on the air June 21, 1973 on 105.5 as KABG, with a Middle of the Road format. The call letters were changed to KXLV in 1983, and in 1991, the station increased its power, which necessitated a move to 105.3. On December 13, 1991, it became the latest of the many frequencies to use the WLOL call letters, after WLOL-FM was purchased by Minnesota Public Radio and the KSJN call letters were moved from 91.1 to 99.5 earlier that year. This longtime AC station became the northern signal of REV105, with the call letters changed to WREV in 1994.
WWWM-FM was first licensed as KOUO on March 26, 1992 to Jack Moore (creator/owner of the former Twin Cities stations WAYL (93.7 FM) and KTWN (107.9 FM)). It signed on as KCFE on March 11, 1993, airing a smooth jazz/adult album alternative format (which resembled the original format of Cities 97 from the 1980s) as "Cafe 105.7". It was modeled largely on Moore's KTWN, from the late 1970s to early 80s. The station carried Don Imus's syndicated morning show for a short time. In October 1996, KCFE was sold to Cargill and briefly became REV105's third transmitter, prior to all three stations being sold to ABC Radio the following March.
REV105
REV105, "Revolution Radio," was owned by Cargill Communications, headed by Jim and Susan Cargill, heirs to the massive Cargill company fortune. It broadcast under the call signs KREV, WREV, and later KCFE on three different frequencies (105.1, 105.3 and 105.7). REV105 played a fairly wide variety of music, mostly alternative rock, and put a lot of time into promoting music from local performers. Minnesota has a very active music community, and a number of diverse artists have received national attention (see Music of Minnesota). Area high school students also contributed to some of the programming put on the air, such as the weekly "Rock 'n' Roll Homeroom".
The station's genesis came out of another station. From 1990 to 1992, KJJO (KJ104) was an adventurous modern rock station, and gained a devoted (if small) listening audience. The station switched to country music in 1992, and many held out hope that KJ104's format would resurface soon. Two former KJ104 staffers, Brian Turner and Kevin Cole, actively sought out stations to pick up the format. On several occasions, they were turned down by previous owners of both WTCX and KCFE.
Finally, with financial backing from the Cargills, Turner and Cole found that the owner of WTCX was ready to sell. In November 1993, the Cargills purchased WTCX for $2.6 million, along with big band music-formatted KLBB for $1 million and small suburban country music outlet KBCW for $400,000. The plan was to turn the one FM and two AMs into a modern rock radio network, eventually simulcasting programming around the country. Plans eventually changed, and they decided to go with a more local approach (though REV105 did syndicate a show, Spin Radio, for a short time). Soon, the Cargills were able to purchase WLOL (located next to WTCX on the dial, but broadcasting from a location far to the north). Turner, Cole, and the Cargills were reluctant to change the big band music format on KLBB, since it did have a small, if dedicated, following, and decided not only to keep the format, but to simulcast it on their other AM signal, 1470 (105.3's legendary call letters, WLOL, were shifted to 1470). The only other changes made to KLBB was to give it a "hipper" sound, incorporating more lounge music and fresher advertising and imaging. Hence, the foundation of Rev 105 was set, with KREV and WREV soon to come.
The group's intended programming plans were public knowledge at the time and highly publicized. ABC Radio already owned classic rock KQRS-FM and felt the time was right to lay its own claim to the rapidly rising alternative rock format. On February 4, 1994, ABC agreed to purchase KQRS' main rival, KRXX, from Entercom, and KQRS management immediately took control of the station. Within two days, the former 93X became the Twin Cities' newest modern rock station, "93.7 The Edge". In effect, ABC killed two birds with one stone by striking down a rival to KQRS, and warding off a potential new one. This did not change Turner's and Cole's plans at all, as they felt their station would be different enough to compete in the market. Pending Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval of Cargill's own station deals, WTCX officially went off the air February 7, 1994 (coincidentally, the first full day of The Edge's new format). WLOL followed on April 24. On May 1, REV105's eclectic new alternative rock format took to the air, with the first official song being "Crazy" by Patsy Cline.
REV105 was a unique station. It would not be an ordinary, consultant-programmed modern rock station like "The Edge". Rather, it took many elements from typical modern rock stations, added a heavy amount of new, obscure and local artists, and mixed in other musical styles such as industrial, punk, classic rock, hip-hop, world, dance and techno. According to Cole, when REV started, it would play the newly popular Green Day next to old Who songs, comparing and contrasting two different instances of similar music. In addition, there were a large number of specialty shows, featuring other musical styles like "old school" funk, imports, club mixes and ambient music. REV105 was instrumental in introducing newer artists to the airwaves, such as Ani DiFranco and Soul Coughing. As music critic Jim DeRogatis said, "The brilliance of REV105 was that I would hear a set that would go Bob Marley to Nine Inch Nails to Black Sabbath. And that's how real people listen to music."
The new "Revolution Radio" was a mild success, even with the high-powered competition from "The Edge". In the first full ratings book, it earned a 1.5 overall Arbitron rating, and did even better in the 18-34 age breakdown. Ratings were hampered throughout the station's history by signal reception issues, the eclectic nature of its format, and its limited budget. Signal issues were perhaps its biggest issue, as Rev's ratings were similar or higher than any of its successor stations. The limited transmitter reach of 105.1 and 105.3 were helped when Cargill purchased another neighboring signal, KCFE, in October 1996, which improved its reach in the southwest suburbs and particularly in Minneapolis, where a large number of its listeners resided.
Switch to X105
REV105 enjoyed an almost three-year run, but the end came at Noon on March 11, 1997, when the station was purchased by competitor Disney/Capital Cities/ABC, which already owned two powerful 100,000 watt stations in the Twin Cities, KQRS-FM and KEGE ("The Edge"). By 1:15 that afternoon, most of the air staff was fired, and after playing "Hello, Goodbye" by The Beatles, the station was reborn with a hard rock format as "X105", with the three stations receiving the call letters KXXP, KXXU and KXXR. The first song on "X105" was "Rock You Like a Hurricane" by The Scorpions.
This situation became a focal point for critics of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Fans of REV105 banded together to protest the loss of REV105, and out of this, the group Americans for Radio Diversity was formed. The purchase received fairly widespread news coverage, with articles appearing in Billboard magazine and Rolling Stone, where Soul Coughing frontman Mike Doughty stated, "Having officially walked through every radio station in North America, I can honestly say REV was the only one that had a cause that was righteous." Of course, Doughty had a somewhat personal stake in the station, as it is partially credited for making him very popular in the state. (Some have said that one in eight Soul Coughing albums were sold in Minnesota.)
Many feel that the motivation to purchase REV105 was to eliminate the competition, as ABC obtained the rights to all intellectual property of REV105, including its logos and website, and Cargill reportedly signed a non-compete agreement. The purchase was seen in some ways as a defensive maneuver against other growing radio conglomerates such as Chancellor Broadcasting, which then owned seven radio stations in the Twin Cities (eventually purchased by radio giant Clear Channel Communications in 1999). Of course, Cargill could not compete as a stand-alone owner in this environment and saw this as a perfect opportunity to sell the station. According to Cargill, "As we saw all this consolidation in the market, we just didn't feel we were going to be able to survive."
REV105 was in many ways a successor to the Twin Cities area's original "alternative" station, KJJO (now KZJK), which changed its format in 1992. Kevin Cole, the former program director at REV105, and a veteran of the old KJ104, later resurfaced at KEXP in Seattle. General Manager Brian Turner eventually went back to KTCZ, where he worked in the 1980s, to host its morning show, and later worked at upstart alternative rock station KTWN. In 2005, a few former REV hosts reunited at Minnesota Public Radio for the launch of KCMP, "89.3 The Current", which airs an adult album alternative format loosely inspired by REV105.
Zone 105
Soon after the birth of X105, a new hard rock station arrived in the Twin Cities when WBOB dropped country music and switched to a hard rock format with Howard Stern's syndicated morning show. ABC has worked to fight off any potential competitors to its main highly rated station, KQRS-FM. At 2 p.m. on September 18, 1997, KEGE dropped its alternative format and began simulcasting on the 105s as part of a format swap (with KEGE becoming 93X once again). On September 24, after 6 days of simulcasting, the 105s became Zone 105, with an adult alternative format. After a few months, 93X took the KXXR call sign from the former X105, and the three Zone 105 stations became KZNR, KZNT and KZNZ.
After the station became Zone 105, a few of the old REV hosts were brought back. Brian Oake, who had gone over to The Edge, and Mary Lucia hosted the morning show. Lucia also hosted a weekly local music program named Popular Creeps from the local Bryant-Lake Bowl. Creeps won multiple awards for programming quality.
Over time, Zone 105 went in more of a classic alternative direction, but toward the end of its run, leaned more towards alternative rock. None of the post-REV 105 incarnations of these frequencies were true alternative rock, as the frequency had to keep a safe distance between itself and sister station 93X. For this reason, any song with a rock "edge" was discarded by the 105s during this time.
V105
On March 8, 2001, after so-so ratings as an alternative rock station, Zone 105 became V105, an automated rhythmic oldies outlet. Call letters were changed to WGVX, WGVY and WGVZ. V105 lasted less than a year before reverting to a revised version of the old "Zone" format as "Drive 105" on January 17, 2002.
Drive 105
Drive 105's format was an adult-oriented version of the alternative rock format, and similar in many ways to the previous Zone 105. However, the fact that it was forced to distance themselves from sister station 93X by avoiding harder-edged rock meant that it played a lot of music that has more in common with the AAA format. For the better part of the last several years, the station frequently promoted "This station is not owned or operated by Clear Channel Communications," though the station was actually part of another huge media conglomerate, The Walt Disney Company.
Drive 105, along with sister stations KQRS-FM and KXXR (93X), were often referred to as Disney's "Wall Of Rock". Both 93X and the 105's are programmed with formats designed to fight competition off of Disney's flagship in the market, top-rated KQRS. When WRQC became a rival to KQRS in 1997, the current KXXR switched to a similar format, despite a profitable alternative format already on that frequency. It is widely known in the local market that Disney would go to great lengths to protect its "cash cow".
In fact, Drive 105 was in large part created to ward off competition from KTCZ ("Cities 97"). After the fall of Zone 105 and in the months before Drive 105 was created, Cities 97 made significant gains in the 25-54 age group. Disney saw this as a threat to KQRS and created Drive 105 originally to jab at Cities 97's ratings. To keep a distance from sister 93X, the station targeted an older age group than most alternative stations. Like predecessor Zone 105, Drive would avoid any song that featured a significant amount of guitar distortion. When the station first began in January 2002, it aired messages such as, "Remember when Cities 97 and KS95 sounded different? We do, that's why we're true to the music." This was a stab at Cities 97's old slogan, "true to the music," and a criticism of a recent tweak in the direction of pop-sounding KS95. During its first two years on the air, Drive 105 frequently made cracks at Cities 97. However, this came to an end after criticism from the public and as the station began to take on an identity of its own.
Love 105
Ratings-wise, Drive 105, like all of the previous formats, were hampered by the limited signal reach in the Twin Cities area and experienced only moderate success, usually reaching a 1% or 2% overall ratings share. Just before 3:00 p.m. on May 7, 2007, the plug was pulled on the three signals' longest-running incarnation to that point. Drive 105 played its last song, "Say It Ain't So" by Weezer, prior to temporarily switching over to a simulcast of sister station KXXR, in anticipation of a format flip. The flip to the Soft AC/Oldies format with the moniker "Love 105" happened at 5:30 the next morning, with Sonny and Cher's "I Got You Babe" as the new format's debut song.
"Love 105" featured mellow songs by artists including Chicago, Neil Diamond, Barbra Streisand, Sade, Bread, and many others. The playlist also initially included occasional adult standards, from the likes of Frank Sinatra and Bobby Darin, along with some more traditional oldies.
Shortly after the relaunch as Love 105, the station, along with ABC's other non-Radio Disney and ESPN Radio stations, were acquired by Citadel Broadcasting. Citadel merged with Cumulus Media on September 16, 2011.
Citadel Broadcasting would move WGVZ's transmitter from Eden Prairie to the IDS tower in downtown Minneapolis. This significantly improved reception of the station in Minneapolis and western Saint Paul despite the drop in effective radiated power from 5,800 watts to 950 watts.
On April 13, 2012, the station transitioned to mainstream adult contemporary, dropping all pre-1970s oldies, and adding current adult contemporary fare to fill the void left by WLTE, when that station flipped to country music the previous December. In November 2012, Love 105 switched to all-Christmas music during the holidays, again filling a void created by the departure of WLTE.
On November 26, WGVY's call letters were changed to WNSH; the call signs of WGVX and WGVZ remained unchanged. The call sign change was temporary, done to "park" the call letters so that they could later be used on FM 94.7 in New York City, which would use the calls to reflect its "Nash FM" country music franchise. On January 29, 2013, the WNSH call letters moved to New York, with the WRXP call letters parked on 105.3.
105 The Ticket
At 8 a.m. on March 30, 2013, a day after inadvertently releasing a new logo and identity ("Radio 105") online (and after playing "Some Nights" by Fun and "Dreams" by Fleetwood Mac), the three stations dropped the AC format and began stunting with a broad range of music with no liners except for legally-mandated top-of-the-hour IDs. After stunting all weekend, on April 1 at 11 a.m., after playing "Gangnam Style" by Psy, the three stations dropped music altogether and became a CBS Sports Radio Network affiliate as "105 The Ticket".
The station's programming was mainly made up of nationally syndicated sports talk shows from CBS Sports Radio, including The D.A. Show, TBD in the AM, The John Feinstein Show, The Jim Rome Show, The Doug Gottlieb Show, Mojo, and Ferrall on the Bench.
On September 9, 2013, Mike Morris and Bob Sansevere began hosting Mike & Bob Afternoons that aired from 3:00 to 6:00 pm. Morris is a former Minnesota Viking long snapper, while Sansevere is a longtime St. Paul Pioneer Press columnist and former contributor to the KQ92 Morning Show.
On June 9, 2015, 105.1/105.3/105.7 dropped Sansevere, Morris, and Holsen in favor of running CBS Sports Radio around the clock. Program Director Scott Jameson told the St. Paul Pioneer Press that the stations would "provide an alternative to the other two local (sports) stations" and "focus on the network product and provide it to people who prefer that." The stations retained local high school sports coverage on weekends. The change came as the stations registered just a 0.3 share in the previous three Nielsen Audio PPM ratings, well behind iHeartMedia's KFXN-FM and Hubbard's KSTP.
The Ticket, in an oversaturated sports talk market, did not live up to expectations, garnering less than 1.0 overall in the Arbitron ratings (with the final rating being a meager 0.1 in the July 2015 ratings).
105 The Vibe
On August 14, 2015, at 3 p.m., the 105 frequencies flipped to classic hip hop as “105 The Vibe”, which competed with K273BH/KTCZ-FM HD3 in the format. At the time of the launch, the Twin Cities market did not have a single commercial Urban, Urban AC or Rhythmic CHR formatted station. The only station that came close to the Urban/Rhythmic format was non-commercial KMOJ. In January 2016, KNOF flipped to KZGO with a current-based Rhythmic CHR format.
On June 22, 2016, WGVZ changed its call letters, no longer matching its simulcast partners. It is now WWWM-FM, part of a warehousing move where a co-owned station in Toledo, Ohio, changed its call letters to WQQO from WWWM-FM.
In June 2018, Cumulus Media applied to move the WLUP call letters to the WRXP signal in Minneapolis. The previous WLUP in New York state became WXMS upon acceptance of the application by the FCC. The change took effect on June 12, 2018. Cumulus had acquired the WLUP call sign earlier that year as part of its purchase of Chicago radio station WKQX from Merlin Media (whose CEO, Randy Michaels, owns the New York state station through Radioactive, LLC); the WLUP-FM call letters were formerly used on another Chicago station, WCKL, prior to its 2018 sale from Merlin Media to the Educational Media Foundation.
The ratings, however, still remained low for the trimulcast, with just an 0.8 in their last books under the format, the October 2018 Nielsen Audio ratings.
Love 105 returns
On November 8, 2018, at Midnight, the 105 frequencies flipped to Christmas music, reviving the "Love 105" branding. The relaunch was mainly because of the overall success the trimulcast had experienced during its first run under the "Love 105" branding and Oldies/AC format. On December 28, at Midnight, the stations officially returned to the Soft AC/Oldies format they first pioneered in 2007 by playing "Yesterday Once More" by The Carpenters and "Love Will Keep Us Together" by Captain & Tennille.
With the flip, the three stations became the Twin Cities affiliate of the syndicated Bob & Sheri in mornings and John Tesh's "Intelligence For Your Life" in evenings. Other on-air personalities include midday host Amy Pontes, who goes by Amy Karlson, from sister station WWLI in Providence, Rhode Island, and the syndicated "Delilah" in evenings (who was added to the stations in May 2023, with Tesh's program being moved to afternoons as a result).
On March 6, 2023, (now former) WGVX program director and afternoon host Jay Philpott departed the station as his position was eliminated. On March 16, 2023, WGVX's Soft AC format was very abruptly modernized. The remainder of 1960s titles still in rotation, and many 1970s and 1980s titles that had been in rotation since the stations' launch were dropped from rotation, and many more titles from the 1990s to now were added into rotation.
HD Radio
In July 2019, a transmitter upgrade gave WLUP the ability to broadcast in HD Radio. WGVX and WWWM-FM do not transmit HD Radio signals. WLUP turned off its HD1 signal in early 2022. On January 27, 2023, WGVX/WLUP/WWWM began simulcasting on sister station KXXR's HD2 sub-channel, displacing the Top 40 format known as "The Machine".
References
Reece, Doug (April 4, 1998). KREV Fans Rally for Radio Diversity. Billboard. (archived at Americans for Radio Diversity)
Evolution Radio "City Pages"
Hwang, Francis (April 3, 1997). Radio-Free Minneapolis. The Minnesota Daily. (archived at Beatworld.com)
Who Killed Rock Radio?
REV 105, the Reader and Life on Main Street. The Minnesota Daily.
The music stops for alternative station REV 105 The Minnesota Daily.
Haugen, Dan. "The End of Radio As We Know It." Star Tribune.
Rand, Michael. Radio Killed the Radio Star.
Northpine.com News Archive: March 1997
Northpine.com News Archive
Van Alstyne, Rob (January 27, 2005). Left of the Dial. Pulse of the Twin Cities.
Riemenschneider, Chris (May 7, 2007) Drive 105 looking for Love Star Tribune
FCC Database
External links
Official website
Americans for Radio Diversity
89.3 KCMP "The Current" (to hear former Rev105 DJs Mary Lucia, and Steve Nelson)
A tribute and memorial to REV 105
A collection of REV105 airchecks, including first and last moments, as well as some promos that poke fun of The Edge.
REV 105 audio clip
REV105 website by Doc Ozone & Gonzo that was ready to go one week before it went off the air
Kevin Cole's page on KEXP
radiotapes.com Featuring Minneapolis/St. Paul radio airchecks including Zone 105.
Radio stations in Minnesota
Soft adult contemporary radio stations in the United States
Cumulus Media radio stations
Radio stations established in 1992
Former subsidiaries of The Walt Disney Company
|
416941
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich%20Wolfgang%20Korngold
|
Erich Wolfgang Korngold
|
Erich Wolfgang Korngold (May 29, 1897 – November 29, 1957) was a Moravian-born American composer and conductor. A child prodigy, he became one of the most important and influential composers in Hollywood history. He was a noted pianist and composer of classical music, along with music for Hollywood films, and the first composer of international stature to write Hollywood scores.
When he was 11, his ballet Der Schneemann (The Snowman), became a sensation in Vienna, followed by his Second Piano Sonata, which he wrote at age 13, played throughout Europe by Artur Schnabel. His one-act operas Violanta and Der Ring des Polykrates were premiered in Munich in 1916, conducted by Bruno Walter. At 23, his opera Die tote Stadt (The Dead City) premiered in Hamburg and Cologne. In 1921 he conducted the Hamburg Opera. During the 1920s he re-orchestrated, re-arranged and nearly re-composed several operettas by Johann Strauss II. By 1931 he was a professor of music at the Vienna State Academy.
At the request of motion picture director Max Reinhardt, and due to the rise of the Nazi regime, Korngold moved to Hollywood in 1934 to write music scores for films. His first was Reinhardt's A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935). He subsequently wrote scores for such films as Captain Blood (1935), which helped boost the career of its starring newcomer, Errol Flynn. His score for Anthony Adverse (1936) won an Oscar and was followed two years later with another Oscar for The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938).
Overall, he wrote the score for 16 Hollywood films, receiving two more nominations. Along with Max Steiner and Alfred Newman, he is one of the founders of film music. Although his late classical Romantic compositions were no longer as popular when he died in 1957, his music underwent a resurgence of interest in the 1970s beginning with the release of the RCA Red Seal album The Sea Hawk: The Classic Film Scores of Erich Wolfgang Korngold (1972). This album, produced by his son George Korngold, was hugely popular and ignited interest in other film music of his and of other composers like Steiner and in his concert music, which often incorporated popular themes from his film scores (an example being the Violin Concerto in D, Op. 35, which incorporated his themes from four different motion picture scores and is a part of the standard repertoire).
Early years as prodigy
Erich Wolfgang Korngold was born to a Jewish family in Brünn, Austria-Hungary (present-day Brno, Czech Republic). Erich was the second son of eminent music critic (Leopold) Julius Korngold (1860–1945); his older brother, (1892–1965), also became a musician. A child prodigy living in Vienna, Erich could play four-hand piano arrangements alongside his father at age five. He was also able to reproduce any melody he heard on the piano, along with playing complete and elaborate chords. By age seven, he was writing original music.
Korngold played his cantata Gold for Gustav Mahler in 1909; Mahler called him a "musical genius" and recommended he study with composer Alexander von Zemlinsky. Richard Strauss also spoke highly of the youth, and along with Mahler told Korngold's father there was no benefit in having his son enroll in a music conservatory since his abilities were already years ahead of what he could learn there.
At age 11, he composed his ballet Der Schneemann (The Snowman), which became a sensation when performed at the Vienna Court Opera in 1910, including a command performance for Emperor Franz Josef. He continued composing with great success throughout his teens. At age 12, he composed a piano trio. His Piano Sonata No. 2 in E major, which followed, was played throughout Europe by Artur Schnabel. During these early years he also made live-recording player piano music rolls for the Hupfeld DEA and Phonola system and also the Aeolian Duo-Art system, which survive today and can be heard.
Korngold wrote his first orchestral score, the Schauspiel-Ouvertüre, when he was 14. His Sinfonietta appeared the following year, and his first two operas, Der Ring des Polykrates and Violanta, in 1914. In 1916, he wrote songs, chamber works, and incidental music, including to Much Ado About Nothing, which ran for some 80 performances in Vienna.
Composing career in Europe
Korngold was active in the theatre throughout Europe while in his 20s. After the success of his opera Die tote Stadt, which he conducted in many opera houses, he developed a passion for the music of Johann Strauss II and managed to exhume a number of lost scores. He orchestrated and staged them using new concepts. Both A Night in Venice and Cagliostro in Vienna are Korngold re-creations; these were the works that first drew the attention of Max Reinhardt to Korngold.
By this point Korngold had reached the zenith of his fame as a composer of opera and concert music. Composers such as Richard Strauss and Giacomo Puccini heaped praise upon him, and many famous conductors, soloists and singers added his works to their repertoires. He began collaborating with Reinhardt on many productions, including a collection of little-known Strauss pieces that they arranged, Waltzes From Vienna. It was retitled The Great Waltz and became the basis for a 1934 British film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and a film by the same name in the US, starring Luise Rainer. Korngold conducted staged versions in Los Angeles in 1949 and 1953.
He completed a Concerto for Piano Left Hand for pianist Paul Wittgenstein in 1923 and his fourth opera, Das Wunder der Heliane, four years later. He started arranging and conducting operettas by Johann Strauss II and others while teaching opera and composition at the Vienna Staatsakademie. Korngold was awarded the title professor honoris causa by the president of Austria.
Composer for Hollywood films
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935)
After Max Reinhardt's success in producing Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream for the stage, using incidental music by Felix Mendelssohn, he invited Korngold to Hollywood in 1934 to adapt Mendelssohn's score for his planned film version. Korngold would also enlarge and conduct the score.
The film, which was released in 1935, was a first for Warner Brothers studio in producing a film based on a 400-year-old work of literary art. The studio assigned almost every star or character actor under contract to take part in the film, with the filming taking over six months. The studio also allowed Korngold to devote more attention to the score than it had to any of its previous films; he could prerecord certain parts of the film for the benefit of actors, whom he then had act to the rhythm and tempo of the music. As a result of the score's elaborate tailoring, the film and Korngold's music left a strong impression on the film industry.
Korngold returned to Austria to finish Die Kathrin. He came back to Hollywood to score the film Give Us This Night, with lyricist Oscar Hammerstein II, a film which introduced mezzo-soprano Gladys Swarthout and the Polish-born tenor Jan Kiepura, who had starred in several Korngold operas in Europe.
Captain Blood (1935)
In 1935 Warners asked Korngold if he was interested in writing an original dramatic score for Captain Blood. He at first declined, feeling that a story about pirates was outside his range of interest. However, after watching the filming, with a dynamic new star, Errol Flynn, in a heroic role alongside Olivia de Havilland, who had her debut in A Midsummer Night's Dream, he changed his mind.
After he accepted, however, he learned that he needed to compose over an hour of symphonic music in only three weeks. The short time frame forced him to use bits of symphonic poems by Franz Liszt, and a couple of engaging cues were written by Korngold orchestrator Milan Roder. In the end, Korngold insisted he be credited only with musical adaptations, even though he scored nearly the entire film with original music.
Captain Blood became an immediate hit, with an Oscar nomination for the score. As Korngold's first fully symphonic film score, it marked a milestone in his career, as he became the first composer of international stature to sign a contract with a film studio. It also launched the career of Flynn and gave a major boost to that of de Havilland, who did another seven movies with Flynn. Korngold scored six more films starring Flynn. In addition, Captain Blood opened the way for other costumed romantic adventures, which hadn't been seen since the silent era.
Anthony Adverse (1936)
After scoring Anthony Adverse, another Warners picture, this one starring Fredric March and Olivia de Havilland, Korngold's career in Hollywood developed quickly. He finally became convinced that dramatic scoring went well with certain types of films. The film, which is set in mid-18th century Italy, the Alps, and France, received an expensive treatment from Warners, which pleased him greatly.
Korngold was awarded his first Academy Award for the Anthony Adverse score. In this film, the first half hour contains continuous scoring and proved to be a major step forward in the art of film scoring. Korngold conceived his film scores as "operas without singing."
The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938)
In 1938, Korngold was conducting opera in Austria when he was asked by Warner Brothers to return to Hollywood and compose a score for The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland. The film, based on a largely fictional English legend, is considered the finest of its kind, with a continuous series of romantic and adventurous sequences propelled by Korngold's dynamic score. Music historian Laurence E. MacDonald notes that there were many factors which made the film a success, including its cast, its Technicolor photography and fast-paced direction by Michael Curtiz, but "most of all, there is Korngold's glorious music." And film historian Rudy Behlmer describes Korngold's contribution to this and his other films:
Before Korngold began composing the score, Austria was invaded by Germany and annexed by the Nazis. His home in Vienna was confiscated by the Nazis. And because it meant that all Jews in Austria were now at risk, Korngold stayed in America until the end of World War II. He later said, "We thought of ourselves as Viennese; Hitler made us Jewish." Korngold noted that the opportunity to compose the score for Robin Hood saved his life.
It also gave him his second Academy Award for Best Original Score and established the symphonic style that would later be used in action films during Hollywood's Golden Age. Modern day epics such as the Star Wars and Indiana Jones trilogies similarly included original symphonic scores. Composer John Williams has cited Korngold as his inspiration in scoring the Star Wars series.
Juarez (1939)
Korngold was interested in writing a score for Juarez, as it involved historical figures from Mexico and Austria. It dealt with the Mexican politician Benito Juarez but also involved the story of Archduke Maximilian von Habsburg and his wife, Carlotta. Korngold was moved by the true-life story of how Louis Napoleon, seeing America engulfed by Civil War, took advantage of that fact and attempted, in 1864, to control Mexico. He appointed Maximilian as its emperor.
After the United States demanded that France divest itself of its interests in Mexico, the Austrian aristocrat was left to his fate, and he was executed by the Juarez government. The dramatic accent of the film leaned in favor of Maximilian and Carlotta, however, aided greatly by Korngold's poignant themes for them.
Korngold researched the music popular in Mexico at the time and realized it was not Mexican but "unmistakenly Viennese." He composed 3,000 bars of music for the score, at times emulating the rhythms of Frédéric Chopin and Franz Schubert, and the second theme of the first movement of his Violin Concerto was drawn from his work for the film. Maximilian and Carlotta loved the Mexican song "La Paloma," and Korngold used it effectively during the score.
The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939)
Korngold was again nominated for his score of The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex. The score is essentially operatic, with lush background music throughout, a rousing march theme for Essex (Errol Flynn), and one of his "most noble and heroic melodies" for
the theme "Elizabeth, The Queen", Elizabeth (Bette Davis) An hour of the hour and half long film is supported by the score, composed of rich dramatic and romantic themes.
He chose not to use any period music or to approximate 16th-century musical sounds, explaining:
The score concentrates on the regal Main Title, the triumphal entry march of Essex into London, the Queen's theme, and the recapitulation of that theme in the End Titles.
The Sea Hawk (1940)
The Sea Hawk was Korngold's last score for swashbuckler films, all of which had starred Errol Flynn. It is widely regarded as one of Korngold's best. The film ran two hours and six minutes and was one of the longest films he ever worked on. It includes symphonic score in all but twenty minutes. It was also his tenth original score in less than six years.
Of the final duel between Thorpe (Errol Flynn) and Wolfingham (Henry Daniell), MacDonald states that "Korngold's breathlessly fast-paced music helps to make this one of the most exciting swordfights in cinema history", while Behlmer describes the duel scene as a "tour de force of rhythmic energy and exactitude."
The Sea Wolf (1941)
In scoring The Sea Wolf, based on a novel by Jack London, Korngold's film career went in a different direction. In this film, the score reflects an evil atmosphere, dark images, and the tense emotions of its crew during an unfortunate voyage. Edward G. Robinson, as Wolf Larsen, plays a tormented and brutal captain of a sealing schooner, which gets crippled by a rival ship.
To support the complex atmosphere, with its scenes of the fog-shrouded voyage, Korngold created a score that was understated, which was very different from his swashbucklers. He often used sharp brass chords with swirling configurations, along with a love theme voiced by a harmonica. Music historian Thomas S. Hischak notes some aspects of the score:
Kings Row (1942)
The score for Kings Row (1942) has been compared to those of films like Gone with the Wind and Anthony Adverse, which also had powerful theme motifs. Those stories were based on recent best-selling novels, as was Kings Row. In this score, Korngold moved even further away from his previous romantic and swashbuckler styles. This was Korngold's most Gothic film score, and a film which film historian Tony Thomas has called a "true American classic." He adds that the score "might well have been the basis for an opera or a grandly scaled symphonic poem."
The story is set in a Midwestern US town (Kings Row), where the characters portray a wide range of psychological emotions, from loves and hates, bitterness, tenderness and torment. Combined with Korngold's score, which some claim is among his finest, the film drew an unusually high level of public interest and acclaim. Its costar, future President Ronald Reagan, considered his performance the best of his career.
The score contains a main theme which is varied throughout the film, depending on the how each scene develops. MacDonald states that the main theme is a "majestic and noble melody that immediately grabs the viewer's attention" when the film begins. By using this motif, the theme connects the entire score, which often left a strong impact on viewers.
British composer Harold Truscott, for example, who saw the film when he was 28, wrote to Korngold admiring the score. He also saw the film more than thirty times just to hear the score, sometimes with his eyes completely closed. Like Gone with the Wind, Kings Row concludes with the main theme hymned operatically by an unseen chorus.
Later scores: 1943–1956
Kings Row was followed by seven film scores in four years - The Constant Nymph (1943), Between Two Worlds (1944), Devotion (1946), Of Human Bondage (1946), Deception (1946), Escape Me Never (1947), and Adventures of Don Juan (1948) (unused score).
World War II prevented Korngold from returning to Europe. He became an American citizen in 1943 and remained in the US after retiring from film composing in 1947.
He spent the last ten years of his life composing concert pieces, including a Violin Concerto, a Symphonic Serenade for strings, a Cello Concerto and a Symphony. The Violin Concerto has become particularly successful, with many recordings and performances following Jascha Heifetz's initial version.
He returned to film scoring one more time, shortly before his death, for Magic Fire (1955), a film biography of the composer Richard Wagner. He was asked to adapt the music of Wagner for most of the film, but Korngold also wrote some original music for it. He is seen during the final scenes in an unbilled cameo as the conductor Hans Richter.
At the time of his death at age 60, he was working on his sixth opera.
Composing techniques and style
Korngold approached his scoring theatrically, and could only write by regarding film scenarios as opera libretti. This made him prefer to write leitmotifs for each of the main characters in a film, and vary them based on the emotional level of a scene. He felt that by having "musical identifications for characters, places, and even abstract ideas in a film," it would help keep characters straight in the minds of the audience. Music motifs were commonly used by other film composers during that period, including Max Steiner.
During Captain Blood, for instance, motifs were created for phases of Captain Blood's career as a pirate, using different instrumentation. Variations of some type of brass instrument were heard, such as when the ship readies for voyage, or to lend solemnity to someone's death. A full reiteration of the motif is reserved for a climactic battle scene. The impact of the score for Captain Blood led Gene Roddenberry, creator of Star Trek, to tell his composer to use that film as an archetypal example of the kind of sound he wanted for his series. According to Karlin and Wright in On the Track:
Korngold composed in the evenings while at the piano, as he watched scenes from the film that an assigned projectionist would run for him. He would run scenes repeatedly as he improvised the music. He would collect his ideas and concepts and later commit them to paper.
During his years scoring films, he still composed some non-film works, such as Passover Psalm, Opus 30, for chorus and orchestra (1941); Prayer, Opus 32 for chorus and orchestra (1942); and Tomorrow When You Have Gone, Opus 33, for chorus and orchestra (1942). In 1946 he composed an opera, Die stumme Serenade, which he recorded privately hoping to attract interest in making a full production. On the never-released private recording, he can be heard humming as he played the piano.
In the studio during the day, he worked with orchestrators, such as Hugo Friedhofer, with whom he would make elaborate sketches marking out exactly what he wanted. He once told Friedhofer that he felt Tosca was the best film score ever written. With the orchestra in session, Korngold would conduct.
Korngold biographer Brendan G. Carrol describes Korngold's style and methods:
Personal life
In 1924, Korngold married Luzi von Sonnenthal (1900–1962), granddaughter of actor Adolf von Sonnenthal, an actress, writer, singer and pianist, with whom he had fallen in love at age 19. They had two children, Ern[e]st Werner and Georg[e] Wolfgang. Luzi's biography of her husband was published in 1967.
In 1943, Korngold became a naturalized citizen of the United States. The year 1945 became an important turning point in his life. His father, who had never been entirely comfortable in Los Angeles, and who had never approved of Erich's decision to work exclusively on film composition, died after a lengthy illness.
Around the same time, World War II in Europe drew to an end. At this stage in his career Korngold had grown increasingly disillusioned with Hollywood and with the kinds of pictures he was being given, and he was eager to return to writing music for the concert hall and the stage.
Death
Korngold lived at 9936 Toluca Lake Avenue, Toluca Lake, Los Angeles, a few blocks from Warner Brothers Studio, where he worked. In October 1956 he suffered a severe stroke and although he partially recovered, he "endured many physical and emotional difficulties" before his death on November 29, at the age of 60, the following year. He was survived by his wife, Luzi (Luise), two sons, George Korngold and Ernst Korngold; his mother, Josephine Korngold; a brother, Hans Robert Korngold, and three grandchildren. He was interred at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.
Legacy
Despite his achievements, Korngold for years attracted almost little positive critical attention. In 1972, RCA Victor released an LP titled The Sea Hawk: The Classic Film Scores of Erich Wolfgang Korngold, featuring excerpts performed by the National Philharmonic Orchestra. This was followed by recordings of Korngold's operas and concert works, which led to performances of his Symphony in F-sharp major and concertos, as well as other compositions. Following the success of the Korngold album, the Classic Film Scores series was extended through thirteen additional discs, including a second Korngold collection. These records have been credited with inspiring the revival of symphonic music in films, most prominently in the Star Wars series, which features prominent allusions to Korngold's style.
The American Film Institute ranked Korngold's score for The Adventures of Robin Hood as number 11 on their list of the greatest film scores. His scores for the following films were also nominated for the list:The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939)The Sea Hawk (1940)Kings Row (1942)Deception (1946)
Further recognition came in the 1990s; two full-scale biographies of him appeared almost simultaneously. One is Jessica Duchen, Erich Wolfgang Korngold. The other is Brendan G. Carroll, Erich Korngold: The Last Prodigy Carroll is President of the International Korngold Society. Carroll released excerpts of acetates with Korngold conducting the Warner Bros. studio orchestra in music from his film scores, some possibly taken from KFWB radio broadcasts.
In 2019 the Bard Music Festival (at Bard College, New York) celebrated Korngold with an extensive series of performances and lectures and the publication of Korngold and His World, edited by Daniel Goldmark and Kevin C. Karnes. In addition, Bard sponsored the first US production of Das Wunder der Heliane—more than ninety years after its debut.
In 2008 Gary Noland wrote a string trio Korngoldaroonie in tribute to Korngold.
Selected recordings
In 1973, Warner Brothers released special LPs featuring excerpts from the original soundtracks of films scored by Korngold, as well as a rare recording of Korngold playing the main theme from Kings Row on the piano.
"Korngold: The Sea Hawk / The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex / Captain Blood / The Prince and the Pauper", conductor André Previn, Deutsche Grammophon"Compilation: Previn conducts Korngold", MusicWeb-International
KFWB radio broadcast from 1938 with Korngold conducting the studio orchestra in excerpts from The Adventures of Robin Hood, narrated by actor Basil Rathbone, was released on LP.
In 1975 Die tote Stadt was revived to capacity houses in New York.
There have also been a number of new digital recordings of Korngold's film scores, as well as some of his concert works:
Violin concerto and his symphony in 2013, which was given its first Proms performance, at the Royal Albert Hall in London.
RCA Victor was the first to record a complete Korngold opera (in stereo), in 1975: Die tote Stadt, conducted by Erich Leinsdorf in Germany.
In 1980, CBS Masterworks recorded the opera Violanta under the baton of Marek Janowski; this recording has been re-released by Sony Classical in 2009.
In 1993, Decca released a recording of Das Wunder der Heliane.
Korngold's two remaining operas, Der Ring des Polykrates and Die Kathrin have both been recorded (in 1996 and 1998 respectively) by the German record label CPO.
American conductor-pianist Alexander Frey has recorded Korngold's complete original piano works.
In 2001, ArtHaus Musik released on DVD (UPC 807280036398) a documentary titled Erich Wolfgang Korngold – The Adventures of a Wunderkind (also Between Two Worlds), directed by Barrie Gavin, in the Composers of Our Time series.
The Korngold Violin Concerto was recorded in 2006 by Bramwell Tovey and the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra, with James Ehnes as violinist, on a Grammy Award-winning album that included Concertos by Walton and Barber.
Double bass soloist Joel Quarrington recorded a transcription of the "Garden Scene" from Korngold's incidental music to Much Ado About Nothing, Op. 11 on his 2008 CD, also entitled "Garden Scene". Quarrington won a Juno Award for the album.
In 2009, Korngold's Violin Concerto was released on the Naxos Records label, along with Overture to a Drama, Op. 4, and the concert suite from Much Ado About Nothing, performed by the Orquesta Sinfonica de Mineria and violinist Philippe Quint.
In 2013, the Adamas Quartett recorded String Quartet No. 2, Op. 26 (Gramola 2013), awarded among others Diapason découverte" and "".
In 2022, Naxos released Korngold's complete incidental music, which consists of music written for a 1920 Vienna production of Much Ado About Nothing, and for Hans Müller-Einigen's play Der Vampyr, oder Die Gejagten (The Vampire, or the Hunted).
Selected list of works
Piano Sonata No. 1 in D minor with concluding passacaglia (composed 1908; first performed 1908/09)
Piano Trio in D major, Op. 1 (composed and first performed 1910)
Piano Sonata No. 2 in E major, Op. 2, in four movements (composed 1910; first performed 1911)Schauspiel-Ouvertüre (Overture to a Play), Op. 4 (Composed and first performed 1911)
Sinfonietta, Op. 5 (Composed 1912, orchestrated and first performed 1913)
Violin Sonata in G major, Op. 6 (composed 1912; first performed 1916)Der Ring des Polykrates, Op. 7 (opera) (1916)Violanta, Op. 8 (opera) (1916)Einfache Lieder, Op. 9 (1911–16)
String Sextet in D major, Op. 10 (1914–16; first performed 1917)Much Ado About Nothing, Op. 11 (Incidental music to the play by Shakespeare, composed 1918–1919, first performed 1920)Die tote Stadt, Op. 12 (opera) (1920)Sursum Corda, Op. 13 (symphonic overture) (Composed 1919, first performed 1920)
Quintet for two violins, viola, cello and piano in E major, Op. 15 (composed 1920–21; first performed 1923)
String Quartet No. 1 in A major, Op. 16 (composed 1923; first performed 1924)
Piano Concerto in C for the left hand alone, Op. 17, (Composed 1923, first performed 1924)Das Wunder der Heliane, Op. 20 (opera) (1927)
Suite for 2 violins, cello and piano left hand, Op. 23, composed 1930; first performed 1930
Piano Sonata No. 3 in C major, Op. 25 (composed 1931; first performed 1932)
String Quartet No. 2 in E major, Op. 26 (composed 1933; first performed 1934)Die Kathrin, Op. 28 (opera) (1939)Tomorrow, Op. 33, tone poem for mezzo-soprano, women's choir and orchestra, for the movie The Constant Nymph. (First performed in concert 1944)
String Quartet No. 3 in D major, Op. 34 (composed 1945; first performed 1949)
Violin Concerto, Op. 35 (Composed 1945, first performed 1947)Die stumme Serenade, Op. 36 (musical comedy) (1954)
Cello Concerto in C major, Op. 37 (Composed 1950, expanded from a work written for the 1946 film Deception)
Symphonic Serenade in B major for string orchestra, Op. 39 (Composed 1947–48, first performed 1950)
Symphony in F major, Op. 40 (Composed 1947–52, first performed 1954)
Theme and Variations, Op. 42 (composed and first performed 1953)
See also
The Holocaust in Austria
Vugesta
References
Bibliography
The Last Prodigy: A Biography of Erich Wolfgang Korngold by Brendan G. Carroll; (Hardcover, October 1997)
Das Letzte Wunderkind by Brendan G Carroll. Boehlau-Verlag, Vienna; (Hardcover, June 2008); revised edition of 1997 biography in German translation
Erich Wolfgang Korngold (20th-Century Composers) by Jessica Duchen. Phaidon Publication; (Paperback, July 1996)
Erich Wolfgang Korngold by Luzi Korngold (wife). Verlag Elisabeth Lafite, Vienna, 1967
"Erich Wolfgang Korngold: early life and works". Doctoral thesis by David Ian Kram. Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Caspar Wintermans: Een jongen van brutale zwier: Erich Wolfgang Korngold in Nederland 1910–1958''. The Hague, Kallipygos Press, 2016.
External links
Official Korngold Society
Detailed Biography of Korngold
Japanese Premieres of A Great Composer Erich Wolfgang Korngold (), sound files
Korngold: Maestro for the Movies
1897 births
1957 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century classical composers
American film score composers
American opera composers
Austrian classical composers
Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United States
Austrian male classical composers
Austrian opera composers
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery
Child classical musicians
Composers for piano
Moravian Jews
Jewish American classical composers
Jewish classical composers
American male film score composers
Male opera composers
Neoromantic composers
Musicians from Brno
Musicians from the Margraviate of Moravia
Composers from Vienna
Naturalized citizens of the United States
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American Jews
|
416943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20of%20Jesus%20Christ%20%28Cutlerite%29
|
Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite)
|
The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) is a denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement headquartered in Independence, Missouri, United States. The church derives its epithet from its founder, Alpheus Cutler, a member of the Nauvoo High Council and of Joseph Smith's Council of Fifty. Cutler justified his establishment of an independent church organization by asserting that God had "rejected" Smith's organization—but not his priesthood—following Smith's death, but that Smith had named Cutler to a singular "Quorum of Seven" in anticipation of this event, with a unique prerogative to reorganize the church that no one beyond this group possessed. Hence, Cutler's organization claims to be the only legitimate Latter Day Saint church in the world today. Currently, it has only one branch, located in Independence. The Cutlerite church retains an endowment ceremony believed to date to the Nauvoo period, practices the United Order of Enoch, and accepts baptism for the dead, but not eternal marriage or polygamy.
History
Alpheus Cutler
Alpheus Cutler was a Latter Day Saint leader and contemporary of Joseph Smith who converted to Smith's Church of Christ in January 1833, being baptized in western New York by David W. Patten. Cutler attended Smith's School of the Prophets in Kirtland, Ohio, and assisted in the construction of the Kirtland Temple there. In 1838, during the dedication of cornerstones for the (never-built) Far West Temple, Cutler was named by Smith as "chief architect and master workman of all God's holy houses". Cutler was later appointed a member of the Nauvoo Temple construction committee, after enduring the expulsion of the Latter Day Saints from Missouri. In Nauvoo, he served on the High Council, and was named to Smith's Council of Fifty. Prior to Smith's murder in 1844, Cutler was called on a mission to the "Lamanites" (as Native Americans were often called by the Saints). However, he had not yet departed when Smith was assassinated on June 27 at the jail in Carthage, Illinois.
Smith's death produced a profound leadership crisis in his movement, with members torn between competing claimants for Smith's prophetic mantle. These included Smith's Quorum of the Twelve, led by Brigham Young; James Strang, a newly baptized convert from Wisconsin; and Sidney Rigdon, who had served as Smith's First Counselor in the First Presidency. At first, Cutler threw in his lot with the Twelve. He continued to work on the Nauvoo Temple, where he was allegedly "sealed" to his spouse Lois on February 14, 1846, having received his endowment on October 12, 1843, prior to Smith's death. LDS Church records indicate that Cutler was sealed to six other women during this timeframe, but members of his church adamantly deny this or any assertion that Cutler—or Smith, for that matter—approved of or practiced plural marriage. Cutler would later insist that the temple had not been finished by the "sufficient time" given in the revelation authorizing its construction; this proved pivotal for his own claims to legitimacy when he chose to start his own church organization.
Breaking with the Twelve
When Brigham Young decided to commence the Saints' trek to the Salt Lake Valley, he appointed Cutler as Captain of "Emigrating Company No. 3," one of twenty-five such travelling units into which the Mormon pioneers were organized. Cutler established Cutler's Park, Nebraska in 1846, and was appointed presiding member of the municipal High Council on August 9 of that year. Barely one month later, he was asked to find a new location for a settlement; on September 11, he selected the site that would become Winter Quarters.
Sometime prior to 1849, Cutler made a decision to withdraw from the main church body under the Twelve, and to go his own way. In the fall of 1847, Young had sanctioned his request to conduct the mission work among the Indians to which Joseph Smith had assigned him, and Cutler had commenced his efforts with nearby tribes. All seemed well at first. However, the arrival of apostle Orson Hyde at nearby Kanesville, Iowa in early 1848 changed the situation. Cutler became the subject of lurid rumors concerning his Indian mission, with spurious reports indicating that he had been elected as the "Generalissimo" of a union of "thirty-seven nations". Further tales of alleged disloyalty to the Twelve by Cutler among the "Lamanites" fueled the fire; a visit by Ezra T. Benson, George A. Smith and others to Cutler's mission only partially calmed the situation. Although Young wrote to Cutler, offering him aid to move west, a house in Salt Lake City and a warm welcome once he arrived, the "Old Fox" (as Cutler was affectionately called) refused to go.
Hyde ultimately became convinced that Cutler considered himself to be a greater authority than the council over which he (Hyde) presided, and ordered his mission suspended. Insisting that Cutler had become an enemy to Young's organization, the Kanesville High Council excommunicated him on April 20, 1851. Young labored to bring Cutler back into the fold, writing of an ardent desire to see his old friend and promising him protection against any enemies he might have in the church. Even as late as 1856, long after Cutler had founded his own organization, Young indicated to LDS Church general authorities that he would forgive everything if Cutler would only come to Utah.
Iowa and Minnesota
But Cutler had no intention of going to Utah. Having broken with Young's organization, he set about creating his own. Having been forced to abandon his mission in 1851 under pressure from local Indian Agents and government authorities, Cutler and his followers relocated to Manti, Iowa, in the southwestern part of that state. On September 19, 1853, Cutler organized The Church of Jesus Christ, claiming that he had seen a special celestial sign (two crescent-moons with their backs together) which Joseph Smith had allegedly told him to wait for before commencing this "reorganization" of the church. From the beginning, Cutler claimed that Smith's church had been "rejected" by God for its alleged "trangrassions", and that only he possessed the power to reorganize it. Thus, claimed Cutler, his new organization was the sole legitimate continuance of Smith's work.
According to Cutler, the misdeed that brought about the rejection of Smith's church was its failure to complete the Nauvoo Temple within the "sufficient time" mentioned in Doctrine and Covenants 124:31-32; Smith's church had accordingly ceased to exist as a legitimate entity. This did not mean that Smith's restored priesthood had been withdrawn from the earth, said Cutler, for he viewed the church and the priesthood as two separate things. While the former had been rejected, said he, the latter had not, and now remained solely with him as the seventh and final member of a furtive "Quorum of Seven" appointed by Smith to carry on his authority independently of the rejected church. All previous members of this quorum had died or apostatized, said Cutler; hence, he and he alone possessed power to "reorganize" Smith's church.
While in Manti, the Cutlerite church attained its highest membership figure: 183 persons. The church endeavored to establish a United Order in Manti, but this attempt failed. Furthermore, Manti was being visited during this period by missionaries from the Reorganized Church, a rival group that accepted the leadership of Smith's eldest son, Joseph Smith III. Many Cutlerites chose to accept "young Joseph", and joined his organization; among them was Cutler's son, Thaddeus. On August 10, 1864, shortly after Cutler's death, those members of his church who had remained loyal to him relocated to Clitherall and Freedhem, Minnesota, in response to an alleged vision. RLDS Church evangelists followed the Cutlerites to their new home and culled many more from their ranks, ultimately leaving Cutler's church with a mere three elders and a few members. The remaining Cutlerites refused to give up, however, constructing a new church building in Clitherall and establishing a church corporation in 1912 to finally effect the ideals of Joseph Smith's United Order.
Moving to Independence and recent history
In 1928, a portion of the Cutlerite remnant moved to Independence, where they built their present headquarters close to the Temple Lot and were gradually joined by nearly all of the other members. The Cutlerite settlement in Clitherall was ultimately abandoned, though the meetinghouse and some of the homes remain church property to this day. Schisms rent the diminutive group in 1953 and 1980; the former began as a dispute over succession in the presidency following the death of Emery Fletcher in 1953. The Minnesota congregation did not agree with the subsequent succession of Erle Whiting to the office of Church President, and selected Clyde Fletcher as their leader, instead. Fletcher's organization, called the True Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite), remained identical to its Independence counterpart in all respects except for its leadership and ceased to exist upon Fletcher's death in 1969, which healed the schism.
The 1980 schism came about when the church rejected the claims of former member Eugene O. Walton, who claimed to be "The One Mighty and Strong" prophesied by Joseph Smith. Walton left that year and founded the Restored Church of Jesus Christ, which differs substantially with its parent organization on several points of doctrine.
The Cutlerites do not conduct missionary work or actively solicit converts, because they believe that God rejected the "Gentiles" following the death of Joseph Smith, and thus there can be no more active missionary work among them (as is done in the LDS Church and other Latter Day Saint churches). Membership was listed at 22 in 1957, and has declined further since then. The current church president (as of 2013) is Vernon Whiting.
Doctrines
Church organization
As in most Latter Day Saint sects, Cutlerite church organization entails a presidency consisting of a prophet-president and two counselors; when a Cutlerite prophet dies, his First Counselor succeeds to his office subject to the "common consent" of the membership. All other offices of the Melchizedek and Aaronic priesthoods are accepted, including apostle, patriarch, high priest, elder, bishop, priest, teacher, and deacon, though not all are filled in the current organization due to its extremely small numbers. All priesthood offices in the church are limited to males.
Priesthood and the church
Cutlerites hold a unique view of the relationship between the priesthood and the church. They say that since the priesthood was restored to Joseph Smith in 1829, prior to his organization of the church on April 6, 1830, the priesthood can exist on earth without the church as it did between 1829 and 1830. However, the church can never exist without the priesthood—a belief held by practically all other Latter Day Saint churches today.
This idea plays a very important role in Cutlerite conceptions of the Latter Day Saint movement, especially in the period immediately prior to and following the murder of Joseph Smith. Cutlerites point to Doctrine and Covenants 124:31-32, which commands the building of a temple in Nauvoo, and also refers to a "sufficient time" being granted for its construction, followed by the threat of being "rejected as a church, with your dead" if the structure is not completed within the allotted period. While other Mormon factions interpret this passage in varying ways, Cutlerites believe it indicates that if the Nauvoo Temple was not finished within a specific time (which seems never to have been identified with any specific date), then the church organization effected by Smith on April 6, 1830 would be "rejected," and thus cease to be valid in the sight of God. Since the Cutlerites assert that the Nauvoo Temple was never truly completed—an allegation contested by the LDS Church and most other Mormon factions—Cutlerites allege that the Latter Day Saint church existing from 1830 to 1844 was indeed "rejected" by God.
However, Cutler's followers maintain that the demise of Smith's church did not entail the demise of his priesthood. Foreseeing this development, the prophet had provided a means for selected priesthood holders to reorganize his church at an appropriate future time: a "Quorum of Seven." Cutler stated that he was the seventh member of this order; he only identified one other alleged colleague: John Smith, uncle of Joseph Smith, who he said was the sixth. All of the others, said Cutler, had either died or apostatized (including John Smith); thus, Cutler was the only person still possessing authority from Smith to reconstitute the church. Historian D. Michael Quinn has alleged that this Quorum of Seven might have existed as a subcommittee within the Council of Fifty, but the Cutlerites have never advanced any such interpretation or otherwise addressed that particular subject.
United Order
Cutlerites practice the United Order. They endeavor to replicate, as far as possible, the ideal of "all things common" taught in the early Latter Day Saint church. This replaces the law of tithing taught by most other Mormon factions, and complete participation is required of all members. Cutlerites do not believe that Joseph Smith ever authored the 119th section of the Doctrine and Covenants, which mandates tithing, claiming that it was never presented to the membership until after Smith's death.
Temple ordinances
The Cutlerites are the only non-LDS Church-derived group of Latter Day Saints who practice the "endowment" ceremony that originated during the Nauvoo period of Mormon history. However, unlike almost all other groups that observe these ordinances, they do not require the construction of a temple edifice to perform them (though Cutlerites believe in the concept of temples). Instead, their meetinghouses are used for this purpose. These follow the pattern of the Nauvoo Temple, with a main-floor room for ordinary church services, a font beneath for baptisms of both the living and for the dead, and a second story above for the "priesthood ordinances", as they term them.
As with the LDS Church ordinances, these ceremonies (and the rooms in which they are performed) are considered especially sacred, and are not open to, or shared with, the public. In contrast with the LDS Church, which allows new members to receive their endowment one year after baptism, Cutlerites generally wait many years before receiving these ordinances. The Cutlerite church also practices baptism for the dead, but not eternal marriage.
Scriptures
Cutlerites utilize the Inspired Version of the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the 1846 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants. The latter work includes the "Lectures on Faith," which Cutlerites regard as scripture, as well as the revelations on baptism for the dead. The Pearl of Great Price is not part of Cutlerite scripture, save that portion of it that forms a portion of the Inspired Version of the Bible (the Book of Moses and Joseph Smith—Matthew).
The Book of Abraham is rejected as scripture, as are the LDS Church concepts of eternal progression (whereby God was once a man, and man may become a god), plural marriage, and eternal marriage. Cutlerite concepts of the Godhead mirror those presented in the "Lectures on Faith". The first vision of Joseph Smith is accepted as authentic, though none of Smith's accounts of it are canonized as scripture. The Articles of Faith contained in the LDS Church's Pearl of Great Price are not officially canonized, though they do reflect basic Cutlerite beliefs.
Book of Mormon lands
While many Latter Day Saints point to Central America as the most likely geographical location for the lands depicted in the Book of Mormon, Cutlerites insist that these were primarily in North America, particularly in the United States.
Missionary work
Unlike many other Latter Day Saints, Cutlerites do not engage in missionary work. Cutler taught that with the murder of Joseph Smith, the "Gentiles" (non-Native Americans living in America and the world) had rejected Smith's gospel, and thus there was to be no more preaching to them. This does not mean that Cutlerites do not welcome visitors. They simply do not believe in going out to convert others; they feel that God will lead those who are truly interested to them. While Cutlerites do not discourage new members from joining them, they point out the high expectations enjoined by their ideals, and the seriousness of the baptismal commitment.
Presidents of The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite)
Media
Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) Meetinghouse, located in Clitherall, Minnesota. Another photo of the Clitherall meetinghouse. Originally built by the church in 1912, this building was used by for Clyde Fletcher's True Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) from 1953–69, but was never the legal property of that organization.
Historic photos of Clitherall, Minnesota. A selection of historical and modern photographs of Clitherall, Minnesota, which was founded by the Cutlerites in 1864. The Cutlerites maintained a presence here until the early 1990s, and still own their old meetinghouse, though it is no longer used.
Manti, Iowa. Contains information and a few modern photos of the old Cutlerite cemetery and settlement in Manti, Iowa, which was founded by Alpheus Cutler in 1851. The Cutlerites remained there until 1864, when they relocated to Clitherall, Minnesota. Also includes a map of the town.
References
External links
Church of Jesus Christ. Official site; contains only one page with little information. An archived version, containing more data (largely taken from the Fletcher book), may be viewed here.
Cutlerite denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement
Independence, Missouri
Latter Day Saint movement in Missouri
Organizations based in Missouri
Religious organizations established in 1853
1853 establishments in the United States
|
416945
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthohantavirus
|
Orthohantavirus
|
Orthohantavirus is a genus of single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA viruses in the family Hantaviridae within the order Bunyavirales. Members of this genus may be called orthohantaviruses or simply hantaviruses.
Orthohantaviruses typically cause chronic asymptomatic infection in rodents. Humans may become infected with hantaviruses through contact with rodent urine, saliva, or feces. Some strains cause potentially fatal diseases in humans, such as hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), or hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), also known as hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), while others have not been associated with known human disease (e.g. Prospect Hill virus). HPS (HCPS) is a "rare respiratory illness associated with the inhalation of aerosolized rodent excreta (urine and feces) contaminated by hantavirus particles."
Human infections of hantaviruses have almost entirely been linked to human contact with rodent excrement; however, in 2005 and 2019, human-to-human transmission of the Andes virus was reported in South America.
Orthohantaviruses are named for the Greek word ortho- meaning "straight" or "true" and for the Hantan River in South Korea, where the first member species (Hantaan virus) was identified and isolated in 1976 by Ho Wang Lee.
Disease
Hantavirus infections in humans are associated with two diseases: hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), caused by Old World and New World hantaviruses, respectively. A common feature of the two diseases is increased vascular permeability, which causes hypotension, thrombocytopenia, and leukocytosis. The pulmonary illness is the more fatal of the two, whereas the hemorrhagic fever is much more common. Treatment for both is primarily supportive as there is no specific treatment for hantavirus infections. While many hantaviruses cause either of the two diseases, some are not known to cause illness, such as the Prospect Hill orthohantavirus.
Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is caused chiefly by hantaviruses in Asia and Europe. Clinical presentation varies from subclinical to fatal, depending on the virus. After an incubation period of 2–4 weeks, the typical illness starts with non-specific symptoms such as high fever, chills, headache, backache, abdominal pains, nausea, and vomiting. After the initial period, bleeding under the skin begins, often paired with low blood pressure, followed by further internal bleeding throughout the body. Renal dysfunction leading to further health issues begins thereafter, which may cause death. A more mild form of HFRS that occurs in Europe is called "nephropathia epidemica" (NE). Trench nephritis during World War I is now thought to have been HFRS.
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), also called hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), is usually caused by hantaviruses in the Americas. Its incubation period ranges from 16 to 24 days. Illness initially shows similar symptoms as HFRS. After a few days of non-specific symptoms, sudden onset of progressive, or productive, coughing, shortness of breath, and elevated heart rate occur due to fluid buildup in the lungs. These symptoms are accompanied by impairment of lymphoid organs. Death from cardiovascular shock may occur rapidly after the appearance of severe symptoms. While HCPS is typically associated with New World hantaviruses, the Puumala orthohantavirus in Europe has also caused the syndrome on rare occasions.
Transmission
Hantaviruses are transmitted by contact with the bodily fluids of rodents, particularly from saliva from bites and especially from inhalation of viral particles from urine and feces in aerosols. The manner of transmission is the same for both diseases caused by hantaviruses. Among the HCPS-causing hantaviruses is the Andes orthohantavirus, which is the only hantavirus confirmed to be capable of spreading from person to person, though this is rare.
Characteristics
Structure
Hantavirus virions are about 120–160 nm in diameter. The lipid bilayer of the viral envelope is about 5 nm thick and is embedded with viral surface proteins to which sugar residues are attached. These glycoproteins, known as Gn and Gc, are encoded by the M segment of the viral genome. They tend to associate (heterodimerize) with each other and have both an interior tail and an exterior domain that extends to about 6 nm beyond the envelope surface.
Inside the envelope are the nucleocapsids. These are composed of many copies of the nucleocapsid protein N, which interact with the three segments of the viral genome to form helical structures. The virally encoded RNA polymerase is also found in the interior. By mass, the virion is greater than 50% protein, 20–30% lipid, and 2–7% carbohydrate. The density of the virions is 1.18 g/cm3. These features are common to all members of the family Hantaviridae.
Genome
The genome of hantaviruses is negative-sense, single-stranded RNA. Their genomes are composed of three segments: the small (S), medium (M), and large (L) segments. The S segment, 1-3 kilobases (kb) in length, encodes for the nucleocapsid (N) protein. The M segment, 3.2-4.9 kb in length, encodes a glycoprotein precursor polyprotein that is co-translationally cleaved into the envelope glycoproteins Gn and Gc, alternatively called G1 and G2. The L segment, 6.8–12 kb in length, encodes the L protein which functions primarily as the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase used for transcription and replication.
Within virions, the genomic RNAs of hantaviruses are thought to complex with the N protein to form helical nucleocapsids, the RNA component of which circularizes due to sequence complementarity between the 5' and 3' terminal sequences of genomic segments.
As with other Bunyavirales, each of the three segments has a consensus 3'-terminal nucleotide sequence (AUCAUCAUC), which is complementary to the 5'-terminal sequence and is distinct from those of the other four genera in the family. These sequences appear to form panhandle structure which seem likely to play a role in replication and encapsidation facilitated by binding with the viral nucleocapsid (N) protein. The large segment is 6530–6550 nucleotides (nt) in length, the medium is 3613–3707 nt in length and the small is 1696–2083 nt in length.
No nonstructural proteins are known, unlike the other genera in this family. At the 5' and 3' of each segment are short noncoding sequences: the noncoding segment in all sequences at the 5' end is 37–51 nt. The 3' noncoding regions differ: L segment 38–43 nt; M segment 168–229 nt; and S segment 370–730 nt. The 3' end of the S segment is conserved between the genera suggesting a functional role.
Lifecycle
Viral entry into host cells initiates by binding to surface cell receptors. Integrins are considered to be the main receptors for hantaviruses in vitro, but complement decay-accelerating factor (DAF) and globular heads of complement C1q receptor (gC1qR) have mediated attachment in cultured cells too. Entry may proceed through a number of possible routes, including clathrin-dependent endocytosis, clathrin-independent receptor-mediated endocytosis, and micropinocytosis. Viral particles are then transported to late endosomes. Gc-mediated membrane fusion with the endosomal membrane, triggered by low pH, releases the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm.
After the release of the nucleocapsids into cytoplasm, the complexes are targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum–Golgi intermediate compartments (ERGIC) through microtubular-associated movement resulting in the formation of viral factories at ERGIC.
These factories then facilitate transcription and subsequent translation of the viral proteins. Transcription of viral genes must be initiated by association of the L protein with the three nucleocapsid species. In addition to transcriptase and replicase functions, the viral L protein is also thought to have an endonuclease activity that cleaves cellular messenger RNAs (mRNAs) for the production of capped primers used to initiate transcription of viral mRNAs. As a result of this cap snatching, the mRNAs of hantaviruses are capped and contain nontemplated 5'-terminal extensions.
The G1 (or Gn) and G2 (Gc) glycoproteins form hetero-oligomers and are then transported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex, where glycosylation is completed. The L protein produces nascent genomes by replication via a positive-sense RNA intermediate. Hantavirus virions are believed to assemble by association of nucleocapsids with glycoproteins embedded in the membranes of the Golgi, followed by budding into the Golgi cisternae. Nascent virions are then transported in secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane and released by exocytosis.
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of hantavirus infections is unclear as there is a lack of animal models to describe it (rats and mice do not seem to acquire severe disease). While the primary site of viral replication in the body is not known, in HFRS the main effect is in the blood vessels while in HPS most symptoms are associated with the lungs. In HFRS, there are increased vascular permeability and decreased blood pressure due to endothelial dysfunction and the most dramatic damage is seen in the kidneys, whereas in HPS, the lungs, spleen, and gall bladder are most affected. Early symptoms of HPS tend to present similarly to the flu (muscle aches, fever and fatigue) and usually appear around 2 to 3 weeks after exposure. Later stages of the disease (about 4 to 10 days after symptoms start) include difficulty breathing, shortness of breath and coughing.
Evolution
Findings of significant congruence between phylogenies of hantaviruses and phylogenies of their rodent reservoirs have led to the theory that rodents, although infected by the virus, are not harmed by it because of long-standing hantavirus–rodent host coevolution, although findings in 2008 led to new hypotheses regarding hantavirus evolution.
Various hantaviruses have been found to infect multiple rodent species, and cases of cross-species transmission (host switching) have been recorded. Additionally, rates of substitution based on nucleotide sequence data reveal that hantavirus clades and rodent subfamilies may not have diverged at the same time. Furthermore, as of 2007 hantaviruses have been found in multiple species of non-rodent shrews and moles.
Taking into account the inconsistencies in the theory of coevolution, it was proposed in 2009 that the patterns seen in hantaviruses in relation to their reservoirs could be attributed to preferential host switching directed by geographical proximity and adaptation to specific host types. Another proposal from 2010 is that geographical clustering of hantavirus sequences may have been caused by an isolation-by-distance mechanism. Upon comparison of the hantaviruses found in hosts of orders Rodentia and Eulipotyphla, it was proposed in 2011 that the hantavirus evolutionary history is a mix of both host switching and codivergence and that ancestral shrews or moles, rather than rodents, may have been the early original hosts of ancient hantaviruses.
A Bayesian analysis in 2014 suggested a common origin for these viruses ~2000 years ago. The association with particular rodent families appears to have been more recent. The viruses carried by the subfamilies Arvicolinae and Murinae originated in Asia 500–700 years ago. These subsequently spread to Africa, Europe, North America and Siberia possibly carried by their hosts. The species infecting the subfamily Neotominae evolved 500–600 years ago in Central America and then spread toward North America. The species infecting Sigmodontinae evolved in Brazil 400 years ago. Their ancestors may have been a Neotominae-associated virus from northern South America.
The evolution of shrew-borne hantaviruses appears to have involved natural occurrences of homologous recombination events and the reassortment of genome segments. The evolution of Tula orthohantavirus carried by the European common vole also appears to have involved homologous recombination events.
Taxonomy
Orthohantaviruses belong to the family Hantaviridae and members of both the genus and the family are called hantaviruses. The genus also belongs to the subfamily Mammantavirinae, the mammalian hantaviruses, with three other genera. Orthohantaviruses specifically are mammalian hantaviruses that are transmitted among rodents. The genus contains these 38 species:
Andes orthohantavirus
Asama orthohantavirus
Asikkala orthohantavirus
Bayou orthohantavirus
Black Creek Canal orthohantavirus
Bowe orthohantavirus
Bruges orthohantavirus
Cano Delgadito orthohantavirus
Cao Bang orthohantavirus
Choclo orthohantavirus
Dabieshan orthohantavirus
Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus
El Moro Canyon orthohantavirus
Fugong orthohantavirus
Fusong orthohantavirus
Hantaan orthohantavirus
Jeju orthohantavirus
Kenkeme orthohantavirus
Khabarovsk orthohantavirus
Laguna Negra orthohantavirus
Luxi orthohantavirus
Maporal orthohantavirus
Montano orthohantavirus
Necocli orthohantavirus
Oxbow orthohantavirus
Prospect Hill orthohantavirus
Puumala orthohantavirus
Robina orthohantavirus
Rockport orthohantavirus
Sangassou orthohantavirus
Seewis orhtohantavirus
Seoul orthohantavirus
Sin Nombre orthohantavirus
Tatenale orthohantavirus
Thailand orthohantavirus
Tigray orthohantavirus
Tula orthohantavirus
Yakeshi orthohantavirus
Hantaviruses that were formerly classified as species in this genus and which were not reassigned as member viruses of any existing species include:
Isla Vista hantavirus, also called Isla Vista virus
Muleshoe hantavirus, also called Muleshoe virus
Rio Segundo hantavirus, also called Rio Segundo virus
Prevention
According to the U.S. CDC, the best prevention against contracting hantavirus is to eliminate or minimize contact with rodents in the home, workplace, or campsite. As the virus can be transmitted by rodent saliva, excretions, and bites, control of rats and mice in areas frequented by humans is key for disease prevention. General prevention can be accomplished by disposing of rodent nests, sealing any cracks and holes in homes where mice or rats could enter, setting traps, or laying down poisons or using natural predators such as cats in the home.
The duration that hantaviruses remain infectious in the environment varies based on factors such as the rodent's diet, temperature, humidity, and whether indoors or outdoors. The viruses have been demonstrated to remain active for 2–3 days at normal room temperature, while ultraviolet rays in direct sunlight kill them within a few hours. Rodent droppings or urine of indeterminate age, though, should always be treated as infectious.
Vaccine
, no vaccines against hantaviruses have been approved by the U.S. FDA, but whole virus inactivated bivalent vaccines against Hantaan virus and Seoul virus are available in China and South Korea. In both countries, the use of the vaccine, combined with other preventive measures, has significantly reduced the incidence of hantavirus infections. Apart from these vaccines, four types of vaccines have been researched: DNA vaccines targeting the M genome segment and the S genome segment, subunit vaccines that use recombinant Gn, Gc, and N proteins of the virus, virus vector vaccines that have recombinant hantavirus proteins inserted in them, and virus-like particle vaccines that contain viral proteins, but lack genetic material. Of these, only DNA vaccines have entered into clinical trials.
Treatment
Ribavirin may be a drug for HPS and HFRS, but its effectiveness remains unknown; still, spontaneous recovery is possible with supportive treatment. People with suspected hantavirus infection may be admitted to a hospital, and given oxygen and mechanical ventilation support to help them breathe during the acute pulmonary stage with severe respiratory distress. Immunotherapy, administration of human neutralizing antibodies during acute phases of hantavirus, has been studied only in mice, hamsters, and rats. No controlled clinical trials have been reported.
Epidemiology
Hantavirus infections have been reported from all continents except Australia. Regions especially affected by HFRS include China, the Korean Peninsula, Russia (Hantaan, Puumala, and Seoul viruses), and Northern and Western Europe (Puumala and Dobrava virus). Regions with the highest incidences of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome include Argentina, Chile, Brazil, the United States, Canada, and Panama.
Africa
In 2010, a novel hantavirus, Sangassou virus, was isolated in Africa, which causes HFRS.
Asia
In China, Hong Kong, the Korean Peninsula, and Russia, HFRS is caused by Hantaan, Puumala, and Seoul viruses.
China
In March 2020, a man from Yunnan tested positive for hantavirus. He died while travelling to Shandong for work on a chartered bus. According to the Global Times reports, around 32 other people have been tested for the virus.
Australia
, no human infections have been reported in Australia, though rodents were found to carry antibodies.
Europe
In Europe, two hantaviruses – Puumala and Dobrava-Belgrade viruses – are known to cause HFRS. Puumala usually causes a generally mild disease, nephropathia epidemica, which typically presents with fever, headache, gastrointestinal symptoms, impaired renal function, and blurred vision. Dobrava infections are similar, except that they often also have hemorrhagic complications.
Puumala virus is carried by its rodent host, the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus), and is present throughout most of Europe, except for the Mediterranean region. Four Dobrava virus genotypes are known, each carried by a different rodent species. Genotype Dobrava is found in the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis), genotypes Saaremaa and Kurkino in the striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius), and genotype Sochi in the Black Sea field mouse (Apodemus ponticus).
In 2017 alone, the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) in Germany received 1,713 notifications of hantavirus infections.
North America
Canada
The primary cause of the disease in Canada is Sin Nombre virus-infected deer mice. Between 1989 and 2014, 109 confirmed cases were reported, with the death rate estimated at 29%. The virus exists in deer mice nationwide, but cases were concentrated in western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba) with only one case in eastern Canada. In Canada, "[a]ll cases occurred in rural settings and approximately 70% of the cases have been associated with domestic and farming activities."
United States
In the United States, minor cases of HPS include Sin Nombre orthohantavirus, New York orthohantavirus, Bayou orthohantavirus, and possibly Black Creek Canal orthohantavirus.
, 728 cases of hantavirus had been reported in the United States cumulatively since 1995, across 36 states, not including cases with presumed exposure outside the United States. More than 96% of cases have occurred in states west of the Mississippi River. The top 10 states by number of cases reported (which differs slightly from a count ordered by the state of original exposure) were New Mexico (109), Colorado (104), Arizona (78), California (61), Washington (50), Texas (45), Montana (43), Utah (38), Idaho (21), and Oregon (21); 36% of the total reported cases have resulted in death.
Mexico
In Mexico, rodents have been found to carry hantaviruses include Thomas's giant deer mouse (Megadontomys thomasi), the pack rat Neotoma picta, Orizaba deer mouse (Peromyscus beatae), Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) and Sumichrast's harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys sumichrasti).
South America
Agents of HPS found in South America include the Andes virus (also called Oran, Castelo de Sonhos – Portuguese for "Castle of Dreams", Lechiguanas, Juquitiba, Araraquara, and Bermejo virus, among many other synonyms), which is the only hantavirus that has shown an interpersonal form of transmission, and the Laguna Negra virus, an extremely close relative of the previously known Rio Mamore virus.
Rodents that have been shown to carry hantaviruses include Abrothrix longipilis and Oligoryzomys longicaudatus.
History
Hantavirus HFRS was likely first referenced in China in the 12th century. The first clinical recognition was in 1931 in northeast China. Around the same time in the 1930s, NE was identified in Sweden. HFRS came to the recognition of western physicians during the Korean War between 1951 and 1954 when more than 3,000 United Nations soldiers fell ill in an outbreak. In 1976, the first pathogenic hantavirus, the Hantaan orthohantavirus, was isolated from rodents near the Hantan River in South Korea. Other prominent hantaviruses that cause HFRS, including the Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus, Puumala orthohantavirus, and Seoul orthohantavirus, were identified in the years after then and are collectively referred to as the Old World hantaviruses.
In 1993, an outbreak of HCPS, then unrecognized, occurred in the Four Corners region of the United States and led to the discovery of the Sin Nombre orthohantavirus. Since then, approximately 43 hantavirus strains, of which 20 are pathogenic, have been found in the Americas and are referred to as the New World hantaviruses. This includes the Andes orthohantavirus, one of the primary causes of HCPS in South America and the only hantavirus known to be capable of person-to-person transmission.
In late medieval England a mysterious sweating sickness swept through the country in 1485 just before the Battle of Bosworth Field. Noting that the symptoms overlap with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, several scientists have theorized that the virus may have been the cause of the disease. The hypothesis was criticized because sweating sickness was recorded as being transmitted from human to human, whereas hantaviruses were not known to spread in this way.
See also
1993 Four Corners hantavirus outbreak
Bat-borne virus
Cocoliztli epidemics
Conjunctival suffusion
Limestone Canyon virus
List of cutaneous conditions
References
External links
"Hantaviruses, with emphasis on Four Corners Hantavirus" by Brian Hjelle, M.D., Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico
CDC's Hantavirus Fact Sheet (PDF)
CDC's Hantavirus Technical Information Index page
Viralzone: Hantavirus
Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR): Hantaviridae
Occurrences and deaths in North and South America
Hantaviridae
Hemorrhagic fevers
Rodent-carried diseases
Viral diseases
Virus genera
|
416953
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrom
|
Carrom
|
Carrom is a tabletop game of Indian origin in which players flick discs, attempting to knock them to the corners of the board. The game is very popular in the Indian subcontinent, and is known by various names in different languages. In South Asia, many clubs and cafés hold regular tournaments. Carrom is very commonly played by families, including children, and at social functions. Different standards and rules exist in different areas. It became very popular in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth during the early 20th century.
The word carrom means to strike and rebound.
History
The game of carrom originated in India. One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in Patiala, India. It became very popular among the masses after World War I. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the 20th century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in Sri Lanka in 1935; by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.
The International Carrom Federation (ICF) was formed in the year 1988 in Chennai, India. The formal rules for the Indian version of the game were published in 1988. In the same year the ICF officially codified the rules. The game has been very popular throughout South Asia, mainly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and the Maldives. The game is also popular in many of the countries in the Arabian Peninsula, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain. It has gained some popularity in United Kingdom, Europe, North America and Australia where it has been introduced by the Indian diaspora.
The UKCF was formed in 1991 in London. The main work of this organisation is to promote the game of Carrom throughout the UK and ensure the participation of UK players in all major international championships.
The UKCF have hosted 3 Euro cups in England and have had fantastic success in the tournament with UK players.
UKCF organised national championships and league tournaments throughout the UK on annual basis.
The United States Carrom Association reports on competitions in the US and Canada and has a player ranking list as of the last tournament.
A group of Carrom lovers grouped together in 2004 and established the Pakistani Carrom Federation or PCF.
The PCF have worked to build clubs across Pakistan to promote and teach the game.
The German Carrom Federation was founded in 1986 with the objective of supporting and maintaining the game of Carrom. The federation oversees Germany Carrom Clubs and teams throughout Germany.
The Italian Carrom Federation was founded in 1995 by a group of Carrom enthusiasts and is responsible for the spread of the game throughout Italy.
The federation is supported by a large number of volunteers who regularly run events throughout Italy to teach and educate about the game.
The Japan Carrom Federation was established in 1997. In 2001 they moved into their new headquarters in Tokyo from Hikone. Originally set up to allow players to compete in overseas tournament but held their first national championship in 2004 and now hold tournaments, demonstrations and training camps across Japan.
The board and pieces can be bought in UK, Europe, North America or Australia and are usually imported from India. The most expensive boards are made to a high standard with high quality wood and decorations though cheaper boards are available. Some of the largest exporters of carrom boards are in India, e.g. Precise, Surco, Syndicate Sports and Paul Traders.
Equipment
The game is usually played on a square board made of plywood, with a pocket in each corner. The dimensions of the standardised board is a square playing surface. The edges are bounded by bumpers of wood, and the underside of each pocket is covered by a net which is 10 cm2 or larger.
Carrom men
Carrom is played using small disks of wood or plastic known as carrom men (sometimes abbreviated CM, c.m. c/m, etc.). These pieces, aside from the special queen, may also be known as seeds, coins, pawns (as in chess), or pucks. Carrom men are designed to slide when struck and are made with a smooth surface that slides easily when laid flat on the board. They are struck by a Striker of a standard specification which is larger and heavier. Carrom follows similar "strike and pocket" games, like pool, with its use of rebounds, angles, and obstruction of opponent's carrom pieces.
A carrom set contains 19 pieces (striker not included) in three distinct colours: one for each player, and another for the queen. The usual colours are white (or unstained) and black for the players and red for the queen.
ICF-approved pieces must have a diameter of no more than 3.18 cm and no less than 3.02 cm. The pieces must be between 7 and 9 mm thick. The pieces have a plain, rounded edge. The mass of the pieces must be between 5.0 and 5.5 g.
Strikers
Striker pieces are used to hit the carrom men and the queen across the board to the pockets. The carrom striker normally weighs 15 grams of size 4.1 cm diameter.
The queen
The red disk is called the queen; it is the most valuable piece. During board setup, it is placed at the centre of the circle. In accordance with the ICF rules, pocketing the queen adds 3 points to the player's total score. The dimensions of the queen must be the same as those of other carrom men.
The player must pocket the queen and subsequently pocket a carrom man of the player's own colour. This is termed covering the queen. If by mistake, a player puts a carrom man of the opposite team in the pocket after "pocketing" the queen, then the queen has to be placed in the centre of the board again.
If the player fails to pocket a subsequent carrom man, the queen is replaced at the centre of the board.
If the player pockets their opponent's last carrom man before pocketing the queen, then it's a foul.
If a player puts the queen and a carrom man of the player's own colour in the pocket with one use of the striker, the queen is automatically covered, but it does not matter which went first.
Powder
Fine-grained powder is used on the board to enable the pieces to slide easier. Boric acid powder is the most commonly used for this purpose. The EU has classified boric acid as a "Serious Health Hazard" and states that "this substance may damage fertility or the unborn child".
In the UK, many players use a version of anti-set-off spray powder from the printing industry which has specific electrostatic properties with particles of 50 micrometres in diameter. The powder is made from pure, food-grade vegetable starch.
Standardised rules and regulations
The ICF promulgates International Rules of Carrom (also termed "The Laws of Carrom"). ICF acts as the governing body of carrom. The organisation also ranks players, sanctions tournaments and presents awards. ICF has many national affiliates such as the All-India Carrom Federation, Australian Carrom Federation, and United States Carrom Association.
The toss
Order of play is determined by the process of "calling the carrom men" or "the toss.” Before commencing each match, an umpire hides one black carrom in one hand and one white carrom man on the other hand. The players guess which colour carrom men is being held in each hand. The player who guesses correctly wins the toss.
The winner of the toss strikes first, which is called the opening break. The winner of the toss has the option to change sides from white to black and give up the opening break. The winner of the toss may not pass this decision to the other player. If the winner of the toss chooses to change sides then the loser must strike first.
The player taking the first shot (or break) plays white carrom men. The opponent plays black.
If that player cannot score any points then that player loses the turn and their opponent can choose to play any carrom man, Black or White in favour.
Shooting
A successful pot entitles the player to shoot again. This means that, as in pool and snooker, it is possible for a player to pot all his/her pieces and cover the queen from the start of the game without the opponent being given the chance to shoot.
Any player pocketing the queen is required to cover it immediately by pocketing one of their carrom men on the entitlement shot. If after potting the queen the player fails to cover it, then the queen is returned to the center of the table. It is illegal to pot the Queen after the last piece since the queen must always be covered.
Thumbing is allowed by International Carrom Federation which allows the player to shoot with any finger including the thumb (known as "thumbing", "thumbshot", or "thumb hit").
Crossing the diagonal lines on the board by coming in touch with it, pocketing the striker is a foul. A player needs to ensure that his striking hand does not infringe/cross the diagonal lines aerially/physically. A player committing a foul must return one carrom man that was already pocketed.
If a player pockets his striker, he has to pay a penalty. This penalty is usually 10 points.
Variations
Professional
Each team or player is assigned a colour and can only pocket that colour of carrom men.
Pocketing the queen must be followed by pocketing another coin on the same strike.
The queen can only be pocketed if the player has already pocketed a carrom man but has not yet pocketed the last carrom man of the player's colour as a carrom man must be pocketed to cover it.
Once the queen is covered, whoever clears all their carrom men first wins the board.
Queen and cover can be pocketed in the same strike, irrespective of the order they enter the pocket.
The winner of a board collects one point for each of the opponent's carrom men left at the finish and three points for the queen if covered by the winner (if covered by the loser, no-one gets those points). No more points are collected for the queen after your score reaches 21.
A game consists of 25 points.
When placing the striker on the board to shoot, it must touch both baselines, either covering the end circle completely or not touching it at all. The striker may not touch the diagonal arrow line.
Shooting styles can vary between players, but all shots must involve flicking the striker and not pushing it. While players may orient their bodies for aiming, they must remain seated for the shot.
Carrom men can be struck directly only if they are not touching the player's baseline or situated behind the baseline. According to the new rule, if the carrom man is behind the baseline, the player can directly hit the carrom man by the carrom striker unlike before we have to strike the carrom men off any side of the carrom board or any other carrom piece on the board but not directly.
Sinking the striker incurs a penalty of one piece and a loss of turn. If a piece is pocketed in the same shot as the striker that piece is also removed. These pieces are returned to the board in the center circle. If the striker is sunk before any of a player's carrom men, that player must later return a carrom man after sinking to make up for the deficit.
If while the queen and a carrom man are sunk on the same shot, the queen is not considered covered regardless of the order that the pieces entered the pocket.
If a piece jumps off the board, it is placed on the center spot. If pieces land on end or are overlapping, they are left that way.
If the center spot is partially covered when replacing the queen or a jumped piece, the piece should cover as much red as possible. If totally covered, the piece is placed opposite the next player behind the red spot.
One can touch any coin. However, if the player touches their last piece directly before the queen, penalty will be imposed.
If a player sinks an opponent's piece, that player loses a turn. If a player sinks an opponent's last carrom piece they lose the board and three points are deducted from their score.
If a player sinks their last piece before the queen, they lose the board, three points and one point for each of their opponent's pieces left.
If the striker does not leave both lines, the player has another chance. After three tries without leaving the lines the player loses their turn.
These rules are mostly played in the UK, Sri Lanka, and India.
Point
Point carrom is a variant that is popular with children or an odd number of players. Each player is allowed to pocket carrom men of any colour.
Carrom men of either colour are assigned 1 point each.
The queen gives 5 points.
The black gives 1 points.
The white gives 2 points.
To get queen points, one needs to put a carrom man of any colour in the same pocket after the queen on the same or a subsequent strike in the same turn. If the player fails to "cover" the queen in this fashion, the queen is put back in the center of the board.
The first player to reach 25 points is declared the winner.
If no player reaches 25 points, the player with the highest points is declared the winner. If the scores are tied, a tie-breaker must be played. Players who are tied select a colour and are only allowed to pocket carrom men of the other colour on the rebound.
Family-point
Family-point carrom (also known as simple-point carrom) is an informal variant suitable for an odd number of players. Each player is allowed to pocket carrom men of any colour.
Typically, a black carrom man scores 10 points, and a white scores 20 points
The queen scores 50 points.
As in point carrom, the queen must be "covered" pocketing another carrom man in the same pocket on the same or subsequent strike in one's turn.
With the points system, if one team/player gets queen points early in the game, the opponent still has a good chance to win by earning more points.
This style of play is widely accepted in many areas of South-East Asia.
Total-point
The black carrom men are worth 1, 5, or 10 point(s) and the white ones are worth 2, 10, or 20 points (depending on exact game variant).
The queen is assigned 5 or 50 points. As in the above two variants, it must have a carrom man pocketed after it.
To win, a player must receive all the carrom men on the board.
After the first round, the player or team with the lowest score puts all their carrom men in the center.
The others must match this score in the center and the players play for the carrom men in the center.
They repeat this until one team or player has all the carrom men.
This style of play is widely accepted in many areas of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan.
Board variations
Carrom boards are available in various board sizes and corner-pocket sizes. There are smaller boards and boards with larger pockets. Boards with larger pockets are used by beginners for easier gameplay. On traditional carrom boards, the corner pockets are only slightly larger than the carrom men, but smaller than the striker. On boards with larger pockets, it is possible to pocket the striker, resulting in a "" as in pool. This results in a "due". On a due, the player has to return one previously pocketed carrom man to the board. The standardised association and federation size is a 74 × 74 cm (29 × 29 inch) square playing surface with 5–10 cm (2–4 in) borders. Other play-area sizes are not used in tournaments and competitions.
Pakistani carrom
A popular variant of the game called duboo is played mostly in Karachi, the largest city of Pakistan. In , the size of the board is larger(2.50 x 2.50 feet) and the striker is slid instead of flicked.
North American carrom
North American carrom, played primarily in Canada and the northern United States, is a variant developed around 1890 by Christian missionaries to Asia, who brought the game back with them. Concerned with young boys loitering around pool halls (where gambling was common), an American Sunday school teacher named Henry L. Haskell altered the game for Western tastes. Much of the game is the same, but the striker's weight is reduced and the carrom men are smaller. Generally, instead of disks, carrom men (including the striker) are rings, originally of wood but today commercially made of light plastic. In addition, as an alternative to using the fingers to flick the striker, some of the American carrom boards use miniature cue sticks. American carrom boards also have built into the corners, rather than circular holes in the board, to make pocketing easier. While traditionally made boards vary widely, current commercially produced American carrom boards, by the Carrom Company of Michigan, are squares measuring 28 inches (71 cm) to a side, are printed with checkerboard and backgammon patterns, among others, and are sold with dice, skittles, etc. to allow other games to be played on the same board. These boards may also be printed on the reverse with the circular pattern for playing crokinole.
Japanese carrom
Carrom was introduced to Japan in the early 20th century. Carrom became popular as , but fell in popularity in the Shōwa period. However, carrom is still popular in Hikone, Shiga under the name Hikone Karomu (Hikone carrom). The Hikone carrom board has larger pockets (not unlike those of pichenotte), the discs are arranged in a ring (also like in Pichette), each player is given twelve discs instead of nine, and the queen (known as the "jack") is pocketed last (similar to Eight-ball or Black ball).
South African fingerboard
It is similar to Carrom played in South Asia, but coins are used rather than rocks.
Mexican fichapool
Since 2008 there is a Mexican variation called fichapool or colloquially, fichapúl (from Spanish ficha). The men (12 each side) as the strikers, are plastic rings. As the South African fingerboard, it has larger pockets.
Bangladeshi Carrom
Bangladesh Carrom Federation was formed in 1990. Although carom is widely practised and popular all over Bangladesh, the reason for its lack of success at the international level may be that the game is played at different levels at the roots level.
Commercial derivations
Several companies made copies of Haskell's carrom game board. The Transogram Company made a version in the 1950s and called it Skooker. Coleco made reproductions in the 1980s with names like "Carom-playing Games Board" with up to 202 derived replication games. Some variants in the 1970s were called "101 Games Board" and "Carom-playing 166 Games Board". An ice-box manufacturer made "Combinola" and "Crokinola" variants.
Cultural depictions
Films depicting Carrom include the 2003 Hindi film Munna Bhai M.B.B.S, the 2010 Hindi film Striker and the 2018 Tamil film Vada Chennai.
Similar games
Games similar to carrom include pichenotte, pitchnut, crokinole, Chapayev, novuss and button football.
Vintage boards
References
External links
International Carrom Federation
Carrom Ukraine — Ukraine Carrom Federation
Carrom Korea — Korea Carrom Federation
Carrom UK — UK Carrom Club
Factory assembly steps of carroms games
Precision sports
Disk-flicking games
Tabletop cue games
Indian board games
Indian inventions
|
417016
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Man%20Group
|
Blue Man Group
|
Blue Man Group is an American performance art company formed in 1987. Blue Man Group is known for its stage productions, which incorporate many kinds of music and art, both popular and obscure. Its performers, known as Blue Men, have their skin painted blue. They are mute during shows and always appear in groups of three.
The company has continuing shows in Berlin, Boston, Chicago, Las Vegas and New York City. A typical production employs seven to nine full-time Blue Men who are selected by audition. In addition to their stage shows, Blue Man Group has toured nationally and internationally, appeared on TV programs as characters and performers, released multiple studio albums, contributed to a number of film scores, and performed with orchestras around the United States.
It was purchased in July 2017 by the Canadian company Cirque du Soleil. On June 29, 2020, Cirque du Soleil filed for bankruptcy in Canada. Three days later, on July 1, 2020, they filed for Chapter 15 bankruptcy.
History
Blue Man Group grew out of a collaboration of three close friends, Chris Wink, Matt Goldman and Phil Stanton, on Manhattan's Lower East Side in 1987. Its first public appearance was a celebration of the end of the 1980s. The three wore blue masks and led a street procession that included the burning of a Rambo doll and a piece of the Berlin Wall. MTV's Kurt Loder covered the event, drawing attention to the group. What began as creative "disturbances" on the city's streets became a series of small shows at downtown clubs, and eventually a full performance at the Astor Place Theatre in 1991.
Themes
Blue Man performances have a number of themes, including
Science and technology, especially the topics of plumbing, fractals, human sight, DNA, and the Internet
Information overload and information pollution, such as when the audience is asked to choose one of three simultaneous streams of information to read
Innocence, as when the Blue Men appear to be surprised and perplexed by common artifacts of modern society or by audience reactions
Self-conscious and naïve imitation of cultural norms, such as attempting to stage an elegant dinner of Twinkies for an audience member; or following the Rock Concert Instruction Manual with the expectation that following instructions is all it takes to put on a rock concert
Rooftops, or climbing to the top, a metaphor for the directive that Stanton, Wink and Goldman drew from Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers's PBS program The Power of Myth, namely "following your bliss".
Theatrical productions
Current productions
Germany
Berlin at the Bluemax Theater (2006–present)
United States
New York City at the Astor Place Theatre (1991–present)
Boston at the Charles Playhouse (1995–present)
Chicago at the Briar Street Theatre (1997–present)
Las Vegas at the Luxor Hotel and Casino (2015–present)
Touring shows
World Tour (2016–present) – a celebration of life in full color
Speechless Tour (2019–present)
Previous productions
Australia
Sydney at the Sydney Lyric Theatre (2013)
Austria
Vienna at Museumsquartier (2010)
Canada
Toronto at the Panasonic Theatre (2005–2007)
Germany
Berlin at the Theater am Potsdamer Platz (2004–2006)
Oberhausen at the Metronom Theatre (2007–2008)
Stuttgart at the Apollo Theater (2008)
Japan
Tokyo at the Roppongi Invoice Theatre (2007–2009)
Tokyo at the Roppongi Blue Man Theatre (2010–2012)
Netherlands
Amsterdam at the Theater Fabriek (2006–2007)
Norwegian Cruise Line
Norwegian Epic (2010–2015)
Sweden
Stockholm at Göta Lejon (2010)
Switzerland
Basel at Musical Theater Basel (2008)
Zürich at Theater 11 (2010)
United Kingdom
London at the New London Theatre (2005–2007)
United States
Live at Luxor in Las Vegas (2000–2005)
"How to be a Megastar" national arena "rock concert" tour (2003)
Las Vegas, Nevada at The Venetian Resort Hotel Casino (2005–2012)
"How to be a Megastar 2.0" (2006)
Blue Man Group at Universal Orlando Resort's CityWalk (2007–2021)
North America (2010–2016)
Las Vegas at the Blue Man Theatre at Park MGM (2012–2015)
Music and tours
In 1999, the group released Audio, their first studio recording. Although it contained some of the music from their stage productions, it was chiefly a collection of full-length instrumentals featuring new instruments.
In 2002, the group participated in Moby's Area2 tour, giving a more rock-oriented performance than in the theatrical shows. Songs developed during this tour appeared on 2003's album The Complex.
Unlike Audio, The Complex, released in 2003, featured a variety of vocalists and guests including Tracy Bonham, Dave Matthews, Gavin Rossdale and Venus Hum. The record spawned its own 2003 tour, "The Complex Rock Tour," the first headlined by Blue Man Group. The tour deconstructed the traditional rock concert experience into its often clichéd parts and was chronicled in a 2004 DVD release. The tour featured Tracy Bonham and Venus Hum as supporting acts. The DVD included a surround sound mix of some of the studio recordings.
Blue Man Group launched its second tour, "How to Be a Megastar Tour", on September 26, 2006. It featured some new material as well as material from the original Complex Rock Tour, and featured Tracy Bonham as opening act and vocalist. DJ/VJ Mike Relm was the opening act for the tour's second leg, which ended April 22, 2007 in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. The third leg of the tour began in May 2007 and included performances in Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey, Mexico; Buenos Aires, Argentina; São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and Santiago, Chile. The fourth leg, using "2.1" in its title, included more U.S. and Canada dates. The tour visited France, Korea, Canada, Germany, and a few other European countries through 2008. From August 19–23, it visited Taipei, Taiwan to promote its 2009 Summer Deaflympics, with most of the show's dialogue accompanied by subtitles. After Typhoon Morakot hit the island in mid-August, the group held an extra show to benefit flood victims.
Blue Man Group performed with Ricky Martin at the 2007 Latin Grammy Awards and again with Michel Teló at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards.
In 2008, they collaborated on the track "No More Heroes" with Dutch DJ and producer Tiësto for the remixed version of the Elements of Life album.
Announced in 2009, Blue Man Group began performing for the first time at sea on Norwegian Cruise Line's ship Epic. From July 2010 to March 2015, Epic alternated 7-Day Eastern and Western Caribbean sailings from Miami with nightly Blue Man Group shows.
A Blue Man Group national tour in 2010 visited various cities in the United States, Canada and Latin America. The tour included elements from their then-current theatrical performances, and new elements created for the tour.
To celebrate their 20th anniversary, the group gave a special performance with Dave Matthews at the Astor Place Theatre in New York City, collaborating on the song "Sing Along."
To celebrate Blue Man Group's 25th anniversary, a global tour began in Singapore in March 2016. It continued through Asia and Oceania in 2016 and opened for the first time in South Africa in February 2017. It was announced that the tour will continue on to Abu Dhabi and Switzerland later in 2017.
In April 2016, Blue Man Group released Three, their third studio album. Building on the group's previous albums, Three draws inspiration from the group's 25-year history.
In May 2017, Blue Man Group collaborated with the YouTube channel The Slow Mo Guys for a video of several objects being destroyed with bowling balls, including busts of the Blue Men. A Blue Man "autographed" Gavin Free's lab coat (the cleaner of the hosts') by wiping his head on the right shoulder.
On April 27, 2019, Blue Man group gave a special performance at the Orange County Convention Center in Orlando, Florida, during the Grand Opening Session of DECA's International Career Development Conference.
In February 2021, it was revealed that Blue Man Group had collaborated with American pop band AJR on a song called "Ordinaryish People", included on their album OK Orchestra released on March 26, 2021. A music video featuring Blue Man Group was released on February 9, 2022.
Discography
Audio (1999) – Blue Man Group's first album is certified gold (500,000 units) by the RIAA and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Album.
The Complex (2003) – Blue Man Group's second full-length studio album features collaborations with various musicians including Dave Matthews, Gavin Rossdale, and more. This album charted four songs on the Billboard charts.
Live at The Venetian – Las Vegas iTunes exclusive (2006)
THREE (2016) – Released in April 2016 as a completely instrumental album (like Audio), the single Giacometti was released on blue vinyl originally. New instruments such as the "Snorkelbone", "Chimeulum", "Pipeulum", and "Tone Spokes" are introduced on this album.
Videography
The Complex Rock Tour Live DVD (2003) – live concert footage taken from shows in Grand Prairie, Texas
Scoring Reel – a scoring DVD only available in 2004
Robots (2005) – performed on soundtrack for movie
Inside the Tube (2006) – one-hour documentary created for PBS. Features interviews with Stanton, Wink, and Goldman describing the Blue Men, and video clips from various theatrical performances. In "Inside the Tube," press notes state, "the three founders discuss the improbable journey they took from building drums and tube instruments in their living room to having one of the most popular shows in Las Vegas, a gold album, and a successful arena-sized rock tour. The program takes an intimate look inside Blue Man Group's unique creative process and provides never before revealed insight into some of the underlying themes of their work. The founders also cite some of their influences, including a public PBS program that impacted them at a pivotal moment in their career.""Blue Man Group: Inside the Tube" Airs on PBS Dec. 6 | Playbill Available through the PBS store and also as an extra on the How To Be A Megastar Live! DVD.
How to Be a Megastar Live! (2008) – live concert footage from Blue Man Group's newest tour. It was released on DVD on April 1 and Blu-ray on November 4, 2008. The DVD version includes an additional audio CD of many of the show's songs.
Space Chimps (2008) – performed several songs on the soundtrack for the movie
Books
In 2016, Blue Man Group released their first book, Blue Man World published by Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers.
Television
Advertising
Intel – Blue Man Group appeared in advertisements for the Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Centrino line of processors.
TIM Brasil – Blue Man Group was the face of TIM Brasil, a telecommunications company in Brazil.
Programming
The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (1992–94, 1997–2001, 2003–2005, 2007) Blue Man Group appeared on the premiere of Leno's version of The Tonight Show, prompting him to state, "This is not your father's Tonight Show." They appeared on the show 17 times, often involving audience members and celebrity guests, including Robin Williams and Mel Gibson. One Blue Man Group episode won an Emmy for The Tonight Show.
The Drew Carey Show (2001) – During the episode "Drew Live III," the Blue Man Group experimented on Drew Carey as he slept on the train, making it look like he had sex with his nemesis, Mimi Bobeck. At the end of the show, it was revealed that their motive was for Drew to kill himself out of embarrassment so that they, along with John Ratzenberger, could take over the show.
Arrested Development (2004) – The show approached Blue Man Group about appearing in an episode. The collaboration grew to a storyline where Tobias longed to be a part of Blue Man Group, and, ultimately, his father-in-law "hid from the law" performing as a Blue Man in Las Vegas.
Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman (2007)
Scrubs (2006)
Space Pirates (2007)
Disney Channels Shake It Up (2012) – Blue Man Group guest stars.
NBC's America's Got Talent (2012) – For the season finale, BMG performed "Shake Your Euphemism".
NBC's Today Show (2015) – Blue Man Group performed on a live broadcast from Universal CityWalk. At the end of the performance, Al Roker helped the Blue Men fire confetti from the stage.
NBC's I Can Do That (June 2015) – Alan Ritchson and Joe Jonas trained to become Blue Men.
NBC's The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (October 2015) – During the "Telephone Booth" skit, a Blue Man was a celebrity from the "mystery bench" and was placed in the telephone booth with Hugh Jackman after his opponent, Shaq, answered a question correctly. The trapped Blue Man wrote "help" with blue paint from his head on the telephone booth wall. In another "Telephone Booth" skit, two members of the group joined Jimmy Fallon in his booth after Dwayne Johnson, aided by Romanio Golphin Jr, answered a question correctly. Only two members of the group entered the booth, while the other wandered around the stage, due to the booth also being occupied by WWE wrestler Big Show.
Telemundo's La Voz Kids (July 2016) – During the live finale, Blue Man Group performed alongside the show's top 6 finalists. The kids sang "Applause" by Lady Gaga and three Blue Men and Blue Man Group band members provided the music.
NPR's Tiny Desk Concert (September 2016) – Blue Man Group performed tracks from their studio album Three during a Tiny Desk Takeover
NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris (October 2016) – The Blue Men played instruments alongside Neil Patrick Harris, who got in on the drumming. By the end of the performance, Harris and episode co-host Shaquille O'Neal were doused in blue paint.
AMC's Halt and Catch Fire (August 2017) – In this drama about the first decade of personal computing, Blue Man Group performs at engineer and businessman Gordon Clark's 40th birthday party.
Tru Tv's Impractical Jokers Season 8 episode 5 punishment in the episode "Blue Man Dupe". At a Blue Man Group Concert, Q is forced to rudely ask strangers to get out of their seat; because he thinks that the seat is his, where he later finds an error on his ticket. Later, Q must sit in the front row when the show starts in just his clothes, unlike in a poncho—like everyone else, and get disgusting substances all over him, and made a mess of with things like toilet paper.
CNBC's Deal or No Deal had them support Max Reynolds during his gameplay.
Blue Man Group has also performed on various shows such as an appearance on The Grammy Awards (with Jill Scott and Moby), The Emmy Awards, The Latin Grammy Awards, The Royal Variety Show (for Queen Elizabeth II), Wetten, dass..? (Germany), The Voice (Germany), Regis and Kathie Lee, Regis and Kelly and The Ellen DeGeneres Show.
Awards and nominations
1991 Obie Award (winner)
1992 Drama Desk Award for Unique Theatrical Experience (winner)
1992 Lucille Lortel Special Award
2000 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Album (nominee)
2000 Eddy Award (design)
2010 OBIE Advertising Award
2011 Off Broadway Alliance Awards' Audience Choice Award for Best Long-Running Show (winner)
2012 International Emmy Award nomination for Arts Programming (nominee)
2014 Drum! Magazine Readers Choice Award – Best Percussion Ensemble (winner)
2015 Drum! Magazine Readers Choice Award – Best Percussion Ensemble (winner)
2021 'Blue Man Group X Friends Anniversary' The Telly Awards - Silver Winner: Craft Branded Content
See also
Überschall, a Las Vegas band consisting of past and present members of Blue Man Group
Penn Jillette, a Blue Man affiliate and Las Vegas magician
Stomp
Gear
Nanta
Notes
References
"Blue Man Group: Color them cool" – Orlando Sentinel, January 5, 2007
"Toronto's Blue Period?" – kapiTal magazine, December 2006
"Who killed Blue Man Group?" – Toronto Star, September 29, 2006
"Canuck unions blue over group" – Variety, June 16, 2005
"The Business of Blue Man" – Fortune Small Business, March 2003
"Chris Wink – The Visionary Roots of Blue Man Group" – The Evolver, February 2019
External links
Official websites: General, Germany, Japan, Switzerland
Inc. Magazine profile
Musical groups from New York (state)
Percussion ensembles
American street performers
Virgin Records artists
American performance artists
Performance artist collectives
Performing groups established in 1987
Obie Award recipients
Masked musicians
1987 establishments in New York City
Cirque du Soleil
Las Vegas shows
Companies that have filed for bankruptcy in Canada
Companies that have filed for Chapter 15 bankruptcy
|
417021
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-6-2
|
4-6-2
|
Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, represents the wheel arrangement of four leading wheels on two axles, six powered and coupled driving wheels on three axles and two trailing wheels on one axle. The locomotive became almost globally known as a Pacific type after a New Zealand locomotive that was shipped across the Pacific Ocean.
Overview
The introduction of the design in 1901 has been described as "a veritable milestone in locomotive progress". On many railways worldwide, Pacific steam locomotives provided the motive power for express passenger trains throughout much of the early to mid-20th century, before either being superseded by larger types in the late 1940s and 1950s, or replaced by electric or diesel-electric locomotives during the 1950s and 1960s. Nevertheless, new Pacific designs continued to be built until the mid-1950s.
The type is generally considered to be an enlargement of the Atlantic type, although its prototype had a direct relationship to the Ten-wheeler and Prairie, effectively being a combination of the two types. The success of the type can be attributed to a combination of its four-wheel leading truck which provided better stability at speed than a Prairie, the six driving wheels which allowed for a larger boiler and the application of more tractive effort than the earlier Atlantic, and the two-wheel trailing truck, first used on the New Zealand Prairie of 1885. This permitted the firebox to be located behind the high driving wheels and thereby allowed it to be both wide and deep, unlike the Ten-wheeler which had either a narrow and deep firebox between the driving wheels or a wide and shallow one above.
The type is well-suited to high speed running. The world speed record for steam traction of has been held by a British Pacific locomotive, the Mallard, since 3 July 1938.
Development
The two earliest locomotives, both created in the United States of America, were experimental designs which were not perpetuated. In 1887, the Lehigh Valley Railroad experimented with a Ten-wheeler design with a Strong's patent firebox, a cylindrical device behind the cab which required an extension of the frame and the addition of two trailing wheels to support it. In 1889, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul Railway rebuilt a conventional with trailing wheels as a means of reducing its axle load.
In 1896, six Q class tank locomotives were introduced on the Western Australian Government Railways.
The first true Pacific, designed as such with a large firebox aft of the coupled wheels, was ordered in 1901 by the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) from the Baldwin Locomotive Works of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The NZR Chief Mechanical Engineer, Alfred Beattie, ordered thirteen new Q class locomotives with a sufficiently large firebox that would be able to efficiently burn poor grade lignite coal from eastern South Island mines. Even before they had completed the order from New Zealand, the Baldwin engineers realised the advantages of this new type, and incorporated it into standard designs for other customers. The design was soon widely adopted by designers throughout the world.
Origin of the name
There are different opinions concerning the origin of the name Pacific. The design was a natural enlargement of the existing Baldwin Atlantic type, but the type name may also be in recognition of the fact that a New Zealand designer had first proposed it. Usually, however, new wheel arrangements were named for, or named by, the railroad which first used the type in the United States. In the case of the Pacific, that was the Missouri Pacific Railroad in 1902.
In the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, the first Pacifics were delivered from Kitson & Company in 1903 and designated the Karoo Class, from the region of the Cape Western System of the Cape Government Railways that they were designed to work in.
Global popularity
The Pacific type was used on mainline railways around the world. The railways of New Zealand and Australia were the first in the world to run large numbers of Pacific locomotives, having introduced types in 1901 and 1902 respectively and operating them until the 1960s.
During the first half of the 20th century, the Pacific rapidly became the predominant passenger steam power in North America. Between 1902 and 1930, about 6,800 locomotives of the type were built by North American manufacturers for service in the United States and Canada. With exported locomotives included, about 7,300 were built in total. About 45% of these were built by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO) which became the main builder of the type, and 28% by Baldwin. Large numbers were also used in South America, most of which were supplied by manufacturers in the United Kingdom, the United States and Germany.
Africa was the third continent upon which the Pacific was regularly used, following the introduction of the Karoo class on the Cape Government Railways in the Cape of Good Hope in 1903. The earliest African examples were built in the United Kingdom by Kitson & Company.
The earliest examples of the Pacific in Europe were two French prototypes, introduced in 1907 and designed by the Compagnie du chemin de fer de Paris à Orléans (PO) to overcome the insufficient power of their . Within a few weeks, these were followed by a German Pacific type that, although already designed in 1905, only entered service in late 1907. The next was a British type, introduced in January 1908. By the outbreak of World War I, the type was being widely used on the railways of Continental Europe.
The Pacific type was introduced into Asia in 1907, the same year that it was first used in Europe. By the 1920s, Pacifics were being used by many railways throughout the Asian continent.
In 1923, the Pacific gave its name to Arthur Honegger's orchestral work, Pacific 231, which successfully reflectively interprets the emotive sounds of a steam locomotive. (231 after the French system of counting axles rather than wheels.)
Tank locomotives
During the first two decades of the 20th century, the Pacific wheel arrangement enjoyed limited popularity on tank locomotives. On a locomotive, the trailing wheels support the coal bunker rather than an enlarged firebox and such a locomotive is therefore actually a tank engine version of the Ten-wheeler tender locomotive. Indeed, many of the earliest examples were either rebuilt from tender locomotives or shared their basic design.
Around 1920, it became apparent to designers that the wheel arrangement allowed a too limited bunker size for most purposes, with the result that most later designs of large suburban tank classes were of the Hudson or Adriatic wheel arrangement.
Lifespan
The Pacific became the major express passenger locomotive type on many railways throughout the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. Examples were also built for fast freight and mixed traffic duties. However, due to the increasing weight of trains during the 1940s, larger developments of the type became necessary in the United States and elsewhere. The most notable of these was the Hudson or Baltic type, which had a four-wheel trailing bogie that permitted an even larger firebox, albeit at a loss of some adhesive weight, and the Mountain type which used an extra pair of driving wheels to deliver more tractive effort to the rails. Nevertheless, the Pacific type remained widely used on express passenger trains until the end of steam traction. The last examples were built in the United Kingdom and Japan in the mid-1950s. British Railways introduced its BR Standard Class 6 and BR Standard Class 7 designs in 1951 and 1952, and the final United Kingdom design, the BR Standard Class 8, in 1954.
However, the story of the type did not end in the 1960s. One further mainline example of the LNER Peppercorn Class A1, No. 60163 Tornado, was completed at Darlington by the A1 Steam Locomotive Trust in 2008. Designed to meet modern safety and certification standards, Tornado runs on the United Kingdom's rail network and on mainline-connected heritage railways.
Usage
Argentina
The Vulcan Foundry built twenty Pacific locomotives for the former Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway (BAGSR) in 1926, two of which still survive. A further single 12B class locomotive was built in 1930, and the 12K class of twelve Pacific locomotives was built for the BAGSR by Vulcan in 1938.
In 1930, the Central Argentine Railway (Ferrocarril Central Argentino or FCCA) ordered twenty large three-cylinder PS11 class Pacific locomotives with Caprotti valve gear, which were at the time the most powerful locomotives on the FCCA. In 1939, one of these set up a South American speed record, averaging on the El Cordobes express across the non-stop run from Rosario to Buenos Aires, hauling a 500-ton train and at times attaining a maximum speed of nearly .
The Vulcan Foundry built a further fifty locomotives of a modernised PS12 class version of this design for the nationalised Ferrocarriles Argentinos (FCA) between 1950 and 1953.
Australia
In Australia, the first known example of the wheel arrangement was the Q class tank locomotive of the gauge Western Australian Government Railways (WAGR). The six locomotives were introduced in 1896, but four of them were soon converted to a Hudson configuration.
The WAGR was the largest user of Pacific tender types in Australia. In total, the WAGR operated at least 223 locomotives, acquired between 1902 and 1950, making it by far its most numerous wheel arrangement.
The first simple expansion (simplex) tender locomotives in Australia were ordered from British manufacturers for the WAGR. However, due to slow delivery times by the British companies as a result of full order books and their preference for larger orders, twenty compound expansion locomotives were also ordered from Baldwin Locomotive Works in Pennsylvania and placed in service in 1902, designated the Ec class. From 1923, these locomotives, designed for heavy goods and passenger traffic, were converted into light-lines L class engines, but without altering their wheel arrangement.
The British-built locomotives, the WAGR E class, were built by Nasmyth, Wilson & Company, North British Locomotive Company (NBL) and Vulcan Foundry between 1902 and 1912. These were the first of the type to be introduced in quantity, with 65 locomotives in the class.
Other Pacific type locomotives operated by the WAGR included the twenty-strong C class, introduced in 1902, which were converted from a to a wheel arrangement from 1909.
It was not until the introduction of the WAGR P class in 1924 that Western Australia received what many considered a true Pacific, a large, well balanced locomotive designed primarily for fast passenger traffic. The P class consisted of 25 locomotives, built in 1924 and 1925 by NBL as well as locally at the WAGR's Midland Railway Workshops. The P class engines revolutionised express passenger travel in Western Australia by drastically reducing passenger travel times between destinations.
The first batch of ten WAGR Pr River class locomotives, named after prominent rivers in Western Australia and with a boiler pressure rating of compared to the of the P class, were built in 1938 at the Midland Railway Workshops. Between 1941 and 1944, eight of the P class locomotives were also converted to Pr class. One of them was preserved.
The WAGR U class of fourteen oil burning locomotives, one of which was preserved, were purchased from NBL in 1946 as surplus war-work engines, following the World War II.
The WAGR's final Pacific design was its Pm and Pmr classes of 35 locomotives, introduced in 1950, five of which have been preserved. These locomotives were intended to replace the Pr class, but were quickly relegated to goods workings after proving to be rigid steamers.
The Midland Railway of Western Australia, one of the longest-lived privately owned railways in Australia, followed the WAGR's example by introducing five class C locomotives which were built by Kitson & Company to the Karoo design of the Cape Government Railways as basis.
In the 1920s, heavy Pacific locomotives were introduced by both South Australian Railways (SAR) and Victorian Railways (VR), in response to increasingly heavy passenger trains and the demand for faster services. Although similar in size, power and top speed, their designs reflected different approaches.
The SAR 600 class reflected contemporary American locomotive practice, both in design features and appearance, with two large cylinders. The SAR owned altogether twenty Pacific locomotives, of which the first ten were of the 600 class, supplied by Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom in 1922. The remainder were of the 620 class, built at Islington Railway Workshops between 1936 and 1938.
The VR S class, on the other hand, showed a strong British London & North Eastern Railway influence, with three cylinders and with Gresley conjugated valve gear driving the third inside cylinder. The VR's four S class locomotives were built at Newport Works between 1928 and 1930.
The VR also built a locomotive class, the Dde class that was developed from a successful Dd class design in 1908, intended for outer suburban passenger services in Melbourne.
The gauge Queensland Railways (QR) had two Pacific locomotive classes. Between 1926 and 1947, 83 B18¼ class were introduced to haul mail trains. The prototype, built by QR's Ipswich Workshops, began trial runs on 16 July 1926 and was followed by two batches of eight locomotives in 1927 and 1929. The last locomotive of this class was delivered in 1947. In 1950, QR ordered 35 BB18¼ class locomotives from Vulcan Foundry, developed from the successful B18¼ class. Another twenty were built by Walkers Limited of Maryborough between 1955 and 1958. Of these, no. 1089 was the last mainline steam locomotive to be built in Australia.
The New South Wales Government Railways (NSWGR) introduced its C38 class for express passenger service in 1943. These two-cylinder Pacifics had a free-steaming boiler and were renowned for their performance. Class leader 3801 achieved considerable fame in preservation, with notable feats such as hauling the Western Endeavour, a transcontinental journey from Sydney to Perth in 1970.
The Tasmanian Government Railways owned fourteen Pacific locomotives. Four R class were built for passenger trains by Perry Engineering in Adelaide and ten M class were built by Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns in 1951, and were used on all trains on major lines in northern Tasmania.
Austria
The only Pacific type to be built in Austria was the class 629 tank locomotive of the Imperial Royal Austrian State Railways (kkStB), later the Österreichische Bundesbahnen (ÖBB), of which 95 were built between 1913 and 1927. This highly successful locomotive remained in service until 1975.
The class 629 was later also produced and developed in Czechoslovakia as the class 354.1 of the Czechoslovak State Railways (ČSD). Between 1921 and 1941, 219 of these locomotives were built there and, in addition, seventeen of the original Austrian class 629 locomotives were used there. They survived in service until 1978. Three examples have been preserved. (Also see Czechoslovakia)
The Pacific tender locomotives that worked passenger services in Austria between 1938 and 1945 all belonged to the railways of other countries, such as the Deutsche Reichsbahn, the Czechoslovak State Railways and the Yugoslav State Railways.
Belgium
In 1897, a Type 4 Prairie tender locomotive, built in the 1880s, was fitted with a front bogie, making it the first Belgian Pacific. This rebuilt was not extended to the other 90 Type 4.
Apart from several Pacifics built for foreign railways by Belgian locomotive builders, only two "true" Pacific classes were built for Belgian railways (Belgian State Railways, later SNCB).
The type 10 was a heavy 4-6-2 built between 1910 and 1912 and radically improved between the 1920s and the 1930s. These 59 engines were used on several main lines; they were the best passenger engines on the challenging until the line was electrified in 1956;
The type 1, built in 1935 (15 engines) and 1938 (20), were more modern and had a much wider firebox. They were mostly used on medium inclines and easier lines. They ran until 1962.
Bulgaria
The Bulgarian State Railways (BDZ) bought its first four-cylinder simple expansion Pacific type locomotive from John Cockerill of Belgium in 1912. This lone engine hauled express trains from Sofia to Svilengrad and was rebuilt in 1933.
In 1938, BDZ improved its express service between Sofia and Burgas and placed an order with Krupp in Germany for five three-cylinder Pacific type locomotives. Because of the disruption caused by World War II, the locomotives were only delivered to Bulgaria in 1941. They had cylinders, coupled wheels and were capable of a maximum speed of . They were initially designated class 07.01 to 07.05, but in 1942 their classification was changed to 05.01 to 05.05. They all survived until the end of steam traction in Bulgaria in the 1980s. Engine no. 05.01 has since been restored and, as of 2015, was in working order.
Burma
Burma was administered as a province of British India from 1886 until 1937. In 1932, the Vulcan Foundry built three locomotives of the YC class for the Burma Railways. Since most of Burma's locomotive stock was destroyed during the Japanese occupation of Burma in the World War II, Vulcan Foundry delivered sixty Pacific locomotives of the YB class in 1947, after the war.
Canada
Canadian Pacific (CP) employed several Pacific classes, beginning with 39 G1 class locomotives, built between 1906 and 1914 by the CP at its Angus Shops and by the Montreal Locomotive Works. After 1921, 166 examples of a new G2 class locomotive with a superheater were built by the American Locomotive Company at Schenectady, Angus and Montreal. The last of these remained in service until 1961.
After World War I, the CP needed heavier mixed-traffic locomotives since steel passenger cars replaced the older wooden ones on its mainlines. This resulted in the introduction in 1919 of 23 G3a class with driving wheels, built by Angus for service over flat terrain, and five G4 class locomotives with smaller drivers, built by Montreal for hilly terrain. A further 152 G3 class locomotives were built in batches between 1926 and 1948. These locomotives were withdrawn from service between 1954 and 1965.
102 examples of the G5 class locomotive were built after 1944. The first two were built by Angus and the rest by Montreal and the Canadian Locomotive Company. They were considered fast, efficient and handsome locomotives and remained in service on many secondary lines of the CP until the end of steam.
The Reid-Newfoundland Company Limited, which operated the railways in Newfoundland, took delivery of ten Pacific locomotives with drivers between 1920 and 1929, built by Baldwin, Montreal and ALCO Schenectady. Numbered 190 to 199, they had two cylinders and weighed 56.3 tons. They all passed to the Government-owned Newfoundland Railway, and then to Canadian National (CN) when Newfoundland joined the Confederation of Canada. CN renumbered them 591 to 599 and classified them as J-8-a (BLW 54398–54401 and 54466–54467 of 1920), J-8-b (BLW 59531 and MLW 67129, both of 1926) and J-8-c (ALCO-Schenectady 67941–67942 of 1929).
They were the only Pacific-type locomotives built to operate on gauge in North America. The only surviving Newfoundland steam locomotive, the Newfoundland Railway no. 193, later CN no. 593, is preserved and on display at the Humbermouth Historic Train Site in Newfoundland. (Also see )
China
The Japanese introduced several classes of Pacific locomotive during their occupation of Manchuria, but the Pashiro became the standard and was China's most numerous class of steam passenger locomotive. Between 1933 and 1944, around 272 were built for the South Manchuria Railway (SMR), the Manchurian National Railway and the railways of occupied North China. They were built by various Japanese builders, including Dalian and Sifang, while the SMR's own workshops were also involved in the construction.
The Japanese-built Pashina locomotives were used on the Asia Express train between 1934 and 1943, during Japanese control of the SMR. These were built by Kawasaki and Dalian.
The name Shengli (Victory) was used for all classes of Pacific inherited by the new China in 1951. The Pashiro became the Shengli 6 (SL6 class), while the Pashina locomotives were designated Shengli 7 (SL7 class) under Chinese ownership.
The Sifang works resumed production of SL6 class locomotives in 1956 and completed 151 locomotives before moving on to RM class construction in 1958. The inability of the class to haul the heavier passenger trains that were introduced in the 1970s and 1980s, saw them progressively being re-allocated to secondary duties. By 1990, most of the survivors were concentrated in Manchuria at the Dashiqiao, Jilin and Baicheng depots.
The RM class was China's last steam passenger design. It was a late 1950s development of the successful pre-war SL6 class Pacific and became the standard passenger class. The class, numbered RM 1001 to 1258, entered service in 1958 and a total of 258 were built before production ceased in 1966. In the 1970s, they were gradually displaced from premier services by locomotives more suited to handling heavier trains and they ended their service lives on secondary passenger duties.
Czechoslovakia
Between 1926 and 1967, two Pacific tender locomotive classes were built in Czechoslovakia and operated by the Czechoslovak State Railways (Československé státní dráhy or ČSD). These were the ČSD Class 387.0 and Class 399.0 express passenger locomotives.
The 2100 horsepower Pacific Class 387.0 was the most successful of these, nicknamed Mikádo because of its short chimney. Between 1926 and 1937, 43 were built in five series by the Škoda Works in Plzeň, intended for the heaviest long-distance express trains. This class is considered to have been among the most successful locomotives in Europe. The locomotives began to be withdrawn in 1967, with the last one being retired in 1974. One locomotive, no. 387.043, has been preserved. (Also see Austria)
Egypt
Prior to 1954, the Egyptian State Railways used Atlantic or Ten-wheeler types on express passenger trains. However, in 1953 a requirement arose for a locomotive capable of hauling 550-tonne trains over the from Cairo to Alexandria in two hours. These were originally going to be Hudson locomotives, but the specification was eased to suit a 500-tonne train load, allowing a type to be used.
They were ordered from Société Alsacienne (SACM) at Grafenstaden in France. The class was unusual in being designed for oil burning, with a long narrow firebox and combustion chamber fitted between the plate frames. They had a short lifespan in express train service, since the 1956 war put an end to fast train running in Egypt. The Pacifics were then transferred to haul slower night express trains to Luxor and Aswan. Some remained in service up to 1967.
Ethiopia
The French-owned Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia, with of trackage, had four Pacific type locomotives on its roster.
The first one was bought from Forges, Usines et Fonderies de Haine-Saint-Pierre in Belgium in 1923. This locomotive had been ordered by the Spanish railway Ferrocarril Madrid-Aragon in 1914, prior to the outbreak of the World War I, but it was never delivered for reasons unknown. The locomotive used saturated steam and had coupled wheels, which made it well suited to run the between Addis Abeba and Dire Dawa in Ethiopia. (Also see Spain)
Three more similar Pacific locomotives, but superheated, were ordered in 1936. They arrived after the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and were allocated to the Addis Abeba and Dire Dawa sheds. They continued to haul passenger trains until the mainline diesels arrived in 1956, after which all were soon withdrawn from service and scrapped in the early 1960s.
Finland
Twenty-two Pacific locomotives of the Class Hr1, numbers 1000 to 1021 and named Ukko-Pekka after the nickname of Finnish President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, were constructed in Finland by Tampella and Lokomo between 1937 and 1957. They were the largest passenger locomotives to be built and used in Finland and remained the primary locomotives on express trains for Southern Finland until 1963, when the class Hr12 diesel locomotives took over.
The last two Class Hr1 locomotives to be built in 1957, numbers 1020 and 1021, Lokomo works numbers 474 and 475, were equipped throughout with SKF C-type roller bearings, even on the coupled rod big ends, and represented a fine combination of American and German locomotive building practices. They were, along with the Deutsche Bundesbahn class 10, the last new-built Pacific type locomotives in Europe.
When tested after delivery from Lokomo or Tampella, each locomotive reached , but in everyday service their speed was limited to . All the locomotives were initially located at Pasila depot in Helsinki, but in 1959 the last seven to be built were transferred to Kouvola depot.
By European standards, Class Hr1 locomotives ran high annual kilometre figures, between per locomotive per year between 1937 and 1963. The two fully roller bearing-equipped locomotives even exceeded the mark in 1961, the highest annual kilometre figure to be obtained by a steam locomotive in Northern Europe. The only similar annual kilometres by European Pacific type locomotives were run in Germany and by the roller bearing-equipped Peppercorn Class A1 locomotives of the London and North Eastern Railway in the United Kingdom.
At least twelve class Hr1 locomotives were preserved as at April 2008, of which two were in operational condition. These were no. 1021, owned by the VR Group, and the privately owned no. 1009. No. 1001 was reserved for the Railway Museum in Hyvinkää and no. 1002 was reserved for the city of Helsinki as a possible static monument.
France
France was a major user of the Pacific type. Following the introduction of two successful Paris à Orléans prototypes in 1907, a further 1,362 Pacific locomotives were built for or acquired by the major French railway companies, including those acquired from Germany following the terms of the Armistice in 1918.
The Paris à Orléans ordered a further 98 Pacific locomotives that were delivered between 1908 and 1910, and another 89 in 1909 and 1910. Another fifty were ordered from the American Locomotive Company in 1921 and forty of the type TP-État were bought in 1923. The company was particularly famous for the Chapelon Pacifics of 1929 to 1932.
The L'Ouest followed with two prototype locomotives in 1908, but did not continue with the Pacific type.
The Alsace-Lorraine built eight Pacific locomotives in 1909, at the time when the railway was still under German control. These became French locomotives in 1920.
The Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée (PLM) was the largest French user of Pacific locomotives, owning 462, built between 1909 and 1932. These were both compound and simple locomotives and were built both with and without superheaters. Large numbers were later rebuilt to compounds or to incorporate superheaters by both the PLM and the state-owned Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français (SNCF).
The Nord built 139 Pacific locomotives from 1912, including the various so-called Superpacific types of 1923 to 1931. The company also ordered Chapelon type rebuilds from the Paris à Orléans in 1934, and new-built locomotives between 1936 and 1938.
The L'État owned 352 Pacific locomotives, some of which were transferred from the Bavarian Railways and Württemberg Railways as Armistice reparations in 1918.
The Midi likewise owned altogether forty Pacific locomotives, acquired in three batches.
The eastern L'Est never built a , preferring its Ten-wheeler types until it progressed straight to the much larger Mountain type. The L'Est nevertheless bought Pacific locomotives to the designs of other companies, including forty TP-État type class 11 s locomotives between 1921 and 1923, and twelve class 12 s Chapelon rebuilds in 1934.
After nationalisation in 1938, the SNCF built no more Pacifics, although it continued to rebuild some of the existing stock running on lines already established by the private railway companies, particularly by continuing to apply the great improvements brought about by the work of André Chapelon.
Germany
The first Pacific locomotive for a German railway was the Baden IV f class for the Grand Duchy of Baden State Railways (), designed by Maffei in 1905. However, due to manufacturing delays, the first three locomotives were not introduced until 1907, shortly after the first French Pacifics. They were four-cylinder compound locomotives of the Von Borries type. After the Maffei locomotives, a further 32 were built under license by Maschinenbau-Gesellschaft Karlsruhe and delivered between 1907 and 1913.
While they were successful in the mountainous regions of the G.Bad.St.E., their small driving wheels led to overheating at high speed on level track. Consequently, a new design was created, the Baden IV h, twenty of which were built by Maffei between 1918 and 1920. Most lasted to the end of World War II, with four surviving as test locomotives – three for Deutsche Bundesbahn and one for Deutsche Reichsbahn. Three of these four have survived into preservation.
However, the most successful early German Pacific class was the Bavarian S 3/6 class of the Royal Bavarian State Railways (Königliche Bayerische Staats-Eisenbahnen), designed by Anton Hammel and Heinrich Leppla of Maffei. This was a larger development of the Baden IV f class, with a four-cylinder compound arrangement. Altogether 159 of them were built between 1908 and 1931, with the last one being retired from ordinary service in 1969.
When the various pre-First World War Pacific locomotives from the different German state railway companies were grouped together by the Deutsche Reichsbahn as the Class 18 with seven sub-classes, the Baden Class IV f became the DRG 18.2 class while the Bavarian S 3/6 class became the DRG 18.4-5 class.
During the 1920s and 1930s the Deutsche Reichsbahn continued to build new Pacific designs, such as the Class 01.10 to Class 03.10 subclasses.
The Class 01, a two-cylinder standard type of the Deutsche Reichsbahn introduced between 1926 and 1938, was the first standardised steam express passenger locomotive class to be built for the unified German railway system.
The Class 02 four-cylinder compound locomotive version was less successful, being costly to maintain. Only ten were built and all of them were rebuilt into two-cylinder 01 class locomotives between 1937 and 1942.
The Class 03 was a lighter version of the 01 class, built between 1930 and 1938. Ten locomotives of the 03.10 class remained in Poland after World War II and were designated the Polish State Railways (PKP) class Pm3. (Also see Poland)
In 1957, only two prototypes of the streamlined Class 10 were built by Krupp for the Deutsche Bundesbahn. They were nicknamed Schwarze Schwäne (Black Swans) and survived until 1968.
Hungary
The Hungarian locomotive builder MÁVAG (Magyar Királyi Államvasutak Gépgyára) built several classes of locomotives after 1914, both for the Hungarian State Railways (Magyar Államvasutak or MÁV) and for export elsewhere in Europe. MÁV Pacific number 301.016 has been preserved at the Hungarian Railway Heritage Park Museum in Budapest.
India
The earliest Indian locomotives were two Class C locomotives, built for the narrow gauge Darjeeling Himalayan Railway by the North British Locomotive Company in 1914. Both were retired in 1976. From the mid-1920s until the 1970s, the Pacific type became very common on both the broad gauge and narrow gauge lines in India.
Broad gauge
In 1924, the Locomotive Standards Committee of the Indian Government recommended eight basic types of locomotive for use on the sub-continent, three of which were . These were the XA class for branch line passenger working, the XB class for light passenger trains and the XC class for heavy passenger trains. The Vulcan Foundry built large numbers of all these classes for the different Indian railways between the late 1920s and early 1930s, beginning with fourteen each for the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) and the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR) in 1927.
In 1937, two XP class locomotives were built for the GIPR by Vulcan Foundry. These were experimental locomotives that formed the basis for India's renowned WP class, designed by Railway Board designers in India specifically to use low-calorie, high-ash Indian coal. The WP class was introduced after World War II and remained the most prestigious locomotive of the Indian Railways (IR) until the 1980s. A few reconditioned WP class locomotives were later sold to countries in the Middle East.
There were also two WL classes. The first four locomotives, built in 1939 by Vulcan Foundry for the North Western State Railway, went to Pakistan upon the India-Pakistan partition. A second Indian WL class was introduced in 1955 and ten of these locomotives were built by Vulcan Foundry.
Narrow gauge
The Bengal Nagpur Railway had a saturated C class, a superheated CS class, and a CC class comprising C class locomotives that had been converted from saturated to superheated steam.
The South India Railway (SIR) ordered six YB class and two XB class Pacific locomotives from the Vulcan Foundry in 1928.
The Mysore State Railway had the E, ES and ES/1 classes.
The Scindia State Railway had a class of eight NM class locomotives, built by W. G. Bagnall in 1931.
The only post-World War II on narrow gauge Indian Railways were the five ZP class locomotives with six-wheel tenders, built by Nippon Sharyo in Japan in 1954.
Indonesia
In the early of 20th century, Staatsspoorwegen operated 4-4-0 two-cylinder compound SS Class 600 as express locomotives for mixed freight-passenger traffics in Java. SS imported 44 units of them in 1900-1908 from Hanomag, Hartmann and Werkspoor worked as the workhorse of express trains. In 1908, the line between Cheribon–Kroya had been built which shortened the travel time between Batavia and Surabaya. By the increase in the volume of freight and passenger transports, the SS 600s were felt to be not so fast and sufficient to serve the increasing flow of transports. As a result, SS ordered the new express locomotive to Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works (SLM) and Sächsische Maschinenfabrik (Hartmann) with specifications that it could haul a series of freights in flat-line weighing up to 300 tons and gain a top speed of 80 kilometres per hour (50 miles per hour). They received 11 units of their two-cylinder superheated 4-6-2 from SLM in 1911 and 1912, while the rest of 5 were from Hartmann in 1911 and 1914 and classified as the SS Class 700 (701-716). In a number of locomotive performance tests on the Cikampek-Pegadenbaru line in 1913, another on the Maos-Jogja line in 1914 and on Cikampek-Cheribon line in 1915, these locomotives could reach speeds of more than 120 kilometres per hour (75 miles per hour) and gained world fastest cape gauge locomotive in 1914-1915. SS remarked on the SS Class 700 as engine that had fast and stable performance and soon they were placed in Meester Cornelis, Jogjakarta, Madiun and Surabaya depots. By 1927, SS 701-705 were allocated to South Sumatra division (ZSS) for passenger and freight train transports.
With all the advantages of SS Class 700s followed by the increasing of demands and traffics, the SS was attracted in making their new faster and stronger locomotives. Therefore, they sent a proposal to Dutch engineers and were manufactured in Netherlands by Nederlandsche Fabriek van Werktuigen en Spoorwegmaterieel (Werkspoor). Twenty of new advanced 4-6-2 locomotives arrived in 1920–1922 and classified as SS Class 1000 (1001-1020) with a driver's cabin design that tapered to forward giving the impression of grace and speed, in addition of wheel arrangement supplemented with four compound cylinders and superheater was expected to provide the faster, more stability and fuel efficiency that required to haul express trains, but this was not achieved. At the first of the performance test, the locomotive had shown poor performance especially when driven at speeds over 90 kilometres per hour (55 miles per hour). There some complaints that the SS Class 1000 locomotives were oscillated showed by record that the stocker couldn't put a shovel of coal into firebox due to hard shaking when driven at speeds above 100 kilometres per hour (67 miles per hour), while excessive wear on the third driving wheels and there was design error in manufacturing which led to maintenance difficulties (in other records, they had a design flaw at the trailing wheels causing instability). However, SS still preserved it as the main engine hauling express trains with high maintenance costs. SS also recalled the SS 700s along with the 4-6-4T SS 1300s to haul express trains by bringing back their achievements on speed and stability. Ironically, the myriad achievements of the SS Class 700 were overshadowed by SS Class 1000 when worked to haul the Eendaagsche and Java Nacht express trains by 1929 and mid 1930s.
After Japanese occupation and Indonesian Independence, both locomotives renumbered as C50 and C53. The majority of the class had been scrapped after independence (around 1960-70s). It could be said the C50 classes were the extinct class of express locomotives due to lack of documentations and they were scrapped when the last 2 of them were still operating in Tanjungkarang around 1970s. The last survivor of C53 was number 17, which lasted until the final days of steam locomotives in Indonesia. During its last days in service before retirement, it was used to haul local passenger trains between Bangil and Surabaya Kota and now preserved as static display at the Transportation Museum of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah.
Iraq
When the Baghdad Railway was nearing completion between Mosul and the town of Tel Kotchek on the border with Syria, the Iraqi State Railways ordered four streamlined Pacific locomotives from Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns in the United Kingdom, to haul the international Taurus Express between Istanbul in Turkey and Baghdad in Iraq on the Iraqi stage of its journey.
Three were delivered in 1941 and designated the PC class, but the fourth was lost en route. When the Iraqi standard gauge railways were dieselised in the 1960s, the class was withdrawn from service.
Italy
Between 1911 and 1914, 33 Pacific locomotives of the 690 class were built for the Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane (Italian State Railways), twenty by Breda in Milan, ten by Ansaldo in Genoa and three by Officine Meccaniche in Milan.
Between 1928 and 1931, these locomotives were rebuilt with larger boilers and reclassified as Class 691. One of them, no. 691.011, established the Italian speed record for steam locomotives at .
The whole class was withdrawn between 1962 and 1963. One locomotive, no. 691.022, has been preserved at the Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia di Milano (National Museum of Science and Technology of Milan).
Japan
The Japanese Government Railways built a number of designs between 1920 and the 1950s. The most notable was possibly the JNR Class C51, the first Japanese-built high-speed passenger locomotive, used for express services on the Tōkaidō mainline and later on regional trunk lines. Five of these locomotives were built in 1920.
Other Japanese Pacific designs included the C52 class, built from 1926 to 1929, the C53 class, built from 1928 to 1929, the C54 class, built in 1931, the C55 class, the C57 class built from 1937 to 1953, and the C59 class.
The C57 Class, of which 201 were built by Kawasaki, Kisha Seizō, Mitsubishi and Hitachi, was the JNR's last steam locomotive and was used until 1975 to work passenger trains on the Muroran mainline between Iwamizawa and Muroran in Hokkaido.
Malawi
The Nyasaland Railways (the Malawi Railways after independence) obtained six Class F Pacific type locomotives from the British War Department in 1946, to work on the Trans-Zambesi Railway (TZR). The locomotives had been built by the North British Locomotive Company in 1942 and were numbered TZR 25 to 30. All six were still in service on the Malawi Railways in 1973.
Malaysia
The Malayan Railway was amongst the earliest railways in Asia to adopt Pacific type locomotives. Sixty locomotives of the Federated Malay States Railways (FMSR) Class H were built between 1907 and 1914. With a small volume of highly rated freight traffic, it was possible to adopt standard engines for both passenger and freight services. Three coupled axles were sufficient to move the trains at moderate speeds over the whole Malayan rail network.
As a result of experience gained with the first batch of locomotives, the design of Malayan Pacific locomotives was finalised and 68 engines of this design were eventually built. They had bar frames, steel fireboxes and three cylinders, each of . The coupled wheels were in diameter. The heating surface of the boiler was , of which was superheating surface, while the grate area was . The total weight in working order was 60.5 tons, with a maximum axle load of 12.9 tons. Its maximum speed in ordinary service was . The three cylinders were provided with rotary cam poppet valves with the camshaft divided into two parts, independently driven from each side of the engine, which avoided complete immobilisation in case of a breakdown on a long stretch of single track. These locomotives were all later converted to burn oil fuel.
During World War II, after the fall of Singapore, the Japanese Southern Army's Railway Engineering Troops transferred a number of older Malayan Pacific locomotives to operate their Taimen Rensetsu Tetsudo, the Thailand-Burma Railway. Some Pacifics were not returned to Malaya after the war but remained in Thailand. When the rail connection was established between the Malayan and Thai railways, the Pacifics were a common sight at the head of the Singapore and Bangkok expresses as well as on the other passenger trains in domestic Malayan service.
After the arrival of the mainline diesel-electric locomotives in the latter part of the 1950s, the Pacifics were transferred to less important trains. Many survived up the end of Malayan steam traction in the 1970s.
Mexico
The Canadian National (CN) sold a gauge Pacific locomotive, the former CN no. 591, to Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México, where it was numbered 139. (Also see Canada)
Mozambique
The Caminhos de Ferro de Lourenço Marques in Portuguese Mozambique ordered its first three class 300 Pacific locomotives from Baldwin in 1919. They hauled passenger trains on the line between Lourenço Marques (Maputo) and Ressano Garcia, and also crossed the South African border at Komatipoort in South Africa, from Lourenço Marques, where South African Railways locomotives took over for the rest of the way to Pretoria. Two more locomotives were added in 1923 and a further order for four additional Pacific locomotives was placed with Henschel in 1955, for use on the Beira–Bulawayo railway line.
Henschel also supplied three more modern Pacific type locomotives to Mozambique in 1955. These Henschel Pacifics weighed 73.75 tons in working order while its total weight, tender included, was 128 tons. The firegrate area was and it had cylinders and driving wheels. These locomotives were good examples of Pacific type passenger locomotives in Southern Africa. When they arrived, their older American-built counterparts were relieved of mainline duty to haul the Lourenço Marques local suburban services. All the Pacifics were allocated to the Lourenço Marques shed for the whole of their service lives and all were still in service in 1971.
New Zealand
The first true Pacifics, the original thirteen Q class locomotives built by Baldwin for the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) in 1901, worked until withdrawal in 1957. None has been preserved.
These were followed by 58 Pacific locomotives of the A class, built in 1906 by the NZR's Addington Railway Workshops and by A & G Price Limited. Two of these have been preserved. A further ten locomotives of the AA class were built by Baldwin in 1914.
The most notable class in New Zealand was the AB class, built between 1915 and 1927 by Addington, Price and the North British Locomotive Company in Scotland. These were reputed to be the first locomotives to generate one horsepower for every of weight and eventually became the most numerous class of steam locomotives in New Zealand, with a total of 143 built, and a further 12 rebuilt from WAB class Hudson tank engines. When they were superseded by new locomotives on the principal express and heaviest freight trains during the 1930s, they were used on secondary duties. The AB class locomotives remained in service until 1969, two years before the end of steam locomotive operations in New Zealand. As a result, seven of them have been preserved.
One further type was the G class. These were six three-cylinder Pacific locomotives that were rebuilt from three unsuccessful G class Garratt locomotives by NZR's Hillside Workshops in 1937. They were equipped with AB class boilers, new roller bearing trailing trucks, new cabs and Vanderbilt type tenders of similar design to that of the AB class. Like the Garratts they were created from, the rebuilds were not considered successful.
In 1960 Ted Blomfield, locomotive fitter at Rotorua, New Zealand, built a Super Q Pacific for the 1 foot gauge Toot and Whistle Railway. The engine operated at Toot and Whistle's Kuirau park railway for six years before officialdom demanded the locomotive be retired. It was replaced by a Black Five replica. Another Super Q exists as a 5 inch-gauge engine.
Nigeria
Between 1926 and 1928, the gauge Nigerian Railways ordered ten Class 405 Pacifics from Nasmyth, Wilson & Company in Manchester, for express services on the line between Lagos and Kano. They used saturated steam and had outside cylinders and driving wheels. All ten were named and they hauled named trains like the North Mail and Boat Express, both averaging only between stops. They were ousted from principal passenger trains when the first mainline diesel locomotives arrived, but continued working less important secondary train services well into the 1970s.
Philippines
The Manila Railroad (MRR) operated two classes of this type. Unlike with most rail operators of the time, this was not the most popular wheel arrangement in its mainline steam locomotive fleet as types that had eight driving wheels such as 4-8-2 and 2-8-2 were more successful in the country.
The first were six 120 class 4-6-2T tank units built by the North British Locomotive Company of Glasgow. They were first built in 1906 and entered service in 1908. These were primarily used on various services on what was the PNR North Main Line. As larger tender locomotives built by American firms started entering service in the early 1920s, these were relegated to branch line and switching services. By 1952, only one unit survived and it was scrapped not long after. An expansion of the class was ordered in 1910. However, these two tank locomotives that were numbered 127 and 128, were 4-6-4T Baltic types which entered service in 1917.
The second were ten 140 class locomotives built by Baldwin between 1926 and 1929 as part of the modernization efforts of the MRR to replace its aging British-built tank locomotives throughout its network. These were used on express services on what is now the PNR South Main Line. In 1946, a number of these units were the first to return to service among the agency's prewar fleet. By 1952, only two locomotives were in service. These were removed from service in 1956 and were scrapped in the 1960s.
Poland
In the Polish State Railways (Polskie Koleje Państwowe or PKP) locomotive classification system, locomotives with a 2C1 ( ) axle arrangement were identified with the letter "m" in the class prefix. Express locomotives therefore had a "Pm" prefix, passenger locomotives an "Om" prefix and tank passenger locomotives an "OKm" prefix.
The PKP class Pm36 consisted of two experimental Polish prototype express locomotives, built by Fablok of Chrzanów in 1937. One of them, no. Pm36-1, was streamlined, while the other had a standard appearance in order to compare their respective performances in terms of top speed, acceleration and coal and water consumption.
The Pm36-1 won a gold medal at the International Exposition of Modern Art and Technology in Paris in 1937. It was damaged and later scrapped during World War II, but Pm36-2 survived and worked on the PKP until 1965, when it was given to the Warsaw Railway Museum. In 1995, it was rebuilt and restored to mainline specifications and nicknamed Beautiful Helene. As of 2011, while still remaining museum property, the locomotive was in regular service at Wolsztyn.
Besides these two Polish-built locomotives, several German DRG class 03, class 0310 and class 181 locomotives (ex Württemberg Class C) and Austrian class 629 tank locomotives saw service in Poland as the classes Pm2, Pm3, Om101 and OKm11 respectively. (Also see Germany) and (Austria)
One narrow gauge Pacific locomotive, the Belgijka, built in 1935 by Ateliers Métallurgiques in Nivelles and Tubize in Belgium, was also used in Poland and is preserved at the Narrow Gauge Railway Museum in Wenecja, Poland.
Portugal
The Portuguese Railways (Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses or CP) had two batches of Pacific 2C1-h2 class locomotives running on its broad gauge lines, built by Henschel & Son in 1924 and 1925. The first batch of ten locomotives, numbered 551 to 560, were used on lines south of the river Tagus, while the second batch of eight, numbered 501 to 508, were built for the Porto line north of the Tagus. Both Pacific classes had deep and narrow fireboxes and the same cylinders, coupled wheels and motion as the Ten-wheelers of the class CP 351 to 370.
The Pacifics were capable of very fast running. Before World War II, the CP was renowned for the speed of its trains. The track was carefully maintained, laid with rails, and the speed limit of was frequently reached with steam locomotives.
In normal service, these engines could haul 400 tons behind the tender at on level track. In 1939, a four-coach train weighing 170 tons and hauled by a Pacific locomotive of the class 501-508, covered the from Porto to Lisbon-Campolide in 189 minutes, at an average speed of , with stops at Papilhosa and Entroncamento. A distance of of slightly falling, level or slightly rising gradient could be covered at speeds of , while station stops lasting less than a minute were frequent.
These locomotives began to be replaced by diesels in the 1960s and disappeared from the scene in the early 1970s. One of the Pacific locomotives, no. 553, is preserved at the Santarém depot museum.
Russia/Soviet Union
Pacifics were not common in Russia. The only known examples were the four-cylinder L class express passenger locomotives, built by the Putilov Works at Saint Petersburg for the Vladikavkaz Railway in 1914. The chief designer was Vazlav Lopushinskii, who later emigrated from Soviet Russia. These locomotives were the most powerful passenger locomotives in Tsarist Russia. Eighteen locomotives were built between 1914 and 1919, allocated to the Rostov-on-Don, Tihoretskaya, Kavkazkaya, Armavir and Mineralnye Vody depots. They hauled principal express and heavy passenger trains between Rostov-on-Don and Vladikavkaz, a distance of . All were oil fired.
After the October Revolution, a further 48 L class locomotives were built at Putilov Works between 1922 and 1926. At first, these coal fired locomotives were allocated to the October Railway to haul principal passenger trains over a distance of of double track line between the two largest cities in Soviet Russia, Moscow and Leningrad. At the time, train speeds in Soviet Russia were slow and the fastest train took fourteen hours and thirty minutes between the two cities. The trains, which were running four return workings daily, were rather heavy with train loads often exceeding 700 metric tons behind the tender. In 1936, the express trains were running at an average speed of with four intermediate stops between these cities. Locomotives were usually changed at Tver.
When the production of the heavier Berkshire class IS Joseph Stalin got under way in 1937, the Pacifics were modified from coal to oil firing and transferred to join other older locomotives on the North Caucasus lines, from where they worked as far south as to Baku. In 1941, seventeen locomotives were allocated to the North Caucasus Railway, 29 to the Transcaucasus Railway and six to the Orenburg Railway. In 1942, during the German summer invasion into North Caucasus, all the class L Pacifics were evacuated from there to the Transcaucasus Railway. After World War II, in 1947, they were designated Lp class and were relieved from heavier duties. A number were withdrawn from service between 1956 and 1959. The last one, Lp class no. 151, was retired from Grozny depot in 1967.
In 1945, 34 Pacific locomotives of the Deutsche Reichsbahn's Class 03 and two streamlined Class 03.10 Pacific locomotives fell into Russian hands in East Prussia. They were regauged to gauge and allocated to the Lithuanian Railways, where they hauled express and passenger trains from Vilnius to Kaliningrad (Königsberg) and to Minsk. The last ones were withdrawn from service in 1957.
South Africa
Cape gauge
Natal Government Railways
The first use of the wheel arrangement in South Africa was c. 1890. During 1887, designs for a 2-8-2 Mikado type tank-and-tender locomotive were prepared by the Natal Government Railways (NGR). The locomotive was built in the Durban workshops and entered service in 1888, named Havelock, but it was soon rebuilt to a 4-6-2 Pacific configuration. Havelock was the first locomotive to be designed and built in South Africa. During the Second Boer War Havelock saw action in service on armoured trains. Unlike usual practice in such cases, the engine was not equipped with armour plate protection, but was draped in strands of thick hemp rope which earned it the apt nickname Hairy Mary amongst the troops.
In 1901, the NGR rebuilt one of its Class K&S tank locomotives to a locomotive to extend its range by providing a larger bunker. In 1912, when it was assimilated into the South African Railways (SAR), it was designated Class C1. In that same year, four more of these locomotives were built from surplus material in the SAR's Durban workshops.
No more tank locomotives with the Pacific wheel arrangement saw use on in South Africa. Two Class 2 variants were introduced on the NGR between 1905 and 1910.
In 1905, two Class A Pacific tender locomotives entered service on the NGR, designed by Locomotive Superintendent D.A. Hendrie and built by NBL. They had plate frames, used saturated steam and had Stephenson valve gear. To accommodate the wide and deep firebox, Hendrie used a bridle casting similar to that introduced on the CGR by Beatty with his Class 6 2-6-2 Prairie in 1903. This method of widening the frames for the firebox continued in South African locomotive design until 1927, when the general adoption of bar frames rendered it no longer necessary. In 1912, they were designated Class 2 on the SAR.
In addition, two more Class A locomotives, also known as Class Hendrie C, were built in the NGR's Durban workshops in 1910. They were a redesigned version of the Hendrie A, similar in general proportions, but with Walschaerts valve gear, slightly larger diameter coupled wheels, a larger boiler and a more enclosed cab that offered better protection to the crew. In 1912, the SAR designated them Class 2C.
Cape Government Railways
The first locomotives with a Pacific wheel arrangement in the Cape were two tank locomotives that entered service in 1896 on the private Metropolitan and Suburban Railway that operated a suburban passenger service between Cape Town and Sea Point. In 1901, both locomotives were sold to the Mashonaland Railway.
Three Class 5 and one experimental Karoo tender locomotive variants were introduced on the Cape Government Railways (CGR) between 1903 and 1912.
In 1903, the first two Karoo locomotives entered passenger service on the CGR. It was a development of the CGR Class 6 2-6-2 and was designed by Chief Locomotive Superintendent H.M. Beatty. The locomotives, built by Kitson and Company, were acquired to cope with the increasing weight of passenger trains on the one in eighty ruling gradient between Beaufort West and De Aar in the Karoo, hence the Karoo Class name. In 1912, when they came onto the SAR roster, they were designated Class 5A.
Following on the success of the first two Karoo Class locomotives, a further four were ordered from Beyer, Peacock & Company in 1904. They were modified slightly in view of the experience gained with the original two. On the SAR, they were all designated Class 5B, until one was later reboilered with a Watson Standard no. 1 boiler and reclassified Class 5BR. All of them were later equipped with piston valve cylinders and superheaters.
In 1907, the CGR placed a single experimental three-cylinder compound Pacific in service, based on the second Karoo Class. Built by the North British Locomotive Company (NBL), it was not classified and was simply referred to as the Three Cylinder Compound. The cylinders were arranged in the Smith system of compounding, with a single high-pressure cylinder situated between the two low-pressure cylinders. The locomotive had a bar frame, Walschaerts valve gear and used saturated steam. Compared to a simplex two-cylinder Karoo, the compound could take a heavy train up a long continuous grade at a much higher speed, while experienced drivers found it could outperform the Karoo in terms of power as well as fuel and water consumption. In 1912, the SAR classified it as Class Experimental 1.
The Enlarged Karoo, built by Vulcan Foundry, was one of the locomotive types that were designed and ordered by the CGR before the SAR was established and that ended up being delivered to the newly established national railways of the Union of South Africa in 1912. It was a larger and heavier version of the Class 5B, with a higher pitched boiler, Belpaire firebox, larger diameter leading and coupled wheels and larger cylinders. The four locomotives were designated Class 5. One of them was later reboilered with a Watson Standard no. 1 boiler, equipped with a superheater and reclassified to Class 5R.
Central South African Railways
Five Class 9 Pacific passenger locomotives, designed by P.A. Hyde, the first Chief Locomotive Superintendent of the Central South African Railways (CSAR), were delivered from Vulcan Foundry in 1904. They had bar frames, Stephenson valve gear and used saturated steam, and proved very useful for passenger work with moderate loads, working the mail trains from Johannesburg to Durban as far as Charlestown on the Transvaal-Natal border for many years. They retained their Class 9 classification on the SAR.
Five Class 10 variants were introduced between 1904 and 1910.
Also in 1904 and also designed by Hyde, fifteen Class 10 Pacific locomotives were delivered to the CSAR from NBL. The locomotives were of an extremely advanced design, superheated and with the highest boiler pitch yet in South Africa, with plate frames, wide Belpaire fireboxes, outside admission piston valves and Walschaerts valve gear. In 1912, when they were assimilated into the SAR, they retained their Class 10 classification.
Ten heavy Pacific passenger locomotives, designed by CSAR Chief Mechanical Engineer (CME) G.G. Elliot based on Hyde's Class 10 design, were ordered from NBL and delivered in 1910. They had plate frames, Belpaire fireboxes and Walschaerts valve gear and were delivered in two variants, five of them using saturated steam while the rest were superheated. While similar to the Class 10, their boilers were arranged further forwards, their firebox throats and back plates were sloped instead of being vertical, they used inside admission piston valves and their valve gear was reversed by means of a vertical steam reversing engine mounted on the right-hand running board. They were all classified as Class 10-2 by the CSAR but, in 1912, the SAR designated the saturated steam locomotives Class 10A and the superheated ones Class 10B. A further five superheated Class 10B locomotives were delivered to the SAR from Beyer, Peacock in 1912.
Twelve light Pacific locomotives were also placed in service by the CSAR in 1910, classified as Class 10-C. Designed by Elliot and built by NBL, they were similar to the Class 10-2, but slightly smaller and with smaller coupled wheels. They used saturated steam and had Belpaire fireboxes and Walschaerts valve gear, but they were soon reboilered and equipped with superheaters. In 1912 they were designated Class 10C by the SAR.
One more Pacific was ordered by the CSAR from ALCO in 1910. It was superheated and built to very much the same specifications as that of the Class 10-2 of that same year, but with a bar frame. It was slightly more powerful than the Class 10-2 and was designated Class 10 by the CSAR, along with the fifteen locomotives of 1904. In 1912, the locomotive became the sole Class 10D on the SAR.
South African Railways
Seven Class 16 variants were introduced on the South African Railways (SAR) between 1914 and 1935.
The Class 16 Pacific was designed by Hendrie, CME of the SAR from 1910 to 1922, and was built by NBL, who delivered twelve locomotives in 1914. The design closely followed that of the Class 15 Mountain type that was introduced at the same time from the same builders, and many parts were made interchangeable. They had Walschaerts valve gear, were superheated and had Belpaire fireboxes. At the time, it was considered a very large and powerful express locomotive, even when compared to British locomotives built to run on . With coupled wheels, the ratio of wheel diameter to rail gauge was the same as that of a Standard gauge locomotive having coupled wheels. Their tractive effort of at 75% boiler pressure exceeded the at 85% boiler pressure of Churchward's The Great Bear on the Great Western Railway and equalled, also at 85% boiler pressure, that of Gresley's subsequent Great Northern Pacifics. This made the Class 16 the most powerful express passenger locomotive design yet to have been built in Britain at the time.
The Class 16A four-cylinder simplex Pacific of 1915 was designed by Hendrie and built by NBL. Two locomotives were delivered, identical in most respects to their predecessor Class 16 except that they had four cylinders instead of the usual two. All four cylinders were arranged in line below the smokebox and were the same size, with the outer cylinders driving the centre coupled wheels while the inner cylinders operated on a cranked leading coupled wheel axle. The result was a very smooth running locomotive, capable of very fast running, but since the available space on a Cape gauge locomotive prevented larger cylinders from being fitted, the four-cylinder design was never repeated by the SAR.
The Class 16B Pacific, also designed by Hendrie, was also built by NBL, who delivered ten locomotives in November 1917. They were identical to the predecessor Class 16 and successor Class 16C in most respects, except that they had wider cabs than the Class 16, while the Class 16C had a combustion chamber in the firebox. All ten were eventually reboilered with Watson Standard no 2B boilers and Watson cabs with slanted fronts, and reclassified to Class 16CR.
Ten Class 16C locomotives, also designed by Hendrie and built by NBL, were delivered in 1919 with another twenty following in 1922. Identical to predecessors Class 16 and Class 16B in most respects except for the addition of a combustion chamber, they proved to be excellent free-steaming, fast and reliable locomotives with a reserve of power greater than either of the predecessors. All thirty were later reboilered with Watson Standard no 2B boilers and also reclassified to Class 16CR.
Seven Class 16D Pacific locomotives were built for the SAR by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1925 and 1926. The Class was designed for working the Union Limited and Union Express fast passenger trains, forerunners of the Blue Train, between Johannesburg and Cape Town. The builders conformed to SAR requirements, but also incorporated the latest American railway engineering practices and introduced several new features to the SAR, such as top feeds to the boiler, self-cleaning smokeboxes, Sellar's drifting valves, grease lubrication and arch tubes to support the brick arch and improve circulation. It had a bar frame extending from the front buffer beam to the rear dragbox, while its size earned it the nickname Big Bertha. In 1926, no. 860 made locomotive history by hauling the Union Limited over the from Johannesburg to Cape Town in 29 hours.
When orders for more Pacific locomotives were placed in 1928, the Class 16D design was modified by the CME, Colonel F.R. Collins DSO, who shortened the frame to end at the front of the firebox and added a bridle casting. This resulted in a wider frame below the firebox and cab and consequently more ashpan room. Fourteen Class 16DA locomotives were built to this design, six by Hohenzollern Locomotive Works in 1928 and eight by Baldwin in 1929. The Hohenzollern and Baldwin locomotives differed from the Class 16D only by virtue of its shortened frame.
When A.G. Watson succeeded Collins as CME in 1929, he designed a boiler with a very wide firebox of the Wootten type, with a grate area of to improve the steaming properties of these locomotives. The grate was larger than that of the Hohenzollern and Baldwin locomotives and these boilers were installed on the final six Class 16DA locomotives, built by Henschel in 1930. These locomotives were sufficiently different from the Baldwin and Hohenzollern-builts to justify a separate classification such as Class 16DB, but this did not happen. The steaming ability of these six, known as the Class 16DA Wide Firebox, was phenomenal and led to the adoption of wide fireboxes without combustion chambers as the standard on all subsequent SAR mainline locomotives.
The Class 16E Pacific was designed by Watson and built by Henschel, who delivered six locomotives in 1935. With its coupled wheels, it was considered to be the most remarkable Cape gauge express passenger locomotive ever built. The coupled wheels were the largest ever used on any less than locomotive, and it had an all-up weight and tractive effort equal to or exceeding that of most Pacifics outside North America. It used rotary cam poppet valve gear driven by outside rotary shafts, which resulted in extremely free-running characteristics. It also boasted the largest fire grate on any Pacific outside North America. The Class 16E had a Watson Standard no. 3A boiler and, at above rail level, its boiler centre-line was the highest-pitched on the SAR. This and the limitations of the loading gauge made it impossible to install a normal steam dome and its place was taken by an inspection man-hole. Steam was collected through numerous small feeder pipes fixed into two collector pipes, which were arranged as high as possible above the water surface. The collector pipes joined together to form a main steam pipe, in diameter, which led to the superheater header and multiple valve regulator, situated in the smokebox.
Narrow gauge
In 1906, two small side-tank locomotives, designed by Hendrie and built by Hunslet, entered service on the Estcourt-Weenen narrow gauge railway of the NGR. They had outside plate frames and used Walschaerts valve gear. They were commonly known as Hunslet Side Tanks since all narrow gauge locomotives on the NGR were designated Class N. Although they came onto the SAR roster in 1912, they were never classified since they were sold to the Moçâmedes Railway in Portuguese West Africa in 1915, long before a system of grouping narrow gauge locomotives into classes was introduced by the SAR somewhere between 1928 and 1930.
In 1907, the NGR placed another six tank locomotives in service, designed by Hendrie based on his Hunslet Side Tank. Built by Hawthorn Leslie and Company, they also had outside plate frames and used Walschaerts valve gear. They were commonly known as the Hawthorn Leslie Side Tanks and were acquired specifically for the new narrow gauge Donnybrook-Esperanza Railway in Natal. They came onto the SAR roster in 1912 and were later classified as Class NG3.
In 1908, two Pacific tank locomotives with bar frames and Walschaerts valve gear, built by Bagnall, entered service on the narrow gauge Walmer Branch of the CGR in Port Elizabeth. They came onto the SAR roster in 1912 and remained in service until the Walmer branch was closed in 1929.
In 1911, shortly before being amalgamated into the SAR, the NGR placed the first two of seven narrow gauge locomotives in service, built by Kerr, Stuart & Company using the Hawthorn Leslie drawings for the Class NG3. Two more followed in 1913 and another three in 1914, also from Kerr, Stuart. While virtually identical to the Hawthorn Leslie Side Tanks, their boiler pitch had been raised to make a larger firebox possible. They also had higher side tanks and less ornate sand boxes on top of the boiler. Between 1928 and 1930 they were all classified as Class NG4.
In 1916, the SAR ordered six narrow gauge Pacific tender locomotives from Baldwin Locomotive Works. They had outside bar frames and Walschaerts valve gear and became popularly known as the Sixties, based on their engine number range. Typically American in appearance, with an ornate chimney cap and steam dome as well as a separate engine number on a disk on the front of the smokebox door, they were the only narrow gauge Pacific tender locomotives to see service on the SAR. Later designated Class NG10, they were placed in service on the Langkloof line between Port Elizabeth and Avontuur in the Eastern Cape, where they spent most of their working lives. In 1948, two of them were transferred to South West Africa (SWA). All six were withdrawn from service by 1962 as a direct result of the widening of the narrow gauge lines in SWA to .
Spain
A Pacific locomotive was ordered by the Ferrocarril Madrid-Aragon from Forges, Usines et Fonderies de Haine-Saint-Pierre in Belgium in 1914, but was not delivered, presumably due to the disruption to trade caused by World War I. The locomotive was eventually sold to the French-owned Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia in 1923. (Also see Ethiopia)
In 1958, the Ferrocarril La Robla purchased four vintage Pacific locomotives from the Tunisian Railways. These had been built in 1914 by Société Alsacienne de Constructions Mécaniques (SACM). They were numbered 181 to 185 and were scrapped in the early 1970s after having served in Spain for more than ten years. (Also see Tunisia)
Sweden
In 1913, the Swedish State Railways (Statens Järnvägar or SJ) ordered eleven four-cylinder compound Pacific type locomotives from Nydqvist & Holm (NOHAB) for the Stockholm-Malmö heavy express train service. They had coupled wheels with two and two cylinders. They were designated the SJ class F, numbered from 1200 to 1209 and 1271.
The locomotives were limited to a maximum speed of . They hauled express trains on this southern mainline until the electrification of the Stockholm-Malmö line in 1933. The SJ then tried them on the Gothenburg non-electrified section, but they were not a success on this line which was also due to be electrified. They were then all sold to the neighbouring Danish State Railways (DSB) in 1937.
After they were withdrawn from service in Denmark, DSB no. 964 (ex SJ no. 1200) was presented to the Swedish Railway Museum at Gävle in 1964, while DSB no. 966 (ex SJ no. 1202) was presented to SJ AB by the Danish Railway Museum in 1999, to haul heritage trains.
Taiwan
The first Pacific type locomotives appeared in Formosa (now Taiwan) in 1912 when ALCO-Rogers delivered three locomotives that were derived from the Japanese Government Railways type 8900. They were numbered from 200 to 202. One more locomotive, number 203, was delivered in 1913. They hauled the most important passenger express trains between Taihoku and Takao.
In 1935, five more locomotives of the Japanese Government Railways Class 55 were added, numbered 551 to 555, and in 1938 four more were delivered, numbered 556 to 559.
Hitachi delivered eight more Japanese Class 57 locomotives, presumably as war reparations, to the Taiwan Railway Administration. These were the last Pacific type locomotives to arrive in Taiwan under the Chiang Kai-shek administration.
Thailand
The Royal State Railways of Siam (RSR), the predecessor of the State Railway of Thailand (SRT), introduced new standard Pacific locomotives for express trains and mixed-traffic trains to supersede the E-Class locomotives which had been commissioned between 1915 and 1921. The first type of Pacific Locomotive was purchased from Batignolles-Châtillon in France in 1925. Others followed from Baldwin Locomotive Works between 1926 and 1929 and were prominent on Southern lines. There were also the successful Hanomag Pacific locomotives of 1928–1929, the design of which late became a model for the Pacific locomotives imported from Japan.
The final type of Pacific steam locomotive was when RSR imported the parts for 10 locomotives, based on the Hanomag design, from Japan during 1942 and 1943. However, assembly of these at the Makkasan Factory was not completed until 1945.
After the World War II, RSR imported a further thirty Pacific type locomotives from Japan in 1949–50, numbered 821 to 850. Two of them, numbers 824 and 850, were still in service with SRT in 2014 for special nostalgic trips.
Tunisia
Standard gauge
In 1914, the Tunisian Chemins de fer Bône-Guelma placed five Pacific locomotives in service at Tunis, built by Société Alsacienne de Constructions Mécaniques (SACM). They were numbered 181 to 185, later to be renumbered to Tunisian Railways (Société Nationale de Chemins de Fer Tunisiens) numbers 231.181 to 231.185. A further four were supplied in 1923 and three more in 1938, also built by SACM. They worked the line from Tunis to Ghardimaou on the Algerian border, hauling the Tunis-Algiers direct express trains. They also worked some semi-fast passenger trains on the line between Tunis and Bizerta.
They hauled all principal express and passenger trains between Tunis Ville and Ghardimaou until 1951, when the new mainline diesels relegated them to secondary trains. All were withdrawn from service during 1954 and 1955.
Metre gauge
Also in 1914, the Chemins de fer Bône-Guelma ordered five locomotives from SACM. The engine weight in working order was 56.6 metric tonnes, with coupled wheels of diameter and two cylinders.
They were considered very successful and Tunisian Railways ordered three more in 1928. These were used on the mainline south from Tunis to Sousse and the line to Sfax. Between the two World Wars, they were renowned for providing the fastest metre gauge service in the world and speeds of over were common in ordinary service.
When the Tunisian Railways dieselised between 1951 and 1955, these locomotives were withdrawn from service and placed in staging, even though as late as in 1952 they still regularly achieved speeds of up to . In 1958, numbers 231.801, 231.805, 231.807 and 231.808 were sold to the Ferrocarril La Robla in Spain. Those which remained in Tunisia were scrapped in 1959. (Also see Spain)
United Kingdom
Tender locomotives
Prior to the 1923 Grouping, only five locomotives had been built in the United Kingdom. The first of these was No. 111, The Great Bear, introduced by the Great Western Railway (GWR) in 1908. This was an experimental locomotive which proved to be more powerful than the railway's requirements and also too heavy for much of its infrastructure. As a result, it was scrapped in 1924 and many of the parts were used to build a GWR 4073 Castle Class "ten-wheeler"" locomotive.
The Great Northern Railway (GNR) and the North Eastern Railway (NER) each built two Pacific types in 1922, later to become the Classes A1/A3 and A2 on the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). Further examples of these two classes were built by the LNER after 1923.
The GNR Class A1, designed by Nigel Gresley and later rebuilt into the improved Class A3, featured three cylinders and an innovative conjugated valve gear. The class eventually consisted of 79 locomotives. After initial teething problems, it proved to be an excellent design and one of them, Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to be officially recorded as reaching .
This speed was surpassed by the streamlined LNER Class A4 of 1935, when No. 2509 Silver Link reached on its inaugural run in 1935. Three years later, on 3 July 1938, No. 4468 Mallard touched , which is still the world speed record for steam traction. 35 locomotives of the class were built by 1938.
A further 89 Pacific locomotives of the Peppercorn Class A1, Thompson Class A1/1, Peppercorn Class A2, Thompson Class A2/1, Thompson Class A2/2 and Thompson Class A2/3 were either built or rebuilt for the LNER by Edward Thompson and Arthur Peppercorn, although many actually only appeared in the British Railways (BR) era after 1948. In 2008, one further locomotive of the Peppercorn Class A1 design, the 60163 Tornado, was built by the A1 Steam Locomotive Trust.
The London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) introduced its twelve Princess Royal Class Pacific locomotives in 1933 and then enlarged the design with the streamlined Princess Coronation Class of 1937. 37 locomotives of the Coronation Class were built by 1947, with one more appearing in 1948 in the BR era. Coronation No. 6220, the first of the class, reached on 29 June 1937 and briefly held the British speed record for steam traction, until it was bettered by the LNER Mallard a year later. The LMS Princess Royal Class was also used as the basis for an unusual experimental locomotive, the Turbomotive, which used turbines instead of cylinders.
During World War II, the Southern Railway (SR) introduced two classes of Pacific, designed by New Zealander Oliver Bulleid. These were the Merchant Navy Class and the West Country and Battle of Britain Class. These two classes continued to be built in the BR era and eventually totalled thirty Merchant Navy Class locomotives and 110 West Country and Battle of Britain Class locomotives.
The 55 BR Standard Class 7 Britannia Pacifics, introduced in 1951, were of a simple expansion two-cylinder design with Walschaerts valve gear. Their conservative design reflected a requirement for a more cost-effective, lower maintenance locomotive. Ten locomotives of a lighter version, the BR Standard Class 6, were introduced in 1952.
The final Pacific design in the United Kingdom was the BR Standard class 8 No. 71000 Duke of Gloucester, of which only one was built in 1954. It had many parts in common with the Britannias, but had three cylinders and Caprotti valve gear.
Tank locomotives
Four tank locomotive designs were introduced in the United Kingdom during 1910 and 1911. Charles Bowen-Cooke of the London and North Western Railway (LNWR) introduced his Prince of Wales Tank Class in 1910. It was a tank locomotive version of his successful Prince of Wales Class. 47 were built for suburban services out of Euston station.
In the same year, the NER Class Y, designed by Wilson Worsdell and later to become the LNER Class A7, was introduced by Worsdell's successor for hauling coal trains. It had been developed from the NER Class X heavy shunters, later the LNER Class T1.
Also in 1910, D. E. Marsh of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) designed an entirely new J1 class locomotive for London to Brighton express trains. Only one was built before his successor, Lawson Billinton, altered the design to create the J2 class.
The most successful and longest surviving British class was the 9N class, later the LNER A5 class, of the Great Central Railway (GCR), introduced in 1911. It was designed by John G. Robinson and the last of the class survived until 1961. Four batches were built between 1911 and 1923 and a fifth batch was ordered by the LNER in 1926.
Another tank class, the Caledonian Railway 944 Class Class designed by William Pickersgill, appeared in 1917 with twelve locomotives built by North British Locomotive Company. They were nicknamed the Wemyss Bay Pugs since several of the class were allocated to do the Glasgow to Wemyss Bay suburban express work. In Scotland, all tank locomotives were called Pugs, even large ones like this Caledonian Pacific class and the large Glasgow and South Western Railway Baltic class.
In 1921 and 1922, Robert Urie of the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) built five H16 class locomotives for short-distance transfer freight trains in the London area. These survived in service until 1962.
United States
The 4-6-2 wheel arrangement was first used in the United States in 1886. This was an unusual double-cab or Mother Hubbard type with an unusually large firebox, designed to use the waste tailings from anthracite coal mines. While this design did not become popular, the 4-6-2 was rediscovered for the same reason, to improve the 4-6-0 Ten-wheeler with a larger firebox.
With altogether 697 Pacific locomotives, the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) was the largest user of the type in the United States. The railroad bought its first experimental class from ALCO in 1907. After testing, a further 257 Pacific locomotives in various versions, designated classes , , and , were built by the PRR at its Altoona Works and by ALCO and Baldwin between 1910 and 1913.
In 1911, the PRR ordered an experimental K-29 class from ALCO, with a larger boiler, superheater, mechanical stoker and other innovations. A similar K4 class locomotive was built by the PRR in 1914, but no more were built until 1917. Between 1917 and 1928, the PRR built 349 K-4s locomotives and Baldwin a further 75, bringing the total of the K4s class to 425.
The last PRR Pacific locomotives were two large class K5 locomotives, built in 1929. No. 5698 was built at the PRR Altoona Works and had Walschaerts valve gear, while No. 5699 was built by Baldwin and had Caprotti valve gear. Although successful, these locomotives were not replicated, since the larger Mountain types began to be introduced. No. 5698 was dropped from the roster in October 1952 and no. 5699 was retired in September 1953.
The first modern example of the type to be built for duty in the United States, was built for the Missouri Pacific in 1902, but the chief proponent of the type west of the Mississippi River was the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, who began buying the type the next year and ultimately owned 274. The road would have pioneered the type, if not for a belief that a two-wheeled lead truck would be sufficient for high speed passenger service. They began buying 2-6-2 Prairie types in quantity from Baldwin in 1901, with the four cylinder Vauclain compound system, a weight of and coupled wheels.
When these proved insufficiently stable for high speed service, the road ordered the 1200 class of 4-6-2 Pacifics, which were two cylinder simplex engines weighing and fitted with coupled wheels on unusually long axle centers. Immediately upon their arrival on the property, their drive wheels were swapped with the drivers off the earlier Prairie types, which became fast freight locomotives. These would wind up in branch line service, where they were very successful and ultimately outlasted the Pacifics.
The Santa Fe ordered additional Pacific types of both four cylinder balanced compound and two cylinder simple types in seven classes through 1914. These gradually increased to and invariably rode on drivers. The simple types tended to run conservative pressures at , while the compounds ran at . The early examples used a firebox grate of , but the last few classes had larger grates of . All of these were considered light Pacifics by the road, and there were a few engines of orphan classes as well. Some of these were scrapped as compounds, but most were rebuilt with two simple cylinders and operating pressure.
The railroad began scrapping these in 1932, but regretted it during the massive traffic of World War II. Two were semi-streamlined for a brief period during 1939. They hauled varied passenger trains and saw occasional duty in local freight and helper service. All were out of service by 1955. They initially served on the western portion of the Santa Fe system, west of La Junta, Colorado, where the line traversed the Rocky Mountains. Atlantic types were generally used on the Great Plains. Later, as passenger cars grew to 85 feet (26m) in length and gained weight due to all-steel construction, Pacifics would replace the Atlantic types in the east and the western stretches would be served by new 4-8-2 Mountain and 4-8-4 Northern types.
These engines were not dissimilar to the USRA Light Pacifics introduced during World War I, but differed in certain respects. The Santa Fe, like most large United States railroads, was accustomed to custom-designing their own power and refused to buy USRA designs during the ill-fated nationalization of the United States railroads under Wilson. This era, however, did allow many smaller railroads to modernize their fleets and it also saw the rise of the USRA Heavy Pacific. The Pennsylvania K-series served as a prototype for these, but they differed in important aspects such as the PRR's Belpaire fireboxes.
The Santa Fe did not buy any USRA Heavy Pacifics, either, but after the war, Baldwin began building the new and even heavier 3400 Class for the road. These were huge at , but were otherwise a conservative design with two simple cylinders, Walschaerts valve gear, of grate and boilers. Fifty were built by Baldwin through 1924 but, while improvements to the light Pacifics were mostly confined to simplification and other updates were only sporadically applied, all of the 3400s were built or retrofitted with feedwater heaters and all but six were to receive diameter driving wheels before or during World War II. All got a pressure increase to , nine received thermic syphons, and a little experimentation was done with combustion chambers and roller bearings. Weights ultimately reached . These, too, were mostly out of service by 1955. Six Santa Fe Pacific types survive, most of them of the heavy 3400 Class.
Most of the United States railroads which offered passenger service, used Pacific types. Except for the custom design and sheer volume of units produced, the experience of railroads in the eastern and western United States was not dissimilar to that of the Pennsylvania and Santa Fe, respectively. Some roads developed these into the Hudson (or Baltic) type , others preferred the versatility of the Mountain and Northern types, and some, like the Santa Fe, bought both. One railroad, the St. Louis-San Francisco or Frisco, actually converted a few existing Pacific types to Hudsons with larger fireboxes in their Springfield shops. The Pacific type, however, was far and away the predominant passenger service steam engine in the United States until the end of steam. Lighter streamlined cars led to a resurgence of the light Pacific, with several railroads applying streamlined shrouds to older engines. The last Pacific built for service in the United States was delivered to the Reading in 1948. Most or all Pacifics were out of regular service by 1960.
One notable , the Soo Line 2719 which hauled the last of the Soo Line Railroad's steam-powered trains in 1959, was preserved and was restored to operating condition for excursions. It is now on display at the Lake Superior Railroad Museum in Duluth, Minnesota.
References
External links
Railway locomotives introduced in 1901
6,4-6-2
|
417027
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Repertory%20Theater
|
American Repertory Theater
|
The American Repertory Theater (A.R.T.) is a professional not-for-profit theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1979 by Robert Brustein, the A.R.T. is known for its commitment to new American plays and music–theater explorations; to neglected works of the past; and to established classical texts reinterpreted in refreshing new ways. Over the past forty years it has garnered many of the nation's most distinguished awards, including a Pulitzer Prize (1982), a Tony Award (1986), and a Jujamcyn Award (1985). In 2002, the A.R.T. was the recipient of the National Theatre Conference's Outstanding Achievement Award, and it was named one of the top three theaters in the country by Time magazine in 2003. The A.R.T. is housed in the Loeb Drama Center at Harvard University, a building it shares with the Harvard-Radcliffe Dramatic Club. The A.R.T. operates the Institute for Advanced Theater Training.
In 2002 Robert Woodruff replaced founder Robert Brustein as the A.R.T.'s artistic director. After Woodruff's departure in 2007, Associate Artistic Director Gideon Lester filled the position for the 2008/2009 season, and, in May 2008, Diane Paulus was named the new artistic director. Paulus, a Harvard alum, is widely known as a director of theater and opera. Her work includes The Donkey Show, which ran off-Broadway for six years; productions at the Chicago Opera Theatre; and the Public Theater's 2008 production of Hair, which won the Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical.
History
American Repertory Theater was established at Harvard in 1979 as a permanent professional arts organization on campus that offered undergraduate courses in acting, directing, and dramaturgy, taught by professional members of the company with teaching experience. Robert Brustein served as artistic director of the theater until 2002, when he was succeeded by Robert Woodruff, founder of the Bay Area Playwrights Festival. In 2008, Diane Paulus became the artistic director.
During its 44-year history, it has welcomed many major American and international theater artists, presenting a diverse repertoire that includes premieres of American plays and musical productions. In the over 250 productions American Repertory Theater has staged, over half were premieres of new plays, translations, and adaptations. The A.R.T. has performed throughout the U.S. and worldwide in 21 cities in 16 countries on four continents. It continues to be a training ground for young artists, with the artistic staff teaching undergraduate classes in acting, directing, dramatic literature, dramaturgy, voice, and design. In 1987, the A.R.T. founded the Institute for Advanced Theater Training at Harvard, which offers a five-semester M.F.A. graduate program that operates in conjunction with the Moscow Art Theatre School.
The current artistic director, Diane Paulus, has focused on expanding the boundaries of traditional theater by transforming the ways in which work is developed, programmed, produced, and contextualized in order to allow the audience to participate, thereby making the experience more interactive. Productions such as Sleep No More, The Donkey Show, Gatz, The Blue Flower, Prometheus Bound, Gershwin's Porgy and Bess, Wild Swans, and Pippin have engaged audiences in unique theatrical experiences through physical interaction and unconventional staging.
The theater's productions have garnered eighteen Tony Awards, including Best Revival of a Musical for its productions of Pippin (2013) and Gershwins' Porgy and Bess (2012), Best Musical for Once (2012), and Best Play All The Way (2014). The A.R.T. also received the Tony Award for Outstanding Regional Theater, the Pulitzer Prize, and multiple Elliot Norton and IRNE awards. Its premiere production of Death and the Powers: The Robots' Opera was a 2012 Pulitzer Prize finalist.
Productions
2023–2024 season
Gatsby. Based on the novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, music by Florence Welch and Thomas Bartlett, lyrics by Florence Welch, book by Martyna Majok, choreography by Sonya Tayeh, directed by Rachel Chavkin.
Becoming a Man. Created by P. Carl, directed by Diane Paulus and P. Carl.
Real Women Have Curves. Music and lyrics by Joy Huerta and Benjamin Velez, book by Lisa Boomer, choreography and direction by Sergio Trujillo. Based on the play by Josefina López and HBO's Real Women Have Curves.
The Half-God of Rainfall. Created by Inua Ellams, directed by Taibi Magar.
2022–2023 season
Evita. Lyrics by Tim Rice, music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, directed by Sammi Cannold, choreographed by Emily Maltby and Valeria Solomonoff.
The Wife of Willesden. Adapted by Zadie Smith from Chaucer's The Wife of Bath, directed by Indhu Rubasingham.
Life of Pi. Based on the novel by Yann Martel, adapted by Lolita Chakrabarti, directed by Max Webster. (Pre-Broadway production)
Twilight: Los Angeles, 1992. Conceived, written, and revised by Anna Deavere Smith, directed by Taibi Magar.
2021–2022 season
1776. Music & lyrics by Sherman Edwards, book by Peter Stone, directed by Diane Paulus & Jeffrey L. Page, choreography by Jeffrey L. Page. (Pre-Broadway production)
Ocean Filibuster. Created by PearlDamour, text by Lisa D'Amour, music by Sxip Shirey, directed by Katie Pearl.
WILD: A Musical Becoming. Book by V, music by Justin Tranter & Caroline Pennell with contributions by Erin Cannata, lyrics by Justin Tranter, Caroline Pennell, & V with contributions by Idina Menzel, choreography by Chanel DaSilva, directed by Diane Paulus.
Macbeth In Stride. Created & performed by Whitney White, orchestrations by Steven Cuevas and Whitney White, musically directed by Steven Cuevas, choreography by Raja Feather Kelly, directed by Tyler Dobrowsky & Taibi Magar.
Chasing Magic. Created by Ayodele Casel, directed by Torya Beard.
2020–2021 season
Canceled due to COVID-19 pandemic.
2019–2020 season
Six. Written by Toby Marlow & Lucy Moss, choreography by Carrie-Anne Ingrouille, musically supervised by Joe Beighton, musically directed by Roberta Duchak, orchestrations by Tim Curran, directed by Lucy Moss & Jamie Armitage. (Pre-Broadway production)
Black Light. Created by Daniel Alexander Jones, original songs by Jomama Jones. Featuring Bobby Halvorson, Laura Jean Anderson, Dylan Meek, and Josh Quat
Moby-Dick. Music, lyrics, book, and orchestrations by Dave Malloy, musically directed by Or Matias, choreography by Chanel DaSilva, directed by Rachel Chavkin
Thumbelina: A Little Musical. Book, music, and lyrics by Julia Riew, musically directed by Julia Riew & Ian Chan, choreography by Ryan Kapur, directed by Emma Watt
Gloria: A Life. Written by Emily Mann, directed by Diane Paulus
2018–2019 season
The Black Clown. Adapted by Davóne Tines & Michael Schachter, music by Michael Schacter, musically directed by Jaret Landon, choreography by Chanel DaSilva, directed by Zack Winokur.
ExtraOrdinary. Written by Dick Scanlan, choreography by Abbey O'Brien, musically directed by Lance Horne, directed by Diane Paulus. Featuring Patina Miller, Norm Lewis, Rachel Bay Jones, Lea DeLaria, Gavin Creel, Carolee Carmello, and Elizabeth Stanley
Barber Shop Chronicles. Written by Inua Ellams, directed by Bijan Sheibani, design by Rae Smith
The Emperor's New Clothes. Book by Eliya Smith, music by Sasha Yakub, lyrics by Sarah Rossman, choreography by Ryan Kapur, directed by Mitchell Pononsky
Othello. Written by William Shakespeare, directed by Bill Rauch
Endlings. Written by Celine Song, directed by Sammi Cannold. Featuring Wai Ching Ho, Emily Kuroda, Jiehae Park, and Jo Yang
We Live in Cairo. Book, music, & lyrics by Daniel Lazour & Patrick Lazour, musical arrangements by Daniel Lazour & Michael Starobin, musically directed Madeline Smith, choreography by Samar Haddad King, and directed by Taibi Magar
Source:
2017–2018 season
Burn All Night. Book & lyrics by Andy Mientus, music by Van Hughes, Nicholas LaGrasta, and Brett Moses. Directed by Jenny Koons
WARHOLCAPOTE: A Non-Fiction Invention. Adapted by Rob Roth, directed by Michael Mayer, starring Stephen Spinella and Dan Butler
Bedlam's Sense & Sensibility. Adapted by Kate Hamill, directed by Eric Tucker.
Charlotte's Web. Adapted by Joseph Robinette, directed by Dmirty Troyanovsky
Hear Word! Naija Woman Talk True. Written & directed by Ifeoma Fafunwa
The White Card. Written by Claudia Rankine, directed by Diane Paulus. Starring Karen Pittman, Daniel Gerroll, Patricia Kalember, Jim Poulos, and Colton Ryan.
Jagged Little Pill. Music by Alanis Morissette & Glen Ballard, lyrics by Alanis Morissette, book by Diablo Cody, musical supervision by Tom Kitt, choreography by Sidi Larbi Cherkaoui, directed by Diane Paulus. (Pre-Broadway production.)
2016–2017 season
Notes from the Field: Doing Time in Education, Created, written, and performed by Anna Deavere Smith with music composed and performed by Marcus Shelby. Directed by Leonard Foglia.
Abbey Theatre's The Plough and the Stars, written by Seán O'Casey. Directed by Sean Holmes.
Fingersmith, Based on the novel by Sarah Waters, written by Alexa Junge. Directed by Bill Rauch.
Trans Scripts, Part I: The Women, Written by Paul Lucas. Directed by Jo Bonney.
The Night of the Iguana, Written by Tennessee Williams. Directed by Michael Wilson and featuring James Earl Jones.
Arrabal, Book by John Weidman, music by Gustavo Santaolalla. Directed and co-choreographed by Sergio Trujillo and choreographed by Julio Zurita.
Source:
2015–2016 season
Waitress, by Jessie Nelson with music and lyrics by Sara Bareilles. Directed by Diane Paulus and featuring Jessie Mueller. (Pre-Broadway production)
Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812, music and libretto by Dave Malloy. Directed by Rachel Chavkin. (Pre-Broadway production)
Nice Fish, Conceived, written, and adapted by Mark Rylance and Louis Jenkins. Directed by Claire van Kampen.
1984, by Robert Icke and Duncan Macmillan. Presented in association with Headlong Almeida Theatre and Nottingham Playhouse.
RoosevElvis, Created by the TEAM. Directed by Rachel Chavkin.
In the Body of the World Written and performed by Eve Ensler. Directed by Diane Paulus.
Source:
2014–2015 season
Finding Neverland, book by James Graham. Music and lyrics by Gary Barlow and Eliot Kennedy. Directed by Diane Paulus
O.P.C. by Eve Ensler. Directed by Pesha Rudnik.
The Light Princess, book by Lila Rose Kaplan. Music and lyrics by Mike Pettry. Directed by Allegra Libonati.
Father Comes Home from the Wars (Parts 1, 2 & 3) by Suzan-Lori Parks. Directed by Jo Bonney.
The Last Two People on Earth: An Apocalyptic Vaudeville, conceived by Paul Ford, Taylor Mac, Mandy Patinkin, and Susan Stroman. Directed by Susan Stroman.
Crossing, a new American opera, music and libretto by Matthew Aucoin. Directed by Diane Paulus.
Source:
2013–2014 season
All the Way, by Robert Schenkkan. Directed by Bill Rauch and featuring Bryan Cranston.
The Heart of Robin Hood, by David Farr. Directed by Gisli Örn Gardarsson.
Witness Uganda, by Matt Gould and Griffin Matthews. Directed by Diane Paulus.
The Shape She Makes, conceived and choreographed by Susan Misner. Conceived, written and directed by Jonathan Bernstein.
The Tempest, by William Shakespeare. Adapted and directed by Aaron Posner and Teller. Magic by Teller and music by Tom Waits.
Source:
2012–2013 season
Marie Antoinette, by David Adjmi. Directed by Rebecca Taichman.
The Lily's Revenge, written and conceived by Taylor Mac. Directed by Shira Milikowsky.
Pippin, directed by Diane Paulus. Book by Roger O. Hirson. Music and lyrics by Stephen Schwartz.
The Glass Menagerie, by Tennessee Williams. Directed by John Tiffany and featuring Cherry Jones, Celia Keenan-Bolger and Zachary Quinto.
Beowulf: A Thousand Years of Baggage, by Banana Bag & Bodice. Text by Jason Craig, music by Dave Malloy. Directed by Rod Hipskind and Mallory Catlett.
Pirates of Penzance, by Gilbert and Sullivan. Directed by Sean Graney and featuring the Hypocrites.
Source:
2011–2012 season
The Gershwins' Porgy and Bess, directed by Diane Paulus and featuring Audra McDonald, Norm Lewis, and David Alan Grier.
Three Pianos, by Rick Burkhardt, Alec Duffy and Dave Malloy. Directed by Rachel Chavkin.
The Snow Queen. Adapted by Tyler Monroe. Directed by Allegra Libonati. Puppets by Michael Kane.
As You Like It, by William Shakespeare. Directed by David Hammond, featuring members of the A.R.T./MXAT Institute for Advanced Theater Training
Wild Swans, by Jung Chang & adapted by Alexandra Wood. Directed by Sacha Wares.
Futurity: A Musical by The Lisps. Music and lyrics by César Alvarez with the Lisps. Book by Molly Rice and César Alvarez. Directed by Sarah Benson.
Woody Sez. Devised by David M. Lutken with Nick Corley. Words and Music by Woody Guthrie.
Source:
2010–2011 season
Cabaret, directed by Steven Bogart, featuring Amanda Palmer as the emcee. Opened August 31, 2010 at Club Oberon
Alice vs. Wonderland, remixed by Brendan Shea, directed by János Szász
The Blue Flower, by Jim and Ruth Bauer, directed by Will Pomerantz
R. Buckminster Fuller: The History (and Mystery) of the Universe, written and directed by D.W. Jacobs
Ajax, directed by Sarah Benson
Prometheus Bound, directed by Diane Paulus, starring Gavin Creel and Lea Delaria. A.R.T. and collaborator Serj Tankian of System of a Down dedicated the production to eight Amnesty International cases: David Kato, Norma Cruz, Jafar Panahi, Dhondup Wangchen, Tran Quoc Hien, Doan Van Dien, Doan Huy Chuong, Nasrin Sotoudeh, Reggie Clemons, and survivors of sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. They stated in program notes that "by singing the story of Prometheus, the God who defied the tyrant Zeus by giving the human race both fire and art, this production hopes to give a voice to those currently being silenced or endangered by modern-day oppressors".
Death and the Powers: The Robots' Opera
Source:
2009–2010 season
Source:
The A.R.T.'s 30th season, its first under Artistic Director Diane Paulus, eschewed the traditional model and instead offered a series of "festivals" which encouraged audiences to experience productions as parts of larger cultural events.
Festival No. 01: Shakespeare Exploded
The Donkey Show directed by Diane Paulus and Randy Weiner. Opened August 21, 2009 at the Zero Arrow Theater, renamed Club Oberon.
Sleep No More by Punchdrunk directed by Felix Barrett, Maxine Doyle, and The Company. Opened October 8, 2009 in the Old Lincoln School, Brookline, Massachusetts..
The Best of Both Worlds by Randy Weiner and Diedre Murray. Co-written and directed by Diane Paulus. Opened November 21, 2009 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Festival No. 02: America: Boom, Bust, and Baseball
Gatz by Elevator Repair Service. Directed by John Collins. Opened January 8, 2010 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Paradise Lost by Clifford Odets, directed by Daniel Fish. Opened February 27, 2010 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Johnny Baseball by Richard Dresser, Robert Reale, and Willie Reale. Directed by Diane Paulus. Opens May 14, 2010 at the Loeb Drama Center.
2008–2009 season
Let Me Down Easy featuring Anna Deavere Smith directed by Eric Ting September 12 – October 11, 2009 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Communist Dracula Pageant by Anne Washburn directed by Anne Kauffman. October 18 – November 9 at the Zero Arrow Theater.
Aurélia's Oratorio written and directed by Victoria Thierrée Chaplin starring Aurélia Thierrée. November 28 – January 3 at the Loeb Drama Center.
The Seagull directed by János Szász. January 10 – February 1 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Endgame by Samuel Beckett. Directed by Marcus Stern. February 14 – March 15 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Trojan Barbie by Christine Evans, directed by Carmel O'Reilly. March 28 – April 22 at the Zero Arrow Theater.
Romance by David Mamet. Directed by Scott Zigler. May 9–31 at the Loeb Drama Center.
2007–2008 season
Don Juan Giovanni and Figaro directed by Dominique Serrand in association with Theatre de la Jeune Lune. In repertory August 31 – October 6, 2007 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Donnie Darko adapted and directed by Marcus Stern, based on the film by Richard Kelly. October 27 – November 18 at the Zero Arrow Theater.
No Child... written and performed by Nilaja Sun. November 23 – December 23 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Copenhagen written by Michael Frayn and directed by Scott Zigler. January 5 – February 3 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare. Directed by Arthur Nauzyciel. February 9 – March 22 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Elections & Erections: A Chronicle of Fear & Fun by Pieter-Dirk Uys. April 2 – May 4 at the Zero Arrow Theater.
Cardenio by Charles Mee and Stephen Greenblatt. Directed by Les Waters. May 10 – June 1 at the Loeb Drama Center.
Notable collaborators
The American Repertory Theater has presented both American and World premiere productions. Over the years, these have included works by Robert Auletta, Robert Brustein, Anton Chekhov, Don DeLillo, Keith Dewhurst, Christopher Durang, Elizabeth Egloff, Peter Feibleman, Jules Feiffer, Dario Fo, Carlos Fuentes, Larry Gelbart, Leslie Glass, Philip Glass, Stuart Greenman, William Hauptman, Allan Havis, Milan Kundera, Mark Leib, Gideon Lester, David Lodge, Carol K. Mack, David Mamet, Charles L. Mee, Roger Miller, Dave Malloy, John Moran, Robert Moran, Heiner Müller, Marsha Norman, Han Ong, Amanda Palmer, David Rabe, Franca Rame, Adam Rapp, Keith Reddin, Ronald Ribman, Paula Vogel, Derek Walcott, Naomi Wallace, and Robert Wilson.
Reputable stage directors who have collaborated with A.R.T. include: JoAnne Akalaitis, Andrei Belgrader, Anne Bogart, Steven Bogart, Lee Breuer, Robert Brustein, Liviu Ciulei, Ron Daniels, Liz Diamond, Joe Dowling, Michael Engler, Alvin Epstein, Dario Fo, Richard Foreman, David Gordon, Adrian Hall, Richard Jones, Michael Kahn, Jerome Kilty, Krystian Lupa, John Madden, David Mamet, Des McAnuff, Jonathan Miller, Tom Moore, David Rabe, François Rochaix, Robert Scanlan, János Szász, Peter Sellars, Andrei Şerban, Sxip Shirey, Susan Sontag, Marcus Stern, Slobodan Unkovski, Les Waters, David Wheeler, Frederick Wiseman, Robert Wilson, Robert Woodruff, Steven Mitchell Wright, Yuri Yeremin, Francesca Zambello, and Scott Zigler.
Notable producers include: Henry Louis Gates Jr., Tom McGrath, Lawrence E. Golub, David Goel, Gerald Jordan, Andrew Ory, Bethany M. Allen, and Sharlyn Heslam.
Educational institution
In 1987, the A.R.T. founded the Institute for Advanced Theater Training, a five-semester professional training program which includes a three-month period working and training at the Moscow Art Theatre School in Russia. The program provides training for graduate-level actors, dramaturgs, and voice students. From 1999 until 2016, this joint program conferred an M.F.A. from the Moscow Art Theatre School, along with a certificate of completion from Harvard. Beginning with the graduating class of 2017, students have been granted a master of liberal arts degree through the Harvard Extension School.
In July 2017, the U.S. Department of Education voiced concern over the worrisomely high debt-load of students completing the program. In response, the A.R.T. Institute announced a three-year pause in admissions, while it sought to improve student financial aid. It continues to negotiate with Harvard University about establishing an M.F.A. degree.
Performance venues
OBERON
OBERON, sometimes referred to as Club Oberon, was a club theater venue that was built by the Carr Foundation in 2004 and opened in August 2009 as A.R.T.'s second venue. The A.R.T. opened the space in 2006 as the Zero Arrow Street Theater. The Onion Cellar was staged there Dec 2006-Jan 2207. A.R.T. originally used OBERON for the open ended residency of their production of The Donkey Show; however, American Repertory soon decided to convert the theater into a fully functioning club theater venue, fitting the philosophy developed by The Donkey Show creator Randy Weiner.
In 2021, The A.R.T. decided not to renew its lease and Oberon was closed.
Other venues
Before OBERON, A.R.T. used the old Hasty Pudding theater as a second space in addition to the Loeb Mainstage. A.R.T.'s Institute for Advanced Theater Training formerly used the sub-basement of the First Parish in Cambridge at Zero Church Street, as a flexible venue. In May, 2015 the A.R.T. staged an opera premiere at the Schubert Theater in Boston, their first use of that venue.
References
External links
Guide to American Repertory Theatre prompt books and related materials at Houghton Library, Harvard University
1986 establishments in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Harvard Square
Harvard University
League of Resident Theatres
Performing groups established in 1986
Regional theatre in the United States
Theatre companies in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Theatres in Massachusetts
Tony Award winners
Tourist attractions in Cambridge, Massachusetts
|
417037
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchandise%20Mart
|
Merchandise Mart
|
The Merchandise Mart (or the Merch Mart, or the Mart) is a commercial building located in downtown Chicago, Illinois. When it was opened in 1930, it was the largest building in the world, with of floor space. The Art Deco structure is located at the junction of the Chicago River's branches. The building is a leading retailing and wholesale location, hosting 20,000 visitors and tenants per day in the late 2000s.
Built by Marshall Field & Co. and later owned for over half a century by the Kennedy family, the Mart centralized Chicago's wholesale goods business by consolidating architectural and interior design vendors and trades under a single roof. It has since become home to several other enterprises, including the Shops at the Mart, the Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art, Motorola Mobility, the Grainger Technology Group branch of W.W. Grainger, and the Chicago tech startup center 1871. It was sold in January 1998 to Vornado Realty Trust.
The Merchandise Mart is so large that it had its own ZIP Code (60654) until 2008, when the Postal Service assigned the ZIP Code to part of the surrounding area. In 2010, the building opened its Design Center showrooms to the public.
History
Construction and context
In 1926, a westward extension of double-deck Wacker Drive increased development on the south riverbank. In 1927, Marshall Field & Co. announced its plans to build on the north bank opposite Wacker Drive. The site, bordered by Orleans Street, Wells Street, Kinzie Street and the Chicago River, was formerly a Native American trading post and the site of Chicago and North Western Railway's former Wells Street Station, abandoned in 1911 in favor of the Chicago and North Western Passenger Terminal. With the railroad's air rights, the site was large enough to accommodate "the largest building in the world". Removing the train yard supported the Chicago Plan Commission's desire to develop and beautify the riverfront.
James Simpson, president of Marshall Field & Co. from 1923 to 1930 and chairman of the Chicago Plan Commission from 1926 to 1935, turned the first shovels of dirt at groundbreaking on August 16, 1928, along with architect Ernest Graham. General contractor John W. Griffiths & Sons brought building construction into the machine age through the use of techniques "ordinarily used in the construction of big dams."
Concrete arriving by boat was lifted by compressed air to bins above the ground, with gravel and sand delivered by railroad cars to conveyor belts and transfer elevators. Giant mixers provided wet concrete to skip hoists in vertical towers that were extended as the building rose. Continuously employing 2,500 men and as many as 5,700 men altogether, the construction project lasted a year and a half into the early months of the Great Depression.
With a foundation footprint of nearly two square city blocks, the building required 29 million bricks, of plumbing, of wiring, nearly of concrete, of stone, and 4,000 windows. Bethlehem Steel fabricated much of the 60,000 tons of steel. An estimated of corridors and over 30 elevators were included in the construction. The total cost of construction was estimated to be $26 million.
Ownership
The Merchandise Mart opened on May 5, 1930, just east of Chicago's original trading post, Wolf Point.
The building realized Marshall Field’s dream of a single wholesale center for the entire nation and consolidated 13 different warehouses. It was purchased in 1945 or 1946, depending on the source, by the Kennedy family through Merchandise Mart Properties, Inc., and managed by Sargent Shriver. Kennedy's purchase price was reported to be either $12.5 or $13 million, and it is said that his initial capital was $1 million, though records say his original mortgage was $12.5 million, this was roughly half of what it had cost to construct the complex twenty years earlier.
The building's sale was brokered by a good friend of Marshall Field and Joseph Kennedy, E. Stanley Klein. Klein at that time was a partner of Field and together they started Fieldcrest Mills.
Klein maintained that Kennedy's bargain price was predicated on an oral agreement between Field and Kennedy that after the sale the building would be donated to the University of Chicago and that Kennedy would take the tax deduction, although as an oral agreement no documentary evidence of this exists.
The building revenues became a principal source of Kennedy family wealth, including being a source of political campaign funding.
The Kennedy family sold the complex center property to Vornado Realty Trust in 1998 as part of a larger $625 million ($ billion in current dollars) transaction. When it was sold, the Merchandise Mart was also the Kennedy's family's last remaining operating business. That year, MMPI was acquired by Vornado for $450 million cash and a $100 million-plus stake in Vornado. As of early 2007, the building was valued at $917 million.
Expansions and renovations
The Merchandise Mart was modernized in the late 1950s and 1960s. The Indian chiefs were removed and replaced with concrete plates in 1961, of minimal note to onlookers as skyscrapers did not rise on the north side of the river as predicted. Some of the carvings were later found in a suburban backyard and auctioned in 2014. In 1962, an entrance canopy was constructed over the south for vehicle use.
In 1977, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill designed the Chicago Apparel Center, located on the west side of Orleans Street, which increased the Merchandise Mart’s total floor space to . Making use of plazas, esplanades and overlooks employed the waterfront location for pedestrian use. In 1988, Helmut Jahn designed an enclosed pedestrian walking bridge over Orleans Street connecting the Mart and the Apparel Center.
After a 10-year, $100 million modernization in the late 1980s that included public utility upgrades, Beyer Blinder Belle's commission in 1989 was to create additional perimeter entrances and restore the display windows, main entrance and lobby. On the south facade, the drive-through canopy was removed and two smaller doorways aside the main entrance were added. Display windows, painted over during the earlier modernization campaign, were restored with clear glass to showcase merchants' wares.
New main and corner entrances were added to the rear facade, and the loading dock that occupied the north portion of the first floor of the river level was removed in order to use the bottom deck of North Bank Drive. Improvements to the lobby included restoration of the original glass curtain wall over the entrance, shop fronts and reception desk using terrazzo floors and wall sconces influenced by the original design. The project was completed in 1991.
In November 2007, the building received LEED for Existing Buildings Silver recognition.
Building
The Merchandise Mart was designed by the Chicago architectural firm of Graham, Anderson, Probst and White to be a "city within a city". Second only to Holabird & Root in Chicago art deco architecture, the firm had a long-standing relationship with the Field family. Started in 1928, completed in 1931, and built in the same art deco style as the Chicago Board of Trade Building, its cost was reported as both $32 million and $38 million. The building was the largest in the world in terms of floorspace, but was surpassed by the Pentagon in 1943, and now stands forty-fourth on the list of largest buildings in the world. Once the largest commercial space in the world, New Century Global Center in China is now recognized by Guinness World Records as holding the record.
Architecture
Designer Alfred Shaw integrated art deco stylings with influences from three building types—the warehouse, the department store and the skyscraper. A warehouse block stands as the 18-story bulk of the building. Ribbon piers define the windows, and the building's chamfered corners, minimal setbacks, and corner pavilions disguise the edges of the mass and visually reduce bulk.
The south corner pavilions are of greater height than the north corner pavilions. The building is open at the pedestrian level with bronzed framed display windows, typical of a department store, on the south, west and east boundaries. The 25-story central tower ascends with a peak in the form of a skyscraper, and rests in the southern half of the building. Deeply recessed portals occur between raised panels, and are adorned with medallions featuring the interlocked initials of the Merchandise Mart. The same logo occurs throughout the building. Fifty-six American Indian chiefs circled the tower's crown, a reference to the site's history and Chicago's early trade activities. Three and a half feet wide by seven feet tall, the terra cotta figures were barely visible from the street, meant to be viewed from the upper floors of the skyscrapers planned to rise along the riverbank.
The lobby of The Merchandise Mart is defined by eight square marble piers, with storefronts in side aisles framed in embossed bronze trim. The green and orange terrazzo floor was conceived as a carpet: a pattern of squares and stripes bordered by overscaled chevrons inlaid with The Mart's initials. The chevron theme is continued in the column sconces lighting an ornamented cornice overhead.
Referred to as "business boulevards", two wide long corridors with terrazzo floors in the upper levels featured six and one-half miles of display windows. Building regulations specified identical entrances along corridors but tenants could personalize the individual floor space. Excepting the corridors, elevator halls, and exhibition space on the fourth floor, the of each upper floor was "raw space" with concrete floors.
Artwork
Jules Guerin's frieze of 17 murals is the primary feature of the lobby and graphically illustrate commerce throughout the world, including the countries of origin for items sold in the building. The murals depict the industries and products, the primary mode of transportation and the architecture of 14 countries. Drawing on years as a stage set designer, Guerin executed the murals in red with gold leaf using techniques producing distinct image layers in successive planes. In a panel representing Italy, Venetian glassware appears in the foreground with fishing boats moored on the Grand Canal and the facade of the Palazzo Ducale rises above the towers of the Piazza San Marco.
"To immortalize outstanding American merchants", Joseph Kennedy in 1953 commissioned eight bronze busts, four times life size, which would come to be known as the Merchandise Mart Hall of Fame:
retail magnates Frank Winfield Woolworth, Marshall Field and Aaron Montgomery Ward
Julius Rosenwald and Robert Elkington Wood of Sears, Roebuck and Company fame
advertiser John Wanamaker, merchandiser Edward Albert Filene, and A&P grocery chain founder George Huntington Hartford.
All of the busts rest on white pedestals lining the Chicago River and face north toward the gold front door of the building.
"Art on theMART"
"Art on theMART" is a digital art display begun in 2018. It provides a 2.5 acre "canvas" (2 football fields) for digital artwork projected on the Chicago River facing facade of the Merchandise Mart. It featured works from the nonprofit organization Arts of Life. The project is intended to be the largest digital art projection in the world and is scheduled to occur over thirty years with annual showings initially between March and December. In 2019 it was expanded from five nights a week to every night. Displays begin 15 minutes after sunset and loop for two hours. Obscura Digital studio initially installed 34 projectors to allow the rotating roster of artists to display their work.
Surroundings
Dominating the skyline in the south end of the Near North Side, the Mart lies just south of the gallery district on the southern terminus of Franklin Street. Eateries and nightclubs abound on Hubbard Street one block to the north. The Kinzie Chophouse, popular with politicians and celebrities, stands on the northwest corner of Wells and Kinzie, across from the Merchandise Mart. The Chicago Varnish Company Building, listed on the National Register of Historic Places and now housing Harry Caray's restaurant, is located east on Kinzie Street. Across the street to the east is 325 N. Wells Street, home to The Chicago School of Professional Psychology and DIRTT Environmental Solutions.
The Mart is not rectangular in shape, having been constructed after the bascule bridges over the Chicago River were completed. The control house for the double decked Wells Street Bridge stands between the lower level and the southeast corner of the building. The Franklin Street Bridge stands at the southwest corner of the building, at the junction of Orleans Street and Franklin Street. The building slants at the same angle as Franklin Street, from southeast to northwest along Orleans Street.
Exterior lighting
A heritage of lighting the structure finds the central and corner towers, along with the columns between each window on the setbacks, bathed nightly in an upwardly focused white light. Tradition dictates annual changes to green in mid-March for St. Patrick's Day and orange during the fall months around Halloween and Thanksgiving. Prominent events have found the behemoth lit in pink for Cancer Awareness Month. To note the 2006 Chicago Bears season, highlighted by reaching Super Bowl XLI, the building was lit with team colors, orange floodlights for the setbacks and blue floodlights for the towers.
Red and green lights are used during the Christmas season. During the Art Chicago 2008 the American artist Jenny Holzer illuminated the facade of the building with a poem by the Polish winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature Wisława Szymborska. In 2018, a large projection screen began displaying images and videos across the structure's riverfront side.
Nighttime lighting on the Mart typically matches the colors of antenna lighting on the Sears Tower and John Hancock Center, as well as the colors used on the top floors of the Aon Center.
Green building practices
Under Chris Kennedy's leadership of the Mart, it was the largest building in the world to be awarded LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Certification in 2007 from the United States Green Building Council (USGBC). The Mart has long been implementing sustainable practices. The Mart Center began operating a thermal storage facility in 1986, capable of building of ice per night, cooling 71 buildings in the surrounding neighborhood, and saving $200,000 in electricity costs in the first year.
In 1990, the Mart Center began using Green Seal-approved green cleaning products and the next year implemented a recycling program, which today includes all forms of paper products, glass, light bulbs, batteries, aluminum and construction materials. In 1996, the Mart Center became one of the first major property owners in downtown Chicago to enter into an agreement with the district cooling system now known as Thermal Chicago, thus contributing to the national effort to reduce the discharge of ozone-damaging CFCs.
In 2006, MMPI joined Clean Air Counts, a voluntary initiative to reduce smog forming pollutants and energy consumption in the Chicago area. Part of the campaign strategies included utilizing only low VOC cleaning products, paints and building materials, as well as energy efficient lighting and alternative workplace transportation options. To date, the Mart Center has reduced pollution by , the largest reduction by a commercial building.
In 2006, the Mart Center recycling program saved over 13,000 trees and recycled nearly 11 million pounds of waste, while water conservation efforts saved of water. More than eight percent of the estimated 10,000 people working at the Mart walk, bike or take public transportation; to encourage greener methods of transportation, the Mart expanded bicycle storage capacity to more than 200. In 2009, MMPI converted all stationery to a one hundred percent post-consumer recycled product.
The Mart has nine LEED-certified showrooms, with five others on their way to LEED certification.
Uses
Commerce
Wholesale showrooms occupied 50% of the usable floor space as of 2007. In 1983, the Sultan of Brunei once spent $1.6 million at the Mart to furnish his entire palace, claiming the location was the only place where the task could be completed in one week. Select showrooms are open only to wholesalers, with others accessible to the general public. Unlike stores with traditional shelf and rack displays, entire usable rooms are created, providing consumers an opportunity to compare form and function between applications and manufacturers.
A portion of the stores offer items for purchase singly or as a collection, while others offer design services, preservation, renovation, or installation. In addition to being a resource for architects and decorators, the Mart also has featured award-winning designs as selected by the American Institute of Architects. Catering to suppliers, on-site firms specialize in providing professional services for market research projects.
In 1931, Marshall Field and Company lost $5 million, followed by $8 million in 1932. The wholesale division was greatly reduced and Field's reduced its space in the Mart from four floors to one and half. The Mart continued to display the latest trends in home furnishings within the showrooms and trade shows. The company recovered late in the decade, but did not return to all previously occupied space.
In 1942, L. L. Skaggs formed a partnership with three other men and named the partnership the Owners Service Company, hence Osco. The headquarters moved from Waterloo, Iowa, to the Merchandise Mart.
A retail shopping area, named The Shops at the Mart, opened in 1991 and includes apparel shops, beauty services, bookstores and newsstands, financial services, telecommunication services, travel services, specialty food and wine stores, photo services, a dry cleaner, shoe shine stand, and a food court. A U.S. Post Office is located on the first floor and a FedEx location is on the second floor.
The Apparel Center houses the 521-room Holiday Inn Chicago Mart Plaza River North hotel, the offices of the Chicago Sun-Times and the Chicago campus of the Illinois Institute of Art – Chicago, as well as the Chicago office of the Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency. GoHealth occupies on the 5th floor of Merchandise Mart, the Potbelly Sandwich Works' corporate offices are located in the tower. Motorola Mobility moved its headquarters to the Merchandise Mart in 2014.
Trade fairs
Since 1969, the Merchandise Mart has been home to the annual National Exposition of Contract Furnishings, known as NeoCon. With over 1,000 exhibitors of contract and commercial furnishings, and 50,000 attendees, it is the largest trade show of its kind in North America.
Since 2006 the Merchandise Mart has hosted the Art Chicago international art fair.
Mass media
Radio
Before the location even opened, NBC announced plans to build studios in the Mart. When opened on October 20, 1930, the nineteenth-floor location covered and supported a variety of live broadcasts including those requiring orchestras. WENR and WMAQ broadcast from the location. Expanded in 1935, with office space in the previously unoccupied tower, the additional provided room for an organ chamber, two echo rooms, and a total of 11 studios. A staff of more than 300 produced up to 1,700 programs each month, including Amos 'n' Andy.
Hugh Downs contributed to the Burr Tillstrom children's show Kukla, Fran and Ollie from the NBC studios after the network picked up the program from WBKB. The Captain Midnight radio program was broadcast from the Mart from 1942 until 1945.
WMAQ and WMAQ-TV moved to the NBC Tower in 1989, though NBC sold WMAQ radio to Westinghouse Broadcasting two years earlier). WMAQ's former sister FM station, now WKQX, stayed at the Merchandise Mart until 2016, when it moved to NBC Tower itself.. The nineteenth floor is currently vacant.
Television
On January 7, 1949, NBC station WNBQ commercially debuted its television broadcast schedule on channel 5, with a minimum of two hours of programming per day. April 15, 1956, is remembered as "C-Day" at WMAQ-TV, and was described by Broadcasting-Telecasting magazine as "a daring breakthrough the black-and-white curtain." With Mayor Richard J. Daley looking on, NBC President David Sarnoff operated the controls as Channel 5 became the world's first all-color TV station as "Wide, Wide World" was broadcast to 110 NBC-TV affiliated stations across the country. The color conversion project cost more than $1.25 million with advertising costing $175,000. On "C-Day", three skywriting planes flew over the city, trailing streams of red, green and blue smoke.
WMAQ-TV first installed color equipment in late 1953, with the Tournament of Roses Parade of 1954 as the first major broadcast. Introduced in March 1955, the first local color program was John Ott's "How Does Your Garden Grow?", featuring the use of time-lapse color film.
Although WMAQ-TV has since moved to NBC Tower about a mile away, and for the most part the 19th floor of the Mart has been turned into office space, one former tenant (Bankers Life and Trust Company) maintained a remnant of the original studios as their video and multimedia department.
Local regional sports network Comcast SportsNet Chicago has their control room, and broadcasts their live studio programming from the Apparel Center expansion; the studios had been home to previous RSNs FSN Chicago and SportsChannel Chicago.
Chicago 'L'
Built in under four months and opened on December 5, 1930, the Merchandise Mart elevated train station served the Main Line of the North Side Division. The station is now noted for being one of two commercial locations to have its own station on the Chicago Transit Authority's (CTA) 'L' system. The station is now served by the Brown and Purple Lines.
The station complies with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The turnstiles are located within the building on the second floor, while the platforms are connected to the east side of the building. The northbound platform is accessed by an overhead bridge or elevator. It was rebuilt in 1988, prior to the Wells Street Bridge reconstruction in 1989.
The Merchandise Mart housed the CTA's headquarters on the 7th floor from 1947 to 2004.
Cultural involvement
Owing to the expanding postwar economy and family, the owners began offering tours in 1948. Architecture and design interest groups continue to offer scheduled tours.
The Mart hosts the annual Art Chicago activities.
Chicago Marathon routes have taken runners past the structure, typically on Wells Street.
In popular culture
The 1948 film Call Northside 777 was made in Illinois and the Mart is seen from newspaper offices on Wacker Drive.
The lobby appeared in the movie The Hudsucker Proxy as the interior of the Hudsucker Company headquarters.
In 1956, the eight-minute short subject film The Merchandise Mart used the Mart's name and covered in detail the building's interior and operations.
When his late-night NBC talk show was performed in Chicago during the first week of May 1989, David Letterman called the Merchandise Mart Hall of Fame "the Pez Hall of Fame" because the combination of busts atop the tall vertical pedestals resembled the candy's dispensers.
In the 1993 film The Fugitive, U.S. Marshals pinpoint the location of Dr. Richard Kimble when they hear a CTA train conductor announce, "Next stop, Merchandise Mart" in the background of a recorded phone call.
The Mart was depicted as the Candor headquarters in the 2012 novel Insurgent by Veronica Roth.
See also
Art Deco
Chicago architecture
Fulton House, Chicago
Interior design
List of largest buildings in the world
New York Merchandise Mart
References
Further reading
Chappell, Sally A. Kitt, Architecture and Planning of Graham, Anderson, Probst and White, 1912–1936:Transforming Tradition, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1992
Roth, Veronica, Insurgent, HarperCollins, New York, NY 2012
External links
archive at the Chicago Tribune
Video Merchandise Mart Properties Tenant Profiles
The Merchandise Mart Buyers Guide
1930 establishments in Illinois
Art Deco architecture in Illinois
Buildings and structures completed in 1930
Kennedy family
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design basic silver certified buildings
Skyscrapers in Chicago
Wholesale markets
|
417044
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real%20estate%20investment%20trust
|
Real estate investment trust
|
A real estate investment trust (REIT, pronounced "reet") is a company that owns, and in most cases operates, income-producing real estate. REITs own many types of commercial real estate, including office and apartment buildings, warehouses, hospitals, shopping centers, hotels and commercial forests. Some REITs engage in financing real estate.
Most countries' laws on REITs entitle a real estate company to pay less in corporation tax and capital gains tax. REITs have been criticised as enabling speculation on housing, and reducing housing affordability, without increasing finance for building.
REITs can be publicly traded on major exchanges, publicly registered but non-listed, or private. The two main types of REITs are equity REITs and mortgage REITs (mREITs). In November 2014, equity REITs were recognized as a distinct asset class in the Global Industry Classification Standard by S&P Dow Jones Indices and MSCI. The key statistics to examine the financial position and operation of a REIT include net asset value (NAV), funds from operations (FFO), and adjusted funds from operations (AFFO).
History
Creation
REITs were created in the United States after President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed Public Law 86-779, sometimes called the Cigar Excise Tax Extension of 1960. The law was enacted to allow all investors to invest in large-scale, diversified portfolios of income-producing real estate in the same way they typically invest in other asset classes – through the purchase and sale of liquid securities. The first REIT was American Realty Trust founded by Thomas J. Broyhill, cousin of Virginia U.S. Congressman Joel Broyhill in 1961 who pushed for the creation under Eisenhower.
As of 2021, at least 39 countries around the world have established REITs. A comprehensive index for the REIT and the global listed property market is the FTSE EPRA/Nareit Global Real Estate Index Series, which was created jointly in October 2001 by the index provider FTSE Group, Nareit and the European Public Real Estate Association (EPRA). As of 29 January 2021, the global index included 490 stock exchange listed real estate companies from 39 countries representing an equity market capitalization of about $1.7 trillion.
Evolution
Around the time of their creation in 1960, the first REITs primarily consisted of mortgage companies. The industry experienced significant expansion in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The growth primarily resulted from the increased use of mREITs in land development and construction deals. The Tax Reform Act of 1976 authorized REITs to be established as corporations in addition to business trusts.
The Tax Reform Act of 1986 also impacted REITs. The legislation included new rules designed to prevent taxpayers from using partnerships to shelter their earnings from other sources. Three years later, REITs witnessed significant losses in the stock market.
Retail REIT Taubman Centers Inc. launched the modern era of REITs in 1992 with its creation of the UPREIT. In an UPREIT, the parties of an existing partnership and a REIT become partners in a new "operating partnership". The REIT typically is the general partner and the majority owner of the operating partnership units, and the partners who contributed properties have the right to exchange their operating partnership units for REIT shares or cash. The industry struggled to begin in 2007 as the global financial crisis kicked in. In response to the global credit crisis, listed REITs responded by deleveraging (paying off debt) and re-equitizing (selling stock to get cash) their balance sheets. Listed REITs and REOCs raised $37.5 billion in 91 secondary equity offerings, nine IPOs and 37 unsecured debt offerings as investors continued to act favorably to companies strengthening their balance sheets following the credit crisis.
REIT dividends have a 100 percent payout ratio for all income at lower rates. This inhibits the internal growth of the REIT and causes investors to not tolerate low or non-existent yields as the interest rates are more sensitive. Economic climates characterized by rising interest rates can cause a net negative effect on REIT shares. The dividends paid by REITs look less attractive when compared to bonds that have
increasing coupon rates. Also, when investors shy away from REITs, it makes it
difficult for management to raise additional funds to acquire more property.
Africa & Middle east
Kenya
The first REIT in Kenya was approved by the Capital Markets Authority in October 2015. The REIT is issued by Stanlib Kenya under the name Fahari I-Reit scheme.
The REIT scheme will provide unit holders stable cash inflows from the income generating real estate properties.
The unrestricted IPO will be listed on the main investment market segment of the Nairobi Securities Exchange.
Ghana
REITs have been in existence in Ghana since 1994. The Home Finance Company, now HFC Bank, established the first REIT in Ghana in August 1994. HFC Bank has been at the forefront of mortgage financing in Ghana since 1993. It has used various collective investment schemes as well as corporate bonds to finance its mortgage lending activities. Collective Investment Schemes, of which REITs are a part, are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Ghana.
Nigeria
In 2007, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued the first set of guidelines for the registration and issuance of requirements for the operation of REITs in Nigeria as detailed in the Investment and Securities Act (ISA). The first REIT, the N50 billion Union Homes Hybrid Real Estate Investment Trust, was launched in September 2008. In November 2015 there were three listed REITS on the Nigerian Stock Exchange: Skye Shelter Fund, Union Home and UPDC. A Haldane McCall REIT did not list after failing to reach the minimum 50% subscription in a January 2015 initial public offer amid poor market prospects.
South Africa
By October 2015 there were 33 South African REITS and three non-South African REITs listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, according to the SA REIT Association, which said market capitalization was more than R455 billion.
Saudi Arabia
Commonly referred to as Real Estate Investment Fund, the regulations were launched in July 2006 by the Saudi Capital Market Authority, The regulation did not allow the funds to be traded in the stock market and force all funds to be structured by a licensed Investment companies by CMA with a presence of a real estate developer and some other key persons.
United Arab Emirates
The REIT legislation was introduced by Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) to promote the
development of REIT's in the UAE by passing The Investment Trust Law No.5 that went into effect
on August 6, 2006. This restricts all 'true' REIT structures to be domiciled within the DIFC. The first REIT license to be issued will be backed by Dubai Islamic Bank with a REIT named 'Emirates REIT' headed up by the dot com entrepreneur, Sylvain Vieujot.
The issue is that DIFC domiciled REITs cannot acquire non-Freezone assets within the Emirate of Dubai. The only federally approved Freezone within the UAE is the DIFC itself so therefore any properties outside this zone are purchasable by local Gulf (GCC) passport holders only. However, through a collaboration with local authorities, Emirates REIT has been able to establish a platform enabling it to purchase properties anywhere in Dubai given a minimum of 51% of local ownership of its shares. This allows the company to diversify its portfolio with an efficient revenue generating mix of properties in the prime locations of Dubai. Emirates REIT is the first REIT established within the United Arab Emirates. It is also the first REIT listed on NASDAQ Dubai and one of the five Shari'a compliant REIT in the world with a focus on Income-producing assets.
Emirates REIT has a portfolio of over US$575.3 million consisting of a total of seven properties primarily focus on commercial and office space as of December 2014. It has had substantial growth over the last four years.
Asia & Pacific
Australia
The REIT concept was launched in Australia in 1971. General Property Trust was the first Australian real estate investment trust (LPT) on the Australian stock exchanges (now the Australian Securities Exchange). REITs which are listed on an exchange were known as Listed Property Trusts (LPTs) until March 2008, distinguishing them from private REITs which are known in Australia as Unlisted Property Trusts. They have since been renamed Australian Real Estate Investment Trusts (A-REITs) in line with international practice.
REITs have shown numerous benefits over direct investment including lower tax rates and increased liquidity. There are now more than 70 A-REITs listed on the ASX, with market capitalization in excess of A$100bn.
Australia is also receiving growing recognition as having the world's largest REITs market outside the United States. More than 12 percent of global listed property trusts can be found on the ASX.
Hong Kong
REITs have been in existence in Hong Kong since 2005, when The Link REIT was launched by the Hong Kong Housing Authority on behalf of the Hong Kong Government. Since 2005, there have been seven REIT listings as at July 2007, most of which, including Sunlight REIT have not enjoyed success because of low yield. Except for The Link and Regal Real Estate Investment Trust, share prices of all but one are significantly below initial public offering (IPO) price. Hong Kong issuers' use of financial engineering (interest rate swaps) to improve initial yields has also been cited as having reduced investors' interest
As of July 2012 there are nine REITs listed with a total market capitalisation of approximately €15 billion which amounts to almost 2% of the total global REIT market capitalisation. Two out of the nine listed REITs are also included in the EPRA index, an index published by the European Public Real Estate Association (EPRA). The current top five REITs in Hong Kong are The Link REIT with a total market capitalisation of €8 billion, Hui Xian REIT with a total market capitalisation of €2.3 billion, Champion REIT with a total market capitalisation of €1.8 billion, Fortune REIT with a total market capitalisation of €1 billion and with a total market capitalisation of €700 million.
India
As of August 2014, India approved creation of real estate investment trusts in the country. Indian REITs (country specific/generic version I-REITs) will help individual investors enjoy the benefits of owning an interest in the securitised real estate market. The greatest benefit will be that of fast and easy liquidation of investments in the real estate market unlike the traditional way of disposing of real estate. The government and Securities and Exchange Board of India through various notifications is in the process of making it easier to invest in real estate in India directly and indirectly through foreign direct investment, through listed real estate companies and mutual funds. In the budget of 2014, finance minister Arun Jaitley has introduced a law for setting up of REITs.
As in 2021, there are three REITs listed in National Stock Exchange of India. These are Embassy, Mindspace and Brookfields. Overall, the shareholding of Indian REITs is skewed towards institutional investors (mostly FPIs), with very minimal contribution from retail investors.
China
CSRC (China Securities Regulatory Commission) and NDRC (National Development and Reform Commission) jointly announced the start of pilot projects in REITs on April 30, 2020. This official announcement represents the beginning of REITs in mainland China.
Japan
Japan permitted the establishment of REITs in December 2001. J-REIT securities are traded on the Tokyo Stock Exchange among other exchanges in Japan.
A J-REIT (a listed real estate investment trust) is strictly regulated under the Law concerning Investment Trusts and Investment Companies (LITIC) and established as an investment company under the LITIC.
In addition to REITs, Japanese law also provides for a parallel system of special purpose companies which can be used for the securitization of particular properties on the private placement basis. REIT shares targeted in 2016 accounted for 7 percent of the United States market, which were subsequently sold for less than half of the initial value at $31 billion.
Malaysia
The Bursa Malaysia has 18 REIT listed with five Islamic REITS (shariah compliant – according to Islamic investment compliance).
Indonesia
Dana Investasi Real Estat Berbentuk Kontrak Investasi Kolektif (DIREs) have lacked popularity because of high sale tax and double taxation. Until 2016, only one DIRE was established, which was in 2012. However, tax incentives plans demonstrate an intention of policymakers and lawmakers to boost the competitiveness of the market, and to encourage DIREs to be listed domestically.
Pakistan
The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan is in the process of implementing a REIT regulatory framework that will allow full foreign ownership, free movement of capital and unrestricted repatriation of profits. It will curb speculation in Pakistani real estate markets and gives access to small investors who want to diversify into real estate. The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan is proposing a regulatory framework similar to that of Singapore and Hong Kong.
The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan expected that about six REITs would be licensed within the first year, mainly large asset management companies. Pakistan has seen an outflow of investments by foreign real estate development companies, mostly based in Malaysia and Dubai.
SECP has issued licenses to four parties namely, Arif Habib REIT Management Company, AKD REIT Management Company, Eden Developers REIT Management Company and SB Global REIT Management Company.
Philippines
The legal framework enabling the establishment of REITs in the Philippines have been in place after the Real Estate Investment Trust Act of 2009 (Republic Act No. 9856) passed into law on December 17, 2009. Its Implementing Rules and Regulations were approved by the Securities and Exchange Commission in May 2010. However, it failed to attract investors due to its restrictive tax policies and high friction cost.
Regulations on REITs was relaxed in January 2020 which led to the establishment of the first REIT in the country, AREIT Inc. of Ayala Land which had its public offering in August of the same year. However foreign investors still have poor reception towards REITs during that year when there was also a prevailing COVID-19 pandemic.
Singapore
Commonly referred to as S-REITs, there are more than 40 REITs listed on the Singapore Exchange, with the latest REIT, Cromwell European REIT, listed on 30 November 2017. The first one to be set up being CapitaMall Trust in July 2002. They represent a range of property sectors including retail, office, industrial, hospitality and residential. S-REITs hold a variety of properties in countries including Japan, China, Indonesia and Hong Kong, in addition to local properties. In recent years, foreign assets listing on the Singapore Exchange has grown to overtake those traditional listing with local assets.
S-REITs are regulated as Collective Investment Schemes under the Monetary Authority of Singapore's Code on Collective Investment Schemes, or alternatively as Business Trusts.
Some of the regulations that S-REITs have to adhere to includes:
Maximum gearing ratio of 35%
Annual valuation of its properties
Restriction to certain types of investments the S-REITs can make
Distribution of at least 90% of its taxable income
S-REITs benefit from tax advantaged status where the tax is payable only at the investor level and not at the REITs level. In addition to REITs, there are ten Business Trusts ("BTs") (similar to REITs but may hold assets that are not conventional and are not subjected to stringent rules as compared to SREITs), and six Stapled Instruments (composed of a stapled Business Trust Unit and a REIT unit), which are listed on the Singapore Exchange. The total market capitalisation of the listed Trust on Singapore Exchange approximate SGD 100 billion (as at 30 Nov 17).
Thailand
The Securities and Exchange Commission created regulations to establish REITs as an investment vehicle in late 2012, opening the doors for the first REITs to be listed in 2013. There are at least two tens of REITS. Introduced in 2014 to replace the Property Funds for Public Offering (PFPO) scheme, REITs have gained popularity, and the total market capitalisation has reached THB 85 billion across two million square metres of assets.
Sri Lanka
On 1 August 2020, the Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka (SEC) announced that REITS will be introduced as an extension of the current Unit Trust Code and the new Rules, which came into effect from 31 July 2020 is in the form of a Gazette Notification published by the SEC. These Rules which are comprehensive, will govern the setting up of and the conduct of a Sri Lankan REITs. Specific provisions have been included for the verification of title and valuation of property that will form part of the assets of the REIT. Amongst the requirements is the mandatory distribution of approximately 90% of income to the unit holders, which is currently not a requirement for any of the listed entities. Further, due to the availability of the tax pass through mechanism to Unit Trusts, REITs also could benefit to be a viable business concept to Sri Lanka that will open new horizons for entrepreneurs to take the real estate industry to greater heights.
Europe
Belgium
Bernheim Comofi (now AG Real Estate) introduced Belgian REITs in 1995 with the constitution of Befimmo. Others REITs in Belgium include Cofinimmo and Ascensio.
Bulgaria
REITs were introduced in Bulgaria in 2004 with the Special Purpose Investment Companies Act. They are pass-through entities for corporate income tax purposes (i.e., they are not subject to corporate income-tax), but are subject to numerous restrictions.
Finland
Finnish REITs were established in 2010, when the Finnish parliament passed "the tax exemption law" (Laki eräiden asuntojen vuokraustoimintaa harjoittavien osakeyhtiöiden verohuojennuksesta, 299/2009). Together with the "Law on Real Estate Funds" (Kiinteistörahastolaki, 1173–1997) it enables the existence of tax-efficient residential REITs.
Qualifications
REITs have to be established as public listed companies (julkinen osakeyhtiö, Oyj) for this specific purpose. When the REIT is established the minimum equity is 5M€ and it has to be distributed over five separate investors.
Minimum holding period: five years.
At least 80% of its assets have to be invested in residential real-estate.
At least 80% of the REIT's gross revenues must come from residential rental income.
At least 90% of the REIT's taxable income, excluding unrealised capital gains, has to be distributed to its shareholders through dividends.
The corporation is income-tax-exempt, but the shareholders will have to pay individual income tax on the dividends.
The largest individual shareholder may own less than 10% of company shares (maximum 30% till the end of 2013).
Orava Residential REIT is the only REIT in Finland.
France
The French acronyms for REIT are SIIC or "SCPI" (which are two different kinds of real-estate trust). In France, Unibail-Rodamco is the largest SIIC. Gecina is the second-largest publicly traded property company in France, with the third-highest asset value among European REITs.
Germany
Germany planned to introduce REITs in order to create a new type of real estate investment vehicle. The Government feared that failing to introduce REITs in Germany would result in a significant loss of investment capital to other countries. Nonetheless, there still is political resistance to these plans, especially from the Social Democratic Party.
In June 2006 the ministry of finance announced that they planned to introduce REITs in 2007. The legal details seem to adopt much of the British REIT regulation.
A law concerning REITs was enacted 1 June 2007, effective retroactively to 1 January 2007:
REITs have to be established as corporations—"REIT-AG" or "REIT-Aktiengesellschaft".
At least 75% of its assets have to be invested in real estate.
At least 75% of the G-REIT's gross revenues must be real-estate related.
At least 90% of the REIT's taxable income has to be distributed to its shareholders through dividends.
The corporation is income-tax-exempt, but the shareholders will have to pay individual income tax on the dividends.
Investments in residential properties built before 1 January 2007 are not permitted.
The German public real-estate sector accounts for 0.21% of the total global REIT market capitalization. Three out of the four G-REITS are represented in the EPRA index, an index managed by the European Public Real Estate Association (EPRA).
Ireland
The 2013 Finance Act contained provisions for creating REIT structures in Ireland. Irish based REITs include Hibernia REIT, Green REIT, Yew Grove REIT and IRES REIT.
Spain
Created in 2009, similar to British REITs, the SOCIMI (Sociedad cotizada de Capital Inmobiliario) boosted after a policy of fiscal incentives to help recover the biggest home prices crisis in Spain, in 2013. There are more than 70 REITS in Spain, but the liquidity is low and the holding period is large.
United Kingdom
The legislation laying out the rules for REITs in the United Kingdom was enacted in the Finance Act 2006 (now see the Corporation Tax Act 2010 sections 518 to 609) and came into effect in January 2007 when nine UK property-companies converted to REIT status, including five FTSE 100 members at that time: British Land, Hammerson, Land Securities, Liberty International and Slough Estates (which became SEGRO plc). The other four companies were Brixton (now known as "SEGRO"), Great Portland Estates, Primary Health Properties and Workspace Group.
British REITs have to distribute 90% of their income to investors. They must be a close-ended investment trust and be UK-resident and publicly listed on a stock exchange. The EPRA in Brussels each year publishes a breakdown of the UK REIT structure requirements.
To support the introduction of REITs in the UK, several commercial property and financial-services companies formed the REITs and Quoted Property Group. Other key bodies involved include the London Stock Exchange the British Property Federation and Reita. The Reita campaign was launched on 16 August 2006 by the REITs and Quoted Property Group in order to provide a source of information on REITs, quoted property and related investment-funds. Reita aims to raise awareness and understanding of REITs and of investment in quoted property companies. It does this primarily through its portal www.reita.org, providing knowledge, education and tools for financial advisers and investors.
Doug Naismith, managing director of European Personal Investments for Fidelity International, said in 2011: "As existing markets expand and REIT-like structures are introduced in more countries, we expect to see the overall market grow by some ten percent per annum over the next five years, taking the market to $1 trillion by 2010."
The Finance Act 2012 brought five main changes to the REIT regime in the UK:
the abolition of the 2% entry charge to join the regime—this should make REITs more attractive due to reduced costs
relaxation of the listing requirements—REITs can now be AIM quoted (the London Stock Exchange's international market for smaller growing companies)—making a listing more attractive due to reduced costs and greater flexibility
a REIT now has a three-year grace period before having to comply with close company rules (a close company is a company under the control of five or fewer investors)
a REIT will not be considered to be a close company if it can be made close by the inclusion of institutional investors (authorised unit trusts, OEICs, pension schemes, insurance companies and bodies which are sovereign immune)—this point makes REITs attractive investment trusts
the interest cover test of 1.25 times finance costs is not as onerous
Boyd Carson of Sapphire Capital Partners LLP commented that "the most important of these advantages is the ability for REITs to be listed on the AIM and the abolition of the 2% entry charge to the regime is also a significant step forward." However, "UK-REITs are still not as cash driven as the market would likely prefer".
Americas
Brazil
REITs were introduced in Brazil in 1993 by the law 8668–93 and initially ruled by the instruction 205/94 and, nowadays, by instruction 472/08 from CVM (Comissão de Valores Mobiliários - which is the Brazilian equivalent of SEC). Locally they are described as "FII"s or "Fundos de Investimento Imobiliário". FII's dividends have been free of taxes for personal investors (not companies) since 2006, but only for the funds which have at least 50 investors and that are publicly traded in the stock market. FIIs, referred to as "REIT" to correspond with the similar investment vehicle in the US, have been used either to own and operate independent property investments, associated with a single property or part property, or to own several real properties (multiple properties) funded through the capital markets.
Canada
Canadian REITs were established in 1993. They are required to be configured as trusts and are not taxed if they distribute their net taxable income to shareholders. REITs have been excluded from the income trust tax legislation passed in the 2007 budget by the Conservative government. Many Canadian REITs have limited liability. On December 16, 2010, the Department of Finance proposed amendments to the rules defining "Qualifying REITs" for Canadian tax purposes. As a result, "Qualifying REITs" are exempt from the new entity-level, "specified investment flow-through" (SIFT) tax that all publicly traded income trusts and partnerships are paying as of January 1, 2011.
Mexico
Mexico has passed legislation to allow for the equivalent of REITs, known as FIBRAs (Fideicomiso de Infraestructura y Bienes Raíces), to be traded in the Mexican Stock Exchange. Like REITs legislation in other countries, companies must qualify as a FIBRA by complying with the following rules:
at least 70% of assets must be invested in financing or owning of real estate assets, with the remaining amount invested in government-issued securities or debt-instrument mutual funds.
Acquired or developed real estate assets must be income generating and held for at least four years.
If shares, known as Certificados de Participación Inmobiliarios or CPIs, are issued privately, there must be more than 10 unrelated investors in the FIBRA.
The FIBRA must distribute 95% of annual profits to investors.
The first Mexican REIT was launched in 2011 and is called FIBRA UNO.
According to The Wall Street Journal, Mexican REITs debuted in March 2011 "after government regulatory changes made the structure possible. Fibras offered investors an easy way to own Mexican real estate and pick up an attractive dividend at the same time. Like U.S. REITs, Fibras avoid paying corporate taxes as long as they distribute at least 95% of their income to shareholders as dividends."
United States
History
The U.S. Congress enacted the law providing for REITs in 1960. The law was intended to provide a real estate investment structure similar to the one that mutual funds provide for investment in stocks. REITs are strong income vehicles because, to avoid incurring liability for U.S. federal income tax, REITs generally must pay out an amount equal to at least 90 percent of their taxable income in the form of dividends to shareholders.
From 2008 to 2011, REITs faced challenges from both a slowing United States economy and the late-2000s financial crisis.
For the five-year period ending in 2019, the S&P 500 index, an index of stocks for US large cap companies, returned an annualized 12.5% compared with an annualized return of 9.0% for the FTSE NAREIT All Equity REITs index. However, for the years 1972-2019 the total annualized returns were 12.1% for the S&P 500 versus 13.3% for the FTSE NAREIT index. There are more than 190 public REITs listed on exchanges in the United States.
Legislation
Under U.S. Federal income tax law, a REIT is "any corporation, trust or association that acts as an investment agent specializing in real estate and real estate mortgages" under Internal Revenue Code section 856. The rules for federal income taxation of REITs are found primarily in Part II (sections 856 through 859) of Subchapter M of Chapter 1 of the Internal Revenue Code. Because a REIT is entitled to deduct dividends paid to its owners (commonly referred to as shareholders), a REIT may avoid incurring all or part of its liabilities for U.S. federal income tax. To qualify as a REIT, an organization makes an "election" to do so by filing a Form 1120-REIT with the Internal Revenue Service, and by meeting certain other requirements. The purpose of this designation is to reduce or eliminate corporate tax, thus avoiding double taxation of owner income. In return, REITs are required to distribute at least 90% of their taxable income into the hands of investors. The REIT structure was designed to provide a real estate investment structure similar to the structure mutual funds provide for investment in stocks.
Structure
In the United States, a REIT is a company that owns, and in most cases operates, income-producing real estate. Some REITs finance real estate. To be a REIT, a company must distribute at least 90 percent of its taxable income to shareholders annually in the form of dividends.
To qualify as a REIT under U.S. tax rules, a company must:
Be structured as a corporation, trust, or association
Be managed by a board of directors or trustees
Have transferable shares or transferable certificates of interest
Otherwise be taxable as a domestic corporation
Not be a financial institution or an insurance company
Be jointly owned by 100 persons or more
Have 95 percent of its income derived from dividends, interest, and property income
Pay dividends of at least 90% of the REIT's taxable income
Have no more than 50% of the shares held by five or fewer individuals during the last half of each taxable year (5/50 rule)
Have at least 75% of its total assets invested in real estate
Derive at least 75% of its gross income from rents or mortgage interest
Have no more than 25% of its assets invested in taxable REIT subsidiaries.
See also
Australian real estate investment trust
Closed-end fund
EPRA index
Income trust
Investment trust
List of real estate investment firms
Mutual fund
Real estate investing
Real estate business
Real estate development
Real estate mortgage investment conduit (REMIC)
Royalty trust
Stock market
Taxable REIT subsidiaries
References
External links
Nareit - National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts
EPRA - European Public Real Estate Association
|
417063
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V.%20S.%20Ramachandran
|
V. S. Ramachandran
|
Vilayanur Subramanian Ramachandran (born 10 August 1951) is an Indian-American neuroscientist. He is known for his wide-ranging experiments and theories in behavioral neurology, including the invention of the mirror box. Ramachandran is a distinguished professor in UCSD's Department of Psychology, where he is the director of the Center for Brain and Cognition.
After earning a medical degree in India, Ramachandran studied experimental neuroscience at Cambridge, obtaining his PhD there in 1978. Most of his research has been in the fields of behavioral neurology and visual psychophysics. After early work on human vision, Ramachandran turned to work on wider aspects of neurology including phantom limbs and phantom pain. Ramachandran invented mirror therapy which is now used to treat amputees with phantom limb pain and also to help restore motor control in stroke victims with weakened limbs.
Ramachandran's popular books Phantoms in the Brain (1998), The Tell-Tale Brain (2010), and others describe neurological and clinical studies of people with synesthesia, Capgras syndrome, and a wide range of other unusual conditions. Ramachandran has also described his work in many public lectures, including lectures for the BBC, and two official TED talks. Both his scientific research and his popularization of science have been recognized with multiple awards.
Biography
Ramachandran was born in 1951 in Tamil Nadu, India. His mother had a degree in mathematics. His grandfather was Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, one of the framers of India's constitution.
Ramachandran's father, V. M. Subramanian, was an engineer who worked for the U.N. Industrial Development Organization and served as a diplomat in Bangkok, Thailand. Ramachandran attended schools in Madras, and British schools in Bangkok.
Ramachandran, whose father wanted him to become a physician rather than a researcher, obtained an M.B.B.S. from Stanley Medical College in Chennai, India.
In 1978, Ramachandran obtained a Ph.D. from Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. Later he moved to the US, where he spent two years at Caltech as a research fellow working with Jack Pettigrew before being appointed assistant professor of psychology at the University of California, San Diego in 1983. He became a full professor there in 1988. He currently holds the rank of distinguished professor in the UCSD Psychology Department, and is the director of its Center for Brain and Cognition, where he works with graduate students and researchers from UCSD and elsewhere on emerging theories in neuroscience. As of July 2019, Ramachandran is also a professor in the UCSD Medical School's Neurosciences program. and an adjunct professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.
In 1987, Ramachandran married a fellow scientist who became his frequent co-author as Diane Rogers-Ramachandran. They have two sons, Chandramani and Jaya.
Ramachandran's scientific work can be divided into two phases. From the early 1970s until the late 1980s, Ramachandran's work focused almost exclusively on human visual processing, especially on stereopsis. Ramachandran began publishing research in this area beginning in 1972, with a paper in Nature while still a student at Stanley Medical College.
In 1991, Ramachandran was inspired by Tim Pons's research on cortical plasticity. Pons demonstrated cortical reorganization in monkeys after the amputation of a finger. Ramachandran was one of the first researchers to recognize the potential of neuroimaging technology to demonstrate the plastic changes that take place in the human cortex after amputation. Ramachandran then began research on phantom limbs, but later moved on to study a wider range of neurological mysteries, including body integrity identity disorder and the Capgras delusion.
Ramachandran has encountered skepticism about some of his theories. Ramachandran has responded, "I have—for better or worse—roamed the whole landscape of visual perception, stereopsis, phantom limbs, denial of paralysis, Capgras syndrome, synaesthesia, and many others."
Ramachandran has served as a consultant in areas such as forensic psychology and the neuroscience of weight reduction. In 2007, Ramachandran served as an expert witness on pseudocyesis (false pregnancy) at the trial of Lisa M. Montgomery. Ramachandran has served as a consultant to the Modius company which is developing weight reduction technology that relies on electrically stimulating parts of the brain that control weight loss. Ramachandran is collaborating with Indian doctors doing research on Mucuna pruriens, an ayurvedic (Indian natural medicine) therapy for Parkinson's disease.
In his scientific work, Ramachandran often uses simple equipment, such as mirrors or old-fashioned stereoscopes, rather than complex brain imaging technologies such as fMRI. Ramachandran has been outspoken about his intuition-based approach to studying the brain. In an interview with Frontline magazine Ramachandran stated:Intuition is what gets you started; then you need empirical studies... brain-imaging technology often lulls you into a false sense of having understood what's going on. So sometimes, not having technology - that's my own approach and that of some of my colleagues, we use it only when it's absolutely essential, just like medical diagnostics. We rely more on intuition in doing simple experiments, because if you rely on fancy medical imaging, you become less creative.
Research and theory
Phantom limbs
When an arm or leg is amputated, patients often continue to feel vividly the presence of the missing limb as a "phantom limb" (an average of 80%). Building on earlier work by Ronald Melzack (McGill University) and Timothy Pons (NIMH), Ramachandran theorized that there was a link between the phenomenon of phantom limbs and neural plasticity in the adult human brain. To test this theory, Ramachandran recruited amputees, so that he could learn more about if phantom limbs could "feel" a stimulus to other parts of the body.
In 1992, in collaboration with T.T. Yang, S. Gallen, and others at the Scripps Research Institute who were conducting MEG research, Ramachandran initiated a project to demonstrate that there had been measurable changes in the somatosensory cortex of a patient who had undergone an arm amputation.
Ramachandran theorized that there was a relationship between the cortical reorganization evident in the MEG image and the non-painful referred sensations he had observed in other subjects.
Later researchers found that non-painful phantom limbs correlated less with motor or somatosensory plasticity than painful phantom limbs. Recent research has also shown that the peripheral nervous system is involved in painful phantom limb phenomena.
Research continues into more precise mechanisms and explanations.
Mirror visual feedback/mirror therapy
Writing in 2009, John Colapinto (author of Ramachandran's profile in The New Yorker) said that mirror box therapy for amputees was Ramachandran's most noted achievement.
Ramachandran thought that phantom pain might be caused by the mismatch between different parts of an amputee's nervous systems: the visual system says the limb is missing, but the somatosensory system (processing body sensations such as touch and limb position) says the limb is still there. The so-called mirror box was a simple apparatus that uses a mirror reflecting an amputee's good arm so it appears to be the extension of the one missing:
They put their surviving arm through a hole in the side of a box with a mirror inside, so that, peering through the open top, they would see their arm and its mirror image, as if they had two arms. Ramachandran then asked them to move both their intact arm and, in their mind, their phantom arm—to pretend that they were conducting an orchestra, say. The patients had the sense that they had two arms again.
Ramachandran found that in some cases restoring movement to a paralyzed phantom limb reduced the pain experienced. In 1999 Ramachandran and Eric Altschuler expanded the mirror technique from amputees to improving the muscle control of stroke patients with weakened limbs. As Deconick et al. state in a 2014 review, the mechanism of improved motor control may differ from the mechanism of pain relief.
Despite the introduction of mirror therapy in the late 1990s, little research was published on it before 2009, and much of the research since then has been of contested quality. Out of 115 publications between 2012 and 2017 about using mirror therapy to treat phantom limb pain, a 2018 review, found only 15 studies whose scientific results should be considered. From these 15 studies, the reviewers concluded that "MT seems to be effective in relieving PLP, reducing the intensity and duration of daily pain episodes. It is a valid, simple, and inexpensive treatment for PLP." Similarly, a 2017 review that studied a wider range of uses for mirror therapy, concluded, "Mirror therapy has been used to treat phantom limb pain, complex regional pain syndrome, neuropathy and low back pain. The mechanism of action of mirror therapy remains uncertain, and the evidence for clinical efficacy of mirror therapy is encouraging, but not yet definitive."
Mirror neurons
Mirror neurons were first reported in a paper published in 1992 by a team of researchers led by Giacomo Rizzolatti at the University of Parma. According to Rizzolati, "Mirror neurons are a specific type of visuomotor neuron that discharge both when a monkey executes a motor act and when it observes a similar motor act performed by another individual."
In 2000, Ramachandran made what he called some "purely speculative conjectures" that "mirror neurons [in humans] will do for psychology what DNA did for biology: they will provide a unifying framework and help explain a host of mental abilities that have hitherto remained mysterious and inaccessible to experiments."
Ramachandran has suggested that research into the role of mirror neurons could help explain a variety of human mental capacities such as empathy, imitation learning, and the evolution of language. In a 2001 essay for Edge, Ramachandran speculated that I suggested that in addition to providing a neural substrate for figuring out another persons intentions...the emergence and subsequent sophistication of mirror neurons in hominids may have played a crucial role in many quintessentially human abilities such as empathy, learning through imitation (rather than trial and error), and the rapid transmission of what we call "culture". (And the "great leap forward" — the rapid Lamarckian transmission of "accidental") one-of-a kind inventions.
Ramchandran's speculations about the connection of mirror neurons with empathy have been contested by some authors and supported by others.
"Broken Mirrors" theory of autism
In 1999, Ramachandran, in collaboration with then post-doctoral fellow Eric Altschuler and colleague Jaime Pineda, hypothesized that a dysfunction of mirror neuron activity might be responsible for some of the symptoms and signs of autism spectrum disorders. Between 2000 and 2006 Ramachandran and his colleagues at UC San Diego published a number of articles in support of this theory, which became known as the "Broken Mirrors" theory of autism. Ramachandran and his colleagues did not measure mirror neuron activity directly; rather they demonstrated that children with ASD showed abnormal EEG responses (known as Mu wave suppression) when they observed the activities of other people. In The Tell-Tale Brain (2010), Ramachandran states that the evidence for mirror-neuron dysfunction in autism is "compelling but not conclusive."
The contention that mirror neurons play a role in autism has been extensively discussed and researched.
Neural basis of synesthesia
Ramachandran was one of the first scientists to theorize that grapheme-color synesthesia arises from a cross-activation between brain regions. Ramachandran and his graduate student, Ed Hubbard, conducted research with functional magnetic resonance imaging that found increased activity in the color recognition areas of the brain in synesthetes compared to non-synesthetes.
Ramachandran has speculated that conceptual metaphors may also have a neurological basis in cortical cross-activation. As of 2015, the neurological basis of synesthesia had not been established.
Xenomelia (apotemnophilia)
In 2008, Ramachandran, along with David Brang and Paul McGeoch, published the first paper to theorize that apotemnophilia is a neurological disorder caused by damage to the right parietal lobe of the brain. This rare disorder, in which a person desires the amputation of a limb, was first identified by John Money in 1977. Building on medical case studies that linked brain damage to syndromes such as somatoparaphrenia (lack of limb ownership), the authors speculated that the desire for amputation could be related to changes in the right parietal lobe. In 2011, McGeoch, Brang and Ramachandran reported a functional imaging experiment involving four subjects who desired lower limb amputations. MEG scans demonstrated that their right superior parietal lobules were significantly less active in response to tactile stimulation of a limb that the subjects wished to have amputated, as compared to age- and sex-matched controls. The authors introduced the word xenomelia to describe this syndrome, which is derived from the Greek for "foreign" and "limb".
Popularization of science
Ramachandran is the author of several popular books on neurology such as Phantoms in the Brain (1998) and The Tell-Tale Brain (2010). Phantoms in the Brain became the basis for a 2001 PBS Nova special.
In 2003, the BBC chose Ramachandran to deliver that year's Reith Lectures, a series of radio lectures. Ramachandran's five radio talks on the topic "The Emerging Mind" were afterward published as a book with the same title.
Ramachandran has also given many talks, including TED talks in 2007 and 2010.
In 1997, Newsweek included him on a list of one hundred "personalities whose creativity or talent or brains or leadership will make a difference in the years ahead." In 2008, Foreign Policy included Ramachandran as one of its "World’s Top 100 Public Intellectuals." Similarly, in 2011, Time listed Ramachandran as one of "the most influential people in the world" on the "Time 100 list". Both the Time and the Prospect selections were decided by public voting on a longer list of names proposed by the organization.
Awards and honors
Ramachandran has received many academic and other honors. For example, from his biography at Edge.org:
In 2005 he was awarded the Henry Dale Medal and elected to an honorary life membership by the Royal Institution of Great Britain, where he also gave a Friday evening discourse (joining the ranks of Michael Faraday, Thomas Huxley, Humphry Davy and others.) His other honours and awards include fellowships from All Souls College, Oxford, and from Stanford University (Hilgard Visiting Professor); the Presidential Lecture Award from the American Academy of Neurology, two honorary doctorates, the annual Ramon y Cajal award from the International Neuropsychiatry Society, and the Ariens Kappers medal from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences.
In 2007, the president of India conferred on him the third highest civilian award and honorific title in India, the Padma Bhushan.
In 2014, the ARCS Foundation (Achievement Rewards for College Scientists) named Ramachandran its "Scientist of the Year."
Books written
Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind, coauthor Sandra Blakeslee, 1998 ().
Encyclopedia of the Human Brain (editor-in-chief), three volumes, 2002 ().
The Emerging Mind, 2003 ().
A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness: From Impostor Poodles to Purple Numbers, 2005 (; paperback edition).
The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human, 2010 ().
The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (editor-in-chief), four-volume second edition, 2012 ().
See also
Body image
Oliver Sacks
Phantom limb
Phantom pain
Synesthesia
Sound symbolism (phonaesthesia)
Temporal lobe epilepsy
References
External links
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran (official webpage)
TED Talks by Ramachandran
Reith lectures by Ramachandran, BBC website
1951 births
20th-century Indian medical doctors
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
American academics of Indian descent
American people of Indian Tamil descent
Autism researchers
Cognitive neuroscientists
Columbia University staff
Fellows of the Society of Experimental Psychologists
Harvard University staff
Indian emigrants to the United States
Indian neuroscientists
Living people
Neurotheology
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in science & engineering
Medical doctors from Tamil Nadu
Stanford University Department of Psychology faculty
University of California, San Diego faculty
University of Madras alumni
Salk Institute for Biological Studies people
|
417068
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesiology
|
Anesthesiology
|
Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology, or anaesthesia is the medical specialty concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after surgery. It encompasses anesthesia, intensive care medicine, critical emergency medicine, and pain medicine. A physician specialized in anesthesiology is called an anesthesiologist, anaesthesiologist, or anaesthetist, depending on the country. In some countries, the terms are synonymous, while in other countries they refer to different positions, and anesthetist is only used for non-physicians, such as nurse anesthetists.
The core element of the specialty is the prevention and mitigation of pain and distress using various anesthetic agents, as well as the monitoring and maintenance of a patient's vital functions throughout the perioperative period. Since the 19th century, anesthesiology has developed from an experimental area with non-specialist practitioners using novel, untested drugs and techniques into what is now a highly refined, safe and effective field of medicine. In some countries anesthesiologists comprise the largest single cohort of doctors in hospitals, and their role can extend far beyond the traditional role of anesthesia care in the operating room, including fields such as providing pre-hospital emergency medicine, running intensive care units, transporting critically ill patients between facilities, management of hospice and palliative care units, and prehabilitation programs to optimize patients for surgery.
Scope
As a specialty, the core element of anesthesiology is the practice of anesthesia. This comprises the use of various injected and inhaled medications to produce a loss of sensation in patients, making it possible to carry out procedures that would otherwise cause intolerable pain or be technically unfeasible. Safe anesthesia requires in-depth knowledge of various invasive and non-invasive organ support techniques that are used to control patients' vital functions while under the effects of anaesthetic drugs; these include advanced airway management, invasive and non-invasive hemodynamic monitors, and diagnostic techniques like ultrasonography and echocardiography. Anesthesiologists are expected to have expert knowledge of human physiology, medical physics, and pharmacology as well as a broad general knowledge of all areas of medicine and surgery in all ages of patients, with a particular focus on those aspects which may impact on a surgical procedure. In recent decades, the role of anesthesiologists has broadened to focus not just on administering anesthetics during the surgical procedure itself, but also beforehand in order to identify high-risk patients and optimize their fitness, during the procedure to maintain situational awareness of the surgery itself so as to improve safety, and afterwards to promote and enhance recovery. This has been termed "perioperative medicine".
The concept of intensive care medicine arose in the 1950s and 1960s, with anesthesiologists taking organ support techniques that had traditionally been used only for short periods during surgical procedures (such as positive pressure ventilation) and applying these therapies to patients with organ failure, who might require vital function support for extended periods until the effects of the illness could be reversed. The first intensive care unit was opened by Bjørn Aage Ibsen in Copenhagen in 1953, prompted by a polio epidemic during which many patients required prolonged artificial ventilation. In many countries, intensive care medicine is considered to be a subspecialty of anesthesiology, and anesthesiologists often rotate between duties in the operating room and the intensive care unit. This allows continuity of care when patients are admitted to the ICU after their surgery, and it also means that anesthesiologists can maintain their expertise at invasive procedures and vital function support in the controlled setting of the operating room, while then applying those skills in the more dangerous setting of the critically ill patient. In other countries, intensive care medicine has evolved further to become a separate medical specialty in its own right, or has become a "supra-specialty" which may be practiced by doctors from various base specialties such as anesthesiology, emergency medicine, general medicine, surgery or neurology.
Anesthesiologists have key roles in major trauma, resuscitation, airway management, and caring for other patients outside the operating theatre who have critical emergencies that pose an immediate threat to life, again reflecting transferable skills from the operating room, and allowing continuity of care when patients are brought for surgery or intensive care. This branch of anesthesiology is collectively termed critical emergency medicine, and includes provision of pre-hospital emergency medicine as part of air ambulance or emergency medical services, as well as safe transfer of critically ill patients from one part of a hospital to another, or between healthcare facilities. Anesthesiologists commonly form part of cardiac arrest teams and rapid response teams composed of senior clinicians that are immediately summoned when a patient's heart stops beating, or when they deteriorate acutely while in hospital. Different models for emergency medicine exist internationally: in the Anglo-American model, the patient is rapidly transported by non-physician providers to definitive care such as an emergency department in a hospital. Conversely, the Franco-German approach has a physician, often an anesthesiologist, come to the patient and provide stabilizing care in the field. The patient is then triaged directly to the appropriate department of a hospital.
The role of anesthesiologists in ensuring adequate pain relief for patients in the immediate postoperative period as well as their expertise in regional anesthesia and nerve blocks has led to the development of pain medicine as a subspecialty in its own right. The field comprises individualized strategies for all forms of analgesia, including pain management during childbirth, neuromodulatory technological methods such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation or implanted spinal cord stimulators, and specialized pharmacological regimens.
Anesthesiologists often perform interhospital transfers of critically ill patients, both on short range helicopter or ground based missions, as well as longer range national transports to specialized centra or international missions to retrieve citizens injured abroad. Ambulance services employ units staffed by anesthesiologists that can be called out to provide advanced airway management, blood transfusion, thoracotomy, ECMO, and ultrasound capabilities outside the hospital. Anesthesiologists often (along with general surgeons and orthopedic surgeons) make up part of military medical teams to provide anesthesia and intensive care to trauma victims during armed conflicts.
Terminology
Various names and spellings are used to describe this specialty and the individuals who practice it in different parts of the world. In North America, the specialty is referred to as anesthesiology (omitting the diphthong), and a physician of that specialty is therefore called an anesthesiologist. In these countries, the term anesthestist is used to refer to non-physician providers of anesthesia services such as certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNAs) and anesthesiologist assistants (AAs). In other countries - such as United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa - the medical specialty is referred to as anaesthesia or anaesthetics, with the diphthong. Contrary to the terminology in North America, anaesthetist is used only to refer to a physician practicing in the field; non-physicians use other titles such as physician assistant. At this time, the spelling anaesthesiology is most commonly used in written English, and a physician practicing in the field is termed an anaesthesiologist. This is the spelling adopted by the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists and the European Society of Anaesthesiology, as well as the majority of their member societies. It is the also the most commonly used spelling found in the titles of medical journals. In fact, many countries, such as Ireland and Hong Kong, which formerly used anaesthesia and anaesthetist have now transitioned to anaesthesiology and anaesthesiologist.
History
Throughout human history, efforts have been made by almost every civilization to mitigate pain associated with surgical procedures, ranging from techniques such as acupuncture or phlebotomy to administration of substances such as mandrake, opium, or alcohol. However, by the mid-nineteenth century the study and administration of anesthesia had become far more complex as physicians began experimenting with compounds such as chloroform and nitrous oxide, albeit with mixed results. On October 16, 1846, a day that would thereafter be referred to as "Ether Day", in the Bullfinch Auditorium at Massachusetts General Hospital, which would later be nicknamed the "Ether Dome", New England Dentist Dr. William Morton successfully demonstrated the use of diethyl ether using an inhaler of his own design to induce general anesthesia for a patient undergoing removal of a neck tumor. Reportedly, following the quick procedure, operating surgeon Dr. John Warren affirmed to the audience that had gathered to watch the exhibition, "Gentlemen, this is no humbug!", although this report has been disputed.
The term Anaesthesia was first used by the Greek philosopher Dioscorides, derived from the Ancient Greek roots an-, "not", aísthēsis, "sensation" to describe the insensibility that accompanied the narcotic-like effect produced by the mandrake plant. However, following Dr. Morton's successful exhibition, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. sent a letter to Dr. Morton in which he first to suggested anesthesia to denote the medically induced state of amnesia, insensibility, and stupor that enabled physicians to operate with minimal pain or trauma to the patient. The original term had simply been "etherization" because at the time this was the only agent discovered that was capable of inducing such a state.
Over the next one hundred-plus years the specialty of anesthesiology developed rapidly as further scientific advancements meant that physicians' means of controlling peri-operative pain and monitoring patients' vital functions grew more sophisticated. With the isolation of cocaine in the mid-nineteenth century there began to be drugs available for local anesthesia. By the end of the nineteenth century, the number of pharmacological options had increased and had begun to be applied both peripherally and neuraxially. Then in the twentieth century neuromuscular blockade allowed the anesthesiologist to completely paralyze the patient pharmacologically and breathe for him or her via mechanical ventilation. With these new tools, the anesthetist could intensively manage the patient's physiology, bringing about critical care medicine, which, in many countries, is intimately connected to anesthesiology.
Historically anesthesia providers were almost solely utilized during surgery to administer general anesthesia in which a person is placed in a pharmacologic coma. This is performed to permit surgery without the individual responding to pain (analgesia) during surgery or remembering (amnesia) the surgery.
Investigations
Effective practice of anesthesiology requires several areas of knowledge by the practitioner, some of which are:
Pharmacology of commonly used drugs including inhalational anaesthetics, topical anesthetics, and vasopressors as well as numerous other drugs used in association with anesthetics (e.g., ondansetron, glycopyrrolate)
Monitors: electrocardiography, electroencephalography, electromyography, entropy monitoring, neuromuscular monitoring, cortical stimulation mapping, and neuromorphology
Mechanical ventilation
Anatomical knowledge of the nervous system for nerve blocks, etc.
Other areas of medicine (e.g., cardiology, pulmonology, obstetrics) to assess the risk of anesthesia to adequately have informed consent, and knowledge of anesthesia regarding how it affects certain age groups (neonates, pediatrics, geriatrics)
Treatments
Many procedures or diagnostic tests do not require "general anesthesia" and can be performed using various forms of sedation or regional anesthesia, which can be performed to induce analgesia in a region of the body. For example, epidural administration of a local anesthetic is commonly performed on the mother during childbirth to reduce labor pain while permitting the mother to be awake and active in labor and delivery.
In the United States, anesthesiologists may also perform non-surgical pain management (termed pain medicine) and provide care for patients in intensive care units (termed critical care medicine).
Training
International standards for the safe practice of anesthesia, jointly endorsed by the World Health Organization and the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists, define anesthesiologist as a graduate of a medical school who has completed a nationally recognized specialist anesthesia training program. The length and format of anesthesiology training programs varies from country to country, as noted below. A candidate must first have completed medical school training to be awarded a medical degree, before embarking on a program of postgraduate specialist training or residency which can range from four to nine years. Anesthesiologists in training spend this time gaining experience in various different subspecialties of anesthesiology and undertake various advanced postgraduate examinations and skill assessments. These lead to the award of a specialist qualification at the end of their training indicating that they are an expert in the field and may be licensed to practice independently.
Argentina
In Argentina, specialized training in the field of anesthesiology is overseen by the Argentine Federation of Associations of Anaesthesia, Analgesia and Reanimation (in Spanish, or FAAAAR). Residency programs are four to five years long.
Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand, the medical specialty is referred to as anaesthesia or anaesthetics; note the extra "a" (or diphthong). Specialist training is supervised by the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists (ANZCA), while anaesthetists are represented by the Australian Society of Anaesthetists and the New Zealand Society of Anaesthetists. The ANZCA-approved training course encompasses an initial two-year long Pre-vocational Medical Education and Training (PMET), which may include up to 12 months training in anaesthesia or ICU medicine, plus at least five years of supervised clinical training at approved training sites. Trainees must pass both the primary and final examinations which consist of both written (multiple choice questions and short-answer questions) and, if successful in the written exams, oral examinations (viva voce).
In the final written examination, there are many questions of clinical scenarios (including interpretation of radiological exams, EKGs and other special investigations). There are also two cases of real patients with complex medical conditions - for clinical examination and a following discussion. The course has a program of 12 modules such as obstetric anaesthesia, pediatric anaesthesia, cardiothoracic and vascular anaesthesia, neurosurgical anaesthesia and pain management. Trainees also have to complete an advanced project, such as a research publication or paper. They also undergo an EMAC (Effective Management of Anaesthetic Crises) or EMST (Early Management of Severe Trauma) course. On completion of training, the trainees are awarded the Diploma of Fellowship and are entitled to use the qualification of FANZCA – Fellow of the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists.
Brazil
In Brazil, anesthesiology training is overseen by the National Commission for Medical Residency (CNRM) and the Brazilian Society of Anesthesiology (SBA). Approximately 650 physicians are admitted yearly to a three-year specialization program with a duty hour limit of 60 hours per week. The residency programs can take place at training centers in university hospitals. These training centers are accredited by the Brazilian Society of Anesthesiology (SBA), or other referral hospitals accredited by the Ministry of Health. Most of the residents are trained in different areas, including ICU, pain management, and anesthesiology sub-specialties, including transplants and pediatrics. Residents may elect to pursue further specialization via a fellowship post-residency, but this is optional and only offered at few training centers. In order to be a certified anesthesiologist in Brazil, the residents must undergo exams (conducted by the SBA) throughout the residency program and at the end of the program. In order to be an instructor of a residency program certified by the SBA, the anesthesiologists must have the superior title in anaesthesia, in which the specialist undergoes a multiple choice test followed by an oral examination conducted by a board assigned by the national society.
Canada
In Canada, training is supervised by 17 universities approved by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Residency programs are typically five years long, consisting of 1.5 years of general medicine training followed by 3.5 years of anesthesia specific training. Canada, like the United States, uses a competency-based curriculum along with an evaluation method called "Entrustable Professional Activities" or "EPA" in which a resident is assessed based on their ability to perform certain tasks that are specific to the field of anesthesiology. Upon completion of a residency program, the candidate is required to pass a comprehensive objective examination consisting of a written component (two three-hour papers: one featuring 'multiple choice' questions, and the other featuring 'short-answer' questions) and an oral component (a two-hour session relating to topics on the clinical aspects of anesthesiology). The examination of a patient is not required. Upon completion of training, the anaesthesia graduate is then entitled to become a "Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Canada" and to use the post-nominal letters "FRCPC".
Germany
In Germany, after earning the right to practice medicine (), German physicians who want to become anaesthesiologists must undergo five years of additional training as outlined by the German Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, or DGAI). This specialist training consists of anaesthesiology, emergency medicine, intensive care and pain medicine, and also palliative care medicine. Similar to many other countries, the training includes rotations serving in the operation theatres to perform anaesthesia on a variety of patients being treated by various surgical subspecialties (e.g. general surgery, neurosurgery, invasive urological and gynecological procedures), followed by a rotation through various intensive-care units. Many German anaesthesiologists choose to complete an additional curriculum in emergency medicine, which once completed, enables them to be referred to as , an emergency physician working pre-clinically with the emergency medical service. In pre-clinical settings the emergency physician is assisted by paramedics.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, anaesthesiologists must complete medical school training, which takes six years. After successfully completing medical school training, they start a five-year residency training in anaesthesiology. In their fifth year they can choose to spend the year doing research, or to specialize in a certain area, including general anaesthesiology, critical care medicine, pain and palliative medicine, paediatric anaesthesiology, cardiothoracic anaesthesiology, neuroanaesthesiology or obstetric anaesthesiology.
Guatemala
In Guatemala, a student with a medical degree must complete a residency of six years. This consists of five years in residency and one year of practice with an expert anaesthetist.
After residency, students take a board examination conducted by the college of medicine of Guatemala, the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (Medicine Faculty Examination Board), and a chief physician who represents the health care ministry of the government of Guatemala. The examination includes a written section, an oral section, and a special examination of skills and knowledge relating to anaesthetic instruments, emergency treatment, pre-operative care, post-operative care, intensive care units, and pain medicine. After passing the examination, the college of medicine of Guatemala, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala and the health care ministry of the government of Guatemala grants the candidate a special license to practice anaesthesia as well as a diploma issued by the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala granting the degree of physician with specialization in anaesthesia. Anaesthetists in Guatemala are also subject to yearly examinations and mandatory participation in yearly seminars on the latest developments in anaesthetic practice.
Hong Kong
To be qualified as an anesthesiologist in Hong Kong, medical practitioners must undergo a minimum of six years of postgraduate training and pass three professional examinations. Upon completion of training, the Fellowship of Hong Kong College of Anesthesiologists and subsequently the Fellowship of Hong Kong Academy of Medicine is awarded. Practicing anesthesiologists are required to register in the Specialist register of the Medical Council of Hong Kong and hence are under the regulation of the Medical Council.
Italy
In Italy, a medical school graduate must complete an accredited five-year residency in anesthesiology. Anesthesia training is overseen by the Italian Society of Anaesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation, and Intensive Care (SIAARTI).
The Nordic countries
In Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, anesthesiologists' training is supervised by the respective national societies of anesthesiology as well as the Scandinavian Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine. In the Nordic countries, anesthesiology is the medical specialty that is engaged in the fields of anesthesia, intensive care medicine, pain control medicine, pre-hospital and in-hospital emergency medicine. Medical school graduates must complete a twelve-month internship, followed by a five-year residency program. SSAI currently hosts six training programs for anesthesiologists in the Nordics. These are Intensive care, Pediatric anesthesiology and intensive care, Advanced pain medicine, Critical care medicine, Critical emergency medicine, and Advanced obstetric anesthesiology.
Sweden
In Sweden one speciality entails both anesthesiology and intensive care, i.e. one cannot become and anesthetist without also becoming an intensivist and vice versa. The Swedish Board of Health and Welfare regulates specialization for medical doctors in the country and defines the speciality of anesthesiology and intensive care as being:
A medical doctor can enter training as a resident in anesthesiology and intensive care after obtaining a license to practice medicine, following an 18-24 month internship. The residency program then lasts at least five years, not including the internship. See also Residency (medicine), Sweden.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, training is supervised by the Royal College of Anaesthetists. Following the completion of medical school training, doctors enter a two-year foundation program that consists of at least six, four-month rotations in various medical specialties. It is mandatory for all physicians to complete a minimum of three months of general medicine and general surgery training during this time. Following the foundation program, physicians compete for specialist training.
The training program in the United Kingdom currently consists of three years of core training and four years of higher training. Before the end of core training, all trainees must have passed the primary examination for the diploma of Fellowship of the Royal College of Anaesthetists (FRCA). Trainees wishing to hold dual accreditation in anaesthesia and intensive care medicine may enter anaesthesia training via the Acute Care Common Stem (ACCS) program which lasts four years and consists of experience in anaesthesia, emergency medicine, acute medicine and intensive care. Trainees in anaesthesia are called Specialty Registrars (StR) or Specialist Registrars (SpR).
The Certificate of Completion of Training (CCT) in anaesthesia is divided into three levels: Basic, intermediate and advanced. During this time, physicians learn anaesthesia as applicable to all surgical specialties. The curriculum focuses on a modular format, with trainees primarily working in one special area during one module, for example: cardiac anaesthesia, neuroanaesthesia, ENT, maxillofacial, pain medicine, intensive care, and trauma. Traditionally (before the advent of the foundation program), trainees entered anaesthesia from other specialties, such as medicine or accidents and emergencies. Specialist training takes at least seven years. On completion of specialist training, physicians are awarded CCT and are eligible for entry on the GMC Specialist register and are also able to work as consultant anaesthetist. A new consultant in anaesthetics must have completed a minimum of 14 years of training (including: five to six years of medical school training, two years of foundation training, and seven years of anaesthesia training).
Those wishing for dual accreditation (in Intensive care and anaesthesia) are required to undergo approximately an additional year of training and also complete the fellowship of the Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine (FFICM). Pain specialists give the Fellowship of the Faculty of Pain Medicine of the Royal College of Anaesthetists (FFPMRCA) examination.
United States
Following medical school training, anesthesiology residency programs in the United States require successful completion of four years of residency training at an ACGME approved program for board certification eligibility in the specialty of anesthesiology. Anesthesiology residents face multiple examinations during their residency, including exams encompassing physiology, pathophysiology, pharmacology, and other medical sciences addressed in medical school, along with multiple anesthesia knowledge tests which assess progress during residency. Successful completion of both a written and oral board exam after completion of residency is required for board certification.
Residency training in the U.S. encompasses the full scope of perioperative medicine, including pre-operative medical evaluation, management of pre-existing disease in the surgical patient, intraoperative life support, intraoperative pain control, intraoperative ventilation, post-operative recovery, intensive care medicine, and chronic and acute pain management. After residency, many anesthesiologists complete an additional fellowship year of sub-specialty training in areas such as pain management, sleep medicine, cardiothoracic anesthesiology, pediatric anesthesiology, neuroanesthesiology, regional anesthesiology/ambulatory anesthesiology, obstetric anesthesiology, or critical care medicine.
The average salary for a full-time anesthesiologist in 2021 is roughly $378,000, according to Medscape.
The majority of anesthesiologists in the United States are board-certified, either by the American Board of Anesthesiology (ABA) or the American Osteopathic Board of Anesthesiology (AOBA). D.O. anesthesiologists can be certified by the ABA. The ABA is a member of the American Board of Medical Specialties, while the AOBA falls under the American Osteopathic Association. Both Boards are recognized by the major insurance underwriters in the U.S. as well as by all branches of the U.S. Uniformed Services. Board certification by the ABA involves both a written and an oral examination. AOBA certification requires the same exams, in addition to a practical examination with examining physicians observing the applicant actually administering anesthetics in the operating room.
There are several non-physician anesthesia providers practicing in the United States. These include certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNAs), anesthesiologist assistants (AAs), and dental anesthesiologists. CRNAs are the only type of non-physician anesthesia provider that have successfully lobbied for the ability to provide all types of anesthesia for any surgery or procedure independently in some states. AAs must work under the supervision of an anesthesiologist, and dental anesthesiologists are limited to dental cases.
References
External links
OpenAnesthesia — the Anesthesiology Wiki (presented by the International Anesthesia Research Society)
|
417111
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain%20management
|
Pain management
|
Pain management is an aspect of medicine and health care involving relief of pain (pain relief, analgesia, pain control) in various dimensions, from acute and simple to chronic and challenging. Most physicians and other health professionals provide some pain control in the normal course of their practice, and for the more complex instances of pain, they also call on additional help from a specific medical specialty devoted to pain, which is called pain medicine.
Pain management often uses a multidisciplinary approach for easing the suffering and improving the quality of life of anyone experiencing pain, whether acute pain or chronic pain. Relief of pain in general (analgesia) is often an acute affair, whereas managing chronic pain requires additional dimensions.
A typical multidisciplinary pain management team may include: medical practitioners, pharmacists, clinical psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, recreational therapists, physician assistants, nurses, and dentists. The team may also include other mental health specialists and massage therapists. Pain sometimes resolves quickly once the underlying trauma or pathology has healed, and is treated by one practitioner, with drugs such as pain relievers (analgesics) and occasionally also anxiolytics.
Effective management of chronic (long-term) pain, however, frequently requires the coordinated efforts of the pain management team. Effective pain management does not always mean total eradication of all pain. Rather, it often means achieving adequate quality of life in the presence of pain, through any combination of lessening the pain and/or better understanding it and being able to live happily despite it. Medicine treats injuries and diseases to support and speed healing. It treats distressing symptoms such as pain and discomfort to reduce any suffering during treatment, healing, and dying.
The task of medicine is to relieve suffering under three circumstances. The first is when a painful injury or pathology is resistant to treatment and persists. The second is when pain persists after the injury or pathology has healed. Finally, the third circumstance is when medical science cannot identify the cause of pain. Treatment approaches to chronic pain include pharmacological measures, such as analgesics (pain killer drugs), antidepressants, and anticonvulsants; interventional procedures, physical therapy, physical exercise, application of ice or heat; and psychological measures, such as biofeedback and cognitive behavioral therapy.
Defining pain
In the nursing profession, one common definition of pain is any problem that is "whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever the experiencing person says it does".
Pain management includes patient and communication about the pain problem. To define the pain problem, a health care provider will likely ask questions such as:
How intense is the pain?
How does the pain feel?
Where is the pain?
What, if anything, makes the pain lessen?
What, if anything, makes the pain increase?
When did the pain start?
After asking such questions, the health care provider will have a description of the pain. Pain management will then be used to address that pain.
Adverse effects
There are many types of pain management. Each have their own benefits, drawbacks, and limits.
A common challenge in pain management is communication between the health care provider and the person experiencing pain. People experiencing pain may have difficulty recognizing or describing what they feel and how intense it is. Health care providers and patients may have difficulty communicating with each other about how pain responds to treatments. There is a risk in many types of pain management for the patient to take treatment that is less effective than needed or which causes other difficulties and side effects. Some treatments for pain can be harmful if overused. A goal of pain management for the patient and their health care provider is to identify the amount of treatment needed to address the pain without going beyond that limit.
Another problem with pain management is that pain is the body's natural way of communicating a problem. Pain is supposed to resolve as the body heals itself with time and pain management. Sometimes pain management covers a problem, and the patient might be less aware that they need treatment for a deeper problem.
Physical approach
Physical medicine and rehabilitation
Physical medicine and rehabilitation uses a range of physical techniques such as heat and electrotherapy, as well as therapeutic exercises and behavioral therapy. These techniques are usually part of an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary program that might also include pharmaceutical medicines. Spa therapy has showed positive effects in reducing pain among patients with chronic low back pain. However, there are limited studies looking at this approach. Studies have shown that kinesiotape could be used on individuals with chronic low back pain to reduce pain. The Center for Disease Control recommends that physical therapy and exercise can be prescribed as a positive alternative to opioids for decreasing one's pain in multiple injuries, illnesses, or diseases. This can include chronic low back pain, osteoarthritis of the hip and knee, or fibromyalgia. Exercise alone or with other rehabilitation disciplines (such as psychologically based approaches) can have a positive effect on reducing pain. In addition to improving pain, exercise also can improve one's well-being and general health.
Manipulative and mobilization therapy are safe interventions that likely reduce pain for patients with chronic low back pain. However, manipulation produces a larger effect than mobilization.
Specifically in chronic low back pain, education about the way the brain processes pain in conjunction with routine physiotherapy interventions may provide short term relief of disability and pain.
Exercise interventions
Physical activity interventions, such as tai chi, yoga and Pilates, promote harmony of the mind and body through total body awareness. These practices incorporate breathing techniques, meditation and a wide variety of movements, while training the body to perform functionally by increasing strength, flexibility, and range of motion. Physical activity and exercise may improve chronic pain (pain lasting more than 12 weeks), and overall quality of life, while minimizing the need for pain medications. More specifically, walking has been effective in improving pain management in chronic low back pain.
TENS
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is a self-operated portable device intended to help regulate and control chronic pain via electrical impulses. Limited research has explored the effectiveness of TENS in relation to pain management of multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a chronic autoimmune neurological disorder, which consists of the demyelination of the nerve axons and disruption of nerve conduction velocity and efficiency. In one study, electrodes were placed over the lumbar spine and participants received treatment twice a day and at any time when they experienced a painful episode. This study found that TENS would be beneficial to MS patients who reported localized or limited symptoms to one limb. The research is mixed with whether or not TENS helps manage pain in MS patients.
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation has been found to be ineffective for lower back pain. However, it might help with diabetic neuropathy as well as other illnesses.
tDCS
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive technique of brain stimulation that can modulate activity in specific brain cortex regions, and it involves the application of low-intensity (up to 2 mA) constant direct current to the scalp through electrodes in order to modulate excitability of large cortical areas. tDCS may have a role in pain assessment by contributing to efforts in distinguishing between somatic and affective aspects of pain experience. Zaghi and colleagues (2011) found that the motor cortex, when stimulated with tDCS, increases the threshold for both the perception of non-painful and painful stimuli. Although there is a greater need for research examining the mechanism of electrical stimulation in relation to pain treatment, one theory suggests that the changes in thalamic activity may be due the influence of motor cortex stimulation on the decrease in pain sensations.
In relation to MS, a study found that after daily tDCS sessions resulted in an individual's subjective report of pain to decrease when compared to a sham condition. In addition, the study found a similar improvement at 1 to 3 days before and after each tDCS session.
Fibromyalgia is a disorder in which an individual experiences dysfunctional brain activity, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and tenderness in localized areas. Research examining tDCS for pain treatment in fibromyalgia has found initial evidence for pain decreases. Specifically, the stimulation of the primary motor cortex resulted in significantly greater pain improvement in comparison to the control group (e.g., sham stimulation, stimulation of the DLPFC). However, this effect decreased after treatment ended, but remained significant for three weeks following the extinction of treatment.
Acupuncture
Acupuncture involves the insertion and manipulation of needles into specific points on the body to relieve pain or for therapeutic purposes. An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009 in the British Medical Journal, was unable to quantify the difference in the effect on pain of real, sham and no acupuncture. A systematic review in 2019 reported that acupuncture injection therapy was an effective treatment for patients with nonspecific chronic low back pain, and is widely used in Southeast Asian countries.
Light therapy
Research has not found evidence that light therapy such as low level laser therapy is an effective therapy for relieving low back pain.
Sound therapy
Audioanalgesia and music therapy are both examples of using auditory stimuli to manage pain or other distress. They are generally viewed as insufficient when used alone, but also as helpful adjuncts to other forms of therapy.
Interventional procedures
Interventional radiology procedures for pain control, typically used for chronic back pain, include epidural steroid injections, facet joint injections, neurolytic blocks, spinal cord stimulators and intrathecal drug delivery system implants.
Pulsed radiofrequency, neuromodulation, direct introduction of medication and nerve ablation may be used to target either the tissue structures and organ/systems responsible for persistent nociception or the nociceptors from the structures implicated as the source of chronic pain. Radiofrequency treatment has been seen to improve pain in patients for facet joint low back pain. However, continuous radiofrequency is more effective in managing pain than pulsed radiofrequency.
An intrathecal pump used to deliver very small quantities of medications directly to the spinal fluid. This is similar to epidural infusions used in labour and postoperatively. The major differences are that it is much more common for the drug to be delivered into the spinal fluid (intrathecal) rather than epidurally, and the pump can be fully implanted under the skin.
A spinal cord stimulator is an implantable medical device that creates electric impulses and applies them near the dorsal surface of the spinal cord provides a paresthesia ("tingling") sensation that alters the perception of pain by the patient.
Intra-articular ozone therapy
Intra-articular ozone therapy has been seen to efficiently alleviate chronic pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis.
Psychological approach
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a form of cognitive behavioral therapy that focuses on behavior change rather than symptom change, includes methods designed to alter the context around psychological experiences rather than to alter the makeup of the experiences, and emphasizes the use of experiential behavior change methods. The central process in ACT revolves around psychological flexibility, which in turn includes processes of acceptance, awareness, a present-oriented quality in interacting with experiences, an ability to persist or change behavior, and an ability to be guided by one's values. ACT has an increased evidence base for range of health and behavior problems, including chronic pain. ACT influences patients to adopt a tandem process to acceptance and change, which allows for a greater flexibility in the focus of treatment.
Recent research has applied ACT successfully to chronic pain in older adults due to in part of its direction from individual values and being highly customizable to any stage of life. In line with the therapeutic model of ACT, significant increases in process variables, pain acceptance, and mindfulness were also observed in a study applying ACT to chronic pain in older adults. In addition, these primary results suggested that an ACT based treatment may significantly improve levels of physical disability, psychosocial disability, and depression post-treatment and at a three-month follow-up for older adults with chronic pain.
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps patients with pain to understand the relationship between their pain, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. A main goal in treatment is cognitive (thinking, reasoning or remembering) restructuring to encourage helpful thought patterns. This will target healthy activities such as regular exercise and pacing. Lifestyle changes are also trained to improve sleep patterns and to develop better coping skills for pain and other stressors using various techniques (e.g., relaxation, diaphragmatic breathing, and even biofeedback).
Studies have demonstrated the usefulness of cognitive behavioral therapy in the management of chronic low back pain, producing significant decreases in physical and psychosocial disability. CBT is significantly more effective than standard care in treatment of people with body-wide pain, like fibromyalgia. Evidence for the usefulness of CBT in the management of adult chronic pain is generally poorly understood, due partly to the proliferation of techniques of doubtful quality, and the poor quality of reporting in clinical trials. The crucial content of individual interventions has not been isolated and the important contextual elements, such as therapist training and development of treatment manuals, have not been determined. The widely varying nature of the resulting data makes useful systematic review and meta-analysis within the field very difficult.
In 2020, a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluated the clinical effectiveness of psychological therapies for the management of adult chronic pain (excluding headaches). There is no evidence that behaviour therapy (BT) is effective for reducing this type of pain, however BT may be useful for improving a person's mood immediately after treatment. This improvement appears to be small, and is short term in duration. CBT may have a small positive short-term effect on pain immediately following treatment. CBT may also have a small effect on reducing disability and potential catastrophizing that may be associated with adult chronic pain. These benefits do not appear to last very long following the therapy. CBT may contribute towards improving the mood of an adult who experiences chronic pain, which could possibility be maintained for longer periods of time.
For children and adolescents, a review of RCTs evaluating the effectiveness of psychological therapy for the management of chronic and recurrent pain found that psychological treatments are effective in reducing pain when people under 18 years old have headaches. This beneficial effect may be maintained for at least three months following the therapy. Psychological treatments may also improve pain control for children or adolescents who experience pain not related to headaches. It is not known if psychological therapy improves a child or adolescents mood and the potential for disability related to their chronic pain.
Hypnosis
A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of pain in some conditions. However the studies had some limitations like small study sizes, bringing up issues of power to detect group differences, and lacking credible controls for placebo or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions."
Hypnosis has reduced the pain of some harmful medical procedures in children and adolescents. In clinical trials addressing other patient groups, it has significantly reduced pain compared to no treatment or some other non-hypnotic interventions. The effects of self hypnosis on chronic pain are roughly comparable to those of progressive muscle relaxation.
Hypnosis with analgesic (painkiller) has been seen to relieve chronic pain for most people and may be a safe and effective alternative to medications. However, high quality clinical data is needed to generalize to the whole chronic pain population.
Mindfulness meditation
A 2013 meta-analysis of studies that used techniques centered around the concept of mindfulness, concluded, "that MBIs [mindfulness-based interventions] decrease the intensity of pain for chronic pain patients." A 2019 review of studies of brief mindfulness-based interventions (BMBI) concluded that BMBI are not recommended as a first-line treatment and could not confirm their efficacy in managing chronic or acute pain.
Mindfulness-based pain management
Mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness. Adapting the core concepts and practices of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of 'loving-kindness', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework within Buddhism. It was developed by Vidyamala Burch and is delivered through the programs of Breathworks. It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness.
Medications
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a pain ladder for managing pain relief with pharmaceutical medicine. It was first described for use in cancer pain. However it can be used by medical professionals as a general principle when managing any type of pain. In the treatment of chronic pain, the three-step WHO Analgesic Ladder provides guidelines for selecting the appropriate medicine. The exact medications recommended will vary by country and the individual treatment center, but the following gives an example of the WHO approach to treating chronic pain with medications. If, at any point, treatment fails to provide adequate pain relief, then the doctor and patient move onto the next step.
Mild pain
Paracetamol (acetaminophen), or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) such as ibuprofen will relieve mild pain.
Mild to moderate pain
Paracetamol, an NSAID or paracetamol in a combination product with a weak opioid such as tramadol, may provide greater relief than their separate use. A combination of opioid with acetaminophen can be frequently used such as Percocet, Vicodin, or Norco.
Moderate to severe pain
When treating moderate to severe pain, the type of the pain, acute or chronic, needs to be considered. The type of pain can result in different medications being prescribed. Certain medications may work better for acute pain, others for chronic pain, and some may work equally well on both. Acute pain medication is for rapid onset of pain such as from an inflicted trauma or to treat post-operative pain. Chronic pain medication is for alleviating long-lasting, ongoing pain.
Morphine is the gold standard to which all narcotics are compared. Semi-synthetic derivatives of morphine such as hydromorphone (Dilaudid), oxymorphone (Numorphan, Opana), nicomorphine (Vilan), hydromorphinol and others vary in such ways as duration of action, side effect profile and milligramme potency. Fentanyl has the benefit of less histamine release and thus fewer side effects. It can also be administered via transdermal patch which is convenient for chronic pain management. In addition to the intrathecal patch and injectable fentanyl formulations, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) has approved various immediate release fentanyl products for breakthrough cancer pain (Actiq/OTFC/Fentora/Onsolis/Subsys/Lazanda/Abstral). Oxycodone is used across the Americas and Europe for relief of serious chronic pain. Its main slow-release formula is known as OxyContin. Short-acting tablets, capsules, syrups and ampules which contain oxycodone are available making it suitable for acute intractable pain or breakthrough pain. Diamorphine, and methadone are used less frequently. Clinical studies have shown that transdermal buprenorphine is effective at reducing chronic pain. Pethidine, known in North America as meperidine, is not recommended for pain management due to its low potency, short duration of action, and toxicity associated with repeated use. Pentazocine, dextromoramide and dipipanone are also not recommended in new patients except for acute pain where other analgesics are not tolerated or are inappropriate, for pharmacological and misuse-related reasons. In some countries potent synthetics such as piritramide and ketobemidone are used for severe pain. Tapentadol is a newer agent introduced in the last decade.
For moderate pain, tramadol, codeine, dihydrocodeine, and hydrocodone are used, with nicocodeine, ethylmorphine and propoxyphene or dextropropoxyphene (less commonly).
Drugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain. Amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it or with an NSAID.
While opiates are often used in the management of chronic pain, high doses are associated with an increased risk of opioid overdose.
Opioids
In 2009, the Food and Drug Administration stated: "According to the National Institutes of Health, studies have shown that properly managed medical use of opioid analgesic compounds (taken exactly as prescribed) is safe, can manage pain effectively, and rarely causes addiction." In 2013, the FDA stated that "abuse and misuse of these products have created a serious and growing public health problem".
Opioid medications can provide short, intermediate or long acting analgesia depending upon the specific properties of the medication and whether it is formulated as an extended release drug. Opioid medications may be administered orally, by injection, via nasal mucosa or oral mucosa, rectally, transdermally, intravenously, epidurally and intrathecally. In chronic pain conditions that are opioid responsive, a combination of a long-acting (OxyContin, MS Contin, Opana ER, Exalgo and Methadone) or extended release medication is often prescribed along with a shorter-acting medication (oxycodone, morphine or hydromorphone) for breakthrough pain, or exacerbations.
Most opioid treatment used by patients outside of healthcare settings is oral (tablet, capsule or liquid), but suppositories and skin patches can be prescribed. An opioid injection is rarely needed for patients with chronic pain.
Although opioids are strong analgesics, they do not provide complete analgesia regardless of whether the pain is acute or chronic in origin. Opioids are effective analgesics in chronic malignant pain and modestly effective in nonmalignant pain management. However, there are associated adverse effects, especially during the commencement or change in dose. When opioids are used for prolonged periods drug tolerance will occur. Other risks can include chemical dependency, diversion and addiction.
Clinical guidelines for prescribing opioids for chronic pain have been issued by the American Pain Society and the American Academy of Pain Medicine. Included in these guidelines is the importance of assessing the patient for the risk of substance abuse, misuse, or addiction. Factors correlated with an elevated risk of opioid misuse include a history of substance use disorder, younger age, major depression, and the use of psychotropic medications. Physicians who prescribe opioids should integrate this treatment with any psychotherapeutic intervention the patient may be receiving. The guidelines also recommend monitoring not only the pain but also the level of functioning and the achievement of therapeutic goals. The prescribing physician should be suspicious of abuse when a patient reports a reduction in pain but has no accompanying improvement in function or progress in achieving identified goals.
The list below consists of commonly used opioid analgesics which have long-acting formulations. Common brand names for the extended release formulation are in parentheses.
Oxycodone (OxyContin)
Hydromorphone (Exalgo, Hydromorph Contin)
Morphine (M-Eslon, MS Contin)
Oxymorphone (Opana ER)
Fentanyl, transdermal (Duragesic)
Buprenorphine*, transdermal (Butrans)
Tramadol (Ultram ER)
Tapentadol (Nucynta ER)
Methadone* (Metadol, Methadose)
Hydrocodone bitartrate (Hysingla ER) and bicarbonate (Zohydro ER)
*Methadone and buprenorphine are each used both for the treatment of opioid addiction and as analgesics
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
The other major group of analgesics are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). They work by inhibiting the release of prostaglandins, which cause inflammatory pain. Acetaminophen/paracetamol is not always included in this class of medications. However, acetaminophen may be administered as a single medication or in combination with other analgesics (both NSAIDs and opioids). The alternatively prescribed NSAIDs such as ketoprofen and piroxicam have limited benefit in chronic pain disorders and with long-term use are associated with significant adverse effects. The use of selective NSAIDs designated as selective COX-2 inhibitors have significant cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risks which have limited their utilization. Common NSAIDs include aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen. There are many NSAIDs such as parecoxib (selective COX-2 inhibitor) with proven effectiveness after different surgical procedures. Wide use of non-opioid analgesics can reduce opioid-induced side-effects.
Antidepressants and antiepileptic drugs
Some antidepressant and antiepileptic drugs are used in chronic pain management and act primarily within the pain pathways of the central nervous system, though peripheral mechanisms have been attributed as well. They are generally used to treat nerve brain that results from injury to the nervous system. Neuropathy can be due to chronic high blood sugar levels (diabetic neuropathy). These drugs also reduce pain from viruses such as shingles, phantom limb pain and post-stroke pain. These mechanisms vary and in general are more effective in neuropathic pain disorders as well as complex regional pain syndrome. A common anti-epileptic drug is gabapentin, and an example of an antidepressant would be amitriptyline.
Cannabinoids
Evidence of medical marijuana's effect on reducing pain is generally conclusive. Detailed in a 1999 report by the Institute of Medicine, "the available evidence from animal and human studies indicates that cannabinoids can have a substantial analgesic effect". In a 2013 review study published in Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology, various studies were cited in demonstrating that cannabinoids exhibit comparable effectiveness to opioids in models of acute pain and even greater effectiveness in models of chronic pain. It is mainly the THC strain of medical marijuana that provide analgesic benefits, as opposed to the CBD strain.
Ketamine
Low-dose ketamine is sometimes used as an alternative to opioids for the treatment of acute pain in hospital emergency departments. Ketamine probably? reduces pain more than opioids and with less nausea and vomiting.
Other analgesics
Other drugs which can potentiate conventional analgesics or have analgesic properties in certain circumstances are called analgesic adjuvant medications. Gabapentin, an anticonvulsant, can reduce neuropathic pain itself and can also potentiate opiates. Drugs with anticholinergic activity, such as orphenadrine and cyclobenzaprine, are given in conjunction with opioids for neuropathic pain. Orphenadrine and cyclobenzaprine are also muscle relaxants, and are useful in painful musculoskeletal conditions. Clonidine, an alpha-2 receptor agonist, is another drug that has found use as an analgesic adjuvant. In 2021, researchers described a novel type of pain therapy a CRISPR-dCas9 epigenome editing method for repressing Nav1.7 gene expression which showed therapeutic potential in three mouse models of chronic pain.
Self-management
Self-management of chronic pain has been described as the individual's ability to manage various aspects of their chronic pain. Self-management can include building self-efficacy, monitoring one's own symptoms, goal setting and action planning. It also includes patient-physician shared decision-making, among others. The benefits of self-management vary depending on self-management techniques used. They only have marginal benefits in management of chronic musculoskeletal pain. Some research has shown that self-management of pain can use different approaches. Those approaches can range from different therapies such as yoga, acupuncture,exercise and other relaxation techniques. Patients could also take a more natural approach by taking different minerals, vitamins or herbs. However, research has shown there is a difference between rural patients and non-rural patients having more access to different self-management approaches. Physicians in these areas may be readily prescribing more pain medication in these rural cities due to being less experienced with pain management. Simply put, it is sometimes easier for rural patients to get a prescription that insurance pays for instead of natural approaches that cost more money than they can afford to spend on their pain management. Self-management may be a more expensive alternative.
Society and culture
The medical treatment of pain as practiced in Greece and Turkey is called algology (from the Greek άλγος, algos, "pain"). The Hellenic Society of Algology and the Turkish Algology-Pain Society are the relevant local bodies affiliated to the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP).
Undertreatment
Undertreatment of pain is the absence of pain management therapy for a person in pain when treatment is indicated.
Consensus in evidence-based medicine and the recommendations of medical specialty organizations establish guidelines to determine the treatment for pain which health care providers ought to offer. For various social reasons, persons in pain may not seek or may not be able to access treatment for their pain. Health care providers may not provide the treatment which authorities recommend. Some studies about gender biases have concluded that female pain recipients are often overlooked when it comes to the perception of their pain. Whether they appeared to be in high levels of pain didn't make a difference for their observers. The women participants in the studies were still perceived to be in less pain than they actually were. Men participants on the other hand were offered pain relief while their self reporting indicated that their pain levels didn't necessarily warrant treatment. Biases exist when it comes to gender. Prescribers have been seen over and under prescribing treatment to individuals based on them being male or female .There are other prevalent reasons that undertreatment of pain occurs. Gender is a factor as well as race. When it comes to prescribers treating patients racial disparities has become a real factor. Research has shown that non-white individuals pain perception has affected their pain treatment. The African-American community has been shown to suffer significantly when it comes to trusting the medical community to treat them. Oftentimes medication although available to be prescribed is dispensed in less quantities due to their pain being perceived on a smaller scale. The black community could be undermined by physicians thinking they are not in as much pain as they are reporting. Another occurrence may be physicians simply making the choice not to treat the patient accordingly in spite of the self-reported pain level. Racial disparity is definitely a real issue in the world of pain management.
In children
Acute pain is common in children and adolescents as a result of injury, illness, or necessary medical procedures. Chronic pain is present in approximately 15–25% of children and adolescents. It may be caused by an underlying disease, such as sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis. Cancer or functional disorders such as migraines, fibromyalgia, and complex regional pain could also cause chronic pain in children.
Pain assessment in children is often challenging due to limitations in developmental level, cognitive ability, or their previous pain experiences. Clinicians must observe physiological and behavioral cues exhibited by the child to make an assessment. Self-report, if possible, is the most accurate measure of pain. Self-report pain scales involve younger kids matching their pain intensity to photographs of other children's faces, such as the Oucher Scale, pointing to schematics of faces showing different pain levels, or pointing out the location of pain on a body outline. Questionnaires for older children and adolescents include the Varni-Thompson Pediatric Pain Questionnaire (PPQ) and the Children's Comprehensive Pain Questionnaire. They are often utilized for individuals with chronic or persistent pain.
Acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, and opioid analgesics are commonly used to treat acute or chronic pain symptoms in children and adolescents. However a pediatrician should be consulted before administering any medication.
Caregivers may provide nonpharmacological treatment for children and adolescents because it carries minimal risk and is cost effective compared to pharmacological treatment. Nonpharmacologic interventions vary by age and developmental factors. Physical interventions to ease pain in infants include swaddling, rocking, or sucrose via a pacifier. For children and adolescents physical interventions include hot or cold application, massage, or acupuncture. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) aims to reduce the emotional distress and improve the daily functioning of school-aged children and adolescents with pain by changing the relationship between their thoughts and emotions. In addition this therapy teaches them adaptive coping strategies. Integrated interventions in CBT include relaxation technique, mindfulness, biofeedback, and acceptance (in the case of chronic pain). Many therapists will hold sessions for caregivers to provide them with effective management strategies.
Professional certification
Pain management practitioners come from all fields of medicine. In addition to medical practitioners, a pain management team may often benefit from the input of pharmacists, physiotherapists, clinical psychologists and occupational therapists, among others. Together the multidisciplinary team can help create a package of care suitable to the patient.
Pain medicine in the United States
Pain physicians are often fellowship-trained board-certified anesthesiologists, neurologists, physiatrists, emergency physicians, or psychiatrists. Palliative care doctors are also specialists in pain management. The American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians, the American Board of Anesthesiology, the American Osteopathic Board of Anesthesiology (recognized by the AOABOS), the American Board of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, the American Board of Emergency Medicine and the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology each provide certification for a subspecialty in pain management following fellowship training. The fellowship training is recognized by the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists (AOABOS). As the field of pain medicine has grown rapidly, many practitioners have entered the field, some non-ACGME board-certified.
See also
Equianalgesic
Opioid comparison, an example of an equianalgesic chart
Pain Catastrophizing Scale
Pain ladder
Pain management during childbirth
Pain psychology
References
Further reading
External links
World Health Organization (WHO) Treatment Guidelines on Pain
Palliative care
Acute pain
|
417121
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon%20Red%2C%20Blue%2C%20and%20Yellow
|
Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow
|
Pokémon Red Version and Pokémon Blue Version are 1996 role-playing video games developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy. They are the first installments of the Pokémon video game series. They were first released in Japan in 1996 as and with the special edition being released in Japan later that same year. The games were later released as Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue in North America and Australia in 1998 and Europe in 1999.
Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue combined Red/Green/Blue for release outside of Japan.
often referred to as simply Pokémon Yellow, is an improved version released in Japan in 1998 and in other regions in 1999 and 2000. Remakes of Red and Green, Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen, were released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004, while remakes of Yellow, Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee! were released for the Nintendo Switch in 2018. Red, Blue, and Yellow–in addition to Green in Japan–were re-released on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console service on Nintendo eShop as emulated versions of the originals, in 2016 as a commemoration of the franchise's 20th anniversary.
The player controls the protagonist from an overhead perspective and navigates him throughout the fictional region of Kanto in a quest to master Pokémon battling. The goal of the games is to become the champion of the Indigo League by defeating the eight Gym Leaders and then the top four Pokémon trainers in the land, the Elite Four. Another objective is to complete the Pokédex, an in-game encyclopedia, by obtaining the 151 available Pokémon. Red and Blue utilize the Game Link Cable, which connects two Game Boy systems together and allows Pokémon to be traded or battled between games. Both titles are independent of each other but feature the same plot, and while they can be played separately, it is necessary for players to trade between both games in order to obtain all of the original 151 Pokémon.
Red and Blue were well received with critics praising the multiplayer options, especially the concept of trading. They received an aggregated score of 89% on GameRankings and are considered among the greatest games ever made, perennially ranked on top game lists including at least four years on IGNs "Top 100 Games of All Time". The games' releases marked the beginning of what would become a multibillion-dollar franchise, jointly selling over 300 million copies worldwide. In 2009 they were declared by IGN to be the "Best selling RPG on the Game Boy" and "Best selling RPG of all time".
Gameplay
Pokémon Red and Blue are played in a third-person view, overhead perspective and consist of three basic screens: an overworld, in which the player navigates the main character; a side-view battle screen; and a menu interface, in which the player may configure their Pokémon, items, or gameplay settings.
The player can use their Pokémon to battle other Pokémon. When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen that displays the two engaged Pokémon. During a battle, the player may choose to fight using one of four moves, use an item, switch the active Pokémon, or attempt to flee; however, fleeing is not possible in trainer battles. Pokémon have hit points (HP); when a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints and can no longer battle until it is revived. Once an enemy Pokémon faints, the player's Pokémon that were involved in the battle receive a certain number of experience points (EXP). After accumulating enough EXP, a Pokémon will level up. A Pokémon's level controls its physical properties, such as the battle statistics acquired, and the moves it has learned. Some Pokémon may also evolve at certain levels. These evolutions affect the statistics and the levels at which new moves are learned. Pokémon at higher stages of evolution gain more statistics each time they level up, although they may not learn new moves as early, if at all, compared with the lower stages of evolution.
Catching Pokémon is another essential element of the gameplay. While battling with a wild Pokémon, the player may throw a Poké Ball at it. If the Pokémon is successfully caught, it will come under the player's ownership. Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP of the target Pokémon, whether it is under a status effect, and the type of Poké Ball used: the lower the target's HP, and the stronger the status effect and type of Poké Ball, the higher the success rate of capture. The ultimate goal of the games is to complete the entries in the Pokédex, a comprehensive Pokémon encyclopedia, by capturing, evolving, and trading to obtain all 151 creatures.
Pokémon Red and Blue allow players to trade Pokémon between two cartridges via a Game Link Cable. This method of trading must be done to fully complete the Pokédex since certain Pokémon will only evolve upon being traded and each of the two games have version-exclusive Pokémon. The Link Cable also makes it possible to battle another player's Pokémon team. When playing Red or Blue on a Game Boy Advance or SP, the standard GBA/SP link cable will not work; players must use the Nintendo Universal Game Link Cable instead. Moreover, the English versions of the games are incompatible with their Japanese counterparts, and such trades will corrupt the save files, as the games use different languages and therefore character sets.
As well as trading with each other and Pokémon Yellow, Pokémon Red and Blue can trade Pokémon with the second generation of Pokémon games: Pokémon Gold, Silver, and Crystal. However, there are limitations: the games cannot link together if one player's party contains Pokémon or moves introduced in the second generation games. Also, using the Transfer Pak for the Nintendo 64, data such as Pokémon and items from Pokémon Red and Blue can be used in the Nintendo 64 games Pokémon Stadium and Pokémon Stadium 2. Red and Blue are incompatible with the Pokémon games of the later "Advanced Generation" for the Game Boy Advance and GameCube.
Bugs and glitches
Pokémon Red and Blue are notable for a large quantity of glitches, possibly due to the game's scope in comparison to Game Freak's development experience at the time. One of the most popular glitches in Red and Blue involves encountering MissingNo. (short for "Missing Number"), a glitch Pokémon with multiple forms that arise when different glitches are performed. Additionally, several other Pokémon can be encountered using glitches, such as the otherwise-unobtainable Mythical Pokémon Mew. Another glitch, dubbed the "EXP underflow glitch", allows players to manipulate unsigned integers in the game's code for Pokémon in the "medium slow" experience group in order to max out the level of any such Pokémon.
Plot
Story
The player begins in their hometown of Pallet Town. After venturing alone into the tall grass, the player is stopped by Professor Oak, a famous Pokémon researcher. Professor Oak explains to the player that wild Pokémon may be living there and encountering them alone can be very dangerous. He takes the player to his laboratory where the player meets Oak's grandson, a rival aspiring Pokémon Trainer. The player and the rival are both instructed to select a starter Pokémon for their travels out of Bulbasaur, Squirtle and Charmander. Oak's Grandson will always choose the Pokémon which is stronger against the player's starting Pokémon. He will then challenge the player to a Pokémon battle with their newly obtained Pokémon and will continue to battle the player at certain points throughout the games.
While visiting the region's cities, the player will encounter special establishments called Gyms. Inside these buildings are Gym Leaders, each of whom the player must defeat in a Pokémon battle to obtain a total of eight Gym Badges. Once the badges are acquired, the player is given permission to enter the Indigo League, which consists of the best Pokémon trainers in the region. There the player will battle the Elite Four and finally the new Champion: the player's rival. Also, throughout the game, the player will have to battle against the forces of Team Rocket, a criminal organization that abuses/uses the Pokémon for various crimes. They devise numerous plans for stealing rare Pokémon, which the player must foil.
Setting
Pokémon Red and Blue take place in the region of Kanto, which is based on the real-life Kantō region in Japan. This is one distinct region, as shown in later games, with different geographical habitats for the 151 existing Pokémon species, along with human-populated towns and cities and Routes connecting locations with one another. Some areas are only accessible once the player learns a special ability or gains a special item. Kanto has multiple settlements: Pallet Town, Viridian City, Pewter City, Cerulean City, Vermillion City, Lavender Town, Celadon City, Fuchsia City, Saffron City, Cinnabar Island, and the Indigo Plateau. All of these other than Pallet Town, Lavender Town, and Indigo Plateau have a gym with a leader who serves as a boss, and the battles against the Elite Four and final rival battle occur at Indigo Plateau. Areas in which the player can catch Pokémon range from caves (such as Mt. Moon, Rock Tunnel, Seafoam Islands, and Cerulean Cave) to the sea, where the kinds of Pokémon available to catch varies. For example, Tentacool can only be caught either through fishing or when the player is in a body of water, while Zubat can only be caught in a cave.
Development
The game developer, Satoshi Tajiri, pitched the concept of Pokémon to Nintendo's staff in 1990 and was met with skepticism. They believed his ideas were too ambitious and found it difficult to see the appeal. However, Shigeru Miyamoto saw great potential in the idea and convinced the company to go ahead with the project.
The initial concept for Pokémon stemmed from the hobby of insect collecting, a popular pastime which Tajiri enjoyed as a child. While growing up, however, he observed more urbanization taking place in the town where he lived and as a result, the insect population declined. Tajiri noticed that kids now played in their homes instead of outside and he came up with the idea of a video game, containing creatures that resembled insects, called Pokémon. He thought kids could relate with the Pokémon by individually naming them, and then controlling them to represent fear or anger as a good way of relieving stress. However, Pokémon never bleed nor die in battle, only faint – this was a very touchy subject to Tajiri, as he did not want to further fill the gaming world with "pointless violence".
The concept of trading Pokémon was inspired by a frustrating experience Tajiri had while playing Dragon Quest II: Luminaries of the Legendary Line. Tajiri was attempting to obtain an item that could only be obtained by a rare drop from an enemy, but he was not able to acquire it. Ken Sugimori was also playing Dragon Quest II at the time and was able to acquire two of the rare item. Wishing to obtain Sugimori's extra copy, Tajiri attempted to figure out if it was possible to trade items between games, but realized this was not possible on the Famicom. When the Game Boy was released, Tajiri thought the system was perfect for his idea, especially because of the link cable, which he envisioned would allow players to trade Pokémon with each other. This concept of trading information was new to the video game industry because previously connection cables were only being used for competition. "I imagined a chunk of information being transferred by connecting two Game Boys with special cables, and I went wow, that's really going to be something!" said Tajiri. Upon hearing of the Pokémon concept, Shigeru Miyamoto suggested creating multiple cartridges with different Pokémon in each, noting it would assist the trading aspect. Tajiri was also influenced by Square's Game Boy game The Final Fantasy Legend, noting in an interview that the game gave him the idea that more than just action games could be developed for the handheld.
The main characters were named after Tajiri himself as Satoshi, who is described as Tajiri in his youth, and his long-time friend, role model, mentor, and fellow Nintendo developer, Shigeru Miyamoto, as Shigeru. Ken Sugimori, an artist and longtime friend of Tajiri, headed the development of drawings and designs of the Pokémon, working with a team of fewer than ten people who conceived the various designs for all 151 Pokémon. Atsuko Nishida created the designs for Pikachu, Bulbasaur, Charmander, Squirtle, and many others. Sugimori, in turn, finalized each design, drawing the Pokémon from various angles in order to assist Game Freak's graphics department in properly rendering the creature. Music for the game was composed by Junichi Masuda, who utilized the four sound channels of the Game Boy to create both the melodies and the sound effects and Pokémon "cries" heard upon encountering them. He noted the game's opening theme, titled "Monster", was produced with the image of battle scenes in mind, using white noise to sound like marching music and imitate a snare drum.
Originally called Capsule Monsters, the game's title went through several transitions due to trademark difficulties, becoming CapuMon and KapuMon before eventually settling upon Pocket Monsters. Tajiri always thought that Nintendo would reject his game, as the company did not really understand the concept at first. However, the games turned out to be a success, something Tajiri and Nintendo never expected, especially because of the declining popularity of the Game Boy.
Tajiri said that the Poké Ball concept was inspired by Ultraseven's Capsule Monsters from the tokusatsu superhero television series Ultraseven (1967–1968). Nintendo spent $13 million marketing Pokémon Red and Blue in the United States.
Music
The music was composed by Junichi Masuda at his home on a Commodore Amiga computer, which only features PCM sample playback and converted to the Game Boy with a program he had written.
Release
In Japan, Pocket Monsters Red and Green were the first versions released. Development was completed by October 1995 and release was originally planned for December 21, 1995, but was delayed until February 27, 1996 because the derivative products were not yet ready for sale. After a slow start they continued to sell well. Several months later, Pocket Monsters Blue was released in Japan as a mail-order-only special edition to subscribers of CoroCoro Comic on October 15, 1996. It was later released to general retail on October 10, 1999. It features updated in-game artwork and new dialogue. Using Blastoise as its mascot, the code, script, and artwork for Blue were used for the international releases of Red and Green, which were renamed to Red and Blue. The Japanese Blue edition of the game features all but a handful of Pokémon available in Red and Green, making certain Pokémon exclusive to the original editions.
To create more interest for the games, Tajiri revealed an extra Pokémon called Mew hidden within them, which he believed "created a lot of rumors and myths about the game" and "kept the interest alive". The creature was originally added by Shigeki Morimoto as an internal prank and was not intended to be exposed to consumers. It was not until later that Nintendo decided to distribute Mew through a Nintendo promotional event. However, in 2003 a glitch became widely known and could be exploited so anyone could obtain the elusive Pokémon.
During the North American localization of Pokémon, a small team led by Hiro Nakamura went through the individual Pokémon, renaming them for western audiences based on their appearance and characteristics after approval from Nintendo. In addition, during this process, Nintendo trademarked the 151 Pokémon names in order to ensure they would be unique to the franchise. During the translation process, it became apparent that simply altering the games' text from Japanese to English was impossible; the games had to be entirely reprogrammed from scratch due to the fragile state of their source code, a side effect of the unusually lengthy development time. Therefore, the games were based on the more modern Japanese version of Blue; modeling its programming and artwork after Blue, but keeping the same distribution of Pokémon found in the Japanese Red and Green cartridges, respectively.
As the finished Red and Blue versions were being prepared for release, Nintendo allegedly spent over 50 million dollars to promote the games, fearing the series would not be appealing to American children. The western localization team warned that the "cute monsters" may not be accepted by American audiences, and instead recommended they be redesigned and "beefed-up". Then-president of Nintendo Hiroshi Yamauchi refused and instead viewed the games' possible reception in America as a challenge to face. Despite these setbacks, the reprogrammed Red and Blue versions with their original creature designs were eventually released in North America on September 28, 1998, over two and a half years after Red and Green debuted in Japan. The games were received extremely well by the foreign audiences and Pokémon went on to become a lucrative franchise in America. The same versions were later released in Australia sometime later in 1998 and in Europe on October 5, 1999 being the second-to-last video game released for the original Game Boy in Europe with Pokemon Yellow Version: Special Pikachu Edition being the last.
Pokémon Yellow
Two years after Red and Green, Nintendo released Pokémon Yellow, an enhanced version of Red and Blue, in Japan in 1998, and in North America and Europe in 1999 and 2000, respectively. The game was designed to resemble the Pokémon anime series, with the player receiving a Pikachu as their starter Pokémon, and their rival starting with an Eevee. Some non-player characters resemble those from the anime, including Team Rocket's Jessie and James.
Pokémon Yellow changes and enhances several aspects of the original games. Pikachu is provided as the player's only starter Pokémon and the character is given both a voice and a personality unique from other Pokémon. The character visually follows behind the player on the overworld, and the player can turn around and speak with it. Pikachu can grow to love or hate the player based on their actions; leveling up will keep Pikachu happy, while fainting frequently will make it unhappy. This enhanced feature would be used again in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver, the remakes of Pokémon Gold and Silver, and Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!, the remakes of Pokémon Yellow. Yellow includes a "Pikachu's Beach" minigame that is only accessible to players who either won a Nintendo contest or complete a challenge in another game, Pokémon Stadium, and exchange data between the games using the Transfer Pak. Yellow has slightly improved graphics from its predecessors and can print Pokédex entries onto stickers using the Game Boy Printer.
Pokémon Yellow was developed by Game Freak and first began development after the completion of the Japanese-only version of Pokémon Blue, which itself followed the Japanese-only versions of Pokémon Red and Green. Nintendo may had been considering a "Pokémon Pink" alternative version of Yellow, based on source code leaked from Nintendo.
Pokémon Yellows release was made to coincide with the release of Pokémon: The First Movie. Future Nintendo president Satoru Iwata later commented that people likely felt Yellow to be unnecessary due to the upcoming release of Pokémon Gold and Silver, which were scheduled to be released in the same year. It was released in Japan on September 12, 1998, in Australia on September 3, 1999, in North America on October 19, 1999, and in Europe on June 16, 2000. It was published by Nintendo. A Pikachu-themed Game Boy Color bundle was released in North America in October 1999. To promote the release of Pokémon Yellow, Volkswagen and Nintendo collaborated to create a yellow Volkswagen New Beetle with some of its features inspired by Pikachu. Nintendo World Report listed Pokémon Yellow as one of the notable handheld releases in 1999.
Re-releases
On the 20th anniversary of the first generation Pokémon games' Japanese release, in February 2016, Nintendo re-released Red, Blue, and Yellow for their Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console service. The games include a first for the Virtual Console: simulated Link Cable functionality to allow trading and battling between games. As was the case with its original release, Green is exclusive to Japanese consumers. These versions of the games are able to transfer Pokémon to Pokémon Sun and Moon via the Pokémon Bank application.
A special Nintendo 2DS bundle was released in Japan, Europe, and Australia on February 27, 2016, with each console matching the corresponding color of the game version. North America received a special New Nintendo 3DS bundle with cover plates styled after Red and Blues box art.
By March 31, 2016, combined sales of the re-releases reached 1.5 million units with more than half being sold in North America.
Reception
The games received mostly positive reviews from critics, holding an aggregate score of 88% on GameRankings. Special praise was given to its multiplayer features: the ability to trade and battle Pokémon with one another. Craig Harris of IGN gave the games a "masterful" 10 out of 10, noting that: "Even if you finish the quest, you still might not have all the Pokémon in the game. The challenge to catch 'em all is truly the game's biggest draw". He also commented on the popularity of the game, especially among children, describing it as a "craze". GameSpots Peter Bartholow, who gave the games a "great" 8.8 out of 10, cited the graphics and audio as somewhat primitive but stated that these were the games' only drawbacks. He praised the titles' replay value due to their customization and variety and commented upon their universal appeal: "Under its cuddly exterior, Pokémon is a serious and unique RPG with lots of depth and excellent multiplayer extensions. As an RPG, the game is accessible enough for newcomers to the genre to enjoy, but it will entertain hard-core fans as well. It's easily one of the best Game Boy games to date".
The success of these games has been attributed to their innovative gaming experience rather than audiovisual effects. Papers published by the Columbia Business School indicate both American and Japanese children prefer the actual gameplay of a game over special audio or visual effects. In Pokémon games, the lack of these artificial effects has actually been said to promote the child's imagination and creativity. "With all the talk of game engines and texture mapping and so on, there is something refreshing about this superlative gameplay which makes you ignore the cutesy 8-bit graphics" commented The Guardian.
During the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences' 2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Pokémon Red and Blue won the award for "Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development", along with receiving nominations for "Console Game of the Year", "Console Role-Playing Game of the Year" and "Outstanding Achievement in Interactive Design".
Pokémon Yellow
Pokémon Yellow has been well received by critics, holding an aggregate score of 85% from GameRankings as their fifth highest-rated Game Boy game of all time. The Sarasota Herald-Tribune recommended Yellow as a good game for children. RPGFan called it "so revoltingly addictive that any player of it has no choice but to 'catch 'em all'". They also called Yellow "insulting" in how limited the additions from Red and Blue were. Giving the game a perfect score, IGNs Craig Harris praised the game's mechanics, commenting that Yellow was the best game of the three to start with.
GameSpots Cameron Davis called it a "stopgap" to appease players until the release of Gold and Silver, commenting that "the new challenges are enough to fill the hole - but only just". GameDailys Chris Buffa listed it as one of the best Pokémon games, commenting that while it was a rehash, there was enough that was new to warrant playing. Allgames Brad Cook commented that for those who did not play Red and Blue, Yellow was good; but otherwise, he advised that they wait until Gold and Silver. The Daily Telegraphs Steve Boxer commented that while it had good gameplay mechanics, it was held back by the lack of features. He described Nintendo's actions as avaricious, commenting that Yellow "marks the point where Pokémon ceases to become a game and becomes a marketing exercise/obsession-satisfier".
Pokémon Yellow received two nominations for "Game of the Year" and "Console Game of the Year" during the 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards.
Sales
Pokémon Red and Blue set the precedent for what has become a blockbuster, multibillion-dollar franchise. In Japan Red, Green, and Blue sold 1.04 million units combined during 1996, and another 3.65 million in 1997. The latter performance made Pokémon, collectively, the country's best-selling game of the year, surpassing Final Fantasy VII. By 1997, about Game Boy units had been sold in Japan. In 1998, Red, Green and Blue sold 1,739,391 units in Japan. By 1998, units had been sold in Japan. Pokémon Red, Green and Blue ultimately sold 10.23 million copies in Japan, and as of August 2020, were the country's best-selling video games. The video games were accompanied by the Pokémon Trading Card Game; both the video games and card game grossed combined sales revenue of more than in Japan, .
In the United States, it became the fastest-selling Game Boy title, having sold 200,000 copies within two weeks and units by the end of 1998. It went on to become the best-selling video game of 1999 in the United States, where copies were sold that year. By 2007, it had total combined sales of 9.85 million in the United States. In Europe, the games had grossed € or in 1999. In France, over copies were sold within a year. In Germany, they became the first video games to receive two Special Prize awards from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) for sales above copies by early 2001. In the United Kingdom, Red and Blue received two Platinum awards for sales above 600,000 copies.
Worldwide sales reached over 31 million copies sold. It was "the most successful computer game of all time" according to Joseph Tobin in 2004. In 2009, IGN referred to Pokémon Red and Blue as the "Best-selling RPG on the Game Boy" and "Best-selling RPG of all time", while in 2017, Guinness World Records declared the games to be the "Best-selling videogame (excluding bundle sales)."
Pokémon Yellow
In Japan, the game sold 1,549,000 units in 1998, making it the third-best-selling video game of 1998 in Japan.
Before its release in North America, Nintendo anticipated that it would make them $75 million in the 1999 holiday season. The Pokémon Yellow Game Boy Color bundle was predicted to be the second most popular toy of the holiday season. In North America the game received roughly 150,000 pre-orders. The bundle debuted at #2 in video game sales and claimed the #1 spot a week later. The standard cartridge sold over 600,000 units in its first week and one million copies within ten days, becoming the fastest-selling handheld game of all time when it was released. Pokémon: The First Movie, a film released around the same time as Yellow, was expected to give it a sales boost. A Nintendo spokesman attributed the high demand for the Game Boy Color during the Christmas season of 1999 to Yellow. For the month of December, Donkey Kong 64 led Pokémon Yellow and Gran Turismo 2 on the monthly chart.
Gwenn Friss of the Cape Cod Times called it one of the hottest items of the 1999 Christmas season, comparing it to popular Christmas toys from previous years such as Furby and Tickle me Elmo. Thomas Content of USA Today reiterated the comparison, commenting that it was "poised to stomp" them. He added that it, along with Red and Blue, were responsible for the boost of Game Boy sales from 3.5 million in 1998 to 8 million in 1999. The Idaho Statesman called it the "hottest new title for the Game Boy Color". Yellow was the third best-selling video game in North America in 1999, with the other four top spots occupied by other Pokémon titles. The demand for Yellow resulted in Target to issue an apology for not being able to meet the "unprecedented demand". CNET-surveyed stores sold out of Yellow. A spokesperson for FuncoLand attributed a drop in sales to shortages of both the Game Boy Color and Pokémon Yellow.
For its European launch, units were shipped across the continent during June 2000, including 500,000 in the United Kingdom. Yellow became the fastest-selling Pokémon title in the United Kingdom, where it received a Double Platinum award from ELSPA for more than 600,000 sales and grossed more than or . In Germany, Yellow received a Double Platinum award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) for sales above 400,000 copies by early 2001.
Legacy
The video game website 1UP.com composed a list of the "Top 5 'Late to the Party' Games" showing selected titles that "prove a gaming platform's untapped potential" and were one of the last games released for their respective console. Red and Blue were ranked first and called Nintendo's "secret weapon" when the games were brought out for the Game Boy in the late 1990s. The game's success revitalized the Game Boy in the late 1990s. Nintendo Power listed the Red and Blue versions together as the third best video game for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color, stating that something about the games kept them playing until they caught every Pokémon. Game Informers Ben Reeves called them (along with Pokémon Yellow, Gold, Silver, and Crystal) the second best Game Boy games and stated that it had more depth than it appeared. Official Nintendo Magazine named the games one of the best Nintendo games of all time, placing 52nd on their list of the top 100 games. Red and Blue made number 72 on IGNs "Top 100 Games of All Time" in 2003, in which the reviewers noted that the pair of games "started a revolution" and praised the deep game design and complex strategy, as well the option to trade between other games. Two years later, it climbed the ranks to number 70 in the updated list, with the games' legacy again noted to have inspired multiple video game sequels, movies, television shows, and other merchandise, strongly rooting it in popular culture. In 2019, PC Magazine included the games on their "The 10 Best Game Boy Games". In 2023, Time Extension included the game on their "Best JRPGs of All Time" list. In 2007, Red and Blue were ranked at number 37 on the list, and the reviewers remarked at the games' longevity:
{{Blockquote|For everything that has come in the decade since, it all started right here with Pokémon Red/Blue''''. Its unique blend of exploration, training, battling and trading created a game that was far more in-depth than it first appeared and one that actually forced the player to socialize with others in order to truly experience all that it had to offer. The game is long, engrossing and sparkles with that intangible addictiveness that only the best titles are able to capture. Say what you will about the game, but few gaming franchises can claim to be this popular ten years after they first hit store shelves.}}
The games are widely credited with starting and helping pave the way for the successful multibillion-dollar series. Five years after Red and Blue's initial release, Nintendo celebrated its "Pokémonniversary". George Harrison, the senior vice president of marketing and corporate communications of Nintendo of America, stated that "those precious gems [Pokémon Red and Blue] have evolved into Ruby and Sapphire. The release of Pokémon Pinball kicks off a line of great new Pokémon adventures that will be introduced in the coming months". The series has since sold over 300 million games, all accredited to the enormous success of the original Red and Blue versions.
On February 12, 2014, an anonymous Australian programmer launched Twitch Plays Pokémon, a "social experiment" on the video streaming website Twitch. The project was a crowdsourced attempt to play a modified version of Pokémon Red by typing commands into the channel's chat log, with an average of 50,000 viewers participating at the same time. The result was compared to "watching a car crash in slow motion". The game was completed on March 1, 2014, boasting 390 hours of multi-user controlled non-stop gameplay.
In 2017, The Strong National Museum of Play inducted Pokémon Red and Green to its World Video Game Hall of Fame.
Remakes
and are enhanced remakes of Pokémon Red and Blue. The new titles were developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance and have compatibility with the Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter, which originally came bundled with the games. However, due to the new variables added to FireRed and LeafGreen (such as changing the single, "Special" stat into two separate "Special Attack" and "Special Defense" stats), these titles are not compatible with older versions outside of the third generation of Pokémon. FireRed and LeafGreen were first released in Japan on January 29, 2004, and released in North America and Europe on September 9 and October 1, 2004 respectively. Nearly two years after their original release, Nintendo re-marketed them as Player's Choice titles.
The games received critical acclaim, obtaining an aggregate score of 81 percent on Metacritic. Most critics praised the fact that the games introduced new features while still maintaining the traditional gameplay of the series. Reception of the graphics and audio was more mixed, with some reviewers complaining that they were too simplistic and not much of an improvement over the previous games, Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire. FireRed and LeafGreen were commercial successes, selling a total of around 12 million copies worldwide.
and are enhanced remakes of Pokémon Yellow Version, released in November 2018 for the Nintendo Switch. They were aimed at newcomers to the Pokémon series, and incorporate mechanics from Pokémon Go. The games take place in the Kanto region and include only the original 151 Pokémon from the first generation of Pokémon. The ability for Pokémon to accompany the protagonist in the overworld returns, a feature last seen in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver on the Nintendo DS. However, whereas only one Pokémon could be chosen to follow the protagonist previously, they will additionally be accompanied by the starter Pikachu or Eevee in Let's Go, Pikachu! or Let's Go, Eevee!'', respectively.
They have combined global sales of over 13 million copies.
Related games
Notes
References
External links
(US)
1996 video games
Game Boy games
Game Freak games
Games with Transfer Pak support
Japanese role-playing video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Red and Blue
Role-playing video games
Video games about genetic engineering
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games with alternative versions
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS
Virtual pet video games
Video games scored by Junichi Masuda
Video games produced by Shigeru Miyamoto
World Video Game Hall of Fame
BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for Best Games winners
|
417126
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash%20Conferences%20on%20Science%20and%20World%20Affairs
|
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
|
The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs is an international organization that brings together scholars and public figures to work toward reducing the danger of armed conflict and to seek solutions to global security threats. It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955.
Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for their efforts on nuclear disarmament. International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since founder Cyrus Eaton's death in 1979.
Origin of the Pugwash Conferences
The Russell–Einstein Manifesto, released July 9, 1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction (then only considered to be nuclear weapons). Cyrus Eaton, an industrialist and philanthropist, offered on July 13 to finance and host the conference in the town of his birth, Pugwash, Nova Scotia. This was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed. Aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco instead, but this was rejected. Eaton's former invitation was taken up.
The first conference was held at what became known as Thinkers' Lodge in July 1957 in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. Twenty-two scientists attended the first conference:
seven from the United States: David F. Cavers, Paul M. Doty, Hermann J. Muller, Eugene Rabinowitch, Walter Selove, Leó Szilárd, Victor Frederick Weisskopf
three from the Soviet Union: Alexander M. Kuzin (Александр М. Кузин), Dmitri Skobeltsyn, Alexander V. Topchiev (Александр В. Топчиев)
three from Japan: Iwao Ogawa, Shinichiro Tomonaga, Hideki Yukawa
two from the UK: Cecil F. Powell, Joseph Rotblat
two from Canada: Brock Chisholm, John S. Foster
one each from Australia (Mark Oliphant), Austria (Hans Thirring), China (Zhou Peiyuan), France (Antoine M. B. Lacassagne), and Poland (Marian Danysz).
Cyrus Eaton, Eric Burhop, Ruth Adams, Anne Kinder Jones, and Vladimir Pavlichenko also were present. Many others were unable to attend, including co-founder Bertrand Russell, for health reasons. From the Soviet Union, Mikhail Ilyich Bruk (; 1923 Moscow - 2009 Jurmala) attended as an English-Russian technical translator. Later, Armand Hammer stated, "Mike's KGB."
Organizational structure
Pugwash's "main objective is the elimination of all weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical and biological) and of war as a social institution to settle international disputes. To that extent, peaceful resolution of conflicts through dialogue and mutual understanding is an essential part of Pugwash activities, that is particularly relevant when and where nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction are deployed or could be used."
"The various Pugwash activities (general conferences, workshops, study groups, consultations and special projects) provide a channel of communication between scientists, scholars, and individuals experienced in government, diplomacy, and the military for in-depth discussion and analysis of the problems and opportunities at the intersection of science and world affairs. To ensure a free and frank exchange of views, conducive to the emergence of original ideas and an effective communication between different or antagonistic governments, countries and groups, Pugwash meetings as a rule are held in private. This is the main modus operandi of Pugwash. In addition to influencing governments by the transmission of the results of these discussions and meetings, Pugwash also may seek to make an impact on the scientific community and on public opinion through the holding of special types of meetings and through its publications."
Officers include the president and secretary-general. Formal governance is provided by the Pugwash Council, which serves for five years. There is also an executive committee that assists the secretary-general. Jayantha Dhanapala is the current president. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino is the current Secretary General.
The four Pugwash offices, in Rome (international secretariat), London, Geneva, and Washington D.C., provide support for Pugwash activities and serve as liaisons to the United Nations and other international organizations.
There are approximately fifty national Pugwash groups, organized as independent entities and often supported or administered by national academies of science.
The International Student/Young Pugwash groups works with, but are independent from, the international Pugwash group.
Contributions to international security
Pugwash's first fifteen years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a useful role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise-strained official and unofficial relations. It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). Former US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara has credited a backchannel Pugwash initiative (code named PENNSYLVANIA) with laying the groundwork for the negotiations that ended the Vietnam War. Mikhail Gorbachev admitted the influence of the organisation on him when he was leader of the Soviet Union. In addition, Pugwash has been credited with being a groundbreaking and innovative "transnational" organization and a leading example of the effectiveness of Track II diplomacy.
During the Cold War, it was claimed that the Pugwash Conference became a front conference for the Soviet Union, whose agents often managed to weaken Pugwash critique of USSR and instead concentrate on blaming the United States and the West. In 1980, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence received a report that the Pugwash Conference was used by Soviet delegates to promote Soviet propaganda. Joseph Rotblat said in his 1998 Bertrand Russell Peace Lecture that there were a few participants in the conferences from the Soviet Union "who were obviously sent to push the party line, but the majority were genuine scientists and behaved as such".
Following the end of the Cold War, the traditional Pugwash focus on decreasing the salience of nuclear weapons and promoting a world free of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction addresses the following issue areas:
Nuclear stability, nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation: 1. Traditional Nuclear Disarmament, US-Russia nuclear disarmament, nuclear weapons in Europe; 2. Nuclear weapons and nuclear proliferation in the Middle East, Israeli nuclear weapons, Iranian nuclear program, proposal for a Middle Eastern zone free of weapons of mass destruction, Arab attitudes towards nuclear weapons and nuclear proliferation; 3. India and Pakistan nuclear relations, the effects of US India nuclear deal; 4. North Korea.
Regional security in regions where nuclear weapons exist or risks of nuclear proliferation are significant: 1. Middle East—general issues, the impact of the Palestinian problem and its relevance in the Arab world, the consequences of the so-called Arab spring and the growth of the Islamic movements and parties, Arab-Iranian, Arab-Israeli and Iran-Israeli relations; 2. South-Central Asia—traditional antagonism between India and Pakistan, the role of terrorist attacks in the worsening of such antagonism, US-Pakistani relations in general. The role of radical movements in Pakistan, reconciliation and peace in Afghanistan, talking to the Taliban (is it possible and how should be done?), Pakistani-Afghan relations.
The Pugwash movement has also been concerned with environmental issues and as a result of its 1988 meeting in Dagomys it issued the Dagomys Declaration on Environmental Degradation ().
Nobel Peace Prize
In 1995, fifty years after the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, and forty years after the signing of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, the Pugwash Conferences and Joseph Rotblat were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize jointly "for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms." The Norwegian Nobel committee hoped that awarding the prize to Rotblat and Pugwash would "encourage world leaders to intensify their efforts to rid the world of nuclear weapons." In his acceptance speech, Rotblat quoted a key phrase from the Manifesto: "Remember your humanity."
International Foundation for Science
From the 1965 Pugwash conference came a recommendation to establish the International Foundation for Science "in order to address the stultifying conditions under which younger faculty members in the universities of developing countries were attempting to do research". The organization gives grants to early-career scientists in low-income countries for work on local water resources and biology.
Secretaries General
Joseph Rotblat : 1957–1973
Bernard Feld : 1973–1978
Martin Kaplan : 1978–1989
Francesco Calogero : 1989–1997
George Rathjens : 1997–2002
Paolo Cotta-Ramusino : 2002–
Pugwash Presidents
As of 2019, 13 individuals have served as Presidents of the Pugwash Conferences.
Earl (Bertrand) Russell, 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature, a founder of the movement, was its natural head in its initial years. The formal office of the presidency was established at the Quinquennial Conference in Ronneby, in 1967. The president's role was to "preside over the Annual Pugwash Conferences and, in addition, between Conferences, to offer his counsel and advice to the members of the Continuing Committee and the Secretary-General, and thereby assist them in the execution of the activities of the Movement."
Sir John Cockcroft, joint recipient of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles, was elected as the first president in 1967, though he died suddenly ten days later.
Lord Florey, who shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for extraction of penicillin, was then invited to become president, though he also died within weeks. At that point the Continuing Committee decided to have a rotating presidency for a term of one year, to have that office held by a distinguished person in the country where the annual conference would be held each year.
Francis Perrin (1968), had worked with Frederic Joliot's team to establish in 1939 the possibility of nuclear chain reactions and nuclear energy production.
Mikhail Millionshchikov (1969), an eminent physicist who later became Speaker of the Russian Parliament.
Eugene Rabinowitch (1970), American biophysicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and was co-author with Leo Szilard of the Franck Report and co-founder in 1945 of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. In September 1970, the Continuing Committee switched back to the initial idea of a permanent office of president, with a five-year term.
Hannes Alfvén (1970–1975), recipient of the 1970 Nobel in Physics for work on his theory of magnetohydrodynamics.
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1976–1988), recipient of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances.
Sir Joseph Rotblat (1988–1997), physicist, one of the founders of the Pugwash Movement, co-recipient of the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize.
Sir Michael Atiyah (1997–2002), a mathematician, was awarded the 1966 Fields Medal, for his work in developing K-theory.
Prof. M.S. Swaminathan (2002–2007), agricultural scientist, one of the pioneers of the Green Revolution and recipient of the World Food Prize and the UNESCO Gandhi Prize.
Amb. Jayantha Dhanapla (2007–2017), former Under-Secretary-General for Disarmament Affairs at the United Nations (1998–2003), and former Ambassador of Sri Lanka to the US (1995–97) and to the UN Office in Geneva (1984–87)
Amb. Sergio Duarte (2017–), former UN Undersecretary for Disarmament Affairs and a retired career diplomat from Brazil
Pugwashites
The Pugwash Conference itself does not have formal membership (although national organisations do). All participants take part in their individual capacities and not as representatives of any organization, institution or government. Anyone who has attended a meeting is considered a "Pugwashite". There are more than 3,500 "Pugwashites" worldwide.
Pugwash Council for the 2007–2012 Quinquennium
Amb. Jayantha Dhanapala (President), former UN Under-Secretary-General
Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino (Secretary General), Professor of Theoretical Physics, University of Milano (Italy)
Amb. (ret.) Ochieng Adala, former Perm Rep of Kenya to the United Nations in New York.
Amb. Sergey Batsanov, Director, Geneva Pugwash, former Rep of the USSR/Russia to CD
Dr. Adele Buckley, fmr VP of Tech, Ontario Centre for Enviro Tech Advancement.
Prof. Francesco Calogero (Fmr Sec Gen), Prof, Theoretical Physics, Univ of Rome "La Sapienza".
Dr. Lynn Eden, Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford Univ.
Prof. John Finney, Emeritus Prof of Physics, University College London.
Prof. Galia Golan-Gild, Professor of Govt, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Herzliya, Israel.
Prof. Karen Hallberg, Prof of Physics, Fellow, Argentine Natl Council, Science & Tech
Dr. Peter Jones, fmr sr Policy Advisor, Sec & Intell Secretariat, Ottawa (PM's Department).
Gen. (ret.) Dr. Mohamed Kadry Said, Head of the Military Studies Unit, Al-Ahram Center
Dr. Mustafa Kibaroglu, Chair of the International Relations, Okan University Tuzla, Turkey
Mr. Cliff Kupchan, Director of Europe and Asia of the Eurasia Group, Washington, DC
Mr. Sverre Lodgaard, former Director, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
Prof. Saideh Lotfian (Council Chair), Assoc Prof, Political Science, University of Tehran.
Dr. Riad Malki, Min. of Foreign Affairs, Min. of Information, Palestinian Natl Authority.
Amb. Miguel Marin-Bosch, former Deputy Foreign Minister of Mexico.
Gen. (ret.) Talat Masood, former Secretary, Defence Production Division, MOD
Prof. Amitabh Mattoo Professor of International Relations and Member, National Knowledge Commission
Dr. Steven Miller (Chair of Executive Committee), International Security Program of the Belfer Center, Harvard University
Prof. Götz Neuneck, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (IFSH), Hamburg.
Dr. Alexander Nikitin, Director of the Center for Political and International Studies
Mr. Niu Qiang, Secretary General, Chinese People's Assoc for Peace and Disarmament
Gen. Pan Zhengqiang, Deputy Chair, China Foundation of International Studies
Acad. Yuri Ryzhov, President, International Engineering University, Moscow
Prof. Ivo Slaus, former Member of the Croatian Parliament
Dr. Mark Byung-Moon Suh, Chair, Corea Trust Fund
Prof. Takao Takahara, Professor of International Politics and Peace Research, Faculty of International Studies, Meiji Gakuin University, Japan
Dr. Bob van der Zwaan, Senior Scientific Researcher, Energy Research Center of The Netherlands
Other Pugwashites
Syed Azeez Pasha
Ruth Adams
Raymond Aubrac
Lev Artsimovich
Frank Barnaby
Ana Maria Cetto
Carl Djerassi
Paul M. Doty
Bernard T. Feld
Shalheveth Freier
John Holdren
George Ignatieff
Frédéric Joliot-Curie
Peter Kapitza
Sergey Kapitsa
Patricia Lindop
Robert K. Logan
Robert McNamara
Georgi Nadjakov
Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky
Bas Pease
John Charles Polanyi
Isidor Isaac Rabi
Martin Rees
Sherry Rehman
Andrei Sakharov
M. Shamsher Ali
Hussain al-Shahristani
Ali Asghar Soltanieh
Ivan Supek
Igor Tamm
Herbert York
Victor Weisskopf
Walter Dorn
Legacy
As the birthplace of the Pugwash movement, the Thinkers' Lodge was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 2008.
Jubilee Pugwash Conference Astana
The Jubilee 62nd Pugwash Conference devoted to nuclear disarmament was held in Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan, in 2017. The conference celebrated the 60th anniversary of the first Pugwash Conference, held in Pugwash, Nova Scotia in 1957. The theme of the conference was "Confronting New Nuclear Dangers." The conference agenda focused on strengthening the nuclear test ban and combating terrorism.
The Astana conference working groups included:
Nuclear disarmament and the UN negotiation process to prohibit nuclear weapons
Nuclear non-proliferation, civilian nuclear energy and energy security
Regional Security: Europe and NATO
Regional Security: Middle East
Regional Security: South Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, India)
Regional Security: Northeast Asia
Emerging new technologies and security issues (Cyber Security, AI, Robot)
See also
List of anti-war organizations
List of peace activists
Student Pugwash USA
International Student/Young Pugwash
Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero
Soviet influence on the peace movement
International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons
Anti-nuclear organizations
List of books about nuclear issues
List of films about nuclear issues
Captain Pugwash
Notes
References
Books
External links
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
Russia: Russian Pugwash Committee
Canada: Canadian Pugwash Group -see:
France: Association Française pour le Mouvement Pugwash
The First Pugwash Conference.
Profile of Joseph Rotblat
The Early Days of Pugwash, by Joseph Rotblat in Physics Today, June 2001.
Pugwash And The International Treaties On Chemical And Biological Warfare, by J.P. Perry Robinson.
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs (Rome, through 1996 only)
The Dagomys Declaration on Environmental Degradation.
J. Rotblat, Scientists in the Quest for Peace: A history of the Pugwash Conferences, MIT Press,1972.
Archival collections
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs records, 1958-1981, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
Anti–nuclear weapons movement
International scientific organizations
Organizations awarded Nobel Peace Prizes
International nongovernmental organizations
International organisations based in Italy
Ethics of science and technology
International security
Organisations based in Rome
Non-profit organisations based in Italy
Scientific organisations based in Italy
Scientific organizations established in 1957
1957 establishments in Canada
Buildings and structures in Nova Scotia
1957 in Nova Scotia
Existential risk organizations
|
417136
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penn%20Museum
|
Penn Museum
|
Penn Museum, formerly known as The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, is an archaeology and anthropology museum at the University of Pennsylvania. It is located on Penn's campus in the University City neighborhood of Philadelphia, at the intersection of 33rd and South Streets. It also is close enough for Drexel University students to walk or take Septa transportation services. Housing over 1.3 million artifacts, the museum features one of the most comprehensive collections of middle and near-eastern art in the world.
History
The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology was founded in 1887 following a successful archaeological expedition to the ancient site of Nippur in modern-day Iraq (then part of the Ottoman Empire). Provost William Pepper persuaded the trustees of the University of Pennsylvania to erect a fireproof building to house artifacts from the excavation. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, North American and European museums regularly sponsored such excavations throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, sharing the ownership of their discoveries with the host country. Penn Museum followed this practice in acquiring the vast majority of its collections, and, as a result, most of the museum's objects have a known archaeological context, increasing their value for archaeological and anthropological research and presentation. Since its beginning, the Penn Museum's scientists have conducted more than 300 archaeological and anthropological expeditions around the world.
Today the museum's three floors of gallery space feature materials from the ancient Mediterranean World, Egypt, the Near East, Mesopotamia, East Asia, and Mesoamerica, as well as artifacts from the indigenous peoples of Africa and Native America. Since 1958, the Penn Museum has published Expedition magazine. () The excavations and collections of the museum provide resources for student research and the museum hosts the Graduate Group in the Art and Archaeology of the Mediterranean World.
2009 restructuring
On November 19, 2008, the Penn Museum's administration terminated eighteen Research Specialist positions in archaeological and anthropological research in the Mediterranean world, the Middle East, and Americas sections, effective May 31, 2009. The scientific research center MASCA (Museum Applied Science Center for Archaeology) was also closed, although the MASCA scientists moved to other Sections within the museum. The decision elicited local and world-wide criticism among concerned scholars, who felt that it departed from the Penn Museum's historic mission as a research institution. Museum administrators attributed this measure to the 2008 financial crisis and the deep budget cuts that had resulted at the University of Pennsylvania. The museum's director at the time, Dr. Richard Hodges later offered positions as "Associate Curators" or "Research Project Managers" to eleven of the eighteen individuals affected. The museum affirmed its commitment to research, citing more than fifty active research projects spanning five continents that were engaging nearly 200 Museum-affiliated scholars—more than at any other archaeological and anthropological institute or museum in North America could claim at the time.
Museum building
The museum is housed in an Arts and Crafts and Eclectic style building that is one of the landmarks of the University of Pennsylvania campus. The existing original building (onto which have been grafted several later additions) is actually only approximately one-third of an ambitious design that would have created one of the largest museum buildings in the United States. Features of the extant building include a dramatic rotunda, multiple courtyards and gardens, a fountain, reflecting pool, glass mosaics, iron gates, and stone statuary. The Penn Museum was designed by a team of Philadelphia architects, all of whom taught on the faculty of the university: Wilson Eyre, Cope & Stewardson and Frank Miles Day. The first phase was completed in 1899 and housed the discoveries from an expedition sponsored by the university to the ancient site of Nippur. The rotunda, which houses the Harrison Auditorium, was completed in 1915. Charles Klauder designed the Coxe Memorial Wing, which opened in 1926 to house the museum's Egyptian collection. The Sharpe Wing was completed in 1929.
The Coxe Memorial Egyptian Wing was added to the museum in 1924 through a bequest by former museum board president Eckley Coxe. The administrative wing was added in 1929. The Academic Wing, which provided laboratories for the Anthropology department and classrooms was opened in 1971. The most recent major addition was made in 2002, with the addition of the Mainwaring (Collections Storage) Wing.
Museum Library
The Museum Library was established in 1900 when the personal library of University of Pennsylvania professor of American archaeology and linguistics Daniel Garrison Brinton was acquired. This library contained an estimated 4,098 volumes of which the ethnology and linguistics of the American Indigenous peoples were the primary disciplines. This library also consists of a manuscript collection of nearly two hundred volumes relevant to the study of autochthonous Central American languages; most of which are either severely endangered or have completely disappeared. The original location of the library holdings was the Furness Building until they were transferred to the museum building in 1898. They were relocated to the Elkins Library up until 1971 upon when they were moved to their final home in the university extension of the museum.
Prior to its move in 1971 the collection was built upon the support of museum curators contributing their personal monographs, negotiations with affiliate institutions here and abroad as well as endowments by philanthropic individuals.
The library collection was maintained by a staff comprising a single part-time librarian until 1942 when Cynthia Griffin became the first full-time librarian. It was under Griffin that the collection and library witnessed many developments. Prior to her arrival use of the library had been limited to employees of the museum and university professor; however, Griffin extended the accessibility to include students. She also augmented communication networks between the library and libraries worldwide. Within twenty years the library's collection more than doubled its capacity from nearly 20,000 volumes in 1945 to over 46,000 volumes in 1965, and by 1971 the breadth of the collection was well over 50,000 volumes increasing by 14,000 volumes annually.
The range of disciplines featured in the collection is specific to the museum itself and incorporates all divisions of anthropology and archaeology. There is a special emphasis on works published within the field of Mesoamerican archaeology as well as works which relate to the current research of the university's professors. As of 2008 there are approximately 115,000 volumes in the library's collection, 14,000 of these volumes have been circulated on an annual basis. The library also has subscriptions to an estimated 549 scholarly journals. Computing services within the library include desktop and laptop computers. Other services encompass a range of printing and scanning utilities as well as accommodating seating for 154 individuals. The library supports two quiet rooms for patron study, a space to examine photographs, a room designed specifically for microform research, and a collection of audio and video materials.
Collections
Penn Museum's extensive collections fall into three main divisions: archaeology, the artifacts recovered from the past by excavation, ethnology, the objects and ideas collected from living peoples, and physical anthropology, the physical remains of humans and nonhuman primates. For curation and display, the items in the archaeology and ethnology collections are organized by geographic regions. As of 2023, there are eleven permanent galleries: Africa, Asia, Egypt, Sphinx, Middle East, Eastern Mediterranean, Etruscan, Greece, Rome, Native American Voices and Mexico and Central America. The collections are organized along similar lines, but with larger geographic groupings for some regions. Collection areas include Africa, America (North, Central and South), Asia, Egypt, Europe (Etruscan, Greece and Rome), Mediterranean, Near East and Oceania. Many items within these collections are not on display in the permanent galleries, but may be used for research and temporary exhibits. None of the items in the physical anthropology collections are on display, but they are used for research.
Ethnology and Archaeology Collections
Africa
The Penn Museum has one of the largest collections of African ethnographic and archaeological objects in the country. Mostly obtained from 1891 to 1937, the collection contains objects from all regions of Africa, but with a concentration from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Angola, Morocco, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Madagascar.
The Penn Museum has one of the most extensive Sherbro Island collections in the world. During a museum sponsored expedition in 1936–1937, Curator of General Ethnology, Henry Usher Hall spent seven months conducting ethnographic research among the Sherbro people of Sierra Leone. The collection consists of textiles, sculpture, artifacts related to subsistence and household items, secret society and examples of medicine bundles. Hall's papers include field notes, bibliographies, and textual commentaries that provide ethnographic information about the way of life of the Sherbro people and others—including the Mende, Krim, and Temne peoples—who lived among them.
The Central African collection includes approximately 3000 artifacts from the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly the Belgian Congo). The majority of these artifacts were collected by the German ethnographer Leo Viktor Frobenius on his expedition to the Kasai district of the Congo in 1906. His collection illustrates the diverse sculptural forms found among the different cultural groups in the Central African region. Some of the cultures represented in the collection are the Kuba, Kongo, Luba, Suku, Yaka, Pende, Teke, Chokwe, and Luluwa. One of the lesser known collection within the African Section is the Moroccan collection. Dr. and Mrs. Talcott Williams travelled to Morocco in 1898 and returned with approximately 600 objects to document the cultures in Morocco. The collection consists of clothing, shoes, rugs, blankets, weapons, jewelry, pottery, baskets, cooking pots. This thorough collection of objects representing daily life was well documented by Dr. Williams who also collected on behalf of the Smithsonian.
On November 16, 2019, the Penn Museum debuted a newly renovated African gallery alongside many other new galleries and rooms. Penn professor of Sociology and Africana Studies, Dr. Tufuku Zuberi, was appointed as the head curator for the new Africa exhibit, and approached his former student Breanna Moore about designing a new dress for the gallery. Moore enlisted the help of her friend and Philadelphia artist, Emerson Ruffin, to create the dress titled “Wearable Literature”, now a popular item in the Penn Museum's African galleries.
North America
The North American archaeological collections contain heritage items from twenty thousand years old to a few hundred years old. In the 1960s, these were arranged chronologically. Some of these items were excavated in the late 19th century and early 20th century, while others were purchased or donated by reputable collectors. In 1896, Frank Hamilton Cushing excavated wolf, deer and human masquettes that he found in the waters off of Key Marco, Florida. The masquettes were unfortunately distorted upon removal from the water, but they and the numerous tools and practical items had an unusually high level of preservation due to their underwater location. In the interwar years, Edgar B. Howard excavated some of the oldest items in the collection from the American Southwest. His excavations in 1932 and 1933 near Clovis, New Mexico, are significant in identifying the Clovis Point, and in proving the co-existence of humans and extinct animals such as the bison and mammoth.
The North American ethnographic holdings number approximately 40,000 heritage items attributed to approximately 200 Indigenous nations and organized within eleven geographic regions (Arctic, Sub-Arctic, Northwest Coast, Plateau, California, Great Basin, Southwest, Great Plains, Southeast and Northeast). The strongest collections are those systematically created via ethnographic collecting expeditions in Alaska, the Northwest Coast, Southwest, Southeast, and Sub-arctic regions. Many of the Northwest Coast materials were collected in the early 20th century by Louis Shotridge, the son of an influential Tlingit chiefly family. Penn Museum director George Byron Gordon hired Shotridge as a curator. He worked for the museum in various capacities between 1912 and 1932, including multiple field expeditions sponsored by John Wanamaker. Prominent ethnographers of the time also contributed to the North American collections. As a professor and chair of the anthropology department at the University of Pennsylvania, Frank Gouldsmith Speck was one of the most prolific donors to the museum's Sub-Arctic ethnology collections. In addition, Speck was an early adopter of audio recording technology with which he gathered examples of Creek and Yuchi songs. Individual donations significantly contribute to the collections in many areas.
Mexico and Central America
Penn Museum's Mesoamerican collections include objects from Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama and Costa Rica. The American Section's ethnographic collections from Mesoamerica include strong collections of masks, ceramics, and textiles from Guatemala, and very small collections from Mexico, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. In Guatemala, Robert Burkitt acquired ethnographic ceramics, textiles, tools, hammocks, fans and gourds from the Alta Verapaz the early twentieth century.
The museum houses the outstanding Lilly de Jongh Osborne collection of 19th and early 20th century Guatemalan textiles, exceptional because of its complete outfits for men, women and children acquired systematically across different Guatemalan villages. This collection includes raw material and other objects and tools related to weaving. Ruben Reina studied the production of ceramics in Guatemala in the 1960s and 1970s, and collected ceramics and textiles from the region. The Section houses a large collection of Guatemalan masks amassed by James Moore in the 1960s.
The Penn Museum conducted an excavation of the Mayan city of Tikal, Guatemala from 1956 to 1970. Many important artifacts from this excavation are on view in the museum, along with several stelae from the contemporary cities of Caracol and Piedras Negras. The gallery also displays many Aztecan, Oaxacan, and Teotihuacano artifacts.
On November 16, 2019, the Penn Museum launched a new exhibit entitled "The Mexico and Central America Gallery." This gallery features art and artifacts from eight Central American countries, including Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. Specifically, one object of importance that is on display is Stela 14, a limestone rock with intricate carvings that stands at ten feet tall. Tatiana Proskouriakoff excavated this object in Piedras Negras, and at the time of its discovery, archaeologists could not decipher the Mayan hieroglyphics engraved in it. Proskouriakoff cross-referenced the glyphs on the Stela to historical events, eventually decoding the hieroglyphic language. Proskouriakoff's discovery transformed the field of Maya Studies.
South America
The museum's South American collections are as varied as the regions from which they come – the arid coast of Peru, the Andean Highlands, and the tropical lowlands of the Amazon Basin. The collections include anthropological materials from Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.
The American Section's ethnographic holdings from South America are strongest in materials from Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and Peru. The Aymara, Quechua, and Yuracaré of Bolivia are represented in early collections acquired by Max Uhle and William Curtis Farabee. More than thirty indigenous tribes from Brazil are represented in ethnographic collections acquired by Farabee and Vincenzo M. Petrullo in the 1920s and 1930s respectfully. Twelve different indigenous groups are represented in the collections acquired in Guyana by Farabee in the 1920s. More than twenty-five native groups from Peru are represented as well. Smaller collections represent some of the indigenous peoples of Argentina (Yahgan), Chile (Alacaluf, Mapuche), Colombia (Arhuaco, Chocó, Goajira, and Kogi), and Ecuador (Jívaro, Tumaco, Saparo).
Asia
The Penn Museum's Asian collection is composed of close to 3,000 objects of art and artifacts from China, Tibet, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, India and other Asian countries. Through the concerted efforts of Dr. George Byron Gordon, the majority of this collection focuses on China. From 1914-1918 and again in 1923-1924, Penn Museum archaeologists attempted archaeological expeditions in China that ended in failure. Consequently, the vast majority of the Chinese collection was purchased or donated through dealers in North America. Nevertheless, it includes a significant number of high quality works of antiquity, such as the over 290 porcelain vases and sculptures collected by banking magistrate, J.P. Morgan. The Penn Museum acquired another important Asian collection from amateur collectors William and Isabel Ingram Mayer who made a collecting expedition across Mongolia and northern China in 1930-1931. The Mayer Collection consists of 464 small bronze daggers, harnesses, plaques, and a variety of ornaments that represent the "Ordos" style made by the Scythians and related nomadic peoples between the 12th century BCE and 3rd century CE, as well as some metalworks of more recent origin. Maxwell Sommerville (1829-1904), one of the first curators at the Penn Museum, contributed many items from Japan and India including a set of Kalighat paintings from India that represent almost the entire Hindu pantheon.
The Asian Gallery is mounted in Harrison Rotunda, which measures ninety feet across and ninety feet from the floor. Since its completion in 1915, this gallery has showcased the Chinese collection. One of the central figures is a ceramic statue of a Luohan, reputed to be one of a group of eight or ten statues from a cave in Yizhou that date between 947 and 1234 CE. Other rare Chinese works of art on display are two of the six horse panels from Emperor Taizong's Mausoleum in Shaanxi Province. Each of these horses had names and poems commemorating their service in the fight to unify China during the Tang dynasty. The secular focus and historic realism of these reliefs marked a new direction in Chinese art. Four of the panels are at the Beilin Museum in Xi'an, while the only two to have left China were donated to the Penn Museum by Eldridge R. Johnson, the founder of the Victor Talking Machine Company. Johnson also donated the perfectly spherical crystal ball that sits in the center of the gallery, which is supposed to have belonged to Empress Cixi (1835–1908). Along with an Egyptian statue of Osiris, the Chinese crystal ball was stolen in 1988. Shortly afterwards, a student found its elegant silver stand, a stylized ocean wave, in a culvert not far from the museum. The items were recovered in 1991 after a museum volunteer saw the statue in an antique shop across the Schuylkill River in New Jersey. The FBI then traced the crystal ball to a home in New Jersey and returned it to the museum without a clue that would reveal who the original thieves were or how they committed the crime.
Egypt
The museum's collection of Egyptian artifacts is considered one of the finest in the world. The museum's Egyptian galleries house an extensive collection of statuary, mummies, and reliefs. Most notably, the museum houses a set of architectural elements, including large columns and a 13-ton granite Sphinx of Ramesses II, circa 1200 B.C., from the palace of the Pharaoh Merenptah. These were excavated by a museum expedition to Egypt in 1915. In the late 1970s Karl-Theodor Zauzich (attendant of the Egyptian section) discovered 3 missing fragments of the Insinger Papyrus in the museum's collections.
Iraq
The museum's most important collection is arguably that of the Royal Tombs of Ur, which The University of Pennsylvania co–excavated with the British Museum in Iraq. Ur was an important and wealthy city-state in ancient Sumer, and the artifacts from its royal tombs showcase the city's wealth. The collections consists of a variety of crowns, figures, and musical instruments, many of which have been inlaid with gold and precious stones. The often traveling collection includes a well known Bull-headed lyre. The museum's Babylonian section houses a collection of almost 30,000 clay tablets inscribed in Sumerian and Akkadian cuneiform, making it one of the ten largest collections in the world. The collection contains the largest number of Sumerian school tablets and literary compositions of any of the world's museums, as well as important administrative archives ranging from 2900 to 500 BCE.
Physical Anthropology Collections
Morton Collection
The Penn Museum holds approximately 1,300 skulls collected by 19th century physician Samuel George Morton. The museum acquired the collection from the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1966. Morton has long been criticized for promoting white supremacist views, leveraging science to uphold racism, poor research quality, and unethically collecting human remains without consent. Despite this, the museum claims the collection is an important historic and research resource. The museum has actively conducted research using the collection in recent years. More than a dozen crania, along with mid-19th century measuring devices, were on public display at the museum from 2012 to 2013 in an exhibit named "Year of Proof: Making and Unmaking Race". In 2018, students in the Penn and Slavery project discovered the collection includes 55 crania of enslaved people, with 53 of these crania from Havana and 2 from the United States. In July, 2020 the museum announced it would move the collection from a private classroom into storage after criticism from students and the local community. The museum is also planning to repatriate or rebury skulls of enslaved individuals.
MOVE Bombing Victim Remains
In April 2021, following critical news coverage, the Penn Museum and the University of Pennsylvania apologized to the Africa "family" and the community in general for allowing human remains from the 1985 MOVE bombing to be used in research and training. In 1986, an official from the Philadelphia City Medical Examiner's Office gave burned human remains found at the MOVE house to the museum for verification that the bones were those of 14 year old Katricia Dotson (a.k.a. Katricia or Tree Africa) and 12 year old Delisha Orr (a.k.a. Delisha Africa), although after the death certificates for both of those children were written, and after Dotson's family believed they were given Dotson's remains for burial in 1985. These remains were kept in a cardboard box in storage for decades and used for teaching by Alan Mann, a professor at Penn, and Janet Monge, Mann's graduate student and later curator of physical anthropology at the Penn Museum. Without the family's permission, in 2019 the bones were used as a case study in an online forensic course by Janet Monge. They were also used as the subject of a Penn senior thesis in anthropology which Monge supervised. Although the bones used by Monge in the online case study were given to MOVE members in 2021, accounts differ regarding how many remains were at the Penn Museum and whether all bones which were given to Mann and Monge in 1986 were returned in 2021. A legal team hired by the University of Pennsylvania stated that the bones of Delisha Orr were never at the Penn Museum. However, an investigation by the City of Philadelphia disagreed, and stated that there was evidence that remains of Delisha Orr were at the Penn Museum. Nine forensic anthropologists certified by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology disagreed with the claims published by Penn's legal team and agreed with those of the City of Philadelphia. The City of Philadelphia also questioned whether all the remains of Katricia Dotson which were at the Penn Museum were given to MOVE in 2021.
See also
Graduate Group in the Art and Archaeology of the Mediterranean World
The Benghazi Venus
List of museums with major collections of Egyptian antiquities
Hiram M. Hiller, Jr.
G. Roger Edwards
References
Further reading
Brody, J. J., and Rebecca Allen. Beauty From the Earth: Pueblo Indian Pottery From the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: The University Museum, 1990.
Danien, Elin C. Guide to the Mesoamerican Gallery At the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2002.
Pezzati, Alessandro. Adventures In Photography: Expeditions of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2002.
Pezzati, Alessandro, Jane Hickman, and Alexandra Fleischman. “A Brief History of the Penn Museum.” Expedition 54, no. 3 (2012): 4–19.
Quick, Jennifer. Magnificent Objects From the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2004.
Romano, Irene Bald. Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture In the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006.
Rose, Charles Brian, and G. Darbyshire. The Golden Age of King Midas Exhibition Catalogue. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2016.
Silverman, David P. Searching for Ancient Egypt: Art, Architecture, and Artifacts From the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.
Turfa, Jean. Catalogue of the Etruscan Gallery At the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.
White, Donald, and Lee Horne. Guide to the Etruscan and Roman Worlds At the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2002.
Williams, Lucy Fowler. Guide to the North American Ethnographic Collections At the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2003.
External links
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology website
The museum's Permanent Exhibitions
Expedition Magazine
The Graduate Group in the Art and Archaeology of the Mediterranean World
Secrets of the Silk Road, UPenn Museum, Symposium: Reconfiguring the Silk Road, New Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity
"A Museum Full of Antiquities Embraces Modernity", Jon Hurdle, The New York Times, 4 December 2012
Anthropology museums in the United States
Archaeological museums in Pennsylvania
Art museums and galleries in Pennsylvania
Asian art museums in the United States
Egyptological collections in the United States
Historic American Buildings Survey in Philadelphia
Mesoamerican art museums in the United States
Museums established in 1887
Museums in Philadelphia
Museums of ancient Greece in the United States
Museums of Ancient Near East in the United States
Museums of ancient Rome in the United States
Pre-Columbian art museums in the United States
Pre-Columbian studies
University museums in Pennsylvania
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
African art museums in the United States
Ethnographic museums in the United States
|
417140
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greed%20%28game%20show%29
|
Greed (game show)
|
Greed is an American television game show that aired on Fox for one season. Chuck Woolery was the show's host while Mark Thompson was its announcer. The series format consisted of a team of contestants who answered a set of up to eight multiple-choice questions (the first set of four containing one right answer and the second set of four containing four right answers) for a potential prize of up to $2,000,000 ().
Dick Clark and Bob Boden of Dick Clark Productions created the series in response to the success of ABC's Who Wants to Be a Millionaire. Production was rushed in an effort to launch the show before Millionaires new season, and the show premiered less than two months after it was initially pitched. A pilot episode was omitted, and Fox aired its first episode of Greed on November 4, 1999.
While its Nielsen ratings were not quite as successful as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, Greed still improved on Fox's performance year-to-year in its timeslots. The show's critical reception was mixed; some critics saw it as a rip-off of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, while others believed Greed was the more intriguing and dramatic of the two programs. Its final episode aired July 14, 2000, and Greed was abruptly canceled following the conclusion of its first season as Fox's leadership shifted the network's focus to scripted programming. The top prize was never awarded; only one contestant advanced to the eighth and final question, failing to win the prize.
Gameplay
Qualifying round
Six contestants are asked a question with a numerical answer. After all six submit a number, the answer is revealed and the contestant whose numerical guess is farthest from the exact answer is eliminated. The remaining contestants are stationed at podiums based upon the proximity of their guess to the correct answer, and the contestant who had the closest guess becomes the team's captain. If two or more contestants give the same guess or guesses that are of equal distance from the correct answer, the one who locks in their answer before the other(s) receives the higher ranking.
Question round
The team attempts to answer a series of eight questions worth successively higher amounts, from $25,000 up to $2,000,000. Each of the first four questions has one correct answer to be chosen from several options (four for questions one and two, five for questions three and four). The host reads the question and possible answers to one contestant, who has unlimited time to select one of them. The captain can either accept that answer or replace it with a different one. If the final choice is correct, the team's winnings are increased to the value of that question; the captain can then choose to either quit the game or risk the money on the next question. If the captain quits after any of these four questions, the money is split evenly among all five team members. Giving or accepting a wrong answer ends the game and forfeits all winnings. The team member in the lowest position (farthest from the correct answer when a qualifying question was played) gives the answer to the first question, and each question after that is answered by the member in the next higher position.
The remaining four questions each have four correct answers to be chosen from several options, starting with six for question five and increasing by one for each question after that. The host reveals the category of the upcoming fifth question to the captain and offers a chance to end the game, with the prize money being divided among the remaining players according to their shares. If the captain chooses to continue, a "Terminator" round is played prior to the question being asked. The captain is given a single "Freebie" lifeline prior to question five and can use it once to eliminate a wrong answer from a question.
For questions five through seven, answers are given one at a time by the remaining contestants with the captain answering last, then (if necessary) choosing to either give enough additional answers to make four or delegate the choices to other members. Once all the answers are in, the captain may either approve the choices as they stand or change one of them if desired. Answers are revealed individually as correct or incorrect; if three correct answers are found, the host offers a buyout to quit the game. Ten percent of the question value is offered on questions five and six ($20,000 and $50,000 respectively), to be split evenly among the remaining players, and the team's decision is entirely up to the captain. On question seven, each team member can choose to take an individual buyout consisting of a Jaguar XK8 convertible and $25,000 cash (approximately $100,000 total value).
If the captain (at questions five and six) or at least one team member (at question seven) chooses to continue with the game, the fourth answer is revealed. If it is correct, the team splits the cash award for the question at that level. If an incorrect answer is revealed at any point, the game ends and the team leaves with nothing.
Terminator
A Terminator challenge is played before each question starting at question five. One contestant is chosen at random and given the option to challenge a teammate (including the team captain) to a one-question showdown for their share of the team's collective winnings. If the selected contestant issues a challenge, they are given a guaranteed $10,000 in cash to keep regardless of the result of the outcome of the Terminator or the overall game. If the selected contestant does not wish to issue a challenge, the team remains as it was and the host proceeds to the next question.
The two contestants face each other across podiums at center stage, and the host reads a toss-up question with a single answer. The first contestant to buzz in and answer correctly eliminates the other contestant from the game and claims their share of the collective winnings. If a contestant buzzes in and provides an incorrect response or does not immediately respond, their opponent wins by default. If the team captain is eliminated, the contestant who wins the challenge becomes the new captain.
$2,000,000 question
Before the $2,000,000 question, each team member can decide to quit with their share of the team's collective winnings or continue playing. If any team members choose to continue, a question with nine possible answers is presented, of which four are correct. Contestants who reach this level are given 30 seconds to select four answers. If they fail to do so within the time limit, the game ends and they leave with nothing. Following the selection of answers, correct responses are revealed individually. None of the answers can be changed and no buyout is offered following the reveal of the third correct answer. If all four chosen answers are correct, the contestant (or team) wins $2,000,000.
Only one contestant played the final question throughout the show's run. On the episode that aired on November 18, 1999, Daniel Avila chose to risk his $200,000 individual winnings to play for the top prize (which had been increased to $2,200,000 as it was during Greeds progressive jackpot shows). However, Avila missed the question based on a Yale University study about the four smells most recognizable to the human nose (peanut butter, coffee, Vicks VapoRub, and chocolate). Avila correctly guessed peanut butter, coffee, and Vicks VapoRub but incorrectly guessed tuna instead of chocolate, and left with nothing.
Rule changes
Top prize
For the first six episodes of Greeds run, aired November 4, 1999, until December 2, 1999, the top prize started at $2,000,000 and increased by $50,000 after every game in which it went unclaimed. As no team had reached the jackpot question and provided the necessary correct answers, the jackpot reached $2,550,000 in the first month. When the program was picked up as a regular series in Fox's weekly lineup, the top prize was changed to a flat $2,000,000.
Greed: Million Dollar Moment
In February 2000, eight previous Greed contestants were brought back for a "Million Dollar Moment" at the end of each of four episodes. The contestants were all players who had gotten close to the $2,000,000 jackpot question. Two contestants faced off with a Terminator-style sudden-death question, and the winner was given a $1,000,000 question with eight possible choices. The contestant had up to 30 seconds to study the question, then 10 seconds to lock in the four correct answers to win the money. Correct answers were revealed one at a time (as on the jackpot question, no buyout was offered after the third correct answer), and if all four were correct, the contestant won an additional $1,000,000.
Curtis Warren became Greeds only Million Dollar Moment winner when he successfully answered a question about movies based on television shows on the episode that aired on February 11, 2000. Warren was the program's biggest winner with $1,410,000 and briefly held the title of biggest U.S. game show winner in history; combined with an earlier six-figure winning streak on Sale of the Century in 1986 and an appearance on Win Ben Stein's Money, his total game show winnings stood at $1,546,988. Warren's record was broken shortly thereafter by David Legler, who won $1,765,000 on Twenty-One. He has since been surpassed by others, including Jeopardy! champions Ken Jennings, Brad Rutter, and James Holzhauer.
Super Greed
From April 28 to May 19, 2000, the show was known as Super Greed. The qualifying question was eliminated, and the values for the top three questions were doubled, making the eighth question worth a potential $4,000,000. The cash buyout on the sixth question was increased to $100,000, and any team that got this question right and continued past it was guaranteed a separate $200,000 regardless of the outcome of the game. During this period, Phyllis Harris served as captain of a team that answered seven questions correctly and shared a $2,000,000 prize, though she and her teammates elected to leave the game before attempting the final $4,000,000 question.
Production
Greed was created by Dick Clark and Bob Boden of Dick Clark Productions. An hour-long program, it was considered by television critics and network producers to be Fox's response to the success of ABC's Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, while Fox executive Mike Darnell later stated that Fox was "inspired" by Millionaires success. Clark and Boden pitched the show to Fox in September, and six episodes were ordered, which began taping less than three weeks later. The series was only given about a month of preparation before it was set to premiere in November 1999. Fox had set the target premiere date of November 4, because it was three days before Millionaire was set to return to ABC, and by mid-October, one Fox executive was concerned the network might not have the show ready in time.
Producers considered many potential hosts in the selection process, including veteran game show hosts Chuck Woolery and Bob Eubanks, as well as Keith Olbermann and Gordon Elliott. On October 13, The Philadelphia Inquirers Gail Shister reported that Olbermann was close to being named host, while also noting Phil Donahue was Fox's first choice, though he proved to be too expensive for the network. Woolery was ultimately selected as the show's host due to his game show experience. The production team omitted taping a pilot, allowing the series to be ready in time for its premiere on November 4. Mark Thompson served as the announcer, Bob Levy and Chris Donovan directed the program, and Edgar Struble composed the soundtrack. It was initially subtitled "Greed: The Multi-Million Dollar Challenge". The tagline for the series was "the Richest, Most Dangerous Game in America." In January 2000, Fox brought Greed back to its schedule by airing it three nights in a row before it began airing weekly on Fridays, in order to avoid competing head-to-head with Millionaire on Thursdays.
The majority of Greeds contestants during its first couple of months were hand-picked and recruited by the show's producers after a multiple-choice qualification test. Many of them had already appeared on other trivia-based game shows, including Avila and Warren, who were previously winning contestants on Jeopardy! and Win Ben Stein's Money respectively. The window between Avila's test and when his episode taped was only three days, as he took the test on a Saturday and taped the show the following Tuesday. Once the show became a regular series, Fox began a more nationwide search for contestants, and any legal resident of the U.S. was invited to call or mail in an entry for a chance to audition. Some travel and accommodations were provided by Priceline.com.
Like Millionaire, Greeds basic set was atypical of the traditional game show, giving the show a more dramatic feel. The New York Times Julia Chaplin compared the set to a video game, saying it was "painted to look like stone blocks, reminiscent of the torch-lighted medieval castles in games like Doom and Soul Calibur." Greeds set designer, Jimmy Cuomo, noted the inspiration from science fiction in his set, specifically from Star Trek and various castle settings in video games.
Fox abruptly canceled the program on July 14, 2000. By 2001, Fox executives Sandy Grushow and Gail Berman had led a shift in the network's focus through a greater emphasis on scripted programming. In December 2000, Clark stated that he was working on a revised version of Greed that he would initially pitch to Fox and then propose to other networks. While this proposed revival was never launched, Greeds original 44-episode run was acquired by Game Show Network (GSN) for reruns in January 2002.
International versions
Following Greeds success in the United States, the show was adapted and recreated in several other countries as a worldwide franchise. American talk show host Jerry Springer hosted a British adaptation of the series on Channel 5 in 2001. Other versions of Greed have existed in Argentina, Australia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Poland, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and Venezuela. Additionally, the original American series aired in Canada on Global.
Reception
Greed received mixed critiques. At the beginning of the show's run, some critics saw Greed as little more than a bad attempt to capitalize on ABC's success with Millionaire. Scott D. Pierce of Deseret News called the series "a rip-off" of Millionaire, adding "just how liberally Fox and Dick Clark Productions stole from the ABC hit is a bit of a shocker". Dana Gee of The Province wrote "Greed fails to entertain" while also criticizing the difficulty of the questions. Joyce Millman of Salon added, "a stench of desperation surrounds the show" and referred to it as "Fox's last hope" for a primetime hit that television season. Millionaire host Regis Philbin was unsurprised Fox launched a competing show, saying, "It's so Fox, isn't it?" In comparing Greed to Millionaire, New York Daily News's David Bianculli wrote that the former "doesn't have heart" as it allowed contestants to duel with each other, while also arguing Woolery lacked "warmth and empathy" compared to Philbin on Millionaire. Joanne Weintraub of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel called Greed "a glum affair" and added that the show seemed "more tedious than tense." Alan Pergament of The Buffalo News shared the sentiment that Greed was little more than a Millionaire rip-off, though he conceded its Nielsen ratings "were good by Fox standards."
Others were more favorable of Greed, particularly due to its elements of drama. Writing for The New York Times two weeks after the show's debut, Caryn James believed Greed was a more dramatic show than Millionaire, comparing it to "blood sport" and saying it "evokes uglier sentiments and brings in less conventional contestants". Times James Poniewozik gave the series a more positive review, arguing that "Greed Trumps Millionaire" based on its lack of lifelines and ability to pit teammates against each other. In December, United Media columnist Kevin McDonough stated that he also preferred Greed over the ABC game show, while Bill Carter (also of The New York Times) wrote that the series "has fared passably well". In 2019, Forbess Marc Berman wrote an article titled "20 Years Later: I Still Feel The Need For Greed", arguing that the show could eventually be rebooted due to the "current era of [game show] revivals".
Ratings
Greed premiered with a 4.0 rating in adults 18–49 and a total of 9.9 million viewers, improving on Fox's Thursday night performance from its other shows that season. The rating gave Fox an improvement of more than 100 percent in that time slot over the previous week, marking the network's best Thursday ratings in more than six months. By mid-January 2000, Greed brought in around 12 million viewers, which marked Fox's best performance in the time slot since the debut of Millennium, although the number totaled less than half of Millionaires audience of more than 28 million. Alan Johnson of the Chicago Tribune wrote that Greeds producers would occasionally have to displace the show and change its schedule to avoid going head-to-head against Millionaire. The July 14, 2000, episode (which would ultimately be the series finale) earned 6.7 million viewers.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
at the Wayback Machine
1990s American game shows
2000s American game shows
1999 American television series debuts
2000 American television series endings
English-language television shows
Fox Broadcasting Company original programming
Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Television series by Dick Clark Productions
|
417152
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreal%20Engine
|
Unreal Engine
|
Unreal Engine (UE) is a series of 3D computer graphics game engines developed by Epic Games, first showcased in the 1998 first-person shooter video game Unreal. Initially developed for PC first-person shooters, it has since been used in a variety of genres of games and has seen adoption by other industries, most notably the film and television industry. Unreal Engine is written in C++ and features a high degree of portability, supporting a wide range of desktop, mobile, console, and virtual reality platforms.
The latest generation, Unreal Engine 5, was launched in April 2022. Its source code is available on GitHub, and commercial use is granted based on a royalty model, with Epic charging 5% of revenues over US$1 million, which is waived for games published on the Epic Games Store. Epic has included features from acquired companies like Quixel in the engine, which is seen as helped by Fortnite's revenue.
In 2014, Unreal Engine was named the world's "most successful videogame engine" by Guinness World Records.
History
First generation
The first-generation Unreal Engine was developed by Tim Sweeney, the founder of Epic Games. Having created editing tools for his shareware games ZZT (1991) and Jill of the Jungle (1992), Sweeney began writing the engine in 1995 for the production of a game that would later become a first-person shooter known as Unreal. After years in development, it debuted with the game's release in 1998, although MicroProse and Legend Entertainment had access to the technology much earlier, licensing it in 1996. According to an interview, Sweeney wrote 90 percent of the code in the engine, including the graphics, tools, and networking system.
At first, the engine relied completely on software rendering, meaning the graphics calculations were handled by the central processing unit (CPU). However, over time, it was able to take advantage of the capabilities provided by dedicated graphics cards, focusing on the Glide API, specially designed for 3dfx accelerators. While OpenGL and Direct3D were supported, they reported a slower performance compared to Glide due to their deficiency in texture management at the time. Sweeney particularly criticized the quality of OpenGL drivers for consumer hardware, describing them as "extremely problematic, buggy, and untested", and labeled the code in the implementation as "scary" as opposed to the simpler and cleaner support for Direct3D. With regard to audio, Epic employed the Galaxy Sound System, a software created in assembly language that integrated both EAX and Aureal technologies, and allowed the use of tracker music, which gave level designers flexibility in how a game soundtrack was played at a specific point in maps. Steve Polge, the author of the Reaper Bots plugin for Quake, programmed the artificial intelligence system, based on knowledge he had gained at his previous employer IBM designing router protocols.
According to Sweeney, the hardest part of the engine to program was the renderer, as he had to rewrite its core algorithm several times during development, though he found less "glamorous" the infrastructure connecting all the subsystems. Despite requiring a significant personal effort, he said the engine was his favorite project at Epic, adding: "Writing the first Unreal Engine was a 3.5-year, breadth-first tour of hundreds of unique topics in software and was incredibly enlightening." Among its features were collision detection, colored lighting, and a limited form of texture filtering. It also integrated a level editor, UnrealEd, that had support for real-time constructive solid geometry operations as early as 1996, allowing mappers to change the level layout on the fly. Even though Unreal was designed to compete with id Software (developer of Doom and Quake), co-founder John Carmack complimented the game for the use of 16-bit color and remarked its implementation of visual effects such as volumetric fog. "I doubt any important game will be designed with 8-bit color in mind from now on. Unreal has done an important thing in pushing toward direct color, and this gives the artists a lot more freedom," he said in an article written by Geoff Keighley for GameSpot. "Light blooms [the spheres of light], fog volumes, and composite skies were steps I was planning on taking, but Epic got there first with Unreal," he said, adding: "The Unreal engine has raised the bar on what action gamers expect from future products. The visual effects first seen in the game will become expected from future games."
Unreal was noted for its graphical innovations, but Sweeney acknowledged in a 1999 interview with Eurogamer that many aspects of the game were unpolished, citing complaints from gamers about its high system requirements and online gameplay issues. Epic addressed these points during the development of Unreal Tournament by incorporating several enhancements in the engine intended to optimize performance on low-end machines and improve the networking code, while also refining the artificial intelligence for bots to display coordination in team-based gamemodes such as Capture the Flag. Originally planned as an expansion pack for Unreal, the game also came with increased image quality with the support for the S3TC compression algorithm, allowing for 24-bit high resolution textures without compromising performance. In addition to being available on Windows, Linux, Mac and Unix, the engine was ported through Unreal Tournament to the PlayStation 2 and, with the help of Secret Level, to the Dreamcast.
By late 1999, The New York Times indicated that there had been sixteen external projects using Epic's technology, including Deus Ex, The Wheel of Time, and Duke Nukem Forever, the latter of which was originally based on the Quake II engine. Unlike id Software, whose engine business only offered the source code, Epic provided support for licensees and would get together with their leads to discuss improvements to its game development system, internally dubbed the Unreal Tech Advisory Group. While it cost around $3 million to produce and licenses for up to $350,000, Epic gave players the ability to modify its games with the incorporation of UnrealEd and a scripting language called UnrealScript, sparking a community of enthusiasts around a game engine built to be extensible over multiple generations of games.
Unreal Engine 2
In October 1998, IGN reported, based on an interview with affiliate Voodoo Extreme, that Sweeney was doing research for his next-generation engine. With development starting a year later, the second version made its debut in 2002 with America's Army, a free multiplayer shooter developed by the U.S. Army as a recruitment device. Soon after, Epic would release Unreal Championship on the Xbox, one of the first games to utilize Microsoft's Xbox Live.
Though based on its predecessor, this generation saw a notable advance in rendering terms as well as new improvements to the tool set. Capable of running levels nearly 100 times more detailed than those found in Unreal, the engine integrated a variety of features, including a cinematic editing tool, particle systems, export plug-ins for 3D Studio Max and Maya, and a skeletal animation system first showcased in the PlayStation 2 version of Unreal Tournament. In addition, the user interface for UnrealEd was rewritten in C++ using the wxWidgets toolkit, which Sweeney said was the "best thing available" at the time.
Epic used the Karma physics engine, a third-party software from UK-based studio Math Engine, to drive the physical simulations such as ragdoll player collisions and arbitrary rigid body dynamics. With Unreal Tournament 2004, vehicle-based gameplay was successfully implemented, enabling large-scale combat. While Unreal Tournament 2003 had support for vehicle physics through the Karma engine, as demonstrated by a testmap with a "hastily-constructed vehicle", it was not until Psyonix created a modification out of Epic's base code that the game received fully coded vehicles. Impressed by their efforts, Epic decided to include it in its successor as an official game mode under the name Onslaught by hiring Psyonix as a contractor. Psyonix would later develop Rocket League before being acquired by Epic in 2019.
A specialized version of UE2 called UE2X was designed for Unreal Championship 2: The Liandri Conflict on the original Xbox platform, featuring optimizations specific to that console. In March 2011, Ubisoft Montreal revealed that UE2 was successfully running on the Nintendo 3DS via Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell 3D. "The 3DS is powerful, and we are able to run the Unreal Engine on this console, which is pretty impressive for a handheld machine, and the 3D doesn't affect the performance (thanks to my amazing programmers)," said Ubisoft.
Unreal Engine 3
Screenshots of Unreal Engine 3 were presented by July 2004, at which point the engine had already been in development for over 18 months. The engine was based on the first-generation but contained new features. "The basic architectural decisions visible to programmers of an object-oriented design, a data-driven scripting approach, and a fairly modular approach to subsystems still remain [from Unreal Engine 1]. But the parts of the game that are really visible to gamers – the renderer, the physics system, the sound system, and the tools – are all visibly new and dramatically more powerful," said Sweeney. Unlike Unreal Engine 2, which still supported a fixed-function pipeline, Unreal Engine 3 was designed to take advantage of fully programmable shader hardware. All lighting and shadowing calculations were done per pixel, instead of per vertex. On the rendering side, Unreal Engine 3 provided support for a gamma-correct high-dynamic range renderer. The first games released using Unreal Engine 3 were Gears of War for Xbox 360, and RoboBlitz for Windows, which were both released on November 7, 2006.
Initially, Unreal Engine 3 only supported Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 platforms, while iOS (first demonstrated with Epic Citadel) and Android were added later in 2010, with Infinity Blade being the first iOS title and Dungeon Defenders the first Android title. In 2011, it was announced that the engine would support Adobe Flash Player 11 through the Stage 3D hardware-accelerated APIs and that it was being used in two Wii U games, Batman: Arkham City and Aliens: Colonial Marines. In 2013, Epic teamed-up with Mozilla to bring Unreal Engine 3 to the web; using the asm.js sublanguage and Emscripten compiler, they were able to port the engine in four days.
Throughout the lifetime of UE3, significant updates were incorporated, including improved destructible environments, soft body dynamics, large crowd simulation, iOS functionality, Steamworks integration, a real-time global illumination solution, and stereoscopic 3D on Xbox 360 via TriOviz for Games Technology. DirectX 11 support was demonstrated with the Samaritan demo, which was unveiled at the 2011 Game Developers Conference and built by Epic Games in a close partnership with Nvidia, with engineers working around the country to push real-time graphics to a new high point.
Unreal Development Kit
While Unreal Engine 3 was quite open for modders to work with, the ability to publish and sell games meant using UE3 was restricted to licenses of the engine. However, in November 2009, Epic released a free version of UE3's SDK, called the Unreal Development Kit (UDK), to the general public.
In December 2010, the Unreal Development Kit was updated to include support for creating iOS games and apps, followed by OS X compatibility in the September 2011 release. By 2013, it reported more than 2 million unique installations.
Unreal Engine 4
In August 2005, Mark Rein, the vice-president of Epic Games, revealed that Unreal Engine 4 had been in development for two years. "People don't realise this but we're already two years into development of Unreal Engine 4. It certainly doesn't have a full team yet, it's just one guy and you can probably guess who that guy is," he told C&VG. Speaking in an interview in early 2008, Sweeney stated that he was basically the only person working on the engine, though he affirmed his research and development department would start to expand later that year, developing the engine in parallel with Unreal Engine 3. "In some way, we resemble a hardware company with our generational development of technology. We are going to have a team developing Unreal Engine 3 for years to come and a team ramping up on Unreal Engine 4. And then, as the next-gen transition begins, we will be moving everybody to that. We actually are doing parallel development for multiple generations concurrently," he said.
In February 2012, Rein stated "people are going to be shocked later this year when they see Unreal Engine 4"; Epic unveiled UE4 to limited attendees at the 2012 Game Developers Conference, and a video of the engine being demonstrated by technical artist Alan Willard was released to the public on June 7, 2012, via GameTrailers TV. One of the major features planned for UE4 was real-time global illumination using voxel cone tracing, eliminating pre-computed lighting. However, this feature, called Sparse Voxel Octree Global Illumination (SVOGI) and showcased with the Elemental demo, was replaced with a similar but less computationally expensive algorithm due to performance concerns. UE4 also includes the new "Blueprints" visual scripting system (a successor to UE3's "Kismet"), which allows for rapid development of game logic without using code, resulting in less of a divide between technical artists, designers, and programmers.
On March 19, 2014, at the Game Developers Conference (GDC), Epic Games released Unreal Engine 4 through a new licensing model. For a monthly subscription at , developers were given access to the full version of the engine, including the C++ source code, which could be downloaded via GitHub. Any released product was charged with a 5% royalty of gross revenues. The first game released using Unreal Engine 4 was Daylight, developed with early access to the engine and released on April 29, 2014.
On September 4, 2014, Epic released Unreal Engine 4 to schools and universities for free, including personal copies for students enrolled in accredited video game development, computer science, art, architecture, simulation, and visualization programs. Epic opened an Unreal Engine Marketplace for acquiring game assets. On February 19, 2015, Epic launched Unreal Dev Grants, a $5 million development fund aiming to provide grants to creative projects using Unreal Engine 4.
In March 2015, Epic released Unreal Engine 4, along with all future updates, for free for all users. In exchange, Epic established a selective royalty schedule, asking for 5% of revenue for products that make more than $3,000 per quarter. Sweeney stated that when they moved to the subscription model in 2014, use of Unreal grew by 10 times and through many smaller developers, and believed that they would draw even more uses through this new pricing scheme.
In an attempt to attract Unreal Engine developers, Oculus VR announced in October 2016 that it will pay royalty fees for all Unreal-powered Oculus Rift titles published on their store for up to the first $5 million of gross revenue per game.
To prepare for the release of its free-to-play battle royale mode in Fortnite in September 2017, Epic had to make a number of Unreal Engine modifications that helped it to handle a large number (up to 100) of connections to the same server while still retaining high bandwidth and to improve the rendering of a large open in-game world. Epic said it would incorporate these changes into future updates of the Unreal Engine.
With the opening of the Epic Games Store in December 2018, Epic will not charge the 5% revenue fee on games that use the Unreal Engine and are released through the Epic Games Stores, absorbing that cost as part of the base 12% cut Epic is taking to cover other costs.
Effective May 13, 2020, and retroactive to January 1, 2020, the royalty exemption amount is increased to US$1,000,000 in lifetime gross revenue per title.
Unreal Engine 4 officially supports the following platforms as of 4.27 (August 2021): Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, Android, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S, Stadia, Magic Leap, HTC Vive, Oculus, PlayStation VR, OSVR, Samsung Gear VR, and HoloLens 2. It formerly supported Google Daydream and HTML5.
Unreal Engine 5
Unreal Engine 5 was revealed on May 13, 2020, supporting all existing systems including the next-generation consoles PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S. Work on the engine started about two years prior to its announcement. It was released in early access on May 26, 2021, and formally launched for developers on April 5, 2022.
One of its major features is Nanite, an engine that allows for high-detailed photographic source material to be imported into games. The Nanite virtualized geometry technology allows Epic to take advantage of its past acquisition of Quixel, the world's largest photogrammetry library as of 2019. The goal of Unreal Engine 5 was to make it as easy as possible for developers to create detailed game worlds without having to spend excessive time on creating new detailed assets. Nanite can import nearly any other pre-existing three-dimension representation of objects and environments, including ZBrush and CAD models, enabling the use of film-quality assets. Nanite automatically handles the levels of detail (LODs) of these imported objects appropriate to the target platform and draw distance, a task that an artist would have had to perform otherwise.
Lumen is another component described as a "fully dynamic global illumination solution that immediately reacts to scene and light changes". Lumen eliminates the need for artists and developers to craft a lightmap for a given scene, but instead calculates light reflections and shadows on the fly, thus allowing for real-time behavior of light sources.
Virtual Shadow Maps is another component added in Unreal Engine 5 described as "a new shadow mapping method used to deliver consistent, high-resolution shadowing that works with film-quality assets and large, dynamically lit open worlds". Virtual Shadow Maps differs from the common shadow map implementation in its extremely high resolution, more detailed shadows, and the lack of shadows popping in and out which can be found in the more common shadow maps technique due to shadow cascades.
Additional components include Niagara for fluid and particle dynamics and Chaos for a physics engine.
With potentially tens of billions of polygons present on a single screen at 4K resolution, Epic also developed the Unreal Engine 5 to take advantage of the upcoming high-speed storage solutions with the next-generation console hardware that will use a mix of RAM and custom solid-state drives. Epic had worked closely with Sony in optimizing Unreal Engine 5 for the PlayStation 5, with Epic collaborating with Sony on the console's storage architecture. To demonstrate the ease of creating a detailed world with minimal effort, the May 2020 reveal of the engine showcased a demo called "Lumen in the Land of Nanite" running on a PlayStation 5 that was built mostly by pulling assets from the Quixel library and using the Nanite, Lumen, and other Unreal Engine 5 components to create a photorealistic cave setting that could be explored. Epic affirmed that Unreal Engine 5 would be fully supported on the Xbox Series X as well, but had been focused on the PlayStation 5 during the announcement as a result of their work with Sony in the years prior.
Epic plans to use Fortnite as a testbed for Unreal Engine 5 to showcase what the engine can do to the industry, with the game brought to use Unreal Engine 5 in December 2021. Fortnite'''s Battle Royale mode received visual improvements via Unreal Engine 5.1 with the launch of Chapter 4 on December 4, 2022. The Matrix Awakens, a tie-in experience ahead of the release of The Matrix Resurrections, was developed by Epic to be a further demonstration of Unreal Engine 5 along with other technology that they had acquired over 2020 and 2021, including their MetaHuman Creator developed and integrated into Unreal Engine 5 with technology from 3Lateral, Cubic Motion, and Quixel.
Additional features planned for Unreal Engine 5 come from Epic's acquisitions and partnerships. The MetaHuman Creator is a project based on technology from three companies acquired by Epic—3Lateral, Cubic Motion, and Quixel—to allow developers to quickly create realistic human characters that can then be exported for use within Unreal. Through partnership with Cesium, Epic plans to offer a free plugin to provide 3D geospatial data for Unreal users, allowing them to recreate any part of the mapped surface of Earth. Epic will include RealityCapture, a product it acquired with its acquisition of Capturing Reality that can generate 3D models of any object from a collection of photographs taken of it from multiple angles, and the various middleware tools offered by Epic Game Tools.
Unreal Engine 5 retains the current royalty model, with developers returning 5% of gross revenues to Epic Games, though this fee is waived for those that release their games on the Epic Games Store. Further, Epic announced alongside Unreal Engine 5 that they will not take any fee from games using any version of Unreal Engine for the first in gross revenue, retroactive to January 1, 2020. Epic said in October 2023 that it would be changing the licensing approach for uses of Unreal in non-gaming applications such as in film and television production to a per-seat license.
Scripting
UnrealScript
UnrealScript (often abbreviated to UScript) was Unreal Engine's native scripting language used for authoring game code and gameplay events before the release of Unreal Engine 4. The language was designed for simple, high-level game programming. UnrealScript was programmed by Tim Sweeney, who also created an earlier game scripting language, ZZT-OOP. Deus Ex lead programmer Chris Norden described it as "super flexible" but noted its low execution speed.
Similar to Java, UnrealScript was object-oriented without multiple inheritance (classes all inherit from a common Object class), and classes were defined in individual files named for the class they define. Unlike Java, UnrealScript did not have object wrappers for primitive types. Interfaces were only supported in Unreal Engine generation 3 and a few Unreal Engine 2 games. UnrealScript supported operator overloading, but not method overloading, except for optional parameters.
At the 2012 Game Developers Conference, Epic announced that UnrealScript was being removed from Unreal Engine 4 in favor of C++. Visual scripting would be supported by the Blueprints Visual Scripting system, a replacement for the earlier Kismet visual scripting system.
Verse
Verse is the new scripting language for Unreal Engine, first implemented in Fortnite. Simon Peyton Jones, known for his contributions to the Haskell programming language, joined Epic Games in December 2021 as Engineering Fellow to work on Verse with his long-time colleague Lennart Augustsson and others. Conceived by Sweeney, it was officially presented at Haskell eXchange in December 2022 as an open source functional-logic language for the metaverse. A research paper, titled The Verse Calculus: a Core Calculus for Functional Logic Programming, was also published.
The language was eventually launched in March 2023 as part of the release of the Unreal Editor for Fortnite (UEFN) at the Game Developers Conference, with plans to be available to all Unreal Engine users by 2025.
Marketplace
With Unreal Engine 4, Epic opened the Unreal Engine Marketplace in September 2014. The Marketplace is a digital storefront that allows content creators and developers to provide art assets, models, sounds, environments, code snippets, and other features that others could purchase, along with tutorials and other guides. Some content is provided for free by Epic, including previously offered Unreal assets and tutorials. Prior to July 2018, Epic took a 30% share of the sales but due to the success of Unreal and Fortnite Battle Royale, Epic retroactively reduced its take to 12%.
Usage
Video games
Unreal Engine was originally designed to be used as the underlying technology for video games. The engine is used in a number of high-profile game titles with high graphics capabilities, including PUBG: Battlegrounds, Final Fantasy VII Remake, Valorant and Yoshi's Crafted World, in addition to games developed by Epic, including Gears of War and Fortnite. CD Projekt is also set to use the engine after retiring REDengine, their in-house engine, with the first game from the Polish firm to use the engine being a remake of The Witcher.
Film and television
Unreal Engine has found use in film making to create virtual sets that can track with a camera's motion around actors and objects and be rendered in real time to large LED screens and atmospheric lighting systems. This allows for real-time composition of shots, immediate editing of the virtual sets as needed, and the ability to shoot multiple scenes within a short period by just changing the virtual world behind the actors. The overall appearance was recognized to appear more natural than typical chromakey effects.
Among the productions to use these technologies were the live action television series The Mandalorian and Westworld and the animated series Zafari and Super Giant Robot Brothers. Jon Favreau and Lucasfilm's Industrial Light & Magic division worked with Epic in developing their StageCraft technology for The Mandalorian, based on a similar approach Favreau had used in The Lion King. Favreau then shared this technology approach with Jonathan Nolan and Lisa Joy, the producers for Westworld. The show had already looked at the use of virtual sets before and had some technology established, but integrated the use of Unreal Engine as with StageCraft for its third season.
Orca Studios, a Spanish-based company, has been working with Epic to establish multiple studios for virtual filming similar to the StageCraft approach with Unreal Engine providing the virtual sets, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, which restricted travel.
In January 2021, Deadline Hollywood announced that Epic was using part of its Epic MegaGrants to back for the first time an animated feature film, Gilgamesh, to be produced fully in Unreal Engine by animation studios Hook Up, DuermeVela and FilmSharks. As part of an extension of its MegaGrants, Epic also funded 45 additional projects since around 2020 for making movies and short films in the Unreal Engine. By October 2022, Epic was working with several different groups at over 300 virtual sets across the world.
Other uses
Unreal Engine has also been used by non-creative fields due to its availability and feature sets. It has been used as a basis for a virtual reality tool to explore pharmaceutical drug molecules in collaboration with other researchers, as a virtual environment to explore and design new buildings and automobiles, and used for cable news networks to support real-time graphics.
In March 2012, Epic Games announced a partnership with Virtual Heroes of Applied Research Associates to launch Unreal Government Network, a program that handles Unreal Engine licenses for government agencies. Several projects originated with this support agreement, including an anaesthesiology training software for U.S. Army physicians, a multiplayer crime scene simulation developed by the FBI Academy, and various applications for the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity with the aim to help intelligence analysts recognize and mitigate cognitive biases that might affect their work. Similarly, the DHS Science and Technology Directorate and the U.S. Army's Training and Doctrine Command and Research Laboratory employed the engine to develop a platform to train first responders titled Enhanced Dynamic Geo-Social Environment (EDGE).
Awards
The engine has received numerous awards:
Technology & Engineering Emmy Award from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS) for "3D Engine Software for the Production of Animation" in 2018
Primetime Engineering Emmy Award from the Television Academy for exceptional developments in broadcast technology in 2020
Annie Award from ASIFA-Hollywood for technical advancement in animation in 2021
Game Developer Magazine Front Line Award for Best Game Engine for 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012
Develop Industry Excellence Award for Best Engine for 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016, 2017, and 2018
Guinness World Record for most successful video game engine
Legal aspects
The state of the Unreal Engine came up in Epic's 2020 legal action against Apple Inc. claiming anticompetitive behavior in Apple's iOS App Store. Epic had uploaded a version of Fortnite that violated Apple's App Store allowances. Apple, in response, removed the Fortnite'' app and later threatened to terminate Epic's developer accounts which would have prevented Epic from updating the Unreal Engine for iOS and macOS. The court agreed to grant Epic a permanent injunction against Apple to prevent Apple from taking this step, since the court agreed that would impact numerous third-party developers that rely on the Unreal Engine.
See also
Procedural generation
Make Something Unreal
Epic Citadel
The Matrix Awakens
On-set virtual production
References
Further reading
External links
1998 software
3D graphics software
Articles containing video clips
Epic Games
Game engines for Linux
Game engines that support Mantle (API)
Game engines that support Vulkan (API)
IOS video game engines
Unreal S
Unreal (video game series)
Video game engines
Video game IDE
Virtual reality
|
417157
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda%20Fit
|
Honda Fit
|
The Honda Fit (Japanese: ホンダ・フィット, Hepburn: Honda Fitto) or Honda Jazz is a small car manufactured and marketed by Honda since 2001 over four generations. It has a five-door hatchback body style and is considered a supermini in the United Kingdom, a subcompact car in the United States, and a light car in Australia. Marketed worldwide and manufactured at ten plants in eight countries, sales reached almost 5 million by mid-2013. Honda uses the "Jazz" nameplate in Europe, Oceania, the Middle East, Africa, Hong Kong, Macau, Southeast Asia and India; and "Fit" in Japan, Sri Lanka, China, Taiwan and the Americas.
Sharing Honda's global small car platform with the City, Airwave, first-generation Mobilio, Freed and HR-V/Vezel, the Fit is noted for its one-box or monospace design; forward-located fuel tank; configurable seats that fold in several ways to accommodate cargo in varying shapes and sizes— and cargo volume competitive to larger vehicles.
Honda released hybrid petrol-electric versions of the Fit in Japan in October 2010 and in Europe in early 2011. In 2012, Honda released the Fit EV, a limited-production all-electric version based on the second-generation model in the United States and Japan, and was widely regarded as a compliance car.
The fourth-generation model released in 2019 is currently sold in Japan, Europe, China, Taiwan, South Africa, Brunei and Singapore. Starting from 2020, the model was phased out in most Southeast Asian and Latin American countries to be replaced by the larger City Hatchback, while it was withdrawn entirely from the North American market due to falling demand within the subcompact segment.
First generation (GD/GE; 2001)
The first-generation Fit debuted in June 2001 in Japan and subsequently was introduced in Europe (early 2002), Australia (late 2002), South America (early 2003), South Africa and Southeast Asia (2003), China (September 2004), and Mexico (late 2005). Confusingly, in Europe this Jazz is typically referred to as Mark II Jazz, especially by automotive part suppliers, the Mark I Jazz being the 1981-86 Honda City, named 'Jazz' in Europe at the time, as Opel already had rights to use the City name after having used it on a hatchback version of the Kadett C.
A production model for the United States and Canada debuted in January 2006 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit. The car was released in Canada and the U.S. in April 2006 as a 2007 model year.
The first-generation Fit uses Honda's Global Small Car platform, which is also used by Fit Aria/City (a sedan version of the Fit), the Airwave (a station wagon version of Fit Aria/City), the Mobilio, and Mobilio Spike. Depending on the region, the Fit is available with a 1.2-, 1.3- (in Europe referred as 1.4 L model), 1.5-liter i-DSI engine, or 1.5-liter VTEC engine. All four engines are based on Honda's L-series engine family.
Second generation (GE/GG; 2007)
The second-generation Fit/Jazz debuted on 17 October 2007 at the 40th Tokyo Motor Show. At its introduction in 2007, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award for the second time. The vehicle offered a longer wheelbase than its predecessor and is wider and longer overall.
Two engines were offered in the second-generation Fit. A 1.3-litre i-VTEC produces at 6,000 rpm and at 4,800 rpm. A 1.5-litre i-VTEC engine was also offered and produces a maximum output of at 6,600 rpm and at 4,800 rpm. The hybrid version was launched October 2010 in Japan. The Fit Hybrid featured a 1.3-litre engine and electric motor, with an estimated fuel economy of measured in accordance with Japanese 10–15 cycle.
Honda also showed a concept electric vehicle based on the second generation Fit in 2010. It was mass-produced as the Fit EV in 2013–2015. The 2013 model year production Fit EV was unveiled at the November 2011 Los Angeles Auto Show.
For the first time, it was also available in a station wagon body style called the Fit Shuttle. The variant was only available in Japan's domestic market.
Third generation (GK/GH/GP; 2013)
The third-generation Fit/Jazz retains the overall design concept of previous generations, notably the center-located fuel tank and multi-configuration interior concept, marketed as "Magic Seat". The model also debuted Honda's updated design language dubbed "Exciting H Design".
Honda's all-new Global Small Car Platform employs ultra-high strength 780 MPa yield steel for 27 percent of the bodywork and has a shorter overall length by , a longer wheelbase, increased rear legroom by and passenger volume increased by compared to the previous generation.
Body panels are both welded and bolted to the frame in a hybrid monocoque and spaceframe fusion — and rear torsion beam suspension is more compact, no longer using an anti-sway bar to maximize interior and cargo space. The second-generation HR-V shares its platform with the third-generation Fit/Jazz.
Hybrid
The Fit/Jazz Hybrid was only marketed in Japan and Malaysia for the third-generation model. It is the first model to be equipped with the "Sport Hybrid" Intelligent Dual Clutch Drive (i-DCD) system, Honda's lightweight and compact one-motor hybrid technology for small vehicles that replaces the previous Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid system.
The system uses an Earth Dreams 1.5-liter Atkinson cycle DOHC i-VTEC direct injection engine rated at and paired with a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission and an internal high-output motor, IPU (Intelligent Power Unit) with lithium-ion battery, electric servo braking system with variable servo ratio control. The electric motor, a Honda H1 motor is rated at and . The system are shared with the first-generation Vezel and Grace Hybrid.
Compared to the outgoing IMA hybrid, the new hybrid can now run fully on electric while driving, making it on par with Toyota Prius. Japanese cycle fuel consumption is rated for the initial model, a 35 percent improvement over the predecessor model, while its cargo capacity is 470 liters.
Markets
Japan
Japanese models went on sale in September 2013. Models available in Japan range from the 13G, 15X, RS and hybrid.
Non-hybrid models include the 13G (Earth Dreams 1.3-liter Atkinson cycle DOHC i-VTEC engine and CVT transmission), 15X (Earth Dreams 1.5-liter direct injection DOHC i-VTEC engine), RS (Earth Dreams 1.5-liter direct injection DOHC i-VTEC engine).
North America
The U.S. model debuted at the 2014 North American International Auto Show and went on sale in June as a 2015 model year vehicle. The third-generation model replaces the previous SOHC engine with an all-new 1.5-liter DOHC i-VTEC engine featuring direct injection and an intake cam using continuously variable cam phasing with a variable lift dual cam lobe profile. Transmission options include a 6-speed manual or continuously variable transmission (CVT) with available paddle shifters adopted from the Civic.
Unlike the previous generation, whose only two trims were Fit and Fit Sport, there are now four trims: LX, EX, EX-L, and EX-L with Navigation. The facelift in 2018 also adds the Sport trim. For the first time, leather seating is introduced to the North American Fit through the EX-L trim. All Fit trim levels include a multi-angle rear-view backup camera; higher trims include dynamic guidelines. Honda's LaneWatch passenger side-view mirror camera is also optional.
A commemorative edition to celebrate the end of the Honda Fit for the Mexican market named "Final Edition" was launched on 1 December 2020. It is painted in the Azul Sport (Sport Blue) colour, equipped with side wings, a rear spoiler, and a commemorative plaque.
Malaysia
The Malaysian-market third-generation Jazz is available in S, E, and V trims. Regardless of trim level, all variants get a non-direct-injected 1.5-liter L15Z SOHC i-VTEC engine an Earth Dreams CVT.
Honda launched the facelifted Jazz and its Hybrid version in June 2017. Malaysia is the only country other than Japan to sell the Jazz Sport Hybrid. Honda gives 8-year unlimited mileage warranty on the battery.
Production in Malaysia ceased in October 2021. Like in most Southeast Asian countries, the new City Hatchback served as the Jazz replacement for Malaysian market.
Indonesia
The third-generation Jazz was launched by Honda Prospect Motor on June 26, 2014. It is equipped with the non-direct-injected 1.5-liter L15ZC engine and offered in three trims: the A, S, and RS, with either manual or CVT transmission, and a special edition called Black Top Limited Edition which was launched at the 22nd Indonesia International Motor Show in September 2014.
India
The third-generation Jazz was released in India on July 8, 2015. The Indian market third-generation Jazz is powered with a 1.2-liter L12B i-VTEC motor rated at , and a 1.5-liter N15 i-DTEC diesel engine rated at . In 2015, the Indian Jazz contains 95% local parts. The updated model was released in August 2020. Production and sales of the Jazz in India ended in late 2022.
Philippines
In the Philippines, the third-generation Honda Jazz was launched in 2014.
Facelift
The third-generation Fit/Jazz received a facelift, which was unveiled in Japan on May 12, 2017, and went on sale on June 29, 2017. It features new bumpers, a revised radio with carplay, and LED headlights with daytime running lights incorporated into the headlights. It was also revealed in Thailand on May 19, 2017, followed by Malaysia on June 6, 2017, and the Philippines on July 17, 2017. The U.S. model was revealed on June 12, 2017, for the 2018 model year. The facelifted third-generation Jazz RS was also launched in Indonesia on July 26, 2017.
Engines
Safety
North America
1 Vehicle structure rated "Acceptable"
2 Strength-to-weight ratio: 6.13
India
Latin America
ASEAN markets
Fourth generation (GR/GS; 2020)
The fourth-generation Fit/Jazz was unveiled simultaneously on 23 October 2019 in Japan at the 46th Tokyo Motor Show and Amsterdam, Netherlands at the 'Electric Vision' event.
This generation model has been developed with electrification in mind, with the model being marketed as a hybrid-only model in Europe, and the hybrid variant being positioned as a volume car in Japan. The hybrid powertrain is marketed as the e:HEV which utilizes Honda's new dual-motor i-MMD (Intelligent Multi-Mode Drive) hybrid system, replacing the previous Intelligent Dual Clutch Drive (i-DCD) setup.
The fourth-generation Fit retains the large windshield which offers optimal forward visibility, though it has a redesigned front pillar with a cross-sectional structure that differs from the previous generation. Honda stated that it improves impact absorption into the body in the event of a collision. Combined with the use of a flat dashboard and a visor-less instrument display, it provides the driver with a better view of their surroundings. The windscreen wipers have also been hidden below the top of the bonnet line.
The model is not being sold in the North American market due to the declining sales of its predecessor; the HR-V has seen its production being ramped up to compensate for the discontinuation of the Fit. The model is also not being sold in Australia where it had been known as the Jazz. The cost was deemed too high for import, and the small car market has shrunk due to the popularity of small SUVs. In most countries in South America and Southeast Asia, the Fit/Jazz is replaced by the City Hatchback.
Markets
Japan
The Fit was launched in Japan on 13 February 2020 and went on sale on the following day. Initial trim levels for the Japanese market Fit were Basic, Home, Ness, Crosstar and Luxe.
In Japan, the Fit is offered with both conventional 1.3-litre petrol engine and the 1.5-litre e:HEV system. The take rate of the Fit e:HEV in Japan is targeted to reach 65 percent, up from the previous generation's 40 percent. In reality, the Fit e:HEV accounted for 72 percent of sales as per March 2020.
The Japanese market Fit received a facelift in August 2022, which reintroduced the RS trim (replacing Ness model). The facelifted model went on sale on 7 October 2022.
Europe
The Jazz went on sale in Europe in mid-2020 as a hybrid-only model, as Honda had begun phasing out conventional combustion engines in the region. The Crosstar model is also offered as a range-topping model. For the market, Honda stated the Jazz is capable of achieving on the WLTP combined cycle while emitting 102 g/km of CO2 in its standard form.
China
The Chinese-market Fit is produced and sold by GAC Honda, and launched on 10 June 2020. It is available with two sub-models which are Sport and Crosstar. The Fit Sport featured sportier-looking front and rear bumpers compared to the Japanese or European model. Its twin model for the Chinese market is produced and sold by Dongfeng Honda under the name Honda Life. Both are fitted with a more pronounced rear bumpers compared to the Japanese-produced model, increasing its length to .
The minor differences between the two are the front bumper designs and rear taillight tint colour (the Life has a clear smoked tint).
Both the Chinese-market Fit and Life is powered by a 1.5-liter i-VTEC engine to a CVT transmission. There is no hybrid option offered in China.
Others
The fourth-generation Fit was launched in Singapore in January 2021, Hong Kong in March 2021 and Brunei in August 2021 as the Jazz. It was also introduced in South Africa in June 2021 as the Fit, replacing the previous Jazz nameplate. The vehicle is also sold in some other countries such as New Zealand and Taiwan.
Powertrain
The fourth-generation Fit is offered with a new hybrid powertrain option marketed as the e:HEV, the system uses Honda's dual-motor i-MMD (Intelligent Multi-Mode Drive) hybrid system. The system combines a 1.5-litre DOHC i-VTEC four-cylinder petrol engine that on its own makes from 5,600 to 6,400 rpm and from 4,500 to 5,000 rpm with two electric motors, with one of them acting as a generator to recharge the lithium-ion battery while the other is an electric propulsion motor capable of spinning at 13,300 rpm to handle low-speed acceleration. The engine sends power to the front wheels through a single fixed-gear ratio and a lock-up clutch, which is claimed to provide a smoother transfer of torque during acceleration. The setup is claimed to be more compact and refined compared to a planetary eCVT typically found in other hybrid vehicles. The system is rated at and of torque.
The conventional petrol engine for the Japanese market is 1.3-litre naturally-aspirated i-VTEC four-cylinder, making 98 PS at 6,000 rpm and 118 Nm of torque at 5,000 rpm. It is mated to a CVT and a choice of either front or all-wheel drive.
Sales
Japanese sales of the first-generation Fit greatly exceeded the original monthly sales target of 8,000 units on debut. By December 2001, it had outsold the Toyota Corolla, and ranked first in sales for nine out of twelve months in 2002. With a total sales of 250,790 for the year of 2002, it became the best-selling vehicle in Japan, which is a first for a Honda model. By September 2003, a little more than two years after the car was first sold, Fit reached 500,000 sales in Japanese market.
After a minor model change that went on sale on June 11, 2004, Honda announced that, in about two weeks' period after its introduction, the company received orders from customers totaled around 13,000 units. By November 2007, in less than six months after minor model change, cumulative sales of Fit reached one million units in Japan.
The second generation has been the top selling car in Japan since its official launch in November 2007. By September 2010, cumulative sales in Japan reached 1.5 million units.
By December 2004, cumulative global sales of Fit/Jazz reached 1 million units. On July 17, 2007, Honda announced that as of the end of June more than 2 million Fit/Jazz units had been sold worldwide since its introduction. Japan accounts for the largest percentage of sales, with 962,000 units sold in the home market. Europe is next with 417,000 units. The United States accounts for 77,000 cars since introduction in 2006. Honda expected to sell 33,000 vehicles in the U.S. for the 2007 model year, but exceeded these expectations, and sold 40,000. Honda plans to put 70,000 Fit units on American roads for the 2008 model year.
In the first half of 2008, Honda and other manufacturers were surprised by the rapid shift towards smaller cars in the United States. Sales of the Fit during the first five months of the year jumped 64% compared with that of 2007. Production of 2009 Fit for the U.S. market was to increase from 60,000 to 80,000 cars. Further increase in supply for the U.S. market is limited by Honda's production capacity of 500,000 a year for all markets.
Honda announced that by the end of July 2009, worldwide sales of Fit/Jazz reached 3 million. One year later, global cumulative sales reached 3.5 million units in July 2010.
Marketing
Honda may have planned to use the name Fitta, and it was planned to be released in Japan under that name in 2001. Because Fitta in Scandinavian languages is slang for vagina, Honda instead used Jazz in most markets and Fit in the Americas.
In April 2006, Honda Australia promoted Honda Jazz with Village Green, an animated television commercial, in 30 second and 60 second versions, inspired by Thomas the Tank Engine. In the same month, American Honda launched the Fit with six five-second and two 30-second TV ads, with the slogan 'The Fit Is Go'.
Subsequent ad campaigns included "Mecha-Mosquitoes," (broke 9/21) "Defense Mechanism" (breaks 10/2) and "Bats" (breaks 9/28), produced by Digital Domain. As part of the campaign, the vehicle also appeared in Gossip Girl, 90210, America's Next Top Model, Smallville and Everybody Hates Chris. Print ads "Gas Hogs" and "Cavernous" were featured in popular magazines. A dedicated marketing site was built to communicate top product features through games and interactive experiences. The campaign continued the slogan 'The Fit Is Go'.
Awards and recognition
Japan Car of the Year for years 2001–02 and 2007–08
Japan Car of the Year 30th Anniversary Special Award "Best 3rd Decade Car": 1st generation Fit/Jazz
RJC Car of the Year Award 2002
Car and Driver'''s Best Small Car in its 2007–13 10 Best lists.
Top Gear Survey 2006: Best Small Car
Top Gear Survey 2006: Second Best of all cars in the survey (After the Honda S2000)
IGN Best of 2006 Awards: Killer B-segment Award
Greenercars.org's One of the Greenest Vehicles of 2007 and 2008
MotorWeek Drivers' Choice Awards 2007—Best Small Car
MotorWeek Drivers' Choice Awards 2007—Best of the Year
MotorWeek Drivers' Choice Awards 2009—Best Small Car
Best Economy Car for 2008, U.S. News & World Report Top 10 Urban Vehicles for 2008 - Cars.com
2009 Car of the Year Finalist, Motor Trend2010 Best Overall Value by Consumer Reports
2010 Best Hatchback for the Money, U.S. News & World Report
2011 Best Overall Value by Consumer Reports
2012 Best Overall Value'' by Consumer Reports
2012 Best Cars for Families Awards - No. 1 in Affordable Small Cars
Racing
Honda Fit was one of the cars listed as eligible for the SCCA World Challenge's touring car B-spec class for the 2012 season onward.
Fit engines are also used in another SCCA class, the F1600 Championship Series.
See also
Honda City - the original 'Tall Boy' Honda Jazz sold in 1980s Europe
Honda EV Plus
Honda L-series engine
References
External links
Fit / Jazz at Honda Worldwide
Honda Fit official website(US)
Honda Electric Vehicles
Honda Fit Hybrid video at Honda World site
Honda recalls since 1977
Fit
Cars introduced in 2001
2010s cars
2020s cars
Subcompact cars
Hybrid electric cars
Production electric cars
Hatchbacks
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
ASEAN NCAP superminis
Euro NCAP superminis
Global NCAP superminis
Latin NCAP superminis
Vehicles with CVT transmission
|
417160
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETOPS
|
ETOPS
|
ETOPS () is an acronym for Extended-range Twin-engine Operations Performance Standards—a special part of flight rules for one-engine-inoperative flight conditions. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) coined the acronym for twin-engine aircraft operation in airspace further than one hour from a diversion airport at the one-engine-inoperative cruise speed, over water or remote lands, or on routes previously restricted to three- and four-engine aircraft.
History
The first heavier-than-air, non-stop transatlantic flight was made in 1919, by John Alcock and Arthur Brown, in a twin-engine Vickers Vimy, from Newfoundland to Ireland in sixteen hours. By 1936 the Bureau of Air Commerce (the precursor to the FAA) restricted operations to within of an airport, regardless of the engine number, about 60 minutes with one engine inoperative. In 1953 the FAA "60-minute rule" restricted twin-engine aircraft to a 60-minute diversion area, based on the piston engine reliability of the time, with flexibility beyond with special approval. In the 1950s the ICAO recommended a 90-minute diversion time for all aircraft, adopted by many regulatory authorities and airlines outside the US.
During the 1950s, Pan Am twin-piston Convair 240s flew across the Caribbean from Barranquilla, Colombia to Kingston, Jamaica, Avensa Convair 340s flew from Maracaibo, Venezuela to Montego Bay, Jamaica, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines Douglas DC-3s flew Curacao to Ciudad Trujillo (now Santo Domingo) while KLM Royal Dutch Convairs flew Aruba to Kingston with Delta Air Lines operating Convair 340 flights nonstop between New Orleans and Havana as well as nonstop between Havana and Montego Bay and also on a routing of Havana – Port au Prince – Ciudad Trujillo – San Juan, Puerto Rico. In 1948–52 New Zealand National scheduled a DC-3 to fly from Apia (Western Samoa) to Aitutaki, a -hour flight covering 685 airportless nautical miles between Tafuna (Pago Pago) and Aitutaki. In 1963 Polynesian Airlines started flying a Percival Prince Apia to Aitutaki; in 1964 the flight was a DC-3 from Faleolo (Upolu) to Aitutaki, a distance of . More recently, the January 1979 OAG showed a weekly Polynesian Airlines HS748 from Niue to Rarotonga, with no airport.
Later, ICAO issued Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPS) for ETOPS, and ETOPS were extended to four-engine aircraft like the Boeing 747-8 and the terminology updated to EDTO (Extended Diversion Time Operations).
Early jet airliners
Jet engines are much more reliable than piston engines. The first jet airliner to enter service was the four-engine de Havilland Comet in 1952.
Twinjets grew bigger and faster than four-engine piston aircraft, like those powered by the reliable Pratt & Whitney JT8D (e.g., the DC-9 and Boeing 737).
By the late 1960s, large civil airliners were jet-powered, relegating the piston engine to niche roles such as cargo flights. The JT8D was reliably powering the three-engine Boeing 727. The 60-minute rule was waived in 1964 for three-engine aircraft, which opened the way for the development of wide-body, intercontinental trijets such as the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar and DC-10. By then, only twin-engine jets were restricted by the 60-minute rule. Trijets and quadjets dominated international long-haul flights until the late 1980s.
Early ETOPS
Airbus A300 twinjets, the first twin-engine wide-body aircraft, had been flying across the North Atlantic, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean under a 90-minute ICAO rule since 1976.
Dick Taylor, then Boeing's director of engineering, approached FAA director J. Lynn Helms in 1980 about the possibility of an exemption: his response was "It'll be a cold day in hell before I let twins fly long haul, overwater routes."
The Boeing 767-200ER entered service in 1984.
In 1985, the FAA increased the ETOPS to 120 minutes at the single-engine cruise speed.
Trans World Airlines operated the first 120-minute ETOPS (ETOPS-120) service on February 1, 1985, with a Boeing 767-200 from Boston to Paris. The 767 burned less fuel per hour than a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar on the same route, prompting TWA to spend $2.6 million on each 767 they owned to retrofit them to ETOPS-120 specs.
It was followed by Singapore Airlines in June with an Airbus A310.
In April 1986, Pan Am inaugurated transatlantic revenue service using A310s, and Airbus ETOPS operators were more than 20 in less than five years.
ETOPS 180
In 1988, the FAA amended the ETOPS regulation to allow the extension to a 180-minute diversion period, subject to stringent technical and operational qualifications. ETOPS-180 and ETOPS-207 cover about 95% of the Earth. The first such flight was conducted in 1989. This set of regulations was subsequently adopted by the JAA, ICAO, and other regulatory bodies.
ETOPS 180 at introduction
The original 1985 regulations allowed an airliner to have ETOPS-120 rating on entry into service. ETOPS-180 was only possible after one year of trouble-free 120-minute ETOPS experience. In 1990 Boeing convinced the FAA that it could deliver an airliner with ETOPS-180 on its entry into service. This process was called Early ETOPS. The Boeing 777 was the first aircraft to be introduced with an ETOPS rating of 180 minutes.
In the 1990s, the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) demurred; on its entry into service in Europe, the Boeing 777 was rated ETOPS-120. European airlines operating the 777 had to demonstrate one year of trouble-free 120-minute ETOPS experience before obtaining 180-minute ETOPS for the 777.
Beyond ETOPS-180
Effective February 15, 2007, the FAA ruled that US-registered twin-engine airplane operators can fly more than 180-minute ETOPS to the design limit of the aircraft. In November 2009, the Airbus A330 became the first aircraft to receive ETOPS-240 approval, which has since been offered by Airbus as an option.
ETOPS-240 and beyond are now permitted on a case-by-case basis, with regulatory bodies in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand adopting said regulatory extension. Authority is only granted to operators of two-engine airplanes between specific city pairs. The certificate holder must have been operating at 180-minute or greater ETOPS authority for at least 24 consecutive months, of which at least 12 consecutive months must be at 240-minute ETOPS authority with the airplane-engine combination in the application.
On December 12, 2011, Boeing received type-design approval from the FAA for up to 330-minute extended operations for its Boeing 777 series, all equipped with GE engines, and with Rolls-Royce and Pratt & Whitney engines expected to follow. The first ETOPS-330 flight took place on December 1, 2015, with Air New Zealand connecting Auckland to Buenos Aires on a 777-200ER. On May 28, 2014, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner received its ETOPS-330 certificate from the FAA, enabling LAN Airlines to switch to the 787 from the A340 on their Santiago–Auckland–Sydney service a year later.
Until the rule change in North America and Oceania, several commercial airline routes were still economically off-limits to twinjets because of ETOPS regulations, unless the route was specifically conducted as indivertible. There were routes traversing the Southern hemisphere, e.g., South Pacific (e.g., Sydney–Santiago, one of the longest over-the-sea distances flown by a commercial airline), South Atlantic (e.g., Johannesburg–São Paulo), Southern Indian Ocean (e.g., Perth–Johannesburg), and Antarctica.
Before the introduction of the Airbus A350XWB in 2014, regulations in North America and Europe permitted up to 180-minute ETOPS at entry. The A350 XWB was first to receive an ETOPS-370 prior to entry into service by European authorities, enabling economical nonstop routes between Europe and Oceania (and thereby bypassing historical stopovers across Asia and North America) by the late 2010s and early 2020s. This includes the high-demand London–Sydney route, in the latest development for ultra long-haul flights. The A350 XWB's current ETOPS certification covers 99.7% of the Earth's entire surface, allowing point-to-point travel anywhere in the world except directly over the South Pole.
Meanwhile, the first time that ETOPS-330 approval was given to a four-engine aircraft was in February 2015, to the Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental. It is the only ETOPS-compliant aircraft allowed to run non-stop overflights over Antarctica with proper alternates, alongside the Airbus A340 and A380.
Usage
The North Atlantic Tracks are the most heavily used oceanic routes in the world, and are largely covered by ETOPS 120-minute rules, thereby removing the necessity of using 180-minute rules. However, North Atlantic diversion airports are subject to adverse weather conditions that affect their availability for use. As a result, the JAA and FAA have given 15% extension to the 120-minute rules to deal with such contingencies, resulting to ETOPS-138 (i.e. 138 minutes) to allow ETOPS flights with such airports closed. By the mid-2010s, virtually all North Atlantic plane routes were dominated by twin-engine aircraft.
During the Cold War, routes between Europe and East Asia were prohibited from flying over Soviet Union or China since both airspaces were previously heavily military-controlled. Virtually all flights between Europe and North East Asia flew over the U.S., often with a tank stop in Anchorage, Alaska. They flew near the North Pole with a very large distance to usable airports, for which only three- and four-engine wide-body aircraft were permitted for safety reasons by international aviation authorities. Some flights between Europe and Oceania still largely pass through stopovers in Asia (either in the Middle East or Southeast Asia) or North America (either in Canada or the U.S.) given the current aircraft range restrictions and, in the case of the early 2020s, the reinstatement of selected routes by airlines between the Western Hemisphere and Eastern Hemisphere bypassing Russia due to its ongoing war with Ukraine.
For decades, narrow-body aircraft like the Airbus A320 series, and the Boeing 737 series and 757 have continuously operated flights as approved for ETOPS operation, alongside earlier wide-body aircraft such as the A300 and A310, and Boeing 767. The success of ETOPS aircraft like A300 and Boeing 767 made the intercontinental trijets obsolete for passenger use, production of which was largely ended by the late 2000s with Boeing cancelling the MD-11 program in the same period.
The rules have also allowed American legacy carriers (United Airlines and Delta Air Lines in particular) to use the Boeing 757 on "long and thin" transatlantic routes between their major hubs and secondary European cities that cannot generate the passenger demand to justify the use of a widebody airliner. The practice has been controversial, because although the 757 has adequate range to cross the Atlantic Ocean comfortably, strong headwinds caused by the jetstream over the winter months can result in westbound flights being declared "minimum fuel", forcing a refuelling stop at Gander, Newfoundland, in order to safely complete their journey.
Aloha Airlines operated 180-minute ETOPS–approved Boeing 737-700 aircraft on nonstop routes between the Hawaiian Islands and the western U.S. and also Vancouver, Canada. The use of the smaller 737-700 enabled Aloha to serve routes that could not support larger jet aircraft with an example being the Honolulu – Burbank nonstop route. Prior to the 737-700 operation, Aloha Airlines had operated 737-200 aircraft to various Pacific islands utilizing 120 minute ETOPS.
Other new-generation ETOPS aircraft include the Airbus A220 series, the Embraer E-Jets series and the ATR 72. By the mid-2010s, the widespread successes of ETOPS-reliant narrow-body aircraft have diminished the global market share of double-deck wide-body jets. At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s, Boeing and Airbus have since ended all production of the 747 and A380, respectively (and both being the two largest commercial aircraft in the world). At the same time, the increasing prominence of new-generation ultra-long-range wide-body twinjets like the Boeing 777 and 787, and Airbus A330 and A350 over the last decade has shifted the favor from quadjets to twinjets for international long-haul travel.
Approval process
The cornerstone of the ETOPS approach is the statistics showing that the turbine assembly of a modern jet engine is an inherently reliable component. Engine ancillaries, by contrast, have a lower reliability rating. Therefore, an ETOPS-certified engine may be built with duplicate sets of certain ancillaries in order to receive the required reliability rating.
ETOPS approval is a two-step process. First, the airframe and engine combination must satisfy the basic ETOPS requirements during its type certification. This is called "ETOPS type approval". Such tests may include shutting down an engine and flying the remaining engine during the complete diversion time. Often such tests are performed in the middle of the ocean. It must be demonstrated that, during the diversion flight, the flight crew is not unduly burdened by extra workload due to the lost engine and that the probability of the remaining engine failing is extremely remote. For example, if an aircraft is rated for ETOPS-180, it means that it is able to fly with full load and just one engine for three hours.
Second, an operator who conducts ETOPS flights must satisfy their own country's aviation regulators about their ability to conduct ETOPS flights. This is called "ETOPS operational certification" and involves compliance with additional special engineering and flight crew procedures in addition to the normal engineering and flight procedures. Pilots and engineering staff must be qualified and trained for ETOPS. An airline with extensive experience operating long distance flights may be awarded ETOPS operational approval immediately, while others may need to demonstrate ability through a series of ETOPS proving flights.
Regulators closely watch the ETOPS performance of both type certificate holders and their affiliated airlines. Any technical incidents during an ETOPS flight must be recorded. From the data collected, the reliability of the particular airframe-engine combination is measured and statistics published. The figures must be within limits of type certifications. Of course, the figures required for ETOPS-180 will always be more stringent than ETOPS-120. Unsatisfactory figures would lead to a downgrade or, worse, suspension of ETOPS capabilities either for the type certificate holder or the airline.
Engines must have an in-flight shutdown (IFSD) rate better than 1 per 20,000 hours for ETOPS-120, 1 per 50,000 hours for ETOPS-180, and
1 per 100,000 hours for beyond ETOPS-180.
Private jets are exempted from ETOPS by the FAA, but are subject to the ETOPS 120-minute rule in EASA's jurisdiction.
Government-owned aircraft (including military) do not have to adhere to ETOPS regulations.
Ratings
There are different levels of ETOPS certification, each allowing aircraft to fly on routes that are a certain amount of single-engine flying time away from the nearest suitable airport. For example, if an aircraft is certified for 180 minutes, it is permitted to fly any route not more than 180 minutes' single-engine flying time to the nearest suitable airport.
The following ratings are awarded under current regulations according to the capability of the airliner:
ETOPS-75
ETOPS-90
ETOPS-120/138
ETOPS-180/207
ETOPS-240
ETOPS-270
ETOPS-330
ETOPS-370
However, ratings for ETOPS type approval are fewer. They are:
ETOPS-90
ETOPS-120/138
ETOPS-180/207, which covers 95% of the Earth's surface.
ETOPS->180 to design limit
Designation
Until the mid-1980s, the term EROPS (extended range operations) was used before being superseded by ETOPS usage. In 1997, when Boeing proposed to extend ETOPS authority for twins to beyond 180 minutes, Airbus proposed to replace ETOPS by a newer system, referred to as Long Range Operational Performance Standards (LROPS), which would affect all civil airliners, not just those with a twin-engine configuration with more than 180 minutes ETOPS.
US FAA
The FAA stated in the Federal Register in 2007:
This final rule applies to air carrier (part 121), commuter, and on-demand (part 135) turbine powered multi-engine airplanes used in extended-range operations. However, all-cargo operations in airplanes with more than two engines of both part 121 and part 135 are exempted from the majority of this rule. Today's rule [January 16, 2007] establishes regulations governing the design, operation and maintenance of certain airplanes operated on flights that fly long distances from an adequate airport. This final rule codifies current FAA policy, industry best practices and recommendations, as well as international standards designed to ensure long-range flights will continue to operate safely." and Several commenters … recommended use of the acronym "LROPS"—meaning 'Long Range Operations'—for three- and four-engine ETOPS, to avoid confusion, particularly for those operations beyond 180 minutes' diversion time. The FAA has decided to use the single term, 'extended operations,' or ETOPS, for all affected operations regardless of the number of engines on the airplane."
Prior to 2007, the FAA used the term for Extended Range Operation with Two-Engine Airplanes but the meaning was changed when regulations were broadened to include aircraft with more than two engines.
ICAO
EDTO – Extended Diversion Time Operations. ICAO amendment 36 replaced the term ETOPS with the new term EDTO (Extended Diversion Time Operations). The main reason of this change in the terminology was to better reflect the scope and applicability of these new standards.
Backronym
A colloquial aviation backronym is "Engines Turn Or Passengers Swim", referring to the inevitable emergency water landing of a twin engine aircraft after a double engine failure over water outside gliding range of land.
See also
Twinjet
Longest flights
References
External links
Aviation licenses and certifications
Aviation safety
|
417201
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet%20Jackson%27s%20Rhythm%20Nation%201814
|
Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814
|
Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 (popularized as Rhythm Nation) is the fourth studio album by American singer-songwriter Janet Jackson, released on September 19, 1989, by A&M Records. Although label executives wanted material similar to her previous album, Control (1986), Jackson insisted on creating a concept album addressing social issues. Collaborating with songwriters and record producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, she drew inspiration from various tragedies reported through news media, exploring racism, poverty, and substance abuse, in addition to themes of romance. Although its primary concept of a sociopolitical utopia was met with mixed reactions, its composition received critical acclaim. Jackson came to be considered a role model for youth because of her socially conscious lyrics.
As with Control, recording for Rhythm Nation 1814 took place at Lewis and Jam's Flyte Tyme Studios in Minneapolis, Minnesota where they worked in seclusion with Jackson to complete the album. Noted for its use of sampling and utilizing heavily swung synthesized percussion throughout its production, the record encompasses a variety of musical styles, such as new jack swing, hard rock, pop, dance and industrial music. Songs range from mechanized dance rhythms to soft balladry, giving it appeal across multiple radio formats. It is the only album in the history of the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart to have seven commercial singles peak within the top five positions. It is also the first album to produce number one hits on the chart in three separate calendar years, beginning with "Miss You Much" in 1989, "Escapade" and "Black Cat" in 1990, and culminating with "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" in 1991.
Rhythm Nation 1814 became Jackson's second consecutive album to top the Billboard 200 and was certified 6× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It became the best-selling album of 1990 in the United States and has sold an estimated 12 million copies worldwide. Due to its innovative production and lyrical exploration, critics have come to regard it as the pinnacle of Jackson's artistic achievement. Music scholars note the record garnered her a level of cross-cultural appeal unmatched by industry peers. Considered a "landmark" album, it has also been cited as an influence in the works of numerous music artists, setting stylistic trends in the years following its release.
Visuals in music videos and live performances further elevated Jackson's superstardom. The 30-minute Rhythm Nation 1814 film, a film depicting two aspiring musicians whose lives are disrupted by substance abuse, aired on MTV to promote the album. Jackson's Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990 became the most successful debut concert tour by a recording artist at the time. She was regarded as a fashion icon, with various attire from the album's promotional tour and music videos being emulated by youth. Jackson received nine Grammy Award nominations, becoming the first woman to be nominated for Producer of the Year and winning Best Long Form Music Video for Rhythm Nation 1814. Jackson received the MTV Video Vanguard Award and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her significant contributions to popular culture. Her handwritten lyrics to the album's title track "Rhythm Nation" as well as her militaristic uniform for its music video have been preserved by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2021, the Library of Congress announced it selected the album for preservation in the National Recording Registry as part of the class of 2020, deeming it "culturally, historically, or artistically significant."
Background
Following the critical and commercial breakthrough of her third studio album Control (1986), Jackson was motivated to take a larger role in her album's creative process. According to Billboard's Hottest Hot 100 Hits (2002), A&M Records requested she record an album similar to Control. It was rumored that label executives suggested a concept album titled Scandal, which would have centered on her personal and family life. However, Jam later denied the claim that Scandal was ever suggested, although he confirmed there was encouragement to produce a "Control II". Jackson opposed the idea of a direct sequel to Control, stating "that's what I didn't want to do. I wanted to do something that I really believed in and that I really felt strong about." She was initially criticized for choosing to dedicate the album's theme to social consciousness, but remained committed. Jam stated that her inspiration came primarily from watching CNN and other news sources. In particular, her reaction to the Stockton playground murders led to recording "Livin' in a World (They Didn't Make)", "Rhythm Nation" and "State of the World".
While discussing the origin of the title "Rhythm Nation", Jackson stated she first uttered the phrase during a conversation with her producers. "I thought it would be great if we could create our own nation" adding that it would be "one that would have a positive message and that everyone would be free to join." She based the idea on the prevalence of various youth groups and organizations that are formed as a means of creating a common identity. The usage of the number "1814" represents the year the national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner" was written. Rolling Stone emphasized the core concept is further explored in the album's opening pledge (the first track of the recording), which states: "We are a nation with no geographic boundaries, bound together through our beliefs. We are like-minded individuals, sharing a common vision, pushing toward a world rid of color-lines." Several critics noted that "R" (Rhythm) and "N" (Nation) are the eighteenth and fourteenth letters of the alphabet, though Jackson said this was coincidental.
Jackson's primary goal for the record was to reach a younger audience who may have been unaware of what it means to be socially conscious individuals. She expressed: "I wanted to capture their attention through my music." She was influenced by other musical acts such as Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, Tracy Chapman, and U2, although she felt their music appealed primarily to adults who were already invested in social change. She also stated, "I'm not naive—I know an album or a song can't change the world. I just want my music and my dance to catch the audience's attention" hoping it would motivate people to "make some sort of difference".
Composition and production
Rhythm Nation 1814 was recorded over a period of seven months. Its production took place at Flyte Tyme studios in Minneapolis, Minnesota, with majority of the album being recorded in the winter of 1988. According to Jam, he, Lewis and Jackson chose to isolate themselves to compose the record. No one from A&M Records was invited to the studio to observe and label executives complied with their request. The trio co-authored six of the album's songs: "Rhythm Nation", "State of the World", "Alright", "Escapade", "Come Back to Me" and "Someday Is Tonight". Five of the six remaining songs for the record, "The Knowledge", "Miss You Much", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)", "Livin' in a World (They Didn't Make)" and "Lonely" were penned by Jam and Lewis, while "Black Cat" was written solely by Jackson. She co-produced the album with Jam and Lewis, while John McClain served as executive producer; the song "Black Cat" was produced by Jellybean Johnson.
The LP was produced primarily through use of synthesizers and drum machines. Prior its recording, Jam and Lewis had begun to update their equipment for Flyte Tyme studios, experimenting with different types of drum machines and keyboards. While Control had been recorded primarily using the LinnDrum machine, songs for Rhythm Nation 1814 were mostly recorded using the E-mu SP-1200, which was more commonplace for hip hop music at the time. The Oberheim OB-8 analog synthesizer, as well as those made by Sequential Circuits, were also used for mixing and recording. The only equipment utilized for the recording of Control that was also used for producing Rhythm Nation 1814 was the Ensoniq Mirage keyboard. The instrumental tracks for "Miss You Much", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" and "Escapade" were among the first to be recorded, considered to be follow-ups to the "beat-heavy, catchy songs" that Jackson, Jam and Lewis crafted on Control which "defined the punch and power of 1980s dance and pop music."
Jam noted it was commonplace for Jackson to sing her vocals with the base track first and then have the rest of the song built around it in order to make her voice the center of the piece. "Janet did all of her background vocals and not just the lead vocals. The idea with her has always been that she does all of her own vocals, so that it's totally a Janet record." On the title track "Rhythm Nation", her vocals range from B3 to A5, climaxing within its middle eight. Musicologist Richard J. Ripani observed the album and title track showcased the variety of contemporary R&B styles, making "use of elements across the R&B spectrum, including use of a sample loop ("Rhythm Nation" samples "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)" by Sly and the Family Stone), triplet swing, rapped vocal parts and blues notes (D naturals and G naturals)." This style of music, known as new jack swing, was immensely popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Though officially credited to the production techniques of Teddy Riley, Ripani theorized Riley was influenced by Jackson's 1986 single "Nasty", which also features a distinctive triplet swing. Jon Pareles observed the album's diversity catered to a wide variety of radio formats, including pop, quiet storm, Adult contemporary and mainstream rock. "Black Cat" was a stand-out for the record, not only for being composed exclusively by Jackson, but for its stark departure from her general style of music, delving into hard rock. While Jellybean Johnson was elected to produce it, Dave Berry was recruited to play guitar for the song. It was recorded using a mixture of Rockman and Marshall amplifier to give the song a heavy metal sound.
The sequencing of the record's track list was done strategically, starting with songs that lyrically depict societal injustices and ending with those that explore love, relationships and sexuality. This decision also factored into the album's artwork and marketing, giving it an overt black and white militant imagery. Jam explained that "[t]he idea of putting 'Rhythm Nation', 'State of the World' and 'The Knowledge' as the first three songs on the record really set the tone as to what the record was. Then to have the segue after that where she says, 'Get the point? Good. Let's dance ...' and then go into 'Miss You Much', that was purposely done." He also stated that the safer marketing strategy for the project would have been "a beautiful colored picture of Janet on the cover" with Escapade as its title, starting the track listing with "Miss You Much", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" and "Escapade", and ending it with "Livin' in a World (They Didn't Make)", "The Knowledge" and "Rhythm Nation" but noted that despite being the same collection of songs, the alternate sequencing and imagery would not have had the same impact. Of its lyrical themes, Kate Kelly stated the album "reveals a social conscience speaking of getting an education, avoiding drugs, and feeding the homeless. All this might seem a little heavy for dance music or pop radio, but Jackson fuses her concepts with driving dance energy that hits the hearts of those hitting the dance-floor." Andrew Barker of Variety described it as "a quasi-concept album whose opening three songs directly addressed crime, the crack epidemic, racism, homelessness and youth illiteracy — not exactly a recipe for a party. And yet the record was somehow even more successful than Control, generating a then-record seven top-five singles."
Promotion and videography
Upon the release of the album's lead single "Miss You Much", A&M Records issued a press release for the record, announcing social themes to "run throughout much of the material". Jackson performed "Rhythm Nation" on several television shows internationally, including Top of the Pops and a Royal Variety Performance. She also performed a controversial rendition of "Black Cat" at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards in which she tore open her snapped blouse; although this was routine for performances of the song in concert, it was considered to have "ushered in a new age of sexual spontaneity" for the singer and viewed as the first "shocking" performance of her career.
A thirty-minute long-form music video, Rhythm Nation 1814, was produced to promote the album. Referred to as a "telemusical", the storyline incorporates three separate music videos: "Miss You Much", "The Knowledge", and "Rhythm Nation". Jackson and director Dominic Sena developed the screenplay, which centers around two boys whose dreams of pursuing music careers are destroyed through substance abuse and drug trafficking. Sena referred to the film as the "1814 Project", attempting to keep the public unaware that Jackson was filming on the streets of Los Angeles. The project had a budget of $1.6 million and was aired on MTV prior to the album's release. A&M co-founder Jerry Moss stated that the decision to film the composite videos all at once for Rhythm Nation 1814 regardless of budget was "a brilliant way to go" allotting Jackson more time to focus her attention elsewhere.
Parallel Lines: Media Representations of Dance (1993) observed that in Rhythm Nation 1814, Jackson represents a "modern good fairy" attempting to guide troubled youth to a more positive way of life. Each of the three segments serve a different purpose, beginning with affinity and companionship in "Miss You Much", followed by anger and frustration in her rooftop solo and ending with "Rhythm Nation", in which Jackson and her dancers "have become a uniformed, formidable army, whose controlled energetic moves and shouts project a disciplined resolution to inspire others through dance and music." Their group dynamic visually depicts a gender neutral equality, with Jackson "performing asexually and anonymously in front of, but as one of the members of the group." It is also noted that the success of the film is not only the final product, but in the commercial and social implications of its development. In selecting an unknown street dancer, Anthony Thomas, to develop her choreography, "Janet Jackson secures a threefold achievement: she satisfies the dictates of the commercial pop music industry by creating a dance image which is significantly different from her earlier work; she demonstrates that, despite fame, she is still in touch with contemporary youth pop culture and its fashions; and finally, she [utilizes], not the dance traditions of Hollywood musical ... but the work of a young black man whose training is outside the institutions of Western theatre and clearly an Afro-American cultural expression of the late 1980s." The film received positive reception. Jefferson Graham in USA Today commented that "she dances up a storm in the moody black-and-white video's three songs ... and plays the role of a mystical figure to young kids." Jon Pareles remarked that "[it] juxtaposes her dance routines with grim urban imagery and a plot line about drugs versus dreams." It was later released on VHS and LaserDisc as the Rhythm Nation 1814 Compilation, and reissued the following year with each of the album's promotional music videos. Jackson received two MTV Music Video Award nominations for "Best Dance Video" and "Best Choreography" for "Rhythm Nation", winning the latter.
Five other music video were produced to promote the album's singles. While the video for "Black Cat" was taken from live footage of Jackson's concerts, those for "Escapade" and "Alright" utilized a Broadway-influenced production. The video for "Alright" was an homage to choreographer Michael Kidd, who was asked to participate in the project and also featured appearances by the flash dancing Nicholas Brothers, actress Cyd Charisse and bandleader Cab Calloway. An extended version of the video also features rapper Heavy D. The somber video for "Come Back To Me" was filmed near the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. Similarly, "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" was a notable departure from the typically elaborate choreography associated with Jackson's other videos, focusing on her as an individual rather than as a part of a dancing troupe. Featuring appearances by Antonio Sabàto Jr. and Djimon Hounsou, the sandy beach setting exemplifies director Herb Ritts "signature style through use of graceful movements, bold contrasts, and wide-open spaces." The music video is also regarded as the origin of what would later become Jackson's sexually overt persona, freely displaying her legs, torso and cleavage, as well as touching her own bare skin and Sabàto, Jr's in a sensual manner. In Present Tense: Rock & Roll and Culture (1992), Anthony DeCurtis states that "[t]he video celebrates hedonism and voyeurism; there are languorous displays of Jackson's body in ripped jeans and brief top, and of several muscular male bodies, black and white, with bare arms, and chests." She received the MTV Video Vanguard Award, regarded as MTV's highest honor for artists whose videography has significantly impacted pop culture.
Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990
The Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990 was Jackson's debut concert tour. Described as "an elaborately choreographed spectacle", it aimed to recreate the award-winning, innovative music videos of Rhythm Nation 1814 and those of its predecessor, Control. Anthony Thomas served as the tour's main choreographer, while Chuckii Booker became its musical director and opening act. She was assisted by a team of eleven musicians, five back-up singers, and six dancers. Jackson's total production and staging reportedly cost $2 million. In addition to Jackson's choreography, the tour was reported to portray "dazzling lighting effects and pyrotechnics", as well as illusionary magic, in which Jackson was transformed into a leopard on stage.
Writing for Time magazine, Jay Cocks observed the show to integrate "sleek high tech and smooth dance rhythm into an evening of snazzy soul with a social conscience." Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times remarked that Jackson's choreography "represents the pinnacle of what can be done in the popping 'n' locking style—a rapid-fire mixture of rigidly jerky and gracefully fluid movements." Several critics noted Jackson lip synced portions of the show, in a similar fashion to her contemporaries. Jon Pareles commented, "most lip-synched shows are done by video-era pop performers whose audiences are young and television trained. They fill arenas to enjoy a spectacle like what they saw on television—the dancing ... the stage effects and incidentally the songs." Michael MacCambridge considered it a "moot point" stating, "Jackson was frequently singing along with her own pre-recorded vocals, to achieve a sound closer to radio versions of singles."
The tour became the most successful debut concert tour in history, with an attendance of over two million. It also set a record for the fastest sell-out of Japan's Tokyo Dome, selling out within seven minutes. Jackson became the only female artist other than Madonna to fill arenas at the time. It was ranked the fifth most successful tour of 1990, making her the only female artist to place within the top ten. It also solidified her reputation as a fashion icon, as fans imitated her "Rhythm Nation" outfit and regalia. Ebony magazine reported "hoards of teen girls were imitating her distinctive look—black quasi-military long jackets, black tight-tight pants, and big white shirts." Joel Selvin of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote "the 23-year-old has been making smash hit records for four years, becoming a fixture on MTV and a major role model to teenage girls across the country." Over $450,000.00 in proceeds from the tour's Madison Square Garden show were used to establish the Rhythm Nation scholarship program. The annual scholarship awards $5,000.00 to students majoring in performing arts and communications at United Negro College Fund member colleges and universities. William Allen, then-executive vice president of the UNCF, remarked: "Jackson is a role model for all young people to emulate and the message she has gotten to the young people of this country through the lyrics of 'Rhythm Nation 1814' is having positive effects."
Singles
Rhythm Nation 1814 produced a record-setting seven top five hit singles on the Billboard Hot 100. With lead single "Miss You Much", along with "Escapade", "Black Cat" and the album's final single "Love Will Never Do (Without You)", it also yielded four number one hits. "Miss You Much" topped the chart for four weeks. It also topped the Hot Dance Club Songs and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA. It also reached number two in Canada and New Zealand, one in Japanese airplay and South Africa, twelve in Australia, the top fifteen in Belgium and the Netherlands, the top twenty in Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland, and twenty-two in the United Kingdom, as well as charting in Brazil. According to Radio & Records, "Miss You Much" was the biggest airplay hit of the year. It sold over four million copies worldwide, and became the year's second-best selling single behind Phil Collins's "Another Day in Paradise".
"Rhythm Nation" peaked at number two, behind "Another Day in Paradise". It peaked atop Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs. The single was certified gold by the RIAA. It reached number six in Canada, two in Japanese airplay and South Africa, eleven in the Netherlands, fifteen in Belgium, the top twenty of New Zealand and Sweden, and the top twenty-five of Switzerland, Poland, and the United Kingdom. "Escapade" topped the Hot 100, as well as the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs. It was certified gold in May 1990. It reached number one in Canada and Japanese airplay, four in South Africa, ten in Sweden and Belgium, thirteen in the Netherlands, seventeen in the United Kingdom, and twenty-three in Germany. The single version of "Alright" featuring additional vocals from rapper Heavy D peaked at number four on the Hot 100 and Hot Dance Club Songs, while reaching number two on Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. It was certified gold in June 1990. It reached number six in Canada, three in South Africa, and one in Japanese airplay. "Come Back to Me" peaked at number two on the Hot 100. It reached number three in Canada, as well as number one in Japanese airplay and South Africa, and the top twenty in Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
"Black Cat" topped the Hot 100 and received gold certification. It reached number four in Canada and three in Japanese airplay, five in Norway, six in Australia, the top ten in Sweden, France, and Switzerland, the top fifteen in the United Kingdom, the top twenty in Belgium, and twenty-one in the Netherlands. "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" was released as the album's seventh and final commercial single. It reached number one on January 19, 1991, topping the chart for one week. It reached number one in Canada and Japanese airplay, and two in South Africa. The single was certified gold by the RIAA. Lastly, "State of the World" was issued solely for radio airplay, making it ineligible to chart. It reached number five on the Hot 100 Airplay (Radio Songs) chart. Billboard noted it likely would have been the album's eighth top five hit if a commercial product had been distributed.
Critical reception
The album received generally positive reviews, with a mixed reaction to Jackson's social and political themes. Dennis Hunt of the Los Angeles Times called it "intriguing" and diverse, ranging from "social commentary to lusty, sensual tunes, from dance music to songs laced with jazz and Brazilian textures." Vince Aletti of Rolling Stone likened Jackson's themes to a politician, "abandoning the narrow 'I' for the universal 'we' and inviting us to do the same." Aletti complimented Jackson's balance of "despair with optimism, anger with hope", incorporated within its theme of social progress. Andy Ellis-Widders of Keyboard considered it "a powerful statement on racial integration, social accountability, and personal integrity." In his review for The Boston Globe, Steve Morse compared its success to that of Aerosmith and Billy Joel, declaring it "a dance record with a ruthlessly frank social conscience that addresses drugs, homelessness, illiteracy and teen runaways. She's reached far beyond dance music's fluffy image to unite even serious rockers and rappers who usually look the other way." Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle considered it a worthy successor to Jackson's previous album Control, adding "a little sociopolitical substance" as she "bounces between the two extremes of romance and generalized, politically correct topicality."
Writing for The New York Times, Jon Pareles viewed Rhythm Nation 1814 as having been "thoroughly calculated" for massive commercial success, noting that, as with Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon (1973) and Guns N' Roses' Appetite for Destruction (1987), consumers might find that "[b]uying the album can mean endorsing an attitude ... the album becomes a cause without a rebellion." Pareles commended its musicality and vocals, stating "[t]he tone of the music is airless, sealing out imprecision and reveling in crisp, machine-generated rhythms; Ms. Jackson's piping voice, layered upon itself in punchy unisons or lavish harmonies, never cracks or falters." Robert Christgau wrote in his review for The Village Voice, "Her voice is as unequal to her vaguely admonitory politics as it was to her declaration of sexual availability, but the music is the message."
In 1990, the album earned Grammy Award nominations for "Best Female R&B Vocal Performance" and "Best Rhythm & Blues Song" for "Miss You Much", and "Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist" and "Best Long Form Music Video" for "Rhythm Nation", winning the latter award. Jackson was also nominated for "Producer of the Year, Non-Classical", becoming the first woman to be nominated for the award. The following year, Jackson received nominations for "Best Female Rock Vocal Performance" for "Black Cat", in addition to "Best Rhythm & Blues Song" and "Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female" for "Alright".
Retrospective reviews continue to assess the album favorably. Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine declared the album a "masterpiece". Henderson also praised its diversity, stating: "She was more credibly feminine, more crucially masculine, more viably adult, more believably childlike. This was, of course, critical to a project in which Janet assumed the role of mouthpiece for a nationless, multicultural utopia." Though referring to Jackson's voice as "wafer-thin", Alex Henderson of AllMusic applauded Jackson's spirit and enthusiasm, praising the album's numerous "gems". Henderson regarded it "an even higher artistic plateau" than her prior album, adding: "For those purchasing their first Janet Jackson release, Rhythm Nation would be an even wiser investment than Control—and that's saying a lot." Alexis Petridis of The Guardian described the album as a more "grandiose" counterpart to Control, "tough, funky and driving – the second of a perfect pair."
Accolades
Commercial performance
The album debuted at number twenty-eight on the Billboard 200 and eighty-seven on Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, eventually reaching the number one position on both charts. It topped the Billboard 200 for four consecutive weeks, selling three million copies within the first four months of its release. It sold an additional 1.10 million through BMG Music Club. In November 1989, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album gold. It was certified double platinum by the end of the year and ultimately certified sixfold platinum by the RIAA. It emerged as the best selling album of 1990 in the territory. As of September, 2014, the album has sold over 7 million copies in the US
Internationally, the album reached number one in Australia, where it was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and South Africa. In Canada, it entered the top five and was certified platinum. The album peaked at number four in the United Kingdom, receiving a platinum certification. It also entered the top ten of Japan and New Zealand, where it was certified double platinum and gold. It reached the top twenty-five of Sweden, as well as the top thirty in the Netherlands and Germany. It also received gold certifications in Switzerland and Hong Kong. It has sold an estimated 12 million copies worldwide. The Rhythm Nation 1814 video compilation and its reissue were each certified double platinum in United States.
Legacy
The commercial success of Rhythm Nation 1814 was an unexpected achievement for mainstream pop music. Although Jackson was told focusing her album's theme on social consciousness would negatively impact sales, it was "a prediction soon proved wrong when the album was certified multi-platinum" and subsequently topped the pop, R&B and dance music charts. In She Bop II: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul (2003), Lucy O'Brien wrote that contrary to A&M's fear that the album would underperform, its multi-platinum sales pushed Jackson to a level of superstardom rivaling her brother Michael, calling it a "personal manifesto" and regarding it as a female counterpart to Marvin Gaye's What's Going On (1971). Timothy E. Scheurer, author of Born in the USA: The Myth of America in Popular Music from Colonial Times to the Present (2007), wrote that the album "may remind some of Sly Stone prior to There's a Riot Going On and other African-American artists of the 1970s in its tacit assumption that the world imagined by Dr. King is still possible, that the American Dream is a dream for all people." It made history as the only album to generate seven top-five hits on the Billboard Hot 100, surpassing Michael Jackson's Thriller (1982) and Bruce Springsteen's Born in the U.S.A. (1984), which each have seven top ten hits. It is also the first album to achieve number one hits in three separate calendar years, with "Miss You Much" in 1989, "Escapade" and "Black Cat" in 1990, and "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" in 1991. This feat would subsequently be matched by The Weeknd's After Hours in 2021. Additionally, it is one of only nine albums—alongside Michael Jackson's Bad (1987), Saturday Night Fever: The Original Movie Sound Track (1977), Whitney Houston's Whitney (1987), George Michael's Faith (1987), Paula Abdul's Forever Your Girl (1989), Mariah Carey's self-titled debut (1990), Usher's Confessions (2004) and
Katy Perry's Teenage Dream (2010)—to produce a minimum of four number ones.
Aside from its commercial performance, the album's composition has continued to receive acclaim for its sonic innovation. Upon its 25th anniversary, music critic and scholar Joseph Vogel observed that when viewed "as a complete artistic statement, Rhythm Nation 1814 was a stunning achievement. It married the pleasures of pop with the street energy and edge of hip-hop." Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly asserted the record "has barely aged—it sounds as rich and vital as it did when it was first released, and stylistically as contemporary as anything on the Billboard charts." Anderson also underscores that it pioneered several musical trends, citing records by pop and R&B artists including Rihanna, Pink, Beyoncé, Frank Ocean, Gwen Stefani, The Weeknd, Lady Gaga, Jhené Aiko, Miguel, Christina Aguilera, FKA Twigs, and Tinashe that have exhibited similarities to the "landmark" album. Its single for "Alright" featuring Heavy D made Jackson the first pop artist to team with a rapper, "setting the trend for future pop and hip-hop collaborations." Additionally, "Black Cat" set a precedent for female pop stars segueing into glam metal. The album notably influenced Michael Jackson's Dangerous (1991) and HIStory (1995), the latter of which features the sibling's duet "Scream", produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Its impact also extends to indie and alternative rock music, with School of Seven Bells, A Sunny Day in Glasgow, and Alexis Krauss of Sleigh Bells citing the album as an influence in their work. MTV's Brenna Ehrlich remarked: "From Beyoncé ... to Britney Spears to Robyn to Sleigh Bells, the influence of Jackson's game-changer of a record is still rippling through the radio waves (or SoundCloud waves) today."
Jackson's handwritten lyrics to "Rhythm Nation" have been preserved by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "Women Who Rock" exhibit, which Kathryn Metz describes as "the perfect platform to talk about song structure" for the museum's "Women Who Rock: Songwriting and Point of View" course, in which students analyze music written by female songwriters. The Hall has also preserved her military styled "Rhythm Nation" uniform. Rolling Stone observed the song's music video "set the template for hundreds of videos to come in the Nineties and aughts." Mike Weaver remarked the "innovative, one-of-a-kind, funk-and-groove choreography was unlike anything seen in the history of pop music." Although music historian Ted Gioia considered the song to be an "awkward chant" he commented that "Rhythm Nation" became "one of the most riveting videos of the era, a kind of sensual steampunk for MTV viewers." In 1990, Jackson received MTV's Video Vanguard Award for her contributions to the art form. That same year, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in recognition of her impact on the recording industry and philanthropic endeavors, including her Rhythm Nation Scholarship fund. With her contractual obligations to A&M fulfilled in 1991, she signed with Virgin Records for an unprecedented multimillion-dollar deal, becoming the world's highest paid musician at the time.
Sal Cinquemani noted her popularity had eclipsed Michael Jackson's, "as she would continue to do for more than a decade". Music scholars John Shepherd and David Horn wrote that as a crossover artist on the pop and R&B charts, she emerged "the most dominant female performer of the 1980s" behind Whitney Houston. Dan Rubey observed that she presented herself as a role model for black women and as a creative intellect whose work advocated the advancement of black people. Joseph Vogel stated that her rising popularity towards the end of the decade was important for several reasons, "not the least of which was how it coincided with (and spoke to) the rise of black feminism". At a time when radio airplay and MTV primarily catered to white rock musicians, her album and its predecessor garnered widespread critical acclaim alongside other "unprecedented breakthroughs" by black women—including Alice Walker's The Color Purple (1982), Toni Morrison's Beloved (1987) and Patricia Hill Collins's Black Feminist Thought (1990)—musically capturing the spirit of the movement and presenting an alternate model on both womanhood and feminism to that of Madonna. Regarding her diverse appeal among youth, he also stated: "Janet didn't have the vocal prowess of Whitney Houston, or the poetic subtlety of Kate Bush; she didn't have Annie Lennox's penchant for the avant-garde or Madonna's predilection for shock. But none of these artists achieved the cross-racial impact (particularly on youth culture) of Janet. And none of them had an album like Rhythm Nation 1814."
Jackson herself would comment on the album's legacy on her 2015 album Unbreakable. In the song "Shoulda Known Better", she reflects on her optimistic wish that Rhythm Nation 1814 could have profoundly changed the world, noting that there are many, deeper issues to fix and that broad strokes aren't enough. The chorus includes the line, "Cause I don't want my face to be / That poster child for being naive"; and Rhythm Nations title is referred to as "an epiphany", with Jackson mentioning that "next time, I'll know better". Album co-producer Jimmy Jam told the BBC: "When you're young, you feel like: 'I can change the world! I'm going to lead the revolution!' And then you look 25 years later and you go: 'OK, I should have known better. The same problems still exist but there's a different way to go about tackling it. It still involves mobilising people, but I can't do it by myself.' It's just a wiser, more mature look at the reality of trying to make a positive change, a social change." In 2021, the Library of Congress announced it had selected Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 for preservation and inducted it into the National Recording Registry. The album is one of 25 recordings inducted into the registry's class of 2020 that are considered to be "audio treasures worthy of preservation for all time based on their cultural, historical or aesthetic importance in the nation's recorded sound heritage."
Track listing
Notes
The original vinyl release does not list the interludes as separate tracks, they are instead located at the beginning of the next track.
Personnel
Herb Alpert – trumpet, horn, brass
Julie Ayer – violin
Stephen Barnett – conductor
Steve Barnett – conductor
David Barry – electric and 12-string guitar
Lee Blaske – arranger
Chris Brown – bass
Carolyn Daws – violin
Hanley Daws – violin
David Eiland – programming
Rene Elizondo – background vocals
Richard Frankel – art direction, cover design
Brian Gardner – mastering at Bernie Grundman Mastering, Hollywood, CA
Johnny Gill – percussion, special effects, finger snaps
James Greer – background vocals
Guzman (Constance Hansen & Russell Peacock) – photography
Steve Hodge – background vocals, engineer, mixing at Flyte Tyme Studio D, Edina, MN
Peter Howard – cello
Janet Jackson – arranger, keyboards, vocals, background vocals, producer
Jimmy Jam – percussion, piano, drums, keyboards, programming, producer
Jellybean Johnson – guitar, drums, vocals, background vocals, producer
Jesse Johnson – guitar
Lisa Keith – background vocals
Kathy Kienzle – harp
Joshua Koestenbaum – cello
Jamila Lafleur – background vocals
Terry Lewis – bass, percussion, arranger, background vocals, producer
Tshaye Marks – background vocals
John McClain – background vocals, executive producer
Tamika McDaniel – vocals
Tarnika McDaniel – background vocals
John McLain – guitar, background vocals
Shante Owens – background vocals
Amy Powell – vocals
Randy Ran – background vocals
Nicholas Raths – guitar, classical guitar
Sonya Robinson – background vocals
Clarice Rupert – background vocals
Warlesha Ryan – background vocals
Tamas Strasser – viola
John Tartaglia – viola
Reshard Taylor – background vocals
Romuald Tecco – concert master
Anthony Thomas – background vocals
Hyacinthe Tlucek – concert master
Steve Wilson – background vocals
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
All-time chart
Certifications and sales
See also
List of best-selling albums by women
1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die
The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time
References
External links
Rhythm Nation 1814 Video Page at Janetjackson.com
Rhythm Nation 1814 (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed)
1989 albums
A&M Records albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis
Concept albums
Janet Jackson albums
United States National Recording Registry recordings
United States National Recording Registry albums
|
417205
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-8-2
|
4-8-2
|
Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, represents the wheel arrangement of four leading wheels, eight powered and coupled driving wheels and two trailing wheels. This type of steam locomotive is commonly known as the Mountain type.
Overview
The Colony of Natal in South Africa and New Zealand were innovators of the Mountain wheel arrangement. The Natal Government Railways (NGR) placed in service the first tank engines with the 4-8-2 arrangement, and the NGR was also first to modify tender locomotives to use a 4-8-2 wheel arrangement. The New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) introduced the first tender locomotives designed and built as 4-8-2.
In 1888, the Natal Government Railways placed the first five of its eventual one hundred Class D tank locomotives in service. The locomotive was designed by William Milne, the locomotive superintendent of the NGR from 1877 to 1896, and was built by Dübs & Company. This was the first known use of the wheel arrangement in the world.
In 1906, six NGR Class B Mastodon locomotives, designed by D.A. Hendrie, NGR Locomotive Superintendent from 1903 to 1910, were modified to a wheel arrangement by having trailing bissel trucks added below their cabs to improve their stability when hauling fast passenger trains. These altered Class B locomotives were the first tender locomotives in the world.
The first locomotive to be designed and built as a tender locomotive was New Zealand's X class, designed by Alfred Beattie and built by NZR's Addington Workshops in 1908. It was designed to haul heavy freight trains on the mountainous central section of the North Island Main Trunk and it is believed that this was the source of the "Mountain" name of the type, although it is also possible that the name was originated by the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway in the United States, who named the type after the Allegheny Mountains. The X class was, however, not a typical Mountain type, since its trailing truck served to spread the axle load rather than to allow a larger and wider firebox. The trailing wheels were positioned well behind a narrow firebox, which itself sat above the coupled wheels, necessitating the same design compromise between coupled wheel diameter and grate size as on a Consolidation or Mastodon. A more common design was a progression of the classic 4-6-2 Pacific layout, which featured a wide firebox positioned above the trailing truck and behind the coupled wheels, allowing for a wide and deep firebox as well as large coupled wheels.
The NGR in 1909 placed in service the first example of the more common Mountain design, when it commissioned five Class Hendrie D tender locomotives. It was designed by Hendrie to handle coal traffic on the upper Natal mainline and, while it was based on the Class Hendrie B , it had the firebox positioned to the rear of the coupled wheels to make a larger grate and ashpan possible. To accomplish this, the plate frame was equipped with a cast bridle at the rear to accommodate the improved firebox design, which also necessitated the addition of a trailing truck. Five locomotives were built by the North British Locomotive Company and delivered in 1909. The type went on to become the most widely used steam locomotive wheel arrangement in South Africa, with altogether thirty classes of both tank and tender versions eventually seeing service on the South African Railways.
Usage
Angola
In 1951, six locomotives were built by North British Locomotive Company to the design of the South African Class 19D for the Angolan Caminho de Ferro de Benguela (CFB or Benguela railway) as their 11th Class.
Australia
Unlike some other countries which utilised the design for heavy passenger duties, the Australian was more typically used as a heavy goods locomotive with small coupled wheels and a very large firebox.
The first in Australia was the gauge Q class of the Tasmanian Government Railways. Nineteen were built in batches between 1922 and 1945 by Perry Engineering in South Australia, Walkers Limited of Maryborough, Queensland and Clyde Engineering of New South Wales. Until 1950, the class handled the majority of mainline goods trains around the state.
Armstrong Whitworth built ten 500 class 4-8-2 locomotives for the South Australian Railways in 1926. They were the most powerful locomotives in Australia at the time and the heaviest non-articulated locomotives yet built in the United Kingdom. In 1929, they were modified to 500B class 4-8-4 Northern locomotives.
The three-cylinder D57 class locomotive of the New South Wales Government Railways (NSWGR) was one of the largest and most powerful locomotives ever built in Australia. Twenty-five were built by Clyde Engineering from 1929. With their large grates and tractive effort, they were put to good use on the steep, 1 in 33 (3%) and 1 in 40 (2½%) gradients leading out of Sydney on the New South Wales mainlines.
The D57 design was developed further in 1950 with the smaller cylindered D58 class, of which thirteen were built at the Eveleigh and Cardiff Locomotive Workshops of the NSWGR. This class proved to be less successful, suffering from reliability problems attributed to the rack and pinion valve gear that was used for the third cylinder instead of the Gresley-Holcroft valve gear that was used on the D57 class.
The Western Australian Government Railways (WAGR) introduced two classes of 4-8-2 locomotive for freight haulage on the state's network. The first was the S class, of which ten were built at the WAGR Midland Railway Workshops from 1943, with the locomotives named after West Australian mountains. The second was the W class, of which 64 were built by Beyer, Peacock & Company in 1951 and 1952. The 4-8-2 layout allowed for the weight of these relatively powerful locomotives to be spread over a number of axles, resulting in the W class having a maximum axle load of less than 10 tons. It also enabled the incorporation of a wide firebox for burning poor-quality coal.
In 1951, the Tasmanian Government Railways purchased a modern 4-8-2 locomotive, the H class. Eight locomotives were built by Vulcan Foundry for freight train working.
Bulgaria
In 1941, the Bulgarian State Railways (BDZ) placed an order with Henschel & Son in Germany for fifty BDZ class 03 express passenger locomotives. They were of the type (2-4-1 axle arrangement, simple steam expansion, superheating, three-cylinder, fast train service) and were designed to be capable of hauling heavy passenger trains over the often severe profiles of the Bulgarian mainlines, with gradients of up to 2.8%.
The first two locomotives were delivered by the end of 1941. During trials, it proved that the specifications of the BDZ designing engineers were correct and that they had successfully overcome the shortcomings of insufficient power and some construction problems that had been experienced with the BDZ Mikado class 01 and class 02 locomotives. Mass production began the following year, but was interrupted by war restrictions introduced by the German authorities and delivery was halted before the full order was filled. Only ten more locomotives were built and delivered at the end of 1942 and early 1943, and the total number of the BDZ class 03 remained at twelve locomotives, numbered 03.01 to 03.12.
After 1958, these locomotives were gradually converted to mixed fuel oil and coal firing, which resulted in improved steaming ability and better performance, particularly on mountainous lines. During their 35 years of service, they exhibited excellent performance and only minor problems were experienced, such as oval wearing of the leading axle's inside crank. After factory repair, one of these locomotives, no. 03.12, was preserved in the depot at Gorna Oryahovitsa and returned to operation for tourist trains.
Canada
The Angus Shops of Canadian Pacific (CP) built a pair of locomotives in 1914. While they were not replicated, CP kept them in service for thirty years. CP reverted to 4-6-2 Pacific locomotives before moving on to the 4-6-4 Hudson.
Canadian National operated eighty U-1 class locomotives in passenger service, built by Montreal Locomotive Works in 1944. The last twenty, designated the U-1-f class, were delivered with semi-streamlined conical smokebox covers that earned them the nickname of Bullet Nose Bettys.
Czechoslovakia
The Czechoslovak State Railways (ČSD) introduced the 498.0 class express passenger locomotive in 1938, after successful trials in the Tatra Mountains to compare it to an alternative 2-8-4 Berkshire prototype. In 1954, the design was developed further into the 498.1 class. These technically sophisticated locomotives were reputedly capable of 11% thermal efficiency.
The ČSD also built a lighter and more numerous 475 class locomotive.
France
In France, the Mountain, known as the 241 type based on its axle arrangement, began to be used on the more undulating routes as increasingly heavy loads, brought about by the introduction of all-steel passenger cars after 1918, began to overtax the hill-climbing capabilities of the existing Mikado and the speed capabilities of Pacifc locomotives. Altogether 275 locomotives were built for French service.
The Chemins de fer de l'Est (Est) took delivery of a prototype four-cylinder compound locomotive from its own Épernay shops in 1925. This was the first Mountain type to be built for commercial service within France. The Est subsequently ordered forty production locomotives in 1930, based on the prototype design but with improvements. Delivery took place over the following three years. One of these, 241.004, ended up in Germany during World War II and served in the East German Deutsche Reichsbahn until 1955 as , the only Mountain in German service.
Between 1930 and 1932, the Chemins de Fer de l'État (État) obtained 49 locomotives built to the design of the Est. Under SNCF management after 1938, these locomotives were transferred to the Est region and served there for the rest of their service lives.
The Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée (PLM) introduced 145 bullet-nosed Class 241A compound Mountain types in 1925 to increase train speeds over the Seuil de Bourgogne incline. This four-cylinder compound locomotive was unusual in having short connecting rods for the outside high pressure cylinders that connected to the first driving axle rather than the second, as was typical of most six- or eight-coupled locomotives. Possibly as a result of this, the locomotive did not run smoothly at speeds faster than . In addition, in order to limit the weight, the built-up locomotive frames were lightly constructed, which resulted in torsion and flexing which caused the wheel bearings to overheat. This problem was never solved on the PLM engines. However, in spite of these shortcomings and true to the Mountain type, they were still able to haul heavy passenger trains over gradients at speed and could take an 800 tonne load over a 1 in 200 gradient at .
Based on the Class 241A, the unique PLM Class 241C1, built in 1930, had connecting rods linking the second and third driving axles. This locomotive served as the prototype for the development of the post-war standard SNCF Class 241P.
The PLM also experimented with a high-pressure watertube boiler on the unique PLM 241B1 prototype, constructed with a German Schmidt-Henschel boiler in 1930. It was soon learned, however, that this locomotive was a failure and it was retired and broken up by the mid-1930s.
The État also built a prototype three-cylinder simple expansion locomotive in 1932, the 241.101, which was an embarrassing failure for the company but which was later converted by André Chapelon into the legendary SNCF Class 242A1 4-8-4 Northern locomotive.
The SNCF, with design input from André Chapelon, developed the earlier PLM 241C1 into the 35-strong Class 241P in 1948. These locomotives, although prone to axle box problems caused by a frame that was not rigid enough for the output of the cylinders, were nevertheless very effective and some were still running in the early 1970s.
Mozambique
In March and July 1973, twelve reboilered South African Railways Class 15BR locomotives, built by Montreal Locomotive Works (MLW) in Canada between 1918 and 1922, were sold to Caminhos de Ferro de Moçambique (CFM), the Mozambique Railways, where they were mainly used for shunting at Lourenco Marques and occasionally on freight service to Swaziland.
New Zealand
The first of eighteen X class De Glehn compound locomotives, designed by Alfred Beattie, the Chief Mechanical Engineer of the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) between 1900 and 1913, was built by the NZR's Addington Workshops in Christchurch in 1908. The first locomotive in the world to be designed and built as a tender locomotive, it was designed to haul heavy freight trains on the newly completed mountainous central section of the North Island Main Trunk. One member of the pioneering X class survives and is currently located at the depot of the Feilding and District Steam Rail Society.
Between 1940 and 1956, 91 J and JA class locomotives entered service. Of these, 56 were built by North British Locomotive Company and 35 by the Hillside Railway Workshops in Dunedin.
These locomotives survived in service until 1971 and were the last in-service steam locomotives on the NZR. Ten have been preserved.
Philippines
The Manila Railroad, now the Philippine National Railways, operated two classes before and after World War II. The first class was the pre-war 170 class. Ten locomotives were built in 1921 by Alco. Three units were refurbished after being damaged by the war. In 1948, another ten locomotives, numbered the 100-class, were ordered from the Pennsylvania-based Vulcan Iron Works. Another 10 were built in 1948. Both the rebuilt 170 class and the new 100 class were decommissioned starting 1956, when MRR ordered the replacement of all its steam locomotives with diesel locomotives such as the GE UM12C. None of these locomotives were preserved like all of MRR's steam locomotives.
Poland
In 1931 three Pu29 mountains were delivered to PKP. They were used predominantly to pull heavy trains between East Prussia exclave and main territory of Germany, transiting through the Polish Pomerania, also known as the Polish Corridor.
Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia
Two locomotives were built in 1952 by Henschel & Son to the design of the South African Class 19D, for the Nkana copper mines in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). They were numbered 337 and 338 in the Rhodesia Railways 19th class number range.
Southern Rhodesia
A lighter version of the South African Class 4A 4-8-2 was built for the Rhodesia Railways (RR) by North British Locomotive Company (NBL) in 1921. It was designated the RR 10th Class and was used on the long section south of Bulawayo in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) through Bechuanaland Protectorate (now Botswana) to Mafeking in the Cape Province. Like the South African Class 4A, the RR 10th Class had a combustion chamber, the only RR locomotive class with this feature.
Between 1951 and 1953, 21 locomotives were built for RR by Henschel & Son to the design of the South African Class 19D, as their 19th class and 19C class. Their tenders were similar to the South African version's Torpedo type, but with plate frame instead of Buckeye bogies. One of these, the sole RR 19C class, was built as a condensing locomotive.
In 1955, four more, without superheating and numbered from 1 to 4, were built to the design of the South African Class 19D by NBL for the Wankie Colliery in Southern Rhodesia.
South Africa
Tank locomotives
Of the thirty classes of locomotives to see service on the South African Railways (SAR), four were tank locomotives.
The first locomotive in the world to be designed with this wheel arrangement was the Class D tank of the Natal Government Railways (NGR), the brain-child of Locomotive Superintendent William Milne and built by Dübs & Company. Altogether 100 of these locomotives were delivered in ten batches between 1888 and 1899. In 1912, they came into SAR stock and were designated Class A.
When the 4-10-2T Reid Tenwheelers of the NGR, designed by Locomotive Superintendent G.W. Reid, began to be withdrawn from mainline service for branch line and shunting duties c. 1909, they were gradually converted to a wheel arrangement by removing the fifth set of coupled wheels. In 1912, five such converted locomotives, originally built by Dübs between 1901 and 1903, were designated Class H2 on the SAR. The SAR converted many more Reid Tenwheelers to , but reclassified only the first three of these to Class H2, while the rest retained their Class H classification even after modification.
In 1902, the Imperial Military Railways placed 35 tank locomotives in service, built by Dübs and Neilson, Reid and Company to the specifications of the Reid Tenwheeler of the NGR. They became the Class E on the Central South African Railways, who converted six of them to tank locomotives. In 1912, the five survivors were designated Class H1 on the SAR.
In 1904, the NGR placed 25 Class E tank locomotives in service. It was the first locomotive to be designed for the NGR by locomotive superintendent D.A. Hendrie and was built by North British Locomotive Company (NBL). In 1912, these locomotives were designated Class G by the SAR.
Tender locomotives
Between 1909 and 1953, when the Class 25 and Class 25NC 4-8-4 Northern locomotives arrived on the scene, Mountain tender locomotives became the most popular goods locomotives on South African rails. Between 1906 and 1938 altogether 26 different classes of locomotives were acquired for mainline and branch line service.
In 1906, the NGR modified six of its Class B Mastodon locomotives, built by NBL in 1904, to Class Altered B locomotives in order to improve their stability on passenger trains. This made them the first tender locomotives in the world with a wheel arrangement. In 1912, they were classified as Class 1B by the SAR.
The SAR Class 3 originated on the NGR. Three variants were introduced between 1909 and 1912.
In 1909, the NGR commissioned the first of thirty Class B (1909) tender locomotives, also known as the Hendrie D. Designed by D.A. Hendrie to handle coal traffic on the upper Natal mainline and based on his altered Class B Mountain of 1906, the firebox was positioned to the rear of the coupled wheels to make an improved grate and ashpan possible. Although not the first tender locomotives designed and built as 4-8-2, they were the first examples of the most common 4-8-2 design. They were built by NBL in 1909 and 1910. In 1912, they were designated on the SAR.
In 1910, the NGR placed a single experimental Class B American D locomotive in service, built by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO). The locomotive was similar to the Class B Hendrie D and was nicknamed Maude Allan by the enginemen. In 1912, it became the sole Class 3A on the SAR.
In 1912, the SAR took delivery of ten Class 3B Mountain locomotives that had been ordered by the NGR the year before. Designed by Hendrie and built by NBL, these locomotives had plate frames, Walschaerts valve gear and Belpaire fireboxes and were the first of Hendrie's designs to have superheaters and piston valves instead of slide valves.
The Class 4 originated on the Cape Government Railways (CGR). Two variants were introduced in 1911 and 1913.
In 1911, the CGR placed two Mountain locomotives in service. Designed by chief locomotive superintendent H.M. Beatty as a heavy mixed traffic locomotive with Stephenson valve gear and that used saturated steam, they were built by NBL. They were not classified on the CGR but a year later, when they were taken onto the SAR roster, they were designated Class 4.
In 1913 and 1914, ten Class 4A locomotives were placed in service by the SAR. Built by NBL, it was an improved version of the predecessor Class 4, with a superheater and Walschaerts valve gear. Like their two forerunners, they were excellent steamers and, with the improvements, gave a much better performance.
Three Class 12 variants were introduced by the SAR between 1912 and 1920.
Between 1912 and 1922, the SAR placed 46 Class 12 locomotives in service. Designed by SAR chief mechanical engineer (CME) D.A. Hendrie for use in coal traffic on the line from Witbank to Germiston, they were the largest non-articulated locomotives in South Africa at the time. The first 26 were built by NBL between 1912 and 1915 and the remainder by Beyer, Peacock & Company (BP) in 1922.
Between 1919 and 1929, 67 Class 12A locomotives entered service. It was the final locomotive design by Hendrie and one of his finest. An improved and larger version of his Class 12, with larger diameter cylinders and a redesigned boiler that included a combustion chamber, it was superheated and had Walschaerts valve gear and a Belpaire firebox. Forty-eight were built by NBL between 1919 and 1929 and 19 by Henschel & Son in Germany in 1928 and 1929.
In 1920, the SAR placed thirty Class 12B locomotives in service, built to the Class 12 design by Baldwin Locomotive Works in the United States. They were very similar to the second and subsequent orders of the Class 12, but were classified separately as Class 12B, possibly merely because they were American built while the Class 12 was British built.
Four Class 14 variants were introduced by the SAR between 1913 and 1918.
Between 1913 and 1915, the SAR placed 45 Class 14 locomotives in service. Designed by Hendrie as a development of the Class 12, it was built by Robert Stephenson & Company. With coupled wheels, it was evolved as intermediate locomotive between the Class 3B with its coupled wheels and the Class 12 with its coupled wheels.
In 1914 and 1915, 41 Class 14A locomotives entered service. Also designed by Hendrie, it was a lighter locomotive for use on coastal lines and was built by NBL. Like the Class 14, it also had Walschaerts valve gear, a Belpaire firebox and was superheated, but it had a smaller boiler and smaller cylinders to reduce the axle loading.
In 1915, fifteen Class 14B locomotives entered service. Built by BP, its intended use was on the lower section of the Natal mainline where speeds were low with frequent stops, and Hendrie therefore designed them without superheaters. In service, the omission of superheating soon became controversial and, by 1927, all of them were converted to superheating and reclassified to Class 14. Of all the locomotives introduced by Hendrie, the Class 14B was the only one to fall short of expectations.
Between 1918 and 1922, 73 Class 14C locomotives were ordered from the Montreal Locomotive Works (MLW), in Canada, as a result of wartime disruption in Europe. While built to Hendrie's specifications, they were designed by MLW, resulting in a locomotive with some typical North American characteristics and with American style high running boards. The locomotives were delivered in four batches, all four with different engine weights and maximum axle loads. Through re-boilerings and re-balancings during its service life, this single class eventually ended up as six different locomotive classes.
Seven Class 15 variants were introduced by the SAR between 1914 and 1938.
In 1914, ten Class 15 locomotives entered service, built by NBL and designed by Hendrie as large mixed traffic locomotives with larger coupled wheels for use in the Orange Free State, where grades and curvature were less severe than on the coastal sections. To reduce the weight on the trailing wheels, steel fireboxes were used, a feature that became standard on large locomotives, but necessitated the introduction of water treatment plants in some parts of the country to prevent corrosion.
Between 1914 and 1925, the SAR placed 119 Class 15A locomotives in service, delivered in ten batches from three manufacturers. Of the whole Hendrie-designed Mountain family, this class proved to be his most useful and most numerous group of locomotives. Being wartime, initial production and delivery occurred sporadically. NBL delivered 68 between 1914 and 1921, BP delivered thirty in 1920 and 1921, and J.A. Maffei delivered the last 21 in 1925.
Between 1918 and 1922, thirty Class 15B locomotives entered service. As a result of wartime disruption in Europe, they were ordered from MLW in Canada. They were built to the general specifications of the Class 15, but with bar frames and some typical North American features, and they were equipped with Belpaire fireboxes with combustion chambers.
In 1925 and 1926, the SAR placed twelve Class 15C locomotives in service, built by Baldwin Locomotive Works and conforming to SAR requirements as far as practicable, but also incorporating the latest American railway engineering practices. They introduced several new features to the SAR, such as top feeds to the boiler, self-cleaning smokeboxes, Sellar's drifting valves and grease lubrication. Their fireboxes were equipped with siphon tubes to support the brick arch and to improve water circulation. The locomotive's size quickly earned it the nickname Big Bill.
Between 1926 and 1930, 84 Class 15CA locomotives entered service. It was a redesigned version of the Class 15C, with the frames widened under the firebox by means of a bridle casting. Twenty-three were built by ALCO in 1926, four by Baldwin in 1929, ten by Società Italiana Ernesto Breda of Milan in Italy in 1929 and 47 by NBL between 1928 and 1930.
Between 1935 and 1937, the SAR placed 44 Class 15E locomotives in service. It was a refinement of the Class 15C and Class 15CA and was designed by CME A.G. Watson, incorporating many of the improvements that had been developed by him, two of which were a vastly enlarged Watson Standard boiler and a Watson cab with a sloping front. Twenty were built by Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns (RSH) in 1935, sixteen by Henschel in 1936, and eight by Berliner Maschinenbau in 1937. The locomotives had poppet valve gear and were fast, even though some trouble was initially experienced with the gear in the reverse position.
Between 1938 and 1946, 255 Class 15F locomotives were placed in service, making it the most numerous steam locomotive class in SAR service. It was similar to the Class 15E with a Watson Standard No. 3B boiler and a Watson cab, but with Walschaerts valve gear. It was designed by CME W.A.J Day and built in four batches over a period of eight years spanning World War II. In 1938, seven were built by Berliner, fourteen by Henschel and 44 by North British Locomotive Company. Locomotive building was interrupted by the war, but because of a critical motive power shortage that developed during the war, manufacturing was resumed even before hostilities had ceased. In 1944, production started with thirty locomotives by Beyer, Peacock & Company, followed by sixty by NBL in 1945. The final batch of 100 was built by NBL in 1946 and 1947. The pre-war Class 15Fs were hand stoked and were delivered without smoke deflectors, while the post-war locomotives were built with mechanical stokers, smoke deflectors and vacuum brakes on the coupled wheels as well as the tenders.
Five Class 19 variants were introduced by the SAR between 1928 and 1937.
In 1928, the SAR placed four Class 19 locomotives in service. It was a lighter branchline version of the classes 15C and 15CA mainline locomotives, built to the basic design of test engineer M.M. Loubser as requested by CME Colonel F.R. Collins DSO. Built by Berliner in Germany, they were superheated, built on bar frames and used Walschaerts valve gear.
In 1929, 36 Class 19A locomotives entered service. It was a later model of the Class 19, but redesigned by Collins to achieve a lighter axle loading by reducing the coupled wheel diameter from , reducing the cylinder diameter from and by using a smaller boiler. They were built by Swiss Locomotive & Machine Works (SLM).
In 1930, fourteen Class 19B locomotives entered service. Built in Germany by Berliner, it was virtually identical to the Class 19 apart from the wheelbase of the front bogie, which had been increased from to to improve the clearance between the cylinders and the bogie wheels.
Fifty Class 19C locomotives entered service in 1935, built by NBL to the design of the Class 19B, but with rotary cam poppet valve gear and Watson Standard No. 1A boilers. It had a larger superheater than the Class 19B and was equipped with a Watson cab with a sloping front that, like the Watson Standard boiler, was to become standard on later SAR steam locomotive classes. In a break with prior custom, the ash pan and running boards were affixed to the locomotive frame instead of to the boiler to facilitate easier removal of the boiler for repairs.
Between 1937 and 1949, 235 Class 19D locomotives entered service, with the final development of the Class 19 series of locomotives having been done in 1937 by CME W.A.J. Day. The Class 19D, nicknamed Dolly, was very similar to its predecessor Class 19C, but with piston valves and Walschaerts valve gear instead of RC poppet gear. The locomotives were built in batches by several locomotive manufacturers. In 1937 and 1938, sixty were built by Friedrich Krupp AG and another sixty by the Borsig Lokomotiv Werke. In 1938, Škoda Works in Czechoslovakia built fifteen before locomotive building was interrupted by the Second World War. In 1947, fifty were built by Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns, and the final batch of fifty was delivered by NBL in 1949. The NBL locomotives were delivered with Type MX Torpedo tenders with cylindrical water tanks that ran on three-axle Buckeye bogies.
In 1938 and 1939, the SAR placed 136 Class 23 locomotives in service, its last and largest Mountain locomotive. Designed by Day, it was intended as a general utility locomotive capable of operating on rail and was built in two batches by Berliner Maschinenbau and Henschel & Son in Germany. The original order in 1938 was for twenty locomotives, of which Berliner built seven and Henschel thirteen. However, the urgency brought about by the rapidly deteriorating political climate in Europe at the time led to a further 116 locomotives being ordered even before the first batch could be delivered and tested. Of these, Henschel built 85 and Berliner 31. The last locomotive of this second order was delivered in August 1939, just one month before the outbreak of the Second World War. Since they were intended for working in the arid Karoo, they were equipped with very large tenders with a high water capacity that rode on six-wheeled bogies.
Spain
Spain had more than 200 Mountain locomotives, known as the 241 type, in five classes.
The first type to be introduced, although earlier by only a few weeks, was the NORTE 4000 class, 4001–4047 in 1925 and 4049–4066 later. This was a huge four-cylinder compound machine with a working order weight and coupled wheels, a diameter that was believed to be ideal for passenger locomotives in the mountainous Peninsula. It performed very well on heavy express trains from Madrid to the French border in Irun. Although built in Spain, the type was of German design.
Compañía de los Ferrocarriles de Madrid a Zaragoza y Alicante (MZA) commissioned the 1700 type (1701–1795), built by La Maquinista Terrestre y Marítima (MTM) in Barcelona. It was a rude two-cylinder simple expansion locomotive, also with coupled wheels and slightly lighter than its NORTE counterpart, with the first ones of 1925 at 159.5 tonnes and the last ones of 1930 at 163.44 tonnes.
A controversy arose in Spain between the defenders of these two types. The 4000 was slightly more powerful, but the simplicity and reliability of the Spanish-designed 1700 was preferred.
The MZA commissioned an enhanced 1700 type, designed with a streamlined casing á la mode and designated the 1800 type. The Spanish Civil War interrupted construction and the ten machines were only completed after the war was ended in 1939. Although well designed and good performers in theory, they lacked the advantages of streamline casing and especially suffered from problems associated with the high-pressure boiler that needed specially designed lubricators that were not available in the impoverished post-war Spain.
The NORTE launched the 4648 just before RENFE was established in 1941. It was an enhanced 4600 type with new designed cylinders after the proposals of André Chapelon. The locomotive was slightly more powerful than her sisters and RENFE commissioned 28 more to be built between 1946 and 1948. The increased capacity of the new machines never reached its full potential, however, due to the lack in maintenance typical of post-war Spain.
In 1944, RENFE commissioned the 2700 type to run on former MZA lines. The type used the high-capacity boiler designed for the 2-10-2 Santa Fe type of 1942. They were very powerful machines with weights exceeding 204 tonnes and with coupled wheels. They performed well and were appreciated by the crews who called them Bonitas (prettys). A coal-fired and stoker-equipped design, they were converted to oil-firing in the 1950s. Construction ceased in 1952, with 57 locomotives built. The last one was retired in 1973. One is preserved (241-2238F) in Móra la Nova (Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain) for the APPFI enthusiast association, with the intention to restore it to running order.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's entire population of Mountain locomotives consists of Hercules and Samson, the two gauge locomotives of the Romney, Hythe & Dymchurch Railway in Kent, England. The locomotives were built by Davey Paxman in 1927.
The Southern Railway considered using 4-8-2s for express trains before changing to the 2-8-2 and eventually 4-6-2 design, leading to the Bulleid pacifics. The London and North Eastern Railway had designs for 4-8-2s, but during WWII the British government forbid the development of express passenger locomotives, so the plans were dropped. Following the LNER chief mechanical engineer Sir Nigel Gresley’s death from illness in 1941, neither Edward Thompson nor Arthur Peppercorn resumed the 4-8-2 project, and after the United Kingdom nationalized private railway companies into British Railways in 1948, only 4-6-2s were pursued as express locomotives with the BR Standard Class 6 and 7 (though they were classified as mixed-traffic), as well as rebuilt versions of the aforementioned 4-6-2s of Bulleid’s design, which would last until dieselization.
United States
The was most popular on the North American continent. When the 4-6-2 Pacific fleets were becoming over-burdened as passenger trains grew in length and weight, the first North American locomotives were built by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO) for the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway (C&O) in 1911. It is possible that the "Mountain" name was originated by C&O, after the Allegheny Mountains where their first locomotives were built to work. ALCO combined the traction of the eight-coupled 2-8-2 Mikado with the excellent tracking qualities of the Pacific's four-wheel leading truck. Although C&O intended their new Mountains for passenger service, the type also proved ideal for the new, faster freight services that railroads in the United States were introducing. Many locomotives were therefore built for dual service.
A total of about 2,200 Mountain type locomotives were built for 41 American railroads. With 600 locomotives, the largest user in the United States was the New York Central Railroad (NYC), who named theirs the Mohawk type.
Other large users in the United States were the Pennsylvania Railroad with 224 Class M1, Class M1a and Class M1b locomotives that were used mostly for fast freight service, the Florida East Coast with ninety passenger locomotives, the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad with seventy, and the Southern Railway with fifty-eight. The heaviest s in the world were the twenty-three St. Louis–San Francisco Railway 4400 class locomotives, built by the railroad between 1939 and 1945, using boilers from older 2-10-2 locomotives, riding cast frames, and weighing over 449,000 pounds. These were a follow-up to the road's 4300 class, similarly rebuilt at the road's Springfield, Missouri shops with some parts from 2-10-2s and new cast frames, but with new 250 psi boilers; these appear to be the most powerful Mountain types, tested by the railway's dynamometer at 4800 horsepower.
The Southern Pacific ordered a total of seventy-five MT-class 4-8-2s from ALCO for both freight and passenger service.
One notable example is SLSF 1522, one of thirty T-54 class Mountains built by Baldwin in 1926 and became one of two American 4-8-2 to have had an excursion career with the other being Illinois Central 2613. It ran excursions between 1988 until 2002, when rising insurance rates and a flue sheet cracked beyond repair forced it back into retirement. 1522 is now on display at the National Museum of Transportation in St Louis.
Original buyers
Preservation by country
Some of the more notable preserved Mountains worldwide are listed here by country of origin.
United States of America
Grand Trunk Western 6039: On display at Steamtown National Historic Site in Scranton, Pennsylvania.
Great Northern 2507: On display at the Wishram depot in Wishram, Washington.
Great Northern 2523: On display at the Kandiyohi County Historical Society in Willmar, Minnesota.
Illinois Central 2500: On display at the Age of Steam Memorial in Fairview Park in Centralia, Illinois.
Illinois Central 2542: On display at the McComb Railroad Museum in McComb, Mississippi.
New York Central 2933: On display at the National Museum of Transportation in Kirkwood, Missouri.
New York Central 3001: On display at the National New York Central Railroad Museum in Elkhart, Indiana. It is the largest surviving New York Central steam locomotive.
Pennsylvania Railroad 6755: On display at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania in Strasburg, Pennsylvania.
St. Louis–San Francisco 1501: On display at Schuman Park in Rolla, Missouri.
St. Louis–San Francisco 1519: On display at the Railroad Museum of Oklahoma in Enid, Oklahoma.
St. Louis–San Francisco 1522: On display at Museum of Transportation in Kirkwood, Missouri. Restored in 1988 and operated in excursion service until 2002.
St. Louis–San Francisco 1526: On display at the Museum of the Great Plains in Lawton, Oklahoma.
St. Louis–San Francisco 1527: On display at Langan Park in Mobile, Alabama.
St. Louis–San Francisco 1529: On display at Frisco Park in Amory, Mississippi.
References
External links
8,4-8-2
|
417211
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20Elam
|
Jason Elam
|
Jason Elam (born March 8, 1970) is an American former professional football player who was a placekicker in the National Football League (NFL), primarily with the Denver Broncos. He was selected by Denver in the third round of the 1993 NFL Draft and played 15 seasons with the Broncos and two with the Atlanta Falcons.
A three-time Pro Bowl selection, Elam won two Super Bowl rings with the Broncos and was tied with Tom Dempsey, Sebastian Janikowski, and David Akers for the longest field goal in NFL history at 63 yards. That record was broken by another Bronco, Matt Prater, in 2013 with a 64-yard field goal, which was then broken by Justin Tucker in 2021 with a 66-yard field goal.
Early years
Elam attended Brookwood High School in Snellville, Georgia, and lettered in football, swimming and track. In football, he was a first-team all-county honoree and second-team all-state.
College career
In four years (1988-1992) as the placekicker for the University of Hawaii at Mānoa football team, Elam scored the third-most points in NCAA history (397) and tied for the second-most field goals kicked (79). He held the record for all-time leading scorer in the Western Athletic Conference until 2010 and was a three-time All-WAC selection. He is Hawaii's career leader in field goals made and field goal percentage. Elam majored in communications at the University of Hawaii.
Professional career
Denver Broncos
Elam was drafted by the Broncos in the third round (70th pick overall) of the 1993 NFL Draft.
Elam holds NFL records for best extra point conversion percentage (.995), most consecutive seasons with at least 100 points (15), fastest to 300 successful field goals, and fastest to 1,600 and 1,700 points. Elam was also the first player in NFL history to score at least 200 points against three or more teams: the San Diego Chargers (222), Oakland Raiders (215), and Kansas City Chiefs (203). Elam is tied with Steve Christie, Jason Hanson, and Jim Breech for the most overtime field goals with nine. Elam was named to the Denver Broncos 50th Anniversary Team in 2009.
1994
Elam scored 119 points throughout his rookie season, placing him fourth in the AFC (seventh in NFL) for points scored, while his 26 field goals tied for the fourth-highest total in team history. Elam was successful on four of six field goal attempts longer than 50 yards. His 54-yarder against San Diego Chargers was the fourth-longest in team history.
1995
In 1995, he finished tied for third in the NFL in scoring with 132 points and tied for second in field goals made with 31 as he was voted to his first Pro Bowl. On the season, he was 31 for 38 (.816) on field-goal attempts and 39 for 39 on extra-point attempts. His breakthrough season also included second-team All-Pro honors from both Associated Press and All-AFC honors from Pro Football Weekly. He set the tone for his stellar season in the opener vs. Buffalo Bills, tying a Broncos single-game record with five successful field goals in six attempts (22, 52, 20, 38 and 37 yards). His 56-yarder at Houston was the longest of his career and the second longest in franchise history behind Steinfort 57-yarder vs. Washington in 1980. Elam made a franchise-record 13 consecutive field goals during the middle of the season, beginning with a 30-yarder at Seattle Seahawks and ending with a 35-yarder vs. the Chargers. On December 24 vs. the Oakland Raiders, Elam scored 11 points, including the game-winning 37-yard field goal with 48 seconds remaining, in Denver's 31–28 victory. It was the second time in 1995 that Elam had kicked a game-winning field goal in the final minute.
1996
In 1996, he converted 21 of 28 field goal attempts with a .750 percentage and all 46 extra-point attempts to lead the Broncos with 109 points. He also tied the team record for most extra points in a game with six against the Baltimore Ravens in a 45–34 Broncos win. He connected on his only 50-yard-plus field goal of the 1996 season at San Diego in the regular-season finale.
1997
In the 1997 season, he converted 26 of 36 field-goal attempts (.722) and tied his own franchise record for extra points in a season by going a perfect 46 of 46. His 124 total points on the season ranked second in the AFC (fourth in the NFL), and his 46 extra points led the AFC and were second in the NFL. During the postseason, he was perfect, converting all 15 extra-point attempts and both field goal attempts of 43 and 51 yards. His 51-yard field goal in Super Bowl XXXII against the Green Bay Packers was the second longest in Super Bowl history since Steve Christie's 54-yarder for the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII as well as the longest in Broncos postseason history. He passed the 500-point plateau with his final extra-point attempt at Seattle, becoming only the third Bronco in history to do so and the fastest in terms of games played (66). He also kicked the game-winning 33-yard field goal in overtime at Buffalo, the second time in his career that Elam had won a game for the Broncos in overtime. He tied his own franchise record with five field goals at Kansas City Chiefs, matching the standard achieved previously by himself.
1998
In 1998, Elam was selected to his second Pro Bowl and was named second-team All-NFL by the Associated Press and All-AFC by Pro Football Weekly and Football News. He enjoyed his finest season statistically in 1998, converting 23 of 27 field goal attempts for a career-best and franchise-record percentage of .852. He also made all 58 extra-point attempts for 127 total points.
On October 25, 1998, Elam kicked a 63-yard field goal to end the first half against the Jacksonville Jaguars, tying Tom Dempsey's 28-year-old record for the longest field goal in NFL history. His cleats from the game are currently on display in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Elam also scored the 20,000th televised point on ABC Monday Night Football. He tied for third in the AFC (tied for fifth in the NFL) in scoring by kickers, and his 58 extra-point conversions ranked second in the NFL while also representing a team record for a single season. He also made six of eight field goal attempts and all 11 extra-point attempts for a team-leading 29 points in three postseason contests to move into second place in all-time postseason scoring by a Bronco. Elam converted two of four field goal attempts in Super Bowl XXXIII versus Atlanta Falcons and all four extra points for 10 points in the Broncos 34–19 win, earning his second Super Bowl Ring in his career. Against the Dallas Cowboys, he tied a franchise record that he already shared with four other players by converting six extra-point attempts. He set a franchise record for consecutive field goals made at Kansas City on Monday Night Football, converting his 14th in a row to top Rich Karlis' previous standard of 13 (1984–85), and he ran his streak to 19 consecutive before having a 37-yard attempt blocked vs. the Chiefs.
1999
In 1999, he converted all 29 extra-point attempts and was 29 of 36 (.806) on field-goal attempts to account for 116 points on the season, tied for fifth in the AFC and tied for sixth in the league. He was 5-7 on field-goal attempts between 50 and 59 yards in 1999 to improve his career percentage from that range to 63.7 percent (21–33). He was successful from 50 yards at Kansas City, 51 yards against the New York Jets, 55 yards at San Diego, 53 yards against Oakland and 50 against San Diego again. The 55-yarder at San Diego was the third longest of his career, the effort earned Elam AFC Special Teams Player of the Week honors for Week 9 as he made four field goals and scored 15 points in the game, his highest single-game totals for both categories since setting career highs with five field goals and 16 points at Kansas on November 16, 1997. Elam matched the four field goal effort vs. Oakland on Monday Night Football with one of the most pressure-filled conversions of his career from 53 yards with seven seconds remaining to tie the score at 21 and send the game to overtime. It proved to be the eighth game-winning or game-saving field goal of his career as the Broncos went on to win 27–21.
2000
In 2000, Elam was 18 of 24 (.750) on field-goal attempts and 49 of 49 on extra-point attempts to account for 103 points on the season, 10th most in the AFC. With his three PAT attempts at the New York Jets, he passed Jim Turner for most PAT attempts in Denver history and became the first Bronco to make 200 field goals in a career with his successful boot from 26 yards vs. San Diego. His five extra points at New Orleans gave him an NFL record for consecutive extra points, breaking Norm Johnson's standard of 301 (Elam finished the season having made 313 consecutive PATs).
2001
In 2001, he was voted to his third Pro Bowl was also named the NFL 2001 Special Teams Player of the Year by the NFL Alumni and voted second-team All-NFL. He led the NFL in field goals with a franchise record-tying 31 while also tying for third in the league with 124 points. The AFC Special Teams Player of the Month for November, Elam converted a franchise-record 86.1 percent of his field goals (31 of 36) and all 31 extra-point attempts to extend his NFL record for consecutive extra points to 344. Elam enjoyed a record-setting night at Oakland, hitting two field goals, including a 39-yarder that gave him his 1,000th career point to make him the 30th NFL player to reach that plateau as well as extend his franchise scoring record. He scored 14 points against San Diego with a season-high four field goals, hitting from 25, 29, 26 and 33 yards, as well as two PATs.
For the second time in three games, he scored a season-high 14 points at Dallas, hitting four field goals (24, 50, 46 and 28 yds.) and both extra-point opportunities. He was named AFC Special Teams Player of the Month for November when he led all NFL kickers with 38 points and 11 field goals. He converted 11 of 12 field-goal attempts (.917) during the month, including two from beyond 45 yards, tied his career single-season high with his 31st field goal of the year in the season finale vs. the Indianapolis Colts, matching his mark from 1995.
2002
In the 2002 season, he converted 26 of 36 field-goal attempts (.722) and 42 of 43 (.977) extra-point attempts to account for a team-leading 120 points, marking his 10th consecutive season with 100 or more points. Also in 2002, he tied his career-high with five field goals (on five attempts) vs. the Miami Dolphins, including a 55-yard kick. He also tied a career-high by scoring 16 points in the contest, he made all three field-goal attempts at Kansas City, including the game-winner from 25 yards in overtime. It was his 11th career game-winning or game-saving field goal and his third in an overtime situation, Elam, who at the time owned the NFL record for consecutive extra points (371, later broken by Matt Stover), saw the streak end against Indianapolis Colts.
2003
In 2003, he played all 16 regular-season games and converted 27 of 31 field goal attempts (.871) and all 39 extra point attempts to account for 120 points, third most in the AFC (fourth in NFL) among kickers. In the season opener at the Cincinnati Bengals, he made all three field goal attempts (51, 27, 39) and totaled 12 points to eclipse the 1,200-point plateau (1,205), doing so in fewer games than any player in NFL history (157 games). Against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Elam made his first game-winning field goal of the season when he connected on a 47-yarder as time expired. With the field goal, he surpassed Jim Breech and moved into 19th place on the NFL’s all-time scoring list with 1,249 points. He added three field goals, including a 51-yarder, against the Cleveland Browns and became the fastest player in NFL history to reach 1,300 points in 170 games and the first player in NFL history to score more than 100 points in each of his first 11 seasons. He earned AFC Special Teams Player of the Week honors. It marked the first time in Elam’s career that he made field goals to send a game to overtime and then win the game in overtime. The overtime field goal was his sixth career “walk-off” field goal (four OT, two at the end of regulation).
2004
In 2004, Elam connected on 29 of 34 field-goal attempts (.853) with a long of 52 yards for the Broncos. He accounted for 129 of Denver 381 points in 2004 (87 points on field goals, 42 on PATs) for his 12th consecutive 100-point season. Also in 2004, he notched in 300th career field goal against the Carolina Panthers, becoming the fastest kicker in NFL history to reach that mark and one of only 16 kickers with 300 or more field goals. He helped Denver overcome a stingy defense vs. the Tampa Bay Buccaneers by hitting all three field goals that day to earn AFC Special Teams Player of the Week honors for the fourth time in his career. In addition to making a 50-yard field goal against the Buccaneers in the second quarter, he added a clutch fourth-quarter 23-yarder to secure a win that marked his 16th career game-winning or game-tying field goal. Elam took over sole possession of second place on the NFL all-time consecutive scoring streak list (187 games with at least one point) vs. the Tennessee Titans, making three of four field goals and all four PATs against the Titans while passing Matt Bahr for 15th place on the NFL all-time scoring list.
2005
In 2005, he connected on 24 of 32 field goals for a .750 percentage and 43 of 44 PATs to total 115 points that ranked fifth in the AFC and ninth in the NFL among kickers. He also surpassed the 1,500-point plateau faster than any player in league history, doing so in just 197 games. With his performance versus the New England Patriots in an AFC Divisional Playoff Game, he became the Broncos postseason leader in field goals (15) and points (84). He converted both extra-point attempts and connected on field goals of 41 and 45 yards in the home opener against San Diego. The 41-yarder came with five seconds remaining in regulation and gave the Broncos a 20-17 win, marking the 18th game-winning field goal of his career. He set career highs in PAT attempts and conversions in a game by connecting on all seven extra-point attempts vs. the Philadelphia Eagles. He also reached the 1,500-point plateau faster than any player in league history as he eclipsed the milestone with an extra point in the second quarter against the Oakland Raiders in his 197th career game. On Thanksgiving Day against the Dallas Cowboys, Elam connected on his only field-goal attempt of 24 yards in overtime as well as all three PATs. The overtime field goal was the 19th game-winning field goal of his career.
2006
In 2006, his 14th season with the Broncos, Elam moved into seventh place on the league’s all-time field goals made list (368) and ninth on the league all-time points scored list (1,672) as he connected on 27 of 29 field goal attempts (.931), setting a Denver single-season record for accuracy, along with all 34 PATs. His 115 points ranked ninth in the NFL, and he became the first kicker in league history to post at least 100 points in each of his first 14 seasons. Elam scored at least once in every game to extend his scoring streak to 220 games, in every game of his career, marking the second-longest such streak in league history. He accounted for all of the Broncos points as he connected on three of four field goals, including a 39-yarder in overtime, in the home opener versus Kansas City. He tied Eddie Murray for eighth on the league all-time points scored list with 352 successful field goals as he hit his lone attempt against Indianapolis and became the fastest player in NFL history to reach the 1,600-point mark in 211 games. Against the Arizona Cardinals, he moved into a tie with Fred Cox (455) for twelfth in league history in field goal attempts and passed Nick Lowery (562) to move into seventh place in league history in extra points made by making three field goals.
2007
In his last season as a Denver Bronco, he scored in all 16 games, connecting on 27 of 31 field goal tries and all 33 extra point attempts for 114 points. Against the San Diego Chargers, he surpassed the record of 233 games played as a Bronco by John Elway. He hit three game-winning field goals on the last play of those games as well as hitting one as time expired to send a game into overtime. He nailed the game-winning 42-yard field goal as time expired for the 21st game-winning or game-saving kick of his career in the season opener against the Buffalo Bills. He earned AFC Special Teams Player of the Week for his performance in the home opener as he connected on field goals of 23, 20 and 23 yards and both extra points vs. Oakland, then made the winning field goal in OT. He reached the 1,700-point plateau faster than any player (224 games) as he tallied eight points (two FG and two PAT) at the Indianapolis Colts and connected on field goals from 21 and 39 yards as well as all four extra point attempts on Monday Night Football vs. the Tennessee Titans and moved into sixth all-time in points scored in the NFL with 1,746. He hit both field goal attempts of 43 and 30 yards, including the overtime winner in the season finale vs. the Minnesota Vikings.
While with the Broncos, Elam reached seventh place on the NFL's all-time points scored list. He reached that position with a game-winning 48-yard field goal on October 21, 2007, giving him 1,712 career points, converted four extra points and a 49-yard field goal on Sunday Night Football vs. Pittsburgh. He connected on attempts from 45 and 21 yards as well as an extra point on Monday Night Football against the Green Bay Packers. His 21-yard field goal against the Packers was his 24th either game-winning or game-saving field goal as it tied the score at 13 as regulation time expired. He booted an extra point and missed a 48-yard field goal against the Detroit Lions. The overtime kick against the Vikings was also the 12th walk-off kick of his career. His two successful field goals extended his streak of successful kicks to 15, the third-longest streak in team history. He also moved into sole possession of seventh place in field goal attempts (490) and became just the sixth player in league history to make 600 extra points. Elam also kicked four game-winning field goals, becoming the first player to do so since at least 1990.
Atlanta Falcons
2008
On March 21, 2008, the Atlanta Falcons signed Elam to a four-year, $9 million contract with $3.3 million guaranteed. Against the Detroit Lions, he split the uprights on both attempts, his first two in a Falcons uniform. Elam extended his streak of consecutive field goals to 17 and also notched his 38th field goal of 50-plus yards. Against Tampa Bay he made three field goals, all of Atlanta's points in the game.
In week 6 against the Chicago Bears, Elam made five of six field goal attempts from 29, 48, 32, 41, and 48 yards. Chicago came off a miscue with a 77-yard touchdown drive to take a 20-19 lead with 11 seconds to play. Coming off a 26-yard strike from rookie quarterback Matt Ryan to Michael Jenkins, Elam's kick of 48 yards was converted with one second left in the game to clinch a Falcons victory. Along with adding one PAT, Elam accounted for 16 points. His two kicks of 48 yards tied for the second-longest that season. Elam missed a kick from 33 yards in the fourth quarter, which ended a streak of 29 consecutive field goals dating back to the 2007 season. His five field goals made, six field goals attempted and 16 points all tied career-highs.
2009
In 2009, Elam was only eight for 15 in field goals over 30 yards. He was waived on December 1, 2009.
Retirement
On March 30, 2010, Elam signed a one-day ceremonial contract with Denver so he could retire as a Bronco.
Career regular season statistics
Career high/best bolded
Franchise Records
's NFL off-season, Jason Elam held at least 8 Broncos franchise records, including:
Extra Points: career (601), game (5 on 2000-10-15 CLE; with Connor Barth), playoffs (39), playoff season (15 in 1997), playoff game (5 on 1999-01-09 MIA)
Field Goals: career (395), season (31 in 1995, 2001), playoffs (15)
Personal life
Elam has a wife, Tammy (a former Broncos cheerleader), four sons (Jason Jr., Joshua Matthew Jackson Asher, and Jude Dawson) and two daughters (Jordan Noel and Julianna Grace).
Books
Elam published his first book in January 2008, titled Monday Night Jihad. He co-wrote it with Steve Yohn, currently pastor at Strasburg Community Church in Strasburg, CO. The book is an action-adventure tale about football and an attempt to stop a terrorist plot.
In a statement issued by his publisher, Elam said, "The genesis of Monday Night Jihad goes back almost 10 years...My brother kept a journal of all the crazy football stories I'd told him over the years. About a year-and-a-half ago, I began to think what if I was able combine all those quirky stories with a terrorist element to create an action-adventure story. Through this story, I want to bring out why people of strong conviction do what they do."
In December 2008, Elam and Yohn released "Blown Coverage", the second book in the Riley Covington Thriller series. In December 2009 "Blackout", the third book was released, and the series was completed with "Inside Threat", released June 2011.
Other media
Jason and his wife were featured in a 2012 episode of Buying Alaska where they purchased an island home in Sitka, Alaska, to live in with their family.
References
External links
Monday Night Jihad Official Website
Atlanta Falcons bio
Denver Broncos bio
1970 births
Living people
People from Fort Walton Beach, Florida
Sportspeople from Okaloosa County, Florida
Players of American football from Florida
Sportspeople from Snellville, Georgia
Players of American football from Gwinnett County, Georgia
American football placekickers
American Conference Pro Bowl players
Hawaii Rainbow Warriors football players
Denver Broncos players
Atlanta Falcons players
|
417216
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Scorpion%20%28SSN-589%29
|
USS Scorpion (SSN-589)
|
USS Scorpion (SSN-589) was a Skipjack-class nuclear-powered submarine that served in the United States Navy, and the sixth vessel, and second submarine, of the U.S. Navy to carry that name.
Scorpion was lost with all hands on 22 May 1968. She is one of two nuclear submarines the U.S. Navy has lost, the other being . She was one of the four mysterious submarine disappearances in 1968, the others being the Israeli submarine , the , and the .
The wreckage of the boat remains in the North Atlantic Ocean with all its armaments and nuclear reactor.
Service
Scorpions keel was laid down 20 August 1958 by General Dynamics Electric Boat in Groton, Connecticut. She was launched 19 December 1959, sponsored by Elizabeth S. Morrison, the daughter of the last commander of the World War II-era , Lt. Cdr. Maximilian Gmelich Schmidt (that ship was also lost with all hands, in 1944). Scorpion was commissioned 29 July 1960, with Commander Norman B. Bessac in command. (See USS George Washington for information on how that submarine had originally been laid down with the name and hull number, USS Scorpion SSN-589, intended to be an attack submarine.)
Service: 1960–1967
Assigned to Submarine Squadron 6, Division 62, Scorpion departed New London, Connecticut, on 24 August for a two-month European deployment. During that time, she participated in exercises with 6th Fleet units and NATO-member navies. After returning to New England in late October, she trained along the Eastern Seaboard until May 1961. On 9 August 1961, she returned to New London, moving to Norfolk, Virginia, a month later. In 1962, she earned a Navy Unit Commendation.
Norfolk was Scorpions homeport for the remainder of her career, and she specialized in developing nuclear submarine warfare tactics. Varying roles from hunter to hunted, she participated in exercises along the Atlantic Coast, and in Bermuda and Puerto Rico operating areas. From June 1963 to May 1964, she underwent an overhaul at Charleston. She resumed duty in late spring, but regular duties were again interrupted from 4 August to 8 October for a transatlantic patrol. In the spring of 1965, she conducted a similar patrol in European waters.
In 1966, she deployed for special operations. After completing those assignments, her commanding officer received a Navy Commendation Medal for outstanding leadership, foresight, and professional skill. Other Scorpion officers and crewmen were also cited for meritorious achievement. Scorpion is reputed to have entered an inland Russian sea during a "Northern Run" in 1966, where the crew filmed a Soviet missile launch through her periscope before fleeing from Soviet Navy ships.
Overhaul: 1967
On 1 February 1967, Scorpion entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard for a refueling overhaul. Instead of a much-needed complete overhaul, though, she received only emergency repairs to get quickly back on duty. The preferred SUBSAFE program required increased submarine overhaul times, from 9 to 36 months. SUBSAFE required intensive vetting of submarine component quality, coupled with various improvements and intensified structural inspections – particularly of hull welding, using ultrasonic testing.
Cold War pressures had prompted U.S. Submarine Force Atlantic (SUBLANT) officers to cut corners. The last overhaul of the Scorpion cost one-seventh of those performed on other nuclear submarines at the same time. This was the result of concerns about the "high percentage of time offline" for nuclear attack submarines, estimated at 40% of total available duty time.
Scorpions original "full overhaul" was reduced in scope. Long-overdue SUBSAFE work, such as a new central valve control system, was not performed. Crucially, her emergency system was not corrected for the same problems that destroyed Thresher. While Charleston Naval Shipyard claimed the emergency main ballast tank blow (EMBT) system worked as-is, SUBLANT claimed it did not, and their EMBT was "tagged out" (listed as unusable). Perceived problems with overhaul duration led to a delay on all SUBSAFE work in 1967.
Chief of Naval Operations Admiral David Lamar McDonald approved Scorpions reduced overhaul on 17 June 1966. On 20 July, McDonald deferred SUBSAFE extensions, otherwise deemed essential since 1963.
Service: 1967–1968
In late October 1967, Scorpion started refresher training and weapons-system acceptance tests, and was given a new commanding officer, Francis Slattery. Following type training out of Norfolk, Virginia, she got underway on 15 February 1968 for a Mediterranean Sea deployment. She operated with the 6th Fleet into May and then headed west for home.
Scorpion suffered several mechanical malfunctions, including a chronic problem with freon leakage from refrigeration systems. An electrical fire occurred in an escape trunk when a water leak shorted out a shore power connection. No evidence was found that Scorpions speed was restricted in May 1968, although it was conservatively observing a depth limitation of , due to the incomplete implementation of planned post-Thresher safety checks and modifications.
After departing the Mediterranean on 16 May, Scorpion dropped two men at Naval Station Rota in Spain, one for a family emergency and one for health reasons. Some U.S. ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) operated from the U.S. Naval base Rota; USS Scorpion is thought to have provided noise cover for when they both departed to the Atlantic. Along with Soviet intelligence trawlers, Soviet fast nuclear attack submarines were attempting to detect and follow the U.S. submarines going out of Rota, in this case, two fast 32-knot Soviet hunter-killer subs.
Scorpion was then detailed to observe Soviet naval activities in the Atlantic in the vicinity of the Azores. An Echo II-class submarine was operating with this Soviet task force, as well as a Russian guided-missile destroyer. Having observed and listened to the Soviet units, Scorpion prepared to head back to Naval Station Norfolk.
Disappearance: May 1968
Scorpion attempted to send radio traffic to Naval Station Rota for an unusually long period beginning shortly before midnight on 20 May and ending after midnight on 21 May, but was only able to reach a Navy communications station in Nea Makri, Greece, which forwarded the messages to COMSUBLANT. Lt. John Roberts was handed Commander Slattery's last message that he was closing on the Soviet submarine and research group, running at a steady at a depth of "to begin surveillance of the Soviets." Scorpion was expected to arrive at her homeport of Norfolk, Virginia, on 27 May at 13:00 local time. After she was overdue for several hours, the Atlantic fleet launched a sea and air search during the peak search period from 28 to 30 May involving as many as 55 ships and 35 search aircraft. A brief radio message including Scorpion's codename Brandywine was received by several search parties on the evening of 29 May. The source could not be identified in the search area derived from the bearings of the radio message.
Search: 1968
The Navy suspected possible failure and launched a search, but Scorpion and her crew were declared "presumed lost" on 5 June. Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 June. The search continued with a team of mathematical consultants led by Dr. John Piña Craven, the chief scientist of the Navy's Special Projects Division. They employed the methods of Bayesian search theory, initially developed during the search for a hydrogen bomb lost off the coast of Palomares, Spain, in January 1966 in the Palomares B-52 crash.
Some reports indicate that a large and secret search was launched three days before Scorpion was expected back from patrol. This and other declassified information led to speculation that the Navy knew of Scorpions destruction before the public search was launched.
At the end of October 1968, the Navy's oceanographic research ship located sections of the hull of Scorpion on the seabed, about southwest of the Azores under more than of water. This was after the Navy had released sound tapes from its underwater SOSUS listening system, which contained the sounds of the destruction of Scorpion. The court of inquiry was subsequently reconvened, and other vessels, including the bathyscaphe Trieste II, were dispatched to the scene to collect pictures and other data.
Craven received much credit for locating the wreckage of Scorpion, although Gordon Hamilton was instrumental in defining a compact "search box" wherein the wreck was ultimately found. He was an acoustics expert who pioneered the use of hydroacoustics to pinpoint Polaris missile splashdown locations, and he had established a listening station in the Canary Islands, which obtained a clear signal of the vessel's pressure hull imploding as it passed crush depth. Naval Research Laboratory scientist Chester Buchanan used a towed camera sled of his own design aboard Mizar and finally located Scorpion.
Observed damage
The bow of Scorpion appears to have skidded upon impact with the globigerina ooze on the sea floor, digging a sizable trench. The sail had been dislodged, as the hull of the operations compartment upon which it perched disintegrated, and was lying on its port side. One of Scorpions running lights was in the open position, as if it had been on the surface at the time of the mishap, although it may have been left in the open position during the vessel's recent nighttime stop at Rota. One Trieste II pilot who dived on Scorpion said that the shock of the implosion might have knocked the light into the open position.
The secondary Navy investigation – using extensive photographic, video, and eyewitness inspections of the wreckage in 1969 – suggested that Scorpions hull was crushed by implosion forces as it sank below crush depth. The Structural Analysis Group, which included Naval Ship Systems Command's Submarine Structures director Peter Palermo, plainly saw that the torpedo room was intact, though it had been pinched by excessive sea pressure. The operations compartment collapsed at frame 33, this being the king frame of the hull, reaching its structural limit first. The conical/cylindrical transition piece at frame 67 followed instantly. The boat was broken in two by massive hydrostatic pressure at an estimated depth of . The operations compartment was largely obliterated by sea pressure, and the engine room had telescoped forward into the hull due to collapse pressure, when the cone-to-cylinder transition junction failed between the auxiliary machine space and the engine room.
The only damage to the torpedo room compartment appeared to be a hatch missing from the forward escape trunk. Palermo pointed out that this would have occurred when water pressure entered the torpedo room at the moment of implosion.
The sail was ripped off, as the hull beneath it folded inward. The propulsion shaft came out of the boat; the engineering section had collapsed inward in a telescoping fashion. The broken boat fell another to the ocean floor.
Photos taken in 1986 by Alvin, released by the Navy in 2012, show the broken inboard end of the propulsion shaft.
Navy investigations
Court of inquiry report: 1968
Shortly after her sinking, the Navy assembled a court of inquiry to investigate the incident and to publish a report regarding the likely causes for its loss. The court was presided over by Vice Admiral Bernard L. Austin, who had presided over the inquiry into the loss of . The report's findings were first made public on 31 January 1969. While ruling out sabotage, the report said: "The certain cause of the loss of the Scorpion cannot be ascertained from evidence now available."
In 1984, the Norfolk Virginian-Pilot and The Ledger-Star obtained documents related to the inquiry, and reported that the likely cause of the disaster was the detonation of a torpedo while the Scorpions own crew attempted to disarm it. The U.S. Navy declassified many of the inquiry's documents in 1993.
Naval Ordnance Laboratory report: 1970
An extensive, year-long analysis of Gordon Hamilton's hydroacoustic signals of the submarine's demise was conducted by Robert Price, Ermine (Meri) Christian, and Peter Sherman of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). All three physicists were experts on undersea explosions, their sound signatures, and their destructive effects. Price was also an open critic of Craven. Their opinion, presented to the Navy as part of the phase II investigation, was that the death noises likely occurred at when the hull failed. Fragments then continued in a free fall for another . This appears to differ from conclusions drawn by Craven and Hamilton, who pursued an independent set of experiments as part of the same phase II probe, demonstrating that alternate interpretations of the hydroacoustic signals were possibly based on the submarine's depth at the time it was stricken and other operational conditions.
The Structural Analysis Group (SAG) concluded that an explosive event was unlikely and was highly dismissive of Craven and Hamilton's tests. The SAG physicists argued that the absence of a bubble pulse, which invariably occurs in an underwater explosion, is absolute evidence that no torpedo explosion occurred outside or inside the hull. Craven had attempted to prove that Scorpions hull could "swallow" the bubble pulse of a torpedo detonation by having Gordon Hamilton detonate small charges next to air-filled steel containers.
The 1970 Naval Ordnance Laboratory "Letter", the acoustics study of Scorpion destruction sounds by Price and Christian, was a supporting study within the SAG report. In its conclusions and recommendations section, the NOL acoustic study states: "The first SCORPION acoustic event was not caused by a large explosion, either internal or external to the hull. The probable depth of occurrence ... and the spectral characteristics of the signal support this. In fact, it is very unlikely that any of the Scorpion acoustic events were caused by explosions."
The NOL based many of its findings on an extensive acoustic analysis of the torpedoing and sinking of the decommissioned submarine in the Pacific in early 1969, seeking to compare its acoustic signals to those generated by Scorpion. Price found the Navy's scheduled sinking of Sterlet fortunate. Nonetheless, Sterlet was a small World War II-era diesel-electric submarine of a vastly different design and construction from Scorpion with regard to its pressure hull and other characteristics. Its sinking resulted in three identifiable acoustic signals, as compared to Scorpions 15.
The NOL acoustics study provided a highly debated explanation as to how Scorpion may have reached its crush depth by anecdotally referring to the near-loss incident of the diesel submarine in January 1969, when a power problem caused her to sink almost to crush depth, before surfacing.
In the same May 2003 N77 letter excerpted above (see 1. with regard to the Navy's view of a forward explosion), however, the following statement appears to dismiss the NOL theory, and again unequivocally point the finger toward an explosion forward:
Wreck site
The remains of the Scorpion are reportedly resting on a sandy seabed at in the North Atlantic Ocean. The wreck lies at a depth of about southwest of the Azores on the eastern edge of the Sargasso Sea.
The U.S. Navy periodically revisits the site to determine whether wreckage has been disturbed and to test for the release of any fissile materials from the submarine's nuclear reactor or two nuclear weapons. Except for a few photographs taken by deep-water submersibles in 1968 and 1985, the U.S. Navy has never made public any physical surveys it has conducted on the wreck. The last photos were taken by Robert Ballard and a team of oceanographers from Woods Hole using the submersible in 1985. The U.S. Navy secretly lent Ballard the submersible to visit the wreck sites of the Thresher and Scorpion. In exchange for his work, the U.S. Navy then allowed Ballard, a USNR officer, to use the same submersible to search for .
Due to the radioactive nature of the Scorpion wreck site, the U.S. Navy has had to publish what specific environmental sampling it has done of the sediment, water, and marine life around the sunken submarine to establish what impact it has had on the deep-ocean environment. The information is contained within an annual public report on the U.S. Navy's environmental monitoring for all U.S. nuclear-powered ships and boats. The reports explain the methodology for conducting deep-sea monitoring from both surface vessels and submersibles. These reports say the lack of radioactivity outside the wreck shows the nuclear fuel aboard the submarine remains intact and no uranium in excess of levels expected from the fallout from past atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons has been detected during naval inspections. Likewise, the two nuclear-tipped Mark 45 torpedoes that were lost when the Scorpion sank show no signs of instability. The plutonium and uranium cores of these weapons likely corroded to a heavy, insoluble material soon after the sinking. The materials remain at or close to their original location inside the boat's torpedo room. If the corroded materials were released outside the submarine, their density and insolubility would cause them to settle into the sediment.
Call for inquiry: 2012
In November 2012, the U.S. Submarine Veterans, an organization with over 13,800 members, asked the U.S. Navy to reopen the investigation on the sinking of USS Scorpion. The Navy rejected the request. A private group including family members of the lost submariners stated they would investigate the wreckage on their own, since it was located in international waters.
Theories about the loss
Hydrogen explosion during battery charge
Retired acoustics expert Bruce Rule, a long-time analyst for the Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS), wrote that a hydrogen explosion sank Scorpion.
Dave Oliver, a retired rear admiral who served in both diesel boats and nuclear submarines, wrote in his book Against the Tide that Scorpion was lost as a result of hydrogen build-up due to changes in the ventilation lineup while proceeding to periscope depth. After analysis of the ship's battery cells, this is the leading theory for the loss of Scorpion. This is consistent with two small explosions aboard the submarine, a half-second apart, that were picked up by hydrophones.
Accidental activation of torpedo
The classified version of the U.S. Navy's court of inquiry's report, released in 1993, listed accidents involving the Mark 37 torpedo as three of the most probable causes for the loss of submarine, including a hot-running torpedo, an accidentally or deliberately launched weapon, or the inadvertent activation of a torpedo by stray voltage. The acoustic homing torpedo, in a fully ready condition and lacking a propeller guard, is theorized by some to have started running within the tube. Released from the tube, the torpedo then somehow became fully armed and engaged its nearest target: Scorpion herself.
Explosion of torpedo inside sub
A later theory was that a fire in the torpedo room had caused a torpedo to explode in the tube. The book Blind Man's Bluff documents findings and investigation by Dr. John Craven, who was the chief scientist of the Navy's Special Projects Office, which had management responsibility for the design, development, construction, operational test and evaluation, and maintenance of the UGM-27 Polaris fleet missile system. Craven surmised that a faulty battery had overheated. The Mark 46 silver–zinc battery used in the Mark 37 torpedo had a tendency to overheat, and in extreme cases could cause a fire that was strong enough to cause a low-order detonation of the warhead. If such a detonation had occurred, it might have opened the boat's large torpedo-loading hatch and caused Scorpion to flood and sink. However, while Mark 46 batteries have been known to generate so much heat that the torpedo casings blistered, none is known to have damaged a boat or caused an explosion.
Craven mentions that he did not work on the Mark 37 torpedo's propulsion system and became aware of the possibility of a battery explosion only 20 years after the loss of Scorpion. In his book The Silent War, he recounts a simulation run by former Scorpion executive officer Lieutenant Commander Robert Fountain Jr. Fountain was told he was headed home at 18 knots (33 km/h) at a depth of his choice, then there was an alarm of "hot-running torpedo". Fountain responded with "right full rudder", a quick turn that would activate a safety device and keep the torpedo from arming. Then, an explosion in the torpedo room was introduced. Fountain ordered emergency procedures to surface the boat, Craven wrote, "but instead, she continued to plummet, reaching collapse depth and imploding in 90 seconds – one second shy of the acoustic record of the actual event."
Craven had long believed Scorpion was struck by her own torpedo, but revised his views during the mid-1990s, when he learned that engineers testing Mark 46 batteries at Keyport, Washington, just before the Scorpion's loss, said the batteries leaked electrolyte and sometimes burned while outside their casings during lifetime shock, heat, and cold testing. Although the battery manufacturer was accused of building bad batteries, it was later able to successfully prove its batteries were no more prone to failure than those made by other manufacturers.
Intentional firing of defective torpedo
Twenty years later, Craven learned that the boat could have been destroyed by a "hot-running torpedo." Other subs in the fleet had replaced their defective torpedo batteries, but the Navy wanted Scorpion to complete its mission first. If Scorpion had fired a defective torpedo, it could have sought out a target and turned back to strike the sub that launched it.
Structural damage
Photographs of the Scorpion wreck show the submarine's detached shaft and propeller, missing a rotor blade. Some experienced U.S. submariners attribute the loss of the submarine to flooding caused by the detached shaft. Given that antisubmarine torpedoes were designed to seek the sound of the cavitation of the target submarine's propeller, this could be damage caused by such a weapon.
Malfunction of trash disposal unit
During the 1968 inquiry, Vice Admiral Arnold F. Shade testified that he believed that a malfunction of the trash disposal unit (TDU) caused the disaster. Shade theorized that the boat was flooded when the TDU was operated at periscope depth and that other subsequent failures of material or personnel while dealing with the TDU-induced flooding led to the submarine's demise.
Soviet attack
The book All Hands Down by Kenneth Sewell and Jerome Preisler (Simon and Schuster, 2008) concludes that Scorpion was destroyed while en route to gather intelligence on a Soviet naval group conducting operations in the Atlantic. While the mission for which the submarine was diverted from her original course back to her home port is a matter of record, its details remain classified.
Ed Offley's book Scorpion Down promotes a hypothesis suggesting that Scorpion was sunk by a Soviet submarine during a standoff that started days before 22 May. Offley also cites that it occurred roughly at the time of the submarine's intelligence-gathering mission, for which she was redirected from her original heading for home; according to Offley, the flotilla had just been harassed by another U.S. submarine, . W. Craig Reed, who served on Haddo a decade later as a petty officer and diver, and whose father was a U.S. Navy officer responsible in significant electronic support measures, advances in submarine detection in the early 1960s, recounted similar scenarios to Offley in Red November, over Soviet torpedoing of Scorpion and details his own service on USS Haddo in 1977 running inside Soviet waters off Vladivostok, when torpedoes appeared to have been fired at Haddo, but were immediately put down by the captain as a Soviet torpedo exercise.
Both All Hands Down and Scorpion Down point toward involvement by the KGB spy ring (the so-called Walker spy ring) led by John Anthony Walker, Jr., in the heart of the U.S. Navy's communications, stating that it could have known that Scorpion was coming to investigate the Soviet flotilla. According to this theory, both navies agreed to hide the truth about both USS Scorpion and K-129 incidents. Several USN and RN submarines collided with Soviet Echo-class subs in Russian and British waters in this period, showing greatly enhanced aggression in Soviet Navy sub operations in 1968. The navy Minister in the British Labour government, noted 11 such deliberate collisions. Commander Roger Lane Nott, Royal Navy commander of during the 1982 Falklands War, stated that in 1972, during his service as a junior navigation officer on , a Soviet submarine entered the Firth of Clyde channel in Scotland and Conqueror was given the order to "chase it out". Having realized it was being pursued, "a very aggressive Soviet captain turned his submarine and drove her straight at HMS Conqueror. It had been an extremely close call."
According to a translated article from Pravda, Moscow never issued a "fire" command during the Cold War. This is disputed by Royal Navy officers, "there had been other occasions when harassed Russians had fired torpedoes to scare off trails". The Navy court of inquiry official statement confirms that the Soviet naval group, including an Echo-II submarine, was conducting a "hydro-acoustic operation" in the area, but they were about 200 miles to the west of Scorpion'''s position at the time of the sinking. Adding to the body of evidence against a Soviet torpedo-attack theory, U.S. Navy submarine Captain Robert LaGassa has flatly stated, "no Soviet submarine in 1968 could detect, track, approach, and attack any Skipjack- or later-class U.S. submarine".
During 1967, though, the large Soviet nuclear submarine-building program, and the view of naval officers and in particular Admiral Rickover, that Defense Secretary R. McNamara, Naval Intelligence and CIA assessments underrated the speed of even existing Soviet subs and their threat led to two major tests on the request of Rickover. On 3–5 January 1968, the CVN USS Enterprise proved unable to outrun a Soviet November SSN at flank speed of 30/31 knots. This showed the Soviet November SSN, 5 knots faster than 'shatteringly' wrong intelligence estimates and underwater tracking a US CVN on sonar at 30 knots. Sec. McNamara remained opposed to a new fast SSN 688 class leader capable of 30 knots. His deputy and the chief sea warfare advisor to head of USN scientific engineering research James Nunan advised against SSN 688 or the need or reason for an enlarged, fast, 30-knot Sturgeon on 18 December 1967 in favor of long-term research into a new small 'conform' nuclear design. McNamara apparently attempted to have Rickover court-martialed and removed from office at this point.
However, the USN case for SSN 688 after the hijacking of USS Pueblo in January 1968 and the Tet offensive in February 1968 was resubmitted. The plan and requirement for new fast SSNs was accepted by USN Chief of Staff Admiral Thomas Moorer after further inquiry in March 1968, but was not accepted by the US government. Events in May 1968 led to Admiral Rickover and Chief of USN Scientific Research and Engineering, John S Foster, appearing before the US Senate and House armed forces committees in the first week of June 1968, and it was decided to order an immediate test to illustrate to Foster that the tactical advantage of speed in a SSN could outweigh stealth and quietness. The radical test was conducted with a top USN Permit-class SSN crew aboard USS Dace captained by Cdr K. McKee and a crew with experience running in Russian waters engaging in a hunt and attempt to simulate a torpedo attack on a fast Skipjack-class, the USS Shark, with a declared speed of 29 knots. While the trial was successful, it showed just how difficult a faster, noisier submarine like Shark was to engage, and by implication that an even faster November-class Soviet sub, while noisy, might well have been able to engage a 29-knot Skipjack.
U.S. Navy conclusions
The results of the U.S. Navy's various investigations into the loss of Scorpion are inconclusive. While the court of inquiry never endorsed Dr. Craven's torpedo theory regarding the loss of Scorpion, its "findings of facts" released in 1993 carried Craven's torpedo theory at the head of a list of possible causes of Scorpions loss.
Books
Blind Man's Bluff
In 1998, two New York Times reporters published Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage, a book providing a rare look into the world of nuclear submarines and espionage during the Cold War. One lengthy chapter deals extensively with Scorpion and her loss. The book reports that concerns about the Mk 37 conventional torpedo carried aboard Scorpion were raised in 1967 and 1968, before Scorpion left Norfolk for her last mission. The concerns focused on the battery that powered the torpedoes. The battery had a thin metal-foil barrier separating two types of volatile chemicals. When mixed slowly and in a controlled fashion, the chemicals generated heat and electricity, powering the motor that pushed the torpedo through the water, but vibrations normally experienced on a nuclear submarine were found to cause the thin foil barrier to break down, allowing the chemicals to interact intensely. This interaction generated excessive heat, which in tests, could readily have caused an inadvertent torpedo explosion. The authors of Blind Man's Bluff do not directly contradict the official findings, but highlight information discovered during the investigation, which contradicts the investigation's findings, but are not addressed in the report. Notably, the book cites a hot-running torpedo incident on the USS Sargo (SSN-583) prior to the loss of Scorpion, although Sargo was moored at the time and not lost.
Red Star Rogue
In 2005, the book Red Star Rogue: The Untold Story of a Soviet Submarine's Nuclear Strike Attempt on the U.S., by former American submariner Kenneth Sewell in collaboration with journalist Clint Richmond, claimed that Soviet submarine was sunk northwest of Oahu on 7 March 1968 while attempting to launch her three ballistic missiles, in a rogue attempt to destroy Pearl Harbor.
Sewell claims that the sinking of Scorpion was caused by a retaliatory strike for the sinking of K-129, which the Soviets had attributed to a collision with .
In 1995, when Peter Huchthausen began work on a book about the Soviet underwater fleet, he interviewed former Soviet Admiral Victor Dygalo, who stated that the true history of K-129 has not been revealed because of the informal agreement between the two countries' senior naval commands. The purpose of that secrecy, he alleged, is to stop any further research into the losses of either Scorpion or K-129. Huchthausen states that Dygalo told him to "forget about ever resolving these sad issues for the surviving families."
All Hands Down All Hands Down was written by Kenneth R. Sewell, a nuclear engineer and a U.S. Navy veteran who spent five years aboard , a fast attack submarine. It attempts to link the sinking of Scorpion with the Pueblo incident, the John Anthony Walker spy ring, and Cold War Soviet aggression. The thesis of this book is that action off the Canary Islands was the direct cause of the sinking. The author purports that this is supported by motives in the Soviet Navy following the sinking of K-129, which caused the Russian Navy to trap a U.S. submarine. The bait for this trap would be strange military operations and furtive naval manoeuvres in the Atlantic, accompanied by countermeasures that would seemingly be defeated only by the deployment of a nuclear submarine. With information from spying by Walker, the position and arrival time of Scorpion was known by the Russians, and its sinking followed the springing of the trap. The book claims Scorpion was sunk by a Ka-25 helicopter equipped with antisubmarine torpedoes, which took off from one ship and landed on a different one. This was so that no one, other than the aircrew of the helicopter, would notice one torpedo missing.
The book then purports a cover-up by American and Soviet officials, to avoid public outrage and an increase in Cold War tension.
Scorpion Down
Ed Offley, a reporter on military affairs, has closely followed developments in information concerning the sinking of the Scorpion. His most recent article on the subject is "Buried at Sea" published in the Winter 2008 issue of the Quarterly Journal of Military History. This article summarizes the facts in the case as presented in his 2007 book Scorpion Down: Sunk by the Soviets, Buried by the Pentagon: The Untold Story of the USS Scorpion. In the book, Offley, gathering decades of his own research, hypothesizes that Scorpion was sunk by the Soviets, possibly in retaliation for the loss of K-129 earlier that year. The book paints a picture of increasing Soviet anger at U.S. Navy provocations — specifically, close-in monitoring of Soviet naval operations by almost every U.S. nuclear submarine. Around the same time, the Soviet intelligence community scored a huge boon in receiving the mechanical cryptologic devices (TSAC/KW- 7) from . These machines, combined with daily crypto keys from the Walker spy ring, likely allowed the Soviets to monitor U.S. Navy ship dispositions and communications.
Offley contends that the Scorpion was tracked by several Soviet Navy assets from the Mediterranean to its final operational area south of the Azores, where it was then sunk by a Soviet torpedo. He claims the U.S. Navy was aware of the loss of the Scorpion on 21 May 1968, and by the night of 22 May 68, deep concern had arisen over the Scorpion after not receiving the required 24-hr, four-word communication check required on operational duty, in the SUBCOMLANT communication center at Norfolk on the evidence of two 2nd-class radiomen on the deck that night, among junior USN officers, and the unit supervisor, Warrant Officer J. Walker, confirmed to interested staff that no check transmission from Scorpion was received that night, and by the morning of 23 May 1968, the SUBCOMLANT center was full of admirals and a Marine general, and no doubt existed about the loss of Scorpion, and the US government and Navy were engaged in a massive cover-up, within days destroying much of the sound and communication data at SOSUS ground stations in the U.S. and Europe, and delaying any public indication of the loss until the ship's scheduled arrival at Norfolk, Virginia, five days later, partly to disguise the fact that U.S. nuclear subs were in constant or frequent communication with U.S. naval communication bases and that the subsequent search for the Scorpion was a five-month-long deception to pretend they had no idea of the hull's location.
The oral testimony Offley relied upon are recollections of surviving SOSUS recordings documenting torpedo sounds, evasion sounds, an explosion, and eventually the sounds of implosions as Scorpion plunged past crush depth.
Against the Tide: Rickover's Leadership Principles and the Rise of the Nuclear Navy
In a section from this 2014 book titled "The Danger of Culture", retired U.S. Navy Rear Admiral Dave Oliver offers the theory based on his own experiences that hydrogen explosion, either during or immediately following a battery charge, possibly destroyed USS Scorpion and killed her crew. The proximate cause in that scenario would have been the procedural carryover from diesel-boat days wherein the boat was effectively rigged for collision—with subsequent changes in ventilation flow and watertight condition—before proceeding to periscope depth by way of setting "Condition Baker". Oliver had personally witnessed dangerously high hydrogen level spikes under such conditions aboard a nuclear submarine, specifically while going to periscope depth and setting Condition Baker during a battery charge. Diesel boats, in contrast, were not capable of doing a battery charge while deeply submerged, but were instead dealing with the risk of collision while on antisurface-ship operations when proceeding to periscope depth while in or near shipping lanes. In regard to NAVSEA responsibility, he further states: "I always felt that the investigators closed their eyes to the most likely cause because they did not want to acknowledge their own involvement in this tragedy. I had forwarded my letter about Condition Baker via some of the same people responsible for the Scorpion investigation."
In popular culture
Phil Ochs released a song on his album Rehearsals for Retirement'' (1969) titled "The Scorpion Departs but Never Returns".
See also
List of lost United States submarines
List of sunken nuclear submarines
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
USS Scorpion SSN-589
Memorial for 99 crew
World War II National Submarine Memorial – West
World War II National Submarine Memorial – East
U.S. Navy photographs of USS Scorpion
On Eternal Patrol: USS Scorpion
Search Operation Video
Cold War submarines of the United States
Lost submarines of the United States
Maritime incidents in 1968
Scorpion, USS
Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
Skipjack-class submarines
Sunken nuclear submarines
United States submarine accidents
1959 ships
1968 in the United States
Warships lost with all hands
Submarines lost with all hands
May 1968 events
|
417221
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Seadragon%20%28SS-194%29
|
USS Seadragon (SS-194)
|
USS Seadragon (SS-194), a Sargo-class submarine, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the leafy seadragon.
Construction and commissioning
Seadragon′s keel was laid on 18 April 1938 by the Electric Boat Company at Groton, Connecticut. She was christened and launched on 21 April 1939, sponsored by Mrs. May F. Richardson, wife of Admiral James O. Richardson, Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, and commissioned on 23 October 1939.
Operational history
Following a shakedown cruise off the United States East Coast and in the Caribbean Sea, Seadragon returned to New England and, on 23 May 1940, departed New London, Connecticut, for the Philippine Islands. With Commander, Submarine Division 17 (ComSubDiv 17) embarked, she arrived at Cavite on 30 November and commenced training operations as a unit of the Asiatic Fleet. A year later, she prepared for overhaul; and, by 8 December 1941 (7 December east of the International Date Line), she had started her yard period at the Cavite Navy Yard.
Two days later, on 10 December, she and sister ship , moored together, were caught in an enemy air raid against Cavite. Sealion took a direct hit which demolished her and damaged Seadragon. The force of the explosion ripped off part of the latter's bridge. Fragments and splinters punctured her ballast tanks and conning tower, killing one and wounding five. The heat of the explosion scorched her hull and blistered her black paint.
Fires and explosions raged along the wharf. A nearby torpedo shop went up and flames reached toward a lighter, loaded with torpedoes, lying alongside Seadragon. Submarine Rescue Vessel , however, disregarded the danger and moved in to tow Seadragon into the channel; she continued into Manila Bay under her own power.
Temporary repairs were accomplished by tender and Pigeon; and, on the night of 15 December, Seadragon embarked members of the Asiatic Fleet staff. At 00:00, 16 December, she headed out of Manila Bay.
Escorted by destroyer , Seadragon moved south, via Surigao and Makassar Straits to Soerabaja, where she disembarked her passengers; received further repairs, exclusive of a paint job; and prepared for her first war patrol.
First patrol, December 1941 – February 1942
On 30 December, the submarine departed the Dutch naval base and set a course for the South China Sea to intercept Japanese shipping off the coast of Indochina. On 8 January, she was in the sea lanes to Cam Ranh Bay. Two days later, she sighted a destroyer, launched two torpedoes which missed, then watched as the destroyer continued on its course without attempting to attack the submarine. Seadragon remained in the area. Shortly after noon, a convoy was heard. One-half-hour later, it was sighted, and the submarine began closing the last ship in the column. Shortly after 13:00, she fired; missed; and again tried to close to firing position. Within an hour, however, the convoy was safely into Cam Ranh Bay. Seadragon retired eastward. After dark while on the surface, recharging, she sighted a destroyer and attempted to slip away undetected. The destroyer spotlighted her. Seadragon went deep and worked her way eastward through two depth charge attacks.
She spent the morning of 12 January evading Japanese patrol planes. In the afternoon, she closed a six-ship convoy; but, as she came to periscope depth for a final check, she was spotted from the air. Three salvos of bombs dropped close aboard, but Seadragon went deep and again made her way eastward—this time to investigate the cause of the plane sightings. She surfaced after 18:00. No oil or air leaks were spotted, but her black paint was coming off the entire hull. Red lead undercoating showed from the waterline to the side plating, and, "in spots", on the bow planes and propeller guards. In shallow tropical waters, her original black paint was easily spotted against a light colored background. With red showing, she stood out regardless of the color of the seabed. From then on, Seadragon ran at between periscope exposures except in areas known to be patrolled by air, when she went to .
On 14 January, she patrolled in the Cape Varella area. On 15 January, she shifted southward, and, on 16 January, she stood off Hon Lon to wait for a convoy. At 11:15, after a periscope observation, she was again spotted and bombed from the air. She returned to Cape Varella where the depth of the water permitted a closer patrol to the shore line.
During the next six days, she sighted several targets but had no luck with her torpedoes. Early on 23 January, she sighted a four-ship convoy which she stalked until daylight, then attacked. At 08:06, she fired at the lead ship and scored with a hit on the port quarter. She then fired two at the ship and missed. The third and fourth ships ran off to the southeast and west respectively. The second ship moved in toward the first; then, listing to port and down by the stern accompanied it as it ran for the beach. Seadragon surfaced and went after the third ship, but the appearance of an enemy plane forced her to break off the attack.
The submarine remained off the Indochina coast for another four days, then set a course back to Luzon. On 29 January, she began patrolling along the coast from Subic Bay to Lingayen Gulf. On 1 February, she took up station off San Fernando and, early on the morning of 2 February, conducted a night submerged attack on a five-ship convoy. Tamagawa Maru (a 6,441-ton transport), the fourth ship in line, went down, depriving the Japanese occupation force of a number of the reinforcement troops and the equipment she carried.
After the sinking, Seadragon patrolled southward. On 4 February, she arrived off Luzon Point; and, that night, she moved into Manila Bay. Mooring at 22:03, she completed loading torpedoes, radio equipment, and submarine spare parts at 03:00 on 5 February. Shortly thereafter, she moved out; rested on the bottom until after dark, then surfaced to take on twenty-five passengers at Corregidor. Among them were seventeen members of the crew at CAST (cryptanalysts and traffic analysts), including the commanding officer, Lieutenant Rudolph Fabian. At 19:46, Seadragon got underway for the Netherlands East Indies.
Second patrol, March – April 1942
She arrived at Soerabaja on 13 February. On 21 February, she left for Tjilatjap, whence she was ordered on to Australia. She reached Fremantle on 4 March and two weeks later, again headed for the Indochina coast for her second war patrol. At the end of the month, she was diverted to Cebu to take on fuel and food for Corregidor. She unloaded ten torpedoes and 250 rounds of ammunition, and took on thirty tons of food. At 20:53 on 8 April, she moored alongside Pigeon, to which she transferred fuel; offloaded seven tons of food (of the thirty she had taken aboard just for the besieged defenders); took on 23 passengers (including the last seventeen members of the crew at CAST, among them "Honest John" Leitweiler and Rufus Taylor, who as a Japanese language specialist was worth his weight in gold); and, at 21:29, got underway to resume her patrol.
She remained in the waters off southwestern Luzon and recommenced her patrol off the entrance to Subic Bay. On 11 April, she sighted several targets but was able to attack only one, a patrolling destroyer. At 17:20, she launched three torpedoes. Twenty-nine seconds later the first torpedo exploded halfway to the target. The second broached and circled abeam of the target. The destroyer avoided the third. Seadragon changed course and went to to avoid the circular and the expected depth charging. None of the depth charges were close, but a second destroyer soon joined the first, spotted the submarine as she came up for a periscope observation, and turned on her. Seadragon again went deep, then cleared the area.
On 12 April, the submarine started south. On 20 April, she cleared Lombok Strait; and, on 26 April, she returned to Fremantle.
Third patrol, June – August 1942
On her third patrol, 11 June to 2 August 1942, Seadragon returned to the South China Sea. Arriving in her assigned area on 27 June, she patrolled along the Singapore-Hong Kong routes to the end of the month; then shifted to the Cape Varella area. On the morning of 4 July, she launched a torpedo at the leader of a three ship formation. The torpedo missed ahead, all three ships changed course toward Seadragon with the leader proceeding down the torpedo track firing her bow gun. Depth charges were dropped indiscriminately. Ten minutes later, the three had turned toward shore. Seadragon then shifted southward to intercept enemy traffic off Hon Lon Light.
A few hours later, she sighted two freighters and fired tubes 1 and 2 at the lead ship. Her No. 1 tube did not fire, and her No. 2 torpedo missed astern. Two more torpedoes were fired at the ships, but both missed. Enemy planes arrived on the scene soon afterward and for over two hours aerial depth charges in salvos of two and three were dropped. Despite water depth of , submarines were visible at any depth against the light colored bottom.
Seadragon survived the close bombing and continued her patrol. During the next week, she attempted to close several ships, but was unable to attain attack positions. On the night of 11 July, her losing streak ended. Just prior to midnight, she sighted smoke and opened out to the westward to overtake the target. At 01:56 on 12 July, she began her approach; and, 14 minutes later, she launched three torpedoes. Two hit, but the third missed astern. A merchantman, Hiyama Maru, began settling. By 02:19, she had been abandoned. Seadragon submerged and resumed her patrol eight miles (14.8 km) northeast of Cape Varella.
On the morning of 13 July, Seadragon torpedoed and sank her second victim of the patrol. Shinyo Maru was hit approximately abaft the beam and settled immediately. Seadragon moved out of the area and hunted along the Haina Varella routes for a few days. On 16 July, she was back off Cape Varella; and, soon after 10:30, she fired on a four-ship convoy. Five minutes later, the torpedoes exploded on the beach. The four ships turned toward Seadragon and commenced firing their guns. Seadragon fired two more torpedoes and went deep. A few minutes later, she came to periscope depth. Only three ships remained on the surface. Hakodate Maru had been sunk.
On 20 July, Seadragon departed the South China Sea and made her way south to Australia. On 4 August, she damaged the 6,816 ton at .
Fourth patrol, August – October 1942
On 26 August, she departed her Australian base for her fourth war patrol and again set a course for the coast of Indochina. On 10 September, she moved through Apo East Pass. On 11 September, her progress into the South China Sea was delayed by an emergency appendectomy performed successfully on Seaman Darrell Rector by Pharmacist's Mate Wheeler B. Lipes, the first such performed on a submarine. This incident was the subject of a Pulitzer Prize-winning account by Chicago Daily News reporter George Weller. In 2005, retired Lt. Cmdr. Lipes was awarded the Navy Commendation Medal for saving a fellow crewman's life.
On 12 September, Seadragon arrived on station and commenced patrolling the steamer lanes west of Macclesfield Bank. At dusk on 16 September, she headed for Cape Varella.
Not until 22 September, however, while off Cam Ranh Bay was she able to gain a firing position on a suitable target. On that morning, she launched four torpedoes at a cruiser escorted by two destroyers. No explosions were heard, but her torpedoes were seen, and the enemy ships turned on Seadragon and delivered a "well executed depth charge attack."
A week later, on the night of 29 September, the submarine tracked a five-ship convoy; and, at 0122 on 30 September conducted a surface torpedo attack which damaged one ship. She then ran eastward to attain a position ahead of the convoy but was spotlighted by an escort which had shifted stations. Seadragon went deep; the escort dropped six depth charges and then rejoined the convoy. The submarine surfaced and attempted to make up for lost time. Three hours later, she had overheated her main motor cables and was forced to give up the chase.
On the evening of 3 October, Seadragon departed the South China Sea and, five days later, commenced patrolling the approaches to Balikpapan. On 10 October, she attained a position for a stern tube shot on Shigure Maru. The cargoman disappeared 47 seconds after the first explosion. On 11 October, the submarine patrolled off Cape William and Cape Mandar. On 12 October, she was off Makassar City. On 14 October, she transited Lombok Strait; and, on 20 October, she returned to Fremantle.
Fifth patrol, November 1942 – January 1943
Refit was started by submarine tender at Fremantle and completed by tenders and at Brisbane. On 23 November, she departed the latter and headed for the Bismarck Archipelago for her fifth war patrol. On 29 November, she entered her area and commenced patrolling the Rabaul-Shortland routes. On 1 December, she closed the New Britain coast to intercept traffic to the Japanese beachhead at Buna, and, during the next ten days, conducted several unsuccessful approaches on enemy formations. On the morning of 11 December, she sighted a freighter with one escort rounding Cape St. George and launched two torpedoes at the merchantman. One hit under the main mast, damaging but not sinking the target. The escort delivered a depth charge attack then took the damaged vessel under tow for Rabaul. Enemy planes prohibited Seadragon from delivering the coup de grace.
On 21 December, Seadragon sighted an enemy submarine near Cape St. George, made her approach, and launched three torpedoes at the target. The first missed ahead. The second exploded about 18 seconds after firing. The third torpedo hit the target. sank with her bow vertical and with all hands lost. The second torpedo explosion, however, had damaged Seadragon. The force of the explosion had knocked down the personnel in the forward torpedo room, and the final bow torpedo in No. 1 tube, the outer door of which was open, was forced against the tail buffer. The countermining effect forced the torpedo forward shearing off the guide stud and tripping the starting lever. The outer door could not be closed. Depth control was lost. The final bow torpedo was fired. Control was regained as the torpedo exploded on Seadragon'''s port quarter at an estimated 200 yards.
On 25 December, Seadragon damaged another cargoman, and, on 26 December, departed the area for Pearl Harbor where she arrived on 7 January 1943.
From Pearl Harbor, Seadragon continued on to the West Coast, where skipper "Pete" Ferrall was detached to the Bureau of Ships. Between 16 January and 8 April, she underwent overhaul at Mare Island, receiving new batteries and radar and changing the position of her three-inch mount from aft to a forward position. In mid-April, she sailed west again; and, on 9 May, she departed Pearl Harbor for her sixth war patrol.
Sixth patrol, May – June 1943
On 15 May, Seadragon (now under Royal L. Rutter, Class of '30) crossed the 180th meridian and moved toward Micronesia. On 19 May, she commenced patrolling in the Caroline Islands. On 20 May, she surprised and was in turn surprised by sighting a surfaced submarine on a parallel course. The other submarine submerged immediately. On 22 May, she took up station off the Truk Islands and for the next 11 days patrolled the sea lanes to the major enemy anchorage enclosed by Dublon, Fefan, and Uman islands. On 4 June, she departed Truk and moved eastward to reconnoiter Ponape, thence proceeded into the Marshall Islands to patrol the sealanes converging on Kwajalein. There, the enemy's omnipresent surface and aerial escorts inhibited hunting, but, on 13 June, Seadragon was able to damage a freighter. Four days later, she cleared the area, and, on 21 June, she arrived at Midway Island, whence she returned to Pearl Harbor for repairs to her steering gear.
Seventh–ninth patrols, July 1943 – February 1944
From 18 July to 30 August, Seadragon conducted her seventh war patrol. Of the 44 days, 31 were spent on station near Wake and in the Marshall Islands where increased enemy air activity again hindered hunting and limited Seadragons score to five freighters damaged. In mid-August, she reconnoitered Wotje; and, at the end of the month, she returned to Pearl Harbor.
On her eighth war patrol, 24 September to 5 November, Seadragon again returned to the Marshall Islands and spent 31 days hunting in the sea lanes to Kwajalein. Again Japanese antisubmarine measures hindered hunting; and, of the five ship contacts made, only two could be developed and only one attack was made. On 13 October, she damaged an enemy transport.
Seadragon'''s ninth war patrol, 14 December 1943 to 5 February 1944, took her back to the Caroline Islands where she hunted enemy shipping on the Truk-Saipan route and damaged two, possibly three, cargomen.
Tenth patrol, April – May 1944
Refit brought the replacement of Seadragons three-inch deck gun with a four-inch gun, and, on 1 April, she cleared Pearl Harbor for the Japanese home islands for her tenth war patrol, with James H. Ashley, Jr. (Class of '34), at the helm. On 5 April, she crossed the International Date Line. On 15 April, she entered Japanese waters. On 16 April, she moved past O Shima, and, that night, commenced patrolling off the Bungo Strait and Kii Channel entrances to the Inland Sea. On the morning of 23 April, she sighted four freighters, escorted by three patrol boats, moving toward Shiono Misaki. She closed the convoy; fired on the third ship, the heaviest laden; then went deep and rigged for depth charging. The patrol boats moved toward Seadragon as Daiju Maru sank and, during the next two hours, delivered a 40 depth charge attack. Later that day, the submarine conducted an unsuccessful attack on a naval auxiliary; and, on 26 April, she moved out into the Tokyo-Manila shipping lanes where she damaged a freighter on 27 April.
On 28 April, she commenced patrolling the Nagoya-Saipan route. In May, she took station off the entrance to Sugura Wan and, on 3 May, shifted to the Tokyo-Guam-Saipan-Truk sea lanes. Two days later, she hunted enemy traffic at the entrance to Sagami Wan. On 13 May, she headed for Midway Island. On 17 May, she caught an armed trawler in a surface attack; set it afire with four-inch gun salvos, then closed the target to take off the uniformed enemy crew. The surviving crew members refused to surrender, and Seadragon continued eastward. On 21 May, she crossed the 180th meridian and stopped at Midway, then got underway for Pearl Harbor, arriving on 25 May.
Eleventh patrol, September – November 1944
Re-engined at Mare Island during the summer, Seadragon returned to Pearl Harbor on 7 September and departed on her 11th war patrol, a coordinated patrol ("wolfpack") with submarines and , on 23 September. She arrived at Saipan to top off on 3 October. On 4 October, Shark and Blackfish continued on to the wolfpack's assigned area in the northern China Sea. Seadragon, delayed by the need for repairs, did not depart until 5 October. On 9 October, she arrived off Batan Island, established contact with Shark and Blackfish, and took position in a scouting line in the pack's assigned area.
On the night of 21 October and the morning of 22 October, the group went after an enemy warship formation led by an aircraft carrier. At 06:15 on 24 October, Shark reported a contact, and Seadragon headed for the scene. At 07:30, the contact was sighted through the high periscope, but it proved too distant. At 09:20, Seadragon sighted three enemy merchantmen in a loose column with a torpedo boat destroyer and an airplane as escorts. At 10:55, she launched four torpedoes at the lead freighter.
The first torpedo broached and ran erratic, alerting the escort which started for Seadragon. Seadragon rigged for depth charging. Soon thereafter, two torpedo explosions were heard, and, at 11:01, the first of eight depth charges was dropped. At 11:54, Seadragon went to periscope depth. The escort was milling around picking up survivors four miles (6 km) astern. The remaining merchant ships were ahead of the submarine and making only two or three knots. As Seadragon prepared to fire again, the destroyer rejoined the formation. At 11:14, Seadragon fired four more torpedoes. Three hits were observed. The submarine's second target of the day sank in less than two minutes.
Seadragon went deep. Fifteen depth charges followed. At 13:10, the submarine returned to periscope depth. The deck of the sole remaining freighter was crowded. The freighter was smoking heavily and moving slowly. The escort circled the freighter. At 14:04, Seadragon fired. The first torpedo tore off the freighter's bow. The rest of the ship went under quickly. At 14:05, the first of 25 depth charges was dropped.
Postwar examination of Japanese records identified the sunken ships as the cargo ship, Eiko Maru, and the passenger-cargomen Taiten Maru and Kokuryu Maru.
At 18:58, Seadragon tried unsuccessfully to raise Shark. She had been sunk after attacking the contact of her 06:15 transmission.
On 26 October, Seadragon headed toward Luzon. On 27 and 28 October, she searched for downed aviators; and, on 29 October, she was ordered to return to Midway.
Twelfth patrol, December 1944 – January 1945
Arriving at her destination on 8 November, she commenced refit; and, on 3 December, she headed west for her 12th war patrol. The patrol took her back into Japanese waters where she hunted enemy shipping and searched for downed aviators into January 1945. On 10 January, she moved into the Bonin Islands, where she continued those two roles. On 19 January, she set a southerly course; and, on 22 January, she arrived at Guam to complete her last war patrol.
The next day, Seadragon continued on to Pearl Harbor, and, after refit, returned to California to provide training services to naval air units. In May, she was transferred back to the Atlantic Fleet and for the final months of the war, provided training services at Guantanamo Bay and Key West, Florida. In September, she moved north to New London, Connecticut, thence to Boston, Massachusetts, where she was decommissioned on 15 November 1945. Less than four months later, on 8 February 1946, she was recommissioned to assist in the inactivation and preservation of submarines, including U-boats, at Hingham, Massachusetts. On 29 October 1946, she was again decommissioned and berthed as a unit of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet where she remained until stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 April 1948.
Awards
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 11 battle stars for World War II service
Seadragon was credited with sinking 10 Japanese ships with a displacement of 43,450 tons during World War II.
References
External links
history.navy.mil: Appendectomy Performed on Fourth War Patrol of USS Seadragon, 1942
Sargo-class submarines
World War II submarines of the United States
Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
1939 ships
|
417243
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freakazoid%21
|
Freakazoid!
|
Freakazoid! is an American superhero comedy animated television series created by Bruce Timm and Paul Dini and developed by Tom Ruegger for the Kids' WB programming block of The WB. The series chronicles the adventures of the title character, Freakazoid, a crazy teenage superhero who fights crime in Washington, D.C. It also featured mini-episodes with the adventures of other bizarre superheroes. The series was produced by Warner Bros. Animation and Amblin Television, being the third animated series produced by the collaboration of Steven Spielberg and Warner Bros. Animation after Tiny Toon Adventures and Animaniacs.
Bruce Timm, best known as a producer of the DC Animated Universe, originally intended it to be a straightforward superhero action-adventure cartoon with comic overtones, but executive producer Steven Spielberg requested it to be a flat-out comedy. The show is similar to fellow Ruegger-led programs such as Animaniacs, having a unique style of humor that includes slapstick, fourth wall breaking, parody, surreal humour, and pop culture references.
The series was one of the first to debut on the new Kids' WB Saturday morning block of The WB, on September 9, 1995. The series lasted for two seasons, finishing with 24 episodes, the final one broadcast on June 1, 1997. Although the series originally struggled in the ratings, reruns on Cartoon Network and a fan following elevated it to become a cult hit. Warner Bros. considered renewing the series for a third season, but deemed it to be too expensive. The show also ranked #53 on IGN's Top 100 Animated Series list.
Background
The show's title character is the superhero alter ego of geeky 16-year-old (later changed to 17-year-old) Dexter Douglas who attends Harry Connick Jr. High School. His name is an allusion to the alliterative names that superheroes commonly have. Dexter gained his abilities from a computer bug activated by a "secret key sequence" that was accidentally activated by his cat Mr. Chubbikins (a reference to the Pentium FDIV bug). The sequence of keys is "@[=g3,8d]\&fbb=-q]/hk%fg" (the quotes are included) which also activated when Dexter hit the delete button on his computer. Freakazoid has enhanced strength and endurance, extraordinary speed and agility, as well as access to all the knowledge on the Internet. These make him a powerful and fearsome force for upholding freedom and righteousness, unless he gets distracted by something like a bear riding a motorcycle. He has a base called the Freakalair, a parody of the Batcave, built by his mute butler Ingmar. The Freakalair contains a "Hall of Nifty Things to Know" and even a mad scientist lab. His greatest weakness, as he once explained to Guitierrez, is graphite bars charged with negative ions. He also expresses a great aversion to "poo gas".
Freakazoid also has a variety of other abilities: he once developed telekinesis powered by anger that was never mentioned again after the episode, and once crossed the globe to yell at a Tibetan monk for raking too loudly, but apologizes to him later. He also has the ability to assume the form of electricity and cover long distances instantaneously, although he often simply sticks his arms forward and runs while making swooshing sounds, pretending to fly.
Dexter can change into and out of Freakazoid at will with the words "Freak out!" and "Freak in!". When not in Freakazoid mode, Dexter looks and acts completely normal, and his family is unaware that anything has happened to him. Freakazoid spends this time in an area of Dexter's brain called the Freakazone, where he reflects, has profound thoughts, and watches Rat Patrol reruns.
While the show's setting is set around Washington, D.C., the locale often varies with the show's humor, taking Freakazoid to locations around the world as needed.
Episodes
Characters
Freakazoid (voiced by Paul Rugg) – The protagonist of the series. He is the alter ego of geeky 16-year-old computer ace Dexter Douglas (voiced by David Kaufman), who became Freakazoid from an overloaded Pinnacle chip inside his computer. He attends Harry Connick Jr. High School. To transform into Freakazoid, Dexter says "Freak out!" To change back into Dexter, Freakazoid says "Freak in!". Dexter and Freakazoid sometimes identify as separate identities, and other times are considered the same person. His alliterative name takes from Peter Parker and Bruce Banner. His outfit comes from Shazam.
The Douglas family
Debbie Douglas (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – Dexter's mother. She is unaware that her son is Freakazoid and is generally blithe and clueless.
Douglas Douglas (voiced by John P. McCann) – Dexter's father who is incredibly incompetent, but attempts to keep his family in line regardless.
Duncan Douglas (voiced by Googy Gress) – Dexter's older brother. He is a bully towards Dexter and a stereotypical jock who is also frequently tormented by Freakazoid.
Mr. Chubbikins (vocal effects provided by Frank Welker) – The Douglas' morbidly obese cat. He jumped on Dexter's keyboard while chasing a butterfly, accidentally typing in the key sequence which activated the Pinnacle chip's flaw, turning Dexter into Freakazoid.
Allies
Sgt. Mike Cosgrove (voiced by Ed Asner) – A heavyset, gruff police sergeant with a heart of gold who is friends with Freakazoid and several other characters. By pointing at something and saying "Cut it out", he has the almost supernatural ability to get people to stop whatever they are doing on command, no matter what they may be doing at the time. Cosgrove also possesses the odd power of finding Freakazoid no matter where he is, and often interrupts his heroic endeavors to ask him to visit various entertainments, which Freakazoid always enthusiastically agrees to no matter what he is doing at the time. During this visit, Cosgrove inevitably reveals important information about the plot of the episode, resulting in Freakazoid leaving to foil the villain's scheme and Cosgrove being left to enjoy the attraction for himself. Additionally, at some point, Freakazoid entrusted Cosgrove with his secret identity, and was deeply upset when he accidentally revealed it to Steff and Professor Jones.
Roddy MacStew (voiced by Craig Ferguson) – Freakazoid's mentor, and expositionist; an ill-tempered Scotsman who once worked for Guitierrez and was the first to discover the Pinnacle Chip's flaw. In "The Chip" (detailing Freakazoid's origin story), he was trapped in the Internet after going into it to escape from Guitierrez's minions, but Guitierrez later forced him out and he resumed his mentor role.
Steff (voiced by Tracy Rowe) – Freakazoid's perky and sweet yet cynical and sarcastic blonde girlfriend; her real name is Stephanie. She discovers Freakazoid's secret identity when Cosgrove accidentally points it out aloud in "Mission: Freakazoid".
Hans (voiced by Larry Cedar) – A mysterious agent with a Western European accent who takes Freakazoid to Professor Heiney's lab.
Professor Heiney (voiced by Ed Gilbert) – A scientist with a lab in the mountains who Freakazoid sometimes goes to for help. He researches and kills monsters, and is often attacked by them.
Ingmar – Freakazoid's mute butler, who built and maintains the Freakalair. He quit in "Mission: Freakazoid" to become a rodeo clown and was replaced by Professor Jones. He is a parody of Zorro's mute manservant Bernardo and Batman's butler Alfred Pennyworth.
Professor Jones (voiced by Jonathan Harris) – A snooty and cowardly parody of Dr. Zachary Smith from Lost in Space (who was also portrayed by Harris). He is the replacement to Ingmar and is old friends with him. Jones does not get along with Cosgrove well and gets little respect from Freakazoid or anyone else. A running gag is that someone would ask if he was on that show with a kid and a robot which is a nod to Jonathan Harris' work on Lost in Space.
Joe Leahy (voiced by himself) – The show's vocal narrator and announcer who sometimes gets more involved than the job usually requires.
Freakazette – Only mentioned in the first episode for a brief verse during the "Freakazoid and Friends" theme song (set to the tune of the Animaniacs theme).
Foamy the Freakadog (vocal effects provided by Frank Welker) – A vicious, rabid dog which Freakazoid freed from the dogcatcher's van. Foamy is painted blue, has a Freakazoid costume, and is prone to maul and/or beat Freakazoid due to his rabid condition.
Handman (voiced by Paul Rugg) – Freakazoid's brief "right hand man", who is just a painted face on his right hand and has great difficulty pronouncing Freakazoid's name correctly. He fell in love with and married Handgirl, a painted face on Freakazoid's left hand.
Expendable Lad (voiced by Paul Dini) – Freakazoid's brief sidekick in "And Fanboy Is His Name". He was hospitalized due to Milk Man bruising his clavicle and was subsequently released from Freakazoid's service.
Leonard Maltin (voiced by himself) – He was kidnapped by Dr. Mystico during the episode "Island of Dr. Mystico", while Maltin was giving his opinion of the same episode. Freakazoid points out that Mystico's prisoners all have superpowers, and Maltin's is his knowledge of film.
Henry Kissinger (voiced by Paul Rugg) – A politician who was kidnapped by Dr. Mystico's "orangu-men". In the show, he speaks in a low, groggy, incomprehensible mumble. He is also briefly mentioned in "Two Against Freak", hosting a show called Teen Chat.
Norm Abram (voiced by himself) – A master carpenter who was kidnapped by the Lobe to make a wooden instrument to destroy Freakazoid, but got free and helped turn the tables against the Lobe and his allies.
Enemies
Freakazoid! features a number of campy villains that make up his rogues gallery. They consist of:
The Lobe (voiced by David Warner) – Freakazoid's archenemy, an evil genius whose entire head is a giant brain. Despite his high intellect, he has very low self-esteem, once even having a scheme foiled by Freakazoid simply insulting the plan, despite actually being impressed by it once the Lobe has left. No background information of any kind is given for the Lobe and his real name is never revealed.
Cobra Queen (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – Audrey Manatee is a former shoplifter whose theft of an experimental expired cosmetic transformed her into a cobra woman with command over snakes and other reptiles. In later episodes, Cobra Queen and Cave Guy are dating. She has a lair in the sewers and often complained about the lack of light there until Freakazoid suggested getting Japanese lanterns. Cobra Queen seems to be offended when compared to Sylvester the Cat.
Cave Guy (voiced by Jeff Bennett impersonating Jim Backus) – Royce Mumphry is a thuggish blue-skinned caveman with upperclass diction and taste who has a stereotypical WASP tone (see Locust Valley lockjaw). He subscribes to The New Yorker and also seems to have an odd fear of Klingons, primarily because of their language.
Longhorn (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) – Jubal "Bull" Nixon was once an employee of the Johnny Cat cat litter company until he turned to a life of crime. Because he was searched for by law enforcement so frequently, he had plastic surgery to turn himself into a humanoid Texas Longhorn. Freakazoid even pointed out that this did not prevent Longhorn from appearing on America's Most Wanted every week. He loves country music and despite being a lousy songwriter, he is determined to get a recording contract in Nashville. Longhorn also owns a massive truck nicknamed "Bessie Mae" which is outfitted with all kinds of devices and can fly.
Turk (voiced by Matt Landers) – Longhorn's henchman.
Armando Guitierrez (voiced by Ricardo Montalbán) – The eyepatch-wearing man whose company Apex Microchips designed the faulty Pinnacle Chip responsible for Freakazoid's creation. He is similar to Khan from Star Trek, who was also played by Montalbán. Originally a normal human, he briefly gained powers similar to Freakazoid's by exploiting the Pinnacle chip's flaw. However, he was defeated in the Internet and fell into a pit, which made the right half of his face cybernetic which he now covers this by wearing a hooded robe. Guitierrez hates being called a weenie to which he will angrily respond "I am not a weenie! It is YOU who are the weenie!" In "Normadeus", he is among the villains invited by the Lobe to witness Freakazoid's destruction.
Jocko (voiced by Paul Rugg) – Guitierrez's henchman who is completely inarticulate.
Candle Jack (voiced by Jeff Bennett) – A supernatural villain with a burlap sack over his head who abducts anyone who says his name and ties them up with rope, apparently because "he's a nut". Though he prides himself on being scary, he has a weakness for pie and also seems to enjoy watching F Troop.
Waylon Jeepers (voiced by Jeff Bennett) – A creepy little man from Venice Beach who created the Medusa Watch which can turn people (and pigeons) into stone. He has also created a similar device that turned beavers into gold. He is obsessed with all things supernatural and is well acquainted with several monsters including Dracula, the Wolf Man, and the Loch Ness Monster. Additionally, Jeepers' schemes seem to deeply infuriate Freakazoid and Jeepers is shown to be the only villain that Freakazoid genuinely does not like (whereas the rest of the villains appear to have a friendly relationship with Freakazoid off-battle) once going on a long (and unscripted) rant against him after he tried to show him the Medusa Watch. His name is a play on famous country guitarist Waylon Jennings.
Invisibo (voiced by Corey Burton impersonating Vincent Price) – Ahmon Kor-Unch is an invisible, smart-mouthed pharaoh who is only invisible via the staff he carries. He was sealed away inside a sarcophagus in the ancient past, but freed in the modern day after Dexter and Duncan accidentally broke the seal on the sarcophagus while fighting. Invisibo planned to absorb power from the local power plant to become unstoppable, but was defeated by Freakazoid who destroyed his staff, allowing him to be visible again. He was locked back into his sarcophagus which was taken away by authorities. Invisibo resurfaced in "Normadeus" where is among the villains invited by the Lobe to witness Freakazoid's destruction where he regained his invisibility.
Booger Beast (voiced by Frank Welker) – A slimy monster who attacks Steff in the cold opening of episode 9.
The Nerdator (voiced by Aron Kincaid) – A man who planned to kidnap all of the nerds in the world and absorb their knowledge to become a "Super-Nerd". However, Freakazoid convinced him of the downsides of being a nerd, after which he discontinued his plot and instead began kidnapping "good-looking, but vapid airheads". His character design is a parody of the Predator.
Arms Akimbo (voiced by John Schuck impersonating Edward G. Robinson) – A spoiled model turned extortionist who, after years of posing, was left with his arms frozen in a jaunty pose with his hands on his hips. He sells "oops insurance", a form of protection racketeering which mainly consists of him breaking valuable things before comically following it up with a small "Oops".
The Milk Man – A milk-themed villain whom Freakazoid and his then-sidekick Expendable Lad fought in "And Fanboy Is His Name". He injured Expendable Lad's clavicle, resulting in him retiring.
Deadpan (voiced by Bebe Neuwirth) – A plain-looking, shapeshifting supervillainess with a monotonous voice, appearing in the cold open of "The Wrath of Guitierrez". She tried to conquer Washington by transforming into Freakazoid, but this plan was quickly foiled when the real Freakazoid appeared and nonchalantly exposed her. Deadpan also makes a cameo in "The Lobe", among the crowd watching the Lobe attempt to lobotomize Freakazoid.
Mary Beth (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – Cosgrove's former girlfriend, a cosmetics executive and monster. She is short-tempered and when angered turns green, develops a deep raspy voice, and shoots fire from her nose. Allegedly existing since the beginning of time, she absorbs the life force of superheroes to remain immortal and planned to do so to Freakazoid, but was foiled, died, and shriveled into a pile of dust. Her name is a play on cosmetics giant Mary Kay.
Janos Ivnovels (voiced by Jim Cummings) – The ruthless dictator of Vuka Nova and its Minister of State Security. He is responsible for capturing Freakazoid's family (and the mime from Animaniacs) and imprisoning them in Chesky Beresch Prison, the toughest prison in Europe. He and his subordinate Colonel Anton Mohans were defeated after Freakazoid and his friends rescued the Douglas family and mime, and last seen being tortured by the mime and his pals.
Colonel Anton Mohans (voiced by Larry Cedar) – A vicious thug who finds torture relaxing.
Vorn the Unspeakable (voiced by Richard Moll) – A Cthulhu-like demon summoned by Jeepers using a book entitled How to Summon Monsters the E-Z Way.
Dr. Mystico (voiced by Tim Curry) – A mad scientist who lives on a remote island and experiments with the native orangutans. He was kicked out of university for his mad science, and thus set up a laboratory on an island to continue his experiments. He seeks to take over the world, though he always seems to say Cleveland instead.
Sparkles - Dr. Mystico's pet white cat. He is similar to the cat that is owned by Ernst Stavro Blofeld.
Orangu-Men (vocal effects provided by Jim Cummings) - A group of creatures created by Dr. Mystico by splicing human and orangutan DNA. Three of them, Fatima, Ackbar, and Ringo, serve as his henchmen.
Kid Carrion (voiced by Jeff Bennett) – A zombie cowboy who primarily makes non-speaking cameo appearances, and resembles Tex Hex from Bravestarr. Kid Carrion was part of the characters that was created during the original development of this show.
Major Danger – A villain who was part of Bruce Timm's original development of the show. He makes a cameo in "The Lobe", among the crowd watching the Lobe attempt to lobotomize Freakazoid.
Bombshell – A villain who was part of Bruce Timm's original development of this show. She makes a cameo in "The Lobe", among the crowd watching the Lobe attempt to lobotomize Freakazoid.
Eye-of-Newt – A strange one-eyed creature resembling Newt Gingrich, whose name is a reference to Shakespeare's Macbeth ("Eye of newt and toe of frog..."). He has no dialogue and is a background villain, although it seems that he is frequently captured by heroes like Freakazoid or the Huntsman.
Other characters
Mo-Ron/Bo-Ron (voiced by Stan Freberg) – An obese and dimwitted alien from the planet Barone's (a reference to the restaurant of the same name). His name was later changed to Bo-Ron to appease network censors' concerns that use of the word moron might be offensive. His design is a parody of Ro-Man, the alien monster from Robot Monster. His first appearance was when he tried to deliver Earth an important message, only to forget what it was. This message turned out to be a comet heading towards Earth, which caused everyone to flee the area. He also appeared in the episode "Next Time, Phone Ahead!", a parody of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. In "Freak-a-Panel", he was among the characters who confront Freakazoid over being dropped from the show, and was given a job washing the Freakmobile.
Fanboy (voiced by Stephen Furst) – An obese, acne-stricken, socially awkward fanboy and would-be sidekick to Freakazoid who obsesses over various media. Fanboy's age is never specified; he could be anywhere between his late teens to early 30s. In "Freak-a-Panel", he was among the characters who confront Freakazoid over being dropped from the show, and was given a job washing the Freakmobile.
Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton (voiced by Frank Welker and Tress MacNeille respectively) make frequent cameos in the show, partly because of its setting of Washington, D.C.
Barbra Streisand (voiced by Tress MacNeille) also makes a number of appearances, most notably in the episode "Dexter's Date", which features a parody of Hello, Dolly!.
Hero Boy (voiced by John P. McCann) – The title character from Freakazoid's favorite TV show, a parody of Astro Boy. He has no powers (save for flying) and is invariably shrugged off by the monsters he fights, as his pathetic fighting techniques (consisting of weakly pounding on enemies) always fail miserably.
Steven Spielberg (voiced by Frank Welker) – The show's executive producer. His most notable appearance was in "The Freakazoid", where Freakazoid, the Brain from Pinky and the Brain, and Wakko Warner from Animaniacs get into a disagreement over which of their shows he likes best, only for Spielberg to reveal that he has no idea who they are. In "The Nerdator", Spielberg is among the nerds captured by the Nerdator. During this time, he was directing an E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial sequel called E.T. Returns.
Paul Harvey (voiced by Paul Rugg) – A loud, obnoxious man who often interrupts the story to give background information on villains (in the episodes introducing Cobra Queen and Longhorn), or to describe, rather than show, the ending of an episode (in "Candle Jack"). He is a parody of the radio personality of the same name.
Lonnie Tallbutt (voiced by Mitch Schauer in human form, vocal effects provided by Jim Cummings in werewolf form) – A werewolf that begs Dexter for help. His name is a combination of that of Lon Chaney Jr. and Lawrence Talbot, the character Chaney played in the 1941 film The Wolf Man. He is prone to grabbing people's shirt collars and yelling "You don't understand!".
Emmitt Nervend – A short, hunchbacked man with straw-like hair and a frozen grimace who usually shows up at least once an episode, always in the opening credits, but usually in the background. He stands looking at the camera (as pictured), never saying a word. The end credits often contain a credit revealing how many times Emmitt can be found in a particular episode. His appearance was drawn by Mitch Schauer.
Weena Mercator as the Hopping Woman – A person acknowledged whenever credits are used in an episode.
Yakko Warner (voiced by Rob Paulsen) – The oldest brother of the Animaniacs.
Wakko Warner (voiced by Jess Harnell) – The younger brother of the Animaniacs.
Dot Warner (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – The youngest sister of the Animaniacs.
The Brain (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) – A megalomaniacal genius lab mouse from Pinky and the Brain.
Mini-segments
Freakazoid! also features several mini-segments, primarily in the first season. Each of these have their own theme songs and title cards, and only occasionally appear in the main show. These segments include:
Lord Bravery – Nigel Skunkthorpe (voiced by Jeff Bennett impersonating John Cleese) is a superhero from the United Kingdom resembling a Roman soldier. He does not do much in the way of superheroics. In fact, he is snooty, cynical and unwilling to do unpleasant tasks in the course of his duties such as entering a sewer to perform a rescue. Likewise, he gets little respect and recognition from the public and even from his wife and mother-in-law (voiced by Tress MacNeille and Mark Slaughter respectively), with whom he lives. At one point in "Office Visit", he loses his name due to a trademark dispute with a bakery and changes it to Lord Smoked Meats and Fishes. His theme song is delivered in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan's song "A British Tar". In "Freak-a-Panel", he was among the characters who confront Freakazoid over being dropped from the show and was given a job washing the Freakmobile.
The Huntsman – The Huntsman (voiced by Jeff Bennett impersonating Charlton Heston) is a Robin Hood-like hero who lives in the woods. Marty Feeb was a poor hunter who saved a chunky elf from being eaten by a crow and was rewarded with magic corn that gave him enhanced strength and speed, as well as shiny teeth, resulting in him becoming the Huntsman. He also has a brother called Hector Feeb, who he claims lives in a townhouse. The Huntsman can be summoned by a police officer blowing into the Horn of Urgency in the local police station and arrived at the office of police lieutenant Artie King (voiced by Dorian Harewood) who would often be seen reading the newspaper. His sketches are often themed around beginning with a lengthy, overly heroic opener, with a title that would indicate an action-oriented episode, that ends up being a short and anticlimactic due to him not being needed after all due to the "slow crime period". The Huntsman is also an umpire in the annual Superheroes/Villain All-Star Benefit Softball Game. In "The Freakazoid", the Huntsman gives a request to Freakazoid to help him find work when he went to another town that had crime and found that it's crime dried up upon his arrival. In "Freak-a-Panel", the Huntsman was among the characters who confront Freakazoid over being dropped from the show and was given a job washing the Freakmobile.
The Lawn Gnomes – Baffeardin (voiced by Clive Revill), Huska (voiced by Carl Ballantine), Honna (voiced by Rose Marie), and Quist (voiced by Larry Gelman) are a group of gnomes-turned-lawn gnomes that come to life at night in a parody of Gargoyles. Infamous for their mischief back in 995 AD, they were advised by the Great Mystic Gnome (voiced by Roscoe Lee Browne) to change their ways. They planned to do so, but were cursed to become stone by day by the powerful wizard Rathgar (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) after they tripped him and attacked his younger Viking brother Erik the Large (also voiced by Maurice LaMarche). They would revert at night during which time they were given the opportunity to mend their ways by fighting evil, after which the curse would be lifted
Toby Danger – A parody of Jonny Quest that was originally written by Tom Minton as a standalone short for Animaniacs, but slotted into Freakazoid! to fill time. It features the adventures of Toby Danger (voiced by Scott Menville), his scientist father Dr. Vernon Danger (voiced by Don Messick), his adoptive sister Sandra Danger (voiced by Mary Scheer), and Dr. Danger's bodyguard Dash O'Pepper (voiced by Granville Van Dusen) as they fight Dr. Sin.
Fatman and Boy Blubber – The misadventures of two morbidly obese superheroes (voiced by Marc Drotman and Paul Rugg, respectively), in a parody of the Batman TV series. Their only segment involves them coming to the aid of Louis (voiced by Scott McAfee), an overweight boy who loves sweet buns and is being tormented by bullies Joey (voiced by Scott Menville) and an unnamed bully. After attempting to capture the bullies and failing due to their extreme lack of physical fitness, Fatman and Boy Blubber deliver a pseudo-inspirational speech to Louis about their own struggles with being overweight, and how they often end up eating unhealthy food instead of having sensible meals. When Louis asks what the point of the speech is, Fatman changes the subject to ask if Louis has anymore sweet buns in his lunchbox; the hero then tries to confiscate the food and begins beating Louis up with Boy Blubber when he refuses to give the sweet buns to them. Fatman and Boy Blubber also briefly appear in "Hero Boy", reading a storybook to some children.
Production
Voicing
The voice actors of the show Freakazoid! included various actors from other television series and films. Tress MacNeille, Maurice LaMarche, Jeff Bennett, and Frank Welker, who all provided voices in the series Animaniacs, were on Freakazoid!. Actors Ed Asner, Ricardo Montalbán, Larry Cedar, Jonathan Harris, and Stephen Furst also provided voices for the series. Also, writers John P. McCann and Paul Rugg (who played Freakazoid) added voices themselves.
Casting for the show had been difficult for the Freakazoid! staff, as no lead character had been found even after extensive auditions. Eventually, when writer Paul Rugg was brought to demonstrate the voice in a recording session, he ended up filling the role, as he said: "I went in there and did it. Then they played it for Steven Spielberg and he said 'Yep! Fine, sure, great,' and then I panicked ... and I had to do it." Rugg played the role of Freakazoid through the entire series run.
Animation
The animation was outsourced to Animal-ya, Studio Junio, and Tama Production in Japan, Seoul Movie, Dong Yang Animation, and Koko Enterprises Ltd. in South Korea.
Music
The music for Freakazoid! was written by Richard Stone, Steve Bernstein, Julie Bernstein, Gordon Goodwin, and Tim Kelly. Stone won a Daytime Emmy with lyricist (and senior producer) Tom Ruegger for the main title song in 1996. Julie Bernstein was nominated for a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Original Song in 1998 for the song "Invisibo" from the episode "Freak-a-Panel".
Controversy with Mike Allred's Madman
Cartoonist Mike Allred has criticized the show and its lead character as plagiarism of his comic book Madman, asserting that the title characters share several personality traits, and wear similar costumes featuring a chest emblem including an exclamation mark. During the short run of the show, Allred remained relatively silent on the subject, but in 2003, he responded to a question about the show on the message board of his official website:
Humor
The humor in Freakazoid! relied heavily on slapstick, parody and pop culture references. Due to the series being metafiction, much of the series was self-aware humor (i.e. breaking the fourth wall); for instance, after the first appearance of the Freakmobile, the show goes immediately into an impromptu commercial for a toy version, and later in the episode, Freakazoid addresses an audience, congratulating the staff on how hard they have worked to make the show toyetic. A running gag involves a repeated credit for "Weena Mercator as the Hopping Woman", though no such character appears in any episode. The show also incorporated humor aimed at the WB Network, such as questioning the meaning of the initials "WB".
Freakazoid! made frequent use of stock footage, including a peaceful scene of a field of flowers ("Relax-O-Vision"), numerous people screaming and traditionally dressed Bavarians dancing and slapping each other ("Candle Jack"), and a man being shot in the belly with a cannonball and a man wrestling a bear ("The Chip").
Cameo appearances were also a major element of the show's humor. At various times, Freakazoid! hosted appearances by characters from other Warner Bros. shows such as Pinky and the Brain, Animaniacs and even an insinuation appearance of Batman from Bruce Timm's animated version. Portrayals of many celebrities (including producer Steven Spielberg) and guest appearances by such figures as Jack Valenti, Leonard Maltin and Mark Hamill as themselves were also commonplace. Norm Abram had an entire episode, "Normadeus", built around him. One original character, a bizarre-looking man named Emmitt Nervend, plays no role whatsoever other than enabling a Where's Waldo-esque hunt for his cameos (complete with the number of his appearances announced in the closing credits).
One of the show's longest cameo appearances was in the episode "The Freakazoid", where Freakazoid, Wakko from Animaniacs, and the Brain from Pinky and the Brain argue over which of their shows is Steven Spielberg's favorite, with Freakazoid arguing that his show was the favorite (Tiny Toon Adventures was not represented in the discussion as it was on Nickelodeon at the time, while the others were on Kids' WB). However, when the trio confronts Steven over the issue, he admits to having no idea who they are.
History
Creation
Freakazoid! was created by animators Bruce Timm, who had previously produced Batman: The Animated Series, and his writing partner Paul Dini, who was also a story editor for Tiny Toon Adventures. Timm was called upon by Steven Spielberg, who Timm said "liked" Timm's Batman series, to help create a new superhero show. After a meeting with Spielberg, Timm said that Spielberg had "really liked" the idea for the series, after which Timm and Dini created the character Freakazoid, an edgy superhero with a manic personality. Timm came up with the name for the character naturally, as he recalled, "The name 'Freakazoid' just kind of jumped out of me, I don't even know where from. I said 'Oh, yeah, 'Freakazoid', that might be an interesting name.'" Dini and Timm have also discussed their desire to create a TV show about the Creeper, another comedic character.
Timm originally created Freakazoid! to be a serious "adventure show" with some comedic undertones. However, his initial idea for the series did not come to be, as he stated:
After Timm left the series, Tom Ruegger, who developed the other Spielberg series Tiny Toon Adventures and Animaniacs, was brought in to re-develop the series Timm had created "from the ground up". Ruegger's version of the series used some of Timm's designs and concepts, but Timm said that the series was "radically altered" to become the comedy series that was more to Spielberg's liking.
Ruegger then began writing stories for the series, and came up with a pile of very short segments. Spielberg liked what Ruegger had written, but wanted longer stories for the series as well. Ruegger then asked writers John McCann and Paul Rugg to come onto the series to write longer, more elaborate stories for the series and, according to Rugg, "(...) figure out what this [Freakazoid!] was going to be, and the answer was like, 'We didn't know', and still don't".
Premiere, cancellation, and syndication
Freakazoid! premiered on Kids' WB's Saturday lineup on September 9, 1995. During its run, Freakazoid! came across problems of appealing to its target demographic, young children. Tom Ruegger said that Freakazoid! had done poorly in ratings because the audience that the series gathered was older than the target audience. Also, Freakazoid ran into timeslot problems. Writer John McCann said that the time slot of the series changed frequently: "They put it at eight o' clock in the morning, 3:30 in the afternoon, they shifted it all around; we couldn't even find it, and we wrote the thing". The series ran on Kids' WB until February 14, 1997, when it was canceled due to poor ratings, airing only one complete season and part of a second season. Rugg said the series' demise was the result of a combination of people not understanding the series, time slot changes, appealing to the wrong demographics, and that "(...) there aren't a lot of Nielsen boxes in federal prisons. Had there been, I'm telling you, we'd still be on the air today". However, the show was later picked up by Cartoon Network and was rebroadcast from April 5, 1997, until March 29, 2003. The series had a total number of 24 episodes. In 2006, Freakazoid! was one of the shows scheduled to be broadcast on the AOL broadband channel, In2TV. The show is currently available to stream for free on Tubi. In Italy, Freakazoid! along with Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs and Pinky and the Brain, was shown on RAI and later Mediaset. In Japan, Freakazoid! along with Tiny Toon Adventures was shown on TV Asahi.
Reception
The series won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Class Animated Program.
Bruce Timm said that the series still has a cult following of fans who ask him questions about the series whenever they meet him.
According to Timm, the character's co-creator, he actually has a preference for the second season:
Video on demand
United States
As of June 2022, the series is currently available to stream for free in the United States on Tubi. It is also available to purchase on DVD and digital stores. In Latin America, the show streams on HBO Max.
International
The entire series is currently available for purchase on Amazon Prime Video in Italy.
Merchandise
Print
Freakazoid never had his own comic book, but he did make a special guest crossover in issue #35 of the Animaniacs comic book published by DC Comics.
Home video
Warner Home Video has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1.
In popular culture
The sixth season episode of Teen Titans Go!, "Huggbees", aired on November 14, 2020, and features Freakazoid helping the Teen Titans defeat the Lobe and Brain when they join forces. It was mentioned by Freakazoid that Steven Spielberg would have to approve the crossover which led to Robin sending a message to Steven who approves of the crossover. According to Rugg, the production team for the show had sent him a script involving Freakazoid in December 2019 which he approved. The episode has Rugg, David Warner, Ed Asner, and Joe Leahy reprising their respective roles.
References
Further reading
External links
Freakazoid! at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on July 30, 2016.
1995 American television series debuts
1997 American television series endings
1990s American animated television series
1990s American comic science fiction television series
American animated television spin-offs
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated comic science fiction television series
American children's animated superhero television series
Crossover animated television series
English-language television shows
Kids' WB original shows
Metafictional television series
Parody superheroes
Self-reflexive television
Teen animated television series
Teen superhero television series
Television series by Amblin Entertainment
Television series by Warner Bros. Animation
Television shows set in Washington, D.C.
The WB original programming
Comedy franchises
|
417261
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Plymouth
|
University of Plymouth
|
The University of Plymouth is a public research university based predominantly in Plymouth, England, where the main campus is located, but the university has campuses and affiliated colleges across South West England. With students, it is the largest in the United Kingdom by total number of students (including the Open University).
History
1862 – 2000
The university was originally founded as the Plymouth School of Navigation in 1862, before becoming a university college in 1920 and a polytechnic institute in 1970, with its constituent bodies being Plymouth Polytechnic, Rolle College in Exmouth, the Exeter College of Art and Design (which were, before April 1989, run by Devon County Council) and Seale-Hayne College (which before April 1989 was an independent charity). It was renamed Polytechnic South West in 1989, a move that was unpopular with students as the name lacked identity. It was the only polytechnic to be renamed and remained as "PSW" until gaining university status in 1992 along with the other polytechnics. The new university absorbed the Plymouth School of Maritime Studies.
2000 – 2020
In 2006, part of the remains of the World War II Portland Square air-raid shelter were rediscovered on the Plymouth campus. On the night of 22 April 1941, during the Blitz, a bomb fell on the site killing over 70 civilians, including a mother and her six children. The bomb blast was so strong that human remains were found in the tops of trees. Only three people escaped alive, all children.
The university's first vice-chancellor was John Bull. He was succeeded by Roland Levinsky until his death on 1 January 2007, when he walked into live electrical cables brought down during a storm. He was temporarily replaced by Mark Cleary (now vice-chancellor of the University of Bradford), and then by Steve Newstead. Wendy Purcell became VC on 1 December 2007. She was placed on leave on 2 July 2014 by the university's governors while an internal review was conducted. A month later the Higher Education Funding Council for England requested an independent external review of the university's governance. In August 2014, the university was instructed by HEFCE to undertake an external review of its governance after vice-chancellor Wendy Purcell was placed on leave.
Judith Petts CBE was appointed the University of Plymouth's vice-chancellor and chief executive in February 2016. She joined Plymouth from the University of Southampton, where she had been pro-vice-chancellor research and enterprise and previously the inaugural dean of the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences (2010–2013).
The university was selected by the Royal Statistical Society in October 2008 to be the home of its Centre for Statistical Education. It also runs courses in maritime business, marine engineering, marine biology, and Earth, ocean and environmental sciences.
2020 – present
Babbage Building renovation
In 2021 work began to completely renovate the interior and exterior of the Babbage Building. The renovations will add an extra 10,000m² worth of space to the building, and create rooftop gardens which will be open to students. Renovation works also began on the Intercity Place tower down by the Plymouth railway station.
The university has plans to tear down the Brunel Building which currently sits opposite Babbage and turn it into an urban park, but no timeline has been released yet.
Campus
When university status was gained in 1992, the university was based in on multiple sites. Under Vice-Chancellor Levinsky the university began a policy of centralising its campus activities in Plymouth.
The Exmouth campus Rolle College housed the Faculty of Education and relocated to the new Rolle Building in August 2008. The decision was unpopular with students and the town of Exmouth itself. There were several protest marches and a campaign to keep the campus open.
The Exeter campus [Earl Richards Road North] housed the Arts and Design faculty from 1989 to 2007. Purpose-built in the 1970s to re-locate Exeter College of Art and Design from the city centre, the college became amalgamated with Polytechnic South West in 1989 and permanently relocated its facilities to Plymouth in 2007. In 2011 planning permission was granted to demolish and redevelop the Earl Richards Road North site to provide 39 dwellings with parking and landscaping.
Completed developments include Portland Square, a library extension, refurbished and new laboratory and teaching facilities in many of the campus buildings, halls of residence near the Business School and a new £16 million Peninsula Medical School headquarters at Derriford Hospital, in the north of the city. A Marine Building has been constructed behind the Babbage Building to house civil engineering, coastal engineering and marine sciences.
An exception to the trend of centralising activities are the university's extensive activities in education for the health professions. In addition, many of its students are taught at further education colleges throughout Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, such as South Devon College. A building which opened in 2008 is shared between the Peninsula Medical School and the Faculty of Health and Human Sciences.
Roland Levinsky building
The Roland Levinsky Building, designed by architects Henning Larsen with Building Design Partnership, is clad with copper sheets in a seamed-cladding technique, is nine storeys high and has of floor space. The Faculty of Arts, previously based in Exmouth and Exeter moved here in August 2007. The building contains two large lecture theatres, the Jill Craigie Cinema, used by the film students to display their films and for showing of films to the public; three performance rehearsal studios; digital media suites; and a public art gallery which displays work by local artists groups, students and famous artists.
InterCity Place
InterCity Place is an 11-storey tower building adjacent to Plymouth railway station currently undergoing renovations to turn the building into a centre for students studying medical degrees. The tower is being renovated by contractor Kier Group and is set to open in 2023. The building used to be the Intercity House office block. The building is currently owned by Network Rail, but is being given to the university on a 150-year lease.
Student accommodation
University-managed or approved accommodation in the first year of study is guaranteed for all applicants who choose Plymouth as their first choice institution. There are six university-managed halls: Francis Drake, Gilwell, Mary Newman, Pilgrim, Radnor and Robbins. Special accommodation arrangements can be made for students with disabilities or medical conditions.
Francis Drake
Francis Drake Hall is located on-campus at the university's main campus. It has a café, Circuit Laundry, a bicycle storage room, and post room service in the building.
In April 2021 at around 3pm, a woman set fire to the 6th floor of the accommodation building. She was later arrested for arson. One person was taken to hospital for smoke inhalation.
During the 2021/22 academic year, planned maintenance works were undertaken to replace external cladding on the building. Scaffolding was erected and students remained living in halls that year.
Organisation and administration
Faculties
There are three faculties which each contain a number of schools:
Arts, Humanities and Business
Health
Science and Engineering
Coat of arms
The arms, crest, badge and supporters forming the university's coat of arms were granted on 10 April 2008, in Grant 173/189, by the College of Arms.
The books represent the university's focus on learning and scholarship. The scattering of small stars, represent navigation, which has played a key role in the history of the city and the university. The scallop shells in gold, represents pilgrimage, a sign of the importance of the departure of the Pilgrim Fathers from a site near the Mayflower Steps in the Plymouth Barbican aboard the Mayflower in 1620. A Pelican and a Golden Hind support the shield and reflect both the original and later, better known, name of Sir Francis Drake's ship. The crest contains the Latin motto, "Indagate Fingite Invenite" which translates as "Explore Dream Discover" and is a quote from Mark Twain, reflecting the university's ambitions for its students and Plymouth's history of great seafarers.
The letters patent granting arms to the University of Plymouth were presented by Eric Dancer, Lord Lieutenant of Devon, in a ceremony on 27 November 2008, in the presence of Henry Paston-Bedingfeld, York Herald of the College of Arms, the Lord Mayor and Lady Mayoress of Plymouth, Judge William Taylor, the Recorder of Plymouth, and Baroness Judith Wilcox.
The coat of arms are rarely seen in use, other than at graduation. The university uses the "with Plymouth University" brand on stationery and signs and keeps the coat of arms exclusive. The use of the arms is therefore restricted to graduations and other formal ceremonies, degree certificates and associated materials and the exclusive use by the Office of the Vice-Chancellor.
Academic profile
A wide variety of undergraduate and postgraduate programmes are taught at the main city campus in Plymouth. The university scores well in law, psychology, geographical sciences, computing (including digital media) and computer science, fine art and art history. Key developments include: the creation of a new business school; bringing together complementary subjects in a new combined faculty of Science and Engineering; and creating the largest marine science and engineering school in Europe.
Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Business
This faculty is host to the School of Art, Design and Architecture, Plymouth Business School, and the School of Society and Culture, including the Plymouth Institute of Education. Arts subjects are usually taught in the Roland Levinsky building and the Scott building, a 19th-century building located next to Roland Levinsky which was modernised externally in 2008 to keep to the university's current design.
The faculty offers degrees in Anthropology, Architecture, Built environment, Business and Management, Criminology, Education, English, Game design, History, Illustration, Art history, 3D Design, Fine Art, Law, Marketing, Music, Photography, Professional Policing, Media arts, Sociology, and Theatre & Performance. Postgraduate research degree supervision is available across the disciplines in all three Schools, with specific expertise in artistic research.
Faculty of Health
Home to the Peninsula Dental School, Peninsula Medical School, School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Psychology, School of Health Professions, and School of Nursing and Midwifery. The Faculty offers degrees in Adult Nursing, Biomedical Sciences, Child Health Nursing, Dentistry, Medicine, Mental Health Nursing, Midwifery, Dietetics, Optometry, Social Work, Occupational Therapy, Podiatry, Physiotherapy and Paramedicine.
Medicine and Dentistry were first established as part of the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry in 2000, which operated as a partnership between Plymouth University and the University of Exeter. In January 2012 the two founding members of the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry (PCMD) the Universities of Exeter and Plymouth, outlined their plans to expand independently and grow the success of the now nationally recognised professional health education provider. These changes came into effect from the start of the 2013 academic year.
Faculty of Science and Engineering
This faculty is home to the School of Biological and Marine Sciences, the School of Engineering, Computing and Mathematics, and the School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences.
Subjects taught in the Schools include biological sciences, marine biology, marine sciences, chemistry, earth sciences, geography, environmental science, computer science including artificial intelligence, cyber security and games development, mathematics including mathematics with theoretical physics and mathematics with statistics, data science, mechanical, marine and materials engineering, civil and coastal engineering, electrical and electronic engineering and robotics.
The university provides professional diving qualifications on a number of its courses, the only university in the country to do so. The university's diving centre is located within its Marine Station teaching and research facility based next to Queen Anne's Battery marina, and has a full-time team of instructors and dedicated research vessels and equipment.
Academic Partnerships
The Academic Partnerships network is a collaboration between the university and local colleges across the England and the world.
Plymouth is the main sponsor of Marine Academy Plymouth. It is also the main sponsor of UTC Plymouth, which opened in September 2013.
Centres for Excellence in Teaching and Learning
In 2005 the university was awarded four HEFCE funded Centres for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETLs). In addition, Plymouth was a partner in a fifth successful bid, led by Liverpool Hope University.
The university's CETLs are:
Centre for Excellence in Professional Placement Learning (CEPPL)
Experiential Learning in the Environmental and Natural Sciences
Higher Education Learning Partnerships CETL
Centre for Sustainable Futures (Education for Sustainable Development)
Learn Higher
Reputation and rankings
The University of Plymouth ranks 503rd in the CWUR World University Rankings 2017 In The Times and Sunday Times University League Table 2018, the University of Plymouth's world ranking was listed as joint 701st and 601–650 in QS World University Rankings 2019. Times Higher Education ranked Plymouth 401–500 in its World University Rankings 2017–18, and ranked it 65th among 200 institutions in its World Young University Rankings 2017.
The results of the 2014 Research Excellence Framework showed that, overall, Plymouth was ranked joint 66 of 128 UK institutions, rising 9 places from the previous Research Assessment Exercise in 2008. Across all assessed subject areas Plymouth showed substantial evidence of 3* (internationally excellent) and 4* (world leading) research, and this was particularly evident in Clinical Medicine, Computer Sciences & Informatics, Psychology, Psychiatry & Neuroscience, and Earth Systems & Environmental Sciences, where 79–85% of research was ranked as 3* or 4*.
Plymouth was the first university to be awarded the Social Enterprise Mark in recognition of working as a genuine social enterprise, caring for communities and protecting the planet.
Notable academics
Staff have included political scientists/psephologists Colin Rallings and Michael Thrasher, who have written extensively on electoral systems, voting behaviour, polling results and British politics. Other notable academics include mathematician Richard Jozsa; health informatician Maged N. Kamel Boulos; composer and filmmaker Alexis Kirke; Professor in Computer music and composer Eduardo Reck Miranda; Roy Lowry who in August 2006 broke the world record for launching the most rockets at once; Iain Stewart who has fronted BBC documentaries such as Journeys into the Ring of Fire and Journeys from the Centre of the Earth; Alexis Kirke an interdisciplinary performer and artist; sociologist John Scott, a sociologist focused on elites, power, social stratification, and social network analysis; Jacqueline Andrade, professor of psychology; and Richard Thompson, who coined the term "microplastics". Emeritus Professor Jonathan St B. T. Evans from the school of Psychology has contributed greatly to the discussion of Dual-Process theory and has been publishing for over 40 years. Dr. Mike McCulloch, physicist and developer of the Quantised Inertia Theory.
Notable alumni
Alumni include the world's youngest single-handed cross-Atlantic sailor Seb Clover, historian Philip Payton, BBC wildlife presenter Monty Halls, television presenter Michael Underwood, life peer Judith Wilcox, Baroness Wilcox, (Plymouth Polytechnic), travel writer and physician Jane Wilson-Howarth, children's author Steve Augarde, artists Sue Austin, Julian Bovis, Pen Dalton, Andrea Polli, Hatice Güleryüz, multimedia artist and scholar Ellen Levy, computer scientist at IBM Mandy Chessell, MP for Bristol North West Darren Jones, journalist Matt Cooke, politicians Laura Anne Jones, Mark Williams and Darius J. Pearce, marine biologists Heather Koldewey and David Sims, meteorologist Clare Nasir, members of the band Meeky Rosie, Indonesian businessman and politician Jaka Singgih, and Tom Rivett-Carnac, Officer of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Students' union
University of Plymouth Students' Union, usually abbreviated "UPSU" is a non-profit making organisation. Each year, students elect the officers who will represent them for the following year. The Union offers a range of services and stages a number of events throughout the year. As well as events, the Union is the base for most of the sports teams and societies at the university.
Controversies
In 2014 a clash of personalities at the top of the university led the then vice-chancellor Wendy Purcell to be suspended.
Part of the dispute was over the commissioning of ceremonial chairs at a cost of £95,000 without the board's approval. A linked case saw the chair of the board of governors, which had suspended Purcell, William Taylor investigated of sexual harassment of female staff. Purcell was later appointed to a newly created role of president with compensation of £125,000 for loss of office and maintaining her salary of £250,000.
See also
Armorial of UK universities
Greenwich School of Management, Greenwich, south-east London
List of universities in the UK
Post-1992 universities
Schumacher College
References
External links
Plymouth University Students' Union – UPSU
1992 establishments in England
University
Educational institutions established in 1992
Plymouth
|
417262
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas%20truce
|
Christmas truce
|
The Christmas truce (; ; ) was a series of widespread unofficial ceasefires along the Western Front of the First World War around Christmas 1914.
The truce occurred five months after hostilities had begun. Lulls occurred in the fighting as armies ran out of men and munitions and commanders reconsidered their strategies following the stalemate of the Race to the Sea and the indecisive result of the First Battle of Ypres. In the week leading up to 25 December, French, German and British soldiers crossed trenches to exchange seasonal greetings and talk. In some areas, men from both sides ventured into no man's land on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day to mingle and exchange food and souvenirs. There were joint burial ceremonies and prisoner swaps, while several meetings ended in carolling. Men played games of football with one another, creating one of the most memorable images of the truce. Hostilities continued in some sectors, while in others the sides settled on little more than arrangements to recover bodies.
The following year, a few units arranged ceasefires but the truces were not nearly as widespread as in 1914; this was, in part, due to strongly worded orders from commanders, prohibiting truces. Soldiers were no longer amenable to truce by 1916; the war had become increasingly bitter after the human losses suffered during the battles of 1915.
The truces were not unique to the Christmas period and reflected a mood of "live and let live", where infantry close together would stop fighting and fraternise, engaging in conversation. In some sectors, there were occasional ceasefires to allow soldiers to go between the lines and recover wounded or dead comrades; in others, there was a tacit agreement not to shoot while men rested, exercised or worked in view of the enemy. The Christmas truces were particularly significant due to the number of men involved and the level of their participation—even in quiet sectors, dozens of men openly congregating in daylight was remarkable—and are often seen as a symbolic moment of peace and humanity amidst one of the most violent conflicts in human history.
Background
During the first eight weeks of World War I, French and British troops stopped the German attack through Belgium into France outside Paris at the First Battle of the Marne in early September 1914. The Germans fell back to the Aisne valley, where they dug in. In the First Battle of the Aisne, the Franco–British attacks were repulsed and both sides began digging trenches to economise on manpower and use the surplus to outflank, to the north, their opponents. In the Race to the Sea, the two sides made reciprocal outflanking manoeuvres and after several weeks, during which the British forces were withdrawn from the Aisne and sent north to Flanders, both sides ran out of room. By November, armies had built continuous lines of trenches running from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier.
Before Christmas 1914, there were several peace initiatives. The Open Christmas Letter was a public message for peace addressed "To the Women of Germany and Austria", signed by a group of 101 British women's suffragettes at the end of 1914. Pope Benedict XV, on 7 December 1914, had begged for an official truce between the warring governments. He asked "that the guns may fall silent at least upon the night the angels sang", which was refused by both sides.
Fraternisation
Fraternisation—peaceful and sometimes friendly interactions between opposing forces—was a regular feature in quiet sectors of the Western Front. In some areas, both sides would refrain from aggressive behaviour, while in other cases it extended to regular conversation or even visits from one trench to another. On the Eastern Front, Fritz Kreisler reported incidents of spontaneous truces and fraternisation between the Austro-Hungarians and Russians in the first few weeks of the war.
Truces between British and German units can be dated to early November 1914, around the time that the war of manoeuvre ended. Rations were brought up to the front line after dusk and soldiers on both sides noted a period of peace while they collected their food. By 1 December, a British soldier could record a friendly visit from a German sergeant one morning "to see how we were getting on". Relations between French and German units were generally more tense but the same phenomenon began to emerge. In early December, a German surgeon recorded a regular half-hourly truce each evening to recover dead soldiers for burial, during which French and German soldiers exchanged newspapers. This behaviour was often challenged by officers; lieutenant Charles de Gaulle wrote on 7 December of the "lamentable" desire of French infantrymen to leave the enemy in peace, while the commander of 10th Army, Victor d'Urbal, wrote of the "unfortunate consequences" when men "become familiar with their neighbours opposite". Other truces could be forced on both sides by bad weather, especially when trench lines flooded and these often lasted after the weather had cleared.
The proximity of trench lines made it easy for soldiers to shout greetings to each other. This may have been the most common method of arranging informal truces in 1914. Men would frequently exchange news or greetings, helped by a common language; many German soldiers had lived in England, particularly London, and were familiar with the language and the society. Several British soldiers recorded instances of Germans asking about news from the football leagues, while other conversations could be as banal as discussions of the weather or as plaintive as messages for a sweetheart. One unusual phenomenon that grew in intensity was music; in peaceful sectors, it was not uncommon for units to sing in the evenings, sometimes deliberately with an eye towards entertaining or gently taunting their opposite numbers. This shaded gently into more festive activity; in early December, Sir Edward Hulse of the Scots Guards wrote that he was planning to organise a concert party for Christmas Day, which would "give the enemy every conceivable form of song in harmony" in response to frequent choruses of .
Christmas 1914
Roughly 100,000 British and German troops were involved in the informal cessations of hostility along the Western Front. The Germans placed candles on their trenches and on Christmas trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols. The British responded by singing carols of their own.
The two sides continued by shouting Christmas greetings to each other. Soon thereafter, there were excursions across No Man's Land, where small gifts were exchanged, such as food, tobacco, alcohol, and souvenirs such as buttons and hats. The artillery in the region fell silent. The truce also allowed a breathing spell where recently killed soldiers could be brought back behind their lines by burial parties. Joint services were held. In many sectors, the truce lasted through Christmas night, continuing until New Year's Day in others.
On Christmas Day, Brigadier-General Walter Congreve, commander of the 18th Infantry Brigade, stationed near Neuve Chapelle, wrote a letter recalling that the Germans declared a truce for the day. One of his men bravely lifted his head above the parapet and others from both sides walked onto no man's land. Officers and men shook hands and exchanged cigarettes and cigars; one of his captains "smoked a cigar with the best shot in the German army", the latter no more than 18 years old. Congreve admitted he was reluctant to witness the truce for fear of German snipers.
Bruce Bairnsfather, who fought throughout the war, wrote:
Henry Williamson, a nineteen-year-old private in the London Rifle Brigade, wrote to his mother on Boxing Day:
Captain Sir Edward Hulse reported how the first interpreter he met from the German lines was from Suffolk and had left his girlfriend and a 3.5 hp motorcycle. Hulse described a sing-song which "ended up with 'Auld lang syne' which we all, English, Scots, Irish, Prussians, Württenbergers, etc, joined in. It was absolutely astounding, and if I had seen it on a cinematograph film I should have sworn that it was faked!"
Captain Robert Miles, King's Shropshire Light Infantry, who was attached to the Royal Irish Rifles, recalled in an edited letter that was published in the Daily Mail and the Wellington Journal & Shrewsbury News in January 1915, following his death in action on 30 December 1914:
Of the Germans he wrote: "They are distinctly bored with the war.... In fact, one of them wanted to know what on earth we were doing here fighting them." The truce in that sector continued into Boxing Day; he commented about the Germans, "The beggars simply disregard all our warnings to get down from off their parapet, so things are at a deadlock. We can't shoot them in cold blood.... I cannot see how we can get them to return to business."
On Christmas Eve and Christmas Day (24 and 25 December) 1914, Alfred Anderson's unit of the 1st/5th Battalion of the Black Watch was billeted in a farmhouse away from the front line. In a later interview (2003), Anderson, the last known surviving Scottish veteran of the war, vividly recalled Christmas Day and said:
A German Lieutenant, Johannes Niemann, wrote "grabbed my binoculars and looking cautiously over the parapet saw the incredible sight of our soldiers exchanging cigarettes, schnapps and chocolate with the enemy".
General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, commander of the II Corps, issued orders forbidding friendly communication with the opposing German troops. Adolf Hitler, a corporal of the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry, was also an opponent of the truce.
In the Comines sector of the front there was an early fraternisation between German and French soldiers in December 1914, during a short truce and there are at least two other testimonials from French soldiers, of similar behaviours in sectors where German and French companies opposed each other. Gervais Morillon wrote to his parents "The Boches waved a white flag and shouted 'Kamarades, Kamarades, rendez-vous'. When we didn't move they came towards us unarmed, led by an officer. Although we are not clean they are disgustingly filthy. I am telling you this but don't speak of it to anyone. We must not mention it even to other soldiers". Gustave Berthier wrote "On Christmas Day the Boches made a sign showing they wished to speak to us. They said they didn't want to shoot. ... They were tired of making war, they were married like me, they didn't have any differences with the French but with the English".
On the Yser Front, where German and Belgian troops faced each other in December 1914, a truce was arranged at the request of Belgian soldiers who wished to send letters back to their families, over the German-occupied parts of Belgium.
Football matches
Many accounts of the truce involve one or more football matches played in no man's land. This was mentioned in some of the earliest reports, with a letter written by a doctor attached to the Rifle Brigade, published in The Times on 1 January 1915, reporting "a football match... played between them and us in front of the trench". Similar stories have been told over the years, often naming units or the score. Some accounts of the game bring in elements of fiction by Robert Graves, a British poet and writer (and an officer on the front at the time) who reconstructed the encounter in a story published in 1962; in Graves's version, the score was 3–2 to the Germans.
The truth of the accounts has been disputed by some historians. In 1984, Malcolm Brown and Shirley Seaton concluded that there were probably attempts to play organised matches which failed due to the state of the ground, but that the contemporary reports were either hearsay or refer to "kick-about" matches with "made-up footballs" such as a bully-beef tin. Chris Baker, former chairman of the Western Front Association and author of The Truce: The Day the War Stopped, was also sceptical, but says that although there is little evidence, the most likely place that an organised match could have taken place was near the village of Messines: "There are two references to a game being played on the British side, but nothing from the Germans. If somebody one day found a letter from a German soldier who was in that area, then we would have something credible". Lieutenant Kurt Zehmisch of the 134th Saxon Infantry Regiment said that the English "brought a soccer ball from their trenches, and pretty soon a lively game ensued. How marvellously wonderful, yet how strange it was". In 2011 Mike Dash concluded that "there is plenty of evidence that football was played that Christmas Day—mostly by men of the same nationality but in at least three or four places between troops from the opposing armies".
Many units were reported in contemporary accounts to have taken part in games: Dash listed the 133rd Royal Saxon Regiment pitched against "Scottish troops"; the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders against unidentified Germans (with the Scots reported to have won 4–1); the Royal Field Artillery against "Prussians and Hanovers" near Ypres and the Lancashire Fusiliers near Le Touquet, with the detail of a bully beef ration tin as the "ball". One recent writer has identified 29 reports of football, though does not give substantive details. Colonel J. E. B. Seely recorded in his diary for Christmas Day that he had been "Invited to football match between Saxons and English on New Year's Day", but this does not appear to have taken place.
Eastern Front
On the Eastern Front the first move originated from Austro-Hungarian commanders, at some uncertain level of the military hierarchy. The Russians responded positively and soldiers eventually met in no man's land.
Public awareness
The truces were not reported for a week, eventually being publicised to the masses when an unofficial press embargo was broken by The New York Times, published in the neutral United States, on 31 December. The British papers quickly followed, printing numerous first-hand accounts from soldiers in the field, taken from letters home to their families and editorials on "one of the greatest surprises of a surprising war". By 8 January 1915, pictures had made their way to the press, and the Mirror and Sketch printed front-page photographs of British and German troops mingling and singing between the lines. The tone of the reporting was strongly positive, with the Times endorsing the "lack of malice" felt by both sides and the Mirror regretting that the "absurdity and the tragedy" would begin again. Author Denis Winter argues that then "the censor had intervened" to prevent information about the spontaneous ceasefire from reaching the public and that the real dimension of the truce "only really came out when Captain Chudleigh in the Telegraph wrote after the war."
Coverage in Germany was less extensive than that of the British press, while in France, press censorship ensured that the only word that spread of the truce came from soldiers at the front or first-hand accounts told by wounded men in hospitals. The press was eventually forced to respond to the growing rumours by reprinting a government notice that fraternising with the enemy constituted treason. In early January, an official statement on the truce was published, claiming it was restricted to the British sector of the front and amounted to little more than an exchange of songs which quickly degenerated into shooting.
The press of neutral Italy published a few articles on the events of the truce, usually reporting the articles of the foreign press. On 30 December 1914, printed a report about a fraternisation between the opposing trenches. The Florentine newspaper published a first-hand account about a football match played in the no man's land. In Italy, the lack of interest in the truce probably depended on the occurrence of other events, such as the Italian occupation of Vlorë, the debut of the Garibaldi Legion on the front of the Argonne and the earthquake in Avezzano.
Later truces
After 1914, sporadic attempts were made at seasonal truces; on the Western Front, for example, a German unit attempted to leave their trenches under a flag of truce on Easter Sunday 1915 but were warned off by the British opposite them. At Easter 1915 on the Eastern Front there were truces between Orthodox troops of opposing sides; the Bulgarian writer Yordan Yovkov, serving as an officer near the Greek border at the Mesta river, witnessed one. It inspired his short story "Holy Night", translated into English in 2013 by Krastu Banaev. In November, a Saxon unit briefly fraternised with a Liverpool battalion.
In December 1915, there were orders by the Allied commanders to forestall any repeat of the previous Christmas truce. Units were encouraged to mount raids and harass the opposing line, whilst communicating with the enemy was discouraged by artillery barrages along the front line throughout the day; a small number of brief truces occurred despite the prohibition. On the German side, a general order from 29 December 1914 already forbade fraternisation with the enemy, warning German troops that "every approach to the enemy...will be punished as treason".
Richard Schirrmann, who was in a German regiment holding a position on the Bernhardstein, one of the Vosges Mountains, wrote an account of events in December 1915, "When the Christmas bells sounded in the villages of the Vosges behind the lines... something fantastically unmilitary occurred. German and French troops spontaneously made peace and ceased hostilities; they visited each other through disused trench tunnels, and exchanged wine, cognac and cigarettes for Pumpernickel (Westphalian black bread), biscuits and ham. This suited them so well that they remained good friends even after Christmas was over". He was separated from the French troops by a narrow No Man's Land and described the landscape "Strewn with shattered trees, the ground ploughed up by shellfire, a wilderness of earth, tree-roots and tattered uniforms". Military discipline was soon restored but Schirrmann pondered over the incident and whether "thoughtful young people of all countries could be provided with suitable meeting places where they could get to know each other". He founded the German Youth Hostel Association in 1919.
An account by Llewelyn Wyn Griffith, recorded that after a night of exchanging carols, dawn on Christmas Day saw a "rush of men from both sides... [and] a feverish exchange of souvenirs" before the men were quickly called back by their officers, with offers to hold a ceasefire for the day and to play a football match. It came to nothing, as the brigade commander threatened repercussions for lack of discipline and insisted on a resumption of firing in the afternoon. Another member of Griffith's battalion, Bertie Felstead, later recalled that one man had produced a football, resulting in "a free-for-all; there could have been 50 on each side", before they were ordered back. Another unnamed participant reported in a letter home: "The Germans seem to be very nice chaps, and said they were awfully sick of the war." In the evening, according to Robert Keating "The Germans were sending up star lights and singing – they stopped, so we cheered them & we began singing Land of Hope and Glory – Men of Harlech et cetera – we stopped and they cheered us. So we went on till the early hours of the morning".
In an adjacent sector, a short truce to bury the dead between the lines led to repercussions; a company commander, Sir Iain Colquhoun of the Scots Guards, was court-martialled for defying standing orders to the contrary. While he was found guilty and reprimanded, the punishment was annulled by General Douglas Haig, and Colquhoun remained in his position; the official leniency may perhaps have been because his wife's uncle was H. H. Asquith, the Prime Minister.
In December 1916 and 1917, German overtures to the British for truces were recorded without any success. In some French sectors, singing and an exchange of thrown gifts was occasionally recorded, though these may simply have reflected a seasonal extension of the live-and-let-live approach common in the trenches.
On 24 May 1915, Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) and troops of the Ottoman Empire at Gallipoli agreed to a 9-hour truce to retrieve and bury their dead, during which opposing troops "exchang(ed) smiles and cigarettes".
Legacy and historical significance
Although the popular tendency has been to see the December 1914 Christmas Truces as unique and of romantic rather than political significance, they have also been interpreted as part of the widespread spirit of non-cooperation with the war. In his book on trench warfare, Tony Ashworth described the 'live and let live system'. Complicated local truces and agreements not to fire at each other were negotiated by men along the front throughout the war. These often began with agreement not to attack each other at tea, meal or washing times. In some places tacit agreements became so common that sections of the front would see few casualties for extended periods of time. This system, Ashworth argues, 'gave soldiers some control over the conditions of their existence'. The December 1914 Christmas Truces then can be seen as not unique, but as the most dramatic example of the spirit of non-cooperation with the war that included refusals to fight, unofficial truces, mutinies, strikes, and peace protests.
In the 1933 play Petermann schließt Frieden oder Das Gleichnis vom deutschen Opfer (Petermann Makes Peace: or, The Parable of German Sacrifice), written by Nazi writer and World War I veteran , a German soldier, accompanied by Christmas carols sung by his comrades, erects an illuminated Christmas tree between the trenches but is shot dead. Later, when the fellow soldiers find his body, they notice in horror that snipers have shot down every Christmas light from the tree.
The video for the 1983 song "Pipes of Peace" by Paul McCartney depicts a fictional version of the Christmas truce.
John McCutcheon's 1984 song "Christmas in the Trenches" tells the story of the 1914 truce through the eyes of a fictional soldier. Performing the song he met German veterans of the truce.
"Goodbyeee", the final episode of the BBC television series Blackadder Goes Forth notes the Christmas truce, with the main character Edmund Blackadder recalling having played in a football match. He is still annoyed at having had a goal disallowed for offside.
The song "All Together Now" by Liverpool band The Farm, took its inspiration from the Christmas Day Truce of 1914. The song was re-recorded by The Peace Collective for release in December 2014 to mark the centenary of the event.
The song 1997 "Belleau Wood" by Garth Brooks gives a depiction of the truce of soldiers leaving their trenches to sing carols together and braving the risky opportunity to be shot by their enemies to do so.
The truce is dramatised in the 2005 French film Joyeux Noël (Merry Christmas), depicted through the eyes of French, British and German soldiers. The film, written and directed by Christian Carion, was screened out of competition at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival, but was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Ahead of the centenary of the truce, English composer Chris Eaton and singer Abby Scott produced the song, "1914 – The Carol of Christmas", to benefit British armed forces charities. At 5 December 2014, it had reached top of the iTunes Christmas chart.
Sainsbury's produced a short film for the 2014 Christmas season as an advertisement re-enacting the events of the Christmas truce, primarily following a young English soldier in the trenches.
In the Doctor Who 2017 Christmas Special "Twice Upon a Time", the First and Twelfth Doctors become accidentally involved in the fate of a British captain, who was seemingly destined to die in No Man's Land in a standoff with a German soldier. The Twelfth Doctor sent him a few hours forward in time so that the start of the Christmas truce would prevent him from being killed.
On 29 October 2021, the Swedish heavy metal band Sabaton released their single "Christmas Truce" about the events of those fateful December days in 1914, followed 40 days later by an animated story video set to the song in cooperation with the animated history YouTube channel Yarnhub.
Monuments
A Christmas truce memorial was unveiled in Frelinghien, France, on 11 November 2008. At the spot where their regimental ancestors came out from their trenches to play football on Christmas Day 1914, men from the 1st Battalion, The Royal Welch Fusiliers played a football match with the German Battalion 371. The Germans won 2–1. On 12 December 2014, a memorial was unveiled at the National Memorial Arboretum in Staffordshire, England by Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and the England national football team manager Roy Hodgson. The Football Remembers memorial was designed by a ten-year-old schoolboy, Spencer Turner, after a UK-wide competition.
Annual re-enactments
The Midway Village in Rockford, Illinois, has hosted re-enactments of the Christmas Truce.
Notes
References
Originally published in French as Frères des Tranchées, 2005; containing:
Further reading
External links
Understanding the 1914 Christmas Truce and the evidence for football by Simon Jones.
It Started In Ypres (Poem)
Christmas Truce 1914
– R.O. Blechman presents Simple Gifts (1977 animation TV special) 25 December 1914 segment inspired by the legendary Christmas Truce. Captain Hulse's letter narrated by David Jones.
Private Ronald Mackinnon letter from the truce of 1916.
Newspaper articles and clippings about the Christmas Truce at Newspapers.com
The evolution of trust (An interactive visualisation of the Christmas truce as well as the evolution of trust)
Alexandre Lafon: Christmas Truce, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
1914 in association football
1914 in Belgium
1914 in international relations
1914 in military history
Ceasefires
Christmas events and celebrations
Cover-ups
December 1914 events
Germany–United Kingdom relations
Military discipline and World War I
Military sport
World War I
|
417310
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Osborn
|
Harry Osborn
|
Harold Theopolis "Harry" Osborn is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with the superhero Spider-Man. Created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, the character first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man #31 (December 1965).
Harry is the best friend of Peter Parker (Spider-Man's alter ego) and Flash Thompson, one of the ex-boyfriends of Mary Jane Watson, the son of Norman Osborn, the husband of Liz Allan and the father of Normie and Stanley Osborn. He is the second character to assume the Green Goblin alias while one of his clones was amongst the many users of the Iron Patriot armor as the superhero American Son. An artificial intelligence (A.I.) copy of Harry (which he created while the Green Goblin) is also the creator of the clones Gabriel and Sarah, who are both later revealed to be operating as his demonic revenant Kindred under the Harry A.I.'s command.
The character has appeared in many adaptations of Spider-Man outside of the comic books, including various cartoons and video games. James Franco portrayed the character in Sam Raimi's Spider-Man film trilogy (2002–2007), and Dane DeHaan portrays the character in The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014).
Publication history
Harry Osborn first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man #31 (December 1965), and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko.
In The Amazing Spider-Man #122 (July 1973), Harry's father, Norman, is killed off, and a subplot leading to Harry inheriting his father's identity as the Green Goblin is introduced. This subplot culminates in The Amazing Spider-Man #136 (September 1974). Writer Gerry Conway said that the idea of Harry Osborn becoming the Green Goblin stemmed in part from a desire to deal with the consequences of the psychedelic drugs Harry began using in The Amazing Spider-Man #96 (May 1971). Conway said that he had had experience with such drugs himself, and that "with psychedelic drugs, hallucinogens, if they've been misused, there is a potential for additional hallucinogenic experiences that are completely beyond your control or volition. I could imagine Harry getting hit by something like that, in the fragile emotional state following the death of his father, and losing touch with reality, as a result. Besides, I never had any intention of getting rid of the Green Goblin as a concept forever, so it all came together".
Harry dies in The Spectacular Spider-Man #200 (May 1993). Artist Sal Buscema said that drawing the final two pages of this issue was a deeply emotional experience for him due to how long he had drawn the character, and felt it was appropriate that writer J. M. DeMatteis chose not to add any dialogue to those pages.
Several years later, the Spider-Man writers made plans to reveal that the mysterious villain Gaunt was Harry Osborn, who was still alive and had orchestrated the entire "Clone Saga", but an editorial edict prevented this from coming to fruition. However, Harry was eventually revived in The Amazing Spider-Man #545 (December 2007). He received an entry in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update '89 #5.
Fictional character biography
Harry is the only son of Norman Osborn and Emily Lyman. The circumstances of Harry's birth weakens Emily, and she dies after a long illness. Heartbroken, Norman becomes a cold and unloving father; Norman either contemptuously dismisses Harry or lashes out at him in fury. As a result, Harry spends much of his life trying desperately to earn his father's approval. Unbeknownst to him, however, Norman had traded his son's soul to the demon Mephisto in exchange for wealth and power, and Harry would be cursed for the rest of his life while Norman forgot the deal.
Upon graduating from high school, Harry enrolls in Empire State University. Among the wealthiest students in the school, Harry soon becomes one of the most popular as well, despite his aloof manner. He has a clique of rich, popular students around him; one of these is the lovely Gwen Stacy. Gwen is intrigued by a new student: bookish, studious and painfully-shy Peter Parker. Harry takes a dislike to Parker; he resents the attention Gwen pays to Peter, and he assumes that Peter's standoffishness is snobbery. After confronting Parker, Harry realizes that Peter is merely shy and is also worried about his ailing aunt May Parker. Despite this rocky start, Harry and Peter became best friends, eventually sharing an apartment.
Harry does not realize that his best friend is the superhero Spider-Man, nor that his father became the supervillain Green Goblin in an accident while attempting to create a super-serum. Moreover, before he became friends with Harry, Spider-Man was unmasked and captured by Green Goblin. During the subsequent battle, an electric shock removed all memory of being Green Goblin from Norman's mind. Spider-Man then hid all evidence of Norman's double identity, to keep Harry from being hurt by the revelation.
However, Norman's Green Goblin persona resurfaces from time to time. These are difficult times for Harry, as his father's periodic episodes are unexplainable. He had experimented with drugs in his teens; but he escalates his usage, as well as trying ever-harder substances. This affects his mental stability and his relationships with his friends. Spider-Man uses this to his advantage during one battle with Green Goblin; he is able to stop the fight by showing Norman his son's emaciated condition, brought on by an accidental drug overdose. The sight shocks Norman so much that it brings him back to sanity.
Green Goblin
Harry is dumped by Mary Jane Watson due to being fed up with his self-destructive lifestyle. Disconsolate, Harry turns to drugs and overdoses on amphetamines. He recovers at home instead of at a hospital, as Norman wanted to keep the matter quiet, and a doctor diagnoses him with schizophrenia. This tragedy, compounded by imminent bankruptcy, drives Norman over the edge. The elder Osborn kidnaps Gwen as bait for Spider-Man, and then throws her off the George Washington Bridge (or Brooklyn Bridge). In a vicious battle with Spider-Man, the Green Goblin accidentally impales himself on his own goblin glider. Harry Osborn secretly witnesses this. Wanting to protect his father's identity, he strips Norman Osborn's body of the Green Goblin costume. Blaming Spider-Man for his father's "murder", Harry, angry and mentally unbalanced, swears vengeance. Having inherited his father's company, Harry manages to get the business back in shape. One day, to his shock, he finds a Spider-Man costume in Peter Parker's apartment and realizes that his best friend is the man he blames for his father's death. Using his father's old equipment, Harry confronts Peter as the second Green Goblin.
Not wanting to hurt Harry, Peter avoids fighting his old friend. After Spider-Man is able to thwart Harry's initial attempt on his life, Harry is knocked unconscious and taken into police custody. There, he raves that he is the true Green Goblin and Peter Parker is Spider-Man, but is dismissed as a lunatic. He is put in the care of criminal psychologist Dr. Bart Hamilton to extract the Green Goblin secrets from Harry through hypnosis, and buries the knowledge deep within Harry's mind. Hamilton then raids one of Harry's hideouts and becomes the third Green Goblin. Meanwhile, Harry is released and considered cured. He sustains a concussion that makes him forget his knowledge of Spider-Man's identity and he and Peter rekindle their friendship.
For a while, Harry's life seems back on track; his company begins turning profits once more, and he develops a romance with Liz Allan after they meet at the wedding of Betty Brant and Ned Leeds. Not long after the two are married, and eventually they have their son Normie Osborn named in memory of the boy's grandfather. Harry also gives his blessing to the marriage of Peter and Mary Jane Watson. However, Harry starts regaining his memories when he is blackmailed by the original Hobgoblin (Roderick Kingsley) with a package which contains evidence that his father was the original Green Goblin. When Hobgoblin learns he had raided all of Norman's hideouts, he leaves Harry alone, knowing he had nothing more to offer him. Later, Harry is forced to act as Green Goblin a few times, once to defeat the second Hobgoblin (Jason Macendale). This Hobgoblin is seeking the Goblin Formula that gave the Green Goblin superhuman strength; Harry is able to defeat him by doubling back during an aerial chase and emptying his entire supply of pumpkin bombs onto Hobgoblin. Harry even wonders if he could use the Green Goblin persona for a career as a superhero, but Peter convinces him that Green Goblin had too much baggage for such a role. Harry buries the Green Goblin menace within his mind once more and focuses on his business and family.
Death
This tranquility is shattered when the aftereffects of the "Inferno" crisis sunder the barrier between Harry's conscious and subconscious minds. Once again, he remembers being Green Goblin—and his hatred of Spider-Man. Harry has now convinced himself that Peter Parker resents the Osborns' "stable family life" due to never having been wanted by his own parents or guardians, when in fact it was the complete opposite. He uses Peter's trust in him to capture him, and subjects him to hallucinogenic gases to psychologically torment him. He finds himself unsatisfied with this revenge, however, and decides to kill Spider-Man. However, given the opportunity he proves unwilling to kill his best friend.
Harry investigates his father's old hideouts and notes, and finally uncovers and ingests the formula for the original Green Goblin's superhuman strength. He then kidnaps his wife, son, and brother-in-law Mark Raxton, terrorizing them in an old family mansion. Raxton manages to signal their location to Spider-Man who defeats the Green Goblin and turns him in to the police. Spider-Man pushes for Harry to get psychiatric treatment from Dr. Ashley Kafka, but he is ultimately transferred to the Vault. However, the state is unable to put together a sufficient case against Harry, and after just a few weeks in prison, he is released.
Harry discovers that his father developed an advanced version of the Goblin Formula, but was unable to test it before his final battle with Spider-Man. After testing it, he ingests the new formula. When he spies Spider-Man investigating his townhouse, Harry loses his temper and attacks him as the Green Goblin. He injects Peter with a drug that leaves him immobile and, in a fit of depression, activates timed explosives that he had planted throughout the townhouse, planning to kill both himself and Peter. However, when he realizes that Mary Jane and his son Normie are also in the townhouse, he is shocked back to his normal self. Harry rescues Mary Jane, Normie, and Peter before he collapses. He belatedly realizes that he did not test the new formula diligently enough, and that it is, in fact, lethal before he dies holding Peter's hand.
Post-mortem
Sometime before his death, Harry created a computer system with copies of his and Norman Osborn's minds programmed into it; after Harry's death, the computer system activates and abducts Normie Osborn with the intent of subjecting him to the Green Goblin Serum (the same one that had caused Harry's death) to make into the newest Green Goblin. This computer facsimile of Harry and its robotic drones (which resemble female versions of Green Goblin) were all destroyed by Spider-Man and the Molten Man who manage to save Normie from it. However, Harry had one last trick up his sleeve. Sometime before his final confrontation with Spider-Man, Harry had employed the Chameleon to construct Life Model Decoys of Peter's parents to play with his emotions. The plot ends with both constructs revealed as fakes when both "die", shattering Peter's mind. After nearly killing the Chameleon, Peter found a tape Harry had left before he died revealing his role in the plot and mocking Peter, demonstrating that Harry was as manipulative and cruel as his father when gripped by insanity. Peter goes temporarily insane from the shock, even briefly rejecting his identity until the return of his clone Ben Reilly snaps him back to reality.
Some time later Spider-Man encountered another digital version of Harry's mind, this one a hologram created by a group of rebel Scriers. This group had reconstructed Harry from all available information about him in the hope of using him to manipulate Normie, who they wished to use as a weapon against his grandfather. This Harry, possessing all the memories of the original, refuses to entertain the idea of his son becoming a killer, and assists Spider-Man in defeating the leader of the group. He then explains to Normie that Spider-Man is not an enemy and thanks Peter for all his help over the years. As the hologram disappears the badly injured Scrier grabs Normie with the intent of killing him, but someone - implied to be Harry - grabs the Scrier from out of the darkness and breaks his neck.
'Return from the grave'
After Mephisto's manipulations of the timeline, details of Harry's death are seemingly retconned as being faked by Mysterio and his father who spirits his son away to Europe where he is held prisoner in several "rehab" clinics and believes that his son had relapsed into drug addiction, and this, in turn, led to his brief return to wearing the Green Goblin costume. Prior to Mephisto's alterations, Harry's body was exhumed and tested, indicating he was dead. However, this is explained to have been a "genetic duplicate" provided by Mysterio to fool anyone who investigated later, indicating he was alive all along and Peter simply did not know.
At some point, Harry is released from rehab and reunites with his friends. However, because Peter recruited Dr. Strange, Mr. Fantastic, and Iron Man to help him wipe out all evidence and memory of Spider-Man's secret identity (save from Mary Jane), Harry recalls his actions as the second Green Goblin but no longer remembers that Peter Parker is the web-slinger. His marriage to Liz Allan disintegrates and the two divorce. Harry engages in a string of relationships, several of which result in Harry marrying and divorcing in rapid fashion. He is in a relationship with Lily Hollister. Harry tries to help Lily's father in the latter's bid for Mayor of New York by funding her father's campaign with his dwindling finances.
Harry is also one of the leading suspects for the secret identity of a new Goblin. In the "New Ways to Die" story arc, Menace battles Norman Osborn and is infuriated when Norman states that all he cares about is killing Spider-Man. Norman dons the Green Goblin costume and mentions that Harry has been in the Green Goblin's lair. Norman calls Harry, who realizes from Norman's distorted voice that Norman is wearing the Green Goblin suit. This horrifies and disgusts Harry, who vows to stop his father. Harry angrily confronts his father, who wants Harry to follow his legacy and become a greater man. The confused Harry is saved by Spider-Man. Spider-Man, who wants to beat Norman senseless, stops when he sees an area for human testing. Harry is claimed to be the one responsible for the atrocious acts, although he attempts to plead innocence. Harry later states that he wants to talk to Peter, who moments earlier was kissed by Lily, and is seen leaving with a mysterious canister labelled "Prometheus X-90".
Prometheus X-90, it is revealed later, was developed as a successful cure for Mark Raxton's condition as Molten Man. The only human test subject was Charlie Weiderman, the short-lived second Molten Man, and the only person on whom the serum could be tested. After the cure is administered, Liz finally forgives Harry and gives him back the wedding ring, which she originally claimed she lost.
Renting out all of Liberty Island, Harry takes Lily there and, at the top of the Statue of Liberty, he gets down on one knee and proposes to her. Lily rejects his proposal because she is not sure where their relationship will lead, which surprises Harry. He later goes to her place to check up on her, and as he enters the room he is surprised to discover Lily wearing the Menace costume.
She found a hidden door in his closet and one of his old journals. She begins giving him a hard time about whining so much about his father. Harry thinks her behavior is because she is sick. She continues to tell him she uncovered one of Norman's secret rooms described in the journal. This explains why she kissed Peter after the Thunderbolts attacked; he almost found the secret trigger to open the room. When she first entered the room, she found the Green Goblin's equipment and some experiments. Knocking over some chemicals, she absorbed them and is now able to transform at will. She explains that she discovered Menace's attacks against her father gives him more public support. She also tells him that she accepts his marriage proposal. After their talk, Harry enters one of his father's weapons caches, takes a glider (filled with bombs and winged bombs), a pair of Goblin gloves, a sword, and a dart gun containing an unknown chemical. In the midst of a battle between Menace and Spider-Man, Harry confronts and shoots her with that chemical, which is a type of antidote that reverts her back to her human form. He saves Spider-Man from the crowd and leaves. Lily is incarcerated but later escapes, leaving Harry her ring and a note.
Dark Reign
Harry is approached by Norman with the offer of a job within the Dark Avengers. Harry initially declines, but accepts his father's offer after learning that Lily Hollister is pregnant. Norman welcomes Harry into Avengers Tower, wanting to make his son into the American Son. Harry is shown to have an ulterior motive, however, based on his compulsion to protect Lily and his child. Disabling the camera in his room, Harry sneaks off. He finds a cure for Lily's condition that will be safe for both Lily and the baby, but Lily pushes him away. Lily reveals that it is a ruse to coerce Harry into taking on the American Son armor, whom Norman had plotted would die in a tragedy to increase sympathy for Norman and the Dark Avengers. Lily also reveals that the baby is not Harry's but, in fact, Norman's. In retaliation for this, Harry dons his American Son armor, and fights Norman in his Iron Patriot armor. During the battle, Norman declares that Harry is no longer his son, and that Norman has bred a better child to replace the 'failure' of Harry. After further taunts from Norman, Harry lashes out and defeats his father, declaring "I was never your son!". When Harry has the option of killing Norman, Spider-Man tells him to decapitate Norman, since his father's healing factor may repair a blow to the head. Spider-Man also cautions Harry that killing Norman will cause Harry to "become the son Norman always wanted". Seeing what he may become with his actions, Harry instead backs down, and turns away from his father forever.
Harry is next seen in a psychiatrist's office, claiming to be getting over the effects of a medical treatment he received. The doctor offers to prescribe him oxycodone but it is not revealed if Harry takes the prescription.
Afterwards, Harry is cut off financially and is forced out of his penthouse apartment. He moves into Peter's old room at May Parker's. He also begins secretly dating Amy Reilly (Peter's cousin). After May returns and is corrupted by Mister Negative, she kicks Harry out of the house, forcing him to move in with Mary Jane Watson.
Heroic Age
After Norman's fall, the American Son armor is stolen and the police begin questioning Harry, as only someone of the Osborn bloodline can use the American Son armor. Harry is then shot in the chest by Gabriel Stacy, claiming that Norman gave Harry a better life. However, Harry is saved by American Son and taken to a hospital. After Harry recovers from his wounds, he is escorted home by police. Fearing the damage that could be done with the American Son armor and perplexed by his encounter with Gabriel, Harry decides to figure things out on his own. After enlisting the help of a talented reporter named Norah from Frontline, Harry decides to visit Norman, as only he would know about Gabriel. Harry and Norah eventually visit the Raft where they find Norman in his cell, consumed by madness. Harry demands to know about Gabriel, but Norman is unresponsive. Frustrated, Harry and Norah begin to leave, but before they exit Norman briefly returns to his senses and tells Harry that Gabriel is indeed Norman's son.
Trying to make sense of everything, Harry visits May Parker's work where he plans to volunteer. On his way, he realizes that he is being followed by the FBI. It is then revealed through FBI security footage that Gabriel is the one who stole the American Son armor and has been using the armor all along. Meanwhile, Gabriel confronts the American Son armor and is revealed to have developed a split personality similar to Norman's after his exposure to the Goblin Formula. This split personality explains to Gabriel that it represents all that is good in his soul and will use the American Son armor to undo each of Gabriel's crimes. After an intense psychological battle, Gabriel appears to gain the upper hand and proceeds with his plan.
Still attempting to understand Gabriel's plans, Harry determines that, in order for Gabriel to truly hurt him, he will attempt to abduct an innocent person and lay a trap. Harry then rushes to find Norah. Meanwhile, the police arrive at Gabriel's hideout, but are unable to rescue Norah because of the American Son's interference. Harry manages to sneak in through one of his father's secret tunnels and confronts his half-brother. As the police prepare to make another attempt to save Norah, Harry frees her and gets the young reporter to safety. With Norah out of harm's way Gabriel and Harry engage in an epic battle. During the fight, Harry attempts to convince Gabriel that Norman is evil and that attempting to follow in his footsteps is madness. Gabriel refuses to listen and continues his attempts to kill Harry. Saddened by his brother's choice, Harry hacks the American Son armor and knocks Gabriel unconscious. The battle causes the warehouse to go up in flames, trapping Gabriel and Harry inside, but Spider-Man arrives and saves them. Afterward, Norah visits Harry in his coffee shop, and notices a bottle of oxycodone in Harry's things. Troubled by what she finds, Norah concludes that Harry has a drug problem and resolves to help him through it.
After many near-encounters, Carlie Cooper and Peter Parker meet at the coffee shop. Harry and MJ are there and the four are talking when Lily bursts through the wall, followed by an attacking team of supervillains. MJ asks Harry to help Lily Hollister who has gone into labor, but they are held captive by Doctor Octopus. Spider-Man manages to save them and rescue Lily's newborn baby from the supervillains. Harry and MJ take Lily to get medical care, but Carlie was too angry with Lily to accompany them. When Spider-Man secures the baby from Doctor Octopus he runs an analysis on a sample of the baby's DNA and finds it matches Harry's, and thus he is the child's true father. Spider-Man encourages Harry to raise his son on his own and start a new life. Soon thereafter, Harry prepares to leave New York with the baby named Stanley. At his going-away party, Harry encounters former NYPD officer Vin Gonzales reveals he has a Green Goblin tattoo. After Gonzales relays a message from Norman, Harry shocks the man with a taser and beats him.
Months later, Harry is shown in Seattle, Washington living with his son. He is shown to have completely changed his appearance, having shaved his head and grown a beard.
All-New, All-Different Marvel
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel branding, Harry Osborn and his young son Stanley finally came out of hiding, following his father's, the Goblin King, defeat. Going back to his usual look, Harry started using his mother's maiden name of Lyman and has started working at Parker Industries where he is in charge of Parker Industries' New York office when revealed to the Human Torch by Spider-Man. His sons Normie and Stanley like Regent, until the time when all superhumans are disappearing without a traces caused by a superhuman known as the Regent, while Harry is meeting with Mary Jane and Betty Brant, Harry stumbles upon seeing a same logo as the Regent's on Augustus Roman's Empire Unlimited company, and soon realizes, along with Mary Jane, that when he saw a logo beneath Augustus' ripped shirt during the time of Zodiac's attacks on the opening of Horizon University that Augustus is, in fact, Regent, thus sending Betty to meet Augustus to prove if he is Regent or not. As Harry realizes that, Augustus kidnaps Betty. Harry must do it himself to save Betty and the other captured superhumans, knowing that he may be captured soon enough, but manage to contact Spider-Man with Parker Industries' webware created by Clayton/Clash before Regent captures him immediately. With a portion of Clayton's Clash soundwave tech on Parker Industries' webware, Harry manages to break free and contact Spider-Man again before the Empire Unlimited's guards capture him, until Spider-Man arrives and soon releases the other superhumans and Betty, surrounding Regent for good.
Later in the storyline "Go Down Swinging", Harry returns, using the Osborn name after his father again terrorizes the city as the Red Goblin using the Carnage symbiote before being imprisoned once more, even after Emily Osborn turns up alive. He is determined to redeem his family's name from his father's villainous legacy and to be a responsible parent to his sons.
Kindred
It is revealed over the course of Nick Spencer's run as writer on The Amazing Spider-Man that, upon dying, Harry's soul was transported to Hell, where he encountered the demon Mephisto, who labels him as the Goblin Prince. The demon asks Harry why he never told Peter on his deathbed any of the schemes he had set in motion to torture him after his passing, with Harry confessing that there was no time, and that he was ashamed. Harry's soul is kept in hell tortured by demons while a clone version maintains a life on Earth revealed post-One More Day.
Many years later, a demon, going by the name of Kindred, rose through the ranks and ultimately hand picked Mysterio to assist him in carrying out a plan of retaliation against Peter Parker, whom Kindred held accountable for an unpardonable sin. When Kindred meets with Norman Osborn in Ravencroft, Norman's Cletus Kasady persona states to Kindred that he has a message for him from Norman, who states that he is "so proud of him".
In a final battle with the Kindreds, Norman reveals the A.I. Harry had been influenced by Mephisto the entire time and apologizes to Harry for selling his soul. Harry then tells Peter he "made up" the twins and fights with his friend against them. During the battle Harry tells Norman to get to safety; Norman is shocked at this to which Harry replies "Guess the apple fell kinda far from the tree." When Harry steps between Norman and a blow from Gabriel's Kindred body, he is fatally wounded. Collapsing into Peter's arms, Harry tells Peter this was always how it was "meant to be" and dies. Doctor Strange decides to gamble with Mephisto for the fate of Harry Osborn's soul and succeeds. His victory exorcises Mephisto from the twins, allowing them to degenerate and pass on for a final time, and Harry's soul is freed from Mephisto's grasp. Peter and MJ grieve the loss of their friend.
Powers and abilities
For most of his life, Harry Osborn had no superhuman abilities.
As Green Goblin
After exposing himself to his father's formula, he takes the reins of the second Green Goblin, causing him to become much stronger, cunning and agile. The glider he carries has swords, along with usual Goblin technology.
As American Son
Harry's clone also had temporary access to the American Son armor.
Harry A.I/Kindred
When the Harry Osborn AI created the Kindred twins, the assistance of Mephisto bestowed the twins with the demonically enhanced capabilities of immortality, super-strength, and control over the centipedes like the ones that can protrude out of them. In addition, they can perform magic and revive the dead.
Reception
Accolades
In 2014, IGN ranked Harry Osborn 6th in their "Top 25 Spider-Man Villains" list.
In 2020, CBR.com ranked Harry Osborn 6th in their "Spider-Man: 10 Most Powerful Members Of The Osborn Family" list.
In 2021, Screen Rant included Harry Osborn in their "10 Best Marvel Legacy Villains Who Lived Up To Their Predecessor" list and in their "15 Most Powerful Variants Of Green Goblin In Marvel Comics" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Harry Osborn 2nd in their "10 Best Marvel Legacy Villains" list and 3rd in their "10 Best Versions Of Green Goblin From The Comics" list.
Other versions
MC2
In the MC2 universe, Harry's death in Spectacular Spider-Man #200 also remains valid and he was allowed to rest in peace. His widow Liz continues her relationship with Franklyn Nelson and raises her and Normie (Harry's son), but she later succumbs to a fatal illness; her death sends Normie over the edge and, like his father and grandfather before him, takes up the Green Goblin mantle and vows revenge on Peter Parker. After several emotionally charged encounters with Spider-Girl, Normie eventually reclaims his sanity and the blood feud between the Parkers and the Osborns is finally brought to an end.
Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of Harry Osborn is the rich son of Norman Osborn and Martha Osborn as well as the best friend and tutoring subject of Peter Parker at Midtown High, who is one of Peter's few friends in high school and also briefly dates Mary Jane "MJ" Watson. After Norman eventually subjects himself to the OZ Formula, the Green Goblin kills Martha and attempts to kill Harry, because of which he initially goes missing but eventually shows up outside Midtown High following Spider-Man's battle with Green Goblin there which nearly destroyed the school and tells MJ, Flash Thompson and Kenny Kong that the monster is his dad. Harry is placed into a relative's custody, but he eventually returned to his father and is brainwashed by Dr. Miles Warren to forget the previous events. During another battle with Spider-Man, the Sinister Six and the Ultimates in front of the White House, Harry stops his father and he is taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody. He is later used as Nick Fury's bargaining piece to negotiate with Norman. Harry begins to blame everyone around him for the situation, and his second personality Shaw (introduced by his father after many years of hypnotic therapy) begins to take control. Harry eventually turns into the Hobgoblin creature, gaining super strength, pyrokinesis and orange Goblin-like super skin. Harry tries to stop himself during a battle with Spider-Man, but Shaw takes over and is wounded by S.H.I.E.L.D. soldiers. He is once again used by S.H.I.E.L.D. to attract his father, but the two end up doing battle, which leaves Harry dead. Peter later makes a speech that honors his friend. It was eventually revealed that the OZ formula gives Norman and Spider-Man immortality, making it possible that Harry is still alive somewhere.
Marvel Zombies
In Marvel Zombies: Return #1, Zombie Spider-Man is taken to an alternate reality where it is the past and Peter is still in college, Harry and Gwen are alive, etc. Harry is shown hanging out (with a mustache) with Peter, MJ and Gwen. However, he is later shown being eaten by a zombified Sinister Six, along with his friends.
Spider-Man: Clone Saga
In the simplified re-telling of the Clone Saga, Harry is revealed as the mastermind behind Peter and Ben Reilly's troubles throughout the story. Having secretly survived his final battle with Spider-Man, and still unhinged due to the side-effects of the Goblin formula, Harry carries out a vengeful campaign against the Spider-Men with the aid of Kaine. His plans also include the cloning of his deceased father, who apparently was killed by his Goblin Glider in this reality. Harry soon heads out to attack Ben Reilly in the guise of the Green Goblin. His plans are thwarted when Kaine switches sides. The Norman clone, who is not insane due to not being exposed to the Goblin Formula, tries to convince Harry to stop before sacrificing himself by jumping in front of the moving Goblin Glider (akin to Ben Reilly's death in the main universe). The series concludes with an irate Harry swearing vengeance.
Spider-Man: Life Story
Spider-Man: Life Story features an alternate continuity where the characters naturally age after Peter Parker becomes Spider-Man in 1962. In 1966, Peter has Norman arrested to prevent the Green Goblin from hurting anyone, leaving Harry in charge of Oscorp. In 1977, Harry is engaged to Mary Jane, but shows signs of a drug addiction brought upon by the stress of his position and his father's imprisonment. Norman convinces Harry to attack Miles Warren as the Black Goblin to retrieve his clone, but Harry discovers that Miles also cloned Peter and Gwen Stacy in the process. Harry realizes Norman cloned Peter because Norman still considered Peter the more worthy heir and attacks him. After Peter convinces Harry of his father's manipulations, Harry blows up the facility, killing all the clones except Peter's. However, Miles reveals that the "Gwen" Peter was with was actually her clone while the real Gwen died in the explosion, leaving Harry wracked with guilt. By one year later, he has broken up with Mary Jane and left her with a significant amount of money before disappearing. In 1995, Otto Octavius breaks into Oscorp and threatens Harry into letting him use equipment to study Peter and his clone, Ben, to find a way to clone himself. Chaos erupts after he discovers that Peter is supposedly the clone while Ben is the original. When Otto attempts to kill them both, Harry sacrifices himself to save Peter. As he dies in Peter's arms, he apologizes for being weak with Otto and his father, though Peter reassures him that he was not. It is later revealed that Otto was allowed to enter Oscorp by an elderly Norman, who has a heart attack and dies after learning of Harry's death.
Spider-Gwen
In this version, Harry Osborn is a social outcast at high school who is constantly bullied due to a rumor that he tried to burn his old prep school down; Flash Thompson notably bullies him and nicknames him the "Green Goblin". Gwen Stacy and Peter befriend him out of pity, and Harry asks Gwen out to the prom, angering Peter. He witnesses Peter transform into the Lizard, fight Spider-Woman and die. At Peter's funeral, he feels guilty that he did not do anything to prevent Peter's death, and disappears from school for two years. He returns one night tells Gwen that he joined the army and S.H.I.E.L.D. after Peter's death and plans to avenge him by taking down Spider-Woman. During his fight with Spider-Woman, he takes the Lizard serum to overpower the heroine, but runs away after discovering Spider-Woman is Gwen. He then goes on the run from S.H.I.E.L.D. and is pursued by ninjas belonging to the Hand, Wolverine, and Shadowcat before fully transforming into the Lizard. Figuring out that there is a connection with their powers and a mysterious substance given to her by Matt Murdock, Gwen manages to get the Lizard serum out of Harry's blood and combines it with the substance, which forms the Venom symbiote.
Spider-Geddon
During the "Spider-Geddon" storyline, the Earth-44145 version of Harry Osborn arrives at Oscorp and makes his way through the building. The narration is in the form of a letter to Harry from Peter Parker on what is happening at Oscorp. As a six-armed Norman Osborn is informed of Harry moving through Oscorp and having been secretly armed, he is told that Harry is on the 15th floor near Mr. Warren's lab. Becoming Spider-Man and arriving where a warped Cosmic Cube is located, Norman confronts Harry who dons the Kobold armor. It was revealed during the fight that Norman killed Peter Parker as a badly-injured Harry fires a laser beam at the warped Cosmic Cube.
During the return of the Inheritors, Spider-Gwen's device to travel through the multiverse got destroyed by Verna and then Gwen got stranded in an alternate universe. In this universe Peter Parker and this universe's Gwen Stacy got a job at Oscorp and Peter wanted to create a cure for cancer, after his Uncle Ben died from it. Peter was experimenting with spider venom to create the cure but one of the spiders bit Harry Osborn making Harry this universe's Spider-Man. Harry alongside Gwen Stacy as this universe's Green Goblin started to fight crime together, until during a fight with the Sandman, both Harry and Gwen's father got killed.
Infinity Wars
In the new universe created by the folding of reality in Infinity Wars, Harry's father, Norman, is fused with Jack Russel and becomes Goblin by Night. This version of Harry is the best friend and partner of Peter Spector (a fusion of Peter Parker and Marc Spector), who operates as the vigilante Arachknight. When Peter tries to kill Norman as revenge for Norman killing Peter's family, Harry intervenes and saves his father. After Ben and May were killed by Norman, Harry discovered his father was cursed into an uncontrollable Goblin, and caused him into killing both Peter's uncle and aunt against his will. While Harry is taking care of his father, Norman loses control and bites Harry, passing the curse to him. Harry becomes the new Goblin by Night and runs away, leaving Peter and a now cured Norman to vow to find a cure for him.
In other media
Harry Osborn has been adapted to other media including cartoons, films, games, toys, collectibles, miscellaneous memorabilia, and has appeared as a supporting character in numerous computer and video games.
In television, the character first was featured in Fox Kids' Spider-Man (1994–1998) voiced by Gary Imhoff, Spider-Man: The New Animated Series (2003) voiced by Ian Ziering, The Spectacular Spider-Man (2008–2009) voiced by James Arnold Taylor, Ultimate Spider-Man (2012–2017) voiced by Matt Lanter, and Spider-Man (2017–2020) voiced by Max Mittelman. Harry Osborn will appear in the Disney+ animated series Spider-Man: Freshman Year (2024).
Harry Osborn/New Goblin was also featured in a trilogy of live-action films directed by Sam Raimi played by James Franco, and the 2014 film The Amazing Spider-Man 2 portrayed by Dane DeHaan, directed by Marc Webb.
The character appears via voicemail in the 2018 video game Spider-Man, voiced by Scott Porter. He has a non-speaking cameo appearance in the post-credits scene of its 2020 spin-off Spider-Man: Miles Morales. He returns in a more prominent role in the 2023 sequel Spider-Man 2, voiced by Graham Philips. In this game only, Harry adopts a costume similar to Agent Venom before eventually becoming this universe's variant of Venom.
Collected editions
References
External links
Harry Osborn at Marvel.com
Spider-Man 3: The Spider & The Goblin: Peter Parker and Harry Osborn - A retrospective at Marvel.com
Harry's Profile at Spiderfan.org
Harry Osborn at Comicvine
Action film villains
Characters created by Stan Lee
Characters created by Steve Ditko
Comics characters introduced in 1965
Fictional business executives
Fictional characters from New York City
Fictional victims of child abuse
Fictional characters with psychiatric disorders
Fictional cocaine users
Fictional drug addicts
Fictional characters with amnesia
Fictional goblins
Fictional Columbia University people
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics superheroes
Marvel Comics male superheroes
Marvel Comics supervillains
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics mutates
Marvel's Spider-Man characters
Spider-Man characters
Green Goblin
Marvel Comics demons
Clone characters in comics
Marvel Comics characters who use magic
Fictional soul collectors
|
417324
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Lone%20Pine
|
Battle of Lone Pine
|
The Battle of Lone Pine (also known as the Battle of Kanlı Sırt) was fought between Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) and Ottoman Empire forces during the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War, between 6 and 10 August 1915. The battle was part of a diversionary attack to draw Ottoman attention away from the main assaults being conducted by British, Indian and New Zealand troops around Sari Bair, Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, which became known as the August Offensive.
At Lone Pine, the assaulting force, initially consisting of the Australian 1st Brigade, managed to capture the main trench line from the two Ottoman battalions that were defending the position in the first few hours of the fighting on 6 August. Over the next three days, the fighting continued as the Ottomans brought up reinforcements and launched numerous counterattacks in an attempt to recapture the ground they had lost. As the counterattacks intensified the ANZACs brought up two fresh battalions to reinforce their newly gained line. Finally, on 9 August the Ottomans called off any further attempts and by 10 August offensive action ceased, leaving the Allies in control of the position. Nevertheless, despite the Australian victory, the wider August Offensive of which the attack had been a part failed and a situation of stalemate developed around Lone Pine which lasted until the end of the campaign in December 1915 when Allied troops were evacuated from the peninsula.
Prelude
Terrain
The Lone Pine battlefield was named for a solitary Turkish pine that stood there at the start of the fighting; The tree was also known by the Anzac soldiers as the "Lonesome Pine". The battlefield was situated near the centre of the eastern line of the Australian and New Zealand trenches around Anzac Cove on a rise known as "400 Plateau" that joined "Bolton's Ridge" to the south with the ridge along the east side of "Monash Valley" to the north. Being towards the southern end of the area around Anzac Cove, the terrain in the Lone Pine region was comparatively gentle and the opposing trenches were separated some distance with a flat no-man's land intervening. Due to its location relative to the beachhead and the shape of the intervening ground, Lone Pine's importance lay in the fact that its position provided a commanding view of the Australian and New Zealand rear areas. From the 400 Plateau it was possible to observe as far south as Gaba Tepe and its possession would have afforded the Ottomans the ability to place the approaches to the Second Ridge under fire, preventing the flow of reinforcements and supplies from the beachhead to the forward trenches.
The main part of the Australian position at Lone Pine was centred on a feature known as "The Pimple", where a salient had developed at the point where the Australians' position was closest to the Ottoman line. To the east of the salient, opposite The Pimple, the Ottoman line extended from the head of a gully—known as "Owen's Gulley" by the Australians—south for towards the neck of Bolton's Ridge and continued south along a spur called "Sniper's Ridge". Because of the salient around The Pimple, the Ottomans had focused on developing the trenches along the flanks of the position more than the centre, and had placed the firing positions in the centre in depth in order to gain the advantage of being able to pour enfilade fire upon any attacking force. At the rear of the Ottoman line, near Owen's Gully, was a depression called "The Cup" that was not visible from the Australians' position on The Pimple. Despite overflights of the area by British reconnaissance aircraft in June, the Australians were unaware of The Cup's existence, and at the time of the attack they believed this area to be flat and to consist of further trench lines. In reality it was actually a reserve area where the Ottomans had established a regimental headquarters and sited a series of bivouacs in terraces and at the time of the attack there were large numbers of reinforcements camped there.
Military situation
Prior to the battle, isolated fighting around Lone Pine had begun early in the Gallipoli campaign. At around 7:00 a.m. on the first day of the Australian and New Zealand landings at Anzac Cove, 25 April 1915, elements of the Australian force had pushed through to Lone Pine in an effort to destroy an Ottoman artillery battery that had been firing down upon the landing beach. Before the Australians could engage the battery, the Ottomans had withdrawn to a ridge to the south-west, which the Australians later dubbed "Third Ridge" (or "Gun Ridge"). Pressing further inland, troops from the 6th Battalion had attempted to reach the ridge, crossing a wide valley (later known as "Legge Valley"), but they were pushed back when an Ottoman regiment, the 27th, had launched a counterattack from the south-east towards Lone Pine at 10:00 a.m., with the objective of retaking the 400 Plateau. Rolling up the 6th Battalion, the Ottomans pushed the Australians back to Pine Ridge, a finger of land that jutted south from Lone Pine towards Gaba Tebe. Taking heavy casualties, the Australians withdrew north to Lone Pine, where they were able to establish a defensive position. As reinforcements were brought up from New Zealand units, in the afternoon a second Ottoman regiment, the 77th, arrived and heavy hand-to-hand fighting ensued before the counterattack was blunted. Further fighting around Lone Pine continued throughout the early stages of the campaign, but eventually a stalemate developed in which neither side was able to advance and static trench warfare began.
In early July 1915, while making plans for an offensive to break the deadlock that had developed around the Gallipoli Peninsula following the initial landings in April, the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, Lieutenant General William Birdwood, had determined that an attack at Lone Pine could be used to divert Ottoman attention away from a main attack that would be launched by a combined force of British, Indian and New Zealand troops further north around Sari Bair, Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. The Australian 1st Infantry Brigade was chosen to undertake the attack on Lone Pine, and consisted of about 3,000 men, under the command of a British officer, Colonel Nevill Smyth. Along with the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades, the 1st Infantry Brigade was part of the Australian 1st Division. The division's commander was Brigadier General Harold Walker, a British officer who had replaced Major General William Bridges as temporary commander after Bridges had been killed by a sniper in May. Walker did not like the idea of launching an attack at Lone Pine, let alone a mere diversion, but when General Sir Ian Hamilton, the commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, insisted the attack proceed, through thorough planning, Walker endeavoured to give his troops the best chance of success possible on such an unfavourable battleground.
The Ottoman forces opposing the Australians at Lone Pine consisted of two battalions from the 47th Regiment, under the command of Tevfik Bey. These battalions amounted to a total of about 1,000 men, of which 500 were positioned in the trenches along the front, while another 500 were positioned further back in depth. Sitting further back in divisional reserve, to the north-east on "Mortar Ridge", was a battalion from the 57th Regiment, which had been relieved from its position on the front line north of Lone Pine by an Arab battalion of the 72nd Regiment. The positions north and south of the Ottoman line at Lone Pine were held by the 125th Regiment at Johnston's Jolly in the north and the 48th Regiment in the south along Pine Ridge.
Battle
Preparation
The width of the front of the attack was and the distance between the two trench lines was about . To reduce the distance to be crossed, the Australians projected a number of tunnels towards the Ottoman trenches from The Pimple. Immediately after the attack, one of these tunnels was to be opened along its length to make a communications trench through which reinforcements could advance without having to cross the exposed ground. Some of the attackers would have to make the advance over open ground from the Australian trench line. To provide some measure of protection for these men, three mines were set by engineers to make craters in which they could seek shelter. The preliminary bombardment was stretched over three days—initially confined to a limited "slow shoot", building up to a final intense bombardment an hour before the assault—and was successful in cutting much of the barbed wire that the Ottomans had placed in front of their position. The preparation stage of the attack began at 2:00 p.m. on 6 August, when the Australians detonated the three mines they had dug in front of the Ottoman lines, in an attempt to create cover for the advancing troops. Two and a half hours later the final heavy preliminary bombardment commenced, with Australian, British and New Zealand artillery batteries firing on the Ottoman trench line, while naval gunfire support from the British cruiser HMS Bacchante provided counter-battery fire on Ottoman artillery positioned along Third Ridge. Retreating into tunnels which had been cut as part of mining operations, the majority of the forward Ottoman troops were able to find shelter from the bombardment that lasted for an hour.
While the artillery prepared the ground for the attack, behind the Australian lines the assault formations moved up towards The Pimple. Smyth sited his brigade headquarters at a position called "Brown's Dip", which was about south of the firing line. Due to the small front along which the attack was to be launched, the initial assault was to be undertaken in three waves by the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Battalions while the 1st Battalion was to remain back at Brown's Dip in reserve, ready to be brought up to consolidate any gains or respond in the event of a counterattack. Once the 1st Battalion had taken up its position, the assault battalions moved through them towards the forward line at The Pimple. Once the attack was launched, half the force would go via tunnels that had been dug out into no man's land, while the other half would simply go "over the top". By 5:00 p.m. all the troops had taken up their positions and as the barrage came to a conclusion, the tunnels were opened and final preparations were made.
Each soldier in the first two waves had been issued a total of 200 rounds of ammunition for his rifle, along with rations for one day, and miscellaneous equipment including a gas mask. The third wave had received the same amount of ammunition, but was also issued entrenching equipment that would be used to construct positions to defend the initial gains against the inevitable Ottoman counterattack. In support, each battalion had four Vickers medium machine-guns, which had been issued with 3,500 rounds, and contributed a platoon whose job would be to throw the 1,200 grenades that the brigade had been allocated for the attack. A small section of engineers was also allocated to undertake demolitions.
Initial assault
At 5:30 p.m. the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade attacked as the first wave of 1,800 men threw themselves forward. To their north, the troops of the 2nd Infantry Brigade laid down suppressing fire on the supporting Ottoman troops at Johnston's Jolly, while the 3rd Infantry and 2nd Light Horse Brigades held the line opposite Sniper's Ridge. Half the force went via the prepared tunnels and half crossed the exposed ground between the trench lines. Dubbed the "Daisy Patch", it amounted to a distance of about and it was raked with Ottoman artillery and small arms fire. From his headquarters overlooking the fighting, the senior Ottoman commander Esad Pasa, began to co-ordinate the response, passing orders for reinforcements to be brought up and calling down artillery. Casualties among the first wave of attackers were "relatively light" as the defenders in the front line of Ottoman trenches were still sheltering from the preliminary bombardment and had not had time to return to their fire steps after it had been lifted.
When the Australians reached the Ottoman trenches they found them roofed with pine logs with no easy entrance, which had not been identified by aerial reconnaissance during the planning stages. As the Ottoman defenders recovered from the artillery barrage, they began firing at the Australians through specially cut holes at point blank range. As the second and third waves of the attack came up, some of the Australians fired, grenaded and bayoneted from above, while some found their way inside through gaps or by lifting the logs, which were in places as thick as by . Others ran on past to the open communications and support trenches behind, where they were able to gain access to the trenches; about 70 Ottoman troops were captured as they attempted to escape and ran into the Australians entering the trenches. Small groups of Australians managed to push through to The Cup where they were stopped by Ottoman troops who were hastily assembled to defend their regimental headquarters. In the ensuing fighting there, almost all of the Australians were killed, while a handful were taken prisoner.
In the Ottoman trenches, the darkness and cramped conditions led to considerable confusion amongst the attackers. Due to concerns of shooting their comrades, the Australians were unable to fire their rifles initially, and the fighting devolved into a melee as the soldiers attacked each other with bayonets and grenades. The first Australians to enter the position were picked off by the defenders, but as the Australians established themselves in strength, they were able to break into the position before the defenders that had been sheltering in the tunnels behind the front line were able to fully respond. Over the space of half an hour the Australians took control of the position and, after ejecting the remaining Ottomans from the main trench, they established a number of defensive positions along the line. These amounted to positions in the communication trenches on the flanks of the captured ground and about seven or eight posts in the centre that were "isolated" but connected by hastily dug saps.
For the Australians, the attack had been successful, as they had gained possession of the main Ottoman line, and after being halted at The Cup they began preparing to defend their gains. Hastily erecting sandbag barriers along the parapet, they settled down to wait for the first counterattack. As they did so, the brigade reserve—the 1st Battalion—was brought up. Due to crowding in the tunnels that had been used for the attack, the reinforcements were sent via the open ground that had been in front of the old Ottoman positions; despite being behind the recently captured position, the ground was still subjected to heavy Ottoman artillery and machine-gun fire, which was being poured down from positions in overwatch on the flanks. Nevertheless, in company lots, the 1st Battalion moved up and began filling in the gaps between the assault battalions, while engineers from the 2nd Field Company began the task of extending the tunnels from The Pimple towards the new Australian line.
Ottoman counterattacks
Shortly after dark, around 7:00 p.m., the first Ottoman counterattack came after a group from the 1st Battalion, 57th Regiment, under Major Zeki Bey, arrived to reinforce the battalions of the 47th. Attacking with hand grenades, the fighting took place in the complicated maze of the former Ottoman trench system. The close quarters meant that some of the grenades would travel back and forth up to three times before exploding. The Australians held the old Ottoman fire trench and had footholds deeper in Ottoman lines. They blocked the Ottoman communications trenches as best they could, often with the bodies of the dead, to thwart raids. Other bodies were moved to unused communication trenches and saps, and where possible the wounded were evacuated, however, the fighting was so intense, the conditions so cramped and the men so exhausted that in many cases they were left to lie at the bottom of the trench.
Throughout the night of 6/7 August, the Ottomans brought up reinforcements from the 5th Division's 13th Regiment under Ali Riza Bey, which marched from Kojadere, south-east of the position known to the Australians as "Scrubby Knoll". The 9th Division, under German Colonel Hans Kannengiesser, also received orders to begin moving towards Lone Pine from its position between Helles and Anzac from Esad Pasa. Although the 9th Division was later diverted, after 8:00 p.m. the 15th Regiment, from the 5th Division, under the command of Ibrahim Sukru, was committed to the fighting, moving south from its position around the Kurt Dere, near Chunuk Blair.
For the next three days the Ottomans continued to launch incessant and ultimately unsuccessful counterattacks in an effort to recapture the ground they had lost. In total three regiments were dispatched. The Australians also brought up reinforcements, moving up men from two battalions from the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades—the 7th and 12th Battalions—to hold the 1st Brigade's gains. Throughout 7 August, the fighting devolved into a series of hand grenade duels. To keep up the supply, Australians put about 50 soldiers to work at Anzac Cove manufacturing makeshift grenades out of empty jam tins: over 1,000 were sent up to the 1st Infantry Brigade late on 7 August. The fighting continued throughout the night of 7/8 August as the 47th Regiment, launched a determined counterattack; suffering heavy casualties, including the regimental commander, Tewfik Bey, the attack was unsuccessful in retaking the main front-line trenches, but succeeded in regaining some of the ground in the north and also pushed the Australians back a little way from The Cup.
As Ali Riza Bey, the commander of the 13th Regiment, took charge of the Ottoman effort around Lone Pine, the grenading continued into the next day as the Ottomans began to prepare for a large-scale counterattack. Throughout the morning the remaining Australian positions overlooking The Cup were abandoned before the fighting stopped briefly as both the Australians and Ottomans evacuated their wounded and removed the dead from the front-line. By this time the 1st and 2nd Battalions, which had been defending the heavily counterattacked southern flank, had suffered so many casualties that they were withdrawn from the line, with the 7th Battalion moving into their positions late in the afternoon. The 3rd, 4th and 12th Battalions remained holding the north and centre of the Australian line.
Further attacks were mounted by the Ottomans all along the Australian line after 3:00 p.m., but after dark they focused their efforts on the 7th Battalion's position in the south; there the Ottomans succeeded in taking part of the Australian line late in the night, and fierce hand-to-hand fighting followed until early in the morning of 9 August as the Australians retook these positions. More grenade attacks were launched by Ottoman troops later that morning and as the Australian trenches were brought under fire from the Ottoman positions around Johnston's Jolly, an attack was launched at the junctions between the Australian battalions. Achieving a break-in in the centre, they reached the 1st Infantry Brigade's headquarters—which had advanced forward from Brown's Dip following the initial gains—where the brigade commander, Smyth, joined the defence that eventually drove them back. Around midday the Ottomans put in another attack, but this too was repulsed. The positions on the southern Australian flank continued to be subjected to grenading, so the 5th Battalion was brought up to relieve the 7th. The 2nd Battalion, having received a brief respite, also came forward, replacing the 4th Battalion with the support of a dismounted squadron from the 7th Light Horse Regiment. As the fresh units settled in, the Australians prepared for renewed fighting along the line. In the end, the expected attack never came and finally, late in the afternoon of 9 August, the Ottoman commanders called off further attempts to dislodge the Australians. The next day, the fighting "subsided" as both the Ottomans and the Australians worked to consolidate their positions.
Private Victor Laidlaw of the Australian 2nd Field Ambulance wrote on 16 August:
Aftermath
The fighting was "some of the fiercest" the Australians experienced during the campaign to that point. The ground captured during the battle amounted to a total of about across a front. Amidst scenes of considerable devastation, the Australian divisional commander, Walker, believed the result "disastrous". The higher commanders believed it to have been a tactical success, however, with Hamilton describing it as a "desperate fine feat". Though a tactical victory for the Australians in terms of the fact that they remained in possession of the ground captured, and had managed to draw off some Ottoman reinforcements, nevertheless the wider repercussions of the attack at Lone Pine weighed heavily on the outcome at Chunuk Bair. Sent north to reinforce Lone Pine, due to the effectiveness of the Australian attack, Kannengiesser's 9th Division was directed instead to proceed on to Chunuk Bair where, at the time, there was only one Ottoman artillery battery and a covering force of 20 infantrymen. His force arrived in time to seriously delay the New Zealand attack, and ultimately the wider offensive of which the battle was a part failed. Afterwards, a stalemate situation developed on the Gallipoli peninsula although there were brief periods of localised fighting. In September, the troops of the Australian 1st Division who had taken the position at Lone Pine were relieved by the 23rd and 24th Battalions.
Dominated by the heights of Baby 700, the position was regularly shelled and was subsequently described by one Australian soldier, Trooper Ion Idriess, as "the most dangerous spot" in the Australian lodgement and it ultimately proved a "liability" for the troops tasked with holding it. Opposed by troops from the Ottoman 47th Regiment, for the remaining three months of the campaign, the two Australian battalions would alternate their positions in the front line as the Ottoman and Australians engaged in mining and countermining operations against each other's positions. The stalemate continued as both the Australians and Ottomans lacked the strength to mount a determined attack and this situation ultimately lasted until the Allied evacuation in December 1915.
In most sources, Ottoman losses are estimated at between 5,000–6,000, although Kenan Celik from Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, has placed their losses as high as 7,164, broken down as 1,520 killed, 4,700 wounded, 760 listed as missing and 134 captured by the Australians. These included the commanding officers of both the 47th and 15th Regiments. Of the Australian force that had launched the attack, almost half became casualties. Australian losses during the battle amounted to 2,277 men killed or wounded, out of the total 4,600 men committed to the fighting over the course of the battle. These represent some of the highest casualties of the campaign. The toll was particularly heavy amongst the Australian officers; both the commanding officers of the 2nd and 3rd Battalions were killed leading their troops. After the battle, the dead were so thick on the ground that one Australian, Captain Harold Jacobs of the 1st Battalion, remarked "[t]he trench is so full of our dead that the only respect that we could show them was not to tread on their faces, the floor of the trench was just one carpet of them, this in addition to the ones we piled into Turkish dugouts." Later, over 1,000 dead were removed from Australian position to be hastily buried.
Seven Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions during the fighting at Lone Pine, including four men from the 7th Battalion, which had been rushed forward to help relieve the 1st Brigade at the height of the Ottoman counterattacks. One of the recipients was Corporal William Dunstan, who after the war became the general manager of The Herald newspaper in Melbourne. Another VC recipient was Captain Alfred Shout who had already earned the Military Cross and been Mentioned in Despatches earlier in the Gallipoli campaign. He was mortally wounded at Lone Pine and was later buried at sea. The other VC recipients were Privates Leonard Keysor and John Hamilton, Corporal Alexander Burton and Lieutenants Frederick Tubb and William Symons.
After the war, an Australian military historical mission was sent to Gallipoli, led by Charles Bean. On Bean's advice the Australian government sought permission from the newly formed Turkish Republic to establish an official war cemetery in the area. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne was ratified, and through its provisions the Lone Pine cemetery was established in the area, dubbed the Daisy Patch by the Australians. There are a total of 1,167 graves in the cemetery and as of 2012, the identities of 471 bodies interred in the cemetery remain unknown. Also standing within the cemetery's grounds is the Lone Pine memorial. It is the main Australian and New Zealand memorial at Gallipoli and commemorates all the Australian and some of the New Zealanders who died during the campaign, including those who have no known grave and those buried at sea.
As a result of the battle's significance to the Australians, Lone Pine is the site of the annual Australian Anzac Day dawn service at Gallipoli. After the service Australian visitors congregate at the memorial to remember all their countrymen who fought and died at Gallipoli. At the New Zealand National World War I Museum, there is an exhibit for the Battle of Lone Pine, and there is also one in the Australian War Memorial. Memorial "Lone Pine" trees have also been planted in Australia, New Zealand and Gallipoli to commemorate the battle and the Gallipoli campaign in general, seeded from specimens taken from Gallipoli. There are also many places in Australia named after the battle.
References
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Gallipoli and the Anzacs: Bravery Awards at Gallipoli: The Battle of Lone Pine
Lone Pine: A Famous Assault at Lone Pine, 1915
Gallipoli 1915 - The Making of a Nation: Lone Pine
Lone Pine and The Nek
Conflicts in 1915
1915 in the Ottoman Empire
Battles of the Gallipoli campaign
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire
August 1915 events
|
417362
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Grammar%20School
|
Sydney Grammar School
|
Sydney Grammar School (SGS, known colloquially as Grammar) is an independent, fee-paying, non-denominational day school for boys, located in Sydney, Australia.
Incorporated in 1854 by Act of Parliament and opened in 1857, the school claims to offer a "classical" or "grammar" school education thought of as liberal, humane, pre-vocational pedagogy.
As of 2006, Sydney Grammar School had an enrolment of approximately 1,841 students from kindergarten to Year 12, over three campuses. The two preparatory schools (K to 6), are located at Edgecliff in Sydney's Eastern Suburbs, and St Ives, on the Upper North Shore. The College Street campus caters for students from Forms I to VI (Years 7–12), and is in Darlinghurst.
The school is affiliated with the Association of Heads of Independent Schools of Australia (AHISA), the Junior School Heads Association of Australia (JSHAA), the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference, and is a founding member of the Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales (AAGPS).
As of 2019, it ranked the 3rd most expensive school in Australia with an average annual school fee of $36,615 per student.
History
Foundation
The Sydney Public Free Grammar School opened in 1825 with Laurence Hynes Halloran, born County Meath, Ireland (1765–1831) as Head Master. Halloran had operated a private school in Exeter, England, but fled England in 1796 due to debts and after being accused of immorality. It subsequently emerged that his degrees (in divinity) were self-awarded. He eventually returned to Britain but was arrested for forgery and transported to the penal colony of New South Wales, arriving there in 1819. He was immediately granted a ticket-of-leave.
In 1830, Sydney College was founded. Sir Francis Forbes, Chief Justice of New South Wales, became president of the college and laid the foundation stone of the present building in College Street on 26 January 1830. In 1835, Sydney College opened in this building with W.T. Cape as Head Master. In 1842 he resigned and was succeeded by T.H. Braim. In 1850 Sydney College was closed.
In 1854, Sydney Grammar School (SGS) was incorporated by an Act of Parliament and acquired the land and building in College Street which had been temporarily occupied by the newly founded University of Sydney in 1852. It was opened on 3 August 1857, specifically as a feeder school for the university.
The preamble of the Sydney Grammar School Act 1854 states that:
It is deemed expedient for the better advancement of religion and morality and the promotion of useful knowledge to establish in Sydney a public school for conferring on all classes and denominations of Her Majesty’s subjects resident in the Colony of New South Wales without any distinction whatsoever the advantages of a regular and liberal course of education.
The act provides that the trustees of the school shall consist of twelve persons, of whom six shall be persons holding the following offices respectively:
The Honourable the Attorney-General of New South Wales
The Honourable the President of the New South Wales Legislative Council
The Honourable the Speaker of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
The Chancellor of the University of Sydney
The Principal Professor of Classics of the University of Sydney
The Senior Professor of Mathematics of the University of Sydney
The act also provides that the Governor of New South Wales shall be the official visitor of the school.
Site history
Sydney Grammar School is the oldest school still in use in the City of Sydney, and is also historically significant as the site on which the University of Sydney began. The school also holds scientific significance as containing examples of early building materials and techniques in pre-Federation Australia.
The site was founded as The Sydney College in 1830, and the following year began operations in a new building in Hyde Park designed by Edward Hallen. It consisted of a single large room (now known as "Big School") with basement rooms beneath. Sydney College continued despite financial difficulties until 1853, when it was taken over by the fledgling University of Sydney until such time as the present Grose Farm site was ready for occupation. The site was then sold in 1856 to the trustees of the newly incorporated Sydney Grammar School, which had been established and endowed with a building fund by Act of Parliament. Edmund Blacket was commissioned to design extensions to the south and north of the Hallen building (now the North and South Blacket rooms), which were completed in 1856 and 1857 respectively. The "Big School" building became central to the Colonial Architect, James Barnet's vision for the cultural focus of Sydney Town.
The War Memorial wing, named for its position behind Big School's monument to the Great War, was built at the northern end of Big School in 1953 by the Scott brothers, at the cost of its double staircase. In 1876, the main building was extended to the east by Mansfield Brothers, and this extension was itself extended to the north and south in 1899 by John W Manson. The Science classrooms on Stanley Street were built in 1889–90. Other early buildings on the site, now demolished, included the Sergeant's Lodge, an ablutions block (known as the "White House") on Stanley Street, and a former postal sorting office on Yurong Street (now the Palladium building).
Today
Sydney Grammar is a private school. Each year up to 26 full scholarships are offered to boys who show academic promise and who perform well in the scholarship examination. It is also regarded for its strong academic results: for example, in national government testing ('NAPLAN' testing), it is the best performing private school nationwide, and a top performer in the New South Wales Higher School Certificate where the median ATAR ('Australian Tertiary Admissions Ranking') of the school's students is around 95.
Tuition is A$20,217 per year (for Forms I – VI, non-boarding) which is payable in three instalments of $6,733 at the beginning of Terms I, II and III.
Sydney Grammar is located near the Sydney central business district. The campus is compact and consists of multi-storey buildings (of up to eight floors) in a concrete landscape setting. Sydney Grammar is situated on the eastern side of Sydney's Hyde Park, next to the Australian Museum, and extends from College Street to Yurong Street. The designs of the school's buildings illustrate many different architectural eras: "Big School" (dating from the early 19th century colonial era), the Blacket buildings (annexed onto either side of "Big School" and completed in the 1850s), the original Science building (1891), the Science laboratory block (1960s), the Palladium building (an example of 1970s Modernist architecture), the Stanley Street building and Alastair Mackerras Theatre (1980s), and the A. B. 'Banjo' Paterson Library (1990s).
Weigall, the school's sportsground (named after former Headmaster Albert Bythesea Weigall), is located at Rushcutters Bay next to the Edgecliff Preparatory School and includes tennis courts, cricket nets and three fields for cricket, rugby and football. It is routinely used for Saturday sports matches, physical education and as a recreational area for Grammar's Edgecliff Preparatory School next door. There is also a large gymnasium at College Street and full rowing facilities at the school's boatshed at Gladesville.
In May 2005, Headmaster John Vallance announced that the school would lead a consortium to purchase 30 Alma Street Paddington, known as White City, from Tennis New South Wales, thus extending the Weigall grounds substantially. In 2006, development applications to subdivide the White City tennis courts (numbered DA 20/2006 and DA 302/2006) were lodged with Woollahra Council to develop the site to accommodate more tennis and basketball courts; these were subsequently passed.
On 14 June 2008 the new field now known as Weigall 4 was opened with a range of guests including Frank Lowy, president of Football Federation Australia.
In 2009, the school began the construction of a new, underground multi-purpose hall featuring a seating capacity of over 1,500 seats, now called the John Vallance Hall (formerly The New Hall from its opening until 2017). Completed in August 2011, it was primarily designed to accommodate the entirety of the current students and teaching staff under one roof while being acoustically sound for orchestral performances.
The hall was officially opened by the headmaster on 18 August 2011 with a substantive celebratory concert featuring performances from a large number of Grammar boys past and present. The John Vallance Hall is now used by the two preparatory schools as well.
Headmasters
The current headmaster of Sydney Grammar School is Richard Malpass, who replaced John Vallance when he resigned on 7 April 2017.
Structure
Sydney Grammar has a total enrolment of approximately 1,833 boys across Years K–12. In Term Three of 2006, the main high School campus had an enrolment of 1,109 boys in Forms I–VI (Years 7–12). The main high school is divided into the Lower School (First Form) and the Upper School (Second through Sixth Forms). There are also two Preparatory Schools, one at St. Ives in the Northern Suburbs (440 boys) and the other at Edgecliff in Rushcutters Bay, Eastern Suburbs (304 boys). Each year, approximately two-thirds of the incoming Form I at College Street are from the two Preparatory Schools, while the rest are drawn from schools in Sydney, from interstate and overseas.
Curriculum
Sydney Grammar offers a liberal, pre-vocational type education, and this is reflected in its academic structure and subject choices. Every student must study Latin in 'First Form' or 7th Grade. The academic departments are:
Classics
Design and technology (currently known as applied arts)
Drama
Economics
English
Geography
History
Mathematics
Modern languages (Asian and European)
Music
Physical education
Science
Visual arts.
Subjects offered for the Higher School Certificate (HSC) include English Advanced, English Extension 1, English Extension 2, Mathematics, Mathematics Extension 1, Mathematics Extension 2, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Earth and Environmental Science, Geography, Modern History, Ancient History, History Extension, Economics, Latin, Latin Extension, Classical Greek, Classical Greek Extension, French Continuers, French Extension, Italian Continuers, Italian Extension, German Continuers, German Extension, Chinese Continuers, Chinese Extension, Japanese Beginners, Music 1, Music 2, Music Extension, Visual Art, Drama, PDHPE, Design and Technology and Studies of Religion.
Sanskrit and Special Academic Courses are offered as non-HSC subjects. The Special Academic courses previously included a Form V (Year 11) course in extension chemistry and physics and a Form VI (Year 12) course in lagrangian dynamics and quantum mechanics; 19th Century Russian literature, with a focus on the works of Pushkin and Dostoevsky, with a smaller study of Chekhov and Nikolai Gogol. Most recently, the Special Academic Course is a formal two-unit subject undertaken during Form V (in which the pupil must take Extension 1 Mathematics and English), in which pupils are able to select two out of three 'electives', being: "Science in Ruins" (combining scientific approaches within the field of Archeology), "Computing", and "The Western Arc" (a study of Western Civilisation throughout history).
Co-curriculum
Music
SGS has won the AMEB Music Shield 23 times in the past 25 years. Two-thirds of pupils in the school play a musical instrument or are involved with music in some way. SGS has scores of musical groups in mostly classical, chamber and jazz styles. The School Orchestra engages in both national and international tours. Grammar's choir program involves hundreds of students, old boys, and parents, participating in its many annual concerts. The school's senior a cappella group is known as The Grammarphones and is composed of the best tenors, basses and baritones in the senior years. The school's senior big band, the Sydney Grammar School Big Band, is a regular feature at the Manly Jazz Festival.
SGS embarked on a five-year program entitled "Bach: 2010", in which all the known choral cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach were performed in a series of concerts between 2005 and 2010. Sydney Grammar is one of the few institutions in the world that has engaged in such an exercise and was aided by the Mander organ in the Big School. A performance has been held every year since by head of practical music studies, Robert Wagner, on the Bach's birthday.
Under the current Head Master, an organic rock-&-roll movement has emerged and is currently thriving. The end of 2004 saw the consummation of years of practice in the first Grammarpalooza rock concert, which included the musical style of Old Boy band, Dappled Cities Fly.
Sport
Sydney Grammar School is a member of the Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of NSW (GPS), Australia's oldest school sporting association. GPS sporting events are contested in rugby union, football, cricket, tennis, volleyball, cross country, basketball, rowing, swimming, athletics, rifle shooting, and debating. The school also competes in fencing and chess competitions.
Grammar participates in the annual Tri-Grammar competitions, a series of cricket competitions between the Firsts teams of Sydney Grammar School, Melbourne Grammar School and Brisbane Grammar School. Sydney and Melbourne Grammar School also compete for "The Bat" in the same competition. The Sydney–Melbourne match dates back to 1876, and in 1976, to mark the centenary of this rivalry, a "Bat" was struck, with the winner of the annual match taking possession. The bat was donated by John Crawford, the father of the captain of the 1976 premiership winning side Andrew Crawford.
The school launched its rowing program in 1878, and has maintained it since. Competition in rowing culminates in the Riverview Gold Cup for Junior Crews and the Head of the River for Senior Crews. Grammar's boatshed is on the Parramatta River at Gladesville.
On 2 April 2011, Sydney Grammar School first eight won the Major Rennie Trophy at the AAGPS Head of the River. This marked the first victory for the school since 1978. In its history, Grammar has won the race sixteen times, the second highest number of victories after the Shore School. Many rowers have gone on to row in Varsity Crews at a university level. In the 2014–2015 Harvard University rowing roster, Sydney Grammar had the most rowers out of any high school globally and two Sydney Grammar rowers were in Harvard's top crew (First Varsity Eight).
Academic extension
The school operates academic extension programmes in both sciences and humanities, which includes olympiad programmes and hosting visiting scholars who spend time teaching and giving a public lecture. Notable scholars have included metaethicist Simon Blackburn, science and medical historian Sir Geoffrey Lloyd, zoologist Andrew Parker, astronomer and 1999 Young Australian of the Year Bryan Gaensler, historian Sir Christopher Clark, professor of English Dame Marina Warner, professor of Greek Richard Hunter, and composer Robin Holloway.
As part of an academic extension activity, a group of year 11 students attempted to prepare the medication pyrimethamine (sold as Daraprim) in 2016. Pyrimethamine is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system, for both adults and children. It is used to treat toxoplasmosis, cystoisosporiasis, and malaria (in combination with sulfadoxine). It received significant attention when its manufacturer in the United States was acquired by Turing Pharmaceuticals, and its CEO Martin Shkreli decided to increase the price from US$13.50 to US$750 a dose. Hence, a group of year 11 students from Grammar, supported by Matthew H. Todd from the University of Sydney and the Open Source Malaria consortium, have prepared pyrimethamine. The students started with 17 g of (4-chlorophenyl)acetonitrile (which is available from Sigma-Aldrich for $36.50 per 100 g) and prepared 3.7 g of pyrimethamine, which is about US$110,000 at Turing's prices.
Their work has attracted attention from around the world, being reported in The Independent, the Daily Telegraph, and BBC News in the United Kingdom, the Washington Post, New York Daily News, and U.S. News & World Report in the United States, among others. By replacing expensive chemicals with alternatives available in a high school laboratory, they demonstrated that the synthesis can be carried out fairly simply and safely, and at a cost of approximately $2 per dose (US$1.48). Business magazine Forbes described the work as figuratively "punch[ing] Martin Shkreli in the face" and as raising questions about pharmaceutical companies which do not do substantial amounts of research. Unfortunately, as a consequence of the closed distribution model which Turing employs in the United States, any competing company seeking to market a generic alternative to Daraprim (including using the approach the boys developed with their teacher) would need to compare their product with a sample of Daraprim provided directly by Turing; if Turing refuses to provide that sample, the competitor would need to undertake a complete new clinical trial, which creates a prohibitive barrier to entering the market. The boys are quoted making comments highly critical of Shkreli's and Turing's behaviour, and have been applauded on social media with comments that their work highlights Shkreli's greed, though he has minimised their achievement.
Shkreli subsequently posted a video about the achievement, declaring his "delight" about students entering the STEM field, describing them as "proof that the 21st century economy will solve problems of human suffering through science and technology", and stating that "[w]e should congratulate these students for their interest in chemistry and all be excited about what is to come in the STEM-focused 21st century." The students presented their work at the Royal Australian Chemical Institute's NSW Organic Chemistry symposium alongside students at fourth-year undergraduate and postgraduate levels, as well as postdoctoral researchers.
Clubs and Societies
The school has numerous clubs and societies for students. Notable examples include:
Australian Air Force Cadets (Established in 1942)
Australian Army Cadets (Founded in 1871 by School Headmaster Albert Bythesea Weigall, the Corps is one of the oldest military units in the nation, even predating the Australian Army.)
Creative Writing Club, run by notable author John Hughes
Chess Club
Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme
Debating
A number of boys also assist in editing the school's yearly almanac, The Sydneian, over 400 editions of which have been produced since 1875.
Overseas tours
The school offers its students the opportunity to attend various overseas tours for educational (mainly linguistic) and cultural exchanges. The school has partnerships with some of the top schools around the world in cities such as Paris, Shanghai and Florence which students can visit for a period of between 3 and 12 weeks as a supplement for their linguistic studies; in addition to the time spent at the school, the boys also get the opportunity to travel around the respective countries on a cultural trip, accompanied by teachers. There are also frequent sporting tours overseas such as in Brazil for football, England for rugby and Japan for volleyball where the students can participate in matches against foreign teams and sometimes even train with and watch professional sports teams play. The school also offers tours for science, geography and history to areas such as the Galapagos to study evolution or to the Kokoda Track to follow in the footsteps of the ANZACs.
Notable alumni
Alumnus of Sydney Grammar School are commonly referred to as Old Boys or Old Sydneians, and may elect to join the schools alumni association, the Old Sydneians' Union (OSU).
Grammar is notable for having educated many Rhodes Scholars, High Court judges (Australia's highest court) and the equal highest number of Australian Prime Ministers, out of any school in Australia. Its alumni also include influential figures in business, international sport, science and medicine, and the performing arts, like David Gonski (leading Australian philanthropist, chairman of the Future Fund, chancellor of the New South Wales) and Rowan Gillies (former international president of Médecins Sans Frontières).
Notable alumni also include Sir Edmund Barton, the first Prime Minister of Australia (1901–1903), Sir William McMahon, 20th Prime Minister of Australia (1971–1972), Malcolm Turnbull, 29th Prime Minister of Australia (2015–2018), Bruce Gyngell, first person to appear on Australian television, Andrew "Boy" Charlton, an Olympic gold medallist swimmer, and also Banjo Paterson – bush poet and balladist, and author of "The Man From Snowy River" and "Waltzing Matilda," and who now has the school library named after him.
References
Further reading
Sheldon, J.S 1997. The Big School Room at Sydney Grammar School with an Account of the Decline & Fall of Sydney College. Sydney Grammar School Press, Sydney, NSW. .
Turney, C. 1989. Grammar: A History of Sydney Grammar School 1819 – 1988. Allen & Unwin with Sydney Grammar School, Sydney, NSW. .
External links
The Old Sydneians Union
Educational institutions established in 1825
1850 disestablishments
Private secondary schools in Sydney
Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
Boys' schools in New South Wales
Junior School Heads Association of Australia Member Schools
Private primary schools in Sydney
Edmund Blacket buildings in Sydney
Darlinghurst, New South Wales
St Ives, New South Wales
College Street, Sydney
Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales
Grammar schools in Australia
|
417422
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Argentina
|
Flag of Argentina
|
The national flag of the Argentine Republic, often referred to as the Argentine flag (), is a triband, composed of three equally wide horizontal bands coloured light blue and white. There are multiple interpretations on the reasons for those colors. The flag was created by Manuel Belgrano, in line with the creation of the Cockade of Argentina, and was first raised at the city of Rosario on February 27, 1812, during the Argentine War of Independence. The National Flag Memorial was later built on the site. The First Triumvirate did not approve the use of the flag, but the Asamblea del Año XIII allowed the use of the flag as a war flag. It was the Congress of Tucumán which finally designated it as the national flag, in 1816. A yellow Sun of May was added to the center in 1818.
The full flag featuring the sun is called the Official Ceremonial Flag (). The flag without the sun is considered the Ornamental Flag (). While both versions are equally considered the national flag, the ornamental version must always be hoisted below the Official Ceremony Flag. In vexillological terms, the Official Ceremonial Flag is the civil, state and war flag and ensign, while the Ornamental Flag is an alternative civil flag and ensign.
There is controversy of the true colour of the first flag between historians and the descendants of Manuel Belgrano between blue and pale blue.
It is one of the five flags that use the ratio 5:8, the others being Guatemala, Palau, Poland, and Sweden.
History
The flag of Argentina was created by Manuel Belgrano during the Argentine War of Independence. While in Rosario he noticed that both the royalist and patriotic forces were using the same colors, Spain's yellow and red. After realizing this, Belgrano created the Cockade of Argentina, which was approved by the First Triumvirate on February 18, 1812. Encouraged by this success, he created a flag of the same colors nine days later. It used the colors that were used by the Criollos during the May Revolution in 1810. However, recent research and studies would indicate that the colors were chosen from the Spanish Order of Charles III symbolizing the allegiance to the rightful, and then captive King Ferdinand VII of Spain. Most portraits about the creation or first uses of the flag show the modern design of it, but the flag of Macha, a very early design kept at the House of Freedom in Sucre, Bolivia was instead a vertical triband with two white bands and a light blue one in the middle.
The flag was first flown for soldiers to swear allegiance to it on 27 February 1812, by personnel of the Batería Libertad (Liberty Battery), by the Paraná River. On that day, Belgrano said the following words:
Belgrano dispatched a letter addressed to the First Triumvirate, informing them of the newly created flag. However, unlike with the cockade, the Triumvirate did not accept the use of the flag: policy at the time was to state that the government was ruling on behalf of King Ferdinand VII of Spain who was captive of Napoleon, whereas the creation of a flag was a clear independentist act. Thus, the triumvirate sent a warning to Belgrano not to fight under the flag, but by the time the reply had arrived, Belgrano had moved to the north, following the previous orders that requested him to strengthen the patriotic position in the Upper Peru after the defeat of Juan José Castelli at the Battle of Huaqui. Meanwhile, the flag was hoisted for the first time in Buenos Aires atop the Church of Saint Nicholas of Bari on August 23, 1812; where nowadays the Obelisk of Buenos Aires is located. Still not knowing about the Triumvirate's refusal, Belgrano raised the flag at San Salvador de Jujuy and had it blessed by the local church on the second anniversary of the May Revolution. Belgrano accepted the orders from the Triumvirate by time they arrived to Salta and ceased using the flag. As soldiers had already made oaths to the new flag, Belgrano said that he was saving it for the circumstance of a great victory.
The First Triumvirate was later replaced by the Second Triumvirate, with a more liberal ideology, who called the Asamblea del Año XIII. Despite being one of its original goals, it did not declare independence, and so did not approve the use of a national flag either; nevertheless, the flag made by Belgrano was authorized to be used as a war flag. The first oath to the newly approved flag was on February 13, 1813, next to the Salado River, which became known as the "Río Juramento" ("Oath River"). The first battle fought with the approved flag was the Battle of Salta, a decisive patriotic victory that achieved the complete defeat of royalist Pío Tristán.
The flag would be finally declared the national flag by the Congress of Tucumán on July 20, 1816, shortly after the declaration of independence. The proposal was made by the deputy Juan José Paso and the text written by the deputy of Charcas, José Serrano. On February 25, 1818, the Congress (now working at Buenos Aires) included the Sun of May in the war flag, after the proposal of deputy Chorroarín. The sun was copied after the one that the first Argentine coin featured in 1813. It was subsequently decided to keep it as part of the regular flag afterwards, and thus the sun no longer represents war.
José de San Martín was aware of the new flag, but did not employ it during the crossing of the Andes in 1817. Being a joint operation of both Argentine and Chilean forces, he thought that a new flag would be a better idea than using either the Argentine or the Chilean flag. This led to the creation of the Flag of the Andes, used in the crossing. This flag is currently used as a provincial flag by Mendoza province.
On June 8, 1938, president Roberto Ortiz sanctioned national law no. 12,361 declaring June 20 "Flag Day", a national holiday. The date was decided as the anniversary of Belgrano's death in 1820. In 1957 the National Flag Memorial (a 10,000 m monumental complex) was inaugurated in Rosario to commemorate the creation of the flag, and the official Flag Day ceremonies have customarily been conducted in its vicinity since then.
In 1978 it was specified, among other measurements, that the Official Ceremony Flag should be 1.4 meters wide and 0.9 meters high, and that the sun must be embroidered.
According to the Decree 10,302/1944 the article 2 stated that the Official Flag of the Nation is the flag with sun, approved by the "Congress of Tucumán", reunited in Buenos Aires on 25 February 1818. The article 3 stated that the flag with the sun in its center is to be used only by the Federal and Provincial Governments; while individuals and institutions use a flag without the sun.
In 1985 the Law 23,208 repealed the article 3 of the Decree 10,302/1944, saying that the Federal and Provincial Governments, as well as individuals have the right to use the Official Flag of the Nation.
Historical flags
Design
Popular belief attributes the colors to those of the sky, clouds and the sun; some anthems to the flag like "Aurora" or "Salute to the flag" state so as well. However, historians usually disregard this idea, and attribute them to loyalty towards the House of Bourbon.
After the May Revolution, the first times of the Argentine War of Independence, the Triumvirate claimed to be acting on behalf of the Spanish King Ferdinand VII, who was prisoner of Napoleon Bonaparte during the Peninsular War. Whether such loyalty was real or a trick to conceal independentism is a topic of dispute. The creation of a new flag with those colors would have been then a way to denote autonomy, while keeping the relations with the captive king alive.
Shape and size
From 1978, the flag's official proportions are 9:14, and its official size is 0.9 by 1.4 meters. It features three stripes alternating sky blue, white and sky blue. Each stripe is 30 centimeters high. In the center stripe there is an emblem known as the Sun of May (), a golden sun. Historian Diego Abad de Santillán claimed that the Sun of May was a representation of the Inca sun god Inti.
Flags with proportions of 1:2 and 2:3 are also in use.
Colors
The colors are officially defined using the CIE 1976 standard:
The following are given for computer, textile, print and plastic use:
The Spanish word (sky blue) is used to describe the colour of the blue stripes.
Sun of May
The sun is called the Sun of May because it is a replica of an engraving on the first Argentine coin, approved in 1813, whose value was eight escudos (one Spanish dollar). It has 16 straight and 16 waved sunbeams.
In 1978 the sun color was specified to be golden yellow (), to have an inner diameter of 10 cm, and an outer diameter of 25 cm (the diameter of the sun equals the height of the white stripe. The sun's face is of its height). It features 32 rays, alternately wavy and straight, and from 1978 it must be embroidered in the "Official Flag Ceremony".
Influence of the Argentine flag
The French privateer Louis-Michel Aury used the Argentine flag as a model for the blue-white-blue flag of the first independent state in Central America, which was created 1818 in Isla de Providencia, an island off the east coast of Nicaragua. This state existed until approximately 1821, before the Gran Colombia took over control of these islands. Somewhat later (1823) this flag was again used as the model for the flag of the United Provinces of Central America, a confederation of the current Central American states of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, which existed from 1823 to 1838. After the dissolution of the Union, the five countries became independent, but even today all of these states except Costa Rica use flags of blue-white-blue stripes (the Costa Rican flag has a compound red stripe on the white one, added to incorporate all the colors of the French flag). The Argentine flag also inspired the flags of Uruguay and Paraguay.
Current flags of Central and South American countries
Anthems to the flag
Aurora (Sunrise)
{| align=top width=100%
||
Alta en el cielo, un águila guerrera
Audaz se eleva en vuelo triunfal.
Azul un ala del color del cielo,
Azul un ala del color del mar.
Así en el alta aurora irradial.
Punta de flecha el áureo rostro imita.
Y forma estela el purpurado cuello.
El ala es paño, el águila es bandera.
Es la bandera de la patria mía,
del sol nacido que me ha dado Dios.
Es la bandera de la Patria Mía,
del sol nacido que me ha dado Dios.
||
High in the sky, a warrior eagle
rises audacious in its triumphal flight
One wing is blue, sky-colored;
one wing is blue, sea-colored.
In the high radiant aurora
its golden face resembles the tip of an arrow.
And its purple nape leaves a wake.
The wing is cloth, the eagle is a flag.
It is the flag of my Fatherland, born of the sun that God gave me.
It is the flag of my Fatherland, born of the sun that God gave me.
|}
Lyrics by Luigi Illica and Héctor Cipriano Quesada, music by Héctor Panizza, it is sung during flag raising ceremonies.
Saludo a la bandera (Salutation to the Flag)
{| align=top width=100%
||
Salve, argentina
bandera azul y blanca.
Jirón del cielo
en donde impera el Sol.
Tú, la más noble,
la más gloriosa y santa,
el firmamento su color te dio.
Yo te saludo,
bandera de mi Patria,
sublime enseña
de libertad y honor.
Jurando amarte,
como así defenderte,
mientras palpite mi fiel corazón.
||
Hail, Argentina
blue and white flag.
Shred of the sky
where the Sun reigns.
You, the most noble,
the most glorious and holy,
the heavens gave its color to you.
I salute you,
flag of my fatherland,
sublime ensign
of freedom and honor.
Swearing to love you,
as well as to defend you,
for as long as my faithful heart beats.
|}
Mi Bandera (My Flag)
{| align=top width=100%
||
Aquí está la bandera idolatrada,
la enseña que Belgrano nos legó,
cuando triste la Patria esclavizada
con valor sus vínculos rompió.
Aquí está la bandera esplendorosa
que al mundo con sus triunfos admiró,
cuando altiva en la lucha y victoriosa
la cima de los Andes escaló.
Aquí está la bandera que un día
en la batalla tremoló triunfal
y, llena de orgullo y bizarría,
a San Lorenzo se dirigió inmortal.
Aquí está, como el cielo refulgente,
ostentando sublime majestad,
después de haber cruzado el Continente,
exclamando a su paso: ¡Libertad!
¡Libertad! ¡Libertad!
||
Here is the idolized flag,
the flag that Belgrano left to us,
when the sad enslaved Homeland
bravely broke its bonds.
Here is the splendorous flag
that surprised the world with its victory,
when arrogant and victoriously during the battles
the top of the Andes it has climbed.
Here is the flag that one day
triumphantly rose in the middle of the battle
and, full of pride and gallantry,
to San Lorenzo it went immortal.
Here it is, like the shining sky,
showing sublimate majesty
after having crossed the continent
shouting in its way: "Freedom!"
"Freedom! Freedom!"
|}
Pledge to the Flag
As Flag Day is celebrated on June 20, the following pledge is recited to students nationwide on this day by their respective school principals or grade level advisers. In large towns where students are gathered en masse, the pledge is taken by the local town or city executive, preceded by words of advice and honor to the memory of its creator, Manuel Belgrano, using the following or similar formulas:
Variant 1
Versions of this include references to Belgrano and to all who fought for the country during the Argentine War of Independence and other wars that followed.
Variant 2
{| width="81%"
|
Summons:Niños/Alumnos, esta es la Bandera que creó Manuel Belgrano en los albores de nuestra libertad, simboliza a la República Argentina, nuestra Patria.
Es el símbolo de nuestra libre soberanía, que hace sagrados a los hombres y mujeres y a todos los pueblos del mundo. Convoca el ejercicio de nuestros deberes y nuestros derechos, a respetar las leyes y las instituciones. Es la expresión de nuestra historia forjada con la esperanza y el esfuerzo de millones de hombres y mujeres, los que nacieron en nuestra tierra y los que vinieron a poblarla al amparo de nuestra bandera y nuestra Constitución.
Representa nuestra tierra y nuestros mares, nuestros ríos y bosques, nuestros llanos y montañas, el esfuerzo de sus habitantes, sus sueños y realizaciones. Simboliza nuestro presente, en el que, día a día, debemos construir la democracia que nos ennoblece, y conquistar el conocimiento que nos libera; y nuestro futuro, el de nuestros hijos y el de las sucesivas generaciones de argentinos.
Niños/Alumnos, ¿prometen defenderla, respetarla y amarla, con fraterna tolerancia y respeto, estudiando con firme voluntad, comprometiéndose a ser ciudadanos libres y justos, aceptando solidariamente en sus diferencias a todos los que pueblan nuestro suelo y transmitiendo, en todos y cada uno de nuestros actos, sus valores permanentes e irrenunciables?
Response: Sí, prometo!| valign="top" |
Summons:Children/Students, this is the Flag that Manuel Belgrano created at the dawn of our freedom; the symbol of our fatherland, the Argentine Republic.It is the symbol of our free sovereignty, which renders sacred the men and women and all the peoples of the world. It calls on us to exercise our duties and our rights, to respect our nation's laws and institutions. It is the expression of our history forged with the hope and the efforts of millions of men and women, those who were born in our land and those who came to settle it under our flag and our Constitution. It represents our land and our seas, our rivers and forests, our plains and mountains, the efforts of its inhabitants, their dreams and achievements. It symbolizes our present, in which, day by day, we must build the democracy that ennobles us and conquer the knowledge that frees us, as well as our future, that of our children and the successive generations of Argentines.Children/Students, do you promise to defend, respect, and love it, with fraternal tolerance and respect, studying with determination, committing to be free and honest citizens, accepting in solidarity the diversity of all those who inhabit our lands, and passing on these permanent and irrevocable values in everything you do? Response: Yes, I promise! (standing to attention and extending the right arm towards the flag)
|}
The Glorious Reveille may be sounded by a military or a marching band at this point, and confetti may be showered upon the students.
In the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic and civil uniformed services the pledge is similar but with a different formula and response of ¡Si, juro! (Yes, I pledge!'')
Military/police variant
In the Argentine Federal Police, the words (and its Constitution) may be inserted.
See also
List of Argentine flags
Spanish fess
Flag of El Salvador
Flag of Honduras
Flag of Nicaragua
References
External links
All anthems to the Argentine flag
More information
Día de la Bandera
Symbols introduced in the 1810s
National symbols of Argentina
1812 introductions
Argentina
Argentine culture
|
417429
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Party%20of%20Serbia
|
Socialist Party of Serbia
|
The Socialist Party of Serbia (, abbr. SPS) is a political party in Serbia. Ivica Dačić has led SPS as its president since 2006.
SPS was founded in 1990 as a merger of the League of Communists of Serbia and Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia with Slobodan Milošević as its first president. In the 1990 general elections, SPS became the ruling party of Serbia while Milošević was elected president of Serbia. During Milošević's rule, SPS relied on the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) from 1992 to 1993 while it later led several coalition governments with SRS, New Democracy (ND), and Yugoslav Left. Mass protests against SPS were held in 1991, and after being accused of falsifying votes in major urban cities, such as Belgrade and Niš, 1996–1997 protests were also organised. The Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS) coalition defeated SPS in the 2000 general elections but Milošević declined to accept the results. This resulted in Milošević's overthrow.
SPS was in opposition until 2003 after which it served as confidence and supply to the government led by Vojislav Koštunica until 2007. Dačić led SPS into a coalition government with the Democratic Party after the 2008 parliamentary election, while four years later he became the prime minister of Serbia after the formation of a coalition government with the Serbian Progressive Party (SNS). He remained prime minister until 2014, while SPS has since then remained a junior member of SNS-led governments. Although it described itself as a democratic socialist party, SPS promoted mixed economy and populist nationalism under Milošević's leadership and was accused of authoritarianism. SPS has remained populist under Dačić but it shifted towards social democracy and a more pragmatic, pro-European image. SPS is affiliated and cooperates with United Serbia and Greens of Serbia.
History
Formation
After the World War II, the Communist Party consolidated power in Yugoslavia. Each constituent republic had its own branch of the party, with Serbia having the Communist Party of Serbia, which was renamed to League of Communists of Serbia (SKS) in 1952. SKS elected Slobodan Milošević as its president in 1986, after an endorsement coming from then-incumbent president of SKS, Ivan Stambolić. Milošević came to power by promising to reduce the autonomy of provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. At a congress that was held in January 1990, rifts between SKS and League of Communists of Slovenia occurred which ultimately led to the dissolution of the federal Communist Party. This also led to the establishment of multi-party systems in the constituent republics.
Milošević organised a congress on 17 July 1990, during which its delegates voted in favour of merging SKS and the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia (SSRNJ) to create the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS). Milošević was elected as the party's president. According to political scientist Jerzy Wiatr, the merger "did not substantially change either the organisational structure of the party or its administration", although SPS did gain control of a large amount of infrastructure, including material and financial assets. Milošević as president of the SPS was able to wield considerable power and influence in the government and the public and private sectors, while members of SPS who had shown their independence from loyalty towards Milošević were expelled from the party.
1990–1992
SPS took part in the general elections which was organised for December 1990. The parliamentary election was conducted in a first-past-the-post system, where members were elected in 250 single-member constituency seats; this system strengthened the position of SPS. This resulted into SPS winning 194 out of 250 seats in the National Assembly, despite only winning 48% of the popular vote. Opposition parties, such as the Democratic Party (DS) and Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO), tried to challenge the legitimacy of the election, citing alleged abuse of postal voting and manipulation during vote counting. In the presidential election, Milošević won 65% of the popular vote in the first round of the election. By January 1991, sociologist Laslo Sekelj reported that SPS had 500,000 members. SPS was faced with protests in March 1991, while Milošević was succeeded by Borisav Jović as the president of SPS on 24 May 1991; he held the position until 24 October 1992, when Milošević returned as president of SPS, following the second party congress.
After the break-up of Yugoslavia, Serbia became a part of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. With the opposition boycotting the May 1992 parliamentary election, due to claiming that there were no free and fair electoral conditions, SPS won 49% of the popular vote. Protests were held shortly after the election, after which snap elections were called for December 1992, in which SPS won 33% of the popular vote. Simultaneously with these elections, the 1992 general elections occurred in Serbia as a result of an early elections referendum that was organised in October 1992. The parliamentary election in 1992 was conducted under a proportional representation system, and in it SPS won 101 out of 250 seats in the National Assembly; because of that the SPS minority government had to rely on the far-right Serbian Radical Party (SRS), which had won 73 seats. In the presidential election however, Milošević won 57% of the popular vote in the first round, while his opponent Milan Panić won 35% of the popular vote.
1993–2000
After the announcement that SPS would abandon its hardline position regarding the Bosnian War and Croatian War of Independence in favour of a compromise and after a dispute regarding the rebalancing of the federal budget in July 1993, the coalition between SPS and SRS was disintegrated. SRS then unsuccessfully called a motion of no confidence against SPS in September 1993, though Milošević ended up dissolving the National Assembly to call a snap parliamentary election for December 1993. In the parliamentary election, SPS won 123 seats, though still short 3 seats of a majority, Milošević then persuaded the New Democracy (ND), which as part of the SPO-led Democratic Movement of Serbia coalition won 5 seats, to enter a coalition government with SPS. ND accepted this and the new government headed by Mirko Marjanović was sworn in March 1994.
SPS soon formed the Left Coalition with ND and the Yugoslav Left (JUL), a far-left political party headed by Milošević's wife Mirjana Marković, to contest the parliamentary elections for the federal parliament in November 1996. The Left Coalition emerged with 64 out of 108 seats in the election. SPS was accused of falsifying votes in cities such as Belgrade and Niš in the 1996 local elections. The Electoral Commission also invalidated the results. This led to mass protests that were organised up until February 1997, when SPS ultimately accepted the defeat. Milošević, who was constitutionally limited to two terms as president of Serbia, was elected president of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in July 1997, shortly before the general elections in Serbia. SPS took part with ND and JUL under the Left Coalition banner and won 110 seats in the National Assembly. ND declined to join the government and the coalition was subsequently disintegrated after SPS and JUL formed a government with SRS. In the presidential election, SPS nominated Zoran Lilić, although the election ended up being annulled as the election's turnout was less than 50%. This led to another presidential election which was held in December 1997; Milan Milutinović, the SPS-nominated candidate, won in the second round of the election.
The new SPS-led government was faced with the Kosovo War which ended up making a major impact on SPS. SPO joined the SPS-led federal government in January 1999. Vuk Drašković, the leader of SPO, supported the proposed Rambouillet Agreement, though Milošević declined to sign it, which ultimately led to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Additionally, SPS and SPO entered into a conflict after the assassination of journalist Slavko Ćuruvija, which led to dismissal of SPO from the federal government. In the same year, Milošević proposed constitutional changes to the federal parliament to allow him to run for another term in the 2000 election; the amendments were passed by the parliament. Otpor, a student resistance movement formed in October 1998, and the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), a wide alliance of opposition parties formed in January 2000, called for early elections, though the elections ended up being organised for September 2000. Milošević faced Vojislav Koštunica, the DOS-nominated candidate, in the presidential election. The Federal Election Committee reported that Milošević placed second although that Koštunica also won less than 50% of the popular vote. Milošević declined to accept the results, which resulted into DOS-organised mass protests that culminated into the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević. Milošević accepted defeat on 5 October 2000, while the Federal Election Committee published actual results on 7 October. Shortly after the elections, SPS, SPO, and DOS agreed to organise a snap parliamentary election in Serbia in December 2000. This parliamentary election, and all subsequent ones, were conducted in a proportional electoral system with only one electoral unit. SPS suffered defeat and only won 37 out of 250 seats in the National Assembly, which put the party in opposition for the first time since its formation in 1990. Following the 2000 elections, Milorad Vučelić formed the Democratic Socialist Party while Zoran Lilić also left and formed the Serbian Social Democratic Party.
2001–2008
Milošević, who was still the president of SPS, was arrested in March 2001 on suspicion of corruption and abuse of power, and was shortly after extradited to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia to stand trial for war crimes instead. At the presidential election in September 2002, SPS nominated actor Bata Živojinović; he placed sixth. This election ended up being annulled as the turnout in the second round was less than 50%. This resulted into another presidential election which was held in December 2002; SPS supported Vojislav Šešelj, the leader of SRS. He placed second in the presidential election, which ended up being annulled again as the turnout was less than 50%. At a party congress in January 2003, Ivica Dačić, a reformist within SPS, was elected president of the party's main board. It was reported that Milošević subsequently demanded his exclusion of the party, although Dačić denied this. Another presidential election was held in November 2003 which SPS ended up boycotting. A month later, SPS took part in a snap parliamentary election in which it won 22 seats; the drop in popularity occurred due to their voters shifting towards SRS. SPS ended up serving as confidence and supply to Koštunica's government in the National Assembly. In 2004, the 50% turnout rule for presidential elections was abolished, after which SPS nominated Dačić as their presidential candidate for the 2004 presidential election; he placed fifth.
After the death of Milošević in March 2006, a conflict between Dačić and Vučelić emerged regarding who would continue leading the party. At the party congress in December 2006, Dačić was officially elected president of SPS, after previously serving as the party's de facto leader since 2003. In the parliamentary election that was held in January 2007, SPS dropped to 16 seats in the National Assembly, after which SPS returned to opposition. A year later, SPS nominated Milutin Mrkonjić, the party's deputy president, as its candidate in the presidential election. Mrkonjić campaigned on social issues and issues regarding the economy, insisting that SPS is "the true party of the left" and that Serbia should join the European Union. He placed fourth, winning 6% of the popular vote. SPS shortly after formed a coalition with United Serbia (JS) and Party of United Pensioners of Serbia (PUPS) which took part in the snap parliamentary election in May 2008. The coalition won 20 seats, 12 of which went to SPS alone. Initially, SPS negotiated with SRS, Democratic Party of Serbia, and New Serbia to form a government, however SPS ended up abandoning those negotiations in favour of those with the For a European Serbia coalition, which was led by DS. The DS–SPS coalition government was sworn in July 2008, with Dačić serving as first deputy prime minister while Slavica Đukić Dejanović became the president of the National Assembly.
2009–2014
While in government, SPS was faced with challenges regarding the Kosovo declaration of independence and the global financial crisis, which led to low rates of economic growth. Additionally, SPS signed a reconciliation agreement with its government partner DS, although clashes between the parties had continued to occur even after the agreement. Further, protests that were organised in 2011 led Boris Tadić, the president of Serbia, to call snap elections for 2012. During the 2012 campaign period, SPS campaigned with JS and PUPS, with Dačić being their joint presidential candidate. He campaigned on workers' rights, free education, and ending neoliberalism, as well as rising wages and pensions, while SPS also campaigned on criticising post-Milošević governments. In the parliamentary election, the coalition led by SPS won 44 seats in the National Assembly, while SPS alone won 25. Dačić placed third in the presidential election, winning 15% of the popular vote. After the announcement that Tomislav Nikolić, the leader of the Serbian Progressive Party (SNS), had won the presidential election, Dačić abandoned the coalition with DS and pursued to form a government with SNS instead. This resulted into Dačić becoming the prime minister of Serbia in July 2012.
As prime minister, Dačić worked on normalisation between Serbia and Kosovo, which was formalised under the Brussels Agreement in April 2013. His government was re-shuffled on his order in September 2013, after which SPS and SNS continued to govern alone without the United Regions of Serbia. However, president Nikolić called for snap parliamentary elections to be held in March 2014. SPS took part in the election with JS and PUPS and campaigned on the protection of workers, peasants, and pensioners. They won 44 seats in the National Assembly, while their coalition partner, SNS, won 158 seats in total. SPS remained in government, although Dačić was succeeded by Aleksandar Vučić, the leader of SNS, as prime minister of Serbia. At a party congress in December 2014, SPS adopted its new logo.
2015–present
Throughout of 2015, it was discussed whether a snap parliamentary election would occur. This was confirmed in January 2016, when a parliamentary election was announced to be held in April 2016. Following the announcement, PUPS left the SPS–JS coalition and joined the one that was led by SNS, while SPS and JS formalised a coalition with the Greens of Serbia (ZS). The SPS-led ballot list also included Joška Broz, the leader of the Communist Party and the grandson of Josip Broz Tito. This coalition won 29 seats in the National Assembly, 21 out of which were occupied by SPS. Following the election, SPS agreed to again serve as a junior member in the SNS-led coalition government, which was inaugurated in August 2016. SPS did not take part in the 2017 presidential election and instead it supported Vučić, who ended up winning 56% of the popular vote in the first round of the election. His election as president was followed by mass protests.
At the end of 2018, a series of anti-government protests began and they lasted until March 2020. During this period, the opposition Alliance for Serbia announced that it would boycott the 2020 parliamentary elections. This led the SPS-led coalition to win 32 seats, despite getting less votes than in the 2016 election. SPS offered to continue its cooperation with the SNS-led coalition, which now had 188 out of 250 seats in the National Assembly. SPS remained in government with SNS after the election, while Dačić, who had been the first deputy prime minister of Serbia since 2014, became the president of the National Assembly in October 2020. Dačić presided over the dialogues to improve election conditions from May to October 2021. SPS affirmed its position to continue its support for SNS after these dialogues, while in January 2022, SPS announced that it would support Vučić in the 2022 presidential election. In the parliamentary election, SPS took part in a coalition with JS and ZS, while it campaigned on greater cooperation with China and Russia. It won 31 seats in total, 22 out of which went to SPS, while Vučić won 60% of the popular vote in the presidential election. SPS agreed to continue governing with SNS after the election, which led to Dačić being re-appointed as first deputy prime minister in October 2022.
After Vučić announced the formation of the People's Movement for the State in March 2023, Dačić has affirmed that it could bring "a new, even higher stage of cooperation between SNS and SPS". However, a faction opposed to joining the movement was formed inside SPS with individuals, such as vice president Predrag J. Marković who has said that "SPS would lose its identity if it joins the movement".
Ideology and platform
Milošević era
SPS adopted its first political programme in October 1990, which had the intention to develop "Serbia as a socialist republic, founded on law and social justice". The party made economic reforms outside of Marxist ideology such as recognising all forms of property and intended a progression to a market economy while at the same time advocating some regulation for the purposes of "solidarity, equality, and social security". While in power, SPS enacted policies that were negative towards workers' rights, while beginning in 1992, SPS moved its support towards a mixed economy with both public and private sectors. SPS maintained connections with trade unions, although independent trade unions faced hostility and their activities were brutalised by the police. During Milošević's era, SPS was positioned on the left-wing on the political spectrum, and was associated with anti-liberalism. SPS declared itself to be a "democratic socialist party" and "the follower of the ideas of Svetozar Marković, Dimitrije Tucović, and the Serbian Social Democratic Party". Political scientists Heinz Timmermann and Luke March, and Marko Stojić, a Metropolitan University Prague lecturer, associated SPS during Milošević's era with nationalist form of populism. Political scientist Jean-Pierre Cabestan noted that SPS thrived on the growth of nationalism, but was not nationalist itself, and instead associated SPS with communism. Mirjana Prošić-Dvornić, an ethnologist, noted that SPS "usurped the nationalist rhetoric of opposition parties". Janusz Bugajski, a political scientist, described SPS as nationalist, but also noted that it never identified as such. Warren Zimmermann, the last United States ambassador to Yugoslavia, argued that Milošević was "not a genuine nationalist but an opportunist".
SPS nominally endorsed the principle of full equality of all the Yugoslav peoples and ethnic minorities, while it was also supportive of Yugoslavism. Up until 1993, it supported Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia who wished to remain in Yugoslavia. As Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence, the involvement by SPS as a ruling party had become more devoted to helping external Serbs run their own independent entities. Milošević denied that the government of Serbia helped Serb military forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina, instead stating that they had the right to self-determination; Jović stated in a 1995 BBC documentary that Milošević endorsed the transfer of Bosnian Serb federal army forces to the Bosnian Serb Army in 1992 to help achieve Serb independence from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Though shortly before the Dayton Agreement in 1995, SPS began to oppose the government of Republika Srpska, which was headed by Radovan Karadžić. The opposition accused SPS of authoritarianism, as well as personal profiteering from illegal business transactions in the arms trade, cigarettes and oil; this illegal business was caused by the UN sanctions, and none of accusations for personal profiteering were ever proven at the court. Political scientists Nebojša Vladisavljević, Karmen Erjavec, and Florian Bieber also described Milošević's rule as authoritarian. Independent media during the SPS administration received threats and high fines.
Dačić era
After Dačić came to power, SPS shifted towards democratic socialism, and then to social democracy in the 2010s. Although SPS is still affiliated and has promoted populist rhetoric, its nationalist image has softened. It is now positioned on the centre-left on the political spectrum. Prior to mid-2000s, SPS was Eurosceptic and it also promoted anti-globalist and anti-Western sentiment. It also promoted anti-imperialist criticism towards the European Union and NATO. Since then, SPS had adopted its support for the accession of Serbia to the European Union, and a more pro-European image after it came back to government in 2008, which scholars Nataša Jovanović Ajzenhamer and Haris Dajč described as rather pragmatic. Besides this, SPS has also been also described as pro-Russian.
Demographic characteristics
Before the federal parliamentary election in December 1992, the Institute of Social Studies polled that a majority of SPS supporters preferred a citizen state over a nation state According to political scientist Dragomir Pantić, supporters of SPS in the early 2000s were mostly elderly people, traditionalists, and those without higher education. In comparison with its demographic from the 1990s, the percentage of workers and farmers increased amongst its base in the 2000s. According to a CeSID opinion poll from 2005, SPS supporters consisted of unskilled and semi-skilled workers.
In 2007, political scientist Srećko Mihailović noted that most of the SPS supporters saw themselves on the far-left, that 19 percent of them saw themselves on the left-wing, while 8 percent only saw themselves as centre-left. According to CeSID in 2008, a majority of supporters of the SPS–PUPS–JS coalition were Eurosceptics. In 2014, CeSID and National Democratic Institute polled that 59 percent of SPS supporters were women and that 58 percent of all SPS supporters were 50 years old or older. However, by 2016 a majority of the supporters were over 60 years old. The Heinrich Böll Foundation conducted a research in November 2020 in which most SPS supporters were against the accession of Serbia to the European Union, preferred closer relations with Russia instead, and wanted to implement laws to preserve patriarchal family values.
Organisation
The current president of SPS is Dačić, who was most recently re-elected in December 2022, while the current vice-presidents are Aleksandar Antić, Branko Ružić, Dušan Bajatović, Novica Tončev, Predrag J. Marković, Slavica Đukić Dejanović, Đorđe Milićević, and Žarko Obradović. The president of its parliamentary group is Snežana Paunović. The headquarters of SPS is located at Bulevar Mihajla Pupina 6 in Belgrade. It has a youth wing named Socialist Youth and a women's wing named Women's Forum.
Its membership from its foundation in 1990 to 1997 involved many elements of the social strata of Serbia, including state administrators and business management elites of state-owned enterprises, employees in the state-owned sector, less privileged groups of farmers, and the unemployed and pensioners. From 1998 to 2000, its membership included apparatchiks at administrative and judicial levels, the nouveau riche, whose business success was founded solely from their affiliation with the government, and top army and police officials and a large majority of the police force. In 2011, SPS reported to have had 120,000 members, while in 2014 SPS stated that they had around 200,000 members. SPS reported to have 65,000 members in 2015. In 2016, it was reported that SPS had 195,000 members.
International cooperation
SPS cooperated with Momir Bulatović in Montenegro and the parties he led, while in Bosnia and Herzegovina SPS used to cooperate with Karadžić's Serb Democratic Party and with the Socialist Party. SPS cooperates with Syriza, a political party in Greece. Following the 2008 elections, SPS sent an application to join the Socialist International while Dačić also met with its then-president George Papandreou. However, the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina opposed this move and called for its application to be declined, while Jelko Kacin, a Liberal Democracy of Slovenia politician, claimed that Tadić blocked SPS from joining the Socialist International. Its candidature has not yet been accepted, although SPS also seeks associate member status in the Party of European Socialists. In the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, SPS is represented by Dunja Simonović Bratić, who sits in the Socialists, Democrats and Greens Group.
List of presidents
Electoral performance
Parliamentary elections
Presidential elections
Federal parliamentary elections
Federal presidential elections
References
External links
Socialist Party of Serbia
|
417439
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Wicker
|
Roger Wicker
|
Roger Frederick Wicker (born July 5, 1951) is an American attorney and politician serving as the senior United States senator from Mississippi, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of the Republican Party, Wicker was a Mississippi State Senator from 1988 to 1995 and the U.S. Representative from Mississippi's 1st congressional district from 1995 until 2007.
Born in Pontotoc, Mississippi, Wicker is a graduate of the University of Mississippi and the University of Mississippi School of Law. He was an officer in the United States Air Force from 1976 to 1980 and a member of the United States Air Force Reserves from 1980 to 2003. During the 1980s, he worked as a political counselor to then-Congressman Trent Lott on the House Rules Committee. In 1987, Wicker was elected to the Mississippi State Senate, representing the 6th district, which included Tupelo.
Wicker was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1994, succeeding longtime Representative Jamie Whitten. Wicker served in the House from 1995 to 2007, when he was appointed to the Senate by Governor Haley Barbour to fill the seat vacated by Lott. Wicker subsequently won a special election for the remainder of the term in 2008 and was reelected to a full term in 2012. Wicker served as chair of the National Republican Senatorial Committee from 2015 to 2017 and is a deputy Republican whip. He was reelected in 2018, defeating Democratic nominee David Baria.
Early life and education
Wicker was born on July 5, 1951, in Pontotoc, Mississippi, the son of Wordna Glen (née Threadgill) and Thomas Frederick Wicker. In 1967, the 16-year-old Wicker worked as a United States House of Representatives Page for Democratic Representative Jamie L. Whitten of . He earned a bachelor's degree in journalism and political science and a J.D. degree from the University of Mississippi, where he was a member of the Sigma Nu fraternity and student body president. He was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa for his student leadership and academic merit while at the University of Mississippi.
After graduation, Wicker served as an officer in the United States Air Force from 1976 to 1980. Starting in 1980, he was a member of the Air Force Reserve; he retired from the reserve in 2003 as a lieutenant colonel. Wicker served as a judge advocate.
Early political career
Wicker began his political career in 1980 as House Rules Committee counsel to U.S. Representative Trent Lott. He was elected to the Mississippi State Senate in 1987, spending $25,000 on the race. He represented the 6th district, which included Tupelo, from 1988 to 1994. He amended a 1994 state Medicaid bill to authorize the Mississippi Attorney General to contract private attorneys on contingency.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 1994, Whitten declined to seek reelection; he had represented the 1st District for 53 years, longer than any other congressman at the time. Wicker ran to succeed him, spending $750,000 on his campaign. He finished first in a crowded six-way Republican primary with 7,156 votes (26.62%) and proceeded to a runoff with attorney Grant Fox, who received 5,208 votes (19.37%). Former U.S. Attorney Bob Whitwell finished 600 votes short of the runoff with 4,606 votes (17.14%), 1992 nominee Clyde E. Whitaker came fourth with 4,602 votes (17.12%), 1986 nominee Larry Cobb came fifth with 4,162 votes (15.48%) and 1990 nominee Bill Bowlin took the remaining 1,147 votes (4.27%). In the runoff, Wicker defeated Fox, 11,905 votes (53.07%) to 10,527 (46.93%).
In the general election, Wicker defeated Fulton attorney Bill Wheeler, 80,553 votes (63.06%) to 47,192 (36.94%), making him the first Republican to represent the 1st district in over a century. This was not considered an upset, as the 1st has always been a rather conservative district (especially in the Memphis suburbs). The district had only supported the Democratic nominee for president once since 1956, when Jimmy Carter carried the district in 1976. Although Whitten had a nearly unbreakable hold on the district, it had been considered very likely that he would be succeeded by a Republican once he retired.
Wicker was reelected six times without serious difficulty, never receiving less than 65% of the vote. In 2004, he was unopposed by a Democratic candidate, facing only Reform Party nominee Barbara Dale Washer, whom he defeated by 219,328 votes (79.01%) to 58,256 (20.99%).
Tenure
Assuming office in 1995, Wicker was president of the freshman class, which included 53 other new Republican representatives, elected as part of the 1994 "Republican Revolution".
Wicker was a member of the House Appropriations Committee. He was also deputy Republican whip.
In Congress, Wicker worked on issues related to medical research and on economic development for his home state. He advocated private-public partnerships to bring investment to rural areas. Wicker also worked for veterans' issues while serving as a member of the Military Construction and Veterans Affairs Subcommittee. In his final year as representative, Wicker topped the list in earmarks.
In 2007, Wicker was criticized after securing a $6 million earmark for a defense company whose executives had made significant contributions to his campaign.
U.S. Senate
Committee assignments
Committee on Armed Services (Ranking Member)
Subcommittee on Airland
Subcommittee on Cybersecurity
Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities
Subcommittee on Personnel
Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
Subcommittee on Seapower
Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation
Subcommittee on Aviation Safety, Operations, and Innovation
Subcommittee on Communications, Media, and Broadband
Subcommittee on Oceans, Atmosphere, Fisheries, and Coast Guard
Subcommittee on Surface Transportation, Maritime, Freight, and Ports
Committee on Environment and Public Works
Subcommittee on Clean Air, Climate and Nuclear Safety
Subcommittee on Superfund, Toxics and Environmental Health
Subcommittee on Transportation and Infrastructure
Committee on Rules and Administration
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Vice Ranking Member)
Caucus memberships
Congressional Human Rights Caucus
Congressional Immigration Reform Caucus
International Conservation Caucus
Interstate 69 Caucus (Co-Chair)
Sportsmen's Caucus
Tennessee Valley Authority Congressional Caucus
Appointment
On November 26, 2007, Senator Trent Lott announced that he would resign before the end of the year to become a lobbyist. At a press conference on December 31, 2007, Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour appointed Wicker to fill the Senate seat Lott vacated on December 18, 2007. He was sworn in by the Senate clerk just before that news conference.
Elections
2008
Wicker ran for the remainder of Lott's term in the November 2008 special election against Democrat Ronnie Musgrove, Barbour's predecessor as governor. Wicker defeated Musgrove, 683,409 votes (54.96%) to 560,064 (45.04%). Wicker's resignation from the House also triggered a May 13, 2008, special election to fill the vacancy in the House, which was won by Democratic nominee Travis Childers.
2012
Wicker ran for reelection to a full term in 2012. He was opposed by Robert Maloney and Tea Party activist E. Allen Hathcock in the Republican primary, defeating them by 254,936 votes (89.17%) to 18,857 (6.60%) and 12,106 (4.23%), respectively. In the general election, he defeated Albert Gore, the Chairman of the Oktibbeha County Democratic Party and a distant relative of former Vice President Al Gore, 709,626 votes (57.16%) to 503,467 (40.55%).
Tenure
On September 16, 2010, President Barack Obama announced his intent to nominate Wicker as representative of the United States to the Sixty-fifth Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations.
In the Senate, Wicker is a member of the Senate Republicans' whip team and has repeatedly introduced a bill to overturn Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court decision ruling abortion bans unconstitutional. Wicker called the Affordable Care Act the "great fight for the rest of this term, maybe our lifetimes" and later introduced a bill to enable state officials to challenge the law. In the interest of protecting gun owners, he amended a fiscal 2010 transportation spending bill to allow Amtrak passengers to carry firearms and ammunition in checked baggage.
Wicker and Representative Gene Taylor pushed amendments allowing purchasers of federal flood insurance to add wind coverage to their policies, helpful to a hurricane-prone state. As a member of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki Commission) monitoring human rights and other issues, in late 2012 Wicker worked with Senator Ben Cardin to enact a bill imposing penalties on Russians accused of violating human rights. The measure led Russian President Vladimir Putin to announce a subsequent ban on U.S. adoptions of Russian-born children.
Wicker was one of three politicians targeted during the April 2013 ricin letters bioterrorism attack. On April 16, 2013, a letter addressed to Wicker tested positive for the poison ricin as part of a series of letters. The letter was detected by postal officials and law enforcement and prevented from reaching the Capitol. The letter was tested three times, with each test confirming the presence of ricin.
In July 2013, Wicker proposed that the Senate meet to discuss a controversial change to filibuster rules. The Senate held the private meeting in the Old Senate chamber to discuss Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid's threat of the so-called "nuclear option", which would change the rules for Senate votes on Obama's executive branch nominees. Wicker said he hoped the chamber's bipartisan past could serve as an inspiration for the debate about the nuclear option: "I think there are concessions that can be made on both sides. And then I would just hope that, institutionally, we can get away from this mindset."
Wicker supported the Bipartisan Sportsmen's Act of 2014 (S. 2363; 113th Congress), a bill related to hunting, fishing, and outdoor recreation, aimed at improving "the public's ability to enjoy the outdoors." He said, "Mississippians know the importance of efforts to preserve our natural resources for future generations."
Wicker was elected chair of the National Republican Senatorial Committee for the 114th U.S. Congress on November 13, 2014.
Weeks after the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign and Umbrella Movement broke out, demanding genuine universal suffrage among other goals, Wicker joined Senator Sherrod Brown and Representative Chris Smith's effort to introduce the Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act, which would update the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992 and U.S. commitment to Hong Kong's freedom and democracy. "U.S. should stand steadfast with the people of Hong Kong in their fight to exercise self-determination," Wicker said, and "speak with a unified American voice in support of universal freedom and democratic values. The Congress and the Obama Administration should act to ensure China honors its longstanding obligation under international law to maintain Hong Kong's autonomy."
In March 2017, Wicker co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (s. 720), which made it a federal crime for Americans to encourage or participate in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the West Bank if protesting actions by the Israeli government.
In May 2020, a group of Senate Republicans planned to introduce a privacy bill that would regulate the data collected by coronavirus contact tracing apps. The COVID-19 Consumer Data Protection Act would "provide all Americans with more transparency, choice, and control over the collection and use of their personal health, geolocation, and proximity data", according to a joint statement. Wicker said the legislation also would "hold businesses accountable to consumers if they use personal data to fight the COVID-19 pandemic." The act would permit the creation of "platforms that could trace the virus and help flatten the curve and stop the spread – and maintaining privacy protections for U.S. citizens", Wicker said.
In September 2020, less than two months before the next presidential election, Wicker supported an immediate Senate vote on Trump's nominee to fill the Supreme Court vacancy caused by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg's death, saying that Senate Republicans had "promised to confirm well qualified, conservative judges" and that there was a "constitutional duty" to fill vacancies. In March 2016, Wicker had taken the opposite position by declining to consider Obama's Supreme Court nominee during a presidential election year, saying that the "American people should have the opportunity to make their voices heard before filling a lifetime appointment to the nation’s highest court."
Wicker announced before the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count that he would vote to certify the election on January 6, 2021. He was participating in the certification when Trump supporters attacked the U.S. Capitol. When the Capitol was secure and Congress returned to complete the certification, Wicker voted to certify the count, with his senate counterpart, Cindy Hyde-Smith objecting to the count. In the wake of the violence and certification, Wicker called for perpetrators to be prosecuted "to the fullest extent of the law" and said, "we must work together to rebuild confidence in our institutions." Wicker opposed Trump's removal from office, encouraging a peaceful transfer of power on Inauguration Day.
In March 2021, after Congress passed the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, Wicker highlighted on social media that the bill awarded $28.6 billion of "targeted relief" to "independent restaurant operators" to "survive the pandemic". In that post, he neglected to mention that he had voted against the bill.
In August 2021, Wicker voted for the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act.
After President Joe Biden said that he planned to select a black woman to appoint to the Supreme Court in January 2022, Wicker told Mississippi radio host Paul Gallo that the nominee would be a "beneficiary" of an affirmative action "quota", drawing a rebuke from the White House.
Political positions
The Heritage Foundation gave Wicker a lifetime conservative rating of 61% (the average Republican scored 79%). As of December 2017, Wicker ranks 14th of 98 in the Bipartisan Index compiled by The Lugar Center, which reflects a low level of partisanship.
Foreign policy
Wicker supported the Iraq War and called it just. As a U.S. representative, Wicker believed it was necessary to remove Saddam Hussein from power. Experts have said the Iraq War cost the U.S. over $3 trillion.
Wicker supported the U.S. Invasion of Afghanistan and called withdrawing "one of the biggest foreign policy catastrophes in my lifetime.” He also said, "we were better off with a Korea-like presence". Afterward, he cosponsored legislation that would have ended official diplomatic relations with Afghanistan. The U.S. War in Afghanistan has cost American taxpayers an estimated $2.3 trillion.
In December 2021, Wicker threatened a preemptive nuclear strike against Russia, saying: "we don't rule out first-use nuclear action." He issued this threat two months before the Russian invasion of Ukraine began. Wicker also supported implementing a no-fly zone over Ukraine in 2022, which National Review called "a very bad idea".
Wicker is an ardent Zionist and one of the most pro-Israel U.S. politicians. According to the American Jewish Congress, he "opposed the Iran Deal and opposed UN Security Resolution 2334", which affirmed that Israel's settlement activity violated international law. Wicker also voted for the Israel Anti-Boycott Act, supported the Anti-Semitism Awareness Act, and cosponsored the United States-Israel Security Authorization Act of 2018, which allocated military funding for Israel regardless of the Palestinian question. He opposed opening a U.S. Palestinian consulate in East Jerusalem, which would have answered to the U.S. Department of State.
2023 omnibus appropriations bill
Wicker was one of 18 Republican senators to vote for the $1.7 trillion omnibus bill that former President Donald Trump heavily criticized. The bill prohibited the construction of new immigration barriers and did not increase border enforcement spending past current inflation levels. Wicker also voted to send $45 billion more to Ukraine.
Refugees
Wicker strongly supports expanding U.S. visas for Ukrainian refugees. He previously opposed Mississippi accepting Syrian refugees who fled from war-torn Syria.
Ukraine
Wicker has been one of Ukraine's strongest Republican supporters. He voted each time to increase aid to Ukraine. In a press release, Wicker wrote: "President Reagan once called the Soviet Union 'the focus of evil in the modern world.' After two months of unprovoked brutality, it is obvious that the Kremlin remains one of the chief forces for evil in our world."
Federal spending
Wicker identifies as a fiscal conservative but has consistently voted to increase federal spending for agriculture, infrastructure, and military projects throughout Mississippi.
Mississippi flag
Since 2015, Wicker has sought to change the Mississippi flag, calling it offensive to many of his "fellow citizens". 64% of Mississippians voted to keep the flag in a 2001 referendum. Wicker supported nullifying that vote in 2020 and replacing the flag without a new referendum.
Confederacy
While discussing Mississippi's previous state flag, Wicker said his Confederate military ancestors were "Americans" and "brave".
Climate change
In 2015, Wicker was the only U.S. senator to vote against an amendment declaring that climate change is real. The final vote was 98 to 1, with Senator Harry Reid, the Democratic leader from Nevada, not voting. The amendment affirmed that "climate change is real and not a hoax."
In 2017, Wicker was one of 22 senators to sign a letter to President Trump urging him to withdraw the United States from the Paris Agreement. According to OpenSecrets, Wicker has received over $200,000 from the oil and gas industry since 2012.
Gun law
Wicker's support for pro-gun legislation and gun rights has earned him an A+ rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund (NRA-PVF). The NRA-PVF endorsed Wicker during the 2012 election. Wicker has said that he will filibuster any bill that he feels "infringes" on the Second Amendment, including weapon bans. He has received $21,350 in funding from gun lobbyists for his political activities.
In 2009, Wicker introduced a bill allowing Amtrak passengers to check unloaded and locked handguns in their luggage. The law passed 68–30. His rationale for the bill was that people's Second Amendment rights were violated on a federally subsidized train system if they could not bring their guns.
One day after the 2015 San Bernardino attack, Wicker voted against a bill, co-sponsored by a Democrat and a Republican, that would make background checks mandatory when a person buys a gun. He said he voted against it because he feared it would have "opened the door to a national gun registry."
In 2017, Wicker voted in favor of "a joint resolution of disapproval aimed at former President Obama's executive action requiring the Social Security Administration (SSA) place beneficiaries on the National Instant Criminal Background Check System 'mental defective' list."
Secularism
Wicker asked the United States Navy to deny the admission of a secular humanist to the Chaplain Corps, saying, "It is troubling that the Navy could allow a self-avowed atheist to serve in the Chaplain Corps."
January 6 commission
On May 28, 2021, Wicker voted against creating an independent commission to investigate the January 6 United States Capitol attack.
Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023
Wicker was among the 31 Senate Republicans who voted against final passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023.
Political ratings
In 2020, Wicker received a score of 74 from the American Conservative Union. He has a lifetime rating of 83.62. The Americans for Democratic Action gave Wicker a score of 0 for the term.
Electoral history
The following is a partial summary of Wicker's election results.
Personal life
Wicker has consistently ranked among the poorest members of Congress, with a 2018 net worth of -$180,996. The Clarion Ledger ranked him as the poorest federal politician from Mississippi in 2014, with a net worth of -$200,000. Wicker earns an annual Senate salary of $174,000; it is unclear why he has a negative net worth.
Wicker has been married to Gayle Long since 1975. They have three children and six grandchildren. The Wickers reside in Tupelo, where Wicker is a deacon and a member of the First Baptist Church Tupelo choir. He previously served on the Board of Advisors for the , a nongovernmental organization that works in crisis areas.
References
Works cited
External links
Senator Roger Wicker official U.S. Senate website
Roger Wicker for Senate
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1951 births
20th-century American military personnel
21st-century American politicians
American military lawyers
Baptists from Mississippi
United States Air Force Judge Advocate General's Corps
Living people
Military personnel from Mississippi
Mississippi lawyers
Republican Party Mississippi state senators
People from Pontotoc, Mississippi
Politicians from Tupelo, Mississippi
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi
Republican Party United States senators from Mississippi
Southern Baptists
United States Air Force officers
United States Air Force reservists
University of Mississippi School of Law alumni
Baptists from the United States
|
417454
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20school%20of%20economics
|
Chicago school of economics
|
The Chicago school of economics is a neoclassical school of economic thought associated with the work of the faculty at the University of Chicago, some of whom have constructed and popularized its principles. Milton Friedman, Thomas Sowell, and George Stigler are considered the leading scholars of the Chicago school.
Chicago macroeconomic theory rejected Keynesianism in favor of monetarism until the mid-1970s, when it turned to new classical macroeconomics heavily based on the concept of rational expectations. The freshwater–saltwater distinction is largely antiquated today, as the two traditions have heavily incorporated ideas from each other. Specifically, new Keynesian economics was developed as a response to new classical economics, electing to incorporate the insight of rational expectations without giving up the traditional Keynesian focus on imperfect competition and sticky wages.
Chicago economists have also left their intellectual influence in other fields, notably in pioneering public choice theory and law and economics, which have led to revolutionary changes in the study of political science and law. Other economists affiliated with Chicago have made their impact in fields as diverse as social economics and economic history.
As of 2022, the University of Chicago Economics department, considered one of the world's foremost economics departments, has been awarded 14 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences—more than any other university—and has been awarded six John Bates Clark Medals. Not all members of the department belong to the Chicago school of economics, which is a school of thought rather than an organization.
History and terminology
The term was coined in the 1950s to refer to economists teaching in the Economics Department at the University of Chicago, and closely related academic areas at the university such as the Booth School of Business, Harris School of Public Policy and the Law School. In the context of macroeconomics, it is connected to the freshwater school of macroeconomics, in contrast to the saltwater school based in coastal universities (notably Harvard, Yale, Penn, UC Berkeley, and UCLA).
The Chicago economists met together in frequent intense discussions that helped set a group outlook on economic issues, based on price theory. The 1950s saw the height of popularity of the Keynesian school of economics, so the members of the University of Chicago were considered outside the mainstream. Besides what is popularly known as the "Chicago school", there is also an "Old Chicago" or the first-generation Chicago school of economics, consisting of an earlier generation of economists such as Frank Knight, Henry Simons, Lloyd Mints, Jacob Viner, Aaron Director and others. This group had diverse interests and approaches, but Knight, Simons, and Director in particular advocated a focus on the role of incentives and the complexity of economic events rather than on general equilibrium. Outside of Chicago, these early leaders were important influences on the Virginia school of political economy. Nonetheless, these scholars had an important influence on the thought of Milton Friedman and George Stigler who were the leaders of the second-generation Chicago school, most notably in the development of price theory and transaction cost economics. The third generation of Chicago economics is led by Gary Becker, as well as macroeconomists Robert Lucas Jr. and Eugene Fama.
A further significant branching of Chicago thought was dubbed by George Stigler as "Chicago political economy". Inspired by the Coasian view that institutions evolve to maximize the Pareto efficiency, Chicago political economy came to the surprising and controversial view that politics tends towards efficiency and that policy advice is irrelevant.
Awards and honors
Nobel Memorial Prizes
As of 2022, the University of Chicago Economics Department has been awarded 14 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (laureates were affiliated with the department when receiving the prizes) since the prize was first awarded in 1969. In addition, as of October 2018, 32 out of the total 81 Nobel laureates in Economics have been affiliated with the university as alumni, faculty members or researchers, which has been a source of controversy. However, not all members of the department belong to the Chicago school of economics.
John Bates Clark Medals
As of 2019, the University of Chicago Economics Department has been awarded 6 John Bates Clark Medals (medalists were affiliated with the department when receiving the medals) since the medal was first awarded in 1947. However, some medalists may not belong to the Chicago school of economics.
Notable scholars
Early members
Frank Knight
Frank Knight (1885–1972) was an early member of the University of Chicago department. He joined the department in 1929, coming from the University of Iowa. His most influential work was Risk, Uncertainty and Profit (1921) from which the term Knightian uncertainty was derived. Knight's perspective was iconoclastic, and markedly different from later Chicago school thinkers. He believed that while the free market could be inefficient, government programs were even less efficient. He drew from other economic schools of thought such as institutional economics to form his own nuanced perspective.
Henry Simons
Henry Calvert Simons (1899–1946) did his graduate work at the University of Chicago but did not submit his final dissertation to receive a degree. In fact, he was initially influenced by Frank Knight while he was an assistant professor at the University of Iowa from 1925 to 1927, and in summer 1927 Simons decided to join the Department of Economics at the University of Chicago (earlier than Knight did). He was a long-term member in the Chicago economics department, most notable for his antitrust and monetarist models.
Jacob Viner
Jacob Viner (1892–1970) was in the faculty of Chicago's economics department for 30 years (1916–1946). He inspired a generation of economists at Chicago, including Milton Friedman.
Aaron Director
Aaron Director (1901–2004) had been a professor at Chicago's Law School since 1946. He is regarded as a founder of the field Law and economics, and established The Journal of Law & Economics in 1958. Director influenced some of the next generation of jurists, including Richard Posner, Antonin Scalia and Chief Justice William Rehnquist.
Theodore Schultz
A group of agricultural economists led by Theodore Schultz (1902–1998) and D. Gale Johnson (1916–2003) moved from Iowa State to the University of Chicago in the mid-1940s. Schultz served as the chair of economics from 1946 to 1961. He became president of the American Economic Association in 1960, retired in 1967, though he remained active at the University of Chicago until his death in 1998. Johnson served as department chair from 1971 to 1975 and 1980–1984 and was president of the American Economics Association in 1999. Their research in farm and agricultural economics was widely influential and attracted funding from the Rockefeller Foundation to the agricultural economics program at the university. Among the graduate students and faculty affiliated with the pair in the 1940s and 1950s were Clifford Hardin, Zvi Griliches, Marc Nerlove, and George S. Tolley. In 1979, Schultz was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work in human capital theory and economic development.
Second generation
Milton Friedman
Milton Friedman (1912–2006) stands as one of the most influential economists of the late twentieth century. A student of Frank Knight, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1976 for, among other things, A Monetary History of the United States (1963). Friedman argued that the Great Depression had been caused by the Federal Reserve's policies through the 1920s, and worsened in the 1930s. Friedman argued that laissez-faire government policy is more desirable than government intervention in the economy:
Governments should aim for a neutral monetary policy oriented toward long-run economic growth, by gradual expansion of the money supply. He advocated the quantity theory of money, that general prices are determined by money. Therefore, active monetary (e.g. easy credit) or fiscal (e.g. tax and spend) policy can have unintended negative effects. In Capitalism and Freedom (1992) Friedman wrote:
The slogan that "money matters" has come to be associated with Friedman, but Friedman had also leveled harsh criticism of his ideological opponents. Referring to Thorstein Veblen's assertion that economics unrealistically models people as "lightning calculator[s] of pleasure and pain", Friedman wrote:
George Stigler
George Stigler (1911–1991) was tutored for his thesis by Frank Knight and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1982. He is best known for developing the Economic Theory of Regulation, also known as regulatory capture, which says that interest groups and other political participants will use the regulatory and coercive powers of government to shape laws and regulations in a way that is beneficial to them. This theory is an important component of the Public Choice field of economics. He also carried out extensive research into the history of economic thought. His 1962 article "Information in the Labor Market" developed the theory of search unemployment.
Ronald Coase
Ronald Coase (1910–2013) was the most prominent economic analyst of law and the 1991 Nobel Prize-winner. His first major article, "The Nature of the Firm" (1937), argued that the reason for the existence of firms (companies, partnerships, etc.) is the existence of transaction costs. Rational individuals trade through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations to produce things is more cost-effective.
His second major article, "The Problem of Social Cost" (1960), argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one another to create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes. Coase used the example of an 1879 London legal case about nuisance named Sturges v Bridgman, in which a noisy sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours; the doctor went to court seeking an injunction against the noise produced by the sweetmaker. Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of transaction costs may prevent this.
So, the law ought to pre-empt what would happen, and be guided by the most efficient solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe. Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analysing the costs of action.
Third generation
Gary Becker
Gary Becker (1930–2014) received the Nobel Prize in Economics 1992 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007. Becker received his PhD at the University of Chicago in 1955 under H. Gregg Lewis, and was influenced by Milton Friedman. In 1970, he returned to Chicago as a professor and stayed affiliated with the university until his death. He is considered one of the founding fathers of Chicago political economy, and one of the most influential economists and social scientists in the second half of the twentieth century.
Becker was known in his work for applying economic methods of thinking to other fields, such as crime, sexual relationships, slavery and drugs, assuming that people act rationally. His work was originally focused in labor economics. His work partly inspired the popular economics book Freakonomics. In June 2011, the Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics was established at the University of Chicago in honor of Gary Becker and Milton Friedman.
Robert E. Lucas
Robert Lucas (born 1937), who won the Nobel Prize in 1995, has dedicated his life to unwinding Keynesianism. His major contribution is the argument that macroeconomics should not be seen as a separate mode of thought from microeconomics, and that analysis in both should be built on the same foundations. Lucas's works cover several topics in macroeconomics, included economic growth, asset pricing, and monetary economics.
Eugene Fama
Eugene Fama (born 1939) is an American financial economist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2013 for his work on empirical asset pricing and is the fourth most highly cited economist of all time. He has spent all of his teaching career at the University of Chicago and is the originator of the efficient-market hypothesis, first defined in his 1965 article as market where "at any point in time, the actual price of a security will be a good estimate of its intrinsic value". The notion was further explored in his 1970 article, "Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work", which brought the notion of efficient markets into the forefront of modern economic theory, and his 1991 article, "Efficient Markets II". Whilst his 1965 Ph.D. thesis, "The Behavior of Stock Market Prices", showed that stock prices can be approximated by a random walk in the short-term; in later work he showed that insofar as stock prices are predictable in the long-term, it is largely due to rational time-varying risk premia which can be modelled using the Fama–French three-factor model (1993, 1996) or their updated five-factor model (2014). His work showing that the value premium can persist despite rational forecasts of future earnings and that the performance of actively managed funds is almost entirely due to chance or exposure to risk are all supportive of an efficient-markets view of the world.
Robert Fogel
Robert Fogel (1926–2013), a co-winner of the Nobel Prize in 1993, is well known for his historical analysis and his introduction of New economic history, and invention of cliometrics. In his tract, Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History, Fogel set out to rebut comprehensively the idea that railroads contributed to economic growth in the 19th century. Later, in Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery, he argued that slaves in the Southern states of America had a higher standard of living than the industrial proletariat of the Northern states before the American civil war.
James Heckman
James Heckman (born 1944) is a Nobel Prize-winner from 2000, is known for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics.
Lars Peter Hansen
Lars Peter Hansen (born 1952) is an American economist who won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2013 with Eugene Fama and Robert Shiller for their work on asset pricing. Hansen began teaching at the University of Chicago in 1981 and is the David Rockefeller Distinguished Service Professor of economics at the University of Chicago. Although best known for his work on the Generalized method of moments, he is also a distinguished macroeconomist, focusing on the linkages between the financial and real sectors of the economy.
Richard Posner
Richard Posner (born 1939) is known primarily for his work in law and economics, though Robert Solow describes Posner's grasp of certain economic ideas as "in some respects,... precarious". A federal appellate judge rather than an economist, Posner's main work, Economic Analysis of Law attempts to apply rational choice models to areas of law. He has chapters on tort, contract, corporations, labor law, but also criminal law, discrimination and family law. Posner goes so far as to say that:
Related scholars
Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992) made frequent contacts with many at the University of Chicago during 1940s. His book The Road to Serfdom, published in the U.S. by the University of Chicago Press in September 1944 with the help of Aaron Director, played a seminal role in transforming how Milton Friedman and others understood how society works. The University Press continued to publish a large number of Hayek's works in later years, such as The Fatal Conceit and The Constitution of Liberty. In 1947, Hayek, Frank Knight, Friedman and George Stigler worked together in forming the Mont Pèlerin Society, an international forum for libertarian economists.
During 1950–1962, Hayek was a faculty member of the Committee of Social Thought at the University of Chicago, where he conducted a number of influential faculty seminars. There were a number of Chicago academics who worked on research projects sympathetic to some of Hayek's own, such as Aaron Director, who was active in the Chicago School in helping to fund and establish what became the "Law and Society" program in the University of Chicago Law School. Hayek and Friedman also cooperated in support of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists, later renamed the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, an American student organisation devoted to libertarian ideas.
James M. Buchanan
James M. Buchanan (1919–2013) won the 1986 Nobel Prize in Economics for his public choice theory. He studied under Frank H. Knight at the University of Chicago, receiving PhD in 1948. Although he did not hold any position at the university afterwards, his later work is closely related to the thought of the Chicago school. Buchanan was the foremost proponent of the Virginia school of political economy.
Thomas Sowell
Thomas Sowell (born in 1930) received his PhD at the University of Chicago in 1968, under George Stigler. A libertarian conservative in his perspective, he is considered to be a representative of the Chicago school.
Criticisms
Paul Douglas, economist and Democratic senator from Illinois for 18 years, was uncomfortable with the environment he found at the university. He stated that, "…I was disconcerted to find that the economic and political conservatives had acquired almost complete dominance over my department and taught that market decisions were always right and profit values the supreme ones… The opinions of my colleagues would have confined government to the eighteenth-century functions of justice, police, and arms, which I thought had been insufficient even for that time and were certainly so for ours. These men would neither use statistical data to develop economic theory nor accept critical analysis of the economic system… (Frank) Knight was now openly hostile, and his disciples seemed to be everywhere. If I stayed, it would be in an unfriendly environment."
While the efficacy of Eugene Fama's efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) was debated after the financial crisis of 2007–08, proponents emphasized that the EMH is consistent with the large decline in asset prices since the event was unpredictable. Specifically, if market crashes never occurred, this would contradict the EMH since the average return of risky assets would be too large to justify the decreased risk of a large decline in prices; and if anything, the equity premium puzzle implies that market crashes do not happen enough to justify the high Sharpe ratio of US stocks and other risky assets.
Economist Brad DeLong of the University of California, Berkeley says the Chicago School has experienced an "intellectual collapse", while Nobel laureate Paul Krugman of Princeton University says that some recent comments from Chicago school economists are "the product of a Dark Age of macroeconomics in which hard-won knowledge has been forgotten", claiming that most peer-reviewed macroeconomic research since the mid-1960s has been wrong, preferring models developed in the 1930s. Chicago finance economist John Cochrane countered that these criticisms were ad hominem, displayed a "deep and highly politicized ignorance of what economics and finance is really all about", and failed to disentangle bubbles from rational risk premiums and crying wolf too many times in a row, emphasizing that even if these criticisms were true, it would make a stronger argument against regulation and control.
Finally, the school also has been criticized for training economists who advised the Chilean military junta during the 1970s and 1980s. However, they were credited with transforming Chile into Latin America's best performing economy (see Miracle of Chile) with GDP per capita increasing from US$693 at the start of 1975 (the year Milton Friedman met with dictator Augusto Pinochet; ninth highest of 12 South American countries) to $14,528 by the end of 2014 (the second highest in South America).
In the years since the reforms were introduced, the economic system implemented by the "Chicago Boys" (a label given to this group of economists) has mostly remained in place. The percent of total income earned by the richest 20% of the Chilean population in 2006 was 56.8%, while the percent of total income earned by the poorest 20% of the Chilean population was 4.1%, leaving a strong middle class earning 39.1% of total income. Chile's Gini index (measure of income distribution) was 52.0 in 2006, compared to 24.7 of Denmark (most equally distributed) and 74.3 of Namibia (most unequally distributed). Chile has the widest inequality gap of any nation in the OECD.
A film titled Chicago Boys, which had a highly critical view of the economic reforms, was released in Chile in November 2015.
See also
Austrian school of economics
Chicago plan
Mainstream economics
Market monetarism
Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought
References
Further reading
Colander, David and Craig Freedman. 2019. Where Economics Went Wrong: Chicago's Abandonment of Classical Liberalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Emmett, Ross B., ed. The Elgar Companion to the Chicago School of Economics (Edward Elgar, 2010), 350 pp.;
Emmett, Ross B. (2008). "Chicago School (new perspectives)", The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
Emmett, Ross B. (2009). Frank Knight and the Chicago school in American economics. Routledge
Johnson, Marianne. 2020. "Where Economics Went Wrong: A Review Essay." Journal of Economic Literature, 58 (3): 749–776.
McCloskey, Deirdre N. (2010). Bourgeois dignity: Why economics can't explain the modern world. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
Reprinted in John Cunningham Wood & R.N. Woods (1990), Milton Friedman: Critical Assessments, pp. 343–393.
Shils, Edward, ed. (1991). Remembering the University of Chicago: teachers, scientists, and scholars. University of Chicago Press.
Description & preview.
External links
Thomas Sowell
The University of Chicago Department of Economics
Commanding Heights, PBS Documentary, Chicago Against the Tide
Guide to the University of Chicago Department of Economics Records 1912–1961 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
Conservatism in the United States
Libertarianism in the United States
Schools of economic thought
School of economics
|
417459
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd%20Akin
|
Todd Akin
|
William Todd Akin (July 5, 1947 – October 3, 2021) was an American politician who served as the U.S. representative for from 2001 to 2013. He was a member of the Republican Party. Born in New York City, Akin grew up in the Greater St. Louis area. After receiving his bachelor's degree from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Massachusetts, Akin served in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and worked in the computer and steel industries. In 1988, he was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives. He served in the state house until 2000, when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, in which he served until 2013.
Akin's Congressional career ended after he lost a bid to unseat Democratic U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill in the 2012 election. Akin, who had won the Republican primary in a crowded field, led McCaskill in pre-election polls until he said that women who are victims of what he called "legitimate rape" rarely get pregnant. Akin eventually apologized for the remark but rebuffed calls to withdraw from the election. He lost to McCaskill, 54.7 percent to 39.2 percent. In a book published in July 2014, Akin defended his original comments and said he regretted having apologized.
Early life, education, and business career
Akin was born in New York City, and raised in the St. Louis area. He was the son of Nancy Perry (née Bigelow) and Paul Bigelow Akin. Akin's great-grandfather, Thomas Russell Akin, founded Laclede Steel Corporation of St. Louis in 1911. The company eventually passed to his grandfather, William Akin, and then to his father Paul, a third-generation graduate of Harvard University who served as an officer in the Navy during World War II.
Akin graduated from John Burroughs School, a private prep school in suburban St. Louis, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, Massachusetts, earning a Bachelor of Science in Management Engineering in 1970. Following graduation, Akin served as an engineer officer in the National Guard of the U.S. Army, then served in the Army Reserve until 1980. After leaving active duty, Akin sold large computer systems for IBM, then worked as a manager in his family's steel business. Akin earned a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) degree in 1984 from Covenant Theological Seminary where he studied Greek, Hebrew, and a socially conservative interpretation of the Christian scriptures. He did not enter the ministry.
Akin was a longtime anti-abortion activist and a onetime member of the board of Missouri Right to Life. He was arrested for trespass at least eight times between 1985 and 1988 while demonstrating against abortion in front of abortion clinics in Illinois and Missouri. He said the protests were peaceful and he would not apologize for standing up for his beliefs. At the time of the arrests, he was using the name "William Akin"; after that period, when he ran for political office, it was as "Todd Akin".
Missouri House of Representatives
Elections
Akin was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in November 1988, running unopposed to represent District 85 in West County. He won re-election in 1990 with 59% of the vote. Due to re-districting, Akin represented District 86 from 1993 through 2000, never winning less than 66% of the vote.
Tenure
Akin served as a member of the House Ways and Means Committee. During his 12 years in the state house, Akin advocated for homeschool rights, voted for carrying concealed weapons, voted against the parks and soils sales tax, and voted against the 1993 tax increase and education spending increase. Akin sponsored legislation to prohibit casino companies from contributing to Missouri state lawmakers. In 1995, he fought Democratic Governor Mel Carnahan over a bill providing state funding for school nurses. Ultimately, the governor refused to sign the funding bill due to Akin's amendment, which would have prohibited nurses from telling students about sources for information about abortion.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 2000, Akin ran in the Republican primary election to fill the House seat vacated by U.S. Representative Jim Talent, who was running for governor. Light voter turnout caused by heavy rains helped Akin win the tight, five-way primary by just 56 votes; he defeated two better-known candidates, former St. Louis County Executive Gene McNary and State Senator Franc Flotron. On the night he won the primary, Akin said, "My base will show up in earthquakes." He defeated Democratic State Senator Ted House in the general election, winning 55 percent of the vote. He never faced another contest as close, and was reelected five times. In 2010, Akin won re-election with 67.9% of the vote.
Tenure
Akin earned a 96% rating from the American Conservative Union in 2008, and 100% in 2007.
For most of his tenure, Akin was listed in the official House roll as "R-St. Louis," even though his district didn't include any portion of the city of St. Louis.
Social issues
Akin was an outspoken opponent of abortion in all cases, including health reasons or in cases of rape or incest, and he opposed embryonic stem cell research. In a 2008 speech on the House floor, Akin called abortion providers "terrorists" and alleged that it was "common practice" for abortion providers to perform "abortions" on women who were not actually pregnant.
Akin was a supporter of the right to keep and bear arms and had an A rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund. Akin was a staunch advocate of a federal prohibition of online poker. In 2006, he co-sponsored H.R. 4411, the Goodlatte-Leach Internet Gambling Prohibition Act, and H.R. 4777, the Internet Gambling Prohibition Act.
Akin also authored the Protect the Pledge (of Allegiance) Act. In late June 2011, Akin objected to NBC's recent removal of the words "under God" from a video clip of school children reciting the Pledge of Allegiance. After remarking that "NBC has a long record of being very liberal," Akin said, "at the heart of liberalism really was a hatred for God and a belief that government should replace God". Two days later, Akin said he did not mean all liberals hate God, only that liberals have "a hatred for public references for God." The next day, he apologized, saying his statement had been "directed at the political movement, Liberalism, not at any specific individual".
During his 2012 U.S. Senate bid, Akin reaffirmed his opposition to legislation like the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which he voted against as a Congressman.
Akin opposed the No Child Left Behind Act. Akin believed that it should not be the federal government that decides on education, but that local government should have control over public education.
Fiscal issues
In his early years in Congress, Akin brought back earmarks for his district, voted to raise the debt ceiling, voted for off-balance-sheet wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and voted to create the unfunded Medicare prescription drug benefit. Later in his tenure he opposed increases in taxation and spending. He voted in 2007 against an expansion of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), objecting to its potential coverage of children in families making up to $62,000 a year, and stating that proof of U.S. citizenship was not required. He also said the bill would "weaken the private health care system" and lead the country "further down the slippery slope to socialized medicine." He voted against federally funded school breakfasts and lunches, and called student loans "a stage-three cancer of socialism". He also voted against increasing the minimum wage. He was a vocal critic of the September 2008 bank bailout, and voted against it. He voted no on the Affordable Health Care Act in March 2010, and on Paul Ryan's fiscal year 2012 budget.
Military issues
Akin spent time working on military and veterans issues. On the House Armed Services Committee he served as the Chairman of the Seapower and Projection Forces Subcommittee, which handles Navy and Air Force issues. He served as the Ranking Republican on the Seapower Subcommittee and the Oversight and Investigations Subcommittee. Akin also introduced veterans-related bills, most notably the Open Burn Pit Registry Act, which creates a registry for Iraq and Afghanistan veterans who were exposed to burn pits. He opposed repeal of the Dover Policy, which banned media coverage of caskets of troops returning home from overseas, citing privacy and decorum issues.
Committee assignments
Committee on Armed Services
Subcommittee on Tactical Air and Land Forces
Subcommittee on Seapower and Expeditionary Forces (Chairman)
Committee on the Budget
Committee on Science, Space and Technology
Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics
Subcommittee on Energy and Environment
Caucus memberships
Republican Study Committee
Tea Party Caucus
2012 U.S. Senate election
In mid-May 2011, Akin announced he would seek the Republican nomination in 2012 to unseat Democratic Senator Claire McCaskill. Other candidates in the August 2012 Republican primary included businessman John Brunner, author and business executive Mark Memoly, and former Missouri Treasurer Sarah Steelman who had backing from the Tea Party.
Despite losing some momentum and in a crowded field, Akin won the Republican nomination in the August 7 open primary, 36% to 30% for his nearest challenger. The Claire McCaskill campaign spent $2 million during the primaries, despite not having a primary opponent. That money was spent on advertising touting Akin as "Too conservative," for Missouri. In 2012, National Journal named Akin one of ten Republicans to follow on Twitter)).
Akin faced McCaskill and Libertarian nominee Jonathan Dine in the general election, losing to McCaskill after his controversial comments on rape lost him a great deal of support.
Home of record
In May 2011, questions were raised about Akin's official address for voting. For most of his political career, Akin had claimed Town and Country as his official residence. However, according to the Associated Press and the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Akin moved to Wildwood, in far western St. Louis County, sometime between 2007 and 2009, after he and his wife purchased a second home there. However, he continued to vote as a Town and Country resident, and signed a polling place logbook attesting to his living there in April 2011.
Comments on "legitimate rape" and pregnancy
In a local news interview, on August 19, 2012, whilst discussing abortion, Akin claimed that victims of what he described as "legitimate rape" very rarely become pregnant. Airing on St. Louis television station KTVI, his response to a question on rape exceptions for abortion was:
Well you know, people always want to try to make that as one of those things, well how do you, how do you slice this particularly tough sort of ethical question. First of all, from what I understand from doctors, that's really rare. If it's a legitimate rape, the female body has ways to try to shut that whole thing down. But let's assume that maybe that didn't work or something. I think there should be some punishment, but the punishment ought to be on the rapist and not attacking the child.
The comments from Akin, which came as he ran for the U.S. Senate seat held by Claire McCaskill, almost immediately led to widespread uproar. The term "legitimate rape" was called "loathsome" because it suggests that "there are different categories of rape – some real and awful and others that are not". Others took exception to the phrasing because it suggests that the victims who do become pregnant from rape may be lying. His claims about the likelihood of pregnancy resulting from rape were seen by some as being based on fringe ideas like stress-induced miscarriage or Dr. John C. Willke's "spastic tubes" theory introduced in 1985 and trauma-based theory introduced in 1999. These theories are not accepted by the majority of the scientific and medical community. Akin was not the first to make such claims, but was perhaps one of the most prominent until then.
The comment was widely characterized as misogynistic and recklessly inaccurate, with many commentators remarking on the use of the words "legitimate rape". Related news articles cited a 1996 article in an obstetrics and gynecology journal, which found that 5% of women who were raped became pregnant, which equaled about 32,000 pregnancies each year in the US alone. A separate 2003 article in the journal Human Nature estimated that rapes are twice as likely to result in pregnancies as consensual sex.
While some colleagues such as Iowa congressman Steve King and Tennessee state senator Stacey Campfield supported Akin, senior figures in both parties condemned his remarks and some Republicans called for him to resign. In the resulting furor, Akin received widespread calls to drop out of his Senate race from both Republicans and Democrats.
Akin apologized for his gaffe, saying he "misspoke." His campaign ran an advertisement in which he asked voters to forgive him, saying:
Rape was an evil act. I used the wrong words in the wrong way and for that I apologize. As the father of two daughters, I want tough justice for predators. I have a compassionate heart for the victims of sexual assault. I pray for them. The fact is, rape can lead to pregnancy. The truth is, rape has many victims. The mistake I made was in the words I said, not in the heart I hold. I ask for your forgiveness.
The incident was seen as having an impact on Akin's senate race and the Republicans' chances of gaining a majority in the U.S. Senate, by making news in the week before the 2012 Republican National Convention and by "shift[ing] the national discussion to divisive social issues that could repel swing voters rather than economic issues that could attract them".
Election result
Before the comments, Akin had been favored to win his race against McCaskill, but he lost in November, 54.7 percent to 39.2 percent. His loss was attributed to backlash from women voters. After the election, between November 2012 and August 2013, Akin received $111,000 in donations that in part were for the 2018 Senate primaries, however he left after his term finished on January 3, 2013.
Aftermath
In July 2014, Akin's book, Firing Back: Taking on the Party Bosses and Media Elite to Protect Our Faith and Freedom, was published by WND Books. In it, he said that he regretted apologizing, because "by asking the public at large for forgiveness, I was validating the willful misinterpretation of what I had said." He also defended his original comments and attacked various Republicans for "wronging" him, including Karl Rove; former National Republican Senatorial Committee Executive Director Rob Jesmer; Senators Mitch McConnell, John Cornyn, John McCain, Roy Blunt, and Lindsey Graham; and House Speaker John Boehner. He also repeatedly attacked the Republican establishment for seeing his comments "as their opportunity to take [me] out and select someone more palatable to their tastes", and the "liberal media" for making him "the target of a media assassination."
Personal life
Akin married Lulli Boe, a graduate of Hollins University, in June 1975. The couple had six children. Lulli became a home schooling activist, and all of the children were home-schooled. Three sons attended the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis and became officers in the U. S. Marines. One of his sons served in the assault on Fallujah, Iraq. Akin and his wife lived for many years in his childhood home, a house owned by his father in affluent Town and Country, Missouri. When his father sought to subdivide the 8.5-acre property in the late 2000s, Akin moved to a house in Wildwood.
Health and death
In April 2001, Akin had surgery to treat prostate cancer, which was detected at an "early stage". He died from cancer at his home on October 3, 2021, at age 74.
Electoral history
See also
References
External links
U.S. Congressman Todd Akin official U.S. House website
Todd Akin for Senate
|-
|-
|-
1947 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century Presbyterians
21st-century American politicians
21st-century Presbyterians
Activists from New York (state)
American Presbyterians
American anti-abortion activists
Candidates in the 2012 United States elections
Covenant Theological Seminary alumni
Deaths from cancer in Missouri
IBM employees
Republican Party members of the Missouri House of Representatives
Missouri National Guard personnel
Politicians from New York City
Politicians from St. Louis County, Missouri
Protestants from Missouri
Protestants from New York (state)
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Missouri
Tea Party movement activists
United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel
Worcester Polytechnic Institute alumni
John Burroughs School alumni
|
417475
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis%20MacShane
|
Denis MacShane
|
Denis MacShane (born Josef Denis Matyjaszek; 21 May 1948) is a British former politician, author, commentator and convicted criminal who served as Minister of State for Europe from 2002 to 2005. He joined the Labour Party in 1970 and has held most party offices. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Rotherham from 1994 to his forced resignation in 2012.
Born in Glasgow to an Irish mother and Polish father who died from war-related illness in 1958, MacShane was educated on a Middlesex County scholarship at St Benedict's School, Ealing and studied at Merton College, Oxford. He worked as a BBC journalist and trade unionist before completing a PhD at Birkbeck, University of London. He contested the Solihull constituency in October 1974 but was unsuccessful. After failing to be selected to contest a constituency at the 1992 general election, he was elected to parliament for Rotherham at a 1994 by-election. Following the 2001 general election, he was appointed a junior minister at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In April 2002, he became Minister of State for Europe and was appointed to the Privy Council. He returned to the backbenches following the 2005 general election.
In November 2012, Labour suspended MacShane when the Standards and Privileges Committee found he had submitted 19 false invoices "plainly intended to deceive" the parliamentary expenses authority. The allegations, which were made by the British National Party, had been investigated for 20 months by the Metropolitan Police. After the Commons upheld the complaint, he announced his intention to resign as MP for Rotherham and from the Privy Council. In November 2013, he pleaded guilty to false accounting at the Old Bailey, by submitting false receipts for £12,900. On 23 December, he was sentenced to six months in prison. He served four months of his sentence in HM Prison Belmarsh and HM Prison Brixton, and the rest by wearing an electronic tag.
Early life and career
MacShane was born on 21 May 1948 in Glasgow as Josef Denis Matyjaszek to an Irish mother, Isobel MacShane, and Jozef Matyjaszek, a Pole who had fought in the Second World War and remained in exile, taking British nationality in 1950. He was educated at the independent St Benedict's School in Ealing, before going on to study at Merton College, Oxford.
MacShane worked for the BBC from 1969 to 1977, including as a newsreader and reporter on Wolverhampton Wanderers for BBC Radio Birmingham. He changed his surname to his mother's maiden name at the request of his employers. He was fired by the BBC after using a fake name to call the radio phone-in programme he worked on at the time. During the call, MacShane accused leading Conservative politician Reginald Maudling, who had been forced to resign as a frontbencher after accusations of financial impropriety in 1972, of being a crook. The MP threatened to sue as a result.
MacShane supported the Solidarity trade union in Poland, where he was arrested in 1982 for attending a demonstration and deported. He became an activist for the National Union of Journalists and later its president 1978 to 1979. He was policy director of the International Metal Workers' Federation from 1980 to 1992, and he completed a PhD in international economics at Birkbeck, University of London in 1990.
Political career
MacShane first contested a parliamentary seat at the October 1974 general election, where he failed to win Solihull. In 1984, he was on the short list for Labour Party Communications Director, but Peter Mandelson was appointed instead. For the 1992 general election, he attempted to secure a nomination for the Coventry South East constituency, then Neath, and finally Rotherham, though all the attempts were unsuccessful.
MacShane was elected to the House of Commons in the 1994 Rotherham by-election. He was a member of the Deregulation Select Committee 1996–1997, and served as Parliamentary Private Secretary to a succession of ministers in the 1997–2001 Parliament.
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Foreign Office
Following the 2001 general election, MacShane was appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs on 11 June 2001, with responsibility for the Balkans and Latin America. He caused some embarrassment to the government in 2002 by describing President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela as a 'ranting, populist demagogue' and compared him to Benito Mussolini during a failed military coup attempt to depose the democratically elected president. Afterwards, he had to make clear that, as minister with responsibility for Latin America, the government deplored the coup attempt.
In November 2001, an article was published under Khalid Mahmood's name supportive of the war in Afghanistan headlined "The Five Myths Muslims Must Deny". A few days later however, it was revealed that The Observer article had not in fact been written by Mahmood, but by MacShane; Mahmood had agreed to put his name to the article after Lord Ahmed of Rotherham had refused. Mahmood's actions were condemned by Inayat Bunglawala from the Muslim Council of Britain, who said, "MacShane then found Mahmood—universally regarded as being not exactly the brightest spark in parliament—to be a more willing instrument for his scheme".
Minister for Europe
In 2002, he became Minister for Europe in the reshuffle caused by the resignation of Estelle Morris. He was appointed a member of the Privy Council in 2005.
MacShane was a supporter of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and strongly supported Tony Blair's foreign policy, including in relation to the Middle East. Later in 2003, he criticised Muslim community leaders, saying they did not do enough to condemn acts of Islamic terrorism.
During a meeting of Durham Labour Students in 2004, MacShane described Gordon Brown's five economic tests for joining the European single currency as, "a bit of a giant red herring." When contacted by The Scotsman newspaper about whether or not he made the comments, he responded: "Jesus Christ, no. I mean, ‘red herring’ is not one of my favourite metaphors. If you think any Labour MP saying the Prime Minister's most important policy is a red herring, then they would not survive long in the job." He had been recorded on a dictaphone, and the tape was played on both the Today programme and BBC News 24. MacShane wrote in Tribune, "I have no idea why I was removed as a minister, and it does not worry me in the slightest."
In March 2005, MacShane signed on to the Henry Jackson Society principles, advocating a proactive approach to the spread of liberal democracy across the world, including by military intervention. The society also supports "European military modernisation and integration under British leadership".
Following the 2005 general election, MacShane was dropped from the government. After returning to the backbenches in 2005, he was appointed as a delegate to the Council of Europe and the NATO Parliamentary Assembly.
Other issues and incidents
MacShane has campaigned on the issue of sex trafficking but was accused of repeatedly using false statistics in order to inflate the number of female victims. In January 2007, he stated, "According to Home Office estimates, 25,000 sex slaves currently work in the massage parlours and brothels of Britain." He repeated the figure in a 2008 debate, attributing it to the Daily Mirror newspaper. It was later claimed that no such figure exists as an estimate.
On 17 December 2008, he initiated a debate about Britain's libel laws in Parliament. Specifically, he described how the United Kingdom has become a destination for libel tourists as well as how various jurisdictions in the United States (including the U.S. states of New York and Illinois and the federal government) were ready to pass measures designed to halt, at the minimum, reciprocal enforcement of civil judgments related to libel with the United Kingdom, and quite possibly, to allow countersuit, and the award of treble damages in the United States against any person bringing a libel action in a non-US court against US publications or websites.
On 25 August 2010, The Guardian reported that MacShane admitted he was the MP involved in an incident with a volunteer with the new Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority: "On 11 May a volunteer had an encounter with an MP who was described as 'very difficult ... disruptive [and] angry" during an induction session. The official report said: 'At the 10-minute mark the volunteer burst into tears and a staff member [from Ipsa] attempted to intervene. When the staff member offered to help, the MP dismissed him as 'condescending', at which point another staff member pulled the volunteer (still in tears) out of the session.' MacShane apologised for his conduct.
MacShane was publicly criticised by the Association of Political Thought for wrongly accusing London School of Economics professor of political and gender theory Anne Phillips of supporting prostitution and filling the minds of her students with "poisonous drivel". As evidence of her supposed support for the latter, he cited a question from an LSE reading list about the ethical differences between legal waged labour and prostitution. MacShane later admitted that he had taken the question 'out of context'. Labour MP Fiona Mactaggart subsequently called Professor Phillips' views "frankly nauseating" on the basis of the same evidence.
MacShane was a Patron of Supporters of Nuclear Energy, and supported the development of a nuclear industry manufacturing centre in Rotherham. MacShane was employed as an advisor by United Utilities, Britain's largest water company, during 2006 and 2007.
MacShane was MP for Rotherham during the period of large-scale sexual abuse of children in the constituency. After the publication of the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Rotherham he said in a BBC radio interview that no-one had come to him with child abuse allegations during that period, but that he should have been more involved in the issue. Saying that he had done too little, he said he had been aware of what he saw as the problems of cousin marriage and the oppression of women within parts of the Muslim community in Britain, but: "Perhaps yes, as a true Guardian reader, and liberal leftie, I suppose I didn't want to raise that too hard. I think there was a culture of not wanting to rock the multicultural community boat if I may put it like that."
Another issue on which MacShane was active as a parliamentarian was combating antisemitism. He was chair of the inquiry panel of the All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism, which reported in September 2006. In March 2009, he became chairman of a think-tank on antisemitism, the European Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism.
MacShane was an advisory board member of the now defunct Just Journalism, an organisation focused on how UK media reported Israel and the Middle East. Just Journalism had strong links with the Henry Jackson Society, and shared an office with it.
Parliamentary expenses, resignation and conviction
Newspaper reports and general parliamentary review
As part of the review of all MPs expenses, MacShane was ordered to repay £1,507.73 in wrongfully claimed expenses, with his appeals against the ruling being rejected. He was also alleged to have passed twelve invoices from the "European Policy Institute" for "research and translation" expenses to the parliamentary authorities, and claimed for eight laptop computers in three years. A number of newspapers stated that the EPI was "controlled" by MacShane's brother, Edmund Matyjaszek, a claim which MacShane denied: "The EPI was set up 20 years ago by a network of people on the Left working in Europe and the US... Ed is my Brother, but simply administrates it."
MacShane had previously written an article for The Guardian in which he played down the expenses scandal, writing, "There will come a moment when moats and manure, bath plugs and tampons will be seen as a wonderful moment of British fiddling, but more on a Dad's Army scale than the real corruption of politics." In 2008, MacShane supported House of Commons Speaker Michael Martin, calling for Conservative Douglas Carswell to be disciplined for saying that Martin should resign for failing to do enough to prevent the abuse of parliamentary expense claims.
Resumed parliamentary investigation
At the end of their enquiry, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) decided to close the file. MacShane was re-admitted to the Labour Party in July 2012, but was then suspended again by the Labour Party on 2 November 2012 after a parliamentary committee found that he had submitted 19 false invoices for expenses that were "plainly intended to deceive". Later that day, MacShane announced that he would be resigning from Parliament. He said: "I have decided for the sake of my wonderful constituency of Rotherham and my beloved Labour Party to resign as an MP by applying for the Chiltern Hundreds or as guided by the House authorities. I love the House of Commons and I hope by resigning I can serve by showing that MPs must take responsibility for their mistakes and accept the consequences of being in breach of the House rules".
He said in a statement: "Clearly I deeply regret that the way I chose to be reimbursed for costs related to my work in Europe and in combating antisemitism, including being the Prime Minister’s personal envoy, has been judged so harshly." However, the Standards and Privileges Committee stated that the Commons had placed strict conditions and limits on funding MPs' travel to Europe, MacShane was clearly aware of these rules, and concluded "Mr MacShane claimed in the way he did to ensure that his use of public funds for his European travel was not challenged" by sending misleading invoices to himself in order to claim the costs of travelling and to entertain European contacts.
Referral to police and conviction
It was reported on 14 October 2010 that the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards (on instruction from the Standards and Privileges Committee) had referred an expenses-related complaint about MacShane from the British National Party to the Metropolitan Police. The matter referred was his claiming of expenses totalling £125,000 for his constituency office, the office being his garage. The Labour Party suspended MacShane from the parliamentary party pending the outcome.
In June 2011, The Daily Telegraph highlighted further discrepancies in MacShane's expenses which had been uncovered by former independent candidate Peter Thirlwall. As a result, he held an emergency meeting with House of Commons officials and agreed to repay a further £3,051.38. The lengthy investigation concluded on 4 July 2012 with an announcement that the Metropolitan Police would take no further action, but it was reported on 21 January 2013 that the police were to re-open the expenses claims investigation involving MacShane.
On 11 July 2013 the Crown Prosecution Service announced that MacShane would be charged with false accounting under the Theft Act 1968, involving the creation of £12,900 of fake receipts. He continued to write columns for The Guardian, as well as appearing on television programmes relating to European affairs both in Britain and in other European countries. On 18 November 2013 he pleaded guilty to false accounting at the Old Bailey, and on 23 December 2013 was jailed for six months. He served his sentence in HM Prison Belmarsh and HM Prison Brixton, and subsequently by wearing an electronic tag.
MacShane resigned his Privy Council membership in 2013, after discussions with the body's secretariat.
After MacShane was forced to resign his seat, Martin Bright in The Jewish Chronicle wrote that his "fall from grace has been a blow for those who share his concerns about extremist politics, whether it is radical Islamism in the Middle East, neo-fascism at home or the rise of ultranationalist groups in Eastern Europe." In November 2013, Bright described MacShane as "one of" the Jewish community's "greatest champions".
European Parliament incident
Shortly after being released from prison in 2014, UKIP MEPs alleged MacShane was ejected from the premises of the European Parliament members’ bar where he had been meeting UKIP leader Nigel Farage, after a British MEP accused him of loitering in the building "like a bad smell" and told officials he had no right to be there. MacShane was reported to be seeking a communications job.
Books
In his 2014 book Prison Diaries MacShane detailed his life in prison, in which he claimed to hold the status of "politician prisoner". He has written more than ten books on European politics including three on Brexit about which he writes and broadcasts regularly in Britain and Europe. He is the author of several books on European politics, most notably Brexit: How Britain will Leave Europe, written in 2014, which warned that the EU referendum in the UK would result in a vote to quit Europe. His follow-up book, Brexiternity: The Uncertain Fate of Britain, argues that Brexit will dominate British politics, economics and international relations for years to come.
Black and Front: journalists and race reporting (1978)
Solidarity: Poland's Independent Trade Union (1981)
François Mitterrand: Political Odyssey (1982)
Power! Black Workers, Their Unions and the Struggle for Freedom in South Africa (1984) with Martin Plaut and David Ward
International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War (1992)
Global Business: Global Rights (1996)
Heath (British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century) (2006)
Globalising Hatred: The New Antisemitism (2009)
Why Kosovo Still Matters (2011)
Prison Diaries (2014)
Brexit: How Britain will Leave Europe (2015)
Brexiternity: The Uncertain Fate of Britain (2019)
Must Labour Always Lose? (2021)
Personal life
From 1975 to 1981 MacShane had a relationship with broadcaster Carol Barnes. Their daughter, Clare Barnes, died in March 2004 after her parachute failed to open on her 200th skydiving jump in Australia. MacShane married Liliana Kłaptoć, originally from Poland, in 1983, but the relationship lasted only a few years. In 1987, he married Nathalie Pham, an interpreter of French-Vietnamese origin; they have a son and three daughters. They divorced in 2003. His relationship with writer Joan Smith ended in 2010 after seven years. In 2012, he began a relationship with the economist Vicky Pryce, who had been married to the former Energy Secretary Chris Huhne.
In his spare time, he enjoys skiing and running.
See also
Other Members of Parliament found guilty of fraud during the 2008 expenses scandal:
David Chaytor – Labour MP for Bury North from 1997 to 2010
Jim Devine – Labour MP for Livingston from 2005 to 2010
Eric Illsley – Labour MP for Barnsley Central from 1987 to 2011
Margaret Moran – Labour MP for Luton South from 1997 to 2010
Elliot Morley – Labour MP for Glanford and Scunthorpe from 1987 to 1997 and then Scunthorpe from 1997 to 2010
John Taylor, Baron Taylor of Warwick (Conservative)
Paul White, Baron Hanningfield (Conservative)
References
External links
Archived parliamentary biography
Denis MacShane's blog, denismacshane-international.blogspot.com; accessed 25 February 2014.
Denis MacShane on Europe and Coalition policies, cle.ens-lyon.fr; accessed 25 February 2015.
Column archive, Guardian.co.uk; accessed 25 February 2015.
Candidate: Denis MacShane, bbc.co.uk; accessed 25 February 2015.
"The New Anti-Semitism", The Washington Post; accessed 25 February 2015
|-
1948 births
Living people
21st-century Scottish criminals
Activists against antisemitism
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Alumni of the University of London
BBC newsreaders and journalists
Scottish politicians convicted of crimes
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Friends of Israel
People educated at St Benedict's School, Ealing
Politicians from Glasgow
British politicians convicted of fraud
Inmates of HM Prison Belmarsh
Scottish fraudsters
Scottish people of Irish descent
Scottish people of Polish descent
Scottish Roman Catholics
Scottish trade unionists
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
Independent members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
Chairs of the Fabian Society
Scottish prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales
People who resigned from the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Presidents of the National Union of Journalists
British republicans
|
417484
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Hodge
|
Margaret Hodge
|
Dame Margaret Eve Hodge, Lady Hodge, (née Oppenheimer, formerly Watson; born 8 September 1944) is a British politician serving as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Barking since 1994. A member of the Labour Party, she previously served as Leader of Islington London Borough Council from 1982 to 1992. She has held a number of ministerial roles and served as Chair of the Public Accounts Committee from 2010 to 2015.
Hodge is the daughter of the co-founder of steel firm Stemcor and remains a major shareholder. She was a councillor on Islington Council from 1973 to 1994, was chair of the Housing Committee, and then Council Leader from 1982 to 1992. Hodge later apologised for failing to ensure that allegations of serious child abuse in council-run homes were sufficiently investigated and for libelling a complainant.
Hodge was elected to parliament in a 1994 by-election. She was appointed Junior Minister for Disabled People in 1998 and promoted to Minister for Universities in 2001, subsequently becoming the first Children's Minister in 2003, joining the Privy Council. In 2005, Hodge became Minister of State for Work. Hodge served as Minister of State for Culture and Tourism from 2007 to 2008 and 2009 until Labour was defeated at the 2010 general election. She has remained in the House of Commons as a backbencher since then.
Hodge has announced that she will not seek re-election in the next general election.
Early life
Hodge was born on 8 September 1944 in Cairo, Egypt, to Jewish refugee parents Hans Oppenheimer (1908–1985), and his wife Lisbeth (née Hollitscher). Hans Oppenheimer left Stuttgart in Germany during the 1930s to join his uncle's metals business based in Cairo and Alexandria, where he met fellow émigrée, Austrian-born Lisbeth Hollitscher. Married in 1936, Hans and Lisbeth went on to have five children: four girls and a boy.
At the outset of World War II, the couple and their eldest daughter were rendered stateless, effectively stranded in the Kingdom of Egypt for the duration of the War. They decided to leave Egypt in 1948, concerned that antisemitism had increased in the Middle East during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The family moved to Orpington, Kent (present day Greater London), where they started their family-owned steel-trading corporation, Stemcor. It is now one of the world's largest privately held steel companies, with an annual turnover of over £6 billion in 2011. Hodge is a major shareholder, listing her holdings in the Parliamentary Register of Members' Interests. Stemcor was run by her brother, Ralph, until September 2013.
When Hodge was ten, in 1954, her mother died of stomach cancer. Hodge attended Bromley High School, followed by Oxford High School as a boarder. She went on to study at the London School of Economics, graduating with a third-class degree in Economics, majoring in Government, in 1966. After working briefly on television political programmes, she started a Masters in philosophy at Bedford College, London, but did not complete it.
Hodge supported the CND Aldermaston Marches and protests over the Vietnam war.
Early career
From 1966 to 1971, Hodge worked in market research at Unilever, and in PR at Weber Shandwick. From 1992 to 1994, she was a senior consultant at Price Waterhouse.
Islington Council
Hodge was first elected as a Councillor for the London Borough of Islington at a by-election in 1973, representing the Barnsbury ward. She became chair of the Housing Committee in 1975. This was an important post in a local authority which had one of the worst set of housing statistics in London during a period when London boroughs were required to be housing providers and managers. Hodge's tenure as Housing Chairman oversaw the continuation of a large new housing programme. There was a change of emphasis to the refurbishment of sound older buildings (e.g. Charteris Road, Alexander Road areas), in response to a paper published by the Islington Housing Action Group.
The Islington Labour Party was badly affected by the defection of members and elected representatives to the Social Democratic Party. In the 1978 council election she was elected to Thornhill ward, before representing Barnsbury again at the 1982 election, and moving to Sussex ward at the 1986 election.
After Labour won all but one of the council seats in the 1982 council election on a strong left-wing manifesto, Hodge became Council Leader, a post she held until 1992. In 1984 Hodge was a public leader of Islington participating in the rate-capping rebellion to the Conservative government's imposition of spending restrictions on councils, setting no council rate. As with other councils, the district auditor ordered Islington to set a legal rate, which it complied with hours before the deadline. Hodge and the council were often portrayed as part of the "loony left" by some newspapers. In 1994 Hodge was disqualified as a councillor after not attending council meetings for over six months; Hodge stated she had not been active out of respect for the new council leadership.
Child abuse controversy
The end of Hodge's service on Islington Council, prior to her entering Parliament, was marred by the emergence of serious child abuse allegations concerning Council-run children's homes in Islington. She has apologised several times since the emergence of the scandal in the 1980s that directly linked her council tenure with what she admitted in 2014 was "shameful naivety" in ignoring the complaints of paedophile victims.
In 1985, Demetrios Panton wrote to Islington Council to complain about abuse suffered while in Council care during the 1970s and 1980s. Panton received an official response in 1989, in which the Council denied all responsibility. In 1990, Liz Davies, a senior social worker employed by the borough with her manager, David Cofie, raised concerns about sexual abuse of children under the care of Islington Council. Correspondence between Hodge and the then Director of Social Work indicates that Hodge declined a request for extra investigative resources. Instead, the Cofie–Davies investigation was dismissed by council officials in May 1990 after the police declared they had found insufficient evidence of abuse; despite this, the two social workers continued their enquiries.
In 1992, the Evening Standard resumed reporting allegations of abuse in the Islington Care Homes. Its initial report was slated by Hodge as a "sensationalist piece of gutter journalism", although she has since apologised, claiming that her officials had given her false information. In 1995, the "White Report" into sexual abuse in Islington Care Homes confirmed that the council had failed to adequately investigate the allegations, claiming that its doctrinaire interpretation of equal opportunities created a climate of fear at being labelled homophobic.
In 2003, following Hodge's appointment as Minister for Children, Panton went public with his allegations that he had been the subject of abuse in Islington Council care and that, although he had repeatedly raised the matter, he had been ignored. He identified Hodge's complacency as ultimately responsible for the abuse that he alleged he had suffered. Liz Davies simultaneously went public regarding the concerns she had previously raised while working for the council. Following a media campaign by several national newspapers calling for Hodge to resign from her new post, she wrote to Panton, apologising for referring to him as "an extremely disturbed person" in an earlier letter to the Chairman of the BBC Gavyn Davies, which had been broadcast on Radio 4's Today programme. This was subsequently brought to the floor of the House of Commons in Prime Minister's Questions by opposition leader Michael Howard. A formal apology to Panton was made in the High Court on 19 November 2003 by Lady Hodge's barrister together with a financial settlement of £30,000.
In April 2014, Education Secretary Michael Gove instigated investigations into 21 children's homes nationally, where new evidence suggested Jimmy Savile might have abused young people, including one in Islington during the period Hodge was leader. This prompted Hodge to issue a further apology stating "our naivety was shameful". The investigation failed to reach any firm conclusions.
Parliamentary career
Hodge has served as the Labour MP for Barking since the by-election on 9 June 1994 following the death of Jo Richardson. Whilst still a new MP, she endorsed the candidature of Tony Blair, a former Islington neighbour, for the Labour Party leadership, following the sudden death of John Smith from a heart attack. In 2017, she had a majority of 21,608. On 2 December 2021 she announced she would not be standing at the next general election
Ministerial roles
Hodge was appointed Junior Minister for Disabled People in 1998 and was promoted Minister for Universities at the new Department for Education and Skills in 2001, in which capacity she piloted the controversial Higher Education Act 2004, remaining in post until 2003, when she became the inaugural Children's Minister. She was sworn into the Privy Council on 22 June 2003.
In 2003, Hodge was appointed to the newly created high-profile role of Children's minister, which included responsibility for Special Education, Early Years Education and Childcare, the Young People's Unit, teenage pregnancy, the Family Policy Unit, and general responsibility for child welfare.
In 2005, Hodge was moved to become Minister of State for Work. On 17 June 2005, she was criticised for saying that former employees of MG Rover would be able to obtain jobs at Tesco, a local supermarket. Later, she claimed that this was not what she meant, rather that she had empathy for those losing their jobs, and was pointing to a new Tesco supermarket as an example of new jobs being created in the area in face of the redundancies at the car manufacturing plant.
On 27 June 2007, Hodge was reappointed Minister of State in the Department for Culture by new Prime Minister Gordon Brown. As Minister of State for Culture, Creative Industries and Tourism, she was quick to criticise Britain's foremost classical music festival, The Proms, for not being sufficiently inclusive, instead praising popular television shows such as Coronation Street. Following the Cabinet reshuffle of 3 October 2008, it was announced that Hodge was "temporarily leaving Government on compassionate grounds of family illness and will return to Government in the Spring". While she was absent from the Government, she was temporarily replaced as Minister of State by Barbara Follett. Hodge was reappointed Minister of State responsible for Culture and Tourism on 22 September 2009. In January 2010, Hodge announced that Royal Parks, which manages Richmond Park and Bushy Park in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames among others, was to be allowed to charge car drivers £2 per visit. This announcement sparked protests in South London and was opposed by local politicians including Conservative Zac Goldsmith, Liberal Democrats Sir Vince Cable and Baroness Kramer.
Barking and the BNP
Hodge once called for British-born families to have priority on council house waiting lists over immigrants. This comment received praise from the far-right political party the BNP and led to calls for Hodge to resign. However, her comments would be defended by her colleagues.
In April 2006, Hodge commented in an interview with The Sunday Telegraph that eight out of ten white working class voters in her constituency might be tempted to vote for the British National Party (BNP) at the May 2006 local elections because "no one else is listening to them" about their concerns over unemployment, high house prices and the housing of asylum seekers in the area. She said the Labour Party must promote "very, very strongly the benefits of the new, rich multi-racial society which is part of this part of London for me". There was widespread media coverage of her remarks, and Hodge was strongly criticised for giving the BNP publicity. The BNP went on to gain eleven council seats at the 2006 election out of a total of 51, making them the second-largest party. It was reported that Labour activists accused Hodge of generating hundreds of extra votes for the BNP, and that local members began to privately discuss the possibility of a move to deselect her. The GMB wrote to Hodge in May 2006, demanding her resignation.
Writing in The Observer on 20 May 2007 Hodge argued that established families should take priority in the allocation of social housing over new economic migrants, stating that "We should look at policies where the legitimate sense of entitlement felt by the indigenous family overrides the legitimate need demonstrated by the new migrants." Her comments were condemned by the Refugee Council and other representative bodies.
In November 2009, the Leader of the BNP, Nick Griffin, announced that he intended to contest the Barking seat at the 2010 general election. In spite of the union's position, Hodge was the Labour candidate and was returned as the Member of Parliament, doubling her majority, whilst Griffin finished in third place behind the Conservatives. The BNP lost all their council seats in the 2010 election.
Public Accounts Committee
On 10 June 2010 Hodge was elected by MPs to the Chair of the Public Accounts Committee in the fifth round of voting using the single transferable vote system. According to Peter Riddell, under Hodge's leadership, the PAC has held civil servants to account using procedure contrary to established practice. Gus O'Donnell, then head of the civil service, accused her of presiding over a "theatrical exercise in public humiliation", while Alan Duncan accused her of being "abusive and bullying" towards Rona Fairhead.
The Oppenheimers' family company, Stemcor, which had been founded by Hodge's father, Hans Oppenheimer, was run by her brother, Ralph, until September 2013. In November 2012, Helia Ebrahimi, The Daily Telegraphs City Correspondent, raised the issue of Hodge's suitability as chair of the Public Accounts Committee, reporting that her family's company "pays just 0.01pc tax on £2.1bn of business generated in the UK". This led to an investigation into the tax arrangements of a number of American companies operating in the United Kingdom. In April 2015, The Times reported that Hodge had benefited from the closure in 2011 of a Liechtenstein foundation which held shares in Stemcor, using the Liechtenstein Disclosure Facility, a legal means of returning undisclosed assets to the UK with reduced penalties. Hodge gained 96,000 shares worth £1,500,000 as a result. Hodge said she had played no part in administering or establishing the scheme. She explained: "All I could do as a shareholder in a company not run by me, and over which I had no influence or control, was to ensure that any shares I held were above board and that I paid all relevant taxes in full. Every time I received any benefit from the company this happened."
Shortly after Labour's defeat at the 2015 general election, it emerged that Hodge would not be standing for re-election to the Public Accounts Committee. She was succeeded as Chair in June 2015 by Meg Hillier. Hodge has since written a book about her time as chair of the Public Accounts Committee entitled Called to Account.
Garden Bridge Project review
In September 2016, London Mayor Sadiq Khan asked Hodge to review the Garden Bridge project. Hodge was tasked with determining whether value for money was achieved from the taxpayers' £60 million contribution to the bridge, as well as investigating whether transparency standards were met by public bodies. Hodge's review was published in April 2017. Hodge recommended that 'It would be better for the taxpayer to accept the financial loss of cancelling the project than to risk the potential uncertain additional costs to the public purse if the project proceeds.' The report found that decisions on the Garden Bridge were driven more by electoral cycles than value for taxpayers' money, and that there was not an open, fair and competitive process around two procurements. In response, the BBC's transport correspondent, Tom Edwards, reported that 'I can't remember reading a report so damning of a transport project.'
In June 2017, Andrew Boff, a Conservative member of the London Assembly, criticised Margaret Hodge's report on the Garden Bridge, and claimed that she broke Parliamentary rules during her research. In December 2017, the Parliamentary Standards Committee found that Hodge had breached the MPs' code of conduct. The code states MPs should use public resources only "in support of parliamentary duties". The committee ruled that, because the review had been commissioned by an outside body, it had not been carried out as part of Hodge's parliamentary activities. The committee recommended that Hodge apologise to the House of Commons for the breach on a point of order. Hodge subsequently apologised and said "I carried out this inquiry in good faith and in the public interest. "I think all MPs would benefit from greater clarity in the rules governing the use of offices." Hodge later repaid £2.97, which represented the cost of House of Commons stationery, after the committee's report found that she should not have used Parliamentary resources for her review. In response to the findings of the Parliamentary Standards Committee's investigation, Andrew Boff said the committee's findings left "a sour taste", and claimed that he found it 'hard to believe [Hodge] was unaware of the rules."
Views
At a keynote speech to the Institute for Public Policy Research on 26 November 2004, Hodge defended the concept of greater state regulation of individuals' choices, asserting only that "some may call it the nanny state but I call it a force for good".
On 17 November 2006, it was reported by the Islington Tribune that Hodge described the Iraq War as a "big mistake in foreign affairs". This report, relayed by BBC News, appeared to cast doubt on Hodge's confidence in Tony Blair's foreign policy since 1998. A Downing Street spokesperson responded by pointing out that "Margaret Hodge voted for military action in Iraq. Since then, she has always spoken in favour of it."
In the 2015 Labour Party leadership election, she nominated Liz Kendall.
In June 2016, together with Ann Coffey, Hodge called for a motion of no confidence in party leader Jeremy Corbyn. The following month, she supported Owen Smith in the 2016 Labour leadership election.
Views on antisemitism in Labour
In July 2018, the National Executive Committee (NEC) adopted a code of conduct on antisemitism which was based on the IHRA's working definition while omitting or modifying examples of antisemitism, including defining how criticism of Israel can be antisemitic. Hodge subsequently said that Labour's refusal to adopt the full set of unamended examples for disciplinary purposes "make the party a hostile environment for Jews. It chose to entrench antisemitism ... This means that in 2018 a party member can call a Jew a Nazi and face little consequence." In contrast, a coalition of 36 international Jewish anti-Zionist groups signed a letter of opposition to the IHRA definition, calling it a "distorted definition of antisemitism to stifle criticism of Israel". Labour said all the examples were covered by other parts of the code. After the adoption of the new code, Hodge confronted Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn in parliament and called him "a fucking antisemite and a racist". The Party initiated a disciplinary investigation of the incident, with a spokesperson saying that "The rules of the Parliamentary Labour Party are quite clear, that colleagues have to treat each other with respect and not bring the party into disrepute and that is why action will be taken." The investigation was terminated following fears that MPs would resign had it continued. A Labour spokesperson said that Hodge "expressed regret" for her remarks: however, Hodge said that there were "no apologies, on either side". Hodge said that the prospect of an investigation had made her think about "what it felt like to be a Jew in Germany in the 30s", a remark described by Jewish journalist, Matthew Norman, as "deranged hyperbole", "absurd" and "grotesque" and by David Baddiel as "bollocks".
In March 2019, Hodge made a secret recording of a meeting she had with Corbyn. The recording was later passed to The Sunday Times which published extracts. In the recording, Corbyn said that some evidence of complaints was being mislaid, ignored or not used, which was why he had asked Lord Falconer to review the process. Corbyn later wrote to Hodge to convey his disappointment at what he considered "to be a total breach of trust and privacy". In the same month, she proposed that the party close down constituencies that passed motions critical of individual investigations or of the IHRA's Working Definition.
In June 2019, Hodge condemned the reinstatement to Labour of Chris Williamson who was investigated for comments he made on antisemitism in the Labour Party.
In July 2019, Hodge called for a new and entirely independent system to handle antisemitism disciplinary proceedings in the Labour party as, she said, political interference has corrupted the current system. The party rejected her claim as unfounded. She also stated that matters had only become worse since she confronted Corbyn a year before.
In September 2019, Hodge said "I'm not going to give up until Jeremy Corbyn ceases to be leader of the Labour Party."
In July 2018, she accepted an invitation to become an honorary patron of the Campaign Against Antisemitism (CAA). In the run up to the 2019 general election, CAA asked her to resign because she was standing as a Labour Party candidate; she did so but described their decision as "both astonishing and wounding", showing a lack of respect and impugning her integrity.
Antisemitism investigation
In July 2019, Hodge shared with the media a clandestine photo of Corbyn meeting Charedi activist Shraga Stern. Hodge tweeted that "Having lunch & wondering why Corbyn wants to be seen talking to an anti-LGBT activist who doesn't represent the mainstream Jewish community yet chooses to sideline groups like Jewish Labour." Stern subsequently lodged a formal complaint with the Labour Party that Hodge's tweet was an "antisemitic attack" and sidelined him as a "second-class Jew".
Other events
In 2004, Fathers 4 Justice campaigner Jonathan Stanesby handcuffed Hodge, stating he was arresting her for child abuse. Fathers 4 Justice targeted Hodge perceiving her as the "bogeywoman of family law, who doesn't even believe in equal parenting". Stanesby and collaborator Jason Hatch were acquitted of the charge of false imprisonment which they successfully defended as a reasonable form of political protest.
In June 2019, the TSSA conference passed a motion criticising Hodge for "endorsing tactical voting, including voting for candidates other than Labour" in the 2019 European Parliament election, pointing out that this was a breach of party rules and should result in automatic removal of membership.
On 28 September 2019, Barking Labour members voted in a 'trigger ballot' to hold a full selection process to choose their parliamentary candidate for the next general election, rather than automatically reselecting Hodge. She said she wished to stand and was automatically included in an all woman shortlist. According to one local member, factors in the decision to hold a selection process included her age, the desire to have an MP who lives in the area and support for the principles of accountability and local democracy. On Monday 28 October 2019, Hodge was reselected.
Non-political roles
Since November 2018, Hodge has been Chair of Council at Royal Holloway, University of London, following the Privy Council consenting to the position being remunerated. Hitherto, this role had always been a voluntary position.
Personal life
Hodge describes herself as a secular Jew, but that her religious background is "what defines me". Hodge married Andrew Watson in 1968; the couple had one son and a daughter, Lizzi Watson, a BBC journalist who was appointed deputy editor of the 6 pm and 10 pm BBC News in February 2018. They divorced in 1978 and in the same year she married Henry Hodge (later Sir Henry), by whom she had two more daughters. He was a solicitor who was appointed as a High Court Judge in 2004. He died in 2009.
Use of offshore tax haven
In 2015 there was considerable controversy about her benefiting, to the tune of £1.5 million, from assets repatriated from a Liechtenstein family trust in 2011 using the Liechtenstein disclosure facility, that reduced penalties and removed the risk of prosecution for Britons moving undeclared assets back to the UK. Coverage focused on the apparent hypocrisy in her condemnation of the use of tax havens. The Times reported that 75% of the shares in the family trust had previously been held in Panama, which Hodge had previously criticised for its financial secrecy and use as a tax haven. Hodge issued a statement that she had always fully declared the shareholding, never had a management role in the company, and had received assurances that the company always paid the appropriate tax.
Honours
Hodge was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in 1978, and promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the Dissolution Honours List of 27 August 2015.
References
External links
Dame Margaret Hodge MP Official constituency website
Barking Labour Party
Debrett's People of Today
|-
|-
|-
|-
1944 births
Living people
20th-century British women politicians
20th-century English women politicians
20th-century English politicians
21st-century British women politicians
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Chairs of the Fabian Society
Councillors in the London Borough of Islington
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Egyptian Ashkenazi Jews
Egyptian emigrants to England
English people of Austrian-Jewish descent
English people of German-Jewish descent
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Ministers for Universities (United Kingdom)
Jewish British politicians
Jewish women politicians
Labour Friends of Israel
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Leaders of local authorities of England
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People associated with Royal Holloway, University of London
People educated at Oxford High School, England
People from Orpington
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
UK MPs 2019–present
Wives of knights
Women councillors in England
20th-century Egyptian Jews
21st-century English Jews
|
417492
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Puttnam
|
David Puttnam
|
David Terence Puttnam, Baron Puttnam, CBE, HonFRSA, HonFRPS, MRIA (born 25 February 1941) is a British-Irish film producer, educator, environmentalist and former member of the House of Lords. His productions include Chariots of Fire, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture, The Mission, The Killing Fields, Local Hero, Midnight Express and Memphis Belle. In 1982, he received the BAFTA for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema, and in 2006 he was awarded the BAFTA Fellowship for lifetime achievement from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.
Puttnam sat on the Labour benches in the House of Lords, although he was not principally a politician. In 2019 he was appointed chair to the select committee on democracy and digital technologies. The committee published its findings in its Digital Technology & the Resurrection of Trust report in June 2020.
Early life
Puttnam was born in Southgate, London, England, the son of Marie Beatrix, a housewife of Jewish origin, and Leonard Arthur Puttnam, a photographer. Educated at Minchenden Grammar School in London, Puttnam had an early career in advertising, including five formative years at Collett Dickenson Pearce, and as agent acting for the photographers David Bailey and Brian Duffy.
Film career
Sandy Lieberson
Puttnam turned to film production in the late 1960s, working with Sanford Lieberson's production company Goodtimes Enterprises. The first feature he produced was Melody (1971), based on a script by Alan Parker and which was a minor hit.
Puttnam and Lieberson produced the documentaries Peacemaking 1919 (1971), Glastonbury Fayre (1972), and Bringing It All Back Home (1972). Their second film, The Pied Piper (1972), directed by Jacques Demy was not a success, but That'll Be the Day (1973) with David Essex proved a hit.
Puttnam and Lieberson went on to produce The Final Programme (1973), a science fiction film, and made some more documentaries, these being Double Headed Eagle: Hitler's Rise to Power 1918–1933 (1973) and Swastika (1974).
Puttnam and Lieberson executive-produced the Ken Russell biopic Mahler (1974), and did a sequel to That'll Be The Day, entitled Stardust (1974) and directed by Michael Apted.
There were more documentaries: Radio Wonderful (1974), Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? (1975), James Dean: The First American Teenager (1975) and The Memory of Justice (1976).
A second film with Russell, Lisztomania (1975), was a box office disaster and led to the end of the Puttnam-Lieberson partnership.
Puttnam had a box office success with Bugsy Malone (1976), a musical he executive-produced, written and directed by Alan Parker, and produced by Alan Marshall. It was the last film Puttnam would make under the 'Goodtimes' banner. He went on to set up a new company, Enigma Films.
Enigma Films
Puttnam produced The Duellists (1977), the directorial debut of Ridley Scott; and with Marshall once more, he produced Midnight Express (1978), directed by Parker from a script by Oliver Stone, and which was a notable box office success.
Puttnam made his first film in America, Foxes (1980), itself the directorial debut of Adrian Lyne. It was a box office flop.
Puttnam's next film was his most successful yet. Chariots of Fire (1981), the first feature directed by Hugh Hudson, became a massive hit and won the Academy Award for Best Picture. It was produced in association with Goldcrest Pictures.
Puttnam set up a television company, Enigma TV, and made a series of television films in association with Goldcrest, which carried Puttnam's name as executive producer. Six were made as a series called First Love for the fledgling Channel Four: P'tang, Yang, Kipperbang (1982), directed by Apted; Experience Preferred... But Not Essential (1982); Secrets (1983); Those Glory Glory Days (1983); Sharma and Beyond (1983); and Arthur's Hallowed Ground (1984). Other films produced for television were Forever Young (1983); Red Monarch (1983); and Winter Flight (1984).
Puttnam continued to produce feature films. He had another success with Local Hero (1983), written and directed by Bill Forsyth; and also produced the acclaimed Cal (1984) directed by Pat O'Connor, and The Killing Fields (1984), directed by Roland Joffe.
Puttnam continued to executive produce television movies such as The Frog Prince (1985), Mr. Love (1985), Defence of the Realm (1986), and Knights & Emeralds (1986). He also produced The Mission (1986), directed by Joffe from a script by Robert Bolt, which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1986.
Columbia Pictures
Puttnam was chairman and CEO of Columbia Pictures from June 1986 until September 1987. There he oversaw a development of the $270-million film package that has a number of 15–18 films for the first two years, and a number of 15 films for the next two years, and handled in such acquisitions, like The Big Easy, from Kings Road Productions, and Spike Lee's low budget feature School Daze, and made a decision to drop big-budget films in favor of smaller features, a move that did not sit well with Coca-Cola and Hollywood, and decided to let deals with existing contracts expire.
Post-Columbia producing work
Puttnam returned to producing individual films with Memphis Belle (1990), Meeting Venus (1991), A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia (1992), Being Human (1994), War of the Buttons (1994), The Confessional (1994), and My Life So Far (1995). He also executive-produced The Josephine Baker Story (1991), Without Warning: The James Brady Story (1992), and The Burning Season (1994).
Puttnam returned to the field of film production in 2015 to oversee pre-production of Don’t Trust, Don’t Fear, Don’t Beg, Ben Stewart's account of the Arctic 30 incident. He stepped away from the role in 2019 when he was appointed to chair the House of Lords Special Committee ‘Democracy and Digital Technology’.
Puttnam is the President of the Film Distributors’ Association; Chair of the TSL Advisory Board;
Chair of Nord Anglia International School, Dublin; Life President, National Film & Television
School, a UNICEF Ambassador, and Adjunct Professor of Film Studies and Digital
Humanities at University College Cork.
Politics
In 1983, Puttnam was appointed CBE. In 1995 Puttnam was appointed as a Knight Bachelor. In 1997, he was created as a life peer and was granted Letters Patent to become Baron Puttnam, of Queensgate in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. On 12 October 2021, it was announced that Lord Puttnam would retire from the Lords after 24 years service on 27 October 2021. In 1998, Puttnam was named in a list of financial donors to the British Labour Party. In 2002, he chaired the joint scrutiny committee on the Communications Bill, which recommended an amendment to prevent ownership of British terrestrial television stations by companies with a significant share of the newspaper market. This was widely interpreted as being aimed at stopping Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation from buying Channel Five. When the government opposed the amendment, Puttnam brokered a compromise – the introduction of a 'public interest' test, to be applied by the new regulator Ofcom but without explicit restrictions.
From 2004 to 2005, Puttnam chaired the Hansard Society Commission on Communication of Parliamentary Democracy, the final report of which urged all political parties to commit to a renewal of parliamentary life in an attempt to reinvigorate representative democracy. In 2007, he chaired the Joint Parliamentary Committee on the Draft Climate Change Bill.
From 2012 to 2017, Puttnam was the Prime Ministerial Trade Envoy to Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar (Burma). During the same period, Puttnam – who lives in Skibbereen, County Cork – was named Ireland's Digital Champion by Communications Minister Pat Rabbitte, TD.
In August 2014, Puttnam was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.
In June 2019, Puttnam chaired the special House of Lords Democracy and Digital Technologies Committee, set up to investigate the impact of digital technologies on democracy and oversaw the publication of its findings in June 2020. The report, Digital Technology & the Resurrection of Trust, made 45 recommendations to government to address the spread of misinformation and disinformation and the consequential erosion of public trust. And that the media has a duty to “balance freedom of expression with wider moral and social responsibilities.”
Lord Puttnam announced his retirement from the House of Lords on 27 October 2021 as he delivered the Shirley Williams Lecture, detailing his reasons for leaving in his speech.
Atticus Education
Puttnam founded Atticus Education in 2012. Atticus delivers interactive seminars on film and a variety of other subjects to educational institutions around the world.
Association with education
For 10 years, Puttnam was chairman of the National Film and Television School whose alumni included people such as Nick Park; and in 2017, he succeeded Richard Attenborough as Life President. Puttnam founded Skillset, which trains young people to become members of the film and television industries. From 2002 to 2009, he was UK president of UNICEF and remains an ambassador.
Puttnam was the first Chancellor of the University of Sunderland from 1997 until 13 July 2007. He was appointed an Honorary Doctor of Education during the School of Education and Lifelong Learning's Academic Awards Ceremonies and upon his retirement, he was granted the Freedom of the City of Sunderland. In 1998, he founded the National Teaching Awards and became its first chairman. He was the founding chairman of the General Teaching Council from 2000 to 2002, was appointed as Chancellor of the Open University from 2006 to 2017, and was also the Chairman of NESTA (The National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts) from 1998 until 2003. He was also on the board of directors of learning technologies company Promethean.
Puttnam is the patron of Schools NorthEast, an organisation set up in 2007 to represent all schools in the North East of England. He is also a patron of the Shakespeare Schools Festival (now Shakespeare Schools Foundation), a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres.
In 2012 he founded Atticus Education delivering interactive seminars on film, media and screen to students at universities all over the world.
From May 2014 until 2018, Puttnam was Chair of the Academic Board for Pearson College, part of Pearson PLC, the first FTSE 100 company to offer degrees in the UK. In March 2015, Puttnam was made a freeman at the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead, in recognition of his service as chairman at the Sage Gateshead.
Puttnam was a member of the Commonwealth of Learning's Board of Governors until January 2020 and stood down as Chair of Film London Executive Task Force in 2022. As well as being Chair of Atticus Education, today he holds a number of positions including President of the Film Distributors’ Association, Chair of the NAE Education Advisory Board, leading on the Groups Digital Transformation, Life President of the National Film & Television School, , UNICEF Ambassador, Member of the Advisory Board of Accenture (Ireland), Adjunct Professor of Film Studies and Digital Humanities at University College Cork, Adjunct Professor of the School of Media & Communications at RMIT University (Australia), Patron of the Dublin Bid World Summit on Media for Children 2020/2023 and International Ambassador, WWF. He is a member of the ASA (Advertising Standards Authority) Parliamentary Network.
In October 2022 Lord Puttnam was awarded a fellowship by adult education provider, City Lit, for his contribution to the world of film and media.
Awards
In 1982, Puttnam received the BAFTA Michael Balcon Award for his outstanding contribution to the British Film Industry.
In February 2006, he was awarded the BAFTA Fellowship. He made the occasion notable by delivering a particularly moving homage to his late father, who had died before he could see his son receive the Best Picture Oscar for Chariots of Fire. Puttnam also congratulated contemporary filmmakers for making films with integrity: the lack of such films being produced had been the reason for his retirement from the film industry in the late 1990s.
Puttnam is the recipient of over 50 honorary degrees and fellowships from the UK and overseas: he received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2001, and from Trinity College Dublin in 2016; he was awarded The Royal Photographic Society's President's Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS) in recognition of a sustained, significant contribution to the art of photography in 2003; and, in May 2006, he was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts.
On 12 July 2007, Puttnam was given the freedom of the City of Sunderland. In 2008, he received an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Science from Nottingham Trent University in recognition of his extraordinary contribution to the cultural landscape of the UK, in both economic and creative terms, and for his notable support for the Nottingham City-based GameCity Festival. He was elected to the Royal Irish Academy in 2017.
Puttnam suffers from ME, debilitating him on occasions.
In 2009, in partnership with Sir Michael Barber, Puttnam released We Are the People We've Been Waiting For, an education documentary featuring high-profile figures discussing their own experiences of education.
All in all, Puttnam's films have won 10 Oscars, 31 BAFTAs, 13 Golden Globes, nine Emmys, four David di Donatellos in Italy and the Palme d'Or at Cannes.
Other interests
Puttnam was deputy Chairman of Channel 4 Television from 2006 to 2012. He is president of the Film Distributors' Association (FDA) and chair of the TSL Advisory Board.
Puttnam co-authored (with Neil Watson) Movies and Money, published in January 2000 by Vintage Books.
When Puttnam became the chairman of Profero, a London-based digital marketing agency in April 2007, he explained the move saying: "My experience over the past forty-odd (some very odd) years has encompassed marketing, entertainment and social issues, a fascinating mix that is integral to the daily lives of consumers and citizens. A business that can combine and magnify these dynamics can only create incredible value for their clients and, as a by-product, themselves. To me Profero is in just such a position, and it's now my job to help them realise their potential."
Puttnam, who had produced Ian Charleson's star-making film Chariots of Fire, contributed a chapter to the 1990 book, For Ian Charleson: A Tribute.
On 19 August 2007, Puttnam gave the oration at the annual Michael Collins commemoration in Béal na Bláth, County Cork.
He has also preached at Durham Cathedral at the feast of the cathedral's commemoration of its founders and benefactors.
Philanthropy
Puttnam is patron of the Irish education charity Camara Education and CFS/ME charity Action for ME.
Personal life
On 21 June 2022, Puttnam announced via Twitter that he and his wife, Patricia ("Patsy"), had obtained Irish citizenship. The couple have lived in Skibbereen, County Cork, since 1998.
Filmography
Selected filmography as producer
Melody (1971)
The Pied Piper (1972)
Glastonbury Fayre (1972) (documentary)
That'll Be the Day (1973)
Mahler (1974)
Stardust (1974)
Lisztomania (1975)
Trick or Treat (1975) (unfinished)
Bugsy Malone (1976)
The Duellists (1977)
Midnight Express (1978)
Foxes (1980)
Chariots of Fire (1981)
Local Hero (1982)
Secrets (1983)
Sharma and Beyond (1984)
The Killing Fields (1984)
Cal (1984)
The Mission (1986)
Ishtar (1987)
Memphis Belle (1990)
Meeting Venus (1991)
Being Human (1994)
War of the Buttons (1994)
My Life So Far (1999)
Some films made or bought while head of Columbia (1986–1988)
Puttnam greenlit and "picked up" a number of films while head of the studio, only some of which had been released by the time he left the position. They included:
The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988)
The Adventures of Milo and Otis (1989)
The Beast (1988) (pick up)
The Big Easy (1986) (pick up)
The Big Town (1987)
Hope and Glory (1987) (pick up)
Housekeeping (1987)
The Last Emperor (1987)
Leonard Part 6 (1987)
Little Nikita (1988)
Old Gringo (1989)
Karate Kid III (1989)
Me and Him (1988)
The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking (1988)
Pulse (1988)
Punchline (1988)
Rocket Gibraltar (1988)
School Daze (1988) (pick up)
Someone to Watch Over Me (1987)
Stars and Bars (1988)
Time of the Gypsies (1988)
A Time of Destiny (1988)
Vibes (1988)
Vice Versa (1988)
Zelly and Me (1988)
Further reading
References
External links
University of Sunderland
The Open University
Futurelab's Board of Trustees
– transcript of Sunday AM interview with Huw Edwards
Speech on 'Educating for the Digital Society' at the IIEA – 19 January 2010
1941 births
British film producers
American film studio executives
BAFTA fellows
BAFTA Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema Award
Filmmakers who won the Best Film BAFTA Award
Producers who won the Best Picture Academy Award
Chancellors of the Open University
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Living people
People associated with the University of Sunderland
People with chronic fatigue syndrome
Members of the Royal Irish Academy
English people of Jewish descent
Presidents of Columbia Pictures
Peers retired under the House of Lords Reform Act 2014
|
417493
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macfarlane%20Burnet
|
Macfarlane Burnet
|
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet (3 September 1899 – 31 August 1985), usually known as Macfarlane or Mac Burnet, was an Australian virologist known for his contributions to immunology. He won a Nobel Prize in 1960 for predicting acquired immune tolerance and he developed the theory of clonal selection.
Burnet received his Doctor of Medicine degree from the University of Melbourne in 1924, and his PhD from the University of London in 1928. He went on to conduct pioneering research in microbiology and immunology at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, and served as director of the Institute from 1944 to 1965. From 1965 until his retirement in 1978, Burnet worked at the University of Melbourne. Throughout his career he played an active role in the development of public policy for the medical sciences in Australia and was a founding member of the Australian Academy of Science (AAS), and served as its president from 1965 to 1969.
Burnet's major achievements in microbiology included discovering the causative agents of Q-fever and psittacosis; developing assays for the isolation, culture and detection of influenza virus; describing the recombination of influenza strains; demonstrating that the myxomatosis virus does not cause disease in humans. Modern methods for producing influenza vaccines are still based on Burnet's work improving virus growing processes in hen's eggs.
For his contributions to Australian science, Burnet was made the first Australian of the Year in 1960, and in 1978 a Knight of the Order of Australia. He was recognised internationally for his achievements: in addition to the Nobel, he received the Lasker Award and the Royal and Copley Medal from the Royal Society, honorary doctorates, and distinguished service honours from the Commonwealth of Nations and Japan.
Early life
Burnet was born in Traralgon, Victoria; his father, Frank Burnet, a Scottish emigrant to Australia, was the manager of the Traralgon branch of the Colonial Bank. His mother Hadassah Burnet (née Mackay) was the daughter of a middle-class Scottish immigrant, and met his father when Frank was working in the town of Koroit. Frank was 36, and 14 years older than Hadassah. The family was socially conservative Anglo-Saxon Protestant. Frank Macfarlane Burnet was the second of seven children and from childhood was known as "Mac". He had an older sister, two younger sisters and three younger brothers. The eldest daughter Doris had a mental disability that consumed most of Hadassah's time and the family saw Doris's condition as an unspoken stigma, discouraging the other children from inviting friends home, lest they come across the eldest daughter. From his early years in Traralgon, Mac enjoyed exploring the environment around him, particularly Traralgon Creek. He first attended a private school run by a single teacher before starting at the government primary school at the age of 7. Mac was distant from his father—who liked to spend his free time fishing and playing golf—from a young age. He preferred bookish pursuits from a young age and was not enamoured of sport, and by the age of eight was old enough to analyse his father's character; Mac disapproved of Frank and saw him as a hypocrite who espoused moral principles and put on a facade of uprightedness, while associating with businessmen of dubious ethics. Hadassah was preoccupied with Doris, so Mac developed a rather solitary personality.
The Burnets moved to Terang in 1909, when Frank was posted to be the bank manager there, having declined a post in London. Burnet was interested in the wildlife around the nearby Lake Terang; he joined the Scouts in 1910 and enjoyed all outdoor activities. While living in Terang, he began to collect beetles and study biology. He read biology articles in the Chambers's Encyclopaedia, which introduced him to the work of Charles Darwin. During his early teens, the family took annual holidays to Port Fairy, where Burnet spent his time observing and recording the behaviour of the wildlife. He was educated at Terang State School and attended Sunday school at the local church, where the priest encouraged him to pursue scholastic studies and awarded him a book on ants as a reward for his academic performance. He advised Frank to invest in Mac's education and he won a full scholarship to board and study at Geelong College, one of Victoria's most exclusive private schools. Starting there in 1913, Burnet was the only boarder with a full scholarship. He did not enjoy his time there among the scions of the ruling upper class; while most of his peers were brash and sports-oriented, Burnet was bookish and not athletically inclined, and found his fellow students to be arrogant and boorish. During this period he kept his beetle-collecting and disapproval of his peers a secret and mixed with his schoolmates out of necessity. Nevertheless, his academic prowess gained him privileges, and he graduated in 1916, placing first in his school overall, and in history, English, chemistry and physics. The typical university path for a person of his social background was to pursue studies in theology, law or medicine. By this time, he was becoming disillusioned with religion and chose medicine. Due to World War I, military service was a possibility and he felt that a medical background would increase his chances of being given a non-combat post.
Academic foundations
From 1918, Burnet attended the University of Melbourne, where he lived in Ormond College on a residential scholarship. There, he read more of Darwin's work and was influenced by the ideas of science and society in the writings of H. G. Wells. He enjoyed his time at university and spent much of his free time reading biology books in the library to feed his passion for scientific knowledge. He also had fleeting sporting success, holding down a position in Ormond's First VIII rowing squad for a brief period. He continued to pursue his study of beetles in private, although his classmates found out and there was no loss in this as they viewed his hobby positively. Despite an ongoing shyness, Burnet got on well with staff and students at university. Burnet was self-motivated and often skipped lectures to study at his own faster pace and pursue further knowledge in the library, and he came equal first in physics and chemistry in first year. The following year, 1918, he became increasingly immersed in laboratory work, but he was also dogged by peer pressure to enlist in the military, which he saw as a distasteful prospect. However, this was averted by the end of the war. In 1919, he was one of 12 high-performing students selected for extra tuition, and he came equal first in third year physiology. He began clinical work in the same year, but found it somewhat unpleasant as he was interested in diagnosing the patient and had little interest in showing empathy towards them.
While at university, he became an agnostic and later an aggressive atheist; he was sceptical of religious faith, which he regarded as "an effort to believe what common sense tells you isn't true." He was also disgusted by what he regarded as hypocritical conduct by religious adherents. Towards the later years of his undergraduate years, his unhappiness with religion began to dog him to a greater extent. He tried to become involved with communism for a brief period but then resolved to devote himself to scientific research. The length of time required to study medicine had been reduced to five years to train doctors faster following the outbreak of World War I, and Burnet graduated with a Bachelor of Medicine and a Bachelor of Surgery in 1922, ranking second in the final exams despite the death of his father a few weeks earlier. His fellow graduates included Ian Wark, Kate Campbell, Jean Macnamara, Rupert Willis and Roy Cameron, who became distinguished scientists in their own right.
He then did a ten-month residency at Melbourne Hospital to gain experience before going into practice. The new graduates spent four months in the medicine ward, another four in surgery, and the remaining two in casualty. In the surgery ward he worked under John Gordon and Alan Newton, both well known surgeons. He enjoyed this period immensely and was disappointed when he had to do his medicine residency. However, he was soon engrossed in his work, having been inspired by the neurologist Richard Stawell, whom Burnet came to idolise. As a result of this he became intent on a career in clinical neurology, and he wrote a theoretical paper about testing sensory losses following peripheral nerve lesions, but his submission to the Clinical Report of the Melbourne Hospital was rejected. Burnet applied to be medical registrar as part of his clinical career path, but the medical superintendent of Melbourne Hospital, who was in charge of such appointments, deemed Burnet's character and personality more suited to a laboratory research career, and asked Burnet to withdraw his application in return for the post of senior resident pathologist, which would become vacant in the following months. Burnet complied.
During the transition period he worked as a pathology registrar at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research and also prepared for his Doctor of Medicine examinations, late in 1923. In 1923 he took up the post of senior resident pathologist at the Melbourne Hospital; the laboratories were a part of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute. He conducted research into the agglutinin reactions in typhoid fever, leading to his first scientific publications. He decided to work full-time on the antibody response in typhoid, even though he was technically supposed to pursuing pathology as part of his obligations to the hospital. Burnet came first in the Doctor of Medicine exams by a long distance, and his score was excluded from the scaling process so that the other students would not fail for being so far behind.
At the time, the Hall Institute was in the early stages of rapid expansion. The new director of the Institute, Charles Kellaway, wanted to increase the activities of the organisation to not only support hospital operations but have separate research groups in physiology, microbiology and biochemistry that would also do independent studies. He also hoped to raise the standards to make the Institute comparable to the world-class operations in Europe and America. Kellaway took a liking to Burnet and saw him as the best young talent in the Institute with the ability to help raise it to world leading standards. However, he thought that Burnet would need experience working in a laboratory in England before he could lead his own research group on bacteriology in Australia. Burnet left Australia for England in 1925 and served as ship's surgeon during his journey in exchange for a free fare. On arrival, he took a paid position assisting the curator of the National Collection of Type Cultures at the Lister Institute in London. Burnet prepared or maintained bacteria cultures for other researchers in the morning and was free to do his own experiments in the afternoon. During the latter half of 1926, he experimented to see if Salmonella typhimurium was affected by bacteriophage.
He was awarded the Beit Memorial Fellowship by the Lister Institute in 1926; this gave him enough money for him to resign his curator position and he began full-time research on bacteriophages. He injected mice with bacteriophage and observed their immunological reactions and believed bacteriophages to be viruses. For this work he received a Ph.D. from the University of London in 1928 under the direction of Professor J. C. G. Ledingham and was invited to write a chapter on bacteriophages for the Medical Research Council's System of Bacteriology. He was also given an invitation to deliver a paper at the Royal Society of Medicine in 1927 on the link between O-agglutinins and bacteriophage. Burnet began attending the Fabian Society functions and befriended some communists, although he refrained from joining them in overt left-wing activism. He also spent his free time enjoying theatre, engaging in amateur archaeology and cycling through continental Europe.
While in London, Burnet became engaged to fellow Australian Edith Linda Marston Druce. She was a secondary school teacher and daughter of a barrister's clerk and the pair had met in 1923 and had a few dates but did not keep in touch. Druce sought out Burnet while on a holiday in London and they quickly agreed to marriage although she had to return to Australia. They married in 1928 after he had completed his Ph.D. and returned to Australia, and had a son and two daughters. At the time, there was a vacancy for the Chair of Bacteriology at the University of London, and Ledingham was lobbying his colleagues to offer Burnet the post, but Burnet returned to Australia, partly because of Druce.
Walter and Eliza Hall Institute
Virology and medicine
When Burnet returned to Australia, he went back to the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, where he was appointed assistant director by Kellaway. His first assignment was to investigate the Bundaberg tragedy, in which 12 children had died after receiving a contaminated diphtheria vaccine. Kellaway was put in charge of a royal commission to investigate the matter and he put Burnet in charge of the laboratory investigations. He identified Staphylococcus aureus in the toxin-antitoxin mixture that had been administered to the children; it had been picked up from the skin of one of the children and then transmitted to the others in the injections. However, it turned out to be another toxin that had caused the children's deaths; this work on staphylococcal toxin piqued his interest in immunology. During this time, he continued to study bacteriophages, writing 32 papers on phages between 1924 and 1937. In 1929, Burnet and his graduate assistant Margot McKie wrote a paper suggesting that bacteriophages could exist as a stable non-infectious form that multiplies with the bacterial host. Their pioneering description of lysogeny was not accepted until much later, and was crucial to the work of Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey and Salvador Luria on the replication mechanism and genetics of viruses, for which they were awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Between 1932 and 1933, Burnet took leave of absence to undertake a fellowship at the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The Great Depression had resulted in Burnet's salary being cut from 1000 to 750 pounds, and the National Institute had been given a large grant from the Rockefeller Foundation that allowed them to hire Burnet at 1000 pounds per annum. The National Institute's Director Sir Henry Dale gained permission from Kellaway for the two-year move; Kellaway promised to hold Burnet's job for him when he returned and felt that the experience would make Burnet—whom he saw as the Hall Institute's brightest young scientist—better equipped to expand operations when he returned to Melbourne. Dale also paid for Burnet's sister to travel to England to help look after her brother's young children.
Significant breakthroughs in virology were made while he was there, including the isolation and first demonstration of the transmission of the influenza virus. His own research was on the canarypox virus, which he used in developing a chick embryo assay for the isolation and quantification of animal viruses. Dale offered Burnet a permanent position but he declined and returned to the Hall Institute. Following his productive work in London, the Rockefeller Institute agreed to fund a new virus research laboratory in Melbourne for Burnet. He brought back a set of viruses from the National Institute to begin the basis of research in Melbourne.
When Burnet returned to Australia, he continued his work on virology, including the epidemiology of herpes simplex. He was also involved in two projects that were not viral, the characterisation of the causative agents of psittacosis and Q fever. After finding that parrots and cockatoos were infected with psittacosis and were responsible for transmission, he lobbied the government for a ban in order to prevent human infection, but he was rebuffed and later came to agree with the government position that there was not much danger. During the time he worked on Q fever with Australian scientist E.H. Derrick, the causative organism of which was named Coxiella burnetii in Burnet's honour, he became the first person to acquire the disease in the laboratory. His epidemiological studies of herpes and Q fever displayed an appreciation of the ecology of infectious disease that became a characteristic of his scientific method.
During World War II, Burnet's research moved to influenza and scrub typhus. With the outbreak of war, Burnet was handed more responsibility and made acting director and had to oversee the move into a new building as Kellaway was seconded to the military in 1939. Due to Kellaway, many of the infectious disease problems afflicting the military were referred to the Institute. Fearing a repeat of the massive global influenza outbreak that occurred after World War I, Burnet focused the Institute in the search for a vaccine. He first tested the vaccine on a group of medical students, and after a promising test on 107 army volunteers in February 1942 following a rise in infections, a large-scale program was introduced two months later to inoculate all new recruits after an influenza A outbreak. In this trial, 20,000 personnel were vaccinated, without success, and the scheme was abandoned. In 1942, the investigations into scrub typhus accelerated after an exodus of researchers in that field from Malaya after the Japanese conquest of the area. However, this ended in tragedy when his collaborator Dora Lush accidentally injected herself and then died of the infection. Nevertheless, his work on immunisation had earned him international recognition by this time.
Burnet's first book, Biological Aspects of Infectious Disease, was published in 1940. It had wide influence and was translated into several languages. In 1942 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1944 he travelled to Harvard University to deliver the Dunham Lectures. There he was offered a chair, but he refused and returned to Australia. This was attributed to his nationalistic tendencies, as well as his sense of loyalty to the Hall Institute. During his trip he also visited the US military facility at Fort Bragg, where he discussed his work on influenza with the scientists working there.
In 1944, he was appointed director of the Institute when Kellaway was appointed director of the Wellcome Foundation. Although Kellaway had groomed Burnet to become a pivotal figure, he was hesitant as to whether Burnet would be at his most effective with a strategic leadership role. Kellaway thought that Burnet might not be suited to the post, and should have continued to focus purely on research for the time being. Burnet had similar doubts, particularly given his taciturn nature, but applied for the position anyway. Although he was not known for his social skills, his ability as a scientist and to impart ideas for investigation to his subordinates held his leadership and the Institute in good stead. Unlike his predecessor, who valued a broad gamut of research activities, Burnet was of the opinion that the Institute could not make a significant impact at global level in this way, and he pursued a policy of focusing all effort into one area at a time. Always a strong-willed and rather isolated man, he became more single-minded and less tolerant of criticism of his work and expected a more hierarchical structure and unquestioning obedience. According to biographer Sexton, he "displayed a kind of territorial protectiveness in relation to his own work".
In 1944, it was decided by the University of Melbourne that Burnet would be appointed a professor as part of a cooperative program so that university students could be experimentally trained at the Institute, while the researchers engaged in some teaching. This was not a success, and there was much tension, as Burnet repeatedly expressed his opinion in public that university teaching and research should be kept separate, at one point leading to a series of open letters from university professors decrying his attitude. Burnet was also not interested in the politics of university funding, and his disengagement from administrative matters engendered resentment. On the other hand, Burnet was vigorous in obtaining funding for the Hall Institute from government bodies, resorting to the bluff of feigning interest in moving overseas to secure continued strong backing. However, he was criticised for being thrifty and refusing to invest in cutting edge equipment, despite the Hall Institute's high standing in research circles. Colleagues believed that he was sceptical of modern technology and thought his outlook to be limiting.
In 1946, he initiated the Clinical Research Unit to allow for closer cooperation with the clinical activities of the now named Royal Melbourne Hospital. Despite his known derisive views of clinical science as being inferior, he supported the work enthusiastically.
Under Burnet's direction, scientists at the Institute made significant contributions to infectious disease research during a period that has been called the "golden age of virology". Virologists including Alick Isaacs, Gordon Ada, John Cairns, Stephen Fazekas de St. Groth, and Frank Fenner made significant contributions on Murray Valley encephalitis, myxomatosis, poliomyelitis, poxviruses, herpes and influenza.
Burnet made significant contributions to influenza research; he developed techniques to grow and study the virus, including hemagglutination assays. He worked on a live vaccine against influenza, but the vaccine was unsuccessful when tested during World War II. His interest in the influenza receptor led him to discover the neuraminidase that is secreted by Vibrio cholerae, which later provided the foundation for Alfred Gottschalk's significant work on glycoproteins and the neuraminidase substrate, sialic acid. Between 1951 and 1956, Burnet worked on the genetics of influenza. He examined the genetic control of virulence and demonstrated that the virus recombined at high frequency; this observation was not fully appreciated until several years later, when the segmented genome of influenza was demonstrated.
Immunology
In 1957, Burnet decided that research at the Institute should focus on immunology. Burnet reached the decision unilaterally, leaving many of the research staff disillusioned and feeling the action was arrogant; for Burnet's part he was comfortable with the decision as he thought it to be effective. Many virologists left the Institute and settled the Australian National University's John Curtin School of Medical Research. After 1957 all new staff and students at the Institute worked on immunological problems; Burnet was involved in work relating to autoimmune diseases and the graft-versus-host reaction, and increasingly in theoretical studies of immunology, immunological surveillance and cancer.
At the time, immunology was becoming more sophisticated, with the increasing role of molecular biology and biochemistry. Burnet was suspicious of the direction in which immunology was headed, and the increasing emphasis on technology and more intricate experiments, and colleagues felt that Burnet's conservative attitude was a factor in his decision to turn the Institute's focus to immunology.
Burnet began to switch his focus to immunology in the 1940s. In 1941 he wrote a monograph called "The Production of Antibodies", which was revised and reissued in 1949 with Frank Fenner as a co-author. This book is seen as a key publication in immunology—it marks the move from the study of immunology as a chemical endeavour to a biological one. Importantly in this work, he introduced the concept of "self" and "non-self" to immunology. The distinction between self and non-self was an integral part of Burnet's biological outlook, of his interest in the living organism in its totality, its activities, and interactions. Burnet regarded the "self" of the host body as being actively defined during its embryogenesis through complex interactions between immune cells and all the other cells and molecules within an embryo.
Using the concept of self, Burnet introduced a hypothesis about the situation where the body failed to make antibodies to its own components (autoimmunity) and by extension the idea of immune tolerance. He proposed that
if in embryonic life expendable cells from a genetically distinct race are implanted and established, no antibody response should develop against the foreign cell antigen when the animal takes on independent existence.
Burnet was, however, unable to prove this experimentally. Peter Medawar, Rupert E. Billingham and Leslie Brent did find support for Burnet's hypothesis in 1953 when they showed that splenocytes could be engrafted by intravenous infusion into mice in utero or just after birth and that when these mice matured, they could accept skin and other tissues from the donor but not from any other mouse strain. Burnet and Medawar were co-recipients of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work, as it provided the experimental basis for inducing immune tolerance, thereby allowing the transplantation of solid organs. Burnet and Medawar were able to coordinate their work effectively despite their rather different personalities and physical separation; Burnet was taciturn whereas Medawar was a young and urbane Englishman, but they greatly respected one another.
However, later studies showed that cells or tissues transplanted before the immune system development of the recipient, such as in embryonic recipients, could be treated as foreign and trigger rejection, countering Burnet's explanation for self tolerance. In contrast to the Burnet hypothesis of a special tolerance-inducing period defined by the age of the animal, Joshua Lederberg proposed in 1959, that it is the age of the lymphocyte that defines whether an antigen that is encountered will induce tolerance, with immature lymphocytes being tolerance-sensitive. Lederberg's concept is now known as central tolerance, and is widely accepted. It may also explain the success of some transplants given early in life and the failure to induce tolerance in other studies. Burnet noted that his contributions to immune tolerance were strictly theoretical:
My part in the discovery of acquired immunological tolerance was a very minor one—it was the formulation of an hypothesis that called for experiment.
Burnet was interested in how the body produces antibodies in response to antigens. The dominant idea in the literature through the 1940s was that the antigen acted as a template for antibody production, which was known as the "instructive" hypothesis. Burnet was not satisfied with this explanation, and in the second edition of "The Production of Antibodies", he and Fenner advanced an indirect template theory which proposed that each antigen could influence the genome, thus effecting the production of antibodies. In 1956 he became interested in Niels Kaj Jerne's natural selection hypothesis, which described a mechanism for immune response based on an earlier theory of Nobel-winning immunologist Paul Ehrlich. Jerne proposed that the antigen bound to an antibody by chance and, that upon binding, more antibodies to that antigen would be produced. Burnet developed a model which he named clonal selection that expanded on and improved Jerne's hypothesis. Burnet proposed that each lymphocyte bears on its surface specific immunoglobulins reflecting the specificity of the antibody that will later be synthesised once the cell is activated by an antigen. The antigen serves as a selective stimulus, causing preferential proliferation and differentiation of
the clones that have receptors for that antigen.
In 1958 Gustav Nossal and Lederberg showed that one B cell always produces only one antibody, which was the first evidence for clonal selection theory. Burnet wrote further about the theory in his 1959 book The Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity. His theory predicted almost all of the key features of the immune system as we understand it today, including autoimmune disease, immune tolerance and somatic hypermutation as a mechanism in antibody production. The clonal selection theory became one of the central concepts of immunology, and Burnet regarded his contributions to the theoretical understanding of the immune system as his greatest contribution to science, writing that he and Jerne should have received the Nobel for this work. Jerne was recognised for his contributions to the conceptualisation of the immune system when he was a co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in 1984.
There is some contention over Burnet's publication of his version of the theory in the Australian Journal of Science in 1957. Some commentators argue he published in an Australian journal to fast-track his hypothesis and obtain priority for his theory over ideas that were published later that year in a paper written by David Talmage, which Burnet had read prior to its publication. In his paper Burnet cited Talmage's review, and in a later interview, Talmage said he believed that Burnet "truthfully had developed the idea before he received my paper". The theory is now sometimes known as Burnet's clonal selection theory, which overlooks the contributions of Ehrlich, Jerne, Talmage, and the contributions of Lederberg, who conceptualised the genetics of clonal selection.
Burnet's work on graft-versus-host was in collaboration with Lone Simonsen between 1960 and 1962. Simonsen had shown in 1957 that when a chick embryo was inoculated intravenously with adult-fowl blood, a graft-versus-host reaction occurred; this was known as the Simonsen phenomenon. Their work in this system would later help to explain passenger leukocytes in transplantation. The last project he worked on at the Institute was a study with assistant Margaret Holmes of autoimmune disease in the New Zealand black mouse model; this mouse has a high incidence of spontaneous autoimmune hemolytic anemia. They looked at the inheritance of autoimmune disease, and their use of immunosuppressive drug cyclophosphamide to treat the disease influenced the use of immunosuppressive drugs in human autoimmune disease.
In 1960, Burnet scaled back his laboratory work, taking one day off per week to concentrate on writing. In 1963, Autoimmune Diseases: Pathogenesis, Chemistry and Therapy, which he authored with Ian Mackay, was published. He also oversaw an expansion of the Hall Institute and secured funding from the Nuffield Foundation and the state government to build two further floors in the building and take over some of the space taken up by the pathology department at the Royal Melbourne Hospital. Despite this, Burnet believed that a world class research body needed to be small enough that one person could effectively run it, and maintained tight control over its activities throughout his leadership. He determined the policies himself, and personally selected all of the research staff and students, relying on a small staff to enforce his plans.
He continued to be active in the laboratory until his retirement in 1965, although his experimental time began to decrease as the operations became increasingly focused on immunology; Burnet's work in this area had been mostly theoretical. Gustav Nossal became the next director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute. Under Burnet's leadership the Institute had become "probably the world's best known research centre devoted to the study of immunology." However, with the increasing sophistication in medical science and its reliance on more complicated technology, Burnet's lone-wolf approach became less compatible with the research environment, which required more collaboration. In his final years at the helm, Burnet allowed more technical modernisation during the transition period to Nossal's leadership.
Public health and policy
From 1937 Burnet was involved in a variety of scientific and public policy bodies, starting with a position on a government advisory council on polio. After he became the director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute in 1944, he was considered a public figure and overcame shyness to become a good public speaker. He recognised the importance of co-operation with the media if the general public was to understand science and scientists, and his writings and lectures played an important part in the formulation of public attitudes and policy in Australia on a variety of biological topics. However, despite making many appearances on radio and television, he never became at ease with interviews and had to be selective with outreach engagements due to the many invitations he received, and tended to accept those that had the potential to promote the Institute. Over time, he began to increase his activism, as he felt more confident that he would be able to make an impact as his reputation grew, especially after winning the Nobel Prize, and even more so after his retirement from the directorship of the Institute. Although Burnet was not naturally outgoing, he saw it as the social responsibility of a scientific leader and scholar to publicly speak out and impart wisdom and foresight to the wider community.
Burnet served as a member or chairman of scientific committees, both in Australia and overseas. Between 1947 and 1953, he was a member of the National Health and Medical Research Council's Medical Research Advisory Committee. The committee advised on funding for medical research in Australia. During this same period (1947–52), he was also a member of the Commonwealth government's Defence Research and Development Policy Committee. Declassified files from this committee show that Burnet made the recommendation that Australia pursue development of chemical and biological weapons to target the food stocks of "Indonesia and other "overpopulated" countries of South-East Asia" and spread infectious diseases. His report was titled War from a Biological Angle. Between 1955 and 1959, he was chairman of the Australian Radiation Advisory Committee; he was concerned that Australians were being exposed to unnecessary medical and industrial radiation.
Internationally, Burnet was a chairman of the Papua New Guinea Medical Research Advisory Committee between 1962 and 1969. At the time, Papua New Guinea was an Australian territory, and Burnet had first travelled there as his son was posted there. His role on the committee allowed him to explore his interest in human biology. He was particularly interested in kuru (laughing sickness), and lobbied the Australian government to establish the Papua New Guinea Institute of Human Biology. Burnet later helped oversee the institute's contribution to the Anglo-Australian participation in the International Biological Programme in the Field of Human Adaptability.
Burnet served as first chair for the Commonwealth Foundation (1966–69), a Commonwealth initiative to foster interaction between the member countries' elite, and he was also active in the World Health Organization, serving on the Expert Advisory Panels on Virus Diseases and on Immunology between 1952 and 1969 and the World Health Organization Medical Research Advisory Committee between 1969 and 1973.
In 1964, he was appointed to sit on the University Council of Victoria's third university La Trobe on an interim basis until the institution was formed in 1966. He served until 1970. He advocated a less hierarchical relationship between a professor and student, something seen as a move away from the English tradition prevalent in Australia towards an American model. He also called for the downgrading of the importance placed on the liberal arts. His ideas were too radical for his peers and he stepped down from the role in 1970 after none of his suggestions had made an impact.
Burnet was opposed to the use of nuclear power in Australia owing to the issues of nuclear proliferation. He later retracted his objections to uranium mining in Australia, feeling that nuclear power was necessary while other renewable energy sources were being developed. In the late 1960s and 1970s, he was also vocal in the anti-smoking movement; he was one of the first high-profile figures in Australia to educate the public on the dangers of tobacco, and he appeared in a television advertisement criticising the ethics of tobacco advertising, and broadcasters for displaying such material. He and fellow activists were surprised that the commercial was allowed to run briefly, before being taken off air by the station, which only further generated attention for the anti-smoking campaign. A former smoker, he had rejected the habit in the 1950s after several friends died. Burnet was also a critic of the Vietnam War and called for the creation of an international police force.
Later life
Following his resignation from the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Burnet was offered an office at the University of Melbourne in the School of Microbiology. While at the university, he wrote 13 books on a variety of topics including immunology, ageing and cancer, and human biology. He also wrote an autobiography entitled Changing Patterns: An Atypical Autobiography, which was released in 1968. In all, he wrote a further 16 books after his retirement from the Hall Institute. He was known for his ability to write quickly, often without a final draft, and his ability to convey a message to readers from a wide spectrum of backgrounds, but he was himself sceptical that his opinions had much influence. In 1969 he published Cellular Immunology, considered his magnum opus on immunity, which attempted to show how various phenomena could be predicted by the clonal selection theory. The following year, he wrote Immunological Surveillance, which expounded his established opinion that mammals could immunise themselves through their ability to detect foreign patterns in the body. He continued to maintain an intense and focused work schedule, often shunning others to keep up a heavy writing load.
He became president of the Australian Academy of Science in 1965, having been a foundational fellow when the Academy was formed in 1954. He had been offered the presidency in 1958 to replace the inaugural head Sir Mark Oliphant, but declined, although he served on the council and as vice president in 1961–63. As president he was recognised by both government and the public as the leading scientist in Australia. His stature as a scientist gave him the gravitas to end policy disputes, and gave the Academy and its advocacy more credibility in the eyes of government and industry. As such his term was considered to be highly successful. Oliphant said that Burnet's personal prestige was very important in the increased respect the AAS won and that he "made the biological sciences far more acceptable in Australia".
He helped establish the Academy's Science and Industry Forum, which was formed in the second year of his leadership in order to improve dialogue between researchers and industrialists. It investigated whether a national science policy should be formulated and led to the eventual creation of the Australian Science and Technology Council. He also laid the foundations of the Australian Biological Resources Study. When his presidency ended in 1969, the Academy founded the Macfarlane Burnet Medal and Lecture, which is the Academy's highest award for biological sciences.
As in many of his previous pursuits, Burnet set an ambitious agenda for himself but ran into difficulties. He saw the Academy as the peak lobby group of the scientific community and their main liaison with government and industry. He tried to lift its profile and use it to persuade the political and industrial leadership to invest more in science. He also wanted to use the Academy to increase the involvement of the eminent scientists of Australia in training and motivating the next generation, but these initiatives were not successful due to a lack of concrete method. Most controversially, he tried to change the membership criteria of the Academy. He wanted to stop the Royal Society from operating in Australia and accepting new Australian members. He reasoned that the Australian Academy would not be strong if the Royal Society would be able to compete with it, and he felt that if Australian scientists were allowed to possess membership of both bodies, the more established Royal Society would make the Australian Academy look poor in comparison. Questions were raised over the existing dual members—such as Burnet—being able to maintain their status and the hypocrisy thereby entailed in Burnet's nationalistic proposal, and it was defeated heavily.
In 1966, Burnet accepted a nomination from Australia Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies to become the inaugural chairman of the Commonwealth Foundation, a body that aimed to increase the professional interchange between the various nations of the British Commonwealth. Burnet served in the role for three years and helped start it on a path of steady growth, although he was unable to use it as a personal platform to espouse the importance of human biology.
Burnet's essays and books published in his later life caused contention within the scientific community and to the chagrin of his peers Burnet often made pessimistic proclamations about the future of science. In 1966 Burnet wrote an opinion article for The Lancet entitled "Men or Molecules?" in which he questioned the usefulness of molecular biology, arguing that it had not and would not contribute anything of use to medicine and that manipulation of the genome as had been demonstrated in bacteria would do more harm to humans than good. Gustav Nossal subsequently described Burnet as "a biologist with a love-hate affair with biochemistry, which led to a brief but damaging rejection of the worth of molecular biology."
He delivered the inaugural Oscar Mendelsohn lecture in 1971 at Monash University and advocated policies for Australia such as population control, prevention of war, long-term plans for the management of the environment and natural resources, Aboriginal land rights, socialism, recycling, advertising bans on socially harmful products, and more regulation of the environment. He angrily denounced French nuclear testing in the Pacific, and after consistently voting for the ruling Liberal Party coalition as it ruled for the past few decades, signed an open letter backing the opposition Labor Party of Gough Whitlam, which took power in 1972. However, he soon spoke out against Whitlam's lack of action against tobacco advertising and French nuclear tests. Burnet often found himself frustrated with the refusal of politicians to base policy on long-term objectives, such as the sustainability of human life.
In 1971–72, he wrote four books, most notably, Genes, Dreams and Realities, which caused great controversy due to its strident attacks on molecular biology, cellular biology, and claims that cancer and various other diseases were incurable and that it was pointless to try to do so. He also predicted that scientific progress would end soon.
Burnet spoke and wrote widely on the topic of human biology after his retirement, aiming to reach all strata of society. He courted the media as well as the scientific community, often leading to sensationalist or scientifically unrigorous report of his outspoken views. This often angered colleagues, who viewed him as abusing his stature to deliberately cause a stir. In 1966 Burnet presented the Boyer Lectures, focusing on human biology. He provided a conceptual framework for sustainable development; 21 years later the definition provided by the Brundtland Commission was almost identical. In 1970 he revised an earlier book which was published as Dominant Mammal: the Biology of Human Destiny; it was followed by Endurance of Life, which was published in 1978. The books discuss aspects of human biology, a topic which Burnet wrote on extensively in his later years. In Dominant Mammal he argued that the roots of all human behaviour can be found in the behaviour of animals; in Endurance he addressed issues of ageing, life, death and the future of mankind. The books strongly polarised the scientific community, and one reviewer described his ideas of sociobiology as "extreme" and giving "a dismal, unappealing view of humanity". In Endurance of Life, he also called for society to accept euthanasia of ill older people, repeat violent criminals, and most controversially, abortion of pregnancies likely to result in disabled children, and infanticide of handicapped newborns. Knowing that there would be a strong backlash for such policies, he departed overseas for a two-month lecture series at the time of the book launch. In his absence, he was strongly assailed in newspaper letters and some correspondents compared his stance on infanticide to that of Adolf Hitler. At the same time, he also changed his stance on nuclear power and advocated its use, and the reinvestment of revenue for research into solar power. This about face angered the environmental movement.
His first wife, Edith Linda Druce, died from lymphoid leukaemia in 1973, after a four-year struggle. During her final years, Burnet refused all offers of lectures overseas to spend more time nursing his ailing wife. For a period after this he became very lethargic and reclusive, numbed by his wife's death. He then moved into Ormond College for company, and resumed beetle collecting, but for a year after her death, Burnet tried to alleviate his grief by writing mock letters to her once a week. Gradually he regained his enthusiasm and began writing again. In 1975, he travelled to California to deliver a series of lectures. In 1976 he married Hazel G. Jenkins, a widowed former singer from a business family in her 70s who was working in the microbiology department as a librarian, and moved out of Ormond College.
In 1978 Burnet decided to officially retire; in retirement he wrote two books. During this time, he missed his laboratory work, and he was constrained to social events and theorising. In 1982, Burnet was one of three contributors to Challenge to Australia, writing about genetic issues and their impact on the nation's impact. As a result of the success of the book, in early 1983, Burnet was appointed to the 70-person Australian Advisory Council of Elders to offer counsel to policymakers, but the group folded after several members became too frail or died.
Burnet continued to travel and speak, but in the early 1980s, he and his wife became increasingly hampered by illness. Having surmised his illness two years earlier, in November 1984 he underwent surgery for colorectal cancer. He made plans to resume scientific meetings, but was then taken ill again, with significant pain in his thorax and legs. Secondary lesions were found in June 1985 and declared to be inoperable and terminal. A supporter of euthanasia, Burnet was unfazed by his imminent death, and he died on 31 August at his son's home at Port Fairy after two months' of illness. He was given a state funeral by the government of Australia; many of his distinguished colleagues from the Hall Institute such as Nossal and Fenner were pall-bearers, and he was buried near his paternal grandparents after a private family service at Tower Hill cemetery in Koroit, near Port Fairy. Following his death he was honoured by the House of Representatives; Prime Minister Bob Hawke took the highly unusual step of moving a condolence motion, an honour typically reserved for parliamentarians. Lady Hazel Burnet died in 1990.
Global policy
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.
Honours and legacy
Burnet received extensive honours for his contributions to science and public life during his lifetime. He was knighted in the 1951 New Year Honours, received the Elizabeth II Coronation Medal in 1953, and was elected appointed to the Order of Merit (OM) in the 1958 Queen's Birthday Honours. In 1960 he was the first recipient of the honorary Australian of the Year award. He received a Gold and Silver Star from the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun in 1961. He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 1969 New Year Honours, and received the Elizabeth II Jubilee Medal in 1977. In 1978 he was made a Knight of the Order of Australia (AK). He was only the fourth person to receive this honour.
He was a fellow or honorary member of 30 international Academies of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. He received 10 honorary D.Sc. degrees from universities including Cambridge, Harvard and Oxford, an honorary M.D. degree from Hahnemann Medical College (now part of Drexel University), an honorary Doctor of Medical Science from the Medical University of South Carolina and a LL.D. degree from the University of Melbourne. Including his Nobel, he received 19 medals or awards including the Royal Medal and the Copley Medal from the Royal Society and the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research; he also received 33 international lectureships and 17 lectureships within Australia.
After his death, Australia's largest communicable diseases research institute—the Macfarlane Burnet Centre for Medical Research was renamed in his honour. The Burnet Clinical Research Unit of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute was also named in his honour in 1986. In 1975 his work on immunology was recognised by a 33-cent stamp released by Australia Post. Seven Australian medical scientists were commemorated in the issue of a set of four Australian stamps released in 1995; he appears on the 45-cent stamp with fellow University of Melbourne graduate Jean Macnamara. He also appears on a Dominican stamp that was issued in 1997. The centenary of his birth was celebrated in Australia in 1999; a statue of him was erected in Franklin Street, Traralgon; and several events were held in his honour including the release of a new edition of his biography by Oxford University Press.
Burnet biographer Christopher Sexton suggests that Burnet's legacy is fourfold: (1) the scope and quality of his research; (2) his nationalistic attitude which led him to stay in Australia, leading to the development of science in Australia and inspiring future generations of Australian scientists; (3) his success establishing the reputation of Australian medical research worldwide; and (4) his books, essays and other writings. In spite of his sometimes controversial ideas on science and humanity, Peter C. Doherty has noted that "Burnet's reputation is secure in his achievements as an experimentalist, a theoretician and a leader of the Australian scientific community."
See also
List of books by Frank Macfarlane Burnet
Timeline of immunology
List of Australian Nobel Laureates
Notes
References
This article also contains a full list of Burnet's publications.
Further reading
External links
Australian Science and Technology Heritage Centre – Frank Macfarlane Burnet Guide to Records
1899 births
1985 deaths
Alumni of the University of London
Australian atheists
Australian agnostics
Academic staff of the University of Melbourne
Australian immunologists
Australian medical researchers
Australian Nobel laureates
Australian of the Year Award winners
Australian people of Scottish descent
Australian virologists
Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Australian Fellows of the Royal Society
Australian Fellows of the Royal Society of New Zealand
Australian Knights Bachelor
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Australian members of the Order of Merit
Deaths from cancer in Victoria (state)
Knights of the Order of Australia
Medical doctors from Melbourne
Melbourne Medical School alumni
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
People educated at Geelong College
People from the City of Latrobe
Phage workers
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Royal Medal winners
WEHI alumni
National Institute for Medical Research faculty
People from Traralgon
Presidents of the Australian Academy of Science
Recipients of the James Spence Medal
20th-century Australian scientists
Presidents of the International Union of Microbiological Societies
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Members of the American Philosophical Society
World Constitutional Convention call signatories
|
417532
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20Hunter
|
City Hunter
|
is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tsukasa Hojo. It was serialized in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1985 to 1991, with its chapters collected in 35 tankōbon volumes. The manga was adapted into an anime television series by Sunrise Studios in 1987. The anime series was popular in numerous Asian and European countries.
City Hunter spawned a media franchise consisting of numerous adaptations and spin-offs from several countries. The franchise includes four anime television series, three anime television specials, five animated feature films (including a film released in February 2019 and upcoming one in September 2023), several live-action films (including a Hong Kong film starring Jackie Chan and a French film), video games, and a live-action Korean TV drama. It also had a spin-off manga, Angel Heart, which in turn spawned its own anime television series and a live-action Japanese TV drama.
Plot
The series follows the exploits of Ryo Saeba, a "sweeper" who is always found chasing beautiful girls and a private detective who works to rid Tokyo of crime, along with his associate or partner, Hideyuki Makimura. Their "City Hunter" business is an underground jack-of-all-trades operation, contacted by writing the letters "XYZ" on a blackboard at Shinjuku Station.
One day, Hideyuki is murdered, and Ryo must take care of Hideyuki's sister, Kaori, a tomboy who becomes his new partner in the process. However, Kaori is very susceptible and jealous, often hitting Ryo with a giant hammer when he does something perverted. The story also follows the behind-the-scenes romance between Ryo and Kaori and the way they cooperate throughout each mission.
Characters
Ryo is the main protagonist of the series. At the age of three, Ryo was the only survivor of a plane crash in Central America. He was raised as a guerilla fighter and has no knowledge of his prior identity. After the war, Ryo makes his way to the United States, before eventually moving to Tokyo.
While in Tokyo, he forms the "City Hunter" team with Hideyuki Makimura, but after Hideyuki's death, Kaori takes his place as Ryo's new partner. A highly skilled gunman, Ryo is known for executing the "one-hole shot", a series of shots that all land in exactly the same spot on the target. His preferred weapon is the Colt Python .357 Magnum.
Ryo invented the nickname Umibozu for his fellow colleague Hayato Ijuin, and he answered giving Ryo his own, (an ironic name, because Ryo is a real pervert who tries to hit on any beautiful woman he meets or sees, failing every time). Ryo is an accomplished marksman with revolvers, semiautomatic guns, machine-pistols, rifles, carbines and crossbows; he knows hand-to-hand combat very well and drives as a real daredevil when needed; his car is a Mini.
Kaori is Ryo Saeba's partner. She is primarily responsible for arranging clients and other managerial tasks. Ryo's skirt-chasing rouses her ire more than just once. Though the partners frequently pick on fights or arguments, they actually form a great team together. She might have been mistaken as a man sometimes due to her hairstyle. She is the adoptive Hideyuki's sister, her real name being .
Hideyuki is Kaori's adopted older brother and Ryo's partner at the beginning of the series. Kaori is not related to him by blood, his father had adopted her when she was a child. He is a former police detective with a strong sense of justice. Kaori become Ryo's partner and takes over her brother's role after he is murdered by gangsters. His last wish before he died was for Ryo to take care of his sister.
Umibōzu is another "sweeper" working the rounds in Tokyo. Umibozu is a Special Forces enemy of Ryo's from the Central America conflict. Despite being on opposing forces, the two develop a friendship and mutual respect. Between his jobs, Umibozu works as waiter at the Cat's Eye café, owned by Miki, his former fellow soldier and lover. He goes by the professional name and his real name is ; the kanji haya in his name can also be read hayabusa (falcon in Japanese), hence his professional name; the nickname "Umibōzu" was given by Ryo. His favorite weapons are the S&W M29 .44 Magnum six-inch revolver, the Saco-Defense M60 machine-gun (sometimes he uses the M249) and the M1A6 bazooka. Despite his fearsome appearance he has a phobia of kittens, he is very shy with women and much more unselfish than Ryo. His vision is very weak because a fight he had with Ryo in Central America, when Ryo was a guerrilla fighter and Umibozu was a mercenary; since then, Umibozu wants a duel with Ryo to close that story; during the series, he will go permanently blind and he'll have to learn how to use the other four senses to move and fight; however, he decides to not retire before finishing their matter. Later Shin Kaibara, Ryo's adoptive father and former guerrilla fighter who became a drug lord, comes in Japan; his drug was tested on Ryo during his youth, causing him to attack Umibozu and his unit; when Umibozu learns this from Bloody Mary, an old acquaintance of Ryo's and daughter of the other Ryo's fatherly figure in the jungle, he joins Ryo and Kaori against Kaibara. During the last story arc he marries Miki, but she is shot by enemy soldiers deployed by a new enemy of Ryo; Umibozu enters the firefight trusting Miki will not die.
The Umibōzu is a yokai (spirit) from Japanese folklore; he is said to turn ships upside down if someone aboard talks to him; he is portrayed bald as a bōzu (Buddhist monk); the character umi means 'sea'.
Miki was a war orphan who Umibozu found in a completely destroyed village. Contrary to her habits, Umibozu decided to take her with him and teach her everything she knew so that she would one day be able to get by on her own. Only when Miki shows her intentions of joining the Umibozu guerrilla squad will she understand that she has radically changed her life, and feeling guilty will he try to make her a "normal" girl again by abandoning her, after making her believe that he would return to the civilized world with her. Miki, however, does not give up and after much research she manages to find her Falcon and make him accept a pact: if she manages to kill Ryo Saeba, Umibozu will agree to marry her. To do this Miki will become the owner of the Cat's Eye, where Ryo will begin to go more and more often attracted by the beauty of the woman. In the end Miki will not kill Ryo, but thanks to Kaori's complicity and that of Ryo himself, she will still be able to have him next to her in the Cat's Eye, until they get married. The Cat's Eye will become a staple of the anime and a favorite bar for the two sweepers, as that's where they will always take their customers and give rise to the most spectacular fights.
Saeko is a Tokyo police detective and Reika's older sister who often outsources certain tasks to the City Hunter team. Ryo keeps a long and detailed list of what Saeko owes him for the various favours he has done for her, which she always manages to avoid paying.
Reika is Saeko's younger sister.
Media
Manga
Written and illustrated by Tsukasa Hojo, City Hunter started in Shueisha's shōnen manga anthology Weekly Shōnen Jump on February 26, 1985, and ran until the December 2, 1991, issue. Its chapters were collected by Shueisha in 35 volumes, under the Jump Comics imprince, between January 15, 1986, and April 15, 1992. In these volumes the series is grouped into 55 different stories or "episodes" instead of as their original individual chapters. Each story is centred on a different female character or "heroine". The series was an 18 volume edition by Shueisha from June 18, 1996, to October 17, 1997. A third edition of 32 volumes was published by Tokuma Shoten from December 16, 2003, to April 15, 2005. To celebrate the 30th anniversary of the series, a fourth edition City Hunter XYZ edition is being published by Tokuma Shoten across twelve volumes. The first volume was published on July 18, 2015. The eighth volume was published on October 20, 2015.
Takehiko Inoue was an assistant on the series.
Attempts were made to license the series for the American comic market during the 1980s; however, Hojo insisted the manga should be released in the right-to-left format. In 2002 Coamix created an American subsidiary, Gutsoon! Entertainment. City Hunter was a flagship title in their Raijin Comics anthology. Raijin switched from a weekly format to a monthly format before being cancelled after 46 issues.
In 2012, the series was available to read in Japanese as an iPhone application by Rainbow Apps. However, by October 31, 2016, the service was officially terminated.
In 2001, Hojo started a spin-off series titled Angel Heart. The series takes place in a universe parallel to City Hunter, where the character of Kaori Makimura is killed and her heart transplanted into Xiang-Ying, Angel Hearts protagonist.
A spin-off manga titled was launched July 25, 2017, in Tokuma Shoten's Monthly Comic Zenon magazine. It is centered around a 40-year-old unmarried woman who is a fan of Ryō Saeba and the City Hunter manga, and suddenly dies in a train accident and is reincarnated into the world of City Hunter.
In 2022, Coamix's Mangahot service began publishing City Hunter manga in English digitaly.
Anime
The series was adapted into an anime series produced by Sunrise, directed by Kanetsugu Kodama and broadcast by Yomiuri Television. City Hunter was broadcast for 51 episodes between April 6, 1987, and March 28, 1988, and released on 10 VHS cassettes between December 1987 and July 1988. City Hunter 2 was broadcast for 63 episodes between April 8 and July 14 and released on 10 VHS cassettes between August 1988 and March 1990. City Hunter 3 was broadcast for 13 episodes from October 15, 1989, to January 21, 1990, and released on 6 VHS cassettes between November 1990 and April 1991. City Hunter '91 was broadcast between April 28 and October 10, 1991, and released on 6 VHS cassettes between February and July 1992. The series was later reissued as 20 video compilations.
A 32-disc DVD boxset, City Hunter Complete, was published by Aniplex and released in Japan on August 31, 2005. The set contained all four series, the TV specials and animated movies as well as an art book and figures of Ryo and Kaori. 26 of the discs comprising the four series were then released individually between December 19, 2007, and August 27, 2008. 30,000 box sets were sold, grossing (), in Japan.
For the 30th anniversary of the original manga, buyers of all 12 volumes of City Hunter XYZ edition were entitled receive a "motion graphic anime" DVD. The DVDe adapted a special Angel Heart chapter entitled "Ryo's Proposal" and was voiced by the original City Hunter cast.
The series was licensed by ADV Films for release in North America; they announced their acquisition in May 1998 at Project A-Kon 9. The first City Hunter series was released on the ADV Fansubs label in March 2000. The aim of this label was to provide cheaper subtitled-only VHS releases at a faster pace than usual. The series was scheduled for 13 tapes, consisting of four episodes each. The tapes could be ordered individually or as a subscription service.
ADV later released the series on DVD. The first series was released as two boxsets of 5 discs on July 29, 2003. City Hunter 2 was released as another two boxsets of five discs on October 28, and November 18, 2003. City Hunter 3 was released as a single boxset on December 2, 2003, and City Hunter '91 was released on December 16, 2003.
On April 20, 2019, Discotek Media announced that they had licensed the entire City Hunter animated franchise, including the 2019 movie, Shinjuku Private Eyes. The first 26 episodes of the first series were released on February 25, 2020, and City Hunter '91 was released on April 26, 2022.
Theatrical movies
Three theatrical movies were released in 1989 and 1990: .357 Magnum was released on June 17, 1989, Bay City Wars was released on August 25, 1990, and Million Dollar Conspiracy was released on August 25, 1990.
ADV Films released .357 Magnum on VHS on August 10, 1999 and on DVD on April 8, 2003. They released Bay City Wars and Million Dollar Conspiracy on VHS on October 12, 1999 and January 25, 2000, respectively, and later released a DVD containing them as well as a bonus television episode, "The Lady Vanishes", on June 3, 2003.
During their panel at Otakon 2022, Discotek Media announced that they licensed all the previously licensed ADV Films film releases and Death of the Vicious Criminal Ryo Saeba television movie, and released them in a Blu-ray collection on January 31, 2023.
A new theatrical movie produced by Aniplex that is set in present-day Shinjuku titled City Hunter the Movie: Shinjuku Private Eyes premiered in Japan on February 8, 2019, after Sunrise and Kenji Kodama returned to animate and direct the film, respectively. The Kisugi sisters of Cat's Eye appeared in the film as a crossover. Teruo Satoh and Takahiko Kyōgoku served as episode directors, while Kumiko Takahashi designed the characters and Taku Iwasaki composed the music. The film debuted No. 4 at the Japanese box office, where it has grossed () as of March 17, 2019. The film earned () by April 15, 2019, in two months since its release, becoming the third top-grossing Japanese anime film of 2019 up until then, and it had grossed () in Japan by the end of 2019. Shinjuku Private Eyes was released in France on June 13, 2019. Philippe Lacheau, the director and star of the French live-action film adaptation Nicky Larson et le Parfum de Cupidon, was involved with the French distribution of Shinjuku Private Eyes. Discotek Media premiered the English dub of the movie at Otakon 2019, and released it on Blu-ray on May 26, 2020.
Another film was announced in 2022. The movie, City Hunter The Movie: Angel Dust was released September 8, 2023.
Television movies
Three television movies were produced: The Secret Service was broadcast on January 5, 1996, which was followed by Goodbye My Sweetheart on April 25, 1997, and Death of Vicious Criminal Ryo Saeba on April 23, 1999.
ADV Films released Goodbye, My Sweetheart as City Hunter: The Motion Picture in North America on VHS on November 18, 1998 as their first release from the franchise, later releasing it on DVD on July 23, 2002. They released The Secret Service on VHS on December 5, 2000 and on DVD on June 25, 2002. Discotek Media released Death of the Vicious Criminal Ryo Saeba with all films previously licensed by ADV in a Blu-ray collection on January 31, 2023.
Live action
Hong Kong films
In 1993, a live-action Hong Kong theatrical adaptation of the series was released. The film was directed by Wong Jing and starred Jackie Chan as Ryo Saeba, Wang Zuxian as Kaori, and Japanese idol Kumiko Goto. During filming of the movie, Chan dislocated his shoulder. The movie has been criticised by Chan. Fortune Star and 20th Century Fox later released it on R1 DVD along with other budget classic HK films.
Saviour of the Soul (九一神鵰俠侶 Gauyat sandiu haplui) is a live-action Hong Kong film from 1991 that uses the characters from City Hunter but changes the plot. In 1996, Mr. Mumble kept the concept of City Hunter but changed the characters' names.
French film
A separate French action comedy film Nicky Larson et le Parfum de Cupidon (lit. "Nicky Larson and Cupid's Perfume") was released in France on February 6, 2019. The French adaptation has Philippe Lacheau as director as well as the star, playing the title character Nicky Larson (as Ryo Saeba is known in the French dubs of the anime series). Elodie Fontan appears beside Lacheau as Laura Marconi (Kaori Makimura), while Tarek Boudali, Julien Arruti, and Didier Bourdon also appear in the film as per its initial promotional material. Pamela Anderson also appears in the film.
Netflix film
In December 2022, Netflix announced a live-action film adaptation in the works with lead actor Ryohei Suzuki as Ryo Saeba and Misato Morita as Kaori Makimura. Directed by Yūichi Satō, the film is scheduled for a 2024 release on the streaming service.
Chinese film
In 2016, a new Chinese film based on City Hunter was announced to be in development. It was announced that it would be directed by Hong Kong filmmaker Stanley Tong and star Chinese actor Huang Xiaoming as Ryo Saeba.
Television series
A planned live-action television series of City Hunter was announced in 2008, to be produced and distributed by Fox Television Studios and South Korean media company SSD. Jung Woo-sung, was scheduled to play Ryo alongside Hollywood-based stars, with location filming in Seoul and Tokyo.
In 2011, the series was adapted into a Korean television series of the same name by SBS, starring Lee Min-ho and Park Min-young. The series is available to watch with English subtitles on the streaming service Hulu.
In 2014, there was a Chinese television series based on City Hunter, with the title 城市猎人 (Cheng Shi Lie Ren). In 2015, the spin-off manga Angel Heart received its own live-action Japanese TV drama adaptation.
Musical
In 2021, the Takarazuka Revue produced a musical version titled . It was performed at the Takarazuka Grand Theater from August 7 to September 13, 2021 and then at the Tokyo Takarazuka Theater from October 2 to November 14. The musical starred Sakina Ayakaze as Ryo Saeba and Kiwa Asazuki as Kaori Makimura.
Video games
City Hunter was released by Sunsoft for the PC Engine in March 1990.
Ryo appears as a playable character in the fighting game Jump Force.
Reception
Manga
By 2016, the City Hunter manga series had sold over 50million tankōbon volumes worldwide. In addition, the series was circulated in an estimated 900million copies of Weekly Shōnen Jump manga magazine between 1985 and 1991, with those Jump issues generating an estimated . The series voted as the 19th "Most Powerful" series to have featured in Shonen Jump. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150.000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, City Hunter ranked 57th.
In Manga: The Complete Guide, Jason Thompson described the manga stories as "well told and entertaining". Writing for Mania.com, Eduardo M. Chavez describes the series as "funny, sexy, action packed and at times just plain whacked" and praises the mix of action and comedy. Patrick King of Animefringe described the series as "not the most intellectually stimulating piece of fiction I've experienced lately" but called it "a blast to read".
Anime
In a 2005 poll held by TV Asahi, City Hunter was voted 66th out of the 100 most popular animated TV series, as voted by TV viewers. A TV Asahi web-poll voted City Hunter 65th.
The characters Ryo and Kaori proved popular with fans. In the reader voted Animage Anime Grand Prix Saeba Ryo was voted second in the "Best Male Character" section in 1988. In 1989, 1990 and 1991 he was voted first. In 1992, he was voted sixth. Kaori Makamura was voted fifteenth in the "Best Female Character" category in 1988 before climbing to eighth in 1989. She then placed fifth in 1990 before falling to sixth and eleventh in 1991 and 1992, respectively.
The Motion Picture has been praised for the quality of its English dub but criticised for changing the characters names.
The first anime ending theme, "Get Wild" by TM Network, and a later 1989 remix, sold a combined 515,010 singles in Japan. The anime series was also popular in France, where it was dubbed as Nicky Larson and 140 episodes aired in the early 1990s.
Box office
Legacy
A replica of Kaori's "100-ton hammer" raised ($17,150) on Yahoo Auctions in 2007. It was the biggest selling charity item of the year for the service.
In 2012, the characters of Ryo, Kaori and Umibozu appeared in a video for the virtual musician Mana. Mana is a collaboration between Hojo and Tetsuya Komuro of TM Network.
The cover for the 2015 Chris Brown single "Zero" was allegedly copied from one of Hojo's City Hunter sketches.
Notes
References
External links
1987 anime television series debuts
1988 anime television series debuts
1989 anime films
1989 films
1989 anime television series debuts
1990 anime OVAs
1991 anime television series debuts
1996 anime films
1996 films
1997 anime films
1997 films
1999 anime films
1999 films
2019 anime films
2019 films
2023 anime films
2023 films
Action anime and manga
ADV Films
Anime films based on manga
Anime television films
Aniplex
Comedy anime and manga
Detective anime and manga
Discotek Media
Manga adapted into films
Nippon TV original programming
Shōnen manga
Shueisha franchises
Shueisha manga
Sunrise (company)
Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation original programming
1990 films
|
417559
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Sugar
|
Alan Sugar
|
Alan Michael Sugar, Baron Sugar (born 24 March 1947) is a British business magnate, media personality, author, politician and political adviser. In 1968, he started what would later become his largest business venture, consumer electronics company Amstrad. In 2007, he sold his remaining interest in the company in a deal to BSkyB for £125M.
Sugar was the chairman and part-owner of Tottenham from 1991 to 2001, selling his remaining stake in the club in 2007 as well, for £25m. He is also known for being the host and "Boss" for the BBC reality competition series The Apprentice, which has been broadcast every year, with the exception of 2020, since 2005. He also assumed the role for The Celebrity Apprentice Australia for Australia's Nine Network in 2021.
According to the Sunday Times Rich List, Sugar became a billionaire in 2015. In 2021, his fortune was estimated at £1.21bn, ranking him as the 138th-richest person in the UK.
Early life
Alan Michael Sugar was born on 24 March 1947 in Hackney, East London, into a Jewish family. His father, Nathan, was a tailor in the garment industry of the East End. His maternal grandparents were born in Russia, and his paternal grandfather was born in Poland. Sugar's paternal grandmother, Sarah Sugar, was born in London to Polish parents.
When Sugar was young, his family lived in a council flat. Because of his profuse, curly hair, he was nicknamed "Mop head," a name that he still goes by in the present day. He attended Northwold Primary School and then Brooke House Secondary School in Upper Clapton, Hackney, and made extra money by working at a greengrocers. After leaving school at the age of 16, he worked briefly for the civil service as a statistician at the Ministry of Education.
Amstrad
In 1968, aged 21, Sugar set up Amstrad with £100 of Post Office savings. He started off selling radio aerials for cars and other electrical goods out of a van which he had bought for £50 and insured for £8.
The name of the company was formed from his initials and the first four letters of the word ‘trading’: Alan Michael Sugar Trading. It began as a general importer/exporter and wholesale; by 1970 the first manufacturing venture was underway. He achieved lower production prices by using injection moulding plastics for hi-fi turntable covers, severely undercutting competitors who used vacuum-forming processes. Manufacturing capacity was expanded to include the production of audio amplifiers and tuners.
In 1980, Amstrad was listed on the London Stock Exchange and during the 1980s Amstrad doubled its profit and market value every year. By 1984, recognising the opportunity of the home computer era, Amstrad launched an 8-bit machine, the Amstrad CPC 464. Although the CPC range were attractive machines, with CP/M-capability and a good BASIC interpreter, it had to compete with its arch-rivals, the more graphically complex Commodore 64 and the popular Sinclair ZX Spectrum, not to mention the highly sophisticated BBC Micro. Despite this, three million units were sold worldwide with a long production life of eight years. It inspired an East German version with Z80 clone processors. In 1985, Sugar had another major breakthrough with the launch of the Amstrad PCW 8256 word processor which retailed at over £300, but was still considerably cheaper than rival machines (such as the Apple Macintosh Plus, which retailed at $2599). In 1986, Amstrad bought the rights to the Sinclair computer product line and produced two more ZX Spectrum models in a similar style to their CPC machines. It also developed the PC1512, a PC compatible computer, which became quite popular in Europe and was the first in a line of Amstrad PCs.
In 1988, Stewart Alsop II called Sugar and Jack Tramiel "the world's two leading business-as-war entrepreneurs". The 1990s proved a difficult time for the company. The launch of a range of business PCs was marred by unreliable hard disks (supplied by Seagate), causing high levels of customer dissatisfaction and damaging Amstrad's reputation in the personal computer market, from which it never recovered. Subsequently, Seagate was ordered to pay Amstrad $153 million in damages for lost revenue. This was later reduced by $22 million in an out of court settlement. In the early 1990s, Amstrad began to focus on portable computers rather than desktop computers. Also, in 1990, Amstrad entered the gaming market with the Amstrad GX4000, but it was a commercial failure, largely because there was only a poor selection of games available. Additionally, it was immediately superseded by the Japanese consoles: Mega Drive and Super NES, which both had a much more comprehensive selection of games. In 1993, Amstrad released the PenPad, a PDA, and bought into Betacom and Viglen in order to focus more on telecommunications rather than computers. Amstrad released the first of its combined telephony and e-mail devices, called the e-m@iler, followed by the e-m@ilerplus in 2002, neither of which sold in great volume.
On 31 July 2007, it was announced that broadcaster BSkyB had agreed to buy Amstrad for about £125m. At the time of the takeover, Sugar commented that he wished to play a part in the business, saying: "I turn 60 this year and I have had 40 years of hustling in the business, but now I have to start thinking about my team of loyal staff, many of whom have been with me for many years." On 2 July 2008 it was announced that Sugar was standing down from Amstrad as chairman, to focus on his other business interests.
Tottenham Hotspur
After a take-over battle with Robert Maxwell, Sugar teamed up with Terry Venables and bought Tottenham in June 1991. Although his initial investment helped ease the financial troubles the club was suffering at the time, his treatment of Tottenham as a business venture and not a footballing one made him an unpopular figure among the Spurs fans. In Sugar's nine years as chairman, Tottenham Hotspur did not finish in the top six in the league and won just one trophy, the 1999 Football League Cup.
After being sacked by Sugar, Venables appealed to the high courts for reinstatement. A legal battle for the club took place over the summer, which Sugar won (see Re Tottenham Hotspur plc [1994] 1 BCLC 655). The decision to sack Venables angered many of Tottenham fans, and Sugar later said, "I felt as though I'd killed Bambi."
In 1992, he was the only representative of the then-big five (Arsenal, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur) who voted in favour of Sky's bid for Premier League television rights. The other four voted in favour of ITV's bid, as it had promised to show big fives games more often. At the time of the vote, Sugar's company Amstrad was developing satellite dishes for Sky, though Sugar had declared this prior to the vote. During negotiations, Sugar called Sky CEO Sam Chisholm and angrily ordered him to "blow [ITV] out of the water" with a much higher bid.
In 1994, he financed the transfers of three stars of the 1994 FIFA World Cup: Ilie Dumitrescu, Gica Popescu, and most notably Jürgen Klinsmann, who had an excellent first season in English football, being named FWA Footballer of the Year. Because Spurs had not qualified for the UEFA Europa League, Klinsmann decided to invoke an opt-out clause in his contract and left for Bayern Munich in the summer of 1995. Sugar appeared on television holding the last shirt Klinsmann wore for Spurs and said he would not wash his car with it. He referred to foreigners coming into the Premier League at high wages as "Carlos Kickaballs". Klinsmann retaliated by calling Sugar "a man without honour", and said:
In October 1998, former Tottenham striker Teddy Sheringham released his autobiography, in which he attacked Sugar as the reason he left the club in 1997. He said that Sugar had accused him of feigning injury during a long spell on the sidelines during the 1993–94 season. He further stated that Sugar had refused to give him the five-year contract he wanted, as he had not believed Sheringham would still get into the Tottenham team when he was 36. Sheringham returned to Tottenham after his spell at Manchester United and continued to start for the first team until he was released in the summer of 2003, at age 37. Sheringham said that Sugar lacked ambition and was hypocritical. As an example, Sugar asked him for recommendations of players; when Sheringham suggested England midfielder Paul Ince, Sugar refused because he did not want to spend £4 million on a player who would soon be 30. After Sheringham left Spurs, Sugar approved the signing of Les Ferdinand, aged 31, for a club record £6 million, on higher wages than Sheringham had wanted.
Sugar appointed seven managers in his time at Spurs. The first was Peter Shreeves, followed by the dual management team of Doug Livermore and Ray Clemence, former Spurs midfielder Osvaldo Ardiles, and up-and-coming young manager Gerry Francis. In 1997, Sugar surprised the footballing world by appointing the relatively unknown Swiss manager Christian Gross. Gross lasted 9 months as Spurs finished in 14th place in 1998, and began the next season with just 3 points from their opening three games. Sugar next appointed George Graham, a former player and manager of bitter rivals Arsenal. Despite his earning Tottenham's first trophy in 8 years, the Spurs fans never warmed to Graham, partly because of his Arsenal connections. They disliked the negative, defensive style of football which he had Spurs playing; fans claimed it was not the "Tottenham way".
In February 2001, after speculation and confirmation on 11 December 2000, Sugar sold his majority stake at Tottenham to leisure group ENIC, selling 27% of the club for £22 million. In June 2007, he sold his 12% remaining shares to ENIC for £25 million, ending his 16-year association with the club. He has described his time at Tottenham as "a waste of my life". Sugar later donated £3 million from the proceeds of the sale of his interests in Tottenham Hotspur to the refurbishment of the Hackney Empire in his native East End of London.
The Apprentice
Sugar became the host of the BBC reality show The Apprentice, which has had one series broadcast each year from 2005, in the same role as Donald Trump in the US version. he fires at least one candidate each week until only one candidate is left. Until 2010, the winner was then employed in his company and since 2011 wins a partnership with Sugar, including his investment of £250,000 to establish their own business.
As a condition for appearing in the third series, Sugar placed a requirement that the show be more business-oriented rather than just entertainment and that he should be portrayed in a less harsh light, to counter his somewhat belligerent reputation. He also expressed a desire that the calibre of the candidates should be higher than those who had appeared in the second series (who had come across as manifestly lacklustre) and that the motives of the candidates for participating are scrutinised more carefully, given that certain of the candidates in previous series had used their successful experience in the show as a springboard to advance their own careers (as occurred with Michelle Dewberry, the winner of the second series, who left Amstrad's employment only 8 months after taking up the job). In September 2013, Sugar lost his Employment tribunal counter-claim against Stella English, the 2010 winner of The Apprentice.
Sugar has criticised the US version of The Apprentice because "they've made the fatal error of trying to change things just for the sake of it and it backfired."
The Celebrity Apprentice Australia
In September 2020, it was announced that Sugar will be the new CEO on The Celebrity Apprentice Australia on Australia's Nine Network, replacing former CEO Mark Bouris.
Young Apprentice
Young Apprentice (Junior Apprentice in series 1) was a British reality television programme spin-off in which a group of twelve young people, aged 16 and 17, competed to win a £25,000 prize from Sugar. The six-part series began on BBC One and BBC HD on 12 May 2010, and concluded on 10 June. It featured Nick Hewer and Karren Brady as Sugar's advisors. Brady made her debut on Junior Apprentice; it aired before she appeared on the adult version. The programme concluded with Sugar awarding the prize fund to 17-year-old Arjun Rajyagor. Tim Ankers finished in second place.
The second series started in October 2011, and featured eight episodes and twelve contestants. The series was won by Zara Brownless, with James McCullough as runner-up.
Originally proposed in March 2008 and confirmed in June 2009, Junior Apprentice received mostly positive reviews from critics. Sugar's role under Gordon Brown's government sparked a debate over the BBC's political impartiality regulations in the run-up to the UK 2010 election, resulting in both Junior Apprentice and the sixth regular edition of The Apprentice being delayed.
Other television appearances
In May 2008, Sugar made an appearance on An Audience Without Jeremy Beadle to pay tribute to Jeremy Beadle as they were close friends and both appeared on a celebrity special of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in 2005.
In January 2009, Fiona Bruce presented a BBC Two documentary entitled The Real Sir Alan. Also in 2009, Sugar appeared in television advertisements for investment bank NS&I and The Learning and Skills Council talking about apprenticeships.
In May 2011, he presented Lord Sugar Tackles Football, a documentary looking into the financial woes of English football.
In September 2012, Sugar appeared as himself in a cameo in the Doctor Who episode "The Power of Three". Sugar's cameo was filmed on the set of The Apprentice.
In November 2012, he appeared as himself in a cameo in a special episode of EastEnders for Children in Need.
Other ventures
Amsair
Amsair Executive Aviation was founded in 1993, and is run by Sugar's son Daniel. As with Amstrad, the name Amsair is an acronym taken from the initials of Sugar's name "Alan Michael Sugar Air." Amsair operates a large Cessna fleet, and one Embraer Legacy 650 with the registration G-SUGA, offering business and executive jet charters.
Amsprop
Amsprop is a property investment firm owned by Sugar and is now controlled by his son Daniel.
Simon Ambrose, winner of the 2007 series of The Apprentice, started working for Amsprop Estates after the series finished. However, in April 2010, he was reported to be leaving to start his own venture.
Viglen Ltd
Sugar was the owner (and Chairman of the board) of Viglen Ltd, an IT services provider catering primarily to the education and public sector. He resigned his position on 1 July 2009. Following the sale of Amstrad PLC to BSkyB, Viglen was Sugar's sole IT establishment until its sale to XMA in 2014.
Amscreen
Sugar is Chairman of Amscreen, a company run by his son Simon, specialising in selling advertising space on digital signage screens that it provides to retailers, medical centres and leisure venues. Apprentice winner Yasmina Siadatan worked there, selling into the NHS.
The screens use a Face detection system called OptimEyes to try to identify age and sex of its viewers.
In July 2008, Amscreen purchased Comtech M2M, which was founded in September 1992, originally specialising in communications product retailing. This was before entering the M2M market in 1999. On 29 August 2008, Comtech M2M officially changed names to Amscreen Limited.
YouView
On 7 March 2011, Sugar replaced Kip Meek on the board of the BBC initiated IPTV project known as YouView (formerly known as Project Canvas) which is also backed by ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 and broadband providers including BT and TalkTalk. Sugar was paid £500,000 for chairing YouView for the year ending March 2012.
Political involvement
In February 2009, the Evening Standard journalist Andrew Gilligan claimed that Sugar had been approached to be the Labour candidate for Mayor of London in 2012. Sugar subsequently ridiculed the claim in an interview with The Guardian. But, during Prime Minister Gordon Brown's cabinet reshuffle on 5 June 2009, the BBC reported that he would be given a life peerage and had been offered a job as the government's "Enterprise Champion". On 7 June 2009, Sugar sought to clarify the non-political nature of his appointment. He stated that he would not be joining the government, that the appointment was politically neutral, and that all he wanted to do was help businesses and entrepreneurs. On 20 July 2009, he was made Baron Sugar, of Clapton, in the London Borough of Hackney. He made his maiden speech in the House of Lords on 25 November 2009.
In August 2014, Sugar was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue.
From 1997 until 2015, Sugar was a member of the Labour Party and also one of its largest donors. On 11 May 2015, four days after the 2015 United Kingdom general election, he announced that he was leaving the party. He issued a statement to say:
Before the 2016 London mayoral election, Sugar claimed that he is popular politically, and repeatedly urged the public to not vote for Sadiq Khan. Khan won.
For the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016, he endorsed the "Remain" campaign. In May 2017, Sugar endorsed Theresa May for the 2017 United Kingdom general election.
During a June 2017 radio interview with LBC's Nick Ferrari, Sugar said when asked about the 2017 election results that "it's very, very surprising. I think I'd join a lot of people when I say the Theresa May and Conservative campaign was very lacking in what they were going to offer the public" and that "Jeremy Corbyn did a very good job wooing the young and educated people. I would add that those people who voted for him are quite bright and educated, but also not very experienced in life".
On 31 March 2018, after complaints from Labour politicians, Sugar deleted a tweet showing an edited image of Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn in a car with Adolf Hitler. The incident occurred after Corbyn said the party "must do better" in resolving the party's problems with antisemitism. Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell had urged him to "delete and disown" the tweet. Sugar responded that he was "not the originator" and that "There is no smoke without fire in Labour".
On 5 April 2018, Sugar published an ode critical of the UK's Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn.
In December 2018, Sugar announced during a television interview that he would leave Britain if Corbyn became Prime Minister.
Sugar endorsed Boris Johnson during the 2019 Conservative Party leadership election. He later endorsed the Conservative Party in the 2019 general election.
Personal life
Sugar has stated that he is an atheist, but remains proud of his Jewish heritage. He married Ann Simons, a former hairdresser, on 28 April 1968 at Great Portland Street, London. They have two sons (Daniel and Simon) and a daughter (Louise). The couple live in Chigwell, Essex. Sugar owns a four-seat Cirrus SR22 aircraft and a 13-seat Embraer Legacy 650 jet. During an attempted landing in his Cirrus at the grass airfield City Airport Manchester on 5 July 2008, he overshot the runway after touchdown due to poor weather and wet field conditions. No injuries were sustained, although the plane was slightly damaged and consequently grounded.
In February 2009, it was reported that Sugar had initiated legal proceedings against The Sun newspaper following a report that he had been named on a "hit list" of British Jews in response to Israel's ongoing military operation in Gaza. The threats are alleged to have been made by Glen Jenvey, the source of the original story in The Sun, who posted to a Muslim website under a false identity. On 10 June 2020, he, a pilot since 1975, announced on Twitter that he was taking delivery of a new 2020 Cirrus SR22T single-engine aircraft from the United States where he owns a Florida home and multiple boats, including a refurbished one named Little Tub and a superyacht.
In 2015, Sugar had an estimated fortune of £1.04 billion (£ as of ).
In December 2020, he announced that both his brother and sister had died from COVID-19.
In February 2022, 70-year-old Patrick Gomes was jailed for three years and six months for sending antisemitic death threats to Sugar, in response to him speaking about antisemitism in the Labour Party.
Honours and philanthropy
Sugar was knighted in the 2000 New Year Honours "for services to the Home Computer and Electronics Industry". He holds two honorary Doctorates of Science, awarded in 1988 by City University and in 2005 by Brunel University. He is a philanthropist for charities such as Jewish Care and Great Ormond Street Hospital, and donated £200,000 to the British Labour Party in 2001. Sugar was created a life peer as Baron Sugar, of Clapton in the London Borough of Hackney on 20 July 2009. On 29 October 2015, Sugar was listed by UK-based company Richtopia at number 5 in the list of 100 Most Influential British Entrepreneurs. In 2017 he ranked number 1 in the Essex Power 100 list and was named the most powerful person in Essex.
Controversies
Sex discrimination law
Sugar has been accused of having an "outdated" attitude towards women. Regarding the 1970s UK law which states that it is discriminatory and hence illegal for women to be asked at interview whether they plan to have children, Sugar is quoted as saying "These laws are counter-productive for women, that's the bottom line. You're not allowed to ask, so it's easy – just don't employ them. It will get harder to get a job as a woman."
Tweets
On 30 September 2013, Sugar tweeted a picture of Chinese child crying 'because he was told off for leaving production line of iPhone 5'. The message was investigated by the Merseyside police force's specialist hate crime investigation team, who decided that it should be classed as a "hate incident" although no crime had taken place.
On 20 June 2018, he tweeted a picture of the Senegal national football team edited next to images of fake handbags and sunglasses, claiming that some of the players looked just like hawkers he had encountered in Marbella. He later defended his tweet as a joke before taking it down, after accusations of racism.
See also
What You See is What You Get: My Autobiography, Sugar's autobiography
References
Further reading
David Thomas, "Alan Sugar – the Amstrad Story" (1991), paperback .
Alan Sugar, "The Apprentice: How to get hired not fired"
Alan Sugar, "What You See Is What You Get: My Autobiography" (2010), hardback .
External links
1947 births
Living people
English aviators
English autobiographers
English football chairmen and investors
English people of Russian-Jewish descent
English people of Polish-Jewish descent
English billionaires
English television personalities
English atheists
Jewish atheists
British real estate businesspeople
British billionaires
Knights Bachelor
People from Hackney, London
The Apprentice (British TV series)
BBC people
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. directors and chairmen
Labour Party (UK) people
20th-century English businesspeople
21st-century English businesspeople
Jewish British politicians
Businesspeople awarded knighthoods
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
People associated with Brunel University London
|
417566
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Davis
|
Bill Davis
|
William Grenville Davis, (July 30, 1929 – August 8, 2021) was a Canadian politician who served as the 18th premier of Ontario from 1971 to 1985. Behind Oliver Mowat, Davis was the second-longest serving premier of Ontario.
Born in Toronto, Davis was a lawyer before being elected as a Progressive Conservative member of provincial Parliament for Peel in the 1959 provincial election. He was a backbencher in the Conservative caucus until 1962, when he was appointed minister of education under John Robarts. During this period, Davis created the community college system and the educational television network now known as TVO.
In 1971, he succeeded Robarts as the premier of Ontario and held the position until resigning in 1985. He led the Progressive Conservatives to victory in four consecutive elections, winning two majority governments and two minority governments. As premier, Davis was responsible for the cancellation of the Spadina Expressway, the funding of Catholic secondary schools through grade 12, the formation of Canada's first Ministry of the Environment, and rent control, as well as playing a large role in the patriation of the Constitution of Canada.
Early life and education
Davis was born on July 30, 1929, at Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, the son of Vera Mildred ( Hewetson) and Albert Grenville Davis. His father was a successful local lawyer. Davis married twice, first to Helen McPhee (b. 1931, m. 1955, d. 1962), with whom he had four children (Neil, Nancy, Cathy, Ian), before marrying Kathleen Mackay (m. 1964). They had one daughter, Meg, in 1965.
Davis was politically active from the age of 15. Local Progressive Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) Gordon Graydon was a frequent guest at Davis's parents' house, and Davis himself became the first delegate younger than seventeen years to attend a national Progressive Conservative convention in Canada. He frequently campaigned for local Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) Thomas Laird Kennedy, who briefly served as Premier of Ontario in 1949.
Davis graduated from the University of Toronto with a BA in 1951. He was a football player during his university years, and his teammates included Roy McMurtry and Thomas Leonard Wells, both of whom would later serve in his cabinet. Davis received a bachelor of laws from Osgoode Hall Law School in 1954 and was called to the bar of Ontario in 1955.
Early political career
Davis was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in the 1959 provincial election, for the southern Ontario constituency of Peel. He was only 29 years old. Although Peel was an extremely safe Conservative seat for most of its history, Davis won by a narrow 1,203 votes. The election took place soon after the federal Progressive Conservative government of John Diefenbaker had cancelled the Avro Arrow program. Davis was given the honour of move the motion to vote on the Speech from the Throne, which while purely symbolic, allowed him to give a speech that included two of his own planned projects: establishing what would become the Forks of the Credit Provincial Park, and improving education. Davis served for two years as a backbench supporter of Leslie Frost's government. When Frost announced his retirement in 1961, Davis became the chief organizer of Robert Macaulay's campaign to succeed him as premier and party leader. Macaulay was eliminated on the next-to-last ballot, and, with Davis, delivered crucial support for John Robarts to defeat Kelso Roberts on the final vote.
Minister of Education
Davis was appointed to Robarts' cabinet as Minister of Education on October 25, 1962, and was re-elected by a greatly increased margin in the 1963 provincial election. He was given additional responsibilities as Ontario's Minister of University Affairs on May 14, 1964, and held both portfolios until 1971. He significantly increased education funding during the 1960s; spending increased by 454% between 1962 and 1971 and hundreds of public schools were opened. Davis also oversaw a controversial overhaul and amalgamation of the outdated school board systems in the province, reducing the number of boards from 3,676 in 1962 to 192 by 1967.
During his tenure as education minister, Davis established new public universities, including Trent University and Brock University, as well as the public community college system. Canada's first educational research institute, the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and the Ontario Educational Communications Authority educational television network (now TVO) were established while he was Minister, in 1965 and 1970, respectively.
Davis's handling of the education portfolio, of which Robarts was a previous minister, made his entry into the leadership contest to succeed Robarts unsurprising. Robarts himself fully expected Davis to be his successor. He was immediately dubbed the frontrunner when he announced his bid on December 20, 1970. In the early hours of February 13, 1971, Davis defeated rival candidate Allan Lawrence by only 44 votes on the final ballot, after receiving support from third-place candidate Darcy McKeough. Following the convention, Davis brought Lawrence's campaign team, known as "the Spades", to become his principal advisors. The group later became known as the Big Blue Machine, and remained a dominant campaign force in the Progressive Conservative Party into the 1980s.
Cabinet posts
Premier of Ontario (1971–1985)
First majority (1971–1975)
Three months after taking office as premier, Davis announced that his government would not continue to fund construction of the Spadina Expressway into downtown Toronto—an initiative that had been unpopular with many of the area's residents.
The section of Allen Road south of Lawrence Avenue was subsequently nicknamed the "Davis ditch".
In July 1971, he created appointed the first Minister of the Environment, George Kerr.
On August 31, Davis announced the rejection of a proposal to grant full funding to Ontario's Catholic high schools—which were only publicly funded up to grade 10—stating that it "would fragment the present system beyond recognition and repair".
The campaign to elect the 29th Legislative Assembly of Ontario began two weeks later on September 13. The campaign featured the first televised leaders debate for a provincial election. The PC's would gain 9 seats in the election, held on October 21, 1971.
Davis's first full term as premier was by most accounts his least successful, with public confidence in his government weakened by a series of scandals. There were allegations that the Fidinam company had received special consideration for a Toronto development program in return for donations to the Progressive Conservative Party. In 1973, it was revealed that Davis's friend Gerhard Moog had received a untendered C$44.4 million ($ in dollars) contract for the construction of Ontario Hydro's new head office and related projects. Attorney General Dalton Bales, Solicitor General John Yaremko and Treasurer McKeough were all accused of conflicts-of-interest relating to government approval for developments on properties they owned. The government was cleared of impropriety in all cases, but its popular support nonetheless declined. The Conservatives lost four key by-elections in 1973 and 1974.
On the policy front, the Davis administration introduced regional governments for Durham, Hamilton-Wentworth, Haldimand-Norfolk, and Waterloo but shelved further plans in response to popular protests. He faced a significant backlash from teachers in December 1973, following the tabling of a bill to force an end to labour disruptions. In the buildup to the 1975 provincial election, Davis imposed a ninety-day freeze on energy prices, temporarily reduced the provincial sales tax from 7% to 5%, and announced rent controls for the province.
Minority governments (1975–1981)
The 1975 campaign was far more bitter than that of 1971, with Davis and Liberal leader Robert Nixon repeatedly hurling personal insults at one another. Polls taken shortly before the election had the Liberals in the lead. The Progressive Conservatives won only 51 seats out of 125, but were able to remain in power with a minority government. The New Democratic Party (NDP) won 38 seats under the leadership of Stephen Lewis, while Nixon's Liberals finished third with 36. Soon after the election, Davis hired Hugh Segal as his legislative secretary. On January 1, 1976, Davis enacted Canada's first mandatory seat belt law, following the death of the daughter of his close friend and advisor, Eddie Goodman.
Davis called a snap election in 1977, attempting to capitalise on the turmoil and surprise following the 1976 Quebec general election that saw the Parti Quebecois gain a majority. He was again returned with only a minority following the vote on June 9. The Progressive Conservatives increased their standing by 7 to 58 seats, against 34 for the Liberals and 33 for the NDP.
The Conservatives remained the dominant party after the 1975 and 1977 elections due to the inability of either the New Democrats and the Liberals to become the clear alternative. The Conservatives were able to stay in power due to the competition between both opposition parties. As there was no serious consideration of a Liberal-NDP alliance after both campaigns, Davis was able to avoid defeat in the legislature by appealing to other parties for support on particular initiatives. The opposition parties had also undergone leadership changes; Nixon and Lewis, who had posed a strong challenge to Davis, resigned after the 1975 and 1977 elections, respectively. Nixon's successor Stuart Lyon Smith proved unable to increase Liberal support, while new NDP leader Michael Cassidy lacked the support of the party establishment.
This period of the Davis government was one of expansion for the province's public health and education systems, and Davis held a particular interest in ensuring that the province's community colleges remained productive. The government also expanded the provisions of the Ontario Human Rights Code,
and expanded bilingual services without introducing official bilingualism to the province.
Although he actively supported and campaigned for him in 1976, Davis had an awkward relationship with federal Progressive Conservative leader Joe Clark. He and Clark held differing views over fuel prices, and the Davis government actively opposed Clark's 1979 austerity budget which included a gas tax.
Second majority (1981–1985)
The Progressive Conservatives were returned with a majority government in the 1981 provincial election, with 8 of their 12 gained seats coming at the expense of the NDP. Soon after the election, Davis announced that John Tory (who became leader of the PCs 23 years later) had been hired to succeed Hugh Segal as his principal secretary. He also announced that Ontario would purchase a 25% share in the energy corporation Suncor, despite opposition from within his own caucus.
Unlike most provincial premiers in Canada, Davis strongly supported Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's 1981 plans to patriate the constitution of Canada from the United Kingdom and add to it the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Davis's role in the constitutional negotiations of 1981 were pivotal in achieving a compromise that resulted in the passage of the Constitution Act, 1982.
Davis publicly announced his retirement on October 8, 1984, a few months before the 1985 election, with he and his government still well ahead in polls against David Peterson's Liberals and Bob Rae's NDP. One of his last major acts as premier was to reverse his 1971 decision against the full funding of Catholic schools, and announce that such funding would be provided to the end of Grade Thirteen. Although the policy was supported by all parties in the legislature, it was unpopular with some in the Conservatives' traditional rural Protestant base, and many would stay home in the upcoming election because of this issue.
Davis was succeeded by Frank Miller, who was elected leader at a January 1985 leadership convention over Larry Grossman (who was widely considered the successor to Davis and his Big Blue Machine). Although Miller was more conservative, the Progressive Conservatives still held a significant lead over the opposition when the election was called. However, after a poor campaign and controversy over Catholic school funding, in the 1985 provincial election they were reduced to a minority government and lost the popular vote to the Liberal Party, and were soon defeated in a motion of non-confidence by a Liberal–NDP accord, ending the party's 42-year period of rule over the province.
Post-political career
Davis was made a companion of the Order of Canada in 1986,
and received the Order of Ontario in 1987. Upon his retirement from politics, he served on numerous corporate boards, including Seagram, Power Corporation, CIBC, Rogers Cable among others. In 1985 and 1986, Davis was the Canadian half of a joint task force with the United States (with Drew Lewis as his American counterpart) appointed by Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan to solve the ongoing acid rain issues affecting the Great Lakes. Their report was popularly referred to as the Acid Rain Treaty; Davis was paid $1 for his work, proudly framing the bill at his cottage.
Davis's reputation within the Ontario Progressive Conservatives was compromised during the 1990s by the party's shift to the right under Mike Harris. Many Conservatives parliamentarians were openly dismissive of Davis-era spending policies, and frequently highlighted the differences between Davis and Harris on policy issues. Davis remained a supporter of the party, but seldom appeared at official events.
In 2003, Davis played a role in the successful negotiations to merge the federal Progressive Conservatives with the Canadian Alliance, and create the new Conservative Party of Canada. In the 2006 federal campaign, he campaigned for Conservative Leader Stephen Harper. Harper spoke favourably of Davis during the campaign, and said that he learned much from Davis's style of governing. The Conservatives were able to defeat the Liberals to form the government.
In the early 2000s, Davis returned to an honoured position within the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party. He was a keynote speaker at the 2004 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, and was singled out for praise in speeches by outgoing party leader Ernie Eves and new leader John Tory. Davis was also present for Tory's first session in the Ontario legislature, following the latter's victory in a 2005 by-election.
In 2014, Davis endorsed Christine Elliott in her second campaign to become leader of the Ontario PC Party, but she finished as runner-up to Patrick Brown,
whom he would later endorse in his successful campaign against incumbent Linda Jeffrey for mayor of Brampton in 2018.
Davis had supported Jeffrey in her 2014 bid for mayor, as well as Toronto mayor John Tory, former Ontario PC Party leader and a principal secretary of Davis in the 1980s.
Incumbent Brampton mayor Susan Fennell was embroiled in numerous scandals over expenses and financial record-keeping. Davis reportedly convinced Jeffrey to resign from provincial cabinet to challenge Fennell. After taking office as mayor, Jeffrey appointed Davis to a panel tasked with bringing a university to Brampton. However, Davis and Jeffrey had a falling out over Peel Region's proposed Light Rail Transit line, as Jeffrey supported its extension from Hurontario Street in Mississauga further north along Main Street in Brampton (where it would run by Davis's house), while Davis preferred an alternative alignment along Queen Street.
Throughout his political career, Davis often remarked upon the lasting influence of his hometown of Brampton, leading to his nickname, "Brampton Billy".
Death
On August 8, 2021, Davis died in Brampton at the age of 92.
Legacy
In a 2012 edition, the Institute for Research on Public Policy's magazine, Policy Options, named Davis the second-best Canadian premier of the last forty years, beaten only by Peter Lougheed.
Recognition
In 1987, Davis was made an Honorary Senior Fellow of Renison University College, located in Waterloo, Ontario.
Davis was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1986, received the Order of Ontario in 1987, and was appointed as a Knight in the Legion of Honour of France in 2001.
On October 24, 2006, Davis received Seneca College's first Honorary degree and was presented with an Honorary Bachelor of Applied Studies. "It is fitting that Bill Davis receives Seneca's first honorary degree", said Dr. Rick Miner, President of Seneca College. "As one of the architects of the college system in Ontario, he is responsible for a dynamic post-secondary education environment which continues to be a pillar of our province's economy."
The Public Policy Forum honoured Bill Davis with the Testimonial Award for his contribution to public life, public policy and governance in Canada at their 2011 Testimonial Dinner.
Eponyms
William G. Davis Public School – Windsor
W. G. Davis Senior Public School – Brampton
William G. Davis Field, Cardinal Leger Secondary School, Brampton
William G. Davis Senior Public School – Cambridge
William G. Davis Public School – Toronto (Scarborough)
Davis Campus, Sheridan College – Brampton
William G. Davis Building, University of Toronto Mississauga – Mississauga
William G. Davis Centre for Computer Research, University of Waterloo – Waterloo
William G. Davis Studio at TVO (where The Agenda with Steve Paikin, who was author of book on Davis, is televised from)
William G. Davis Trail – Ontario Place, Toronto
A. Grenville and William Davis Courthouse – Brampton
Premier Davis Boulevard (Seneca College Newnham Campus) – North York
References
Citations
General bibliography
Further reading
Manthorpe, Jonathan (1974). The Power & the Tories. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada.
Speirs, Rosemary (1986). Out of the Blue: The Fall of the Tory Dynasty in Ontario. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada.
External links
William G. Davis fonds Archives of Ontario
1929 births
2021 deaths
Canadian King's Counsel
Companions of the Order of Canada
Lawyers in Ontario
Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario
Members of the Order of Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the United Church of Canada
Osgoode Hall Law School alumni
People from Brampton
Politicians from Toronto
Premiers of Ontario
University of Toronto alumni
|
417624
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%2C%20Scotland
|
Ross, Scotland
|
Ross () is a region of Scotland. One of the provinces of Scotland from the 9th century, it gave its name to a later earldom and to the counties of Ross-shire and, later, Ross and Cromarty. The name Ross allegedly derives from a Gaelic word meaning "headland", perhaps a reference to the Black Isle. Another possible origin is the West Norse word for Orkney – Hrossey – meaning horse island; the area once belonged to the Norwegian (West Norse) earldom of Orkney. Ross is a historical comital region, perhaps predating the Mormaerdom of Ross. It is also a region used by the Kirk, with the Presbytery of Ross being part of the Synod of Ross, Sutherland and Caithness.
History
Excavations of a rock shelter and shell midden at Sand, Applecross on the coast of Wester Ross have shown that the coast was occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers.
Ptolemy's 2nd century Geography lists a tribe called the Decantae occupying the area that would later become Easter Ross. It may be doubted whether the Romans ever effected even a temporary settlement in the area of the modern county. In Roman times, and for long afterwards, the land was occupied by Picts, who, in the 6th and 7th centuries, were converted to Christianity by followers of Saint Columba. Throughout the next three centuries the natives were continually harassed by Norwegian Viking raiders, of whose presence tokens have survived in several place-names (Dingwall, Tain, and others). At this time the country formed part of the great province of Moray (Latin: Moravia), which then extended as far as the Dornoch Firth and the Oykel, and included practically the whole of Ross and Cromarty.
Ross is first recorded as a territorial unit in a hagiography of the Scottish-born saint Cathróe of Metz, written in Metz shortly after the saint's death between 971 and 976.
William, the 4th Earl of Ross, was present with his clan at the Battle of Bannockburn (1314), and almost a century later (1412) the castle of Dingwall, the chief seat on the mainland of Donald, Lord of the Isles, was captured by Donald just before the battle of Harlaw in Aberdeenshire, which Donald fought because the ambitious Stewarts, governing in the absence of James I, rejected his wife Mariota's rightful claim to the earldom. After the battle, the people of Ross embraced Donald and Mariota as rightful rulers of the earldom notwithstanding the Duke of Albany (a Stewart) purporting to give it to his son. Donald died in 1423 and in 1424 the earldom reverted to the crown, but James I soon afterwards restored it to Mariota, wife of Donald Macdonald, and the heiress of the earldom. She was the mother of Alexander Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, who thus became the 11th Earl.
In consequence, however, of the treason of John Macdonald, 4th and last Lord of the Isles and 12th Earl of Ross, the earldom was again vested in the crown (1476). Five years later James III bestowed it on his second son, James Stewart, whom he also created Duke of Ross in 1488.
By the 16th century the whole area of the county was occupied by different clans. The Rosses held what is now Easter Ross; the Munros the small tract around Ben Wyvis, including Dingwall; the Macleods Lewis, and, in the mainland, the district between Loch Maree and Loch Torridon; the Macdonalds of Glengarry, Coigach, and the district between Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh, and the Mackenzies the remainder.
The county of Ross was constituted in 1661, and Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, both being consolidated into the present county in 1889.
Apart from occasional conflicts between rival clans, the only battles in the county were at Invercarron, at the head of Dornoch Firth, when Montrose was crushed by Colonel Archibald Strachan on 27 April 1650; and at Glenshiel, where the Jacobites, under the Earl of Seaforth, aided by Spaniards, were defeated by a force under the command of General Joseph Wightman on 10 June 1719.
Geography
Ross lies south of Sutherland and the Dornoch Firth, west of the North Sea and the Moray Firth, north of the Beauly Firth and Inverness-shire and east of The Minch. There are also a number of small islands off the area's west coast, among which are:
Gillean (lighthouse) in the parish of Lochalsh
Crowlin Islands in Applecross
Eilean Horrisdale, and Isle of Ewe in Gairloch parish
Isle Martin and Tanera More, of the Summer Isles group in the parish of Lochbroom
The area of the mainland is .
On the North Sea (eastern) side of the county the major firths are the Beauly Firth and the (Inner) Moray Firth, which separate the Black Isle from Inverness-shire; the Cromarty Firth, which bounds the districts of Easter Ross and the Black Isle; the Moray Firth, separating Easter Ross from Nairnshire; and the Dornoch Firth, dividing north-east Ross from Sutherland.
On the Atlantic (western) coastline—which has a length of nearly —the principal sea lochs and bays, from south to north, are Loch Duich, Loch Alsh, Loch Carron, Loch Kishorn, Loch Torridon, Loch Shieldaig, Upper Loch Torridon, Gair Loch, Loch Ewe, Gruinard Bay, Loch Broom and Enard Bay.
The chief capes include Tarbat Ness on the east coast, and Coigach, Greenstone Point, Rubha Reidh, Redpoint and Hamha Point on the west.
Almost all the southern boundary with Inverness-shire consists of a rampart of peaks, many of them Munros:
An Riabhachan (),
Sgurr na Lapaich (),
Carn Eige (Càrn Eighe) (),
Mam Sodhail (Mam Soul) (),
Beinn Fhada (Ben Attow) (),
Sgurr Fhuaran (),
The Saddle ().
To the north of Glen Torridon are the masses of Liathach (), Beinn Eighe (), Beinn Alligin () and Beinn Dearg (). On the northeastern shore of Loch Maree rises Slioch (), while the Fannich group contains six Munros, the highest being Sgurr Mor (). The immense isolated bulk of Ben Wyvis (), forms the most noteworthy feature in the north-east, and An Teallach () in the north-west appears equally conspicuous, though less solitary. Only a small fraction of the west and south of the area is under in height. Easter Ross and the peninsula of the Black Isle are comparatively level.
The longest stream of the mainland portion of Ross and Cromarty is the River Orrin, which rises from the slopes of An Sidhean () and pursues a north-easterly course to its confluence with the River Conon after a run of about , a small part of which forms the boundary with Inverness-shire. At Aultgowrie the stream rushes through a narrow gorge where the drop is considerable enough to make the Falls of Orrin. The River Blackwater flows from mountains in Strathvaich southeast for until it joins the Conon, forming soon after it leaves Loch Garve the small but picturesque Falls of Rogie. Within a short distance of its exit from Loch Luichart the Conon pours over a series of cascades and rapids and then pursues a winding course of , mainly eastward to the head of the Cromarty Firth. Situated above Glen Elchaig in the southwest of the region are the Falls of Glomach. The stream giving rise to them drains a series of small lochs on the northern flanks of Beinn Fhada (Ben Attow) and, in an almost unbroken sheet over a metre in width, effects a sheer drop of 110 m, and soon afterwards ends its course in Glen Elchaig. The falls are usually visited from Invershiel 11 km to the south-west. 12 miles south-east of Ullapool, on the estate of Braemore, are the Falls of Measach, formed by the Droma, a headstream of the River Broom. The cascades, three in number, are close to Corrieshalloch Gorge. The River Oykel, throughout its course, forms the boundary with Sutherland.
There are many freshwater lochs, the largest being Loch Maree. In the far north-west, above the sea, lies Loch Sionascaig, a loch of such irregularity of outline that it has a shore-line of . It contains several wooded islands, and drains into Enard Bay by the River Polly. Lochan Fada (the long loch), above the sea, is in length, and covers an area of , and is deep, with a mean depth of . Once drained by the Muice (Allt na Muice), it has been tapped a little farther west by the Abhainn na Fhasaigh, which has lowered the level of the loch. Other lochs are Fionn Loch (the white or clear lake), long by wide, famous for its herons, Loch Luichart towards the centre of the area (8 miles long and between wide), fringed with birches and having the shape of a crescent, the mountain-girt Loch Fannich ( wide); and the wild narrow Lochs Monar ( long) and Mullardoch ( long), on the Inverness-shire boundary.
Of the straths or valleys, the more important run from the centre eastwards, such as Strathconon, Strathbran, Strathgarve, Strathpeffer and Strathcarron. Excepting Glen Orrin, in the east central district, the longer glens lie in the south and towards the west. In the extreme south Glen Shiel runs between five mountains (the Five Sisters of Kintail) to its mouth on Loch Duich. The A87 passes down the glen. Further north lie Glen Elchaig, Glen Carron, and Glen Torridon. The railway from Dingwall runs through Glen Carron to Kyle of Lochalsh.
Geology
The central portion of this county is occupied by the younger highland schists or Dalradian series. These consist of quartzites, mica-schists, garnetiferous mica-schists and gneisses, all with a gentle inclination towards the southeast. On the eastern side of the county the Dalradian schists are covered unconformably by the Old Red Sandstone. The boundary runs southward from Edderton on Dornoch Firth, by Strathpeffer, to the neighborhood of Beauly. These rocks comprise red flags and sandstones, grey bituminous flags and shales. An anticlinal fold with a southwest–northeast axis brings up the basal beds of the series about the mouth of Cromarty Firth and exposes once more the schists in The Sutors (The Sutors of Cromarty) guarding the entrance to the firth. The western boundary of the younger schist is formed by the great pre-Cambrian dislocation line that traverses the county in a fairly direct course from Elphin on the north by Ullapool to Glencarron. Most of the area west of the line of disturbance is covered by Torridonian Sandstone, mainly dark reddish sandstones, grits and shales, resting unconformably on the ancient Lewisian gneiss with horizontal or slightly inclined bedding. The unconformity is well exposed on the shores of Gairloch, Loch Maree and Loch Torridon. These rocks, which attain a considerable thickness and are divisible into three sub-groups, build up the mountain districts of Applecross, Coigach and elsewhere.
Within the Torridonian tract the older Lewisian gneiss occupies large areas north of Coigach, on the east of Enard Bay, between Gruinard Bay and Loch Maree. Between the last named and Gairloch, on both sides of middle Loch Torridon and at many other spots smaller patches appear. The Lewisian gneiss is everywhere penetrated by basic dikes, generally with a northwest–southeast direction; some of these are of great breadth. The Torridonian rocks are succeeded unconformably by a series of Cambrian strata confined to a variable but narrow belt west of the line of main thrusting. This belt of Cambrian rocks has suffered an enormous amount of subordinate thrusting. It is composed of the following subdivisions in ascending order: falsebedded quartzite, Pipe Rock quartzite, fucoid beds and Olenellus band, serpulite grit, Durness dolomite and marble, Durness dolomite and limestone: but these are not always visible at any one spot. So great has been the disturbance in the region of thrusting that in some places, as in the neighborhood of Loch Kishorn and elsewhere, the rocks have been completely overturned and the ancient gneiss has been piled upon the Torridonian.
On the shore of Moray Firth at Rathie a small patch of Kimeridge shale occurs, and beneath the cliffs of Shandwick there is a little Lower Oolite with a thin seam of coal. Glacial striae are found upon the mountains up to heights of , and much boulder clay is found in the valleys and spread over large areas in the eastern districts. Raised beaches occur at up to or so above the present sea-level; they are well seen in Loch Carron.
Climate and agriculture
The west coast has high rainfall: an annual average of at Loch Broom and at Strome Ferry (autumn and winter being the wettest seasons), but on the east coast the annual average is only . The average daily maximum temperature for the year is . Average daily maxima for January and July are and respectively.
The most fertile tracts lie on the eastern coast, especially in Easter Ross and the Black Isle, where the soil varies from a light sandy gravel to a rich deep loam. As of 1911, among grain crops oats were most generally cultivated, but barley and wheat were also raised. Turnips and potatoes were the chief green crops. The higher land contains much good pasturage, with many sheep, blackfaced being the principal breed. Most of the horses, principally half-breds between the old garrons (hardy, serviceable, small animals) and Clydesdales, were maintained for the purposes of agriculture. The herds of cattle, mainly native Highland or crosses, were large, many of them supplying the London market. Pigs were reared, though in smaller numbers than formerly, most generally by the crofters.
As of 1911 about were devoted to deer forests, a greater area than in any other county in Scotland, among the largest being Achnashellach with , Fannich with , Kinlochluichart with , Braemore with , Inchbae with and Dundonnell with . At one time the area under wood must have been remarkable, if we accept the common derivation of the word "Ross" as from the Old Irish ros, a wood, and there was until recent times a considerable extent of native woodland, principally pine, oak, ash and alder.
The fauna was noteworthy. Red and roe deer abounded, and foxes and alpine hares were common, while badgers and wild cats were occasionally trapped. Winged game was plentiful, and amongst birds of prey the golden eagle and osprey occurred. Waterfowl of all kinds frequented the sea lochs. Many rivers and lochs were rich in salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel was found in the bed of the Conon.
Other industries
Tourism is a major industry in the region, with over 20% of the workforce employed in the wholesale, restaurant and hotels sector, second only to the public service sector. A little over 5% of the workforce are employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing, traditionally major industries in the region. The oil industry, which spurred a rapid increase in industrial development in the 1970s, is in decline, although still a major employer.
The Glen Ord and Glenmorangie distilleries are prominent whisky distilleries.
A railway, the Far North Line from Inverness, enters the county to the north of Beauly and runs northwards through Dingwall and onwards to Tain and along the southerly bank of the Dornoch Firth. From there the single-track line continues north/northeast through Sutherland to Thurso and Wick in Caithness. The Kyle of Lochalsh Line runs west/southwest from Dingwall to the Kyle of Lochalsh.
Antiquities
The principal relics of antiquity - mainly stone circles, cairns and forts - appear in the eastern district. A vitrified fort crowns the hill of Knockfarrel in the parish of Fodderty, and there is a circular dun near the village of Lochcarron. Some fine examples of sculptured stones occur, especially those that, according to tradition, mark the burial-place of the three sons of a Danish king who were shipwrecked off the coast of Nigg. The largest and handsomest of these three crosses - the Clach a' Charraidh, or Stone of Lamentation - stands at Shandwick. It is about 10 feet (3 m) high and contains representations of the martyrdom of St Andrew and figures of an elephant and dog. It fell during a storm in 1847 and was broken in three pieces. On the top of the cross in Nigg churchyard are two figures with outstretched arms in the act of supplication; the dove descends between them, and below are two dogs. The cross was knocked down by the fall of the belfry in 1725, but has been riveted together. The third stone formerly stood at Hilton of Cadboll, but was removed for security to the grounds of Invergordon Castle.
Among old castles are those of Lochslin, in the parish of Fearn, said to date from the 13th century, which, though ruinous, possesses two square towers in good preservation; Balone, in the parish of Tarbat, once a stronghold of the Earls of Ross; the remains of Dingwall Castle, their original seat; and Eilean Donan in Loch Alsh, which was blown up by British warships during the abortive Jacobite rising in 1719.
Local government areas
See also Politics of the Highland Council area
The local government county was created under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, which also established elected county councils for all counties in Scotland. The county of Ross and Cromarty was nominally a merger of two older administrative counties, Ross-shire and Cromartyshire, but there were some alterations to boundaries. The alterations became fully effective, for all purposes except parliamentary representation, in 1892.
The county included six burghs: Cromarty, Dingwall, Fortrose, Invergordon, Stornoway and Tain. Dingwall was the county town.
When counties and burghs were abolished as local government areas, in 1975, under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, the area of the county was divided between two new areas, the Highland region and the Western Isles, and the Ross and Cromarty district of the region was created as one of eight districts of the new region.
Stornoway and the district of Lewis merged into the Western Isles. Also, the new Ross and Cromarty district excluded two other areas, which merged into other districts of the region. The electoral division of Kincardine was merged into Sutherland, and the South West electoral division (an area around and including Lochalsh) was merged into Skye and Lochalsh.
In 1996, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, the district was abolished and the Highland region was turned into a unitary council area. The new unitary authority, the Highland Council, then adopted the area of the former district as a council management area, and created area committees to represent it. The management area consisted then of 13 wards, each electing one councillor by the first past the post system of election. The council as a whole had 72 members.
Ward boundaries were altered in 1999, to create 80 new wards, but management area boundaries were unaltered. Therefore, area committees ceased to represent exactly the areas for which they were named and made decisions. 18 wards and, therefore, 18 councillors were related to the Ross and Cromarty management area.
Under the Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004, ward boundaries changed again in 2007. Also, the eight management areas were abolished in favour of three new corporate management areas. The Ross and Cromarty area was divided between the Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross area and the Ross, Skye and Lochaber area.
References
Bibliography
External links
Genealogy of Ross and Cromarty, including list of parishes
Historical regions
Provinces of Scotland
Ross and Cromarty
|
417671
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Black%20Buck
|
Operation Black Buck
|
Operations Black Buck 1 to Black Buck 7 were seven extremely long-range ground attack missions conducted during the 1982 Falklands War by Royal Air Force (RAF) Vulcan bombers of the RAF Waddington Wing, comprising aircraft from 44, 50 and 101 Squadrons, against Argentine positions in the Falkland Islands. Five of the missions completed attacks. The objective of the missions was to attack Port Stanley Airport and its associated defences. The raids, at almost and 16 hours for the round trip, were the longest-ranged bombing raids in history at that time.
The Operation Black Buck raids were staged from RAF Ascension Island, close to the Equator. The Vulcan was designed for medium-range missions in Europe and lacked the range to fly to the Falklands without refuelling several times. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Handley Page Victor bombers with similar range, so they too had to be refuelled in the air. A total of eleven tankers were required for two Vulcans (one primary and one reserve), a daunting logistical effort as all aircraft had to use the same runway.
The Vulcans carried either twenty-one bombs internally or two or four Shrike anti-radar missiles externally. Of the five Black Buck raids flown to completion, three were against Stanley Airfield's runway and operational facilities, while the other two were anti-radar missions using Shrike missiles against a Westinghouse AN/TPS-43 long-range 3D radar in the Port Stanley area. Shrikes hit two of the less valuable and rapidly replaced secondary fire control radars, causing some casualties among the Argentine crews. One Vulcan was almost lost when a breakdown of its refueling system forced it to land in Brazil.
The raids did minimal damage to the runway and damage to radars was quickly repaired. A single crater was produced on the runway, rendering it impossible for the airfield to be used by fast jets. Argentinian ground crew repaired the runway within twenty-four hours, to a level of quality suitable for C-130 Hercules transports. The British were aware that the runway remained in use. It has been suggested that the Black Buck raids were undertaken by the RAF because the British armed forces had been cut in the late 1970s and the RAF may have desired a greater role in the conflict to prevent further cuts.
Background
During the early 1980s, British defence planning was focused on the Cold War confrontation with the Soviet Union. Nonetheless, at six-monthly intervals the Defence chiefs reviewed other possible areas of conflict around the globe, including the Falkland Islands. The consensus was that they were indefensible. The nearest airfield usable for operations was on Ascension Island, a British territory in the South Atlantic not far from the equator with a single runway at Wideawake airfield that lay from the UK and from the Falklands. Without aircraft able to cover the long distance, the Royal Air Force (RAF) could not envisage carrying out operations in the South Atlantic. Activities in the South Atlantic would be carried out by the Royal Navy and the British Army, with the RAF's role restricted to the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft and logistic support of the base at Ascension by Vickers VC10 and Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft.
Argentine codes had been broken, and in March 1982 intelligence warnings about possible Argentine activity in the South Atlantic accumulated. The RAF began examining whether it was possible to carry out long-range operations with Avro Vulcan bombers using aerial refuelling. In 1961, a Vulcan had flown non-stop from the UK to RAAF Base Richmond near Sydney in Australia, a much greater distance, but that was with pre-positioned aerial tankers along the route, which would not be possible flying from Ascension. All consideration at this point was about how it could be done; no targets were identified in the Falklands or Argentina.
After Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands on 2 April 1982, the British Government resolved to recapture them.
Victor tankers
Long-range operations were entirely dependent upon the RAF's fleet of Handley Page Victor K2 tankers. Originally 34 Victors had been built as bombers; 24 had subsequently been converted to tankers. One had been lost in an accident at Marham on 28 September 1976, leaving the RAF with a force of just 23. These were the only tankers in British service in April 1982; nine VC10s were in the process of being converted to tankers, but conversion of the first was not completed until 22 June. Of these, twelve were assigned to No. 55 Squadron and eleven to No. 57 Squadron.
The tanker crews were well-trained for their wartime role, as their peacetime role involved refuelling fighters scrambled in response to incursions into British airspace, usually by bombers from the Soviet Union at a rate of five per week. However, long-range flights over the unfamiliar South Atlantic Ocean necessitated upgrades to the Victors' navigational equipment, notably the installation of the Delco Carousel inertial navigation system and the Omega navigation system. The tankers were themselves capable of being refuelled in flight, which meant that it was possible to set up relays of aircraft.
The first five Victors deployed to Ascension on 18 April. They were followed by four more the following day. Another six more deployed by the end of the month, bringing the Victor tanker force to fourteen, since one had returned to Marham on 26 April. Each was refuelled by another Victor before leaving UK airspace. While the Victors deployed to Ascension, their normal refuelling mission in the air was undertaken by United States Air Force Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers. The station commander at Marham, Group Captain J. S. B. Price, became the senior RAF officer at Ascension. Wing Commander D. W. Maurice-Jones assumed command of the Victor detachment at Ascension until 22 April, when he was relieved by Wing Commander A. W. Bowman, the commander of No. 57 Squadron.
Initial long-range operations by the RAF involved the use of Victor aircraft for reconnaissance of the region surrounding South Georgia Island in support of Operation Paraquet, the recapture of South Georgia. At 0400Z on 20 April, a Victor piloted by Squadron Leader J. G. Elliott, took off from Ascension, accompanied by four supporting tankers to supply fuel for the outbound journey. Another flight of four tankers supplied fuel for the return journey. Two more reconnaissance missions to the South Georgia area were carried out on 22–23 April and on 24–25 April. These missions demonstrated the capability of the Victor tanker fleet, flying out of Ascension, to support operations in the South Atlantic.
Vulcan bombers
The Vulcan was the last of the British V bombers in operational use for bombing, but by March 1982 there were only three squadrons remaining, Nos. 44, 50 and 101 Squadrons RAF. All three were scheduled to be disbanded by 1 July 1982. They were based at RAF Waddington in the UK and assigned to North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) for nuclear operations; neither aerial refuelling nor conventional bombing had been practised for several years. A request from Rear Admiral Sandy Woodward, the commander of the British aircraft carrier group heading south, on 11 April for recommendations for targets to attack in the Falkland Islands led to reconsideration of the possibility of attacks using Vulcans. Options for attacks on airfields and ports on the Argentine mainland were discarded as politically provocative and unlikely to produce worthwhile results. The Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Michael Beetham argued that the Vulcan threat would cause the Argentinians to retain fighters in the north of Argentina.
Thinking coalesced on a raid on Port Stanley Airport. Whether it would be worth the effort was debated. Beetham initially proposed an attack in which a single Vulcan would drop seven bombs. This light bomb load would keep the refuelling requirements down to a minimum. However, tests conducted at the Garvie Island bombing range indicated that seven bombs would not be enough, but a full load of twenty-one would have a 90 per cent probability of putting one crater in the runway, with a 75 per cent chance of two craters. An attack was also expected to do damage to the dispersal areas and aircraft parked nearby. To minimise the danger from anti-aircraft guns and surface-to-air missiles, the raids would be carried out at night, preferably in bad weather. Damage to the surrounding area, possibly including parked aircraft, would make the raid worthwhile. While the Chiefs of Staff Committee were convinced that the operation was feasible and stood a good chance of success, the civilians at the Ministry of Defence were not so certain, and there were political implications to using the base at Ascension for offensive purposes, as Wideawake was technically a USAF base. The United States Department of State was consulted, and affirmed that it had no objection. Authority to proceed with the operation, codenamed Black Buck, was given by the War Cabinet on 27 April.
The most controversial part of the plan was the involvement of Sea Harriers from Woodward's task force. One of the reasons for the use of the Vulcans was to conserve Sea Harrier resources for the air defence of the naval forces, but the plan required them to conduct a daylight photo reconnaissance sortie over the airfield for the purpose of damage assessment. If they had to be risked, then there were political advantages in using them to carry out the attack on the airport instead. Rear Admiral Derek Reffell proposed that Harriers be used to suppress the airfield radars prior to the Vulcan attack in addition to conducting the post-attack photo reconnaissance. On 29 April, Woodward was informed that the Black Buck raid would occur at 0700Z, and that he was to arrange for the photo reconnaissance to take place as soon as possible afterwards. Woodward signalled that if the photo reconnaissance was essential to Black Buck, then his recommendation was that Black Buck should be cancelled. The following day he was informed that Black Buck had been approved, and that the photo reconnaissance was required not just for damage assessment, but to refute Argentine allegations of indiscriminate bombing.
Vulcans were selected based upon their engines; only those with the more powerful Bristol Olympus 301 engines were considered suitable. Six aircraft were selected: two each from Nos. 44, 50 and 101 Squadrons. In the event, one was not used. Five crews were chosen, one each from Nos. 44 and 101 Squadrons, two from No. 50 Squadron, and one from the recently disbanded No. 9 Squadron. An air-to-air instructor from the operational conversion unit responsible for training personnel to operate Victor tankers was added to each Vulcan crew during operational missions; this officer was responsible for supervising the refuelling contacts.
One of the most challenging tasks was reinstating the aerial refuelling system, which had been blocked off. This involved replacing the non-return valves. Twenty replacements were located on a shelf at RAF Stafford. The five aircraft were fitted with the Carousel inertial navigation system. AN/ALQ-101 electronic countermeasure pods from Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft at RAF Honington were fitted to the wings of the Vulcans on improvised pylons, using the attachment points originally intended for the Skybolt missile. The undersides of the aircraft were painted Dark Sea Grey.
While the Vulcans were capable of carrying conventional munitions, this had not been done for a long time. To carry twenty-one bombs, the Vulcan required three sets of bomb carriers, each of which held seven bombs. Their release was controlled by a panel at the navigator's station, known as a 90-way, that monitored the electrical connections to each bomb, and was said to provide 90 different sequences for releasing the 1,000-pound bombs. None of the Vulcans at Waddington were fitted with the bomb racks or the 90-way. A search of the supply dumps at Waddington and RAF Scampton located the 90-way panels, which were fitted and tested, but finding enough septuple bomb carriers proved harder, and at least nine were required. Someone remembered that some had been sold to a scrapyard in Newark-on-Trent, and they were retrieved from there. Locating sufficient bombs also proved difficult, and only 167 could be located. Some had cast bomb cases rather than machined ones, which was problematic as they tended to shatter, and this mission required bombs that would penetrate into the ground. Training of crews in conventional bombing and in-flight refuelling was carried out from 14 to 17 April, when Military Air Traffic Controllers from the Military Area Service (M.A.S.) suite at London Terminal Control Centre in West Drayton, Middlesex, took the Vulcan bombers and Victor tankers 250 miles off Land's End in the Atlantic Ocean, where the vast majority of their aerial refuelling training was completed, always at night.
The first two Vulcans, commanded by Squadron Leader John Reeve, and Flight Lieutenant Martin Withers, left Waddington at 0900Z on 29 April and arrived at Wideawake at 1800Z after a non-stop nine-hour flight during which they were twice refuelled by Victor tankers. Two other Vulcans subsequently deployed to Wideawake: one commanded by Squadron Leader Alastair Montgomery arrived on 14 May, and another, commanded by Squadron Leader Neil McDougall, on 27 May. It carried out trials with the Martel anti-radar missile before being equipped with the Shrike missile.
Missions
Summary
Black Buck One
The first surprise attack on the islands, on 30 April – 1 May, was the first significant offensive action made by British forces against the Argentine forces in the Falklands. It was aimed at the main runway at Port Stanley Airport. Carrying twenty-one 1,000-pound bombs, the bomber was to fly across the line of the runway at about 35 degrees. The bomb release system was timed to drop bombs sequentially from , so that at least one bomb would hit the runway. The Vulcan's fuel tanks could contain weighing in fourteen pressurised bag tanks, five in each wing and four in the fuselage. Based upon estimates of the Vulcan's fuel need, eleven Victor tankers, including two reserve aircraft, were assigned to refuel the single Vulcan before and after its attack on the Falklands. Two Vulcans were assigned to the mission: one, commanded by Reeve, was the lead with another, captained by Withers, as the reserve, which would return to Ascension once Reeve had successfully completed its first aerial refuelling. The plan called for 15 Victor sorties and 18 aerial refuellings. At the time it was the longest bombing mission ever attempted. (B-2 Spirit bombers would surpass that record during the 2001 Operation Enduring Freedom.)
The eleven Victors and two Vulcans began taking off from Wideawake at 2350Z at one-minute intervals, with Reeve's Vulcan the eleventh to lift off and Withers's the last. With a full load of bombs and fuel, a sixth crew member and a fresh coat of paint, the Vulcans were well over their rated maximum takeoff weight of . On the warm Ascension Island, the Bristol Olympus 301 engines had to be run at 103 per cent of their rated power in order to get the Vulcans airborne. Shortly after takeoff, Reeve suffered a failure. A rubber seal on the captain's "direct vision" side window had perished. Unable to close or seal the window and pressurise the crew cabin, he was forced to return to Ascension. The Vulcan lacked the ability to dump fuel, and it was far too heavy even for an emergency landing, so the crew were forced to remain airborne in a cold and noisy cabin until sufficient fuel had been consumed. Withers took over as the primary Vulcan. Twenty minutes later, one of the Victor tankers returned to Ascension with a faulty refuelling hose system, and its place was taken by the reserve.
In the 34 minutes between the first and second refuellings, Withers's Vulcan burned through of fuel, at the rate of per hour. All this time its weight never dropped below the theoretical maximum. At the end of the second refuelling, two more tankers peeled off and returned, reducing the force to just three: Withers's Vulcan, a Victor flown by Squadron Leader Bob Tuxford, and a Victor flown by Flight Lieutenant Steve Biglands. As a result of the fuel demand and problems in flight with refuelling, two of the Victors had to fly further south than planned, reducing their own reserves. At the final refuelling bracket, the sortie flew into a violent thunderstorm, during which Biglands's refuelling probe failed.
Tuxford was supposed to return after this refuelling with of fuel while Biglands flew on with the Vulcan, but Tuxford now took Biglands's place. A quick calculation showed that he did not have enough fuel to make it back to Ascension. It fell to Tuxford to conduct the final refuelling. Withers received less than he expected. This meant that he would be making the return fuelling rendezvous with in his tanks instead of .
Now alone, Withers flew on to the Falklands. He made his approach at low level, dropping to before climbing to for the bomb run from the target. To verify their position and minimise the risk of civilian casualties, the H2S radar was successfully locked on to the peak of Mount Usborne, west of Stanley, before the automated bombing control system was engaged. Withers made the final approach at , with an airspeed of . The Vulcan's electronic countermeasures defeated the radar systems controlling the defending Skyguard anti-aircraft cannons. The twenty-one bombs were dropped. Once all were away, Withers put the Vulcan into a 60-degree bank to the left, subjecting the crew to , twice the force of gravity. Sea Harriers of 801 Naval Air Squadron (NAS) were held at readiness on board the aircraft carrier to protect the Vulcan, but were not required as no Argentine aircraft were in the area at the time of the attack. The Sea Harriers went into action shortly after the Vulcan raid. Two of the aircraft flew over Port Stanley airport to photograph the damage caused by the Vulcan.
Withers climbed away from the airfield and headed nearly due north to a planned rendezvous with a Victor some way off the Brazilian coast near Rio de Janeiro. As they passed the British Task Force, the crew signalled the code word "superfuse" indicating a successful attack at 0746Z. Their journey continued within range of the South American coast to the rendezvous with a Victor flown by Squadron Leader Barry Neal. After contacting control with an update, the tanker was sent further south. To help bring the two planes together, one of Ascension's two Nimrod maritime reconnaissance aircraft flew from Wideawake to the area. Without an in-flight refuelling system, it was unable to remain for long. Tuxford, who had continued to maintain radio silence lest he compromise the mission, picked up the "superfuse" signal and radioed Ascension for help. A Victor flown by his squadron commander, Wing Commander Colin Seymour, flew out to meet him, and refuelled Tuxford's Victor, enabling him to return to Ascension 14 hours and 5 minutes after he had left. Meanwhile, with the help of the Nimrod, Withers made the rendezvous with Neal, and all three aircraft returned to Ascension safely. Withers touched down at 1452Z.
Northwood Headquarters received the "superfuse" message by 0830Z and the Ministry of Defence shortly thereafter. Beetham was informed by his deputy, Air Vice Marshal Kenneth Hayr, an hour later. The news of the bombing raid was reported on the BBC World Service before either the Vulcan or the last tanker arrived back at Ascension. The bombardment is believed to have killed three Argentinian personnel at the airport and injured several more. One bomb exploded on the runway and caused a large crater which proved difficult to repair, and the other bombs caused minor damage to aircraft and equipment. The shortened runway remained in action.
Later that morning, twelve 800 Naval Air Squadron Sea Harriers were dispatched from the aircraft carrier to attack targets on East Falkland. Nine of the aircraft struck Port Stanley Airport and dropped 27 bombs on the airfield and its defences. The bombs set a stockpile of fuel on fire and may have slightly damaged the runway. One of the Sea Harriers was struck by a 20 mm anti-aircraft round, which damaged its fin and tailplane; the aircraft managed to return to Hermes and was quickly repaired. The Argentine air defence headquarters incorrectly assessed British losses as three aircraft destroyed.
The other three 800 NAS Sea Harriers attacked the airfield at Goose Green with cluster bombs shortly after the raid on Port Stanley, resulting in the destruction of a Pucará and severe damage to another two. The pilot of the destroyed aircraft and five maintenance personnel were killed. Neither of the two damaged aircraft flew again. The three British aircraft did not encounter any opposition and safely returned to Hermes. After the aircraft were refuelled, 800 NAS began launching Sea Harriers on combat air patrol sorties. 801 NAS maintained a four-aircraft combat air patrol to the east of Port Stanley throughout the operation.
On 8 October 1982, Withers was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his part in the action, and his crew—Flying Officer P. I. Taylor (co-pilot), Flight Lieutenant R. D. Wright (radar plotter), Flight Lieutenant G. C. Graham (navigator), Flight Lieutenant H. Prior (air electronics officer) and Flight Lieutenant R. J. Russell (air-to-air refuelling instructor)—were Mentioned in Dispatches. Tuxford was awarded the Air Force Cross, while his crew—Squadron Leader E. F. Wallis, Flight Lieutenant M. E. Beer, Flight Lieutenant J. N. Keable and Flight Lieutenant G. D. Rees—received the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air.
Black Buck Two
During the night of 3–4 May, a Vulcan flown by Squadron Leader John Reeve and his crew of No. 50 Squadron, flew a near-identical mission to the first. This time, a Vulcan piloted by Squadron Leader Alastair Montgomery, acted as flying reserve aircraft, but was not required. As with Black Buck One, the approach to Port Stanley over the final was made at low altitude, with a final "pop-up" to a higher altitude, , for the bomb run in order to avoid the now fully alert Argentine anti-aircraft defences, particularly the Argentine Roland surface-to-air missiles. As a result, all the bombs missed the runway. This was not known for several days, as the weather conditions precluded photo-reconnaissance missions. According to Argentine sources, which also confirm impacts near the western end of the airstrip, two Argentine soldiers were wounded. The cratering at the western end of the runway prevented Argentine engineers from extending it sufficiently to make it capable of accommodating high-performance combat aircraft. The runway remained in use by Hercules and light transport aircraft, allowing the Argentinians to fly in critical supplies and evacuate wounded personnel.
Black Buck Three
Following Black Buck Two there was a break in Vulcan operations as the tankers were needed to support submarine-hunting missions conducted by Nimrods; each Nimrod sortie to protect the naval task force required 18 supporting tanker sorties. The two Vulcans returned to Waddington on 7 May, but one redeployed to Wideawake on 15 May to be the primary aircraft for Black Buck Three. Another, that had arrived from Waddington on 14 May, was the reserve aircraft for the mission. Scheduled for 16 May, Black Buck Three was cancelled before takeoff due to strong headwinds. The two Vulcans returned to Waddington on 20 and 23 May.
Black Buck Four
The Black Buck Four mission was due to be the first using American-supplied Shrike anti-radar missiles, which were mounted on the Vulcans using improvised underwing pylons. These weapons had not previously been used by Vulcans, but arrangements for fitting them to the aircraft and the trials program were completed in just ten days. Vulcans equipped with Shrike allowed the Vulcan to carry an additional of fuel in bomb bay tanks, which extended their range and reduced the number of refuelling contacts needed on the flight to the Falklands to four.
The primary aircraft was a Vulcan flown by Squadron Leader Neil McDougall and his crew from No. 50 Squadron that arrived at Wideawake on 27 May, with Montgomery flying the reserve aircraft. The mission was scheduled for 28 May, but was also cancelled, but only some five hours after they had taken off. One of the supporting Victor refuelling aircraft suffered a failure of the hose-and-drogue refuelling unit, and the flight had to be recalled.
Black Buck Five
Black Buck Five was flown by McDougall with Montgomery reprising his role flying the reserve aircraft. This was the first completed anti-radar mission equipped with Shrike missiles. The main target was a Westinghouse AN/TPS-43 long-range 3D radar that the Argentine Air Force deployed during April to guard the airspace surrounding the Falkland Islands. The warning that this radar gave enabled the Argentine defenders to conceal mobile Exocet missile launchers. It also gave Argentine Hercules transports the warning they needed to continue using the runway at Stanley. An attack on the radar with Shrike missiles could only succeed if the targeted radar continued transmitting until struck, so a Sea Harrier raid was staged to coincide with the attack to force the defenders to turn on the radar. At 0845Z two Shrikes were launched at it. The first missile impacted from the target, causing minor blast damage, but not disabling the radar. The second missile missed by a greater margin.
Black Buck Six
Black Buck Six was flown on 3 June by McDougall, whose Vulcan was now armed with four Shrike missiles instead of just two. Montgomery again flew the reserve aircraft. McDougall loitered over the target for 40 minutes in a vain effort to engage the AN/TPS-43, which was not switched on. Finally, the crew fired two of the four Shrikes, which destroyed a Skyguard fire-control radar of the Argentine Army's 601 Anti-Aircraft Battalion, killing four radar operators.
On its return flight McDougall was forced to divert to Rio de Janeiro after his in-flight refuelling probe broke. One of the missiles he was carrying was ditched into the ocean to reduce drag, but the other remained stuck on the pylon and could not be released. Sensitive documents containing classified information were jettisoned into the sea via the crew hatch, and a "Mayday" signal was sent. Two Northrop F-5E Tiger II fighters from 2° Esquadrão do 1° Grupo de Aviação de Caça of the Brazilian Air Force were scrambled from Santa Cruz Airfield and intercepted the Vulcan. The aircraft was cleared to land at Galeão Airport by Brazilian authorities with less than of fuel remaining, not enough to complete a circuit of the airport.
This was a potentially embarrassing international incident, as it revealed that the United States had supplied the British with Shrike missiles. British diplomats negotiated for the release of the Vulcan and its crew, who were interned at Galeão Air Force Base. A deal was struck on 4 June under which they would be released in exchange for spare parts for Westland Lynx helicopters. Brazil came under pressure from Argentina, and the United States agreed to intervene to preserve the secrets of the Shrike missile. The crew and aircraft were permitted to fly to Ascension on 10 June. A new refuelling probe was fitted there, and the aircraft flew back to Waddington on 13 June. The remaining Shrike missile remained in Brazil.
Black Buck Seven
The final Black Buck mission was flown on 12 June by Withers, and with the same crew as for Black Buck One except that Flight Lieutenant Peter Standing acted as Air-to-Air Refuelling Instructor instead of Russell. Montgomery once again flew the reserve aircraft. This time the mission targeted Argentine troop positions and facilities around the airport instead of the runway. The bombs were fused in error to explode on impact; the end of the war was in sight and the intention had been for them to air burst to destroy aircraft and stores without damaging the runway, which would soon be needed for RAF Phantom FGR.2 operations after the Falkland Islands were recaptured. In the event, all 21 bombs missed the intended targets. The Argentine ground forces surrendered two days later.
Effect
The military effectiveness of Black Buck remains controversial, with some independent sources describing it as "minimal". The runway continued to be used by Argentine C-130 Hercules transport aircraft until the end of the war, although after 1 May only of supplies and 340 troops were delivered, and early flights were suspended after 4 May, as Black Buck missions occurred in the early morning hours. Woodward has stated that he "fully expected" Hercules flights to continue after Black Buck One, but that he "did not care too much about that" at the time since, unlike fast jets, they were not a direct threat to the naval forces. The British were aware that Hercules flights continued to use the airfield and attempted to interdict these flights, leading to the downing of a Hercules on 1 June. In view of the airport's lack of impact on the ultimate outcome of the campaign, the British targeting of Stanley airport was questionable.
Planning for the raid called for a bomb run in a 35° cut across the runway, with the aim of placing at least one bomb on the runway and possibly two. The main purpose in doing so was to prevent the use of the runway by fast jets; in this respect the raid was successful as the repair to the runway was botched and subsequently there were several near accidents. The fact that the British forces could penetrate Argentine air defences and attack the airfield had the desired effect in relation to preventing fast jet usage of the Port Stanley airstrip as the Argentine military command could not risk stationing its fast jets and the infrastructure necessary to operate them on the islands if they could be destroyed on the ground, irrespective of the operational status of the runway. Admiral Woodward considered it vital to keep fast jets from using Port Stanley, to reduce the threat of air attack on the British aircraft carriers. Starting on 1 May, the Royal Navy attacked Port Stanley with aerial bombing by Sea Harriers and naval bombardment, in order to hamper Argentinian repair efforts. The Argentinians left the runway covered with piles of earth during the day, leading to claims this caused British intelligence to surmise that repairs were still in progress and misleading the British as to the condition of the airfield and the success of their raids.
Commander Nigel (Sharkey) Ward, the commander of 801 NAS, who flew a Sea Harrier to protect Black Buck One from fighter attack, was highly critical of Operation Black Buck. He calculated that for the quantity of fuel expended by Black Buck One to drop 21 bombs, which he estimated at at a cost of £3.3 million, the Sea Harriers of the carrier force could have carried out 785 sorties that would have delivered 2,357 bombs. Ward dismissed as RAF propaganda the claim that the raids led to fear of attacks on the mainland:
There is no evidence that Mirage IIIs were withdrawn from southern Argentina to protect Buenos Aires. On 29 April, Argentine radars at Puerto San Julián detected a suspected British air strike and aircraft from there were moved to Comodoro Rivadavia, but they still remained in southern Argentina.
The British intended to convince the Argentinian forces that an amphibious assault on Port Stanley was imminent, and Admiral Woodward saw Black Buck One as an important contribution to this effort, alongside naval attacks and deception efforts. The author of Vulcan 607, Rowland White, claimed that Vice Admiral Juan Lombardo was led to believe that Black Buck One was the prelude to a full-scale landing by the British. As a consequence, he ordered Rear Admiral , the commander of the Argentine Sea Fleet, to immediately attack the British fleet. This attack took the form of a pincer movement, with the light cruiser to the south and aircraft carrier to the north. On 2 May, General Belgrano was sunk by the submarine . Thereafter the Argentine Navy withdrew to territorial waters and played no further part in the conflict.
A United States Marine Corps study concluded that:
Notes
References
Aerial bombing operations and battles
Black Buck
Ascension Island
Avro Vulcan
History of the Royal Air Force
Military operations of the Falklands War
|
417728
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Davis%20%28Virginia%20politician%29
|
Tom Davis (Virginia politician)
|
Thomas Milburn Davis III (born January 5, 1949) is an American lobbyist and former Republican member of the United States House of Representatives who represented Virginia's 11th congressional district in Northern Virginia. Davis was considering a run for the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by five-term incumbent and fellow Republican John Warner in the 2008 election, but decided against it. He announced on January 30, 2008, that he would not seek reelection to an eighth term. Davis resigned from Congress on November 24, 2008.
From 2008 to 2018, he was a director of federal government affairs at Deloitte. He is currently the rector (head of the Board of Visitors) of George Mason University and a trustee of its Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study. In January 2019, he began work as a partner in the law firm Holland and Knight.
Early life and education
Davis was born in Minot, North Dakota, and moved to Fairfax County in Virginia at an early age. He was a U.S. Senate Page and graduated as president of the senior class at the United States Capitol Page School in 1967. He is a graduate of Amherst College and the University of Virginia School of Law. He attended Officer Candidate School of the U.S. Army, served on active duty, and spent eight years with the Virginia National Guard and the U.S. Army Reserve.
Early career
He is the former vice president and general counsel at government contractor PRC, Inc., former chairman of the Northern Virginia Transportation Commission, and former president of the Washington Metropolitan Council of Governments.
Political career
Davis was a member of the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors from 1980 to 1994, serving as chairman of the Board of Supervisors from 1991 until his election to the House. During his service as board chairman, Fairfax County was ranked first financially by City and State magazine in their list of Top 50 Counties.
Congressional career
Davis won election to the House in 1994, the year of the Republican Contract with America. Davis defeated one-term incumbent Leslie Byrne. The Contract with America called for citizen-legislators who would retire after 12 years, instead of career politicians. Davis signed the Contract and voted in favor of the Citizens Legislature Act; however, the bill did not achieve support from the 2/3 majority needed for the amendment to pass. Although the 11th was considered a swing district, Davis was reelected five more times without substantive opposition in part due to his popularity in Fairfax County. Democrats did not field a candidate against him in 1998 and 2002.
In the 2006 Democratic wave, when Democrats took the House for the first time since 1994, Davis faced an unexpectedly strong challenge from Democrat Andrew Hurst, but was reelected with 55 percent of the vote, which was his lowest total since his initial bid against Byrne. Nonetheless, he began fundraising for a Senate bid in 2007. In his 2004 term, on what the Washington Post deemed to be his then-most recent "key votes", Davis voted 10 times out of the last 13 times (77 percent) for the Republican Party position. On a series of 1,700 votes reported by The Washington Post, Davis voted over 89 percent of the time in favor of the Republican position. Nevertheless, Davis was sometimes described as a moderate; he supported some abortion rights and voting rights for the District of Columbia, and opposed a state car tax phase-out in 2006.
Davis was chairman of the National Republican Congressional Committee (NRCC) from 1998 to 2002. According to The Federal Paper, he then sought the chairmanship of the House Government Oversight and Reform Committee. Davis had less seniority than the other contenders for this chairmanship, but some Republicans wanted to reward him for his work as NRCC chairman, including his supervision of a $160 million fundraising effort. Davis's deputy on the NRCC, Tom Reynolds of New York, became the next NRCC chairman.
House Committee on Government Reform
In 2003, Davis became Chairman of the House Government Reform Committee. He served as Chairman until 2007, when Democrats became the majority party in the House of Representatives. Henry Waxman of California replaced Davis at the gavel. Davis had renamed the committee, removing "Oversight" from the title; one of Waxman's first acts as Chair was to reinstitute the name as the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. The committee was the chief investigative and oversight committee of the House, and was granted broad jurisdiction. This committee was very active during the Clinton administration. It issued 1,052 subpoenas to probe alleged misconduct by the administration and the Democratic Party between 1997 and 2002. By contrast, by the end of the 2005 session, Davis and the majority had only permitted three subpoenas to be issued to the George W. Bush administration, including one to the United States Department of Defense over documents related to Hurricane Katrina.
ICG government
Davis's second wife, Jeannemarie Devolites-Davis, was one of the first hires (as a part-time consultant) for ICG Government, a firm that assists businesses in understanding procuring government contracts. Their financial relationship, along with financial ties that benefit family members of 64 of the 435 voting members of Congress, was highlighted in the June 2007 ethics report, "Family Affair" by the CREW.
At the time of her hire at ICG, Davis was her mentor and campaign manager. After being hired, Devolites married Davis. On July 28, 2006, the Washington Post reported that the Defense Information Systems Agency had reviewed its satellite contract with Artel, Inc., and the agency had preliminarily determined that the contract was ineffective and expensive. Artel then hired ICG for consulting services. ICG drafted a letter Davis signed to the agency threatening an investigation by his committee if the contract was not awarded. After the Post articles appeared, Davis sought an opinion from the House Ethics Committee. They advised him to be careful to avoid the appearance of any conflict in this matter. The Post published an extensive article on the issue, the company had to register as a lobbyist, and ICG removed a picture from the front page of its website of Davis speaking to ICG clients.
His wife continued to work for ICG, which paid her $78,000 in 2005 for working 10 to 20 hours a week, primarily at home on her cell phone. She was making $18,000 a year as a Virginia legislator. Her bio was the only one on the ICG site to name her spouse. The same Post writers continued the investigation of oversight of contractual influence by the committee and its chair in November and December 2006.
Major League Baseball team in Washington
Davis was accused of threatening Major League Baseball with an investigation when a consortium that included George Soros offered to buy the Washington Nationals.
"I think Major League Baseball understands the stakes", Davis told Roll Call magazine. "I don't think they want to get involved in the political fights." Davis, who convened some congressional hearings about steroid use, added, "I don't think it's the Nats that get hurt. I think it's Major League Baseball that gets hurt. They enjoy all sorts of exemptions from antitrust laws."
Transportation development positions
Davis also appeared at a local zoning meeting to oppose a "smart growth" plan near the Vienna Metro station. Approval of the project, to build what was called a "mini-city" within walking distance of the Metro, was considered routine. Some of the longest commutes to work in the nation begin in Virginia—second only to New York City—and in Prince William County in particular. The project was a key resolution to congestion in the congressional district. Davis's pledge to approve the legislation led several county supervisors to accuse him of meddling in a local land-use issue.
One politician who spoke to Davis said the congressman told him that he opposed Pulte Homes' MetroWest project because "all it does is produce Democrats".
In July 2006, Davis wrote a letter to Virginia's then-Governor Tim Kaine discouraging the state from constructing an underground Metrorail through Tysons Corner. According to a July 17, 2006, story in The Washington Post, Davis said switching to a tunnel in Tysons would require reviews that could delay the rail line by as much as two years. On February 26, 2007, The Post reported that Davis had switched positions.
Jennifer and David Safavian
One of 12 counsels for oversight and investigations on the House Government Reform Committee was Jennifer Safavian, wife of David Safavian, the first person convicted in the Jack Abramoff lobbying scandal. She is now the Staff Director for the House Ways and Means Committee. A former legislative director for Davis submitted a request that he receive no jail time, but the judge ruled David Safavian's conduct merited incarceration. The judge's decision was reversed on June 17, 2008, by the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia.
David Safavian had replaced Angela Styles, who was forced from the General Services Administration after Davis wrote letters to her bosses at the Office of Management and Budget. He had written to Mitchell E. Daniels Jr. and Joshua Bolten, Styles's superiors at the Office of Management and Budget.
Prior to his GSA job, Safavian had no government contracts experience. He did have connections to Davis, as a lobbyist with Grover Norquist, head of Americans for Tax Reform (ATR), he worked closely with the NRCC when Davis was chair, and presented Davis with an ATR award." ATR has been found to have operated as tax-exempt despite not qualifying for tax-exempt status.
Schiavo subpoena
Among notable controversies involving the committee under Davis was the Terri Schiavo case. The committee subpoena, signed by Davis, ordered the appearance of Schiavo, her husband, Michael, and her doctors. The subpoenas specified that the witnesses bring to the hearing "all medical and other equipment that provides nutrition and hydration...in its current and continuing state of operations." Davis issued a joint statement with House Majority Leader Tom DeLay (R-TX) and Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert (R-IL) that stated: "This inquiry should give hope to Terri, her parents and friends, and the millions of people throughout the world who are praying for her safety. This fight is not over." Many legal scholars criticized this action as an inappropriate congressional intervention in an ongoing court case that defied the rule of law and amounted to a bill of attainder—not against the party the politicians are attempting to aid, but against the party on the other side of the courtroom.
K Street Project and NRCC fundraising
As chairman of the NRCC, Davis's chief responsibility was fundraising for members of Congress, and his work overlapped with the financial efforts of the Republican Party's K Street Project and the fundraising scandals involving Abramoff and DeLay. Davis himself signed an NRCC check for $500,000 in 1999, the largest amount donated by the NRCC, while he was chair of the committee. The NRCC was fined by the Federal Elections Commission for transferring the funds because it was transferred between political action committees for the same candidates in violation of contribution limits. The PAC involved, the U.S. Family Network, is connected with Abramoff, Bob Ney, and Willie Tan, a businessman in the Northern Mariana Islands, all currently associated with a political scandal.
Legislative activity
Davis was chair of the Select Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina. Democrats, who had proposed an independent investigation, objected and did not officially take part in the committee. The committee proceeded, eventually producing a stinging report critical of government's response to the disaster.
Davis introduced the bill that became the Elizabeth Morgan Act, passed in 1996. In 2003, a federal appeals court ruled that the act was an unconstitutional bill of attainder.
Davis has been instrumental in getting federal funding for the replacement of the Woodrow Wilson Bridge.
Davis sponsored legislation creating a financial control board for Washington, D.C. He was in charge, until 2000, of the Government Reform Committee's Subcommittee on the District of Columbia, generally favoring allowing the District government more autonomy.
Apparently in a surprise to the House Judiciary Committee, the Reform Committee passed HR 2043 (the DC Fair and Equal House Voting Rights Act), a bill Davis introduced to provide the District of Columbia with voting representation in Congress. This bill differs from other bills that would grant the district the right to elect representatives. HR 2043 requires the addition of two representatives, one in Washington, D.C., and one in Utah, by raising the number of Representatives from 435 to 437. Originally, the number of House seats would return to 435 after the 2010 Census, with Washington, D.C. retaining a full vote in the House., but later versions of the bill make the expansion to 437 seats permanent. The bill did not make it to the House floor, however.
The bill was reintroduced, cosponsored by Davis, as the "District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act of 2007", as H.R. 1433 in the 110th Congress. The bill permanently increases the size of the House by two members. One seat will go to the District of Columbia and the other seat will go to the next state in line to get a congressional seat. Based on the 2000 decennial census and apportionment calculations, Utah will get the second seat until the reapportionment taking place after the 2010 Decennial Census. On March 13, 2007 it passed the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform with a vote of 24–5.
2004 and 2006 election campaigns
Davis's congressional district was redistricted after the 2000 census, which increased the percentage of Republicans in the district. In 2004, he defeated his relatively unknown Democratic challenger, Ken Longmyer, by a 59 percent to 39 percent margin. In the race, Davis outspent Longmyer, $1,835,000 to $72,000.
In the November 2006 election, Davis defeated Democrat Andrew Hurst by 11 percentage points. It was the closest and costliest race Davis faced in 12 years. In financing his campaign, Davis outspent Hurst almost 9-to-1, $2,607,125 to $310,561.
Independent Green Party co-founder, businessman Joseph Oddo was on the ballot in 2004. Ferdinado Greco, a physicist, George Mason University grad, owner and operator of a hybrid taxi business, was the Independent Green candidate in 2006.
Initial steps toward a 2008 Senate campaign
On September 15, 2007, Davis told WTOP's Politics Program that he was running for the Senate seat being vacated by John Warner. He said that he has been assembling money and staff for the contest, but was delaying a formal announcement until November. It had been presumed that he would face former Governor Jim Gilmore for the nomination. However, the state Republican Party opted to choose its nominee at a nominating convention rather than in a primary.
Davis argued that a primary would expose the candidates to the kind of environment they would face in November. It was also thought that a primary would have favored Davis due to his popularity in voter-rich Northern Virginia. In contrast, the delegates at the nominating convention would have been made up mostly of party activists; the state's Republican activist base is much more conservative than the primary and general electorates. Gilmore had argued strongly for a convention, claiming that a primary would leave the winner short of cash; he is also much more conservative than Davis, and would therefore have likely been the favorite at the convention. Funding was no small consideration, as the race for the Democratic nomination essentially ended when former Governor Mark Warner announced his candidacy. Warner was one of the state's most popular politicians, and had the ability to self-finance his campaign due to his considerable personal fortune.
The party opted for a convention, and Davis therefore announced in October 2007 that he would not run for the Senate. Gilmore was nominated, and lost the general election to Warner in a landslide. Davis also did not run for reelection to his House seat, and was replaced by Democrat Gerry Connolly.
Davis told the National Press Club in 2007 that he was considering later mounting a challenge to Virginia's other Senator, Jim Webb, in 2012. Ultimately, he did not enter that race.
Post-congressional career
On November 17, 2008, Davis joined Deloitte Consulting in their Washington, D.C. office. He resigned from Congress on November 24, 2008.
Davis served as president and CEO of the Republican Main Street Partnership, a moderate Republican organization.
He has also started teaching a class at George Mason University, called "Southern Politics" in the 2008 Fall Semester. In the Spring and Fall of 2010, Davis taught Political Parties and Campaigns. The course is described as "Characteristics and functions of political parties, influence of parties and other political forces on electoral decisions, and emphasis on parties' inability or ability to hold government accountable to citizens" in the catalog. Former Virginia U.S. Representative Jim Moran also teaches the class with him.
On December 21, 2010, it was announced that Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell appointed Davis to be a member of the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority Board of Directors, filling one of the five seats on the Board allotted to Virginia.
In August 2014 Davis was named rector of George Mason University. He had been on the university's Board of Visitors since 2013.
Davis is a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One, a group of former members of congress, governors and cabinet officials dedicated to campaign finance reform.
In 2019, he left his position at Deloitte and became a lobbyist for the Holland & Knight law firm.
Political positions
Davis's district is in the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. He was active in efforts to change federal procurement and contracting practices that make it faster to award contracts but also easier to award no-bid, "cost-plus" and "share in savings" contracts. These contracts especially involved the GSA and the Department of Homeland Security. Critics of the reforms pointed to the increasing campaign contributions from beneficiaries of the contracts and a reduction in audit and auditors, oversight, and performance by contractors after the changes.
Tom Davis was one of only eleven Republicans to vote against the Contract with America Tax Relief Act
that cut taxes by $189 billion over five years, including lowering the capital gains tax rate and easing the "marriage penalty," and supported a tax hike referendum to raise sales taxes in northern Virginia by 4.5 to 5%.
He also went against his party by supporting District of Columbia voting rights, and introduced "The District of Columbia Fair and Equal House Voting Rights Act of 2006" before the house. However, this bill never made it out of committee.
Davis supported Virginia's Right-to-work law, which was opposed by organized labor.
In 2006, Davis said he opposed amnesty for illegal immigrants and supported H.R. 4437, an immigration reform bill sponsored by Rep. James Sensenbrenner.
Davis voted to support stem cell research. He was a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership, a group of Republicans who describe themselves as "mainstream".
In 2007, expressing disapproval with the Democratic Party resolution disapproving of the Iraq troop surge, Davis nevertheless broke with his party line to vote for the resolution.
Project Vote Smart reported that Davis has high approval ratings from business groups, but significantly lower ratings from groups that support abortion rights, environmental protection, and civil liberties.
In 2012, Davis was elected president of the Federal City Council, a group of business, civic, education, and other leaders interested in economic development in Washington, D.C.
Personal life
Davis is a member of the Christian Science Church.
In 1973, Davis married Margaret "Peggy" Rantz, a medical doctor. They have three children together. He divorced her in late 2003 and announced his intention to marry Jeannemarie Devolites in February 2004. They married in June of that year. Davis's first public involvement with Devolites was in 1997 when he managed her campaign for the Virginia House of Delegates, her fourth campaign and first successful one, and was her biggest campaign contributor. In 2003 she was elected to the Virginia State Senate, serving one term before her defeat for re-election in 2007. Davis's political action committees gave her more than $172,000 by mid-2006. He has four stepdaughters from this marriage.
Electoral history
*Write-in and minor candidate notes: In 1992, write-ins received 145 votes. In 1994, write-ins received 114 votes. In 1996, write-ins received 181 votes. In 2000, write-ins received 285 votes. In 2004, write-ins received 291 votes. In 2006, write-ins received 259 votes.
References
External links
2006 campaign funding record maintained by the Washington Post
Tom Davis Papers 1994-2008
Video
First debate between Tom Davis and Andy Hurst 9/19/06 hurst2006.blogspot.com
Second Debate with Tom Davis and Andy Hurst 10/19/06 kentonngo.com
Calls for Davis resignation from Government Reform committee chairmanship
at Ethnic Community Campaign Rally, VA, September 9, 2006
Amherst College alumni
American Christian Scientists
Politicians from Falls Church, Virginia
People from Minot, North Dakota
United States Army officers
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
Virginia lawyers
People from Vienna, Virginia
1949 births
Living people
Members of the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia
21st-century American politicians
Members of Congress who became lobbyists
|
417741
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline%20Baynes
|
Pauline Baynes
|
Pauline Diana Baynes (9 September 19221 August 2008) was an English illustrator, author, and commercial artist. She contributed drawings and paintings to more than 200 books, mostly in the children's genre. She was the first illustrator of some of J. R. R. Tolkien's minor works and of C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia.
Early life
Baynes was born on 9 September 1922 at 67 Brunswick Place, Hove, East Sussex, England. Her father was Frederick William Wilberforce Baynes (1887–1967) and her mother was Jessie Harriet Maude Baynes, née Cunningham (). Her only sibling was her elder sister, Angela Mary Baynes.
While she was still a baby, her family emigrated to India, where her father had been appointed a Commissioner (district official) in the British imperial Indian Civil Service, serving as a senior magistrate. The Bayneses divided their time between the city of Agra and a refuge from the midsummer heat in the hill town of Mussoorie. Baynes was happy in her expatriate infancy, loving her ayah (native nursemaid) and a pet monkey that had been trained to take tiffin at the tea table.
When she was five, her mother, who was in poor health, took both her daughters back to England. Baynes recalled crying herself to sleep on her journey home. The three returnees lived a nomadic life in Surrey, lodging with various friends and renting a series of rooms in boarding houses. Baynes's father stayed behind in India, licensed by his wife to feel "free to do as he pleased", but regularly rejoining his family for holidays in Switzerland.
Education
Baynes began her education at a convent school, where the nuns who taught her mocked her fantastical imagination, her homemade clothes and her ability to speak Hindi. Her unhappiness over their bullying was slightly mitigated when she learned that Rudyard Kipling, whom she admired, had experienced something similar.
When she was nine, she was sent to Beaufort School, an independent girls' boarding establishment, no longer extant, in Camberley. Her favourite subject there was art, "because it was easy". By the time that she left, she had already formed the ambition of becoming an illustrator. She liked Beaufort well enough to go back to it as a teacher for two years in her mid-twenties.
At fifteen, she followed her sister to the Farnham School of Art (now subsumed into the University for the Creative Arts). She spent two terms studying design, which was to become the foundation of her mature technique.
At nineteen, again like her sister, she won a place at the prestigious Slade School of Fine Art, just as it left its usual premises on the Gower Street campus of University College London to begin a period of wartime cohabitation with the Ruskin School of Drawing in the University of Oxford. Studying the work of the illustrators Gustave Doré, Edmund Dulac, Arthur Rackham, Ernest Shepard, R. S. Sherriffs, Rex Whistler, Jacques-Marie-Gaston Onfroy de Bréville ("Job") and the anonymous illuminators of mediaeval manuscripts, she became more convinced then ever that she had a vocation to follow in their footsteps. She was not a diligent student, frittering away her time on "coffee and parties", and she left the Slade without a qualification. She did, however, achieve the distinction, one shared with her sister, of exhibiting at the Royal Academy of Arts, in 1939.
War work and early career
In 1940, a year into World War II, both Baynes sisters joined the Women's Voluntary Service. The WVS sent them to the Camouflage Development Training Centre that the Royal Engineers had set up in Farnham Castle, where the sisters were put to work making models to be used as teaching aids. One of their colleagues at the centre was Powell Perry, whose family owned a company that published picture books for children. It was Perry who gave Baynes her first professional commissions. Among the Perry Colour Books to which she contributed were Question Mark, Wild Flower Rhymes and a novelization of the libretto of Mozart's opera The Magic Flute.
From 1942 until the end of the war, the Baynes sisters worked in the Admiralty Hydrographic Department in Bath, making maps and marine charts for the Royal Navy (an experience that stood Baynes in good stead in later life when she created maps of C. S. Lewis's Narnia and J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth). A letter that she wrote to a friend at this time included a sketch that he passed on to Frank Whittaker, an employee of Country Life. Her friend's kindness resulted in commissions from the magazine to illustrate three books of fairy stories by Victoria Stevenson.
Baynes and J. R. R. Tolkien
Farmer Giles of Ham
In 1948, after her brief interval of teaching at Beaufort, Baynes sought to develop her career by writing a book of her own – Victoria and the Golden Bird, a fantasy about a girl's magical visits to far-off countries – and by trying to secure work from a major London publisher. She sent George, Allen & Unwin a suite of comic reinterpretations of marginalia from the mediaeval Luttrell Psalter. It so happened that Professor J. R. R. Tolkien, author of Allen & Unwin's children's book The Hobbit, had recently offered the firm a mock-mediaeval comic novella called Farmer Giles of Ham. Allen & Unwin had commissioned illustrations for the story from Milein Cosman, but Tolkien had disliked them. On 5 August 1948, he complained to Ronald Eames, Allen & Unwin's art director, that they were "wholly out of keeping with the style or manner of the text". Five days later, Eames wrote to Baynes requesting specimen drawings for "an adult fairy story (complete with dragon and giant!)" that would require "some historical and topographical (Oxford and Wales) realism". She reassured Eames that she knew Oxford from having sketched there, and knew Wales from having picked Welsh potatoes. Visiting Allen & Unwin's offices at around the beginning of October to see what Baynes had produced for him, Tolkien was won over to her cause when Eames showed him her portfolio of Luttrell whimsies. The witty jeux d'esprit that she went on to create for his story delighted him. "They are more than illustrations", he wrote to Allen & Unwin on 16 March 1949, "they are a collateral theme. I showed them to my friends whose polite comment was that they reduced my text to a commentary on the drawings."
Tolkien was so pleased with Baynes's contributions to Farmer Giles that on 20 December 1949, he wrote to her expressing the wish that she would one day illustrate two other books that he was working on – the tales that would eventually become The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion. Tolkien's publishers thought differently, preferring to entrust his masterpieces to Alan Lee, Francis Mosley, Ted Nasmith and Ingahild Grathmer (a pseudonym of Margrethe II of Denmark). Ultimately Tolkien came to the view that Baynes would not have been the right artist to illustrate his greatest works, judging that they needed pictures "more noble or awe-inspiring" than she would have been able to produce.
The Adventures of Tom Bombadil
In 1961 Tolkien turned to Baynes again when he was compiling an anthology of some of his shorter pieces of verse. "You seem able to produce wonderful pictures with a touch of 'fantasy'", he wrote on 6 December, "but primarily bright and clear visions of things that one might actually see". The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, featuring some of Baynes's most delicate and meticulous imagery, was published in 1962. Baynes told Tolkien that her favourite among the book's poems was The Hoard; only much later did she learn that her illustration for that particular poem had disappointed him – she had drawn a dragon facing away from the mouth of its cave and a knight without either a shield or a helmet, which he had thought looked implausible. He would also have preferred Tom Bombadil to have been shown on the front of the book rather than on the back, a wish which HarperCollins eventually granted when the book was reprinted in a pocket edition in 2014.
Cover art for The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings
In 1961 Puffin used a painting by Baynes for the cover of a paperback edition of The Hobbit. Three years later, Allen & Unwin published The Lord of the Rings in a three-volume deluxe hardback edition for which they asked Baynes to design a slipcase. Never having read the story, Baynes was faced with the prospect of having to read a thousand pages of narrative before picking up a brush. Her sister, who knew the book well, rescued her from her predicament by painting a panorama of Tolkien's characters and locales that Baynes was able to borrow from. The triptych that Baynes created became one of the most widely reproduced of all her paintings, being recycled for the iconic cover art of a one-volume paperback edition of The Lord of the Rings in 1968 and a three-volume Unwin Paperbacks version in 1981. Baynes also created an image of Aragorn's standard that was used to promote The Return of the King in a newspaper advertisement in October 1955.
Smith of Wootton Major
In 1967 Baynes illustrated the last piece of Tolkien's fiction to be published in his lifetime, his allegorical short story Smith of Wootton Major. Ballantine's American edition of the book was issued with an alternative Baynes cover adapted from one of its interior illustrations. Yet another cover appeared when the book was reissued in the United Kingdom in 1975 in a second edition that was uniform with The Adventures of Tom Bombadil.
A Map of Middle-earth and There and Back Again: a Map of Bilbo's Journey Through Eriador and Rhovanion
In 1969, while waiting for Tolkien to finish The Silmarillion, Allen & Unwin commissioned Baynes to paint a map of his Middle-earth. Tolkien supplied her with copies of the several, variously scaled graphpaper charts that he had made in the course of writing The Lord of the Rings, and also annotated her copy of the map that his son Christopher had produced for The Fellowship of the Ring in 1954. (Her Fellowship map, scribbled over with new place names and some barely legible notes on latitudes, ships, trees, horses, elephants and camels, was bought by Oxford's Bodleian Library in 2016 for roughly £60,000.) With the help of cartographers from the Bordon military camp in Hampshire, Baynes created a map that Allen & Unwin published as a poster in 1970. It was decorated with a header and footer showing some of Tolkien's characters, and also with vignettes of some of his stories' locations. He wrote that her ideas of the Teeth of Mordor, the Argonath, Barad-dûr and, especially, Minas Morgul were very similar to his own, although he was less happy with her images of his heroes and their enemies. (According to Baynes, Tolkien's wife Edith remarked on the poster's painting of a spider in a way which gave Baynes the impression that she had not read her husband's work.) A companion map of the sphere of action of The Hobbit. There and Back Again: a Map of Bilbo's Journey Through Eriador and Rhovanion, again embellished with topographical vignettes, was published by Allen & Unwin in 1971.
Bilbo's Last Song
In 1974, a year after Tolkien's death, Allen & Unwin published his poem Bilbo's Last Song as Baynes's third and final Tolkien poster. Her painting showed a scene that Tolkien had first described in the closing pages of The Lord of the Rings: Sam, Merry and Pippin standing at the Grey Havens, watching an elven ship carrying Frodo, Bilbo, Elrond, Galadriel and Gandalf away from Middle-earth to the land of Aman. In 1990, the poem was reissued as a book with three parallel sequences of Baynes's paintings: one illustrating Bilbo's journey from Rivendell to the Undying Lands, one showing Bilbo in various states of repose and one depicting the events narrated in The Hobbit. (Some of the illustrations were omitted when the book was reissued by other publishers twelve years later.)
Poems and Stories and other works
In 1978 Baynes painted a cover for a paperback edition of Tolkien's translations of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl and Sir Orfeo.
In 1980 Allen & Unwin published Poems and Stories, a de luxe, boxed, single-volume anthology of several of Tolkien's shorter works. The book featured new illustrations by Baynes for the short story Leaf by Niggle, the verse drama The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son, Farmer Giles of Ham, The Adventures of Tom Bombadil and Smith of Wootton Major. It also included all of Baynes's original illustrations for the latter three titles, some revised with grey and orange tinting. Baynes used the opportunity provided by revisiting Tom Bombadil to rework her illustration for The Hoard to make its dragon and knight look the way Tolkien had wanted them to.
In 1999, half a century after her collaboration with Tolkien had begun, Baynes returned to Farmer Giles of Ham once again to add a map of the story's Little Kingdom. The book was published with the revised cover that Baynes had painted for its second edition in 1976. It was reissued with a modified version of this cover when it was published in a pocket-sized edition in 2014. Baynes's final Tolkien art was published in 2003, when an audiobook of Smith of Wootton Major and Leaf by Niggle was issued with a CD insert showing an image of Niggle painting his Great Tree that had been commissioned from Baynes in the 1970s but had thitherto remained unpublished.
Baynes and C. S. Lewis
The Chronicles of Narnia
When C. S. Lewis was sixteen he conceived the idea of a faun walking through a snowy forest carrying an umbrella and some parcels. In 1949, after ten years of false starts, the Oxford don and popular theologian finally completed a story about the country where the faun lived – the land of Narnia, where it was always winter but never Christmas. A close friend of Tolkien's, Lewis chose Baynes to illustrate his tale after enjoying her artwork for Farmer Giles of Ham. He had also, he later told her, been advised to seek her out by a bookshop assistant whom he had asked to recommend an artist who could draw children and animals. Baynes signed a contract with Lewis's publisher, Geoffrey Bles, on 13 August 1949, and delivered drawings, a coloured frontispiece and a cover design for the book during the first half of the following year. The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was published on 16 October 1950. At Lewis's request, Baynes went on to illustrate all six of the book's sequels – Prince Caspian: the Return to Narnia (1951), The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1952), The Silver Chair (1953), The Horse and His Boy (1954), The Magician's Nephew (The Bodley Head, 1955) and The Last Battle (The Bodley Head, 1956). Too unworldly to negotiate the royalties deal that would have made her a multi-millionaire, Baynes sold her work to Lewis's publishers for a flat fee of just £100 per book.
Baynes revisited The Chronicles of Narnia several times. When the books were issued as Puffin paperbacks between 1959 and 1965, Baynes created new covers for each of them as well as artwork for a slipcase. In the 1970s, she created a third set of covers when the books appeared in hardback in new editions published by The Bodley Head and Collins. In 1991, HarperCollins published a special edition of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe with seventeen new paintings. In 1998, HarperCollins commemorated the centenary of Lewis's birth by reissuing the complete Chronicles with all of Baynes's original line illustrations tinted by her in watercolour. And in 2000, HarperCollins published a 50th anniversary edition of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe including all of Baynes's illustrations from their 1991 edition as well as a full colour map of Narnia and its neighbouring lands that Baynes had painted for a poster issued in 1968.
Baynes also contributed to several Narnian spinoffs. Brian Sibley's The Land of Narnia, including many new paintings and drawings, appeared in 1989. In 1994, James Riordan's A Book of Narnians provided a portrait gallery of Narnia's dramatis personae. Among others of Baynes's Lewisiana were Douglas Gresham's The Official Narnia Cookbook, The Magical Land of Narnia Puzzle Book, Sibley and Alison Sage's A Treasury of Narnians, The Narnia Trivia Book, The Wisdom of Narnia and Narnia Chronology.
C. S. Lewis on Baynes
Lewis met Baynes on just three occasions – at his publisher's office, at a lunch party at Magdalen College on 31 December 1949 and at the Charing Cross Hotel in London on 1 January 1951. He found his young illustrator "good and beautiful and sensitive"; "la belle Baynes", he called her in a letter to George Sayer on 30 December 1950. Writing to his publisher, he said "Faith, 'twould be easier to be enamoured of her" than of her illustrations.
Lewis's letters to Baynes herself were effusive in their praise. Her drawings were "really excellent" with a "wealth of vigorous detail". She did "each book a little bit better than the last". Her Lasaraleen was "a rich feast of line & of fantastic-satiric imagination". Her Tisroc was "superb", her King Lune "really good", her Tashbaan "exactly right" and her flying horse Fledge "the real thing". When she congratulated him on winning the Carnegie literary award for The Last Battle, he replied "is it not really 'our' Medal? I'm sure the illustrations were taken into consideration as well as the text." Sometimes, though, he acknowledged her technical limitations. "If only you cd. take 6 months off and devote them to anatomy, there's no limit to your possibilities", he wrote. When he discussed Baynes with his friends, he revealed quite how much her work had disappointed him.
She had "Magna virtutes nec minora vitia" – great virtues, but vices no less great. The faces of her children were often "empty, expressionless and too alike". She couldn't draw lions. Indeed, "In quadrupeds claudicat" (she limps); she would profit from a visit to a zoo. A gnome of Bism looked like a "brat out of Dickens's London". A knight was wearing his shield on his right arm instead of his left, "What", he asked I. O. Evans, "is one to do with illustrators – especially if, like, mine, they are timid, shrinking young women who, when criticized, look as if you'd pulled their hair or given them a black eye? My resolution was exhausted by the time I'd convinced her that rowers face aft not (as she thinks) forward."
Lewis gave his fullest account of his opinion of Baynes in a letter that he wrote to his friend Dorothy L. Sayers on 5 August 1955. "The main trouble about Pauline B. is [...] her total ignorance of animal anatomy. In the v. last book [the fifth in the series] she has at last learned how to draw a horse. I have always had serious reservations about her [...]. But she had merits (her botanical forms are lovely), she needed the work (old mother to support, I think), and worst of all she is such a timid creature, so 'easily put down' that criticism cd. only be hinted [...]. At any real reprimand she'd have thrown up the job, not in a huff but in sheer, downright, unresenting, pusillanimous dejection. She is quite a good artist on a certain formal-fantastic level (did Tolkien's Farmer Giles far better than my books) but has no interest in matter – how boats are rowed, or bows shot with, or feet planted, or fists clenched. Arabesque is really her vocation."
Baynes on C. S. Lewis
Lewis in person made less of an impression on Baynes than she did on him. Thinking back to when they had met in the Charing Cross Hotel to discuss her drawings for Prince Caspian, she remembered little but his constantly checking the time lest he miss his train from Waterloo. Her most vivid recollection of their New Year's Eve lunch at Magdalen College was of his gleefully picking nuts out of a bowl of Brussels sprouts. As for the letters that they exchanged, a memoir that she wrote for Lewis's devotee Walter Hooper on 15 August 1967 said that she and Lewis "hardly corresponded at all [...]: he was, to me, the most kindly and tolerant of authors – who seemed happy to leave everything in my completely inexperienced hands! Once or twice I queried the sort of character he had in mind [...] and then he replied, but otherwise he made no remarks or criticisms, despite the fact that the drawings were very far from perfect [...]. When he did criticize, it was put over so charmingly, that it wasn't a criticism, i.e., I did the drawings as best as I could [...] and didn't realize how hideous I had made the children – they were as nice as I could get them – and Dr Lewis said, when we were starting on the second book, 'I know you made the children rather plain – in the interests of realism – but do you think you could possibly pretty them up a little now?' [...] He was invariably friendly and kind." In 1962, six years after the publication of the final Narnia story, Baynes retained enough good will towards Lewis to send him an aptly Narnian Christmas present, for which he thanked her in a note that said that he appreciated her "enduring White Witch even more than the transitory joys of the Turkish Delight." But learning from a 1988 biography of Lewis how he had complained about her behind her back both wounded her and made her see her relationship with him in a new, colder light. "One doesn't need to have liked him to admire him", she told her confidante Charlotte Cory. "He never became a friend."
Baynes's feelings about Lewis's books were conflicted too. She thought his stories "marvellous", but, although she was a Christian herself, she was uncomfortable with their Christian subtext. She claimed not to have identified the lion Aslan with Christ until after she had finished work on The Last Battle, despite have drawn him standing upright like a man in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. She regretted that her Narnian art had overshadowed the rest of her work and she was ruefully aware that a book collector would pay more for a first edition of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe than she had been paid for illustrating it.
Baynes as author
In Baynes's later years commissions could be hard to come by - there were days when fan mail and a rejection letter would arrive in the same post. Baynes used her fallow periods to put together some books of her own. Several came from her delight in animals – The Elephant's Ball (based on a nineteenth-century narrative poem), How Dog Began (a Kiplingesque fable dedicated to eleven of her own pets) and Questionable Creatures (a pseudo-mediaeval, cryptozoological fantasia that only found an American publisher when Baynes agreed to paint out a mermaid's breasts). But most of Baynes's books were the fruit of her abiding interest in religion. Good King Wenceslas celebrated the famous Christmas carol; The Song of the Three Holy Children illustrated an apocryphal passage from the Book of Daniel; Noah and the Ark and In the Beginning were drawn from the Book of Genesis; Thanks Be to God was an international anthology of prayers; How excellent is thy name! illustrated Psalm 8; and I Believe illustrated the Nicene Creed.
Other works
The illustrations of which Baynes was most proud were the almost six hundred that she created for Grant Uden's A Dictionary of Chivalry, on which she laboured for nearly two years. They won her the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals' Kate Greenaway Medal for the best book illustrations of 1968. (In 1972, Baynes achieved a runner-up's commendation in the Greenaway competition with her illustrations for Helen Piers's Snail and Caterpillar.) Among the other books in her bibliography are works by Richard Adams, Hans Christian Andersen, Enid Blyton, Rumer Godden, Roger Lancelyn Green, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Rudyard Kipling, George MacDonald, Mary Norton, her friends Iona and Peter Opie, Beatrix Potter, Arthur Ransome, Alison Uttley and Amabel Williams-Ellis. Several of her commissions were the result of the bond that she formed with Puffin Books' Kaye Webb.
Baynes also contributed artwork to many magazines, including Holly Leaves, Lilliput, Puffin Post, The Sphere, The Tatler and The Illustrated London News (to which she was introduced by another of the ILN'''s artists, her friend and mentor Ernest Shepard). Stationery companies commissioned her to design Christmas cards – some of which are still reproduced decades after she painted them – and Huntley and Palmers employed her to advertise their biscuits. The Church of the Good Shepherd in her home village of Dockenfield has a pair of Baynes's stained glass windows. And for the Plymouth Congregational Church in Minneapolis, Baynes designed the largest pieces of crewel embroidery to be found anywhere in the world.
Personal life
When Baynes's father retired he left India and returned to England, settling with Baynes's mother in a house close to Baynes's own near Farnham in southwest Surrey. Long estranged, they maintained a pretence of marriage, but lived lives that were essentially separate. A mistress with whom Baynes's father had established a relationship in India followed him to Surrey and set up home nearby. Baynes looked after both her parents loyally, even when the burden of caring for them became so great that she could do her illustrating only in the small hours of the night.
In 1961, after many "interesting and highly enjoyable" but evanescent love affairs, Baynes answered a knock on her door from an itinerant dog's meat salesman. He was Friedrich Otto Gasch, usually known as Fritz. Born on 21 September 1919 in Auerswalde, Saxony, Germany, Gasch had served in Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps during the Second World War, had been taken prisoner and had then been sent via the United States to an English PoW camp. Once the war had ended he had decided to adopt England as his home. A whirlwind courtship culminated in Baynes's and Gasch's marrying on 18 March 1961. "Meeting Fritz", Baynes said, "was the best thing that ever happened to me; he was a splendid man and a wonderful husband who was completely tolerant of his wife's obsession to draw!" The Gasches lived in Rock Barn Cottage, Heath Hill, Dockenfield, a two-bedroom bungalow formerly occupied by a farm labourer, in a village close to Farnham in the undulating countryside of the North Downs.Pauline D Gasch in the UK, Electoral Registers, 2003-2010 Their only child, a son, was stillborn. After retiring from work as a contract gardener, Gasch died on 28 October 1988 at the age of sixty-nine.
Two years after her husband died Baynes received a telephone call from a stranger. She was Karin Gasch (born 1942), a daughter of Gasch's by an earlier marriage in Germany, who had used the opportunity created by the collapse of the government of the German Democratic Republic to investigate what had happened to her father after the end of the war. Baynes formed an enduring and loving bond with Gasch's daughter and the rest of her step-family, and was happy to take on the unanticipated roles of mother, grandmother and great-grandmother. "It was", she said, "like something magical coming back at me through a wardrobe."
Among the friends with whom Baynes liked to discuss art, literature, religion and politics were the magician David Weeks and the writers Wayne G. Hammond, David Henshaw, Christina Scull and Brian Sibley. Baynes was also close to Tolkien, whose Christianity she approved of as "more rooted and unobtrusive" than Lewis's. After Tolkien and his wife had retired to Bournemouth Baynes and Gasch used to visit them and join them for holidays. The two old soldiers enjoyed swapping wartime reminiscences. After Tolkien died in 1973 Baynes and Gasch were among just twelve mourners whom his family invited to his funeral.
Baynes worked in a study crammed with the many eclectic books that she used as resources for research. Her desk was placed under a window overlooking the small high-hedged garden that her husband had created for her, and in which his ashes were scattered. She liked to draw and paint with her dogs dozing at her feet, and with the music of Handel in the background.
Death and legacy
Baynes died of ischaemic heart disease in Dockenfield at the age of 85, on 1 August 2008, leaving behind unpublished illustrations for The Quran, Aesop's Fables and Brian Sibley's Osric the Extraordinary Owl (the last of which was to make it into print thirteen years later). Her funeral was held in Dockenfield's Anglican church, and she was cremated at the Park Crematorium in Aldershot. The value of her estate at probate was £990,695 (2009) (£1.28m in 2021). She bequeathed her archive of several hundred drawings and paintings, her library of more than two thousand books and her intellectual property rights to the Oxford Programme of Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, with a request that her collection should be housed in the college's Chapin Library of Rare Books. (The copyright in most of her Narnian artwork is owned by C. S. Lewis Pte Ltd, Lewis's literary estate.) There is a second, small Baynes archive at the University of Oregon. Her death was noted in obituaries in several newspapers. Sibley's, in The Independent, summed up the style of his friend thus:
Baynes's standing in the pantheon of children's book illustrators is high, her drawings and paintings changing hands for sums typically in four figures.https://www.blackwell.co.uk/rarebooks/catalogues/pbaynesweb.pdf
Most of the art that she created for Tolkien's and Lewis's books has remained continuously in print ever since it was first published. As of 1998, the Narnia stories alone had sold more than one hundred million copies. Baynes's paintings of Narnia have gained still wider currency through their use in featurettes in-home media releases of Hollywood's Chronicles of Narnia movies. Looking back after half a century, Baynes's verdict on her momentous trip through the back of Professor Kirke's wardrobe was down to earth. "I just thought of it as work."
Bibliography
(Where more than one edition of a book by Lewis or Tolkien is listed, it is because they have different illustrations.)
Books by or edited by BaynesVictoria and the Golden Bird, Blackie, 1948How Dog Began, Methuen, 1985The Song of the Three Holy Children, Methuen, 1986Good King Wenceslas. Lutterworth, 1987Noah and the Ark, Methuen, 1988In the Beginning, Dent, 1990 (issued in the US as Let There Be Light, Simon & Schuster, 1991)Thanks Be to God: Prayers from Around the World, Lutterworth, 1990I Believe: The Nicene Creed, Frances Lincoln, 2003Questionable Creatures, Frances Lincoln, 2006The Elephant's Ball, Eerdmans, 2007Psalm 8: How Excellent is Thy Name!, Marion E. Wade Center, 2007
Books by or related to C. S. Lewis
Gresham, Douglas: The Official Narnia Cookbook, HarperCollins, 1998
Lewis, C. S.: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Bles, 1950; Puffin, 1959; Collins, 1974; HarperCollins, 1991, 1998 and 2000
—— Prince Caspian, Bles, 1951; Puffin, 1962; Collins, 1974; HarperCollins, 1998
—— The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, Bles, 1952; Puffin, 1965; Collins, 1974; HarperCollins, 1998
—— The Silver Chair, Bles, 1953; Puffin, 1965; Collins, 1974; HarperCollins, 1998
—— The Horse and His Boy, Bles, 1954; Puffin, 1965; Collins, 1974; HarperCollins, 1998
—— The Magician's Nephew, The Bodley Head, 1955; Puffin, 1963; The Bodley Head, 1975; HarperCollins, 1998
—— The Last Battle, The Bodley Head, 1956; Puffin, 1964; The Bodley Head, 1977; HarperCollins, 1998
—— (adapted): A Map of Narnia and the Surrounding Countries, poster, Collins, 1968
—— (adapted): The Magical Land of Narnia Puzzle Book, HarperCollins, 1998
—— (adapted): The Narnia Trivia Book, HarperCollins, 1999
—— (adapted): The Wisdom of Narnia, HarperCollins, 2001
—— (adapted): Narnia Chronology, HarperCollins, 2008
Riordan, James: A Book of Narnians, HarperCollins, 1994
Sibley, Brian: The Land of Narnia, HarperCollins, 1989
Sibley, Brian and Sage, Alison: A Treasury of Narnia, HarperCollins, 1989
Books by J. R. R. TolkienFarmer Giles of Ham, Allen & Unwin, 1949; HarperCollins, 1999 and 2014The Hobbit, Puffin, 1961 [cover only]The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, Allen & Unwin, 1962; HarperCollins, 2014Smith of Wootton Major, Allen & Unwin, 1967; Ballantine, 1969; Allen and Unwin, 1975; HarperCollins, 2015The Lord of the Rings, 3-volume de luxe edition, Allen & Unwin, 1964 [slipcase only ]The Lord of the Rings, paperback, Allen & Unwin, 1968 [cover only]A Map of Middle-Earth, poster, Allen & Unwin, !970There and Back Again: a Map of Bilbo's Journey Through Eriador and Rhovanion, poster, Allen & Unwin, 1971Bilbo's Last Song, poster, Allen & Unwin, 1974Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl and Sir Orfeo, Unwin Paperbacks, 1978 [cover only]The Fellowship of the Ring, Unwin Paperbacks, 1981 [cover only]The Two Towers, Unwin Paperbacks, 1981 [cover only]The Return of the King, Unwin Paperbacks, 1981 [cover only]Poems and Stories, Allen & Unwin, 1981Bilbo's Last Song, Unwin Hyman, 1990
Smith of Wootton Major and Leaf by Niggle, audiobook, HarperCollins, 2003
Books by other authors
Adams, Richard: Watership Down, Puffin, 1972 [cover and maps]
Alexander, Cecil Frances: All Things Bright and Beautiful, Lutterworth, 1986
Andersen, Hans Christian: Andersen's Fairy Tales, Blackie, 1949
—— Stories from Hans Christian Andersen selected by Philippa Pearce, Collins, 1972
Backway, Monica: Hassan of Basorah, Blackie, 1958
Barber, Richard: A Companion to World Mythology, Kestrel, 1979
Bate, Joan Mary: The Curious Tale of Cloud City, Blackie, 1958
de Beaumont, Jeanne-Marie Leprince: Beauty and the Beast, Perry Colour Books, 1942
Bebbington, William George: And It Came to Pass, Allen & Unwin, 1951
Blackmore, R. D.: Lorna Doone, Collins, 1970
Blyton, Enid et al.: The Wonder Book for Children, Odhams, 1948
Blyton, Enid: The Land of Farbeyond, Methuen, 1973
Borer, Mary Cathcart: Don Quixote: Some of His Adventures, Longman, 1960
—— Boadicea, Longman, 1965
—— Christopher Columbus, Longman, 1965
—— Joan of Arc, Longman, 1965
—— King Alfred the Great, Longman, 1965
Bremer, Francis J.: The Puritan Experiment, St James, 1977
Bunyan, John: The Pilgrim's Progress, Blackie, 1949
Burrough, Loretta: Sister Clare, W. H. Allen, 1960
Carroll, Lewis: Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass, Blackie, 1950
Clark, Leonard: All Along Down Along, Longman, 1971
Cockrill, Pauline: The Little Book of Celebrity Bears, Dorling Kindersley, 1992
Denton, E. M.: Stars and Candles, Ernest Benn, 1958
Dickinson, Peter: The Iron Lion, Blackie, 1983
Dickinson, William Croft: Borrobil, Puffin, 1973
Ensor, Dorothy: The Adventures of Hatim Tai, Harrap, 1960
Field, William: An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Town and Castle of Warwick and the Neighbouring Leamington Spa, S. R. Publishers, 1969
Foreman, Michael: Sarah et le Cheval de Sable, Deflandre Francoise, 1997
Gail, Marzieh: Avignon in Flower, 1304 - 1403, Victor Gollancz, 1966
Garnett, Emmeline: The Civil War 1640 - 1660, A. & C. Black, 1956
Godden, Rumer: The Dragon of Og, Macmillan, 1981
—— Four Dolls, Macmillan, 1983
—— The Little Chair, Hodder, 1996
Greaves, Margaret: The Naming, Dent, 1992
Green, Roger Lancelyn: The Tale of Troy, Puffin, 1970
—— Tales of the Greek Heroes, Puffin, 1983
Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm: Grimm's Fairy Tales, Blackie, 1949
Harris, Rosemary: The Moon in the Cloud, Puffin, 1978 [cover only]
—— The Shadow on the Sun, Puffin, 1978 [cover only]
—— The Bright and Morning Star, Puffin, 1978 [cover only]
—— The Enchanted Horse, Kestrel, 1981
—— Love and the Merry-go-round, Hamish Hamilton, 1988
—— Colm of the Islands, Walker, 1989
Harvey, David: Dragon Smoke and Magic Song, Allen & Unwin, 1984
Haskell, Arnold L. (ed.): The Ballet Annual 1951, A. & C. Black, 1951
Hawkins, Robert Henry: Primary English Practice, Longman, 1958
Henshall, David: Starchild and Witchfire, Macmillan, 1991
Hickman, G. M. and Mayo, R. Elizabeth: Adventures at Home: Pilgrim Way Geographies, Book 1, Blackie, 1961
Hickman, G. M.: Adventuring Abroad: Pilgrim Way Geographies, Book 2, Blackie, 1962
Hieatt, Constance B.: The Joy of the Court, Thomas Y. Crowell, 1971
Hitchcock, Albert: Great People Through the Ages, Blackie, 1954
—— The British People: Their Work & Way of Life, Blackie, 1955
Homans, Abigail Adams: Education by Uncles, Houghton Mifflin, 1966
Hughes, Arthur George: Ali Baba and Aladdin, Longman, 1960
Hume, Emily Gertrude: Days Before History, Blackie, 1952
—— Children Through the Ages, Blackie, 1953
Hunter, Eileen: Tales of Way-Beyond, Andre Deutsch, 1979
Jekyll, Lady Agnes: Kitchen Essays, Collins, 1969
Jenkins, A. E.: Titterstone Clee Hills: Everyday Life, Industrial History and Dialect, A. E. Jenkins, 1982
Jones, Gwyn: Welsh Legends and Folk Tales, Puffin, 1979
Kipling, Rudyard: How the Whale Got His Throat, Macmillan, 1983
Koralek, Jenny: The Cobweb Curtain: a Christmas Story, Methuen, 1989
—— The Moses Basket, Frances Lincoln, 2003
—— The Coat of Many Colours, Frances Lincoln, 2004
Krutch, Joseph Wood: The Most Wonderful Animals That Never Were. Houghton Mifflin, 1969
Lethbridge, Katherine Greville: The Rout of the Ollafubs, Faber & Faber, 1964
Llewellyn, Bernard: China's Courts and Concubines: Some People in China's History, Allen & Unwin, 1956
MacBeth, George: The Story of Daniel, Lutterworth, 1986
MacDonald, George: The Princess and the Goblin, Puffin, 1971 [cover only]
—— The Princess and Curdie, Puffin, 1966 [cover only]
Malcolmson, Anne Burnett: Miracle Plays: Seven Medieval Plays for Modern Players, Constable, 1960
Markham, George (ed. Lucid, Dan): The Compleat Horseman, Robson, 1976
Mitchison, Naomi: Graeme and the Dragon, Faber & Faber, 1954
Morris, James (subsequently Jan): The Upstairs Donkey and Other Stolen Stories, Faber & Faber, 1962
Muir, Lynette: The Unicorn Window, Abelard-Schuman, 1961
Nicolas, Claude and Roels, Iliane: How Life Goes On: the Butterfly, Chambers, 1974
—— How Life Goes On: the Duck, Chambers, 1975
—— How Life Goes On: the Bee and the Cherry Tree, Chambers, 1976
—— How Life Goes On: the Salmon. Chambers, 1976
—— How Life Goes On; the Dolphin, Chambers, 1977
—— How Life Goes On: the Frog, Chambers, 1977
—— How Life Goes On; the Roe Deer, Chambers, 1977
Norton, Mary: The Borrowers, Puffin, 1984 [cover only]
—— The Borrowers Aloft, Puffin, ?1984 [cover only]
—— The Borrowers Afloat, Puffin, ?1984 [cover only]
—— The Borrowers Afield, Puffin, ?1984 [cover only]
—— The Borrowers Avenged, Kestrel, 1982
Nuttall, Kenneth: Let's Act, Book 4, Longman, 1960
Opie, Iona and Peter: The Puffin Book of Nursery Rhymes, Puffin, 1963
—— A Family Book of Nursery Rhymes, Oxford University Press, 1964
Peppin, Anthea: The National Gallery Children's Book, National Gallery, 1983
Perry, Powell: Question Mark, Perry Colour Books, ?1942
—— Wild Flower Rhymes, Perry Colour Books, ?1942
—— Oldebus, Perry Colour Books, 1945
—— Jumblebus 10, Perry Colour Books, 1951
Phillips, Marjorie: Annabel and Bryony, Oxford University Press, 1953
Piers, Helen: Snail and Caterpillar, Longman Young, 1972
—— Grasshopper and Butterfly, Kestrel, 1975
—— Frog and Water Shrew. Kestrel, 1981
Potter, Beatrix: Country Tales, Frederick Warne, 1987
—— Wag-by-Wall, Frederick Warne, 1987
Pourrat, Henri: A Treasury of French Tales, Allen & Unwin, 1953
Power, Rhoda D.: From the Fury of the Northmen, Houghton Mifflin, 1957
Pridham, Radost: A Gift from the Heart: Folk Tales from Bulgaria, Methuen, 1966
Ransome, Arthur: Old Peter's Russian Tales, Puffin, 1974 [cover only]
Ray, Elizabeth: The Resourceful Cook, Macmillan, 1978 [cover only]
Schikaneder, Emanuel (adapted by Perry, Powell): The Magic Flute, Perry Colour Books, 1943
Sewell, Anna: Black Beauty, Puffin, 1954 [cover only]
Sibley, Brian: Osric the Extraordinary Owl, Jay Johnstone, 2021
Spenser, Edmund (ed. Warburg, Sandol Stoddard): Saint George and the Dragon, Houghton Mifflin, 1963
Squire, Geoffrey: The Observer's Book of European Costume, Frederick Warne, 1975
Stevenson, Victoria: Clover Magic, Country Life, 1944
—— The Magic Footstool, Country Life, 1946
—— The Magic Broom, Country Life, 1950
Stewart, Katie: The Times Cookery Book, Collins, 1972
Swift, Jonathan: Gulliver's Travels, Blackie, 1950
Symonds, John: Harold: the Story of a Friendship, Dent, 1973 [cover only]
Tower, Christopher: Oultre Jourdain, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980
Uden, Grant: A Dictionary of Chivalry, Longman, 1968
Uttley, Alison: The Little Knife Who Did All the Work: Twelve Tales of Magic, Faber & Faber, 1962
—— Recipes From an Old Farmhouse, Faber & Faber, 1966
Westwood, Jennifer: Medieval Tales, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1967
—— The Isle of Gramarye: an Anthology of the Poetry of Magic, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1970
—— Tales and Legends, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1972
Williams, Ursula Moray: The Adventures of the Little Wooden Horse, Puffin, 1985 [cover only]
—— The Further Adventures of Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse, Puffin, 1984
Williams-Ellis, Amabel: The Arabian Nights, Blackie, 1957
—— Fairy Tales from the British Isles, Blackie, 1960
—— More British Fairy Tales, Blackie, 1965
Various: Puffin Annual No. 1, Puffin, 1974
—— Puffin Annual No. 2, Puffin, 1975
References
External links
Pauline Baynes tribute site
The Woman Who Drew Narnia: Pauline Baynes by Charlotte Cory (mid-1990s)
Obituary, The Independent, 6 August 2008
Obituary, The Guardian, 6 August 2008
Obituary, The Times'', 8 August 2008
Death notice, Wayne Hammond and Christina Scull announce Pauline Baynes death to the Mythopoeic Society, 2 August 2008
1922 births
2008 deaths
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
British children's book illustrators
British fantasy writers
British illustrators
British speculative fiction artists
English children's book illustrators
British women illustrators
English fantasy writers
English illustrators
Fantasy artists
20th-century illustrators of fairy tales
21st-century illustrators of fairy tales
Kate Greenaway Medal winners
People from Agra
People from Farnham
People from Hove
Tolkien artists
Writers who illustrated their own writing
|
417758
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowlton%20Nash
|
Knowlton Nash
|
Cyril Knowlton Nash (November 18, 1927 – May 24, 2014) was a Canadian journalist, author and news anchor. He was senior anchor of CBC Television's flagship news program, The National from 1978 until his retirement in 1988. He began his career in journalism by selling newspapers on the streets of Toronto during World War II. Before age 20, he was a professional journalist for British United Press. After some time as a freelance foreign correspondent, he became the CBC's Washington correspondent during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, also covering stories in South and Central America and Vietnam. He moved back to Toronto in 1968 to join management as head of CBC's news and information programming, then stepped back in front of the camera in 1978 as anchor of CBC's late evening news program, The National. He stepped down from that position in 1988 to make way for Peter Mansbridge. Nash wrote several books about Canadian journalism and television, including his own memoirs as a foreign correspondent.
Early life
Nash was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on November 18, 1927, and named "Cyril" after his father, a racetrack betting manager. The young boy disliked being called "Cyril Junior", and at age five, asked his parents to instead call him by his middle name, Knowlton. From an early age, Nash was fascinated with the world of journalism: by age 8, he was writing his own news sheet and selling advertising space to local merchants in exchange for candy. By age 9 he was writing letters to the editors of Toronto newspapers, and by age 10 he was operating a newsstand. In 1940, at age 12, Nash was a newspaper boy on the streets of Toronto selling the Toronto Star and Toronto Telegram for three cents a copy. Seeing Joel McCrea play a trench-coated reporter in Alfred Hitchcock's wartime thriller Foreign Correspondent further fuelled his personal ambition to become a journalist.
Career
Print journalism
In his early teens, Nash reported on weekly high school sports for The Globe and Mail. In 1944, he dropped out of high school to become editor of Canadian High News, a small weekly tabloid distributed to most high schools in southern Ontario. His fellow staff members included Keith Davey and Robert McMichael.
The following year, he spent some time editing a couple of crime magazines, then reported for a Toronto neighbourhood newspaper for a few months. Nash and some former staff members from Canadian High News then bought up two neighbourhood newspapers, but with little advertising revenue, both papers quickly ran out of money and went out of business. Nash briefly tried his hand at writing for pulp magazines True Confessions and True Crime.
Wire service reporter
Nash briefly attended the University of Toronto but in 1947, at age 19, he was hired as night editor in the Toronto office of British United Press (BUP), a wire news service affiliated with United Press. This position mainly involved "scalping" news stories from the Toronto newspapers—rewriting stories covered by the newspapers, then filing them by teletype. After a few months, Nash also started to write original feature articles, and was also sent to cover the Ontario provincial legislature as well as professional sports events in Toronto. The following year, Nash was assigned to BUP's Halifax office as bureau manager, responsible for news coverage in The Maritimes and Newfoundland. In 1949, he was promoted to manager of BUP's Vancouver office, where he covered the protests by the "Sons of Freedom" sect of Doukhobors, and interviewed various celebrities, including Bing Crosby and Rudy Vallee.
In 1951, at age 23, Nash returned to BUP's Toronto office, this time as bureau manager. Among other stories, he covered the death of William "Red" Hill Jr., who died trying to emulate his daredevil father by going over Niagara Falls in a floating contraption; and the 1951 Canadian royal tour of Princess Elizabeth and Prince Philip.
IFAP editor and researcher
In 1951, Nash was hired by the Washington, D.C.-based International Federation of Agricultural Producers (IFAP) to gather information and edit their monthly newsletter. His office was right across the street from the White House—he would often see President Harry S Truman walking by with his Secret Service detail on noon-hour walks. Research for his work brought him in touch with many officials, and he quickly developed a network of contacts within Washington power circles.
His work with IFAP made Nash a world traveller, with a dozen trips to Europe by steamship, plus visits to Mexico and Central America as well as Africa. It also brought him in contact with many notables, including Pope Pius XII, Dag Hammarskjöld, Lord Boyd Orr, Dwight D. Eisenhower and future Dutch prime minister Barend Biesheuvel.
It was on a trip to Kenya during the Mau Mau Uprising in 1954 that Nash also became a freelance foreign correspondent, sending several radio reports on the unrest to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) while he attended an IFAP conference in Nairobi. He continued to file freelance stories for the CBC and the Financial Post while travelling abroad, and became a stringer for the Windsor Star. He also occasionally wrote for the Family Herald, Maclean's, Chatelaine and the Star Weekly.
Freelance journalist
Having developed a strong network of contacts in the Washington area, Nash left IFAP to become a freelance journalist in 1958. Politics had always been a passion, and in order to write and file stories for many media outlets, he now had the opportunity to meet many American politicians, including Joseph McCarthy, Richard Nixon, Adlai Stevenson, Lyndon B. Johnson, and the up-and-coming John F. Kennedy and his brothers Robert and Ted Kennedy. His first major political event was the 1960 Democratic National Convention, where he was an eyewitness to many of the backroom and convention floor deals that resulted in the nomination of John F. Kennedy.
Nash's first television news assignment was covering the funeral of John Foster Dulles for the CBC on May 27, 1959. Nash initially was not that interested in doing television reports, which only earned him the same fee as radio reports but took much longer to prepare; but he soon realized that the future of news reportage lay in television, and from that point on he did all he could to learn about the new medium.
In addition to covering political news in Washington, Nash also travelled around the United States and internationally. His many assignments included
the race riots in Oxford, Mississippi that resulted when federal soldiers were deployed to allow James Meredith to become the first Black student to be admitted to the University of Mississippi.
the launch of the Project Mercury rocket Friendship 7 from Cape Canaveral, making John Glenn the first American to orbit the Earth.
the Cuban Missile Crisis. (Nash waited in the White House for news during the perceived height of the crisis on the evening of Saturday, October 27, 1962, despite the apparent risk of a Russian atomic attack on the American capital.)
a three-week trip to Cuba to see the effect of Fidel Castro's takeover and the subsequent American trade embargo. While there, he found Che Guevara helping to harvest sugar cane and interviewed him about the Cuban revolution.
the civil rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.
the aftermath in Washington of the assassination of John F. Kennedy
the trial of Jack Ruby in February 1964
the 1964 Republican National Convention that chose Barry Goldwater, and the 1964 Democratic National Convention that chose Lyndon B. Johnson.
the Selma to Montgomery marches in May 1965
the many riots during the summer of 1967, including Newark and Detroit.
Robert Kennedy's final lengthy interview just before he was assassinated in 1968.
the violent 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. At one point, Nash was caught up in the street rioting and received a minor head injury.
Nash also travelled back to Canada to cover Canadian political events for CBC, including television coverage of election night for the federal elections of 1962, 1963 and 1965; the 1965 Saskatchewan doctors' strike; and the Gerda Munsinger sex scandal of 1966.
Freelance correspondents were not well paid by CBC, and in 1965, Nash helped to form the CBC Foreign Correspondents Association in order to negotiate a better wage for members, and became its first vice-president.
Nash also made extended trips abroad, including a half-dozen visits to Central and South America, and two trips to Southeast Asia to provide a Canadian perspective to the Vietnam War.
He also interviewed many prominent newsmakers of the time, including Pierre Salinger, George Lincoln Rockwell, Allen Dulles, Dick Gregory, Ronald Reagan, Colombian president Guillermo León Valencia, Venezuelan president Romulo Betancourt and Dean Rusk.
CBC management
Nash stepped down from reporting in 1969 to join CBC's management in Toronto as Director of News and Current Affairs. Foreseeing the need to adopt new technologies to traditional journalism, he quickly upgraded the CBC's late evening news program, The National, from black & white to colour, and established an "electronic information highway" by dedicated phone line so that the Toronto office could quickly receive stories from distant parts of Canada. (At the time, CBC air-freighted film and videotape of news stories from other parts of the country to The National Toronto offices.) Nash also hired a new generation of producers and managers, including Peter Herrndorf as head of TV Current Affairs.
On October 15, 1970, during the October Crisis, Secretary of State Gérard Pelletier convinced CBC President George Davidson that the situation in Quebec threatened to grow into a widespread insurrection that would threaten the Canadian state, and that CBC reporting should not "inflame" the situation. Davidson asked Nash to ensure that CBC News would not indulge in "speculative discussions" about the crisis — in effect, self-censoring any political commentary. Nash immediately sent out a Telex to CBC staff to that effect. Two hours later, after some introspection, Nash realized that he was agreeing to government interference in the CBC's reportage, and modified his Telex to instead call for "responsible journalistic professionalism". Nash was candidly self-critical about his role in allowing the two hours of self-censorship, and later wrote, "I certainly was not skeptical enough about what Pelletier had said to Davidson and let my nationalism override my journalistic values. There are times when that is necessary, but this wasn't one of them and I was wrong."
Nash believed in the power of television to educate Canadians about their own history, and was instrumental in getting several series of "docudramas" on air despite protests from the entertainment and drama department that he was treading on their turf. These included the critically acclaimed The National Dream in 1974, about the politics behind the building of the transcontinental railway; The Tenth Decade, about the political rivalry between John Diefenbaker and Lester B. Pearson from 1957–1967; The Days Before Yesterday, about the ascendancy of the federal Liberal party in 1905 under Wilfrid Laurier to its almost complete collapse in 1957; individual series on both John Diefenbaker and Lester B. Pearson; Images of Canada, a look at the social history of Canada; The Age of Uncertainty with Canadian-born economist John Kenneth Galbraith; and a co-production with ITV about the Second World War.
Although most of these series garnered critical acclaim and good ratings, not everything was a success. In 1976, Nash and Peter Hernndorf launched a late-night current affairs talk show, Ninety Minutes Live with host Peter Gzowski, who, although good as a radio interviewer, was awkward on television. In an effort to prop up falling ratings, the initial "current affairs" focus of the show drifted towards entertainment, but audiences did not respond and the program was pulled after two seasons.
Chief correspondent
Following the departure of Peter Kent as anchor of The National in 1978, Nash was approached by the executive producer of the program, Trina McQueen, about becoming the anchor. Nash agreed to audition for the role, and was subsequently chosen. As a nod to his journalistic background as opposed to being simply a news reader, Nash was given the title "Chief Correspondent" rather than "News Anchor". On his first night on air, November 20, 1978, his lead story was the Jonestown Massacre.
During his tenure as anchor, Nash covered the 1979 Canadian federal election, the sudden fall of the Joe Clark minority government and the re-election to power of Pierre Trudeau, the 1980 Quebec referendum on sovereignty, the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit that nominated Ronald Reagan and the subsequent election of Reagan to the U.S. presidency, the 1981 wedding of Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, to Lady Diana Spencer, the 1983 Conservative leadership review that saw Joe Clark replaced by Brian Mulroney, the February 1984 resignation of Pierre Trudeau after his "walk in the snow", and the 1984 Canadian federal election that saw John Turner fall to Brian Mulroney.
Nash was also in front of the camera on January 11, 1982 when The National was controversially moved from its customary timeslot of 11 p.m. to 10 p.m., lengthened from 15 to 20 minutes, and joined to a new 40-minute current affairs program, The Journal, with hosts Barbara Frum and Mary Lou Finlay.
Author
In 1984, Nash wrote the first volume of his memoirs as a foreign correspondent, History on the Run. John Mitchell called it "fascinating reading for anyone interested in a first-hand account of the political and social events of the 1950s and 1960s", and wrote of Nash's style, "His prose is crisp and precise. Yet the descriptive passages, in particular the John F. Kennedy funeral procession, evoke old memories and emotions in vivid detail." Nash subsequently wrote eight more books about his career, journalism, politics and Canadian broadcasting including Microphone Wars: A History of Triumph and Betrayal at the CBC, which traced the history of public broadcasting in Canada from its beginnings in the 1930s to the mid-1990s, chronicling the inside struggles at the CBC as programmers fought against the frequent short-sightedness of corporate executives while both sides coped with the hostility of federal politicians who refused to provide adequate, long-term funding. Harry J. Boyle, a veteran CBC insider and one-time chair of the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), summed the book up this way: "While it exposes corporate stupidities, political meddling and boozing executives, it vigorously endorses public broadcasting."
Nash's books continued to garner favourable reviews, with critics often mentioning his in-depth research and personal knowledge of events and notable people. Geoffrey Stevens wrote of Kennedy And Diefenbaker: Fear And Loathing Across The Undefended Border: "It is well researched, with a clear, tight focus. It takes the reader inside the councils of state to show how personal relations -- especially hatred -- at the highest levels can influence dealings between nations."
Retirement
In 1988, Nash offered to retire from his duties at The National in order to keep Peter Mansbridge from moving to the morning news at American network CBS. When Mansbridge accepted Nash's offer and stayed at CBC, Nash stepped down as chief correspondent, although he continued to anchor The National on Saturday evenings and filled in as weekday anchor when Mansbridge was on assignment or on vacation. Nash fully retired from CBC News after anchoring The National on November 28, 1992.
After retirement from news-reading and reporting, Nash continued to host various programs on CBC Newsworld for several years. From 1990 to 2004, he was also host of the CBC's educational series News in Review.
Personal life
Nash was married a number of times, although his final marriage, to CBC personality Lorraine Thomson, lasted for 32 years. Nash blamed the dissolution of previous marriages on his peripatetic life as a journalist and his over-dedication to his work.
Nash was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002 but remained sanguine about the diagnosis, saying that many other people faced much greater challenges. "I can argue that I can get a couple of extra strokes in my golf game", he told the Toronto Star in 2006. He died on May 24, 2014, in Toronto, surrounded by his family. Shortly afterwards on The National, Peter Mansbridge broke the news of Nash's death by telephone.
Honours
Officer of the Order of Canada (1989)
Member of the Order of Ontario (1998)
Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal (2002)
Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal (2012)
President's Award of the Radio-Television News Directors Association (1990)
John Drainie Award "for distinguished contributions to broadcasting" (1995)
Inducted into the Canadian News Hall of Fame (1996)
Honorary Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Toronto (1993), Brock University (1995), the University of Regina, (1996), Loyalist College (1997) and York University (2005).
Max Bell Professor at the University of Regina School of Journalism in 1992
Lifetime achievement award from the Canadian Journalism Foundation (2006)
Mentioned in Stan Rogers' 1981 song Working Joe ("Running from the crack of dawn 'til Knowlton reads the news...")
Bibliography
Prime Time at Ten: Behind-the-Camera Battles of Canadian TV Journalism (McClelland and Stewart, 1987),
Kennedy and Diefenbaker: Fear and Loathing across the Undefended Border (McClelland and Stewart, 1990),
Visions of Canada: Searching for Our Future (McClelland and Stewart, 1991),
The Microphone Wars: A History of Triumph and Betrayal at the CBC (McClelland and Stewart, 1994),
Cue the Elephant!: Backstage Tales at the CBC (McClelland and Stewart, 1996),
Trivia Pursuit: How Showbiz Values are Corrupting the News (McClelland and Stewart, 1998),
Swashbucklers: The Story of Canada's Battling Broadcasters (McClelland and Stewart, 2001),
Notes
References
External links
Order of Canada Citation
1927 births
2014 deaths
CBC Television people
Canadian television news anchors
Members of the Order of Ontario
Officers of the Order of Canada
Journalists from Toronto
People with Parkinson's disease
20th-century Canadian journalists
|
417769
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMX-13
|
AMX-13
|
The AMX-13 is a French light tank produced from 1952 to 1987. It served with the French Army, as the Char 13t-75 Modèle 51, and was exported to more than 26 other nations. Named after its initial weight of 13 tonnes, and featuring a tough and reliable chassis, it was fitted with an oscillating turret built by GIAT Industries (now Nexter) with revolver type magazines, which were also used on the Austrian SK-105 Kürassier. Including prototypes and export versions, over a hundred variants exist, including self-propelled guns, anti-aircraft systems, APCs, and ATGM versions.
Development
The tank was designed at the Atelier de Construction d'Issy-les-Moulineaux (AMX) in 1946 to meet a requirement for an air-portable vehicle to support paratroopers. The first prototype ran from 1948. The compact chassis had torsion bar suspension with five road-wheels and two return rollers; the engine runs the length of the tank on the right side, with the driver on the left. It features an uncommon two-part FL-10 oscillating turret, where the gun is fixed to the turret and the entire upper turret changes elevation. The turret is set to the rear of the vehicle and holds the commander and gunner. The original 75 mm SA 50 gun was loaded by an automatic loading system fed by two six-round magazines located in on either side of the automatic loader in the turret's bustle. The 12 rounds available in the drum magazines meant that the crew could engage targets quickly; however, once those rounds were expended, the vehicle commander and gunner could either manually refill them from within the turret or retreat to cover and reload shells from outside the vehicle through hatches above.
Production began at ARE (Atelier de Construction Roanne) in 1952, with the first tanks delivered the following year. In 1964, production was transferred to Creusot-Loire at Chalon-sur-Saône, as ARE switched to the production of the AMX-30 MBT, and the numbers produced declined significantly.
After 1966, AMX-13s in French service were up-gunned with a 90 mm CN-90-F3 L/52 medium pressure gun firing more effective high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) munitions; this variant was designated AMX-13/90. The F3 was similar to the DEFA D921/F1 low pressure gun developed for the Panhard AML-90, and even utilized the same ammunition, though it possessed a significantly higher muzzle velocity. By the late 1960s, an export model of the AMX-13 was also available with an even larger 105 mm CN-105 L/57 gun in a FL-12 turret.
Although there were many variants on the turret, the basic chassis was almost unchanged until 1985, when changes including a new diesel engine, fully automatic transmission and new hydropneumatic suspension were introduced. Production halted with the AMX-13 Model 1987. After sales support and upgrades are still offered through GIAT Industries (now Nexter).
The AMX-13 tank was phased out of service with the French Army in the 1980s. Current French armoured vehicles with a similar role are the ERC 90 Sagaie and the AMX 10 RC.
Additional characteristics
Ground clearance:
Fording:
Vertical obstacle
Trench:
Gradient 60%
Side slope: 60%
NBC system: None
Night vision: Optional
Service history
France
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, the French Army used two sections of the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment's AMX-13 tanks in Port Fouad. The AMX-13s also saw limited action in the Algerian War, largely due to the rough terrain in most of Algeria and much of the fighting with the anti-colonial guerillas being in the difficult terrain of the countryside. France also fielded a number of AMX-13s fitted with US Chaffee light tank turrets in the fighting in Algeria.
Argentina
The Argentinian Army fielded locally-built versions of both the AMX-13-105 and the AMX-VCI armoured personnel carrier.
Argentine AMX-13s were not deployed during the Falklands War. Senior commanders considered that off-road conditions in the Falkland Islands were too boggy for all of the armoured vehicles available at the time. The newly-developed Tanque Argentino Mediano (TAM) was not yet available. For on-road operations in the islands, Argentina's Panhard AML-90 wheeled fighting vehicles were considered more suitable than the AMX-13. The higher speed and other aspects of the Panhard's performance also represented acceptable trade-offs for its smaller (90 mm) main gun, relative to the AMX-13 (105 mm).
Dominican Republic
AMX-13s saw service among both the loyalists and the rebels during the Dominican Civil War of 1965. Two AMX-13s used by the rebel forces were destroyed by M50 Ontos of the United States Marine Corps during the subsequent American intervention in the Dominican Republic.
Israel
The AMX-13 was Israel's first modern tank and was purchased at a time when France was the only country willing to openly sell arms to Israel. By 1956, Israel had received 180 AMX-13 light tanks as part of an agreement to reinforce Israel's military and to maintain the balance in Israel's favour after the Egyptian–Czechoslovak arms deal. Besides buying whole AMX-13s, Israel also purchased a quantity of 75mm main guns of these light tanks for fitting (upgunning) into other tanks in their inventory, such as the American M4 Sherman. Due to the shortage of tanks, the IDF used them as main battle tanks and employed them to form a tank battalion in the 7th Armored Brigade. IDF reconnaissance units did not use AMX 13s.
By 1967, Israel had acquired about 400 AMX-13s and formed three AMX-13 battalions, all of which fought actively on all fronts during the Six-Day War. The first battalion moved south in the West Bank area through Taluzi and Tubas and occupied Nablus (against Jordan). The second, attacking Egypt, captured the strongpoints protecting the Gaza Strip and the coastal road in the north of the Sinai Peninsula. The third, finally, assaulted the Golan Heights in south-western Syria.
The IDF realised that the AMX-13 tank was too lightly-armoured and had a weak main gun. Losses were heavy at places like Rafah Junction and Jiradi Pass during the Six-Day War with many destroyed by heavier Arab-fielded Soviet armour, such as T-55 MBTs and IS-3 (tank) heavy tanks. Subsequently, Israel gradually phased out all of its AMX-13s following the Six-Day War, with most ending up being sold to the then newly established Singapore Army between 1968 and 1969.
India
During the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War, India deployed AMX-13 Tanks to oppose the initial armour onslaught of Operation Grand Slam in the Chhamb-Jaurian area and also in the Battle of Asal Uttar.
During the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War in Chhamb-Jaurian in Jammu & Kashmir, the 20 Lancers, equipped with AMX-13 tanks was under command of the 10th Infantry Division. Pakistan's surprise attack on 1 September, Operation Grand Slam, fell on 191 Infantry Brigade which was supported by "C" Squadron of the regiment, under Maj Bhaskar Roy. The Pakistani armoured attack comprised two regiments, one of M48 Patton medium tanks and one of M36B2 tank destroyers. The attack began at 0805 hours and was strongly resisted. During the initial phases of the attack, Roy destroyed six Pattons, three recoilless guns and captured a jeep. A second attack was launched by Pakistani armour at 1100 hours and contested by the AMX-13s of 20 Lancers, which despite being outgunned and outnumbered, destroyed a total 13 tanks that day and prevented the encirclement of 191 Infantry Brigade. The regiment later fought in the defence of Jaurian under 41 Infantry Brigade. For the defense of Chhamb-Jaurian, the regiment was awarded a theatre honour and Maj Bhaskar Roy was awarded Maha Vir Chakra for his leadership in this action.
In the Battle of Assal Uttar, on 8–10 September 1965 in Asal Uttar (Khem Karan, Punjab, India), a regiment of AMX-13s — 8th Light Cavalry — along with a regiment each of Centurions and M4 Shermans fought off and defeated a Pakistani armoured offensive comprising five regiments of M48 Patton tanks and one regiment of M24 Chaffee tanks.
Indonesia
The Indonesian Army received 175 AMX-13/75, 32 AMX-VCI (including 4 command variants and six ARV variants), and 10 AMX-13 PDP from France in 1960, which were delivered in 1960–1962. Indonesia then bought around 100 to 180 ex-Royal Netherlands Army AMX-VCI in 1976, which were modernized and delivered in 1977–1978. The last batch of AMX-13 family were bought in 1980–1981, when the Army acquired 130 second-hand but modernized AMX-13/105 from the Netherlands.
The AMX-13s first saw combat against the 30 September Movement in 1965, when they were deployed to secure Jakarta from the attempted coup.
AMX-13/75 tanks and the VCI variants participated in the 1975 Indonesian invasion of East Timor (known in Indonesia as Operasi Seroja).
Indonesian AMX-13s also participated in the 2003–2004 Indonesian offensive in Aceh.
The AMX-13 gained momentary notoriety in Indonesian social media in September 2020, after an AMX-13 driver lost control when making a turn and ran over a street food vendor cart and four motorcycles. The accident happened on 10 September 2020 at around 11:00 WIB, at an intersection in Cipatat District, West Bandung Regency, during a 4th Cavalry Battalion company-level combat readiness exercise. No one was injured and the owners of the cart and vehicles were given compensation totaling 15.4 million rupiah.
Lebanon
The Lebanese Army was an important user of the AMX-13 in the Middle East, purchasing 42 AMX-13/75s and 22 AMX-13/105s from France in 1972. Lebanese AMX-13s saw extensive service during the Lebanese Civil War in the hands of the regular Lebanese Army and various armed groups in and outside Beirut between 1975 and 1990, following the collapse of the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) structure in January 1976, and later again in February 1984 in the wake of the Mountain War. During this period, most of the regular Army's AMX-13s fell into the hands of the competing Christian-rightist Lebanese Front and Muslim-leftist Lebanese National Movement (LNM) militias or were taken way by dissident rebellious Lebanese Army factions. France later delivered additional 13 AMX-13/90s to the regular Lebanese Army between 1978-1981 and again in 1984. Captured AMX-13s were employed by the Lebanese Arab Army (LAA), Army of Free Lebanon (AFL), Kataeb Regulatory Forces (KRF), Tigers Militia, Lebanese Forces (LF), South Lebanon Army (SLA), Amal Movement, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Nearly all AMX-13s eventually were returned by the demobilized militias to the Lebanese Army between 1990 and 1993. Currently none of the Lebanese AMX-13 light tanks is believed to remain operational.
In July 2018, six of these withdrawn AMX-13 and various other former Lebanese Army military vehicles were dumped in the sea off the coast of Sidon in southern Lebanon and used as part of an artificial reef.
Morocco
Morocco used some AMX-13s in the Sand War of 1963. Later on, they were engaged in the Western Sahara conflict. They were supplemented by the similar Austrian SK-105 Kürassier light tank during that war.
Prototypes
Char AMX-13 (2A): Prototype with 4 roadwheels and trailing idler
Char AMX-13 (2B): Prototype with 5 roadwheels and raised idler
Char AMX-13 (2C): Prototype with FL-10 turret and two support rollers
Char AMX-13 (2D): Prototype with 4 support rollers
Char AMX-13 (2E): Prototype with 3 support rollers and 90 mm gun
Char AMX-13 (2F): Prototype with 2 support rollers and, later, a thermal sleeve
Other prototypes
AMX-13 avec tourelle: A14 Fitted with a German HS-30 turret
AMX-13/105: Fitted with a 105 mm howitzer barrel
AMX-13/75 (AMX-13e): Experimental variant with a short-barreled SA 49 75 mm in FL-11 oscillating turret
Char AMX-13 avec Canon 57 L/100: Prototype with a special gun
AMX-13 Twin 20 mm in a welded turret without a bustle
Char 48FCM: AKA Char 12T FCM, DCA de Quatre Canons de 20 mm—4 x 20 mm cannon in an FL-4 turret
DCA de 40 mm: AKA Char 13T DCA a 40 mm Bofors L/70 gun in a large faceted turret (DCA = Défense Contre Avions)
AMX-13 GTI: Improved suspension by Krauss-Maffei
AMX-13 THS: Prototype fitted with hydrostatic transmission
AMX-13: Fitted with Rapace 14 MBRL
AMX-13 HOT: Fitted with HOT ATGM launchers
Production variants
AMX-Chaffee: Some initial vehicles were fitted with the turret of the M24 Chaffee
AMX-13 [DTT]: Initial vehicles with the turret of the M24 Chaffee converted into a driver training tank (DTT). Gun removed.
AMX-13/75 Modèle 51: High-velocity SA 50 75 mm Gun in FL-10 turret, with four top rollers and revised stowage
AMX-13/75 Modèle 51 FL11: Low-recoil SA 49 75 mm gun in FL-11 turret as installed in Panhard EBR armoured car, with two top rollers
AMX-13 T75 (Char Lance SS-11): Fitted with SS.11 ATGM launchers
AMX-13 T75 avec TCA: Fitted with an electronic guidance system for the missiles (TCA stands for "télécommande automatique")
AMX-13/90 C90: FL-10 turret refitted with the CN 90 F3 90 mm gun
AMX-13/90 LRF: Fitted with a laser rangefinder
AMX-13/105 Modèle 58: Fitted with a CN 105-57 105 mm Gun in an FL-12 turret (used by the Argentine Army and the Netherlands)
AMX-13/105: Upgraded export version of the Modele 58 with a thermal sleeve and a revised hull front
AMX-13 Model 1987
Late production version
AMX-13 DCA 30: SPAAG version with a retractable radar and two 30mm cannons fitted; 60 were produced beginning in 1969. (DCA = Défense Contre Avions)
AMX-13 [Training Tank]: AMX-13 with the turret removed; used for driver training
AMX-13 CD (Char de Depannage) Modèle 55 (AMX-D): Recovery version
AMX-13 PDP (Poseur De Pont) Modèle 57: Scissors-type bridgelayer
Modernisation packages
Cockerill 90 mm Regunning Packaging: 90 mm upgunning package
Giat Industries upgrade with a Baudouin 6F 11 SRY diesel engine and an upgraded turret
Giat Industries Add-on Armour package installed on turret front/sides and glacis plate
NIMDA Upgrade Package: Israeli retrofit package
INDRA Amazon Fire Control System upgrade with thermal imaging and a laser rangefinder
National
Indonesia
AMX-13/75 Modèle 51 (SM1) some were upgraded in 1995 with Detroit Diesel DDA GM6V-53T, ZF 5WG-180 Automatic Transmission, and hydropneumatic "Dunlopstrut" Suspension. Based on Singapore SM1 upgrade packages but without the upgraded gunner sight.
AMX-13/105 Modèle 58 (SM1) some were upgraded in 1995 with Detroit Diesel DDA GM6V-53T, ZF 5WG-180 Automatic Transmission, and hydropneumatic "Dunlopstrut" Suspension. Based on Singapore SM1 upgrade packages but without the upgraded gunner sight.
AMX-13/105 Retrofit major modernization and upgrade program done by local defense firm PT. PINDAD featuring reworked front glacis to accommodate new diesel engine & transmission, new torsion bar suspension, updated FCS (laser range finder, thermal imager, day camera), new 105 mm gun (GIAT CN 105 G1) and turret (Steyr JT-1 Oscillating turret) from SK-105 Kürassier.
Netherlands
AMX-13/FL-12: Dutch upgrade fitted with a searchlight and FN MAG machine guns
AMX-13/FL-15: Dutch FL-12 version refitted with an FL-15 Turret
Peru
AMX-13PA5 Escorpion Upgrade for a standard AMX-13/105 by the Peruvian designer Sergio Casanave, fitted with modern communications and four anti-tank guided missiles.
AMX-13PA8 Escorpion-2 Equipped with Dante fire-control system (a ballistic computer/laser range-finder/night vision/CCTV system). Four Ukrainian laser-guided Barrier R-2 anti-tank missiles and 7.62 mm and 12.7 mm machine-guns were also proposed.
Singapore
AMX-13S Rebuild of standard AMX-13/75 Modèle 51 (FL-10) by Singapore prior to SM-1 upgrade.
AMX-13SM1 (Singapore Modernised 1): Singaporean upgrade with modern communications, a new diesel engine replacing the original petrol engine, improved transmissions/suspensions system, laser range-finder and night vision elbow upgrade by ST Kinetics. The 75 mm main gun remained unchanged.
Switzerland
Leichter Panzer 51: Swiss Army version
Venezuela
AMX-13V CLI upgraded AMX-13/90 for Venezuelan Army
AMX-13 [LAR-160] Venezuelan MLRS version armed with IMI LAR-160 mm rockets
AMX-13M51 Ráfaga Venezuelan Army's AA version armed with two 40 mm cannons mounted on an M-4E1 turret
APC
The AMX-13 was the basis of a family of APCs beginning with the AMX-VTT and culminating with the AMX-VCI. The APC chassis was itself the basis of a number of variants.
AMX-VTT
AMX-VCI
Self propelled howitzer
105 mm
AMX Mk 61 (AMX-105A) Automoteur de 105 du AMX-13 en casemate: 105 mm casemate SP
AMX Mk 61 (Netherlands) Dutch Army version with 30 caliber howitzer and Browning commander's MG
AMX Mk 62 (AMX-105B) Prototype with 105 mm howitzer in a turret
AMX Mk 63 (AMX-105B, AMX Mk F2) Prototype of Mk 62 with MG cupola fitted to turret
155 mm
AMX Mk F3 (Obusier de 155 mm sur affut automoteur AMX-13 T, AMX-155) 155 mm SPH
Operators
AMX-13 (current)
: 108 AMX-13/105s
: From the total of 305 of which are 175 AMX-13/75 and 130 AMX-13/105, it is estimated only 120+ mixed and modernized AMX-13/75 and AMX-13/105 still in service as 2018. Scheduled for replacement by the PT Pindad Harimau jointly developed by Indonesia and Turkey. 10 AMX-13 PDP Modèle 57 and 34 AMX-13 CD Modèle 55 (AMX-D) ARV.
: 120 AMX-13/75s and 4 AMX-13 CD armoured recovery vehicles; 5 operational.
: 108 tanks; 30 AMX-13/75s and 78 AMX-13/105s
: 67 AMX-13s; 36 AMX-13/75s and 31 AMX-13/90s
AMX-13 (former)
: 44 AMX-13/75s
: 60 AMX-13/105 and 2 AMX-13 PDP armoured bridge-layers
: 72 AMX-13/75s and 3 AMX-13 CD armoured recovery vehicles
: 555 AMX-13s
: 20 AMX-13/75s
: 5 AMX-13/75s
: 60 AMX-13/90s
: 15 AMX-13/75s
: 20 AMX-13/75s
: 4,300 (of all types)
: 8 AMX-13/75s
: 164 AMX-13/75s
: 400 AMX-13/75s
: 75 tanks; 42 AMX-13/75s, 13 AMX-13/90s and 22 AMX-13/105s
: 56 AMX-13/75s; possibly purchased second-hand from Singapore
: 131 AMX-13/105s, as AMX-13 PRLTTK (Pantserrups Lichte Tank) and 34 AMX-13 PRB (Pantserrups Berging) armoured recovery vehicles. All retired in 1983
: Operationalized some amounts of Captured Indian AMX-13/75s.
: 340 second-hand AMX-13/75s received (150 from Switzerland, 150 from India, 40 from Israel)
: 4 AMX-13 CD armoured recovery vehicles
: 200 AMX-13/75s
: 30 AMX-13/75s
In popular culture
The AMX-13 has made some major TV and film appearances, most notably in the 1984 French war film Les Morfalous, where a Tunisian Army AMX-13/75 is mocked up as a German Panzer IV medium tank serving with the Afrika Korps.
See also
AMX series
AMX-VCI (derivative)
Mk F3 155mm (derivative)
AMX-10P
AMX-10 RC
AMX-50
AMX-30
AMX Leclerc
AMX GCT
Vehicles of comparable role, performance, and era
PT-76
SK-105 Kürassier
T69
References
Notes
Bibliography
Samer Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon, Beirut: Elite Group, 2003.
M.P. Robinson, Peter Lau and Guy Gibeau, Images of War: The AMX 13 Light Tank, A Complete History – rare photographs from wartime archives, Pen & Sword Military, Barnsley 2018.
External links
Chars-francais.net
Light tanks of France
Light tanks of the Cold War
Tanks with autoloaders
Military vehicles introduced in the 1950s
|
417829
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20all-female%20bands
|
List of all-female bands
|
This is an alphabetized list of notable all-female bands, of all genres, and is a spin-off list from the all-female band article. It is an overview of notable all-female bands that have their own articles.
A band is a group of musicians who are organized for ensemble playing. An all-female band is a band which has consisted entirely of female musicians for at least three-quarters of its active career.
This article only lists all-female bands who perform original material that is either authored by themselves or authored by another musician for that band's use. All-female tribute acts, cover bands and vocal groups, are not included. Fictional all-female bands, such as those created for scripted television programs, are also not included.
Other
The 5,6,7,8's (Japan) (1986–)
Yoshiko "Ronnie" Fujiyama, Sachiko Fujii, Akiko Omo
21st Century Girls (United Kingdom) (1998–2000)
Leanne Garner, Fiona Garner, Kate Turley, Meriam "Mim" Mohammad, Charlotte Fendek
7 Year Bitch (United States)
Valerie Agnew, Lisa Fay Beatty, Elizabeth Davis, Roisin Dunne, Stefanie Sargent, Selene Vigil
A
The Ace of Cups (United States) (1967–1972; 2017–)
Mary Gannon, Marla Hunt, Mary Ellen Simpson, Diane Vitalich, Denise Kaufman
The Aces (United States) (2016–)
Katie Henderson, McKenna Petty, Alisa Ramirez, Cristal Ramirez
Adickdid (United States) (1991–1995)
Kaia Wilson, Nalini "Deedee" Cheriel, SaraBellum
Audrey (Sweden) (2001–)
Victoria Scoglund, Anna Tomlin, Emelie Molin, Rebecca Kristiansson
Afrirampo (Japan) (2002–2010; 2016–)
Oni, Pikachu
Ajaqa (Australia)
Erica Ajaka, Tracy Ajaka, Catherine Ajaka, Mary Ajaka
Aldious (Japan)
Yoshi, Toki, Sawa, Rin, Marina
The All Girl Summer Fun Band (United States)
Kim Baxter, Ari Douangpanya, Kathy Foster, Jen Sbragil
Aly & AJ (United States) (2004–)
Aly Michalka, AJ Michalka
American Girls (United States)
Brie Howard, Teresa James, Hillary Shepard, Debbie Tressler, Miiko Watanabe
Amiina (Iceland)
Edda Run Olafsdottir, Solrun Sumarlidadottir, Hildur Arsaelsdottir, María Huld Markan Sigfusdottir
The Amorettes (United Kingdom)
Gill Montgomery, Hannah McKay, Heather McKay
Androids of Mu (United Kingdom) (1979–1983)
Suze da Blooze, Corrina, Cozmic, Bess
Antigone Rising (United States) (1998–)
Cassidy, Cathy Henderson, Nini Camps, Kristen Henderson, Jen Zielenbach, Dena Tauriello
Aphasia (Japan)
Yumi Kondoh, Sumiko 'Goe' Ishikawa, Kyoko 'Kyon' Morita, Junko 'Jun' Takeda
The Applicators (United States)
Erica, Kristina, Sabrina, Stephanie
The Aquanettas (United States) (1987–1995)
Jill Richmond, Deborah Schwartz, Stephanie Seymour, Claudine Troise
Ars Nova (Japan)
Keiko Kumagai, Shinko "Panky" Shibata, Hazime, Satoshi Handa
Astarte (Greece)
Maria "Tristessa" Kolokouri, Hybris, Derketa
Au Revoir Simone (United States)
Erika Forster, Annie Hart, Heather D'Angelo
Autoclave (United States)
Melissa Berkhoff, Christina Billotte, Nikki Chapman, Mary Timony
Azure Ray (United States) (2001–2004; 2008–)
Maria Taylor, Orenda Fink
B
The 'B' Girls (Canada) (1977–1979)
Lucasta Ross, Renee Schilhab, Xenia Holiday, Cynthia Ross, Rhonda Ross, Marcy Saddy, Elisa Moldanado, Lyla Vander
Babes in Toyland (United States) (1987–2001; 2014–2020)
Kat Bjelland, Lori Barbero, Michelle Leon, Maureen Herman
Baby in Vain (Denmark)
Lola Hammerich, Benedicte Pierleoni, Andrea Thuesen
Band-Maid (Japan)
Saiki Atsumi, Miku Kobato, Kanami Tōno, Akane Hirose, Misa
The Bangles (United States) (1981–1989; 1998–)
Susanna Hoffs, Debbi Peterson, Vicki Peterson, Michael Steele, Annette Zilinskas, Abby Travis
BarlowGirl (United States) (1999-2021)
Alyssa Barlow, Rebecca Barlow, Lauren Barlow
The Beaches (Canada) (2013–)
Jordan Miller, Kylie Miller, Leandra Earl, Eliza Enman-McDaniel
original members – Tiik Pollet, Peggy Mitchell, Jake Lampert, Virginia Rubino; occasional members – Pat Ramseyer, Ajida, Matu Feliciano, Cindy Mason; additional recording musicians – Jerene O'Brien, Matu Feliciano, Jasmin Telfair
The Be Good Tanyas (Canada)
Frazey Ford, Samantha Parton, Trish Klein
Bellatrix (Iceland)
Elíza M Geirsdóttir, Sigrún Eiríksdóttir, Ester Bíbí Ásgeirsdóttir, Birgitta Vilbersdóttir
Bella Tromba (UK)
The Belle Stars (United Kingdom)
Stella Barker, Clare Hirst, Miranda Joyce, Jennie McKeown, Sara-Jane Owen, Judy Parsons, Lesley Shone
Betty Blowtorch (United States)
Blare N. Bitch, Bianca Butthole, Judy Molish, Sharon Needles
Betty Boop (Serbia)
Tara Krlić, Anja Prošić, Nina Doroškov, Kristina Krpogačin
Big Joanie (United Kingdom)
Stephanie Phillips, Chardine Taylor-Stone, Estella Adeyeri
The Big Moon (United Kingdom) (2014–present)
Juliette Jackson, Fern Ford, Celia Archer, Soph Nathan
Big Trouble (United States)
Bobbie Eakes, Julia Farey, Rebecca Ryan, Suzy Zarow, Bess Motta, Heli Sterner, Cece Worrall
Birtha (United States) (1968–1975)
Shele Pinizzotto, Rosemary Butler, Sherry Hagler, Olivia "Liver" Favela
The Black Belles (United States)
Olivia Jean, Ruby Rogers, Christina Norwood, Shelby Lynne O'Neal, Erin Belle
Blaxy Girls (Romania)
Rucsandra Iliescu, Anamaria Nanu, Amalia Tirca, Gela Marinescu, Cristina Marinescu
Blue Rose (United States)
Cathy Fink, Laurie Lewis, Marcy Marxer, Molly Mason, Sally Van Meter
Bleach03 (Japan)
Kanna, Miya, Sayuri
The Bodysnatchers (United Kingdom) (1979–1981)
Stella Barker, Rhoda Dakar, Miranda Joyce, Pennie Leyton, Sarah Jane Owens, Jane Summers, Nikki Summers
Bond (United Kingdom/Australia)
Haylie Ecker, Eos Chater, Tania Davis, Gay-Yee Westerhoff, Elspith Hanson
boygenius (United States)
Julien Baker, Phoebe Bridgers, Lucy Dacus
Boye (Serbia)
original lineup: Biljana Babić, Jasna Manjulov, Ljiljana Radaković, and Klaudija Gavrilović
Bones Apart (United Kingdom)
Becky Smith, Jayne Murrill, Helen Vollam, and Lorna McDonald
Bratmobile (United States)
Molly Neuman, Erin Smith, Allison Wolfe
Bridear (Japan)
Kimi, Haru, Ayumi, Natsumi, Moe
Broadzilla (United States)
Rachel May, Kim Essiambre, Angie Manly
Burning Witches (Sweden)
Laura Guldemond, Sonia Nusselder, Seraina Telli, Romana Kalkuhl, Lala Frischknecht, Jay Grob
The Butchies (United States) (1998–2005)
Alison Martlew, Kaia Wilson, Melissa York
C
Cacadou Look (Yugoslavia)
Jasmina Simić, Tatjana Simić, Suzana Kožić, Tamara Vrančić, Sandra Vrančić, Giovanna Kirinić, Alenka Medinković
Cadallaca (United States)
Sarah Dougher, Junior, Corin Tucker
Celtic Woman
Chloë Agnew, Lisa Kelly, Lisa Lambe, Susan McFadden, Mairead Nesbitt
Cake Like (United States)
Nina Hellman, Kerri Kenney, Jody Seifert
Calamity Jane (1980s) (United States)
Mary Fielder, Mary Ann Kennedy, Linda Moore, Pam Rose
Calamity Jane (1990s) (United States)
Gilly Ann Hanner, Megan Hanner, Lisa Koenig
Candy (Malaysia)
Patricia Robert, Mary David, Connie David, Nancy Gregory
Care Bears on Fire (United States)
Sophie, Isadora "Izzy", Jena
Chai (Japan)
Mana, Kana, Yuki, Yuna
Chalk Circle (United States)
Sharon Cheslow, Anne Bonafede, Mary Green, Jan Pumphrey, Tamera Lyndsay
Chatmonchy (Japan)
Eriko Hashimoto, Akiko Fukuoka, Kumiko Takahashi
Cherri Bomb (United States)
Julia Pierce, Miranda Miller, Nia Lovelis, Rena Lovelis
Cherry Boom (Taiwan)
Cha Cha, Kwa, Hsiao Tsien, Ta Tien
The Capricorns (United States)
Kirsten Nordine, Heather Lynn
The Chicks (United States) (1990–)
Martie Maguire, Emily Robison, Natalie Maines, Laura Lynch, Robin Lynn Macy
Chicks on Speed (United States/Germany/Australia)
Alex Murray-Leslie, Melissa Logan
Childbirth (United States)
Julia Shapiro, Stacy Peck, Bree McKenna
Chocolate, Menta, Mastik (Israel)
Yardena Arazi, Ruthie Holzman and either Tami Azaria (1972–1973) or Leah Lupatin
Cimorelli (United States)
Christina Cimorelli, Katherine Cimorelli, Lisa Cimorelli, Amy Cimorelli, Lauren Cimorelli, Dani Cimorelli
Civet (United States)
Liza Graves Riersgard, Suzi Homewrecker, Christian Riersgard, Jonny Grill
Client (United Kingdom)
Kate Holmes, Nicole Thomas, Sarah Blackwood, Emily Mann
The Coathangers (United States)
Meredith Franco, Julia Kugel, Stephanie Luke
Cobra (China)
Yang Ying, Yu Jin, Wang Xiaofang, Xiao Nan
Cobra Killer (Germany)
CocoRosie (France)
Bianca Cassady, Sierra Cassady
Cookie Crew (United Kingdom)
Susie Banfield, Debbie Pryce
The Continental Co-ets (United States) (1963–1967)
Nancy Hofmann, Carol Goins, Vicki Steinman, Carolyn Behr, MaryJo Hofmann
The Contractions (United States)
Mary Kelley, Kathy Peck, Debbie Hopkins
Conquer Divide (United States), (United Kingdom), (Serbia)
Kiarely Castillo, Janel Duarte, Kristen Woutersz, Isabel Johnson, Tamara Tadic, Ashley Colby
Cowboy Crush (United States)
Trenna Barnes, Debbie Johnson, Becky Priest, Renaé Truex
Coyote Sisters (United States)
Leah Kunkel, Marty Gwynn, Renee Armand
Crucified Barbara (Sweden)
Mia Coldheart, Klara Force, Ida Evileye, Nicki Wicked, Joey Nine
Cub (Canada)
Lisa G., Robynn Iwata, Lisa Marr
Cyntia (Japan)
Saki, Yui, Ayano, Azu
Cypher in the Snow (United States)
Anna Joy Springer, Dan-yella Dyslexia, Shari Lambchop, Ulla Imd, Margaret Hitchcock, Chloe Little Hope, Lala Hulse
D
Daddy Issues (United States)
Jenna Moynihan, Jenna Mitchell, Emily Maxwell
The Daisy Chain (United States) (1967–1968)
Shel Le, Camille, Rosemary Lane, Dee Dee Lea
The Deadly Nightshade (United States) (1967–1970; 1972–1977; 2008–)
Helen Hooke, Anne Bowen, and Pamela Brand
Dead Disco (United Kingdom)
Victoria Hesketh, Lucy Catherwood, Marie France
The Devotchkas (United States)
Jessica, Mande, Alaine, Gabrielle
Dickless (United States)
Jana McCall, Kerry Green, Kelly Canary, Lisa Smith
Dog Party (United States)
Gwendolyn Giles, Lucy Giles
Doll Skin (United States)
Meghan Herring, Sydney Dolezal, Nicole Rich, Alex Snowden
Dolly Mixture (United Kingdom)
Rachel Bor, Hester Smith, Debsey Wykes
The Donnas (United States)
Brett Anderson, Allison Robertson, Maya Ford, Amy Cesari, Torry Castellano
Drain STH (Sweden)
Martina Axén, Flavia Canel, Anna Kjellberg, Maria Sjöholm
Dream Nails (United Kingdom)
Janey Starling, Anya Pearson, Lucy Katz, Mimi Jasson
Dum Dum Girls (United States)
Dee Dee, Jules, Malia, Sandy
E
Electrelane (United Kingdom)
Debbie Ball, Mia Clarke, Rachel Dalley, Emma Gaze, Tracey Houdek, Ros Murray, Verity Susman
Emily's Sassy Lime (United States)
Wendy Yao, Emily Ryan, Amy Yao
Erase Errata (United States)
Ellie Erickson, Jenny Hoyston, Sara Jaffe, Bianca Sparta
Everlife (United States)
Amber, Sarah and Julia Ross (sisters)
eX-Girl (Japan)
Keikos, Kirilola, Yoko
Ex Hex (United States)
Mary Timony, Betsy Wright, Laura Harris
Exist Trace (Japan)
Jyou, Miko, Omi, Naoto and Mally.
The Eyeliners (United States)
Lisa Baca, Laura Baca, Angela "Gel" Baca
F
Fabulous Disaster (United States)
Lynda Mandolyn, Squeaky, Sally Disaster, Lizzie Boredom, Cinder Block, Laura Litter
The Faders (United Kingdom)
Molly Lorene, Toy Valentine, Cherisse Osei
Fanny (United States) (1969–1975)
Nickey Barclay, Alice de Buhr, Jean Millington, June Millington, Patty Quatro, Brie Howard Darling
The Feminine Complex (United States) (1966–1969)
Mindy Dalton, Judi Griffith, Lana Napier, Pame Stephens, Jean Williams
Femme Fatale (United States) (2013–2019)
Lorraine Lewis, Courtney Cox, Nita Strauss, Nikki Stringfield, Janis Tanaka, Rachael Rine, Athena Lee (Kottak), Katt Scarlett
Fifth Column (Canada)
Caroline Azar, G.B. Jones, Anita Smith, Charlotte Briede, Beverly Breckenridge, Michelle Breslin, Donna Dresch, Torry Colichio
Finally Punk (United States)
Erin Budd, Stephanie Chan, Veronica Ortuño, Elizabeth Skadden
Fire Party (United States)
Amy Pickering, Natalie Avery, Kate Samworth, Nicky Thomas
First Aid Kit (Sweden)
Klara Söderberg, Johanna Söderberg
Fluffy (United Kingdom)
Angie Adams, Bridget Jones, Amanda Rootes, Helen Storer
Flying Lesbians (Germany)
Danielle de Baat, Monika Jaeckel, Gigi (Christa) Lansch, Monika Mengel, Cillie Rentmeister, M.S., Christel Wachowski, Swetlana Freifrau von dem Bottlenberg
Frau (United Kingdom); (Spain)
Ashley, Colette, Paula, Nuria
Frightwig (United States)
Deanna Ashley, Mia Levin, Cecilia Lynch, Megan Page, Rebecca Tucker
G
Gacharic Spin (Japan)
F Chopper Koga, Tomo-zo, Hana, Oreo Reona, Mai
Gallhammer (Japan)
Mika Penetrator, Vivian Slaughter, Risa Reaper
Girlpool (United States)
Avery Tucker, Harmony Tividad
The Girls (United States)
Diane, Rosemary, Sylvia and Margaret Sandoval
Girlschool (United Kingdom)
Jackie Chambers, Denise Dufort, Kim McAuliffe, Enid Williams, Kelly Johnson, Gil Weston-Jones, Cris Bonacci, Jackie Bodimead, Tracey Lamb
Girl in a Coma (United States)
Nina and Phanie Diaz, Jenn Alva
Girl Monstar (Australia)
Sherry Valier, Anne McCue, Damian Child, Sue World
Gito Gito Hustler (Japan)
Yago, Mitsuko, Tae, Fusa
Go Betty Go (United States)
Nicolette and Aixa Vilar, Betty Cisneros, Michelle Rangel
Go-Bang's (Japan)
Kaori Moriwaka, Risa Tanishima, Mitsuko Saito
The Go-Go's (United States)
Elissa Bello, Charlotte Caffey, Belinda Carlisle, Margot Olavarria, Gina Schock, Kathy Valentine, Jane Wiedlin
The Gymslips (United Kingdom)
original line up: Suzanne Scott, Paula Richards, Karen Yarnell, Kathy Barnes
H
Haiku Salut (United Kingdom)
Gemma Barkerwood, Sophie Barkerwood, Louise Croft
Haim (United States)
Este Haim, Danielle Haim, Alana Haim
Halo Friendlies (United States)
Natalie Bolanos, Cheryl Hecht, Deanna Moody, Ginger Reyes, Claudia Rossi, Christina Theobold, Judita Wignall
Hanabie. (Japan)
Yukina, Matsuri, Hettsu, Chika
Hang On The Box (China)
Wang Yue, Yilina, Shenggy (Shi Lu)
Harry Crews (United States)
Kim Gordon, Lydia Lunch, Sadie Mae
The Heart Beats (United States)
Linda Sanders, Debbie Sanders, Debbie McMillan, Jeannie Foster
Heavens to Betsy (United States)
Tracy Sawyer, Corin Tucker
Hepburn (United Kingdom)
Jamie Benson (vocals), Lisa Lister (guitar), Sarah Davies (bass), Beverley Fullen (drums)
Hijas de Violencia (Mexico)
Hinds (Spain)
Carlotta Cosials, Ana Perrote, Ade Martin, Amber Grimbergen
The Holy Sisters of the Gaga Dada (United States)
Jill Fido, Mary Jean, Kim Sockit, Zero Jessephski Jr.
Honeyblood (Scotland)
Stina Marie, Claire Tweeddale, Cat Myers
I
Ibeyi (Cuba)
Lisa-Kaindé Diaz, Naomi Diaz
Indica (Finland)
Johanna "Jonsu" Salomaa, Heini, Sirkku, Jenny, Laura
Indigo Girls (United States)
Amy Ray, Emily Saliers
International Sweethearts of Rhythm (United States)
Members inc. Pauline Braddy, Willie May Wong, Edna Williams, Helen Jones Woods; Bandleader: Anna Mae Winburn.
Isis (United States)
Stella Bass, Ginger Bianco, Lollie Bienenfeld, Lauren Draper, Jeanie Fineberg, Suzi Ghezzi,
Ivy Benson's All Girls Band (United Kingdom)
Ivy Benson et al.
Ivy Lies (New Zealand)
Emla Palmer, Lisa Blatchford, Rosie O'Connell, Mihka Chee
J
Jack Off Jill (United States)
Jessicka, Hellen Storer, Tenni Ah-Cha-Cha, Michelle Inhell
The Jades (Ireland)
Sheila O'Sullivan, Elaine Weldon, Caroline Weldon, Yvonne O'Sullivan
Jale (Canada)
Eve Hartling, Alyson MacLeod, Jennifer Pierce, Laura Stein
Joseph (United States)
Natalie Closner Schepman, Allison Closner, Meegan Closner
Junkyard Lipstick (South Africa)
Lucinda Villain, Louise Gorman, Robyn Bruwer, Jo-mariè Smit
K
Katzenjammer (Norway)
Anne Marit Bergheim, Marianne Sveen, Solveig Heilo, Turid Jørgensen
Kitten Forever (United States)
Corrie Harrigan, Laura Larson, Liz Elton
Kittie (Canada)
Morgan Lander, Mercedes Lander, Tara McLeod, Trish Doan, Talena Atfield, Jennifer Arroyo, Tanya Candler, Fallon Bowman, Lisa Marx, Ivana "Ivy" Vujic
Klymaxx (United States)
Bernadette Cooper, Lorena Porter, Joyce Irby, Lynn Malsby, Robbin Grider, Cheryl Cooley
Kostars (United States)
Vivian Trimble, Jill Cunniff
KSM (United States)
Shelby Cobra, Katie Cecil, Sophia Melon, Shae Padilla and Kate Cabebe
The Kut (United Kingdom)
Princess Maha, Diana Bartmann, Stella Vie
L
L7
Donita Sparks, Suzi Gardner, Jennifer Finch, Demetra Plakas
La Luz (United States)
Shana Cleveland, Alice Sandahl, Lena Simon
L.A. Witch (United States)
Ellie English, Irita Pai, Sade Sanchez
Lash (Australia)
Belinda-Lee Reid, Jaclyn Pearson, Jessica Bennett, Micaela Slayford
Le Tigre (United States)
Sadie Benning, Johanna Fateman, Kathleen Hanna, JD Samson
Lesbians On Ecstasy (Canada)
Bernie Bankrupt, Fruity Frankie, Jackie the Jackhammer, Veronique Mystique
Let's Eat Grandma (United Kingdom)
Jenny Hollingworth, Rosa Walton
The Like (United States)
Charlotte Froom, Tennessee Thomas, Z. Berg
LiLiPUT (originally, Kleenex; Switzerland) (1978–1983)
Angie Barrack, Crigle Freund, Lislot Ha, Marlene Marder, Klaudia Schiff
The Linda Lindas
Bela Salazar, Eloise Wong, Lucia de la Garza, Mila de la Garza
LiveonRelease (Canada)
Leah Emmott, Felicity Herst, Brittin Karroll, Colette Trudeau
The Liverbirds (England)
Valerie Gell, Pamela Birch, Mary McGlory, Sylvia Saunders
Lolita No. 18 (Japan)
Aya, Ena, Masayo Ishizaka, Kim Rin
Look Blue Go Purple (New Zealand)
Kathy Bull, Norma O'Malley, Lesley Paris, Denise Roughan, Kath Webster
The Lounge Kittens (England)
Zan Lawther, Timia Gwendoline, Jenny Deacon
Lovendor (Japan)
Reina Tanaka, Marina Okada, Yuki Uozumi, Marin Miyazawa
Lovebites (Japan)
Asami, Miho, Haruna, Midori, Miyako
Lunachicks (United States)
Becky, Chip, Gina, Theo Kogan, Sindi, Squid
Lung Leg (Scotland)
Jane McKeown, Annie Spandex, Amanda Doorbar, Maureen Quim
Luscious Jackson (United States)
Jill Cunniff, Gabby Glaser, Kate Schellenbach, Vivian Trimble
Luv'd Ones (United States)
Char Vinnedge, Chris Vinnedge, Mary Gallagher, Faith Orem
M
M2M (Norway)
Marion Elise Raven, Marit Elisabeth Larsen
Madam X (as Hell's Belles, 1991; United States)
Lenita Erickson, Irene Wohlman, Roxy and Maxine Petrucci
Magneta Lane (Canada)
Lexi Valentine, French, Nadia King
Malaria! (Germany)
Gudrun Gut, Bettina Köster, Beate Bartel, Manon P. Duursma, Christine Hahn, Sussane Kuhnke
Mambo Taxi (United Kingdom)
Lenie Mets, Delia Sparrow, Andrea Stallard, Karin Rapp, Ella Guru, Anjali Bhatia
Maow (Canada)
Tobey Black, Neko Case, Corrina Hammond
Marine Girls (United Kingdom)
Tracey Thorn, Jane Fox, Alice Fox, Gina Hartman
Marsheaux (Greece)
Marianthi Melitsi, Sophie Sarigiannidou
Mary's Blood (Japan)
Eye, Mari, Rio, Saki
Mediæval Bæbes (United Kingdom)
Maple Bee, Katharine Blake, Audrey Evans, Marie Findley, Emily Ovenden, Claire Rabbitt, Cylindra Sapphire
The Micragirls (Finland)
Mari Halonen, Katariina Haapalainen, Kristiina Haapalainen
Mika Miko (United States)
Jenna Thornhill, Jennifer Clavin, Michelle Suarez, Jessie Clavin, Kate Hall (lineup from 2005 to 2009)
The Mo-dettes (United Kingdom)
Ramona Carlier, Jane Crockford, Kate Korus, June Miles-Kingston, Melissa Ritter
Morfonica (Japan)
Mashiro Kurata (Amane Shindō), Tōko Kirigaya (Hina Suguta), Nanami Hiromachi (Yūka Nishio), Tsukushi Futaba (Mika), Rui Yashio (Ayasa)
Mrs. Fun (United States)
Kim Zick, Connie Grauer
MUNA (United States)
Katie Gavin, Josette Maskin, Naomi McPherson
The Murmurs (United States)
Heather Grody, Leisha Hailey, Sheri Ozeki, Sherri Solinger
MT-TV (England)
Krow, Alex, Brooke, Fuse, Nikki, Jo
N
Nasty Cherry (United States)
Nemophila (Japan)
Nervosa (Founded in Brazil, features international members)
Nice Horse (Canada)
Katie Rox, Brandi Sidoryk, Krista Wodelet, Tara McLeod
Nisennenmondai (Japan)
Masako Takada, Yuri Zaikawa, Sayaka Himeno
Nitocris (Australia)
Morgana Ancone, Jessamine Finlayson, Sara Graye, Andrea Stanway, Kira Taylor
The Nixe (Netherlands)
Ilva Poortvliet, Nikki Meijerink, Marian De Beurs, Simone Luken
Northern State (United States)
Hesta Prynn, Correne Spero, Robyn "Sprout" Goodmark
Nots (United States)
Natalie Hoffman, Charlotte Watson, Alexandra Eastburn, Meredith Lones
O
Octavia Sperati (Norway)
Silje, Bodil, Gyri, Trine, Tone
Östro 430 (Germany)
Martina Weith, Bettina Flörchinger, Anja Peterssen, Sandy Black
OOIOO (Japan)
Yoshimi P-We, Kayan, Aya, Ai
Oreskaband (Japan)
iCas, Hayami, Tomi, Tae, ADD, CC
The Organ (Canada)
Katie Sketch, Jenny Smythe, Shelby Stocks, Shmoo Ritchie, Debra Cohen
Otoboke Beaver (Japan)
Accorinrin, Yoyoyoshie, Hiro-Chan, Kahokiss
P
The Pack A.D. (Canada)
Maya Miller, Becky Black
The Pandoras (United States)
Paula Pierce, Gwynne Kahn, Karen Blankfeld, Melanie Vammen, Kim Shattuck, Bambi Conway, Lissa, Sheri, Casey, Lisa Black, Sheri Kaplan
Peaness (United Kingdom)
Carleia "Balla" Babenta, Jess Branney, Rach Williams
Partyline (United States)
Allison Wolfe, Angela Melkisethian, Crystal Bradley
The Peggies (Japan)
Nadia Javed, Beverley Ishmael, Harriet Doveton
Phantom Blue (United States)
Gigi Hangach, Michelle Meldrum, Nicole Couch, Kim Nielsen, Linda McDonald.
The Pierces (United States)
Catherine Pierce, Allison Pierce
PINS (United Kingdom)
Faith Holgate, Lois McDonald, Anna Donigan, Sophie Galpin
Plastiscines (France)
Katty Besnard, Marine Neuilly, Louise Basilien, Anoushka Vandevyvere
The Pleasure Seekers/Cradle (United States)
Patti Quatro, Suzi Quatro, Arlean Quatro, Nancy Quatro, Darline Arnone, Nancy Ball, Mary Lou Ball, Diane Baker
Plumtree (Canada)
Lynette Gillis, Carla Gillis, Amanda Braden, Catriona Sturton
Pony Up (Canada)
Lisa J. Smith, Sarah Moundroukas, Laura Wills, Lindsay Wills (and formerly, Camilla Wynne Ingr)
Poppin'Party (Japan)
Kasumi Toyama (Aimi), Tae Hanazono (Sae Ōtsuka), Rimi Ushigome (Rimi Nishimoto), Sāya Yamabuki (Ayaka Ōhashi), Arisa Ichigaya (Ayasa Itō)
The Prettiots (United States)
Lulu Landolfi, Kay Kasparhauser
Princess Princess (Japan)
Atsuko Watanabe (b), Kanako Nakayama (g), Kyoko Tomita (d), Tomoko Konno (k), Kaori Kishitani (v)
The Priscillas (United Kingdom)
Jenny Drag (v), Guri Go-Go (g), Heidi Heelz (b), Lisa Lux (d)
Pussy Riot (Russia)
Nadezhda Tolokonnikova, Maria Alyokhina, Yekaterina Samutsevich, Taisia Krugovykh, et al.
R
Rachel Rachel (United States)
Jennifer York, Cheryl Jewell, Heli Sterner, Brynn Beltran (Gersmehl), Jennifer Sparks, Robin Spurs
The Raincoats (United Kingdom)
Vicky Aspinall, Gina Birch, Ana Da Silva, Palmolive, Ingrid Weiss
Raise A Suilen (Japan)
Rei Wakana (Raychell), Rokka Asahi (Riko Kohara), Chiyu Tamade (Risa Tsumugi), Masuki Satō (Natsume), Reona Nyūbara (Reo Kurachi)
Rasputina (United States)
Melora Creager, Julia Kent, Zoe Keating, Sarah Bowman, Kris Cowperthwaite, Agnieszka Rybska, Nana Bornant
Razika (Norway)
Maria Amdam, Maria Råkil, Marie Moe, Embla Karidotter Dahleng
Rebecca & Fiona (Sweden)
Red Aunts (United States)
Terri Wahl, Kerry Davis, Debi Martini, Leslie Noelle
Red Bacteria Vacuum ([Japan)
Ikumi, Kassan (also formerly known as RanRan), Jasmine
Red Molly (United States)
Laurie MacAllister, Abbie Gardner, Carolann Solebello (Solebello left August 19, 2010, replaced by Molly Venter)
Red Poppy (China)
Group of female percussionists
Reyna (United States) (2011–present)
Gabriela Banuelos, Victoriah Banuelos
Rock Goddess (United Kingdom)
Jody Turner, Julie Turner, Tracey Lamb, Dee O'Malley
Rolling Quartz (South Korea)
Iree, Arem, Jayoung, Yeongeun, Hyunjung
Roselia (Japan)
Yukina Minato (Aina Aiba), Sayo Hikawa (Haruka Kudō), Lisa Imai (Yuki Nakashima), Ako Udagawa (Megu Sakuragawa), Rinko Shirokane (Kanon Shizaki). Former members Yurika Endō (as Lisa Imai), Satomi Akesaka (as Rinko Shirokane)
The Runaways (United States)
Cherie Currie, Lita Ford, Jackie Fox, Joan Jett, Sandy West, Vicki Blue, Laurie McAllister, Micki Steele
S
Sahara Hotnights (Sweden)
Maria Andersson, Jennie Asplund, Johanna Asplund, Josephine Forsman
Salem 66 (United States)
Judy Granwald, Elisabeth Kaplan, Susan Merriam
Savages (United Kingdom)
Jehnny Beth, Gemma Thompson, Ayse Hassan, Fay Milton
Scandal (Japan)
Haruna Ono, Tomomi Ogawa, Mami Sasazaki, and Rina Suzuki
Scarlet (United Kingdom)
Cheryl Parker, Jo Youle, Joanna Fox
Scissor Girls (United States)
Azita Youssefi, Heather Melowic (a.k.a. Heather M.), Kelly Kuvo, Sue Zollinger
Scrawl (United States)
Marcy Mays, Sue Harshe, Carolyn O'Leary, Dana Marshall
Screaming Orphans (Ireland)
Joan Diver, Angela Diver, Joan Diver, Gráinne Diver
Screamin' Sirens (United States)
Laura Bandit, Diane Dixon, Genny Schorr, Fur Dixon, Rosie Flores, Pleasant Gehman, Casey Gomez, Kathryn Grimm, Marsky Reins, Miiko Watanabe
September Girls (Ireland)
Paula Cullen, Caoimhe Derwin, Lauren Kerchner, Jessie Ward, Sarah Grimes
Shampoo (United Kingdom)
Jacqui Blake, Carrie Askew
The Shaggs (United States)
Betty Wiggin, Dorothy Wiggin, Helen Wiggin, Rachel Wiggin
She Devils (Argentina)
Inés Laurencena, Patricia Pietrafesa, Pilar Arrese
She Rockers (United Kingdom)
Donna McConnell, Alison Clarkson, Dupe Fagbesa, Antonia Jolly
The She Trinity (Canada/United Kingdom)
Robyn Yorke, Shelley Gillespie, Sue Kirby, Pauline Moran, Marion Hill, Eileen Woodman, Janet Baily, Barbara Thompson, Beryl Marsden, Inger Jonnsson
Shishamo (Japan)
Asako Miyazaki, Misaki Yoshikawa, Aya Matsuoka
Shit & Chanel (Denmark)
Anne Linnet, Astrid Elbek, Lis Sørensen, Lone Poulsen and Ulla Tvede Eriksen.
Shonen Knife (Japan)
Naoko Yamano, Atsuko Yamano, Risa Kawano (past members: Ritsuko Taneda, Emi Morimoto, Etsuko Nakanishi, Michie Nakatani, Mana Nishiura)
Show-Ya (Japan)
Keiko Terada, Miki "sun-go" Igarashi, Miki "captain" Nakamura, Satomi Senba, Miki "mittan" Tsunoda
Sick of Sarah (United States)
Abisha Uhl, Katie Murph, Jessie Farmer, Brooke Svanes, Jessica Forsythe
Sidi Bou Said (United Kingdom)
Claire Lemmon, Gayl Harrison, Melanie Woods
Silent Siren (Japan)
Sumire Yoshida, Yukako Kurosada, Aina Yamauchi, Hinako Umemura
Skinned Teen (United Kingdom)
Layla Gibbon, Flossy White, Esme Young
Skinny Girl Diet (United Kingdom)
Delilah Holliday, Ursula Holliday
Skulker (Australia)
Greer Skinner, Naomi Battah, Annette Harada, Angela Blackshaw
Slant 6 (United States)
Christina Billotte, Marge Marshall, Myra Power
Sleater-Kinney (United States)
Carrie Brownstein, Lora McFarlane, Corin Tucker, Janet Weiss
The Slits (United Kingdom)
Ari Up, Palmolive, Viv Albertine, Tessa Pollitt
Smoosh (United States)
Chloe, Asy (Asya), Maia
Snatch (United States/United Kingdom)
Judy Nylon, Patti Palladin
Some Girls (United States)
Heidi Gluck, Juliana Hatfield, Freda Love
Spazzys ([Australia)
Kat Spazzy, Lucy Spazzy, Ally Spazzy
Spires That in the Sunset Rise (United States)
Kathleen Baird, Georgia Vallas, Taralie Peterson (Taralie Dawn), Tracy Peterson
Spitboy (United States)
Michelle Gonzales, Adrienne Droogas, Paula, Karin Gembus
Splendora (United States)
Janet Wygal, Tricia Wygal, Delissa Santos, Cindy Brolsma, Jennifer Richardson
The Staves (United Kingdom)
Emily Stavely-Taylor, Jessica Stavely-Taylor, Camilla Stavely-Taylor
Stealing Sheep (United Kingdom)
Rebecca Hawley, Emily Lansley, Lucy Mercer
Stereopony (Japan)
Aimi, Nohana, Shiho
Stonefield (Australia)
Amy, Hannah, Sarah, and Holly Findlay
Strawberry Switchblade (Scotland)
Rose McDowall, Jill Bryson
Super Junky Monkey (Japan)
Mutsumi ‘623’ Fukuhara, Keiko, Shinobu Kawai, Matsudaaahh
Super Heroines (United States)
Eva O, Sandra Ross, Jill Emery
T
t.A.T.u. (Russia)
Julia Volkova, Lena Katina
Tattle Tale (United States)
Jen Wood, Madigan Shive
Team Dresch (United States)
Jody Bleyle, Donna Dresch, Kaia Wilson, Marci Martinez, Melissa York
Tegan and Sara (Canada)
Tegan Quin, Sara Quin
Thee Headcoatees (United Kingdom) (1991–1999)
Holly Golightly, Kyra LaRubia, Ludella Black, Debbie Green
The Third Sex (United States)
Trish Walsh, Peyton Marshall
Thunderbugs (United Kingdom)
Brigitta Jansen, Nicky Shaw, Stef Maillard, Jane Vaughan
Thunderpussy (United States)
Molly Sides, Whitney Petty, Leah Julius, Ruby Dunphy
The Trashwomen (United States)
Tina Lucchesi, Danielle Pimm, Elka Zolot
Those Dancing Days (Sweden)
Linnea Jönsson, Cissi Efraimsson, Mimmi Evrell, Rebecka Rolfart, Lisa Pyk Wirstrom
Thug Murder (Japan)
Ryoko Naitoh, Chisato Ohtsubo, Yurie Sakuma
Tijuana Sweetheart (United States)
Hellion, LoWreck, Julie TwoTimes, Smokey; Former Members: Elena, Leeanne, Scrotch, Ivhanna Rock
Tiktak (Finland)
Emilia "Emppu" Suhonen, Mirjami "Mimmu" Hyvönen, Nea Mokkila, Petra Mauria, Tuuli Taimi, Noora Puhakka
Tribe 8 (United States)
Lynn Breedlove, Leslie Mah, Jen Rampage, Mama T
The Tuts (United Kingdom)
Yuuho Kitazawa, Makiko Ishiwata, Miku Onuki
Twelve Girls Band (China)
Two Nice Girls (United States)
Pam Barger, Barbara Cole, Laurie Freelove, Meg Hentges, Kathy Korniloff, Gretchen Phillips
U
Uh Huh Her (United States)
Leisha Hailey, Camila Grey
Uncle Earl (United States)
KC Groves, Abigail Washburn, Rayna Gellert, Kristin Andreassen
Upset (United States)
Ali Koehler, Lauren Freeman, Patty Schemel, Rachel Gagliardi
Urban Symphony (Estonia)
Sandra Nurmsalu, Mann Helstein, Johanna Mängel, Mari Möldre
Ut (United States/United Kingdom)
Jacqui Ham, Sally Young, Nina Canal
V
Vanilla Ninja (Estonia)
Lenna Kuurmaa, Piret Järvis, Katrin Siska, Maarja Kivi, Triinu Kivilaan
Vesna (Czech Republic)
Patricie Fuxová, Bára Šůstková, Olesya Ochepovskaya, Markéta Vedralová, Tanita Yankova, Tereza Čepková
Viuda e hijas de Roque Enroll (Argentina)
Mavi Díaz, María Gabriela Epumer, Claudia Ruffinatti, Claudia Sinesi
Vivian Girls (United States)
Cassie Ramone, Kickball Katy, Ali Koehler, Frankie Rose
Vixen (United States)
Janet Gardner, Jan Kuehnemund, Share Pedersen (Ross), Roxy Petrucci (Jones), Maxine Petrucci, Gina Stile, Brittany "Britt Lightning" Denaro, Kathrin Kraft, Lynn Louise Lowrey, Jenna Piccolo (Sanz-Agero), Tamara Ivanov, Pia Maiocco, Laurie Hedlund, Lorraine Lewis
Voice of Baceprot (Indonesia)
Firda Marsya Kurnia, Widi Rahmawati, Euis Siti Aisyah
Von Iva (United States)
Jillian Iva Meador, Rebecca Kupersmith, Kelly Harris
Voodoo Queens (United Kingdom)
Anjali Bhatia, Ella Drauglis, Angela Bhasler, Rajru Bhatia, Stefania
Vulpes (Spain)
Loles Vázquez «Anarkoma Zorrita», Mamen Rodrigo «Evelyn Zorrita», Begoña Astigarraga «Ruth Zorrita», Lupe Vázquez «Pigüy Zorrita»
W
The Wailin' Jennys (Canada)
Nicky Mehta, Ruth Moody, Heather Masse
The Warning (Mexico)
Daniela Villareal, Paulina Villareal, Alejandra Villareal
Warpaint (United States)
Emily Kokal, Jenny Lee Lindberg, Stella Mozgawa, Theresa Wayman
Wet Leg (United Kingdom)
Rhian Teasdale, Hester Chambers
We've Got a Fuzzbox and We're Gonna Use It (United Kingdom)
JoAnn, Maggie, Tina, Vicky
Whiteberry (Japan)
Yuki, Aya, Yukari, Rimi, Erika
The Whoreshoes (United States)
Diana Greenberg, Lala Hulse, Camilla Lincoln, Joni Rueter, Emily Stucky
Wild Flag (United States)
Carrie Brownstein, Rebecca Cole, Mary Timony, Janet Weiss
Wild Rose (United States)
Pamela Gadd, Kathy Mac, Pam Perry, Nancy Given Prout, Wanda Vick
The Wimmins' Institute (United Kingdom)
Jennifer Denitto, Cassie Fox, Melissa Reardon, Deborah van der Geugten
Wishing Chair (United States)
Miriam Davidson, Kiya Heartwood
Y
Y Pants (United States)
Barbara Ess, Virginia Piersol, Gail Vachon
Z
Zelda (Japan)
Sachiho Kojima, Sayoko Takahashi, Yōko Suzuki, Kuniko Nozawa, Fukie Ishihara, Ako Ozawa, Naomi Motomura
Zone (Japan)
Miyu Nagase, Mizuho Saito, Maiko Sakae, Tomoka Nishimura
See also
List of girl groups
References
List
Female
Bands
|
417849
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action%20game
|
Action game
|
An action game is a video game genre that emphasizes physical challenges, including hand–eye coordination and reaction time. The genre includes a large variety of sub-genres, such as fighting games, beat 'em ups, shooter games, and platform games. Multiplayer online battle arena and some real-time strategy games are also considered action games.
In an action game, the player typically controls a character often in the form of a protagonist or avatar. This player character must navigate a level, collecting objects, avoiding obstacles, and battling enemies with their natural skills as well as weapons and other tools at their disposal. At the end of a level or group of levels, the player must often defeat a boss enemy that is more challenging and often a major antagonist in the game's story. Enemy attacks and obstacles deplete the player character's health and lives, and the player receives a game over when they run out of lives.
Alternatively, the player gets to the end of the game by finishing a sequence of levels to complete a final goal, and see the credits. But some action games, such as early arcade games, are unbeatable and have an indefinite number of levels; with the player's only goal being to get as far as they can to maximize their score.
Defining elements
The action genre includes any game where the player overcomes challenges by physical means such as precise aim and quick response times. Action games can sometimes incorporate other challenges such as races, puzzles, or collecting objects, but they are not central to the genre. Players may also encounter tactical and exploration challenges, but these games first-and-foremost require high reaction speed and good hand–eye coordination. The player is often under time pressure, and there is not enough time for complex strategic planning. In general, faster action games are more challenging. Action games may sometimes involve puzzle solving, but they are usually quite simple because the player is under immense time pressure.
Game design
Levels
Players advance through an action game by completing a series of levels. Levels are often grouped by theme, with similar graphics and enemies called a world. Each level involves a variety of challenges, whether dancing in a dance game or shooting things in a shooter, which the player must overcome to win the game. Older games force players to restart a level after dying, although action games evolved to offer saved games and checkpoints to allow the player to restart partway through a level. Increasingly, though, some games allow for "resurrection" or "cloning" and the opportunity to regain lost items upon death for a certain sum of ingame currency, typically increasing exponentially the more times the player dies. The obstacles and enemies in a level do not usually vary between play sessions, allowing players to learn by trial and error. However, levels sometimes add an element of randomness, such as an enemy that randomly appears or that takes an unpredictable path.
Levels in an action game may be linear or nonlinear, and sometimes include shortcuts. For levels that require exploration, the player may need to search for a level exit that is hidden or guarded by enemies. Such levels can also contain secrets—hidden or hard-to-reach objects or places that contain something valuable. The prize can be a bonus (see below) or a non-standard exit that allows a player to access a hidden level, or jump ahead several levels. Action games sometimes offer a teleporter that will cause the player's avatar to re-appear elsewhere in the same level. Levels often make use of locked doors that can only be opened with a specific key found elsewhere in the level.
Action games sometimes make use of time restrictions to increase the challenge. However, game levels typically do not react to time passing, and day/night cycles are rare. When the timer expires, the player typically loses a life, although some games generate a difficult enemy or challenge. If the level is completed with time remaining, this usually adds to the player's score.
Character abilities
In most action games, the player controls a single avatar as the protagonist. The avatar has the ability to navigate and maneuver, and often collects or manipulates objects. They have a range of defenses and attacks, such as shooting or punching. Many action games make use of a powerful attack that destroys all enemies within a limited range, but this attack is rare.
Players may find a power-up within the game world that grants temporary or permanent improvements to their abilities. For example, the avatar may gain an increase in speed, more powerful attacks, or a temporary shield from attacks. Some action games even allow players to spend upgrade points on the power ups of their choice.
Obstacles and enemies
In action games that involve navigating a space, players will encounter obstacles, traps, and enemies. Enemies typically follow fixed patterns and attack the player, although newer action games may make use of more complex artificial intelligence to pursue the player. Enemies sometimes appear in groups or waves, with enemies increasing in strength and number until the end of the level. Enemies may also appear out of thin air. This can involve an invisible spawn point, or a visible generator which can be destroyed by the player. These points may generate enemies indefinitely, or only up to a certain number. At the end of a level or group of themed levels, players often encounter a boss. This boss enemy will often resemble a larger or more difficult version of a regular enemy. A boss may require a special weapon or attack method, such as striking when the boss opens their mouth or attacking particular part of the boss.
Health and lives
In many action games, the avatar has a certain number of hit-markers or health, which are depleted by enemy attacks and other hazards. Sometimes health can be replenished by collecting an in-game object. When the player runs out of health, the player dies. The player's avatar is often given a small number of chances to retry after death, typically referred to as lives. Upon beginning a new life, the player resumes the game either from the same location they died, a checkpoint, or the start of the level. Upon starting a new life, the avatar is typically invincible for a few seconds to allow the player to re-orient themselves. Players may earn extra lives by reaching a certain score or by finding an in-game object. Arcade games still limit the number of player lives, while home video games have shifted increasingly to unlimited lives.
Graphics and interface
Action games take place in either 2D or 3D from a variety of perspectives. 2D action games typically use a side view or top-down view. The screen frequently scrolls as the player explores the level, although many games scroll through the level automatically to push the player forward. In 3D action games, the perspective is usually tied to the avatar from a first-person perspective or third-person perspective. However, some 3D games offer a context-sensitive perspective that is controlled by an artificial intelligence camera. Most of what the player needs to know is contained within a single screen, although action games frequently make use of a heads-up display that display important information such as health or ammunition. Action games sometimes make use of maps which can be accessed during lulls in action, or a mini-map that is always visible.
Scoring and victory
Action games tend to set simple goals, and reaching them is obvious. A common goal is to defeat the end-of-game boss. This is often presented in the form of a structured story, with a happy ending upon winning the game. In some games, the goal changes as the player reveals more of the story.
Many action games keep track of the player's score. Points are awarded for completing certain challenges, or defeating certain enemies. Skillful play is often rewarded with point multipliers, such as in Pac-Man where each ghost that the avatar eats will generate twice as many points as the last. Sometimes action games will offer bonus objects that increase the player's score. There is no penalty for failing to collect them, although these bonus objects may unlock hidden levels or special events. In many action games, achieving a high score is the only goal, and levels increase in difficulty until the player loses. Arcade games are more likely to be unbeatable, as they make their money by forcing the player to lose the game. On the other hand, games sold at home are more likely to have discrete victory conditions, since a publisher wants the player to purchase another game when they are done.
Subgenres
Action games contain several major subgenres. However, there are a number of action games that do not fit any particular subgenres, as well as other types of genres like adventure or strategy games that have action elements.
Character action games (also called "character-driven" games, "character games" or just "action games") are a broad category of action games, referring to a variety of games that are driven by the physical actions of player characters. The term dates back to the golden age of arcade video games in the early 1980s, when the terms "action games" and "character games" began being used to distinguish a new emerging genre of character-driven action games from the space shoot 'em ups that had previously dominated the arcades in the late 1970s. Classic examples of character action games from the early 1980s include Frogger, maze games like Pac-Man, and platformers like Donkey Kong.
Beat 'em ups (also called "brawlers") are games that involve fighting through a side-scrolling stage of multiple adversaries, using martial arts or other close-range fighting techniques.
Fighting games feature combat between pairs of fighters, usually using martial arts moves. Actions are limited to various attacks and defenses, and matches end when a fighter's health is reduced to zero. They often make use of special moves and combos. There are both 2D and 3D fighting games, but most 3D fighting games largely take place in a 2D plane and occasionally include side-stepping. They are distinct from sports games such as boxing and wrestling games which attempt to model movements and techniques more realistically.
Hack and slash games (also called "slash 'em up" or "character action games") are a subgenre of beat 'em up brawlers that emphasize combat with melee-based weapons, such as swords or blades. They may also feature projectile-based weapons as well (such as guns) as secondary weapons. Popular 2D examples include Shinobi, Golden Axe, classic Ninja Gaiden (Shadow Warriors), Strider, and Dragon's Crown. Popular 3D examples include Devil May Cry, Dynasty Warriors, modern Ninja Gaiden, God of War, and Bayonetta.
Maze games such as Pac-Man involve navigating a maze to avoid or chase adversaries.
Platform games involve jumping between platforms of different heights, while battling enemies and avoiding obstacles. Physics are often unrealistic, and game levels are often vertically exaggerated. They exist in both 2D and 3D forms such as Super Mario Bros. and Super Mario 64.
Side-scrolling character action games (also called "side-scrolling action games" or "side-scrollers") are a broad category of character action games that were popular from the mid-1980s to the 1990s, which involve player characters defeating large groups of weaker enemies along a side-scrolling playfield. Popular examples included beat 'em ups like Kung-Fu Master and Double Dragon, ninja action games like The Legend of Kage and Shinobi, scrolling platformers like Super Mario Bros. and Sonic the Hedgehog, and run and gun video games like Rolling Thunder and Gunstar Heroes.
Shooter games allow the player to take action at a distance using a ranged weapon, challenging them to aim with accuracy and speed. This subgenre includes first-person shooters, third-person shooters, light gun shooters, rail shooters, run and gun games and a plethora of shoot 'em up games taking place from a top-down or side-scrolling perspective. Space shooters were initially categorized as a separate genre from action games in the early 1980s, when the term was used to refer to character action games, up until character-driven shooters (particularly scrolling run-and-gun shooters) became popular by the late 1980s. The setting of shooter games often involves military conflicts, whether historical (such as World War II), contemporary (such as Middle East conflicts) or fictional (such as space warfare). Shooter games do not always involve military conflicts; other settings include hunting games, or follow the story of a criminal (as seen in the popular Grand Theft Auto franchise). Although shooting is almost always a form of violence, non-violent shooters exist as well, such as Splatoon which focuses on claiming more territory than the opposing team by covering the playable environment with colored paint or ink.
Hybrid action games are games that combine elements of action games with elements from other genres.
Action-adventure games mix elements of both action and adventure game genres such as The Legend of Zelda. Action-adventure games are the most popular subgenre.
Action role-playing games include features of role-playing games, such as characters with experience points and statistics.
Battle royale games are a subgenre of action games that combine last-man-standing gameplay with survival game elements. It also frequently includes shooter elements. It is almost exclusively multiplayer in nature, and eschews the complex crafting and resource gathering mechanics of survival games for a faster-paced confrontation game more typical of shooters. The genre is named after the Japanese film Battle Royale (2000).
Multiplayer online battle arena games (also called MOBA, "hero brawler" or "action real-time strategy" games) are a subgenre of real-time strategy (RTS) games with action game elements similar to brawlers or fighting games.
Rhythm action games challenge the player's sense of rhythm, and award points for accurately pressing certain buttons in sync with a musical beat. This is a relatively new subgenre of action game. Rhythm games are sometimes classified as a type of music game.
Survival games start the player off with minimal resources, in a hostile, open-world environment, and require them to collect resources, craft tools, weapons, and shelter, in order to survive as long as possible. Many are set in procedurally-generated environments, and are open-ended with no set goals. Survival games often feature a crafting system, which allows players to engage in tool-making to convert raw resources into useful items such as medical supplies for healing, structures which shelter the player from a frequently hostile environment, weapons to defend themselves with, and tools to create more complex items, structures, weapons and tools. The survival game genre may overlap with the survival horror genre, in which the player must survive within a setting traditionally associated with the horror genre, such as a zombie apocalypse. The genre also has similarities to action-adventure games.
Physical impact
Studies have shown that people can improve their eyesight by playing action video games. Tests by scientists at the University of Rochester on college students showed that over a period of a month, performance in eye examinations improved by about 20% in those playing Unreal Tournament compared to those playing Tetris. Most arcade games are action games, because they can be difficult for unskilled players, and thus make more money quickly.
Researchers from Helsinki School of Economics have shown that people playing a first-person shooter might secretly enjoy that their character gets killed in the game, although their expressions might show the contrary. The game used in the study was James Bond 007: Nightfire.
History
1970s
Shooter games have been around since the beginning of the video game industry. Notable examples of shooting arcade video games during the early-to-mid-1970s include Syzygy Engineering's Computer Space (1971), Galaxy Game (1971), Tank (1974) by Kee Games, Gun Fight (1975) by Taito and Midway Manufacturing, and Midway's Sea Wolf (1976). In turn, early arcade shooter video games were inspired by early mainframe games such as Spacewar! (1962) as well as arcade electro-mechanical games such as Periscope (1965) and gun games.
A major turning point for action video games came with the 1978 release of Taito's shoot 'em up game Space Invaders, which marked the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games. The game was designed by Tomohiro Nishikado, who drew inspiration from Atari's Breakout (1976) and the science fiction genre. Nishikado added several interactive elements to Space Invaders that he found lacking in earlier video games, such as the ability for enemies to react to the player's movement and fire back and a game over triggered by enemies killing the player (either by getting hit or enemies reaching the bottom of the screen) rather than a timer running out. In contrast to earlier arcade games which often had a timer, Space Invaders introduced the "concept of going round after round." It also gave the player multiple lives before the game ends, and saved the high score. It also had a basic story with animated characters along with a "crescendo of action and climax" which laid the groundwork for later video games, according to Eugene Jarvis, who said many games "still rely on the multiple life, progressively difficult level paradigm" of Space Invaders.
Following the mainstream success of Space Invaders, the industry came to be dominated by action games, which have remained a dominant genre in video arcades and on game consoles through to the present day. Space Invaders set the template for later games in the shooter subgenre, and it is considered one of the most influential games of all time.
During the arcade golden age, from the late 1970s to early 1980s, a wide variety of new subgenres were created. The success of Space Invaders led to space shooters becoming the dominant genre in arcades for a few years, before a new genre of character-driven action games emerged in the early 1980s.
1980s
The term "action games" began being used in the early 1980s, in reference to a new genre of character action games that emerged from Japanese arcade developers, drawing inspiration from manga and anime culture. According to Eugene Jarvis, these new character-driven Japanese action games emphasized "character development, hand-drawn animation and backgrounds, and a more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" of play. Terms such as "action games" or "character games" began being used to distinguish these new character-driven action games from the space shooters that had previously dominated the video game industry. The emphasis on character-driven gameplay in turn enabled a wider variety of subgenres.
Namco's hit maze game Pac-Man (1980) popularized the genre of "character-led" action games. It was one of the first popular non-shooting action games, defining key elements of the genre such as "parallel visual processing" which requires simultaneously keeping track of multiple entities, including the player character, the character's location, the enemies, and the energizers. Other classic examples of character action games that followed include Nintendo's Donkey Kong (1981), which established the template for the platform game subgenre, as well as Konami's Frogger (1981) and Universal Entertainment's Lady Bug (1981). Martial arts action games eventually emerged in the mid-1980s, with Data East's Karate Champ (1984) establishing the one-on-one fighting game subgenre.
While Japanese developers were creating a character-driven action game genre in the early 1980s, American developers largely adopted a different approach to game design at the time. According to Eugene Jarvis, American arcade developers focused mainly on space shooters during the late 1970s to early 1980s, greatly influenced by Japanese space shooters but taking the genre in a different direction from the "more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" gameplay of Japanese games, towards a more "programmer-centric design culture, emphasizing algorithmic generation of backgrounds and enemy dispatch" and "an emphasis on random-event generation, particle-effect explosions and physics" as seen in arcade games such as his own Defender (1981) and Robotron: 2084 (1982) as well as Atari's Asteroids (1979).
In the mid-1980s, side-scrolling character action games emerged, combining elements from earlier side-view, single-screen character action games, such as single-screen platformers, with the side-scrolling of space shooters. These new side-scrolling character-driven action games featured large character sprites in colorful, side-scrolling environments, with the core gameplay consisting of fighting large groups of weaker enemies using attacks/weapons such as punches, kicks, guns, swords, ninjutsu or magic. The most notable early example was Irem's Kung-Fu Master (1984), the first beat 'em up and the most influential side-scrolling martial arts action game; in turn, it was based on two Hong Kong martial arts films, Bruce Lee's Game of Death (1973) and Jackie Chan's Wheels on Meals (1984), This side-scrolling arcade action format became popular during the mid-to-late 1980s, with examples including ninja action games such as Taito's The Legend of Kage (1985) and Sega's Shinobi (1987), run and gun video games such as Namco's Rolling Thunder (1986), and beat 'em ups such as Technōs Japan's Renegade (1986) and Double Dragon (1987).
Shigeru Miyamoto combined the platforming of Donkey Kong and Mario Bros. (1983) with side-scrolling elements from racing game Excitebike (1984) and beat 'em up Kung-Fu Master to create Super Mario Bros. (1985) for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). It went on to have a significant impact on the video game industry, establishing the conventions of the side-scrolling platformer sub-genre and helping to reinvigorate the North American home video game market (after it had crashed in 1983).
Alongside side-scrollers, rail shooters and light gun shooters also became popular during the mid-to-late 1980s. Popular examples include first-person light gun shooting gallery games such as Nintendo's Duck Hunt (1984), pseudo-3D third-person rail shooters such as Sega's Space Harrier (1985) and After Burner (1987), and Taito's Operation Wolf (1987) which popularized military-themed first-person light gun rail shooters.
1990s
A trend that was popularized for action games in the early 1990s was competitive multiplayer, including what would later be known as esports tournaments. The arcade fighting game Street Fighter II (1991) by Capcom popularized the concept of direct, tournament-level competition between two players. Previously, action games most often relied on high scores to determine the best player, but this changed with Street Fighter II, where players would instead challenge each other directly, "face-to-face," to determine the best player, paving the way for the competitive multiplayer and deathmatch modes found in modern action games. Inspired by Street Fighter II, along with the SNK fighting games Fatal Fury (1991) and Art of Fighting (1992), John Romero created the deathmatch mode in id Software's Doom (1993), which popularized competitive multiplayer online games.
In the 1990s, there was a "3D Revolution" where action games made the transition from 2D and pseudo-3D graphics to real-time 3D polygon graphics. 3D arcade system boards that were originally designed for 3D racing games during the late 1980s to early 1990s, such as the Namco System 21, Sega Model 1 and Sega Model 2, were used to produce 3D arcade action games in the early 1990s, including 3D rail shooters such as Namco's Galaxian 3 (1990) and Solvalou (1991), 3D fighting games such as Sega AM2's Virtua Fighter (1993) and Namco's Tekken (1994), and 3D light gun shooters such as Sega AM2's Virtua Cop (1994) and Namco's Time Crisis (1995). On personal computers, the first-person shooter (FPS) genre was popularized by Doom; it is also considered, despite not using 3D polygons, a major leap forward for three-dimensional environments in action games. 3D polygon texture mapping appeared in action games around the mid-1990s, introduced to fighting games by Sega AM2's Virtua Fighter 2 (1994), to light gun shooters by Sega AM2's Virtua Cop in 1994, and to FPS games by Parallax Software's Descent (1995).
References
External links
Video game genres
Game
1970s video games
|
417850
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac%20Escalade
|
Cadillac Escalade
|
The Cadillac Escalade is a full-size luxury SUV engineered and manufactured by General Motors. It was Cadillac's first major entry into the SUV market. The Escalade was introduced for the 1999 model year in response to an influx of new luxury SUVs in the late 1990s such as the Mercedes-Benz M-Class, Range Rover and Lexus LX as well as Ford's 1998 release of the Lincoln Navigator. The Escalade project went into production only ten months after it was approved. The Escalade is built in Arlington, Texas. The word "escalade" refers to a siege warfare tactic of scaling defensive walls or ramparts with the aid of ladders or siege towers. More generally, it is a French word which is the noun-equivalent form of the French verb escalader, which means "to climb or scale".
The Escalade is currently sold in North America and select international markets (Europe and Asia) where Cadillac has official sales channels. The Escalade ESV (Escalade Stretch Vehicle) is sold in North America, Russia, and Middle East but is available by special order only in some international markets. The right-hand-drive Escalade and Escalade ESV are available through the third-party conversion specialists without official agreement with Cadillac in Australian, Oceanic, and Japanese markets.
On August 8, 2023, GM unveiled the Escalade IQ, an all-electric version of the Escalade, and the third model in Cadillac's EV line, after the Celestiq, and Lyriq. It is expected to go on sale in late 2024 for the 2025 model year, with a starting price of $130,000.
First generation (1999)
The introduction of the Lincoln Navigator in the 1998 model year necessitated that General Motors be able to compete in the burgeoning American market for full-size luxury-type trucks. This generation was only a five-seat SUV. Fearing the growing hegemony of the Lincoln Navigator, the Escalade was rushed through the design process to reach dealers quickly. Essentially little more than a badge-engineered GMC Yukon Denali, the SUV's aesthetics were similar to the Denali and the final vehicle was smaller than the Navigator. The Escalade's underpinnings were borrowed from the Yukon Denali line, with the GMC logos on the center caps replaced with Cadillac's crest. The Escalade also used the same 5.7 L Vortec 5700 V8 at , which was underpowered compared to the Navigator's and 5.4 Liter InTech V8. All first-generation Escalades and Denalis featured Auto-Trac selectable 4x4. The 1999-2000 Escalade achieves city and highway based on U.S. EPA test protocols.
The first-generation Escalade (as well as its mechanically identical twin, the GMC Yukon Denali), was available only in the short wheelbase 4 door wagon configuration with few options. The GMC Yukon Denali was heavily differentiated from standard Yukons with unique front hood, fenders, grill, headlamps, and bumper cover, color-keyed mirrors and door handles, a unique paint matched roof rack and running boards, and lower paint matched cladding all around with emblems embossed in. The only exterior differences for the Cadillac Escalade (other than badging) was a slightly different grill treatment and smooth cladding with emblems placed on the sheetmetal. The interior design however would differ significantly between the two models. Denali already added unique two-tone seats, genuine zebrano wood trim on the front window switch panels and unique center console, chromed interior door handles, "Yukon Denali" embroidery on the door panels, a color keyed steering wheel, and a unique instrument cluster versus the standard Yukon. Escalade would add additional real wood trim on all 4 door panels and steering wheel, imitation wood on the instrument panel and "Cadillac" script on the console veneer, a color keyed steering column, leather wrapped column shifter, and unique front and rear seats with perforated leather, a Cadillac crest embroidered on the headrests and a storage compartment in the rear seat armrest.
Both vehicles included a generous amount of standard equipment not available on other GM full size SUVs including sixteen-inch chrome-clad aluminum-alloy wheels, a Bose Acoustimass® 7 speaker stereo (including subwoofer), an in-dash CD player and console mounted 6 CD changer, auto-dimming exterior and rearview mirrors with compass and temperature display, automatic headlamps with daytime running lights, front projector fog lamps, heated front and rear seats, rear seat audio controls, a BCM (body control module) providing functions such as retained accessory power and interior illumination fade-off, a unique warning chime, a special coating used on the dashboard for a more premium appearance, front and rear Bilstein shock absorbers, and unique engine and transmission tuning for a more refined driving experience. An OnStar in-vehicle telematics and communications system was optional on Denali but standard on the Escalade, with the only other option for both models being a choice between twin rear barn doors or a split tailgate with rear window wiper. A dealer installed car phone was also available with factory provisions in the center console.
Colors available on the Escalade were Silver Sand Metallic, Sable Black, Aspen White and Bordeaux Red Metallic. All Escalades came with a Neutral Shale interior. Yukon Denali colors shared with the Escalade were named Black Onyx and Dark Toreador Red Metallic, and Denali exclusive were Silvermist Metallic, Spruce Green Metallic, Meadow Green Metallic, and Gold Metallic. Denali featured a two tone interior available in "Canyon Tan" or "Stone Gray".
While base MSRP of the 2000 GMC Yukon Denali increased to $43,535 (up $460 from $43,075 in 1999), the Cadillac Escalade retained a base MSRP of $46,225 in both 1999 and 2000.
General Motors retains the first Cadillac Escalade produced at Arlington Assembly in 1998, a 1999 Aspen White model, in its Heritage Collection, VIN # 400001.
Second generation (2002)
Unlike its Chevrolet and GMC siblings, which launched for the 2000 model year, Cadillac delayed the Escalade's switch to the GMT820 chassis until February 2001 as a 2002 model, the last of the three General Motors full-size truck and SUV brands to switch to the new chassis; Cadillac unveiled the 2002 model year Escalade in August 2000 at Pebble Beach, while continuing to sell the 2000 model year trucks. Rear-wheel drive was standard, as was a 5.3 L V8. All-wheel drive was standard on the ESV and EXT and was optional on the short wheelbase Escalade. The special high-output Vortec 6.0 L V8 engine was the sole engine choice on all-wheel drive models whether it was the short wheelbase, ESV, or EXT until mid-year 2005 when the 5.3L was dropped altogether. Mid-year 2005, all rear-wheel drive and all-wheel drive Escalades came with the high output 6.0L Vortec V8. All models (except for the EXT) offered seating up to eight people.
The "StabiliTrak" electronic stability control system was upgraded to a four-wheel version, High Intensity Discharge (HID) low beam headlights, power-adjustable pedals and signal outside mirrors were added as a standard feature in 2003, along with a Bulgari-branded clock. For 2004, XM Satellite Radio, second-row bucket seats, and a tire pressure monitoring system were made standard on all Escalades except the EXT. Also in 2004, the Platinum edition Escalade ESV was introduced at a base price of $71,025; (~$ in ) it featured the luxury utility segment's first factory-installed 20-inch chrome wheels, a slightly lowered suspension, heated and cooled seats (front and back), heated and cooled cup holders, moon roof, second and third row monitors, an interior that included an ebony and shale dashboard, shale leather upholstery and pleated door panel bolsters, a chrome grille, and a standard 6.0 liter V8 producing . The OnStar system was upgraded for the 2005 model year and had become a digital system instead of the analog system that had been in use.
In 2003, a year after their introduction, the GMT800-based Cadillac Escalade and Escalade EXT received an interior facelift, while the exterior design was left mostly unchanged. The audio system was upgraded to offer two different radio options: an AM/FM radio with cassette and single-disc CD players, or an AM/FM radio with a single-disc CD player and a touchscreen GPS navigation system (Radio Data System (RDS) was also included with both radios). Both radio options included a separate six-disc, in-dash CD changer unit mounted in the lower portion of the instrument panel and controlled via the radio (the CD changer still featured numbered buttons for disc selection, as well as 'Load' and 'Eject' buttons). The Driver Information Center (DIC) was moved from a separate unit in the instrument panel to the odometer display screen in the instrument cluster, where the gauges were also revised with the larger odometer display screen. XM Satellite Radio became available, and the OnStar telematics system controls were relocated from the instrument panel to the electrochromic inside rearview mirror (ISRV). A rear seat DVD entertainment system, which included two pairs of wireless headphones, and was produced by Panasonic, was also a new option for the 2003 model year. The instrument panel and steering wheel both featured updated designs (the steering wheel now also featured remote audio system, OnStar, and speed (cruise control) buttons on the front of the wheel). The electrochromic inside rearview mirror (ISRV) now integrated the OnStar system controls in addition to the exterior (outside) temperature display and integrated directional compass. The front and second and third-row seat designs were updated, and the Zebrano interior trim was replaced with Burlwood. The Escalade ESV (extended-length model) debuted for the 2003 model year. Finally, the warning chimes now played through the front driver's door speaker, as opposed to a separately mounted chime module on 2002 models.
Engines
2002–2003 5.3L LM7 Vortec V8,
2004–2006 5.3L LM7 Vortec V8,
2002–2006 6.0L LQ9 (8th Digit = N) HO Vortec V8,
Third generation (2007)
The Escalade moved to the new GMT900 platform for the 2007 model year, along with all of its companion models (Silverado, Sierra, Suburban, Tahoe, Avalanche, Yukon, Yukon XL, Yukon Denali, and the Escalade's own EXT), which were launched simultaneously. The regular Escalade was again joined by a stretched ESV version as well as a new EXT sport utility truck. The 2007 Escalade was the official vehicle of Super Bowl XL, with MVP Hines Ward being awarded one of the first Escalades produced. The design also includes vertical headlights again, now more closely influenced by GM's own GMC Yukon from the same year and/of generation.
Production of the redesigned Escalade began at Arlington Assembly in January 2006. It is priced from US$57,280, though the rear-wheel drive version at this price was not produced until August. The more expensive all-wheel drive version was produced first, followed by the long wheelbase ESV and EXT pickup (the latter sourced from the Silao, Mexico, plant) in June.
The Escalade uses an all-aluminum 6.2 L Vortec V8. This pushrod engine includes variable valve timing, a first in a mass-produced non-overhead cam engine. The system adjusts both intake and exhaust timing between two settings. The engine produces (23 hp more than its sister competitor, the GMC Yukon Denali) and of torque. A new six-speed 6L80 automatic transmission is used. The new body completes a 0.363 drag coefficient. In 2010, the Cadillac Escalade's base price was $62,500 for a RWD model, and $65,200 for an AWD model. The northeast accounts for 60 percent of Escalade sales. 2013 model (Cadillac Escalade 2WD 8 cyl, 6.2 L, Automatic 6-spd), have official government measured fuel economy of , combined and highway .
Engines
2007–2014 — 6.2 L Vortec 6200 V8,
Hybrid
A hybrid version of the luxury vehicle debuted at the 2008 South Florida International Auto Show in Miami, and went on sale in 2008 as a 2009 model at a starting price of $74,085 for a two-wheel drive model. In August, 20% of Cadillac Escalade sales were hybrids.
The Escalade Hybrid takes 8.2 seconds to accelerate from 0 to . The Hybrid is powered by a 6.0-liter V8. It is joined by two 60-kilowatt electric motors supplied by a nickel-metal hydride battery pack under the rear seat. On its own, the V8 is rated at at 5,100 rpm and at 4,100 rpm. GM engineers say that combined output with the electric motors is . The unique transmission houses the electric motors along with three different planetary gear sets and four traditional clutches.
Standard features
Standard features of the Cadillac Escalade include air conditioning with tri-zone climate controls, Nuance leather trimmed seats, wood and leather-wrapped steering wheel with audio controls, cruise control, heated front seats and heated 2nd-row seats, 14-way power front seats, memory system, remote engine start, premium sound system, 6-disc CD changer, rear radio controls, compass, power lift-gate, and outside-temperature indicator. The Platinum adds on a DVD entertainment system, navigation system, heated and cooled cup holders, rearview camera, cooled front seats, upgraded leather (Tehama front and second-row upholstery), and power-retractable running boards.
Safety
According to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety 2007-08 Escalade models had the highest fatality rate of their class with a driver death rate of 33 compared to the class average of 15.
Updates
2008
On the automatic trunk button, the "off" signal was changed from the Number "0" (Zero) to the word "off".
Seating capacity was increased to 8 passengers.
A newly redesigned remote for keyless entry was introduced to further distinguish it from the Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Denali siblings.
Express-Up added for the front windows.
2009
Bluetooth was made standard.
A power tilt steering wheel was made standard.
Driver and passenger headrests were updated and no longer able to be tilted.
The Satellite Navigation System (optional) now added instant traffic updates and rerouting options.
2010
Partway through the model year, the "GM" badging was removed from the front doors.
AFM was added (Active Fuel Management)
USB Port was added to the center console
Revised front airbag and door
Shifter interlock and a steering wheel lock was added
Front window switches changed in shape
2011
2nd-row headrests made larger and no longer adjustable.
2012
The Escalade Premium had been refreshed and updated to look more like the Escalade Platinum, but the Escalade Premium did have clear see-through taillights.
2013
Silver Coast Metallic and Sapphire Blue Metallic were added as new color trims, along with a revised grade braking performance.
LED Running Lights were added to Escalade and Escalade ESV models.
2014
A new color, Midnight Plum Metallic, was added. This is the first time that the Escalade will only be available in both standard and ESV versions, since the EXT and Hybrid models were discontinued, and as well as being the last year for this generation Escalade.
Fourth generation (2015)
On October 7, 2013, Cadillac unveiled the fourth generation Escalade and Escalade ESV at a star-studded event in New York City, just nearly a month after GM unveiled their next-generation SUVs from Chevrolet and GMC. Cadillac began its campaign to promote the Escalade on August 14, 2013, and started posting teasers online on September 23, 2013, with help from the photographer Autumn de Wilde, who helped reveal more images ahead of the unveiling. A YouTube page called "Escalade Reveal" was set up to showcase the videos along with the countdown to the unveiling. On November 25, 2013, Cadillac began spreading the word of mouth about the 2015 Escalade by placing a front facsimile cutout of the vehicle on display at Saks Fifth Avenue's New York City flagship store during its annual Christmas promotional campaign, which shows the SUV being frozen in wraps.
Production on the 2015 Escalade began in January 2014 at GM's Arlington, Texas assembly plant and went on sale in April 2014 as a 2015 model (with the MSRP starting at around $71,000 for Full Size, $74,000 for ESV), and available in only three trims: Base, Luxury, and Premium. International sales are scheduled to start in the summer of 2014. They are assigned to the GMT K2XX platform as K2XL. “The 2015 Escalade exterior light signature draws inspiration from a variety of sources, beginning with Cadillac’s heritage of vertical exterior lamps and extending into architecture,” said Exterior Lighting Design Manager Martin Davis.
The Escalade was planned to switch to the unibody Lambda platform but was quickly nixed due to customer aversion. According to a report on Autoblog.com, GM had reissued a redesign on the GM full-size SUV lineup, including the Escalade, for a 2014 release due to increased SUV sales, and was working on its full-size SUV replacements, which would see a possible change in the Escalade's SUV platform. But in July 2013, a series of spy shots revealed that GM will keep the Escalade a body-on-frame SUV. However, GM is looking at expanding the Escalade brand to the large CUV segment, which would see a vehicle using the Escalade badge sharing the same platform as the Chevrolet Traverse and GMC Acadia, which is in the planning stages. According to VP Bob Ferguson, Cadillac's first 3-row Escalade CUV could be introduced in 2016. There is also a possibility that GM might export the Escalade to Australia as a right-hand drive vehicle as part of Cadillac's global expansion, as GM has begun to import its North American vehicles to its Holden division there after discontinuing the latter's locally produced models in 2017.
The cargo space was reduced from to on the standard model and from to on the ESV in order to allow an additional 1.7 inches of headroom and 45.3 inches of legroom in the front while reducing the third-row legroom space from to . GM's 6.2-liter EcoTec3 V8, good for 420 horsepower and 460 pound-feet of torque, mated to a six-speed automatic transmission (2015i models and beyond are 8-Speed Automatics), is the only engine offered, along with a new coil-over front suspension and five-link rear setup, a wider track, variable-assist electric power steering and Cadillac's Magnetic Ride Control system with Tour and Sport modes. The interior now has a hand-crafted design that features cut-and-sewn and wrapped materials, with wood trim options. The dashboard was also updated, and the Cadillac CUE system is added as a standard feature, along with an updated security system.
The 2015 Escalade lineup received an 8-speed transmission, surround view camera, and 4G LTE connectivity as part of a mid-year refresh, which also saw the wreaths on the grille disappear from the Escalade as part of Cadillac's plans to update the logo to emphasize the crest on all of its models.
Updates
2016
For the 2016 model year, Cadillac made upgraded changes to the Escalade and Escalade ESV:
Four new colors are featured: Gray Silk Metallic, Red Passion Tintcoat, Crystal White Tricoat, Dark Emerald Metallic; both Crystal Red Tintcoat and White Diamond Tricoat were discontinued
Advanced Diagnostics added to the Cadillac Cue System, which also receive upgraded improvements; SD card slot was removed
An upgraded Driver Awareness Package that is available on all trims
IntelliBeam headlamps (all trims)
Lane Keep Assist
Rear seat DVD entertainment system, dual independent, LPO
Third row comfort guides become a service part
A 12.3″ reconfigurable cluster change to the Normal Blue display
Cadillac crest loses the wreath design from the logo mid-year into the 2016 model year. Earlier produced 2016 Escalade vehicles feature the wreath design.
Platinum trim level reintroduced which is fully loaded with all the Escalade's optional features standard on this trim level plus DVD headrests as part of the rear seat entertainment system besides the overhead DVD player unlike on other trim levels
2017
For the 2017 model year, minor upgraded changes were made to the Cadillac Escalade and Escalade ESV:
The PRNDM indicator is modified to PRNDL
The 4WD control knob is modified with new lighting indicators
Two new colors, Dark Adriatic Blue Metallic and Bronze Dune Metallic, are added, with two (Dark Emerald, Majestic Plum) others deleted.
An updated Cadillac Cue system combining both Collection and Teen Driver features
Addition of the Live-View rear-vision camera to the rear-view-mirror.
The trims base levels were restructured to Standard, Luxury, Premium Luxury, and Platinum.
New Radiant Package added
Rear seat reminder added
Rear Seat Entertainment switched from RCA to HDMI input.
Front grille and headlights have been refreshed.
2018
Changes were made to the 2018 Escalade and Escalade ESV:
Satin Steel Metallic is added as a new color, replacing both Silver Coast Metallic and Amethyst Metallic
Shale/Jet Black (all trims) and Maple Sugar/Jet Black (Platinum only) are the new combined interior options, replacing Shale/Cocoa and Tuscan Brown
The entire console center is modified, along with the cup holders and a new seat memory system.
A new 10-speed transmission is added, replacing the 8-speed transmission.
2019
Minor changes that were made for the 2019 Escalade/ESV are:
Manhattan Noir Metallic and Shadow Metallic colors are introduced, replacing the Midnight Sky Metallic and Dark Granite Metallic colors.
Logo Light added to hands free liftgate
New Sport Package added as an available option on Luxury, Premium Luxury, and Platinum trim levels
2020
The 2020 Escalade is the final model year for the fourth-generation version, as it will be sold during its shortened period. The only changes made are the deletion of the Manhattan Noir Metallic and Bronze Dune Metallic color palette and the addition of the Dark Mocha Metallic color. The dealer-ordered Escalade Noir package is also eliminated after being offered for only a year. GM had proposed a facelift for the 2020 model which was going to look like the Cadillac XT6 style grille, but will not happen due to the next generation Escalade that is expected to debut in late 2019 or early 2020 as a 2021 model.
Hennessey HPE550
In 2014, Hennessey Performance Engineering offered a HPE550 supercharger upgrade to fourth generation Escalade customers, which included a belt-driven supercharger, air-to-water intercooler, recalibrated engine management software and a three-year/36,000 mile powertrain warranty, a boost that will increase the 6.2L engine's performance to and of torque, and 20-inch lightweight H10 forged Monoblock wheels, to further improve performance. The upgrades, once they are ordered by customers, have a set price of $15,950.
International version
In July 2015, GM reached a deal with Unison SP ZAO in Minsk, Belarus, to build and assemble the Escalade and Escalade ESV for the Russian and CIS markets. This version will be similar to the Chevrolet Tahoe, featuring the 6.2L V8 EcoTec3 engine and the Tahoe's semi-CKD assembled designs; the ESV also marked the first time an extended-length base model has been offered in this region. It will be available in 4WD models only and carry a MSRP of 4.34 million rubles (US$76,984) for standard-size and 4.59 million rubles (US$81,383) for ESV.
Critical reception
The reviews for the fourth generation Escalade's redesign have been met with positive results from automotive critics. USA Today's James R. Healey and Fred Meier noted that "The once-unthinkable big Cadillac SUV has become indispensable." CNET's Antuan Goodwin notes that "Fans of the Escalade will appreciate the automaker's sticking with the original message and not "ruining" its former flagship, but if you already think the giant luxury SUV is a relic of the past, there's nothing in the 2015 Escalade that will convince you that it's anything but an old dog that's learned a few cool new tricks." Carscoops noted that "It may have impressed us more if a) it had shown the Escalade first instead of last, after the Chevrolet and GMC models or b) if the Chevrolet Tahoe and Suburban and GMC Yukon and Yukon XL simply did not exist…" and added that Cadillac has won their attention with the redesign. Scott Burgess of Motor Trend summed up the redesign in its headline, saying its "It's bigger, it's bolder and it's more beautiful." Bill Visnic of Edmunds concluded in his review that "With subtle, new sheet metal refreshingly free of styling gimmicks, Cadillac's looking to the 2015 Escalade's all-new and upgraded interior to help it retain its role as the benchmark of bling SUVs." The vehicle received a positive review by Autoblog contributor Michael Hartley, who took a road trip with a standard 4WD full-size trim from Los Angeles to Monterey, California. Although Hartley was skeptical at first, he came away impressed: "A 600-mile trip in the Escalade left me convinced that it has the features, build quality and driving dynamics to strike new fear in the segment." Bloomberg News, in its March 27, 2015 review, cited the Escalade as one of the best American-built SUVs ever made, adding that when comparing it to its foreign competitors, "It's the best we make."
GM recently hired Infiniti's Johan de Nysschen to serve as Cadillac president and help revitalize the brand. June 2014 shipments showed Cadillac down a few percent for the year, however the Escalade was among the biggest winners with a 74-percent sales jump and was one of Cadillac's best sellers the following July. As of March 2015, both standard and ESV Escalades have contributed to massive sales with the full-size Escalade seeing a 117% increase and the ESV soaring to 114% overall.
On August 20, 2014, Automotive News and Autoblog began reporting that Cadillac dealers have been waiting three times longer than usual—a month or more—from the time an Escalade leaves the assembly line to when it gets delivered, saying they don't always know where their vehicles are in transit, or when they are set to arrive, upsetting customers who have put down deposits, leading to Cadillac dealerships to reportedly stop taking pre-orders. Even customers who placed orders as far as February 2014 are still waiting for the vehicles according to the dealerships' owners. Cadillac blames the delays on two weeks of "dwell time," citing "a lengthy quality-assurance process on some interior parts" that caused the lag, as well as additional issues with figuring out which vehicles should be delivered first. Despite the setback, Cadillac does plan to correct the issues with adding more employees and speed up production at the Arlington plant.
On March 16, 2016, Consumer Reports named the 2016 Escalade the worst large sized luxury SUV in its annual rankings, with an overall score of 44. Most of the criticism came from its room space, second-row seating, the CUE media system, stopping, stiff road handling, and its redesign, calling it the worst in class.
Recalls
In May 2014, GM recalled 1,402 units of the 2015 Escalade and Escalade ESV that were built between January 2014 to May 2014 due to "an insufficiently heated plastic weld that attaches the (front) passenger side air bag to the instrument panel assembly could result in a partial deployment of the air bag in the event of a crash." GM also placed a temporary halt on further sales and informed owners of the affected vehicles to not let passengers sit in the front passenger seat until they are replaced.
Fifth generation (2021)
The fifth generation Escalade debuted on February 4, 2020, in Beverly Hills, California, for the 2021 model year, with sales commencing in the fall of 2020. Although production of the 2021 Escalade was pushed back due to the growing pandemic, GM had the vehicle scheduled to hit dealerships as planned. Dealers started taking pre-orders on April 23, 2020. To hype up the Escalade, Cadillac launched a 3D visualizer showcasing the vehicle. This visualizer lets the user interact with the Escalade and Escalade ESV by turning on the lights, changing the color, changing the rims, and looking at the interior.
The fifth generation Escalade is built on the GMT1XX platform, sharing it with the Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Yukon and Chevrolet Suburban/GMC Yukon XL, and have a front grille design similar to the one used on Cadillac's XT crossovers. This new platform gives the Escalade and its stable mates independent rear suspension, a first for the model. This changes also allows the vehicle to increase its passenger and cargo space due to the more efficient design.
In December 2019, Cadillac unveiled a teaser video that featured a 38-inch curved OLED screen dashboard that displayed the Cadillac crest (on the driver's side) and “Escalade” name (across the passenger side), making this version the most unique in the Cadillac roster. This enabled Cadillac to boast of its "Industry-first curved OLED screen technology" with "twice the pixel density of a 4K television." Augmented Reality-enabled navigation was also introduced as a new feature available on the Escalade. On January 28, 2020, Cadillac introduced the "Super Cruise" feature, allowing for hands-free self-driving. This was followed by on January 31, 2020, of the addition of the turbodiesel 3.0L LM2 inline six-cylinder Duramax engine as a no-charge option, badged as “600D” in line with the automaker's new naming convention. The Escalade is the first diesel-powered Cadillac offered in North America since the 1985 DeVille and Fleetwood, which were available with an Oldsmobile-developed 4.3L V6. On the outside, it is longer than the previous Escalade and has more passenger room (particularly for the second- and third-row occupants) and cargo space.
There are five-level trims available on the fifth generation Escalade: Luxury, Premium Luxury, Sport, Premium Luxury Platinum, and Sport Platinum. The interior choices consist of eight trim options and four seating designs. The AKG audio technology system is new, featuring 36 speakers throughout the cabin.
In November 2020, General Motors announced that the 5th gen Cadillac Escalade will be offered in Japan from 2021. It is available in standard length, two trim levels (Sport Platinum and Premium Luxury Platinum).
Critical reception
The Escalade released to positive reviews praising it for its new independent suspension platform creating a better packaged and riding vehicle than before, class leading cabin technology, and use of better materials throughout the cabin. The new Diesel engine also received good press as well, being cited for its great fuel economy compared to the standard V8 and other competition in its class.
Automotive YouTuber Throttle House said in their review that the Escalade had "The best luxury infotainment on the market." with Savagegesse calling it both an impressive vehicle for its class and marked improvement from the previous generation. In the press Car and Driver praised it for its high-tech self driving program and impressive display in addition to the available diesel that tested at 27 mpg on the highway. Motor trend additionally had positive comments on the Escalade especially the cabin. They describe the optional 36-speaker AKG sound system as "among the best car audio systems on the market, period" for its lifelike sound. Despite the positive comments however it came in second place in a comparison test released shortly after the release of the 2021 model.
Andrew J. Hawkins, writing for The Verge, described driving the Escalade as "one of the most stressful driving experiences I’ve ever had", criticizing its excessive size and the hazard it poses to pedestrians and other road users.
Escalade ESV
The 2021 Escalade ESV debuted online in April 2020, but its physical unveiling, including one scheduled for the New York International Auto Show was cancelled due to the coronavirus pandemic. It will feature a unique fascia along with the passenger doors and wider exhaust pipes. In November 2020, GM announced that their large SUV lineup would be imported to China. The Escalade ESV was to mark its maiden entry into the country, starting with the fifth-generation models, but GM canceled those plans in February 2021, citing the difficulty of having an import sold alongside its Chinese-built offerings, the makeup of the facilities that would be required to assemble the full-size SUVs, and concerns that the full-size SUVs won't be able to comply with the stringent emission standards imposed by the Government of China.
Escalade-V
Cadillac launched the performance version of the Escalade in 2022, called the Escalade-V. The Escalade-V is the largest performance SUV in the American market. It uses a 6.2-liter V8 supercharged engine. With an output of and a of torque, it is equipped with a 10-speed automatic transmission, and acceleration from takes only 4.4 seconds. The suggested price starts at $149,990. The V will also be offered in the longer wheelbase ESV model.
Cadillac Escalade IQ
GM announced it was developing the Cadillac Escalade IQ in May 2023 as a battery-electric version of the full-size sport utility vehicle; details were released with the model's announcement at a New York City press event on August 9, 2023. The Escalade IQ is scheduled to begin production at Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly in summer 2024 for the 2025 model year. A variant with an extended wheelbase, corresponding to the Escalade ESV, is expected to be released in 2025; GM previously had trademarked the names "Escalade IQ" and "Escalade IQL" in 2021. The Escalade IQ/IQL is the first electric Cadillac intended to replace an existing model powered by internal combustion engines.
The Escalade IQ is based on GM's Ultium technology, sharing batteries, motors, and other components with the GMC Hummer EV, Chevrolet Silverado EV, and Cruise Origin. The 24-module battery has a storage capacity of more than 200 kW-hr, giving it a claimed estimated driving range of . Peak charging rate is 350 kW using an 800 V DC source; there is an onboard AC charger with a maximum input capacity of 19.2 kW.
At launch, the dual-motor, all-wheel-drive Escalade IQ will be equipped with two output modes: the standard output mode peaks at a combined and of torque, while "Velocity Max" increases output to and of torque. The rear wheels are linked to the steering wheel, turning up to 10 degrees either opposite (at low speeds) or in the same direction as the front wheels (at highway speeds) and permitting diagonal travel similar to the Hummer EV's "crabwalk" mode.
Cadillac Escalade EXT
2002–2006
The Escalade EXT sport utility truck (released alongside its twin, the Chevrolet Avalanche) was introduced in 2001 (as a 2002 model) from the Cadillac division of General Motors. It features a "Convert-a-Cab" composite pickup bed that can be expanded into the truck's cab through a bottom-hinged door. Like the Avalanche, the EXT has four full-size doors and seating for five. High-intensity discharge headlights were offered for 2003. The Escalade EXT also appears in the movie, The Matrix Reloaded along with the CTS in product placement ads. All Escalade EXTs were built in Mexico. The Escalade EXT (based on the Cadillac Escalade) was created as a direct competitor to the failed Lincoln Blackwood, a pickup truck based on the Ford F-150. It had competed with the Lincoln Mark LT (now discontinued in the United States and Canada), another F-150-based pickup truck that made its debut in 2005.
2007–2013
The EXT models were discontinued after the 2013 model year along with the Avalanche. According to Autoblog.com, The EXT was ranked tenth among the worst selling vehicles in the United States for 2013, with only 1,972 units sold. The Escalade EXT was available in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East (except Israel).
Platinum
MY04: Cadillac released its first version of the Platinum Escalade. It was only available in the ESV model. It had such features as heated and ventilated Seats (front and back), heated and ventilated cup holders, special 20" wheels, special leathers and interior design, extra labeling and HID headlamps.
MY08: Cadillac offered the Platinum Edition on its redesigned Escalade and Escalade ESV models. It includes such features as a unique front fascia and grille, heated and cooled cup holders, limited edition 22" wheels, additional chrome pieces and accents, 2 additional DVD monitors- located in the headrests of each front seat, special hand stitched leathers, real aluminum interior accents, Advanced Magnetic Ride Control system, genuine olive ash and burled walnut wood interior trim, and LED headlamps.
MY09: An Escalade hybrid model was new for 2009.
MY12: The Escalade had a mid-cycle refresh on Platinum trim with dual exhaust and more color options including White Diamond, which was an optional feature on Base, Luxury and Premium, but the color was standard free of charge on Platinum edition Escalades.
MY15: The Platinum Escalade went on sale in fall of 2014 with a base MSRP at $90k, a price jump to $9k more than the 2014 Escalade Platinum price. The all-new 2015 Platinum Escalade features Cadillac's all-new emblem, more innovations with Nappa, semi-aniline massaging front seats, and either a choice of Tuscan (beige) or Black leather seating surfaces, and the Platinum Escalade comes with every available feature that the Premium trim has, plus: a suede microfiber headliner, its own unique grille and 22" wheels, 7-inch LCD screens in the headrests and a 9-inch screen in the center and an icebox in the center console.
U.S. sales
Cadillac discontinued tracking the sales of the Escalade ESV in the United States in 2018, as GM combines the sales of both full size and ESV versions from the 2018 model year onward.
Popular culture
The second generation proved to be popular amongst numerous celebrities, being owned by numerous athletes, rappers, musicians, and actors. the vehicle was frequently featured in music videos from artists such as Nelly, 50 Cent, Jay Z, Jennifer Lopez, Chingy, and more. The vehicle has been seen as a popular icon in hip-hop music, being referenced in numerous songs as a status symbol.
The vehicle made a regular appearance in The Sopranos running for the show's final two seasons as Tony Soprano swaps his famous red 1999 Suburban for a 2003 Escalade ESV.
The vehicle also regularly appeared in the show Entourage.
In 2021, filmmaker Spike Lee was hired to create a short film which introduced the 2021 version.
References
External links
Official Cadillac America Forum
Escalade
Expanded length sport utility vehicles
Full-size sport utility vehicles
Hybrid sport utility vehicles
Luxury sport utility vehicles
Pickup trucks
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
2000s cars
2010s cars
2020s cars
Cars introduced in 1998
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Sport utility trucks
Flagship vehicles
|
417851
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac%20Eldorado
|
Cadillac Eldorado
|
The Cadillac Eldorado is a luxury car manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1952 until 2002 over twelve generations.
The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 had distinct bodyshells and were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years. The Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 limousine until 1966. Starting in 1967 the Eldorado retained its premium position in the Cadillac price structure, but was manufactured in high volumes on a unique, two-door personal luxury car platform.
The Eldorado carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972, and was a modern revival of the pre-war Cadillac V-12 and Cadillac V-16 roadsters and convertibles.
Name
The nameplate Eldorado is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical Colombian "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.
Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating Cadillac's golden anniversary, the name Eldorado was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.
Cadillac began using the nameplates "Eldorado Seville", after the city in southern Spain, and "Eldorado Biarritz" after the luxury seaside resort in southern France, to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The "Seville" name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning in 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1976 until 1991.
First generation (1953)
The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta, and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.
The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheet metal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors; Aztec Red, Alpine White, Azure Blue and Artisan Ochre. Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option at US$620 ($ in dollars ), as were wire wheels for US$325 ($ in dollars ). The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top when stored.
Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible and sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750 ($ in dollars ) as the all-new Packard Caribbean convertible.
The long, wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. Only 532 were produced, comprising just 0.5% of Cadillac's 1953 sales.
Second generation (1954–1956)
In 1954 the Eldorado lost its unique sheetmetal in an effort by GM to lower its price in order to increase sales. Now sharing its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs, it was distinguished mainly by trim pieces, including golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fender breaks, and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear sides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum, and also appeared on a one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. Sales nearly quadrupled at a much more modest US$5,738 base price (equivalent to $ in dollars ), with a total of 2,150 Eldorados sold.
For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with somewhat higher, more slender, and distinctly pointed tailfins, a styling change that portended extreme exaggerations to come. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.
For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version was released, called the "Eldorado Seville", and a two-door convertible named "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script appeared with fender crest on the car, which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again, by 60% to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Still the division's halo car, Eldorados accounted for just 4% of all Cadillacs sold.
Third generation (1957–1958)
Cadillac was restyled and re-engineered for 1957, with stylistic updates in 1958.
1957
1957 saw the Eldorado (in both Biarritz convertible and Seville hardtop body styles) receive new styling with an exclusive rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by pointed in-board fins. Just behind the open rear wheel housings the lower rear quarters were trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels that visually blended into the split rear wraparound bumper assemblies. A form of this unique rear-end treatment first appeared (sans fins) on the Cadillac "Interceptor" prototype from the immediate post-war era. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The three section front bumper was shared with the rest of the redesigned Cadillac model line, as in previous years the Eldorados came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sevilles were also built in 1957.
1958
For 1958, the car received quad headlights as the front clip was again shared with this year's updated standard Cadillacs. GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Limited Riviera, Oldsmobile Starfire 98, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.
This year's revised front clip incorporated a new hood, a new front bumper with "dagmars" mounted lower and further apart combined with a full width jeweled grille. On the Biarritz and Seville, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script was asymmetrically mounted to the deck lid. Other styling updates included the addition of ten vertical chrome slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. The split rear bumper assemblies were each updated with a low-profile combined reverse light/grille unit that replaced the previous year's separate, round exhaust exits and reverse lights; the round brake/tail light units at the base of the fins remained unchanged. The rear license plate housing was now flanked on each side by five vertical hash marks.
1957–58 Eldorado Brougham
Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham was a distinct, hand-built four-door ultra-luxury vehicle, derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953–54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, Cadillac's 1950s design studio head, it stood out by featuring the first quad headlights – at the time still illegal in the United States, and other unique trim, foremost a brushed stainless steel pillarless hardtop. Like the later 1961 fourth-generation Lincoln Continental, it had rear-hinged rear doors (suicide doors) but unlike the Continental, the Brougham was a true pillarless hardtop as the doors latched onto a stub pillar that did not extend beyond the beltline.
It cost US$13,074 ($ in dollars ) — twice the price of a conventional 1957 Eldorado and more than competitors Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud, Facel Vega Excellence or Continental Mark II. Sales were 400 in 1957 and 304 in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy. It was a marketing approach revival used in the early 1930s with the Cadillac V-16 with similar attention to detail and engineering pursuits as a halo car.
The car featured a roof trimmed in brushed stainless and self leveling air suspension. The exterior ornamentation included wide, polished lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. It also had the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener and closer, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, electric door locks and a dual heating system. Other unique features included an automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning, six silver magnetic glovebox drink tumblers and finally, an Evans leather trimmed cigarette case and vanity kit containing a lipstick holder, ladies' powder puff with powder, comb, beveled mirror, coin holder, matching leather notebook, gold mechanical pencil, atomizer filled with Arpège Extrait De Lanvin perfume. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.
There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.
The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name.
The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.
The Eldorado Brougham received minor changes for 1958. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors.
Fourth generation (1959–1960)
1959
Along with the rest of the General Motors divisions, the bulky, originally proposed 1959 styling was abandoned in favor of a significantly lower, longer and wider theme as an overdue response to Virgil Exner's striking redesign of the 1957 Chrysler products. The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels.
For 1959 the Series 62 became the Series 6200. De Villes and two-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the Series 6300 and Series 6400 respectively, though they all, including the four-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to Series 6900), shared the same wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert that replicated the texture of the front grille; this front/rear grille treatment was shared with the Fleetwood Sixty Special and would continue through 1966 with textures being revised each year. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even from the engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, and cruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.
1960
1960 Cadillacs resemble 1959 Cadillacs, but with much lower tailfins and smoother, more restrained styling.
General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins minus the twin bullet taillamps, oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado block lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Chambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.
The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series Northern Exposure.
1959–60 Eldorado Brougham
For model years 1959 and 1960, the Eldorado Brougham became longer, lower and wider. The Brougham featured narrow taillights integrated into low tailfins; an angular rear roofline with rear ventiplanes that contrasted to the rounded roofline; and the dual rocket-like taillights and tall fins of the standard 1959 models. Front and rear bumper assemblies were shared with the standard Cadillacs.
Designed in-house, Cadillac contracted with Pininfarina of Turin, Italy for the manufacture of the low-volume model. The Eldorado Broughams were among the first Cadillacs to be hand-built in Italy; concept cars were also hand built as needed. Cadillac chassis were sent by boat to the port of Savona, Italy where they were then delivered to the factory in Turin at Grugliasco, mated with the body and sent back to Detroit by boat.
Priced at $13,075 ($ in dollars ), the Brougham cost $1 more than their older siblings and did not sell as well as their forebears.
A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. The Brougham did not have Eldorado front fender letters or Eldorado-specific body edge highlight trim. For 1960 new standard model bumpers were incorporated and a fin-like crest or skeg ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodyside with the crest medallions relocated to the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The standard equipment list matched those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass.
The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 from Series 70 for its remaining two years.
Fifth generation (1961–1962)
1961
All Cadillacs were restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible (6367) was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new convex jewelled grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plane, and sat between dual headlamps. New rear-slanting front pillars with a reverse-curved base as first used on the 1959-60 Broughams with a somewhat less expansive windshield was incorporated. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car.
Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual reverse lights, vanity mirror, power windows, 6-way power bench seat, power vent windows. whitewall tires. Options; bucket seats, RH outside rearview mirror remote control trunk lock and a trumpet horn.
Rubber-isolated front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone, sales fell to 1,450.
1962
A mild facelift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter, upright grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertically oriented rectangular nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel replicating the grille treatment appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the grille. Standard equipment included all of last year's equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.
Sixth generation (1963–1964)
1963
In 1963, the Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies, thus acquiring the Fleetwood wreath and crest on its rear quarters and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. The completely redesigned body imparted a bolder and more angular look. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was eliminated in favor of smooth, flatter slab sides. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the dual headlamps and housed small circular front parking lamps. The Eldorado also had a rectangular front and rear grille pattern that it again shared with the Fleetwood Sixty Special. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, and .
1964
The Eldorado received a minor facelift for 1964. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz rather than a De Ville convertible was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes bisected by a central body-colored horizontal bar. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger 429 cubic inch V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to , with available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special. Series 62, 75. and the Commercial Chassis continued with the old Hydra-Matic until 1965.
Seventh generation (1965–1966)
For 1965, the Eldorado gained Cadillac's Fleetwood designation, marketed as the Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Fleetwood Series 75 and the Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long defunct Eldorado Seville and Brougham (The Biarritz nameplate would be revived in 1976 as a trim option for the Eldorado coupe). This was the last generation Eldorado to be equipped with rear wheel drive.
The redesigned Eldorado still rode on the same wheelbase. The elevated tailfins became slightly downward-sloping, and sharp, distinct body lines replaced the rounded look. Also new were a straight rear bumper and vertical lamp clusters. The headlight pairs switched from horizontal to vertical, thus permitting a wider grille. Curved frameless side windows appeared with a tempered glass backlight. New standard features included lamps for luggage and glove compartments and front and rear safety belts. Power was still supplied by the 340 horsepower V8. Perimeter frame construction allowed repositioning the engine six inches forward in the frame, thus lowering the transmission hump and increasing interior room.
In 1966, changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio power steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.
Eighth generation (1967–1970)
The Eldorado was radically redesigned for 1967 as a front-wheel drive hardtop coupe, becoming Cadillac's entry in the era's burgeoning personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the first-generation Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year.
To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adapted the Toronado's front-wheel drive unified powerplant package, mating a Cadillac 429 V8 to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Front disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel.
The 1967 Eldorado was a great departure from previous generations, which shared styling with Cadillac's De Ville and Series 62. GM styling chief Bill Mitchell chose angular, crisp styling for the Eldorado, setting it apart from more streamlined Riviera and Toronado. The rear end design was inspired by the GM-X Stiletto concept car. It was the first and only Cadillac model with the headlamps concealed behind moveable covers; this feature was for two years only (1967 and 1968). Rear passenger windows retracted sideways into the C-pillar instead of down into the side body panel.
The Eldorado achieved 0-60 mph (0–97 km/h) acceleration in less than nine seconds, and a top speed of . Roadability and neutral handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.
In 1968, the 429 V8 was replaced by the new 472 (7.7 L) V8 with SAE gross and of torque. Despite the larger and more powerful engine, acceleration did not improve due to the reduction in final drive ratio from 3.21 to 3.07. Fuel consumption was 10 mpg (23.5 l/100km) city and 13 mpg (18 l/100km) highway. The hood was extended 4.5 inches longer in the rear as to conceal the windshield wipers. The previously optional front disc brakes became standard. The bumper-mounted front turn signal indicators and parking lights were repositioned to the fenders, replacing the end caps. The red side running lamps without retroreflective markers were attached to the rear fenders. The external rear view mirrors were enlarged and became rectangle-shaped with fixed housing and moveable mirror. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorado accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillac models sold.
In 1969, the concealed headlamps were eliminated due to the new federal safety regulations stipulating that the headlamp covers must operate within a specific period of time when entering tunnels or darkened buildings (i.e. parking garages). Side impact protection beams were installed inside the doors. The dashboard and instrument cluster were redesigned: the dash cowl became more pronounced and contained all of the controls, driver's side vents, and instrument clusters. On the passenger side, the vents were moved to the single horizontal rosewood veneer panel. The instrument clusters had a thin wood veneer panel where the warning lights are located. For 1970, the wood veneer was expanded to cover most of the instrument clusters.
In 1970, the Eldorado featured the new Cadillac 500 V8 (8.2 L) V8 engine, putting out SAE gross and . It was exclusive to the Eldorado until 1975, when it became the standard engine option for all Cadillac models except the Seville. The power sunroof by ASC and rear "Trackmaster" anti-lock braking system were offered as extra-cost options. Styling changes for 1970 included a new grille with scripted "Eldorado" and rectangular "8.2 LITRE" badges, and new taillamp bezels that eliminated the protruding "chrome fins". The side running lamps included retroreflective markers, amber in the front and red in the rear.
Ninth generation (1971–1978)
The 1971 Eldorado was substantially redesigned, growing two inches in length, six in wheelbase and featuring standard fender skirts, all of which gave the car a much heavier appearance than the previous generation. The 500 cu in (8.2 L) V8 engine remained an Eldorado exclusive.
A convertible Eldorado was also offered for 1971, the first in the line since 1966. Door glass remained frameless, and the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A stand-up wreath and crest hood ornament was new this year.
Inside, there was a new curved instrument panel and redesigned seats. A fiber-optic "lamp monitor" system, which displayed the functionality of the headlamps, taillamps, parking lamps, turn signals and brakelights was mounted on each front fender and the shelf below the rear window. This wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving major facelifts in 1973, 1974 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.
Changes were minimal for 1972; the most noticeable exterior change was a new 'Eldorado' script, replacing the block 'Eldorado' lettering on the front fenders and trunk lid. Sales for 1972 increased to 40,074.
In 1973, the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The 1973 models received a major facelift, featuring a massive egg-crate grille, new front and rear bumpers, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps. Interiors featured new "soft pillow" door panels, with larger, sturdier pull-straps. The rear "lamp monitor" display which showed the driver the function of the turn signal, brake and taillamps, was relocated (except on the convertible) from the rear shelf, to the headliner just above the rear glass.
The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the official pace car for the Indianapolis 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Sales of the Eldorado coupe and convertible soared to 51,451 the highest total for the model during the 1970s and over a sixth of all Cadillac sales for 1973.
The lengthened wheelbase reduced performance relative to contemporary premium personal luxury cars, but offered comfortable seating for six adults rather than just four.
1974 Eldorados featured a redesigned rear bumper with vertical ends, housing sidemarker lamps. This new bumper was designed to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Other styling changes included new horizontal taillamps placed beneath the trunk lid, a new fine mesh grille with Cadillac script on the header and new standard wheel covers. Inside, there was a redesigned two-tier instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.
A new, quartz controlled digital clock, an "information band" of warning lights and the fuel gauge ran horizontally along the upper tier of this new instrument panel.
For 1975, the Eldorado received new rectangular headlamps, egg-crate grille, front bumper, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and sharper, crisper lines resulting in a sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967–70 models.
1976 was to be the final year for the Eldorado convertible and the car was heavily promoted by General Motors as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 convertibles were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. All 200 of these cars were identical, painted white with a dual red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside and inside, a commemorative plaque was mounted on the dashboard. When Cadillac reintroduced the Eldorado convertible for the 1984 model year, several customers who had purchased 1976 Eldorado convertibles as investments, felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit against General Motors.
Having received a major facelift the previous year, the Eldorado for 1976 received only minor styling changes, including a new grille, a small Cadillac script on the hood face, revised taillamp lenses and new black painted wheel covers.
For 1977, the Eldorado again received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. New vertical taillamps were relocated to the chrome bumper-fender extensions. New 'Eldorado' block-lettering appeared on the hood face and new rectangular side marker lights with 'Eldorado' block-lettering replaced the 'Eldorado' script on the rear fenders. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The mammoth 500 cu in. (8.2L) V8 of 1970–76 was replaced by a new 425 cu in. (7L) V8 with available in all 1977 Cadillacs, except the Seville.
A new grille was the only visible change for 1978; the Eldorado would be completely redesigned and downsized for 1979.
Eldorado Biarritz
Unlike the Fleetwood Brougham and De Ville, which both boasted the opulent d'Elegance trim luxury package, Cadillac did not offer a similar option for the Eldorado until late in the 1976 model year with the introduction of the Biarritz (a name last used for the 1964 Eldorado convertible) package. The car featured unique exterior trim and the rear half of the cabriolet roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. Body colored wheel covers were also featured. The 1977–1978 interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" leather seating, while the 1976 interior did not. As with other Cadillac models, special order contrasting upholstery piping and exterior colors were available.
The 1978 Biarritz option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom Biarritz ($1,865); with Astroroof ($2,946); with sunroof ($2,746) and Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classic ($2,466); with unique two-tone
paint and Astroroof ($3,547); with sunroof ($3,347).
2000 Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classics were produced for 1978 only, in two-tone Arizona beige/demitasse brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with sunroofs and one was produced with a power sliding T-top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Car Division.
The Biarritz option was available on the Eldorado through the 1991 model year and was replaced with the touring coupe (ETC) option for 1992. Some of the original Biarritz styling cues vanished after 1985, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing (1979–85) and the plush "pillowed" interior seating designs, but the Biarritz remained unique.
Tenth generation (1979–1985)
The tenth generation Eldorado debuted in 1979, continuing to share the same platform with the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. This model was successful in terms of annual production totals compared with the ninth and eleventh generations. The model set an all-time Eldorado sales record in 1984 of 77,806 (coupes and convertibles), accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.
Design
Independent rear suspension was adopted for the first time, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado "Biarritz" model featured a stainless-steel roof, similar to the 1957–1958 Eldorado Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and rear quarter windows, similar to those from 1967 to 1970, without a thick "B" pillar. The Eldorado and the redesigned 1980 Cadillac Seville shared front wheel drive platforms. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed.
The Cadillac Trip Computer was available on the 1979 Eldorado. First offered on the 1978 Cadillac Seville, it provided electronic digital (LED) readouts for the speedometer, remaining fuel gallons, clock, and radio. No digital instrumentation was available for the 1980 Eldorado, apart from the climate control system. In 1981, full electronic "digital" instrumentation was an available option on the Eldorado and Seville. In addition to the digital electronic climate control that was standard on all Cadillacs, the standard analog speedometer and fuel gauges could be replaced with digital displays with features displaying gallons of remaining fuel and approximate range.
Engines
The tenth generation Eldorado was sold with multiple V8 engine variants. In 1981, Cadillac offered a V6 for the first time in its history, a 4.1 liter engine sourced from Buick.
V8
The Eldorado was fitted with both gasoline engines – all of which operated on regular fuel – and a single diesel:
350
A smaller, more fuel efficient, Oldsmobile 350 ci (5.7 L) gasoline V8 replaced the 425 ci (7.0 L) engine from 1978.
368
In 1980, the standard engine became the Cadillac 368 ci V8 engine except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was still used. In both the 1980 Eldorado and Seville (which now shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI throttle body fuel injection.
4.1 L
For 1982, Cadillac unveiled the 4.1 L "High Technology" HT-4100 engine. The performance was modest relative to older generations of the Eldorado. It possessed powering the car to a top speed of and a 0-60 time of 13.8 sec, with fuel economy of
This lightweight engine, used in all full-size 1982 Cadillacs (except limousines) was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Many HT-4100s were replaced under warranty because it was prone to failure of the intake manifold gasket due to scrubbing of the bi-metal interface, aluminum oil pump failure, cam bearing displacement, weak aluminum block castings and bolts pulling the aluminum threads from the block.
350 diesel
The Oldsmobile 350 ci diesel engine was available as an option. It possessed powering the car to a top speed of and a 0-60 time of 17.3 sec, with fuel economy of 25 mpg.
V8-6-4
For 1981 only, the Eldorado was powered by Cadillac's V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate two or four cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy (CAFE) averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-years 1977–1979 425.
V6
In 1981-2 the Buick LC4 V6 was available. It came with a 4-barrel carburetor, had an 8.0:1 compression ratio, and produced at 4,000 rpm and at 2,000 rpm.
Trim options
From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered the Eldorado Touring Coupe, with heavier duty "touring" suspension, aluminum alloy wheels, larger blackwall white-letter tires, cloisonné hood ornament, body-colored headlamp and taillamp bezels, wide-ribbed rocker moldings and available only with saddle leather interior and three exterior colors. These Eldorados were marketed as "drivers' cars" and included reclining front bucket seats with lumbar support, leather-wrapped steering wheel, a center console and standard digital instrument cluster.
Late in the 1985 model year, an optional "Commemorative Edition" package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a Commemorative Edition badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in dark blue or white, or a two-tone with dark blue and white) was included in the package, along with a dark blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were cotillion white or commodore blue.
Return of the Eldorado Convertible
In 1984, eight years after Cadillac built its last convertible, the division temporarily resumed production of a convertible version of the Eldorado Biarritz. This car was an official Cadillac production option convertible converted by American Sunroof Corporation (ASC, Inc.) offered only for the 1984–85 model years coded by vehicle VIN. The car was 200 pounds (91 kg) heavier, featuring the same interior as the Eldorado Biarritz coupe. The 1985 model year was also the last for the aftermarket non-factory option conversions by ASC, Inc.
Prior to the official 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979–1983 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. ASC inc., Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio—this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles) and Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coach-builders also offered Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado convertibles.
Production totals
Eleventh generation (1986–1991)
As a key factor influencing the design of the 11th generation Eldorado, GM relied on a consultant's prediction that gasoline would rise sharply by 1986. Concluded smaller luxury cars would be in demand, General Motors downsized its full-sized cars for the second time for model year 1985. Higher fuel prices did not materialize.
By then, Cadillac had downsized the 11th generation Eldorado substantially — by in length and in weight — as with its badge engineered variants, the Oldsmobile Toronado, Buick Riviera, and Cadillac Seville.
Buick and Oldsmobile's variants carried Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while the Eldorado continued with the 4.1 liter V8. A single fiberglass transverse leaf spring was used for its fully independent rear suspension. Four wheel disc brakes were standard, as was electronic leveling control. The completely redesigned instrument panel featured a fully digital display. The shift lever was moved from the steering column to the center console. New redesigned bucket seats had lumbar support. The Biarritz option featured an upgraded interior with genuine walnut trim on the instrument panel, center console and door panels.
1985's convertible body style was dropped to make way for the forthcoming Cadillac Allanté roadster. For the first time, the Eldorado no longer featured a hardtop body style, instead using framed door glass. Despite its much smaller exterior size, the Eldorado's interior volume remained comparable to the previous generation.
The 11th generation carrying a base price of $24,251 (~$ in ), nearly 16% higher than the 1985 model, annual sales of the Eldorado dropped 72% from the final year of the previous generation. One automotive observer noted the 11th generation Eldorado was too small for Cadillac's traditional customers, yet unable to attract buyers from the targeted competitors, e.g., BMW and Mercedes-Benz.
Model year changes
1987
Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, the Eldorado was virtually unchanged for 1987, though with a price drop, to $23,740 ($ in dollars ). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) "touring suspension" ($ in dollars ), with deflected-disc strut valves and 15-inch alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of the Eldorado's most expensive standalone options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850 ($ in dollars ), it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use simultaneously, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone.
1988 facelift
The 1988 Eldorado received a facelift and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. Essentially, the revision lengthened the rear fender end-caps, making the Eldorado longer than in 1987; the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged and body panels were revised. Standard equipment included Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Both front and rear fenders featured creased blade elements that rose slightly proud of the adjacent sheetmetal. Revisions included a new grille above the revamped front bumper, slightly protruding three-sided tail lamps and a revised rear bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14-inch aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15-inch snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the touring suspension option.
The 1988 interior featured wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles, replacing pull-straps. New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter returning to the tufted-button design last seen in the 1985 Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full rooftop, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows – similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the rooftop, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and 1987, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976–1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the rooftop, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Nineteen shades of exterior paint were available (two more than the previous year). Prices increased this year – to $24,891 ($ in dollars ). This 1988 facelift would be the last until the Eldorado was completely redesigned for 1992.
1989
For 1989, the optional automatic rearview mirror transitioned from an electrically operated mechanical tilting mechanism to the new electrochromic style, using a clear fluid filled between the mirror and a thin sheet of glass, which tints on activation. A new exterior color, White Diamond, brought the color choices up to 18. Gone were the 14-inch wheels, as the previously optional 15-inch "snowflake"-style aluminum wheel, introduced the previous year, was made standard for the base Eldorado. A compact disc player, available only with the Delco Bose Gold Series music system, was a new option this year, as were reversible floor mats, and gold-plated ornamentation ("Cadillac" grille and trunk scripts, sail panel ornaments, deck lid engine plaque, trunk lock cover, tail lamp emblems, and available wire wheel cover wreath and crest). New standard items included an express-down module for the driver's window, electronic oil-life indicator, a more powerful Delco Freedom II battery, a revised factory warranty, and GM's PASS (Passive Automotive Security System) KEY theft-deterrent system, which activated the fuel system based upon a coded pellet within the ignition key. Previously optional items that were now added as standard equipment included a cassette player with graphic equalizer, remote fuel filler door release, and front license plate mounting. To deplete existing warehouse stock, the brushed chrome lower bodyside accent molding, optional through last year, was added as standard equipment for 1989 (revamped moldings would appear in 1990). New high-gloss Birdseye Maple trim (replacing the satin-finished American walnut used from 1986 to 1988) on the instrument panel and console was standard on Eldorado Biarritz, and a $245 option on the base Eldorado. The full cabriolet roof option, roughly simulating a convertible top, was offered in limited colors. Prices rose to $26,738 ($ in dollars ). Production slipped slightly to 27,807 (including 7,174 Biarritz models). Similarly, the restyled Buick Riviera grew 11 inches this year and had a production increase from 8,625 cars in 1988 to 21,189 in 1989.
1990
A driver-side airbag was introduced as standard equipment, deleting the telescoping steering column but retaining tilt capability. Where cruise controls had been previously mounted on the center of the steering wheel, the air bag required a smaller diameter steering wheel, and controls moved to the turn signal lever. A Touring Coupe trim level was introduced later in the model year. A new multi-point fuel injection replaced the throttle-body style from the MY88, and horsepower increased from 155 to 180, requiring premium fuel. The front suspension stabilizer shaft was revised; "Snowflake" alloy wheel were standard, with an optional cast aluminum wheel design, not available with the touring suspension package; and the tire jack received a dedicated carpeted storage compartment in the trunk.
Interior revisions for 1990 included new molded seat trim panels, front bucket seats featuring additional lateral and lumbar support, French seams, and revised front headrests. Full leather upholstery (formerly leather and cloth) became standard on the Biarritz trim level, and the base model lost their seat-back map pockets. The optional cellular telephone was no longer available, and the vinyl center armrest was revised. The electronic climate control received three automatic and two manual settings. The optional leather upholstery package for the base model now included a power passenger seat recliner. 1990 models incorporated the former "Eldorado option package" as standard equipment, including revised carpeted floor mats, body-color door edge guards, illuminated driver and passenger visor, trunk mat, and an illuminated entry system. Previously optional equipment became standard equipment, including the rear window defogger with heated outside mirrors and bodyside accent striping.
New options included a central-unlocking feature (from the outside door locks, using the key) added to the automatic door locks. For model year 1990, the rear deck lid carried a port fuel injection emblem, featured a chrome handle above the license plate opening and rear safety reflectors moved from the bumper onto the panel below the decklid. A charcoal-color vinyl strip accented the chrome bumper and bodyside moldings, while the front bumper guards changed from body-color to charcoal.
MSRP for 1990 base Eldorado was $28,885 ($ in dollars ) and for the Biarritz trim level an additional $3,180 ($ in dollars ). Production dropped to 22,291 cars, about 1/3 of which were the Biarritz package and 1,507 were the Eldorado touring coupe package.
1991
1991 was the final year for the eleventh-generation Eldorado. New this year was Cadillac's 4.9 liter port fuel injection V-8 engine with GM's 4T60-E electronically-controlled four-speed transmission. The Cadillac-exclusive "viscous converter clutch" provided smoother shifting under hard acceleration. Engine controls were monitored by the GMP4 powertrain control module (PCM), an on-board 64-kilobyte computer. A new exhaust set-up with a wider catalytic converter reduced restriction by 38% from 1990, while the 0-60 mph speed went from 9 seconds in 1990 to 8.2 for 1991. Revised engine mounts decreased cabin noise and vibration. Adaptive suspension, marketed as Computer Command Ride (CCR), automatically adapted the suspension mode to vehicle speed for improved handling and ride comfort; this system was standard on Eldorado and optional on most other Cadillac models. The Bosch II anti-lock braking system, previously a $925 option, was made standard, as well as a more powerful 140-amp alternator.
A $309 electrically-heated windshield was a new option, as was the "security package" ($480 on base Eldorado, no-charge on Biarritz or Touring Coupe) which now included remote keyless entry along with automatic door locks with central unlocking. A $480 theft-deterrent system was also optional on the base Eldorado and available for no-charge on the Biarritz or Touring Coupe. The windshield washer system was revised.
Base price for the 1991 Eldorado was $31,245 ($ in dollars ), a $2,400 increase from 1990. Several items became no-charge options on the base Eldorado, including a full vinyl roof covering or full-cabriolet (convertible-look) roof (an otherwise $1,095 option), leather upholstery with power passenger recliner, and the Delco-Bose sound system, available with CD or cassette. For 1991, the $2,050 (~$ in ) Touring Coupe and the $3,180 Biarritz trim packages included a power moon roof and Delco-Bose stereo system at no additional charge. 1991 marked the final year for the Eldorado Biarritz. Production dropped to 16,212 (including 2,249 touring coupe models), the lowest for any Eldorado model since 1966.
Production totals
Twelfth generation (1992–2002)
The twelfth and final generation Eldorado introduced for 1992 was longer and wider than the previous generation, featuring frameless window glass. Marketed in either ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) and ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) trim, the former featured a stand-up hood ornament, Cadillac crests on the rear roof pillar, 16-inch multi-spoke alloy wheels, and concealed exhausts.
Shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and variants, replacing the previous generation's 4.9 L L26.
Standard equipment included cloth upholstery, Zebrano wood trim, 6-way power front bucket seats, climate control, digital instrumentation, column-mounted gear selector, and three-position electronically adjustable "Speed-Sensitive Suspension". The ETC featured a grille-mounted Cadillac wreath and crest, "Touring Coupe" scripts on the doors, integrated fog lamps, flat-face 16-inch alloy wheels, and quad exhaust outlets. Its standard equipment included gathered leather seating areas, marketed as Nuance leather; 12-way power seats; Zebrano-trimmed floor console with gear selector, analog instrumentation, and specially tuned suspension.
1993: The Touring Coupe received a two-spoke steering wheel, body-color grille, and 6-way seats, previously 12-way. An Eldorado Sport Coupe model was introduced, featuring the new Northstar V8 and quad-tipped exhaust, full-floor console with gear selector (without Zebrano trim), and touring-tuned adaptive suspension, now marketed as "Road Sensing Suspension". A passenger airbag became standard equipment on all models, the previously matte-black exterior side mirrors from 1992 were now body-color, and revised 16-inch chromed alloy wheels became available.
1994: Eldorado and Eldorado Touring Coupe trims were offered. The steering wheel was revised to a four-spoke design. Both models now had quad exhausts. A new "Sport Appearance Package" option allowed the buyer to order most of the Touring Coupe's cosmetic features on the base Eldorado.
1995: In 1995 the Eldorado featured revised front and rear bumpers, side cladding, chrome eggcrate grille, and seven-spoke alloy wheels.
1996: The interior received a larger analog gauge cluster, relocated climate control system, and updated stereo faces. While the four-spoke steering wheel was a carry-over, new steering wheel-mounted duplicate climate and audio controls. The Touring Coupe offered perforated in leau of the gathered leather on other models. The Touring Coupe also received rain-sensing wipers marketed as "Rainsense", and once again a body-color radiator grille. Daytime running lights were standard.
1997: Microprocessor integration of engine, traction control, Stabilitrak electronic stability control, steering, and adaptive continuously variable road sensing suspension (CVRSS) became standard, marketed as Integrated Chassis Control System — similar to the Toyota/Lexus Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM).
2000: With the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado rebadged variants discontinued and the Seville and Deville sedan no longer sharing platforms, the Eldorado became GM's last production K- or E-body vehicle, and assembly was moved to the Lansing Craft Center.
2001: As Eldorado's 50th model year, GM announced 2002 would be its last. To mark the end of the nameplate, a limited run of 1,596 cars in red or white—the colors available on the original 1953 convertible—were produced in three batches of 532, signifying the Eldorado's first year of production. These last cars featured specially-tuned exhaust notes imitating the models, and a dash-mounted plaque indicating each car's sequence in production. Production ended on April 22, 2002 and the last Eldorado produced was donated to the Cadillac Museum in honor of Cadillac dealer Don Massey. The Lansing Craft Center retooled to manufacture the Chevrolet SSR.
See also
Lincoln Mark Series
Ford Thunderbird
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Official Cadillac America Forum
Product information on:
2002,
2001 and
2000 models.
Cadillac Eldorado 1959 Review
Eldorado
Cars introduced in 1953
Convertibles
Coupés
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sedans
Vehicles built in Lansing, Michigan
1960s cars
1970s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Personal luxury cars
|
417858
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict%20Arnold
|
Benedict Arnold
|
Benedict Arnold (June 14, 1801) was an American-born military officer who served during the American Revolutionary War. He fought with distinction for the American Continental Army and rose to the rank of major general before defecting to the British in 1780. General George Washington had given him his fullest trust and had placed him in command of West Point in New York. Arnold was planning to surrender the fort to British forces, but the plot was discovered in September 1780, whereupon he fled to the British lines. In the later part of the war, Arnold was commissioned as a brigadier general in the British Army and placed in command of the American Legion. He led the British army in battle against the soldiers whom he had once commanded, after which his name became synonymous with treason and betrayal in the United States.
Arnold was born in Connecticut. He was a merchant operating ships in the Atlantic when the war began. He joined the growing American army outside of Boston and distinguished himself by acts that demonstrated intelligence and bravery: In 1775, he captured Fort Ticonderoga. In 1776, he deployed defensive and delay tactics at the Battle of Valcour Island in Lake Champlain that gave American forces time to prepare New York's defenses. His performance in the Battle of Ridgefield in Connecticut prompted his promotion to major general. He performed operations that provided the Americans with relief during the siege of Fort Stanwix, and key actions during the pivotal 1777 Battles of Saratoga in which he sustained leg injuries that put him out of combat for several years.
Arnold repeatedly claimed that he was being passed over for promotion by the Continental Congress, and that other officers were being given credit for some of his accomplishments. Some in his military and political circles charged him with corruption and other bad acts. After formal inquiries, he was usually acquitted, but Congress investigated his finances and determined that he was indebted to Congress and that he had borrowed money heavily to maintain a lavish lifestyle.
Arnold mingled with Loyalist sympathizers in Philadelphia and married into the Loyalist family of Peggy Shippen. She was a close friend of British Major John André and kept in contact with him when he became head of the British espionage system in New York. Many historians see her as having facilitated Arnold's plans to switch sides; he opened secret negotiations with André, and she relayed their messages to each other. The British promised £20,000 for the capture of West Point, a major American stronghold. Washington greatly admired Arnold and gave him command of that fort in July 1780. His scheme was to surrender the fort to the British, but it was exposed in September 1780 when American militiamen captured André carrying papers which revealed the plot. Arnold escaped; André was hanged.
Arnold received a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army, an annual pension of £360, and a lump sum of over £6,000. He led British forces in the Raid on Richmond and nearby areas, and they burned much of New London, Connecticut to the ground and slaughtered surrendering forces after the Battle of Groton Heights—just a few miles downriver from the town where he had grown up. In the winter of 1782, he and Peggy moved to London, England. He was well received by King George III and the Tories but frowned upon by the Whigs and most Army officers. In 1787, he moved to Canada to run a merchant business with his sons Richard and Henry. He was extremely unpopular there and returned to London permanently in 1791, where he died ten years later.
Early life
Benedict Arnold was born a British subject, the second of six children of his father Benedict Arnold III (1683–1761) and Hannah Waterman King in Norwich, Connecticut, on January 14, 1741. Arnold was the fourth surviving member of his family named after his great-grandfather Benedict Arnold I, an early governor of the Colony of Rhode Island; his grandfather (Benedict Arnold II) and father, as well as an older brother who died in infancy, were also named for the colonial governor. Only he and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood; his other siblings died from yellow fever in childhood. His siblings were, in order of birth: Benedict (1738–1739), Hannah (1742–1803), Mary (1745–1753), Absolom (1747–1750), and Elizabeth (1749–1755). Through his maternal grandmother, Arnold was a descendant of John Lothropp, an ancestor of six presidents.
Arnold's father was a successful businessman, and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society. He was enrolled in a private school in nearby Canterbury, Connecticut, when he was 10, with the expectation that he would eventually attend Yale College. However, the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the family fortunes, since his father took up drinking. By the time that he was 14, there was no money for private education. His father's alcoholism and ill health kept him from training Arnold in the family mercantile business, but his mother's family connections secured an apprenticeship for him with her cousins Daniel and Joshua Lathrop, who operated a successful apothecary and general merchandise trade in Norwich. His apprenticeship with the Lathrops lasted seven years.
Arnold was very close to his mother, who died in 1759. His father's alcoholism worsened after her death, and the youth took on the responsibility of supporting his father and younger sister. His father was arrested on several occasions for public drunkenness, was refused communion by his church, and died in 1761.
French and Indian War
In 1755, Arnold was attracted by the sound of a drummer and attempted to enlist in the provincial militia for service in the French and Indian War, but his mother refused permission. In 1757 when he was 16, he did enlist in the Connecticut militia, which marched off toward Albany, New York, and Lake George. The French had besieged Fort William Henry in northeastern New York, and their Indian allies had committed atrocities after their victory. Word of the siege's disastrous outcome led the company to turn around, and Arnold served for only 13 days. A commonly accepted story that he deserted from militia service in 1758 is based on uncertain documentary evidence.
Colonial merchant
Arnold established himself in business in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in New Haven, Connecticut, with the help of the Lathrops. He was hardworking and successful, and was able to rapidly expand his business. In 1763, he repaid money that he had borrowed from the Lathrops, repurchased the family homestead that his father had sold when deeply in debt, and re-sold it a year later for a substantial profit. In 1764, he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock, another young New Haven merchant. They bought three trading ships, using the profits from the sale of his homestead, and established a lucrative West Indies trade.
During this time, Arnold brought his sister Hannah to New Haven and established her in his apothecary to manage the business in his absence. He traveled extensively in the course of his business throughout New England and from Quebec to the West Indies, often in command of one of his own ships. Some sources recount how, on one of his voyages, he fought a duel in Honduras with a British sea captain who had called him a "damned Yankee, destitute of good manners or those of a gentleman". The captain was wounded in the first exchange of gunfire, and he apologized when Arnold threatened to aim to kill on the second. However, it is unknown whether this encounter actually happened or not.
The Sugar Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765 severely curtailed mercantile trade in the colonies. The Stamp Act prompted Arnold to join the chorus of voices in opposition, and also led to his joining the Sons of Liberty, a secret organization which advocated resistance to those and other restrictive Parliamentary measures. Arnold initially took no part in any public demonstrations but, like many merchants, continued to do business openly in defiance of the Parliamentary Acts, which legally amounted to smuggling. He also faced financial ruin, falling £16,000 in debt with creditors spreading rumors of his insolvency, to the point where he took legal action against them. On the night of January 28, 1767, he and members of his crew roughed up a man suspected of attempting to inform authorities of Arnold's smuggling. He was convicted of disorderly conduct and fined the relatively small amount of 50 shillings; publicity of the case and widespread sympathy for his views probably contributed to the light sentence.
On February 22, 1767, Arnold married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of Samuel Mansfield, the sheriff of New Haven and a fellow member in the local Masonic Lodge. Their son Benedict was born the following year and was followed by brothers Richard in 1769 and Henry in 1772. Margaret died on June 19, 1775, while Arnold was at Fort Ticonderoga following its capture. She is buried in the crypt of the Center Church on New Haven Green. The household was dominated by Arnold's sister Hannah, even while Margaret was alive. Arnold benefited from his relationship with Mansfield, who became a partner in his business and used his position as sheriff to shield him from creditors.
Arnold was in the West Indies when the Boston Massacre took place on March 5, 1770. He wrote that he was "very much shocked" and wondered "good God, are the Americans all asleep and tamely giving up their liberties, or are they all turned philosophers, that they don't take immediate vengeance on such miscreants?"
Revolutionary War (American service)
Siege of Boston and Fort Ticonderoga
Arnold began the war as a captain in the Connecticut militia, a position to which he was elected in March 1775. His company marched northeast the following month to assist in the siege of Boston that followed the Battles of Lexington and Concord. He proposed an action to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety to seize Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York, which he knew was poorly defended. They issued him a colonel's commission on May 3, 1775, and he immediately rode off to Castleton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants (Vermont) in time to participate with Ethan Allen and his men in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga. He followed up that action with a bold raid on Fort Saint-Jean on the Richelieu River north of Lake Champlain. A Connecticut militia force arrived at Ticonderoga in June; Arnold had a dispute with its commander over control of the fort, and resigned his Massachusetts commission. He was on his way home from Ticonderoga when he learned that his wife had died earlier in June.
Quebec expedition
The Second Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec, in part on the urging of Arnold—but he was passed over for command of the expedition. He then went to Cambridge, Massachusetts, and suggested to George Washington a second expedition to attack Quebec City via a wilderness route through Maine. He received a colonel's commission in the Continental Army for this expedition and left Cambridge in September 1775 with 1,100 men. He arrived before Quebec City in November, after a difficult passage in which 300 men turned back and another 200 died en route. He and his men were joined by Richard Montgomery's small army and participated in the December 31 assault on Quebec City in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold's leg was shattered. His chaplain Rev. Samuel Spring carried him to the makeshift hospital at the Hôtel Dieu. Arnold was promoted to brigadier general for his role in reaching Quebec, and he maintained an ineffectual siege of the city until he was replaced by Major General David Wooster in April 1776.
Arnold then traveled to Montreal where he served as military commander of the city until forced to retreat by an advancing British army that had arrived at Quebec in May. He presided over the rear of the Continental Army during its retreat from Saint-Jean, where he was reported by James Wilkinson to be the last person to leave before the British arrived. He then directed the construction of a fleet to defend Lake Champlain, which was overmatched and defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island. However, his actions at Saint-Jean and Valcour Island played a notable role in delaying the British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777.
During these actions, Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress. He had established a decent relationship with George Washington, as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates, both of whom had command of the army's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776. However, an acrimonious dispute with Moses Hazen, commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment, boiled into Hazen's court martial at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776. Only action by Arnold's superior at Ticonderoga prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen. He also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton, two lower-level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part. Brown was particularly vicious, publishing a handbill which claimed of Arnold, "Money is this man's God, and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country".
Rhode Island and Philadelphia
General Washington assigned Arnold to the defense of Rhode Island following the British seizure of Newport in December 1776, where the militia were too poorly equipped to even consider an attack on the British. He took the opportunity to visit his children while near his home in New Haven, and he spent much of the winter socializing in Boston, where he unsuccessfully courted a young belle named Betsy Deblois. In February 1777, he learned that he had been passed over by Congress for promotion to major general. Washington refused his offer to resign, and wrote to members of Congress in an attempt to correct this, noting that "two or three other very good officers" might be lost if they persisted in making politically motivated promotions.
Arnold was on his way to Philadelphia to discuss his future when he was alerted that a British force was marching toward a supply depot in Danbury, Connecticut. He organized the militia response, along with David Wooster and Connecticut militia General Gold Selleck Silliman. He led a small contingent of militia attempting to stop or slow the British return to the coast in the Battle of Ridgefield, and was again wounded in his left leg.
He then continued on to Philadelphia, where he met with members of Congress about his rank. His action at Ridgefield, coupled with the death of Wooster due to wounds sustained in the action, resulted in his promotion to major general, although his seniority was not restored over those who had been promoted before him. Amid negotiations over that issue, Arnold wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11, the same day that word arrived in Philadelphia that Fort Ticonderoga had fallen to the British. Washington refused his resignation and ordered him north to assist with the defense there.
Saratoga campaign
Arnold arrived in Schuyler's camp at Fort Edward, New York, on July 24. On August 13, Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix, where he succeeded in a ruse to lift the siege. He sent an Indian messenger into the camp of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger with news that the approaching force was much larger and closer than it actually was; this convinced St. Leger's Indian allies to abandon him, forcing him to give up the effort.
Arnold returned to the Hudson where General Gates had taken over command of the American army, which had retreated to a camp south of Stillwater. He then distinguished himself in both Battles of Saratoga, even though General Gates removed him from field command after the first battle, following a series of escalating disagreements and disputes that culminated in a shouting match. During the fighting in the second battle, Arnold disobeyed Gates' orders and took to the battlefield to lead attacks on the British defenses. He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting. Arnold said that it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg. Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle on October 17, 1777. Congress restored Arnold's command seniority in response to his valor at Saratoga. However, he interpreted the manner in which they did so as an act of sympathy for his wounds, and not an apology or recognition that they were righting a wrong.
Arnold spent several months recovering from his injuries. He had his leg crudely set, rather than allowing it to be amputated, leaving it shorter than the right. He returned to the army at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, in May 1778 to the applause of men who had served under him at Saratoga. There he participated in the first recorded Oath of Allegiance, along with many other soldiers, as a sign of loyalty to the United States.
Residence in Philadelphia
The British withdrew from Philadelphia in June 1778, and Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city. Historian John Shy states:
Washington then made one of the worst decisions of his career, appointing Arnold as military governor of the rich, politically divided city. No one could have been less qualified for the position. Arnold had amply demonstrated his tendency to become embroiled in disputes, as well as his lack of political sense. Above all, he needed tact, patience, and fairness in dealing with a people deeply marked by months of enemy occupation.
Arnold began planning to capitalize financially on the change in power in Philadelphia, even before the Americans reoccupied their city. He engaged in a variety of business deals designed to profit from war-related supply movements and benefiting from the protection of his authority. Such schemes were not uncommon among American officers, but Arnold's schemes were sometimes frustrated by powerful local politicians such as Joseph Reed, who eventually amassed enough evidence to publicly air charges against him. Arnold demanded a court martial to clear the charges, writing to Washington in May 1779: "Having become a cripple in the service of my country, I little expected to meet ungrateful returns".
Arnold lived extravagantly in Philadelphia and was a prominent figure on the social scene. During the summer of 1778, he met Peggy Shippen, the 18-year-old daughter of Judge Edward Shippen (III), a Loyalist sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city; Peggy had been courted by British Major John André during the British occupation of Philadelphia. She married Arnold on April 8, 1779. Shippen and her circle of friends had found methods of staying in contact with paramours across the battle lines, despite military bans on communication with the enemy. Some of this communication was effected through the services of Joseph Stansbury, a Philadelphia merchant.
Plotting to change sides
Historians have identified many possible factors contributing to Arnold's treason, while some debate their relative importance. According to W. D. Wetherell, he was:
Wetherell says that the shortest explanation for his treason is that he "married the wrong person".
Arnold had been badly wounded twice in battle and had lost his business in Connecticut, which made him profoundly bitter. He grew resentful of several rival and younger generals who had been promoted ahead of him and given honors which he thought he deserved. Especially galling was a long feud with the civil authorities in Philadelphia which led to his court-martial. He was also convicted of two minor charges of using his authority to make a profit. General Washington gave him a light reprimand, but it merely heightened Arnold's sense of betrayal; nonetheless, he had already opened negotiations with the British before his court martial even began. He later said in his own defense that he was loyal to his true beliefs, yet he lied at the same time by insisting that Peggy was totally innocent and ignorant of his plans.
Arnold had an extremely ambitious and jealous personality. He knew that he was distrusted and disliked by senior military officers on both sides. Washington was one of the few who genuinely liked and admired him, but Arnold thought that Washington had betrayed him.
As early as 1778, there were signs that Arnold was unhappy with his situation and pessimistic about the country's future. On November 10, 1778, Major General Nathanael Greene wrote to Brigadier General John Cadwalader, "I am told General Arnold is become very unpopular among you oweing to his associateing too much with the Tories." A few days later, Arnold wrote to Greene and lamented over the "deplorable" and "horrid" situation of the country at that particular moment, citing the depreciating currency, disaffection of the army, and internal fighting in Congress, while predicting "impending ruin" if things did not change soon. Biographer Nathaniel Philbrick argues:
Early in May 1779, Arnold met with Philadelphia merchant Joseph Stansbury who then "went secretly to New York with a tender of [Arnold's] services to Sir Henry Clinton". Stansbury ignored instructions from Arnold to involve no one else in the plot, and he crossed the British lines and went to see Jonathan Odell in New York. Odell was a Loyalist working with William Franklin, the last colonial governor of New Jersey and the son of Benjamin Franklin. On May 9, Franklin introduced Stansbury to Major André, who had just been named the British spy chief. This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André, sometimes using his wife Peggy as a willing intermediary, which culminated more than a year later with Arnold's change of sides.
Secret communications
André conferred with Clinton, who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold's offer. André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold. This initial letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence that Arnold might provide, and included instructions for how to communicate in the future. Letters were to be passed through the women's circle that Peggy Arnold was a part of, but only Peggy would be aware that some letters contained instructions that were to be passed on to André, written in both code and invisible ink, using Stansbury as the courier.
By July 1779, Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths, as well as the locations of supply depots, all the while negotiating over compensation. At first, he asked for indemnification of his losses and £10,000, an amount that the Continental Congress had given Charles Lee for his services in the Continental Army. Clinton was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley, and was interested in plans and information on the defenses of West Point and other defenses on the Hudson River. He also began to insist on a face-to-face meeting, and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high-level command. By October 1779, the negotiations had ground to a halt. Furthermore, revolutionary mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists, and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened. Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in-laws.
Court martial
Arnold's court martial on charges of profiteering began meeting on June 1, 1779, but it was delayed until December 1779 by Clinton's capture of Stony Point, New York, throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react. Several members on the panel of judges were ill-disposed toward Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war, yet Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on January 26, 1780. Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact; however, Washington published a formal rebuke of his behavior in early April, just one week after he had congratulated Arnold on the birth of his son Edward Shippen Arnold on March 19:
Shortly after Washington's rebuke, a Congressional inquiry into Arnold's expenditures concluded that he had failed to account fully for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion, and that he owed the Congress some £1,000, largely because he was unable to document them. Many of these documents had been lost during the retreat from Quebec. Angry and frustrated, Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April.
Offer to surrender West Point
Early in April, Philip Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point. Discussions had not borne fruit between Schuyler and Washington by early June. Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British, informing them of Schuyler's proposals and including Schuyler's assessment of conditions at West Point. He also provided information on a proposed French-American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the Connecticut River (Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources). On June 16, Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business, and he sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel. When he reached Connecticut, Arnold arranged to sell his home there and began transferring assets to London through intermediaries in New York. By early July, he was back in Philadelphia, where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on July 7 which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a "drawing of the works ... by which you might take [West Point] without loss".
André returned victorious from the siege of Charleston on June 18, and both he and Clinton were immediately caught up in this news. Clinton was concerned that Washington's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island, and he again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture. André had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold to verify his movements. Excited by the prospects, Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coup, but failed to respond to Arnold's July 7 letter.
Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton, even before he might have expected a response to the July 7 letter. In a July 11 letter, he complained that the British did not appear to trust him, and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made. On July 12, he wrote again, making explicit the offer to surrender West Point, although his price rose to £20,000 (in addition to indemnification for his losses), with a £1,000 down payment to be delivered with the response. These letters were delivered by Samuel Wallis, another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British, rather than by Stansbury.
Command at West Point
On August 3, 1780, Arnold obtained command of West Point. On August 15, he received a coded letter from André with Clinton's final offer: £20,000 and no indemnification for his losses. Neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement with that offer, due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines. Arnold's letters continued to detail Washington's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized. On August 25, Peggy finally delivered to him Clinton's agreement to the terms.
Arnold's command at West Point also gave him authority over the entire American-controlled Hudson River, from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City. While en route to West Point, Arnold renewed an acquaintance with Joshua Hett Smith, who had spied for both sides and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson about 15 miles south of West Point.
Once Arnold established himself at West Point, he began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength. Needed repairs of the chain across the Hudson were never ordered. Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold's command area (but only minimally at West Point itself) or furnished to Washington on request. He also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies, writing, "Everything is wanting." At the same time, he tried to drain West Point's supplies so that a siege would be more likely to succeed. His subordinates, some long-time associates, grumbled about Arnold's unnecessary distribution of supplies and eventually concluded that he was selling them on the black market for personal gain.
On August 30, Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary: William Heron, a member of the Connecticut Assembly whom he thought he could trust. In an ironic twist, Heron went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter and offered his own services to the British as a spy. He then took the letter back to Connecticut, suspicious of Arnold's actions, where he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia. General Parsons laid it aside, seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion. Four days later, Arnold sent a ciphered letter with similar content into New York through the services of the wife of a prisoner of war. Eventually, a meeting was set for September 11 near Dobbs Ferry. This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river fired on his boat, not being informed of his impending arrival.
Plot exposed
Arnold and André finally met on September 21 at the Joshua Hett Smith House. On the morning of September 22, from their position at Teller's Point, two American rebels (under the command of Colonel James Livingston), John "Jack" Peterson and Moses Sherwood, fired on HMS Vulture, the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York. This action did little damage besides giving the captain, Andrew Sutherland, a splinter in his nose—but the splinter prompted the Vulture to retreat, forcing André to return to New York overland. Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines, and he also gave him plans for West Point.
André was captured near Tarrytown, New York, on Saturday, September 23, by three Westchester militiamen. They found the papers exposing the plot to capture West Point and passed them on to their superiors, but André convinced the unsuspecting Colonel John Jameson, to whom he was delivered, to send him back to Arnold at West Point—but he never reached West Point. Major Benjamin Tallmadge was a member of the Continental Army's Culper Ring, a network of spies established under Washington's orders, and he insisted that Jameson order the prisoner to be intercepted and brought back. Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant who had been delivering André into Arnold's custody, but he then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André's arrest.
Arnold learned of André's capture the morning of September 24 while waiting for Washington, with whom he was going to have breakfast at his headquarters in British Colonel Beverley Robinson's former summer house on the east bank of the Hudson. Upon receiving Jameson's message, however, he learned that Jameson had sent Washington the papers which André was carrying. Arnold immediately hastened to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where HMS Vulture was anchored, fleeing on it to New York City. From the ship, he wrote a letter to Washington requesting that Peggy be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia—which Washington granted.
Washington remained calm when he was presented with evidence of Arnold's treason. He did, however, investigate its extent, and suggested that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold during negotiations with Clinton concerning André's fate. Clinton refused this suggestion; after a military tribunal, André was hanged at Tappan, New York, on October 2. Washington also infiltrated men into New York City in an attempt to capture Arnold. This plan very nearly succeeded, but Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia in December and thus avoided capture. He justified his actions in an open letter titled "To the Inhabitants of America", published in newspapers in October 1780. He also wrote in the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Peggy: "Love to my country actuates my present conduct, however it may appear inconsistent to the world, who very seldom judge right of any man's actions."
Revolutionary War (British service)
Raids in Virginia and Connecticut colonies
The British gave Arnold a brigadier general's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds, but they paid him only £6,315 plus an annual pension of £360 for his defection because his plot had failed. In December 1780, he led a force of 1,600 troops into Virginia under orders from Clinton, where he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia, destroying supply houses, foundries, and mills. This activity brought out Virginia's militia led by Colonel Sampson Mathews, and Arnold eventually retreated to Portsmouth to be reinforced or to evacuate.
The pursuing American army included the Marquis de Lafayette, who was under orders from Washington to hang Arnold summarily if he was captured. British reinforcements arrived in late March led by Major General William Phillips who served under Lieutenant General John Burgoyne at Saratoga. Phillips led further raids across Virginia, including a defeat of Baron von Steuben at Petersburg, but he died of fever on May 12, 1781. Arnold commanded the army only until May 20, when Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis arrived with the southern army and took over. One colonel wrote to Clinton concerning Arnold: "There are many officers who must wish some other general in command." Cornwallis ignored Arnold's advice to locate a permanent base away from the coast, advice that might have averted his surrender at Yorktown.
On his return to New York in June, Arnold made a variety of proposals for attacks on economic targets to force the Americans to end the war. Clinton was uninterested in most of his aggressive ideas, but finally authorized him to raid the port of New London, Connecticut. He led a force of more than 1,700 men which burned most of New London to the ground on September 4, causing damage estimated at $500,000. They also attacked and captured Fort Griswold across the river in Groton, Connecticut, slaughtering the Americans after they surrendered following the Battle of Groton Heights—and all these deeds were done just a few miles down the Thames River from Norwich, where Arnold grew up. However, British casualties were high; nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded, and Clinton declared that he could ill afford any more such victories.
British surrender and exile in England
Even before Cornwallis's surrender in October, Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord George Germain his thoughts on the war in person. He renewed that request when he learned of the surrender, which Clinton then granted. On December 8, 1781, Arnold and his family left New York for England.
In London, Arnold aligned himself with the Tories, advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans. In the House of Commons, Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold "at the head of a part of a British army" lest "the sentiments of true honour, which every British officer [holds] dearer than life, should be afflicted". The anti-war Whigs had gained the upper hand in Parliament, and Germain was forced to resign, with the government of Lord North falling not long after.
Arnold then applied to accompany Lieutenant General Guy Carleton, who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander-in-chief, but the request went nowhere. Other attempts all failed to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years, and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non-wartime service. His reputation also came under criticism in the British press, especially when compared to Major André who was celebrated for his patriotism. One critic said that he was a "mean mercenary, who, having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder, quits it when convicted of that charge". George Johnstone turned him down for a position in the East India Company and explained: "Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct, the generality do not think so. While this is the case, no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company."
To Canada, then back to England
In 1785, Arnold and his son Richard moved to Saint John, New Brunswick, where they speculated in land and established a business doing trade with the West Indies. Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the Maugerville area, and acquired city lots in Saint John and Fredericton. Delivery of his first ship the Lord Sheffield was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him; Arnold replied that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late. After her first voyage, Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John. While there, he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Peggy had been fighting while he was away, paying £900 to settle a £12,000 loan that he had taken while living in Philadelphia. The family moved to Saint John in 1787, where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits. The most serious of these was a slander suit which he won against a former business partner; and following this, townspeople burned him in effigy in front of his house, as Peggy and the children watched. The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791.
In July 1792, Arnold fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale after the Earl impugned his honor in the House of Lords. With the outbreak of the French Revolution, Arnold outfitted a privateer, while continuing to do business in the West Indies, even though the hostilities increased the risk. He was imprisoned by French authorities on Guadeloupe amid accusations of spying for the British, and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to the blockading British fleet after bribing his guards. He helped organize militia forces on British-held islands, receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf. He hoped that this work would earn him wider respect and a new command; instead, it earned him and his sons a land-grant of in Upper Canada, near present-day Renfrew, Ontario.
Death and funeral
In January 1801, Arnold's health began to decline. He had suffered from gout since 1775, and the condition attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea. The other leg ached constantly, and he walked only with a cane. His physicians diagnosed him as having dropsy, and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition. He died after four days of delirium on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60. Legend has it that, when he was on his deathbed, he said, "Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever having put on another," but this story may be apocryphal. Arnold was buried at St. Mary's Church in Battersea, England. As a result of a clerical error in the parish records, his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later. His funeral procession boasted "seven mourning coaches and four state carriages"; the funeral was without military honors.
Arnold left a small estate, reduced in size by his debts, which Peggy undertook to clear. Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage, perhaps an illegitimate son or grandson.
Legacy
Benedict Arnold became permanently synonymous with "traitor" soon after his betrayal became public.
Biblical themes were often invoked. One 1794 textbook stated that "Satan entered into the heart of Benedict." Benjamin Franklin wrote that "Judas sold only one man, Arnold three millions", and Alexander Scammell described his actions as "black as hell". In Arnold's home town of Norwich, Connecticut, someone scrawled "the traitor" next to his record of birth at city hall, and all of his family's gravestones have been destroyed except his mother's.
Arnold was aware of his reputation in his home country, and French statesman Talleyrand described meeting him in Falmouth, Cornwall in 1794:
Talleyrand continued, "I must confess that I felt much pity for him, for which political puritans will perhaps blame me, but with which I do not reproach myself, for I witnessed his agony".
Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior. The first major biography of his life was The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold, published in 1832 by historian Jared Sparks; it was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold's treacherous character was formed out of childhood experiences. George Canning Hill authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid-19th century and began his 1865 biography of Arnold: "Benedict, the Traitor, was born…". Social historian Brian Carso notes that, as the 19th century progressed, the story of Arnold's betrayal was portrayed with near-mythical proportions as a part of the national history. It was invoked again as sectional conflicts increased in the years before the American Civil War. Washington Irving used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 Life of George Washington, pointing out that the unity of New England and the southern states which led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point. Jefferson Davis and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold, implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason. Harper's Weekly published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as "a few men directing this colossal treason, by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint".
Fictional invocations of Benedict Arnold's name carry strongly negative overtones. A moralistic children's tale entitled "The Cruel Boy" was widely circulated in the 19th century. It described a boy who stole eggs from birds' nests, pulled wings off insects, and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty, who then grew up to become a traitor to his country. The boy is not identified until the end of the story, when his place of birth is given as Norwich, Connecticut, and his name is given as Benedict Arnold. However, not all depictions of Arnold were so negative. Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity, seeking to understand rather than demonize it.
Canadian historians have treated Arnold as a relatively minor figure. His difficult time in New Brunswick led historians to summarize it as full of "controversy, resentment, and legal entanglements" and to conclude that he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists living there. Historian Barry Wilson points out that Arnold's descendants established deep roots in Canada, becoming leading settlers in Upper Canada and Saskatchewan. His descendants are spread across Canada, most of all those of John Sage, who adopted the Arnold surname.
Honors
The Boot Monument at Saratoga National Historical Park pays tribute to Arnold but does not mention his name. It was donated by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster, and its inscription reads: "In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General." The victory monument at Saratoga has four niches, three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. The fourth niche is pointedly empty.
There are plaques on the grounds of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, commemorating all of the generals who served in the Revolution. One plaque bears only a rank and a date but no name: "major general… born 1740". Historical markers in Danvers, Massachusetts, and Newburyport, MA commemorate Arnold's 1775 expedition to Quebec. There are also historical markers bearing his name at Wyman Lake Rest Area on US-201 north of Moscow, Maine, on the western bank of Lake Champlain, New York, and two in Skowhegan, Maine.
The house where Arnold lived at 62 Gloucester Place in central London bears a plaque describing him as an "American Patriot". He was buried at St Mary's Church, Battersea, England which has a commemorative stained glass window. The faculty club at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, has a Benedict Arnold Room in which letters written by Arnold hang on the walls.
Marriages and children
Arnold had three sons with Margaret Mansfield:
Benedict Arnold (1768–1795) (Captain, British Army in Jamaica)
Richard Arnold (1769–1847) (Lieutenant, American Legion cavalry)
Henry Arnold (1772–1826) (Lieutenant, American Legion cavalry)
He had five children with Peggy Shippen:
Edward Shippen Arnold (1780–1813) (Lieutenant, British Army in India; see Bengal Army)
James Robertson Arnold (1781–1854) (Lieutenant General, Royal Engineers)
George Arnold (1787–1828) (Lieutenant Colonel, 2nd (or 7th) Bengal Cavalry)
Sophia Matilda Arnold (1785–1828)
William Fitch Arnold (1794–1846) (Captain, 9th Queen's Royal Lancers)
Arnold left significant bequests in his will to John Sage (born 1786), who has been identified by some historians as a possible illegitimate son, but may also have been a grandchild.
Published works
In popular culture
Benedict Arnold, a 1909 short film directed by J. Stuart Blackton and played by Charles Kent.
Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor, a 2003 TV film directed by Mikael Salomon, with Aidan Quinn as Arnold
Washington, 2020 miniseries in which Ciarán Owens portrays Arnold
Benedict Arnold, played by Owain Yeoman, is a major character in the TV series Turn: Washington's Spies
Benedict Arnold, voiced by Andy Samberg, as the primary antagonist and werewolf in the animated action parody America: The Motion Picture
The episode Benedict Arnold Slipped Here from TV series Murder, She Wrote.
Benedict Arnold, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, as the minor antagonist in the episode "Twistory" from the TV series The Fairly OddParents.
Benedict Arnold, played by Stephen Macht, is a major character in the 1984 miniseries George Washington.
Benedict Arnold, played by Curtis Caravaggio, is a one-time character in the episode "The Capture of Benedict Arnold" in the 2016–2018 TV series Timeless.
Benedict Arnold, voiced by Dustin Hoffman, appeared only in 4 episodes from the 2002–2003 TV series Liberty's Kids.
Benedict Arnold, voiced by Jim Meskimen, appeared only in 2 episodes from the 2010–2013 TV series Mad.
Benedict Arnold: Hero Betrayed, a 2021 TV documentary film directed by Chris Stearns and played by Peter O'Meara.
Drunk History Season 2 Episode 8 as retold by Erin McGathy featuring Chris Parnell as Benedict Arnold, Derek Waters as John André, and Wynona Rider as Peggy Shippen.
The final episode of the first season of The Scooby-Doo Show, "The Spirits of '76," features the ghosts of Arnold, Major André and ensign William Demont as the villains' disguises.
In Kingsley Amis' 1976 alternate history novel, The Alteration, Arnold is remembered as a hero by the Republic of New England, whose major city is named "Arnoldstown."
Appears in season 7, episode 7 of the television series Outlander.
See also
List of Freemasons
List of people from Connecticut
Notes
References
Bibliography
Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict," American National Biography (1999) short scholarly biography
This book includes a reprint of Arnold's diary of his march.
This book is about Arnold's time in Canada both before and after his treachery.
Further reading
; Very old and outdated
Burt, Daniel S. The Biography Book: A Reader's Guide To Nonfiction, Fictional, and Film Biographies of More Than 500 of the Most Fascinating Individuals of all Time (2001) pp. 12–13; annotates 26 books and 2 films.
Case, Stephen and Mark Jacob. Treacherous Beauty: Peggy Shippen, The Woman Behind Benedict Arnold's Plot To Betray America (2012), popular biography
Courtwright, Julie. "Whom Can We Trust Now? The Portrayal of Benedict Arnold in American History" Fairmont Folio: Journal of History (Wichita State University) v. 2 (1998) online
; studies numerous biographies and textbooks to trace American memory of him over the centuries
Fine, Gary Alan. Difficult reputations: Collective memories of the evil, inept, and controversial (University of Chicago Press, 2001) , chapter 1 on "Benedict Arnold and the Commemoration of Treason"
Merrill, Jane, and John Endicott. The Late Years of Benedict Arnold: Fugitive, Smuggler, Mercenary, 1780-1801 (McFarland, 2022).
Nicolosi, Annie et al. Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor.: The Idea Book for Educators, Spring 2003. (A&E Network, 2003) online teaching ideas for secondary schools.
Palmer, Dave Richard. George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots (2014); Popular dual biography.
Philbrick, Nathaniel. Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution (2016).
, a novel.
Rubin Stuart, Nancy. Defiant brides: the untold story of two revolutionary-era women and the radical men they married, (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013).
Shalhope, Robert E. "Benedict Arnold as Hero." Reviews in American History 26.4 (1998): 668-673. excerpt
Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801), army officer | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
; The first major history, now entirely outdated
Timmers, Christopher. "Judas of the revolution: America's most infamous traitor." TLS. Times Literary Supplement, no. 6043, 25 Jan. 2019, p. 28. u=anon~cb0f2d40&sid=googleScholar&xid=49a0729d online
; Old and outdated
Trees, Andy. "Benedict Arnold, John André, and His Three Yeoman Captors: A Sentimental Journey or American Virtue Defined." Early American Literature 35.3 (2000): 246-273. online
Van Doren, Carl. Secret History of the American Revolution: An Account of the Conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and Numerous Others Drawn from the Secret Service Papers of the British Headquarters in North America now for the first time examined and made public (1941) online free
Wallace, Willard M. "Benedict Arnold: Traitorous Patriot." in George Athan Billias, ed., George Washington's Generals (1964): 163–193.
Wallace, Willard M. Traitorous Hero The Life & Fortunes of Benedict Arnold (1954).
Primary sources
"Spy Letters of the American Revolution" includes Arnold's 1779–80 letters to Clinton and André, proposing treason; from the Clements Library]
links to primary sources about Benedict Arnold before and after his treason
External links
Benedict Arnold : Hero Betrayed
Benedict Arnold at AmericanRevolution.org
Benedict Arnold at Encyclopædia Britannica
Benedict Arnold at George Washington's Mount Vernon
Benedict Arnold's Portraits at varsitytutors.com
Benedict Arnold
1741 births
1801 deaths
18th-century American non-fiction writers
American booksellers
American defectors
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American Freemasons
American male non-fiction writers
American people of English descent
American rebels
Apothecaries
Benedict
British Army brigadiers
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
British duellists
British military intelligence informants
British people of the French Revolutionary Wars
British privateers
British spies during the American Revolution
Burials in England
Businesspeople from New Haven, Connecticut
Colonial American merchants
Connecticut militiamen in the American Revolution
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Connecticut
Continental Army personnel who were court-martialed
Deaths from edema
Military personnel from Norwich, Connecticut
People of colonial Connecticut
People of Connecticut in the French and Indian War
Traitors in history
Writers from Connecticut
|
417929
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LASIK
|
LASIK
|
LASIK or Lasik (laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis), commonly referred to as laser eye surgery or laser vision correction, is a type of refractive surgery for the correction of myopia, hyperopia, and an actual cure for astigmatism, since it is in the cornea. LASIK surgery is performed by an ophthalmologist who uses a laser or microkeratome to reshape the eye's cornea in order to improve visual acuity.
LASIK is very similar to another surgical corrective procedure, photorefractive keratectomy (PRK), and LASEK. All represent advances over radial keratotomy in the surgical treatment of refractive errors of vision. For patients with moderate to high myopia or thin corneas which cannot be treated with LASIK and PRK, the phakic intraocular lens is an alternative.
As of 2018, roughly 9.5 million Americans have had LASIK and, globally, between 1991 and 2016, more than 40 million procedures were performed. However, the procedure seemed to be a declining option as of 2015.
Process
The planning and analysis of corneal reshaping techniques such as LASIK have been standardized by the American National Standards Institute, an approach based on the Alpins method of astigmatism analysis.
The FDA website on LASIK states,
"Before undergoing a refractive procedure, you should carefully weigh the risks and benefits based on your own personal value system, and try to avoid being influenced by friends that have had the procedure or doctors encouraging you to do so."
The procedure involves creating a thin flap on the eye, folding it to enable remodeling of the tissue beneath with a laser and repositioning the flap.
Preoperative procedures
Contact lenses
Patients wearing soft contact lenses are instructed to stop wearing them 5 to 21 days before surgery. One industry body recommends that patients wearing hard contact lenses should stop wearing them for a minimum of six weeks plus another six weeks for every three years the hard contacts have been worn.
The cornea is avascular because it must be transparent to function normally. Its cells absorb oxygen from the tear film. Thus, low-oxygen-permeable contact lenses reduce the cornea's oxygen absorption, sometimes resulting in corneal neovascularization—the growth of blood vessels into the cornea. This causes a slight lengthening of inflammation duration and healing time and some pain during surgery, because of greater bleeding.
Although some contact lenses (notably modern RGP and soft silicone hydrogel lenses) are made of materials with greater oxygen permeability that help reduce the risk of corneal neovascularization, patients considering LASIK are warned to avoid over-wearing their contact lenses.
Pre-operative examination and education
In the United States, the FDA has approved LASIK for age 18 or 22 and over because the vision has to stabilize. More importantly the patient's eye prescription should be stable for at least one year prior to surgery.
The patient may be examined with pupillary dilation and education given prior to the procedure. Before the surgery, the patient's corneas are examined with a pachymeter to determine their thickness, and with a topographer, or corneal topography machine, to measure their surface contour. Using low-power lasers, a topographer creates a topographic map of the cornea. The procedure is contraindicated if the topographer finds difficulties such as keratoconus The preparatory process also detects astigmatism and other irregularities in the shape of the cornea. Using this information, the surgeon calculates the amount and the location of corneal tissue to be removed. The patient is prescribed and self-administers an antibiotic beforehand to minimize the risk of infection after the procedure and is sometimes offered a short acting oral sedative medication as a pre-medication. Prior to the procedure, anaesthetic eye drops are instilled. Factors that may rule out LASIK for some patients include large pupils, thin corneas and extremely dry eyes.
Operative procedure
Flap creation
A soft corneal suction ring is applied to the eye, holding the eye in place. This step in the procedure can sometimes cause small blood vessels to burst, resulting in bleeding or subconjunctival hemorrhage into the white (sclera) of the eye, a harmless side effect that resolves within several weeks. Increased suction causes a transient dimming of vision in the treated eye. Once the eye is immobilized, a flap is created by cutting through the corneal epithelium and Bowman's layer. This process is achieved with a mechanical microkeratome using a metal blade, or a femtosecond laser that creates a series of tiny closely arranged bubbles within the cornea. A hinge is left at one end of this flap. The flap is folded back, revealing the stroma, the middle section of the cornea. The process of lifting and folding back the flap can sometimes be uncomfortable.
Laser remodeling
The second step of the procedure uses an excimer laser (193 nm) to remodel the corneal stroma. The laser vaporizes the tissue in a finely controlled manner without damaging the adjacent stroma. No burning with heat or actual cutting is required to ablate the tissue. The layers of tissue removed are tens of micrometers thick.
Performing the laser ablation in the deeper corneal stroma provides for more rapid visual recovery and less pain than the earlier technique, photorefractive keratectomy (PRK).
During the second step, the patient's vision becomes blurry, once the flap is lifted. They will be able to see only white light surrounding the orange light of the laser, which can lead to mild disorientation.
The excimer laser uses an eye tracking system that follows the patient's eye position up to 4,000 times per second, redirecting laser pulses for precise placement within the treatment zone. Typical pulses are around 1 millijoule (mJ) of pulse energy in 10 to 20 nanoseconds.
Repositioning of the flap
After the laser has reshaped the stromal layer, the LASIK flap is carefully repositioned over the treatment area by the surgeon and checked for the presence of air bubbles, debris, and proper fit on the eye. The flap remains in position by natural adhesion until healing is completed.
Postoperative care
Patients are usually given a course of antibiotic and anti-inflammatory eye drops. These are continued in the weeks following surgery. Patients are told to rest and are given dark eyeglasses to protect their eyes from bright lights and occasionally protective goggles to prevent rubbing of the eyes when asleep and to reduce dry eyes. They also are required to moisturize the eyes with preservative-free tears and follow directions for prescription drops. Occasionally after the procedure a bandage contact lens is placed to aid the healing, and typically removed after 3–4 days. Patients should be adequately informed by their surgeons of the importance of proper post-operative care to minimize the risk of complications.
Wavefront-guided
Wavefront-guided LASIK is a variation of LASIK surgery in which, rather than applying a simple correction of only long/short-sightedness and astigmatism (only lower order aberrations as in traditional LASIK), an ophthalmologist applies a spatially varying correction, guiding the computer-controlled excimer laser with measurements from a wavefront sensor. The goal is to achieve a more optically perfect eye, though the result still depends on the physician's success at predicting changes that occur during healing and other factors that may have to do with the regularity/irregularity of the cornea and the axis of any residual astigmatism. Another important factor is whether the excimer laser can correctly register eye position in 3 dimensions, and to track the eye in all the possible directions of eye movement. If a wavefront guided treatment is performed with less than perfect registration and tracking, pre-existing aberrations can be worsened. In older patients, scattering from microscopic particles (cataract or incipient cataract) may play a role that outweighs any benefit from wavefront correction.
When treating a patient with preexisting astigmatism, most wavefront-guided LASIK lasers are designed to treat regular astigmatism as determined externally by corneal topography. In patients who have an element of internally induced astigmatism, therefore, the wavefront-guided astigmatism correction may leave regular astigmatism behind (a cross-cylinder effect). If the patient has preexisting irregular astigmatism, wavefront-guided approaches may leave both regular and irregular astigmatism behind. This can result in less-than-optimal visual acuity compared with a wavefront-guided approach combined with vector planning, as shown in a 2008 study. Thus, vector-planning offers a better alignment between corneal astigmatism and laser treatment, and leaves less regular astigmatism behind on the cornea, which is advantageous whether irregular astigmatism coexists or not.
The "leftover" astigmatism after a purely surface-guided laser correction can be calculated beforehand, and is called ocular residual astigmatism (ORA). ORA is a calculation of astigmatism due to the noncorneal surface (internal) optics. The purely refraction-based approach represented by wavefront analysis actually conflicts with corneal surgical experience developed over many years.
The pathway to "super vision" thus may require a more customized approach to corneal astigmatism than is usually attempted, and any remaining astigmatism ought to be regular (as opposed to irregular), which are both fundamental principles of vector planning overlooked by a purely wavefront-guided treatment plan. This was confirmed by the 2008 study mentioned above, which found a greater reduction in corneal astigmatism and better visual outcomes under mesopic conditions using wavefront technology combined with vector analysis than using wavefront technology alone, and also found equivalent higher-order aberrations (see below). Vector planning also proved advantageous in patients with keratoconus.
No good data can be found that compare the percentage of LASIK procedures that employ wavefront guidance versus the percentage that do not, nor the percentage of refractive surgeons who have a preference one way or the other. Wavefront technology continues to be positioned as an "advance" in LASIK with putative advantages; however, it is clear that not all LASIK procedures are performed with wavefront guidance.
Still, surgeons claim patients are generally more satisfied with this technique than with previous methods, particularly regarding lowered incidence of "halos," the visual artifact caused by spherical aberration induced in the eye by earlier methods. A meta-analysis of eight trials showed a lower incidence of these higher order aberrations in patients who had wavefront-guided LASIK compared to non-wavefront-guided LASIK. Based on their experience, the United States Air Force has described WFG-Lasik as giving "superior vision results".
Topography-assisted
Topography-assisted LASIK is intended to be an advancement in precision and reduce night-vision side effects. The first topography-assisted device received FDA approval September 13, 2013.
History
Barraquer's early work
In the 1950s, the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique were developed in Bogotá, Colombia, by the Spanish ophthalmologist Jose Barraquer. In his clinic, he would cut thin (one hundredth of a mm thick) flaps in the cornea to alter its shape. Barraquer also investigated how much of the cornea had to be left unaltered in order to provide stable long-term results. This work was followed by that of the Russian scientist, Svyatoslav Fyodorov, who developed radial keratotomy (RK) in the 1970s and designed the first posterior chamber implantable contact lenses (phakic intraocular lens) in the 1980s.
Laser refractive surgery
In 1980, Rangaswamy Srinivasan, Samuel E. Blum and James J. Wynne at the IBM Research laboratory, discovered that an ultraviolet excimer laser could etch living tissue, with precision and with no thermal damage to the surrounding area. The phenomenon was termed "ablative photo-decomposition" (APD).
Five years later, in 1985, Steven Trokel at the Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Columbia University in New York City, published his work using the excimer laser in radial keratotomy. He wrote,
"The central corneal flattening obtained by radial diamond knife incisions has been duplicated by radial laser incisions in 18 enucleated human eyes. The incisions, made by 193 nm far-ultraviolet light radiation emitted by the excimer laser, produced corneal flattening ranging from 0.12 to 5.35 diopters. Both the depth of the corneal incisions and the degree of central corneal flattening correlated with the laser energy applied. Histopathology revealed the remarkably smooth edges of the laser incisions."
Together with his colleagues, Charles Munnerlyn and Terry Clapham, Trokel founded VISX USA inc. Marguerite B. MacDonald MD performed the first human VISX refractive laser eye surgery in 1989.
Patent
A number of patents have been issued for several techniques related to LASIK. Rangaswamy Srinivasan and James Wynne filed a patent application on the ultraviolet excimer laser, in 1986, issued in 1988. In 1989, Gholam A. Peyman was granted a US patent for using an excimer laser to modify corneal curvature. It was,
"A method and apparatus for modifying the curvature of a live cornea via use of an excimer laser. The live cornea has a thin layer removed therefrom, leaving an exposed internal surface thereon. Then, either the surface or thin layer is exposed to the laser beam along a predetermined pattern to ablate desired portions. The thin layer is then replaced onto the surface. Ablating a central area of the surface or thin layer makes the cornea less curved, while ablating an annular area spaced from the center of the surface or layer makes the cornea more curved. The desired predetermined pattern is formed by use of a variable diaphragm, a rotating orifice of variable size, a movable mirror or a movable fiber optic cable through which the laser beam is directed towards the exposed internal surface or removed thin layer."
The patents related to so-called broad-beam LASIK and PRK technologies were granted to US companies including Visx and Summit during 1990–1995 based on the fundamental US patent issued to IBM (1988) which claimed the use of UV laser for the ablation of organic tissues.
Implementation in the U.S.
The LASIK technique was implemented in the U.S. after its successful application elsewhere. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) commenced a trial of the excimer laser in 1989. The first enterprise to receive FDA approval to use an excimer laser for photo-refractive keratectomy was Summit Technology (founder and CEO, Dr. David Muller).
In 1992, under the direction of the FDA, Greek ophthalmologist Ioannis Pallikaris introduced LASIK to ten VISX centers. In 1998, the "Kremer Excimer Laser", serial number KEA 940202, received FDA approval for its singular use for performing LASIK. Subsequently, Summit Technology was the first company to receive FDA approval to mass manufacture and distribute excimer lasers. VISX and other companies followed.
Pallikaris suggested a flap of cornea could be raised by microkeratome prior to the performing of PRK with the excimer laser. The addition of a flap to PRK became known as LASIK.
Recent years
The procedure seems to be a declining option for many in the United States, dropping more than 50 percent, from about 1.5 million surgeries in 2007 to 604,000 in 2015, according to the eye-care data source Market Scope. A study in the journal Cornea determined the frequency with which LASIK was searched on Google from 2007 to 2011. Within this time frame, LASIK searches declined by 40% in the United States. Countries such as the U.K. and India also showed a decline, 22% and 24% respectively. Canada, however, showed an increase in LASIK searches by 8%. This decrease in interest can be attributed to several factors: the emergence of refractive cataract surgery, the economic recession in 2008, and unfavorable media coverage from the FDA's 2008 press release on LASIK.
Effectiveness
In 2006, the British National Health Service's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) considered evidence of the effectiveness and the potential risks of the laser surgery stating "current evidence suggests that photorefractive (laser) surgery for the correction of refractive errors is safe and effective for use in appropriately selected patients. Clinicians undertaking photorefractive (laser) surgery for the correction of refractive errors should ensure that patients understand the benefits and potential risks of the procedure. Risks include failure to achieve the expected improvement in unaided vision, development of new visual disturbances, corneal infection and flap complications. These risks should be weighed against those of wearing spectacles or contact lenses." The FDA reports "The safety and effectiveness of refractive procedures has not been determined in patients with some diseases."
Satisfaction
Surveys of LASIK surgery find rates of patient satisfaction between 92 and 98 percent. In March 2008, the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery published a patient satisfaction meta-analysis of over 3,000 peer-reviewed articles from international clinical journals. Data from a systematic literature review conducted from 1988 to 2008, consisting of 309 peer-reviewed articles about "properly conducted, well-designed, randomized clinical trials" found a 95.4 percent patient satisfaction rate among LASIK patients.
A 2017 JAMA study claims that overall, preoperative symptoms decreased significantly, and visual acuity excelled. A meta-analysis discovered that 97% of patients achieved uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) of 20/40, while 62% achieved 20/20. The increase in visual acuity allows individuals to enter occupations that were previously not an option due to their vision.
Dissatisfaction
Some people with poor outcomes from LASIK surgical procedures report a significantly reduced quality of life because of vision problems or pain associated with the surgery. A small percentage of patients may need further surgery because their condition is over- or under-corrected. Some patients need to wear contact lenses or glasses even after treatment.
The most common reason for dissatisfaction in LASIK patients is chronic severe dry eye. Independent research indicates 95% of patients experience dry eye in the initial post-operative period. This number has been reported to up to 60% after one month. Symptoms begin to improve in the vast majority of patients in the 6 to 12 months following the surgery. However, 30% of post-LASIK referrals to tertiary ophthalmology care centers have been shown to be due to chronic dry eye.
Morris Waxler, a former FDA official who was involved in the approval of LASIK, subsequently criticized its widespread use. In 2010, Waxler made media appearances and claimed that the procedure had a failure rate greater than 50%. The FDA responded that Waxler's information was "filled with false statements, incorrect citations" and "mischaracterization of results".
A 2016 JAMA study indicates that the prevalence of complications from LASIK are higher than indicated, with the study indicating many patients experience glare, halos or other visual symptoms. Forty-three percent of participants in a JAMA study (published in 2017) reported new visual symptoms they had not experienced before.
Presbyopia
A type of LASIK, known as presbyLasik, may be used in presbyopia. Results are, however, more variable and some people have a decrease in visual acuity.
Risks
Higher-order aberrations
Higher-order aberrations are visual problems that require special testing for diagnosis and are not corrected with normal spectacles (eyeglasses). These aberrations include 'starbursts', 'ghosting', 'halos' and others. Some patients describe these symptoms post-operatively and associate them with the LASIK technique including the formation of the flap and the tissue ablation.
There is a correlation between pupil size and aberrations. This correlation may be the result of irregularity in the corneal tissue between the untouched part of the cornea and the reshaped part. Daytime post-LASIK vision is optimal, since the pupil size is smaller than the LASIK flap.
Others propose that higher-order aberrations are present preoperatively. They can be measured in micrometers (µm) whereas the smallest laser-beam size approved by the FDA is about 1000 times larger, at 0.65 mm.
In situ keratomileusis effected at a later age increases the incidence of corneal higher-order wavefront aberrations. These factors demonstrate the importance of careful patient selection for LASIK treatment.
Dry eyes
95% of patients report dry-eye symptoms after LASIK. Although it is usually temporary, it can develop into chronic and severe dry eye syndrome. Quality of life can be severely affected by dry-eye syndrome.
Underlying conditions with dry eye such as Sjögren's syndrome are considered contraindications to Lasik.
Treatments include artificial tears, prescription tears, and punctal occlusion. Punctal occlusion is accomplished by placing a collagen or silicone plug in the tear duct, which normally drains fluid from the eye. Some patients complain of ongoing dry-eye symptoms despite such treatments and the symptoms may be permanent.
Halos
Some post-LASIK patients see halos and starbursts around bright lights at night. At night, the pupil may dilate to be larger than the flap leading to the edge of the flap or stromal changes causing visual distortion of light that does not occur during the day when the pupil is smaller. The eyes can be examined for large pupils pre-operatively and the risk of this symptom assessed.
Complications due to LASIK have been classified as those that occur due to preoperative, intraoperative, early postoperative, or late postoperative sources: According to the UK National Health Service, complications occur in fewer than 5% of cases.
Other complications
Flap complications – The incidence of flap complications is about 0.244%. Flap complications (such as displaced flaps or folds in the flaps that necessitate repositioning, diffuse lamellar keratitis, and epithelial ingrowth) are common in lamellar corneal surgeries but rarely lead to permanent loss of visual acuity. The incidence of these microkeratome-related complications decreases with increased physician experience.
Slipped flap – is a corneal flap that detaches from the rest of the cornea. The chances of this are greatest immediately after surgery, so patients typically are advised to go home and sleep to let the flap adhere and heal. Patients are usually given sleep goggles or eye shields to wear for several nights to prevent them from dislodging the flap in their sleep. A short operation time may decrease the chance of this complication, as there is less time for the flap to dry.
Flap interface particles – are a finding whose clinical significance is undetermined. Particles of various sizes and reflectivity are clinically visible in about 38.7% of eyes examined via slit lamp biomicroscopy and in 100% of eyes examined by confocal microscopy.
Diffuse lamellar keratitis – an inflammatory process that involves an accumulation of white blood cells at the interface between the LASIK corneal flap and the underlying stroma. It is known colloquially as "sands of Sahara syndrome" because on slit lamp exam, the inflammatory infiltrate appears similar to waves of sand. The USAeyes organisation reports an incidence of 2.3% after LASIK. It is most commonly treated with steroid eye drops. Sometimes it is necessary for the eye surgeon to lift the flap and manually remove the accumulated cells. DLK has not been reported with photorefractive keratectomy due to the absence of flap creation.
Infection – the incidence of infection responsive to treatment has been estimated at 0.04%.
Post-LASIK corneal ectasia – a condition where the cornea starts to bulge forwards at a variable time after LASIK, causing irregular astigmatism. the condition is similar to keratoconus.
Subconjunctival hemorrhage – A report shows the incidence of subconjunctival hemorrhage has been estimated at 10.5%.
Corneal scarring – or permanent problems with cornea's shape making it impossible to wear contact lenses.
Epithelial ingrowth – estimated at 0.01%.
Traumatic flap dislocations – Cases of late traumatic flap dislocations have been reported up to thirteen years after LASIK.
Retinal detachment: estimated at 0.36 percent.
Choroidal neovascularization: estimated at 0.33 percent.
Uveitis: estimated at 0.18 percent.
For climbers – Although the cornea usually is thinner after LASIK, because of the removal of part of the stroma, refractive surgeons strive to maintain the maximum thickness to avoid structurally weakening the cornea. Decreased atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes has not been demonstrated as extremely dangerous to the eyes of LASIK patients. However, some mountain climbers have experienced a myopic shift at extreme altitudes.
Late postoperative complications – A large body of evidence on the chances of long-term complications is not yet established and may be changing due to advances in operator experience, instruments and techniques.
Potential best vision loss may occur a year after the surgery regardless of the use of eyewear.
Ocular neuropathic pain (corneal neuralgia); rare
FDA's position
In October 2009, the FDA, the National Eye Institute (NEI), and the Department of Defense (DoD) launched the LASIK Quality of Life Collaboration Project (LQOLCP) to help better understand the potential risk of severe problems that can result from LASIK in response to widespread reports of problems experienced by patients after LASIK laser eye surgery. This project examined patient-reported outcomes with LASIK (PROWL). The project consisted of three phases: pilot phase, phase I, phase II (PROWL-1) and phase III (PROWL-2). The last two phases were completed in 2014.
The results of the LASIK Quality of Life Study were published in October 2014.
The FDA's director of the Division of Ophthalmic Devices, said about the LASIK study "Given the large number of patients undergoing LASIK annually, dissatisfaction and disabling symptoms may occur in a significant number of patients". Also in 2014, FDA published an article highlighting the risks and a list of factors and conditions individuals should consider when choosing a doctor for their refractive surgery.
Contraindications
Not everyone is eligible to receive LASIK. Severe keratoconus or thin corneas may disqualify patients from LASIK, though other procedures may be viable options. Those with Fuchs' corneal endothelial dystrophy, corneal epithelial basement membrane dystrophy, retinal tears, autoimmune diseases, severe dry eyes, and significant blepharitis should be treated before consideration for LASIK. Women who are pregnant or nursing are generally not eligible to undergo LASIK.
People with large pupils (e.g. due to taking medications or in the younger age group) may be particularly prone to symptoms such as glare, halos, starbursts, and ghost images (double vision) in dim light after surgery. Because the laser can only work on the inner section of the cornea, the outer rim is left unaffected. In dim lighting, a patient's pupils dilate and may be predisposed to optic aberrations due to refractive asynchrony of the two regions with regards to the incoming light.
Further research
Since 1991, there have been further developments such as faster lasers; larger spot areas; bladeless flap incisions; intraoperative corneal pachymetry; and "wavefront-optimized" and "wavefront-guided" techniques which were introduced by the University of Michigan's Center for Ultrafast Optical Science. The goal of replacing standard LASIK in refractive surgery is to avoid permanently weakening the cornea with incisions and to deliver less energy to the surrounding tissues. More recently, techniques like Epi-Bowman Keratectomy have been developed that avoid touching the epithelial basement membrane or Bowman's layer.
Experimental techniques
"plain" LASIK: LASEK, Epi-LASIK,
Wavefront-guided PRK,
advanced intraocular lenses.
Femtosecond laser intrastromal vision correction: using all-femtosecond correction, for example, Femtosecond Lenticule EXtraction, FLIVC, or IntraCOR),
Keraflex: a thermobiochemical solution which has received the CE Mark for refractive correction. and is in European clinical trials for the correction of myopia and keratoconus.
Technolas FEMTEC laser: for incisionless IntraCOR ablation for presbyopia, with trials ongoing for myopia and other conditions.
LASIK with the IntraLase femtosecond laser: early trials comparing to the LASIK with microkeratomes for the correction of myopia suggest no significant differences in safety or efficacy. However, the femtosecond laser has a potential advantage in predictability, although this finding was not significant.
Comparison to photorefractive keratectomy
A systematic review that compared PRK and LASIK concluded that LASIK has shorter recovery time and less pain. The two techniques after a period of one year have similar results.
A 2017 systematic review found uncertainty in visual acuity, but found that in one study, those receiving PRK were less likely to achieve a refractive error, and were less likely to have an over-correction than compared to LASIK.
References
External links
What is LASIK? – Food and Drug Administration
Laser Eye Surgery – United States National Library of Medicine
1989 introductions
|
417945
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20Serbia
|
Greater Serbia
|
The term Greater Serbia or Great Serbia () describes the Serbian nationalist and irredentist ideology of the creation of a Serb state which would incorporate all regions of traditional significance to Serbs, a South Slavic ethnic group, including regions outside modern-day Serbia that are partly populated by Serbs. The initial movement's main ideology (Pan-Serbism) was to unite all Serbs (or all territory historically ruled, seen to be populated by, or perceived to be belonging to Serbs) into one state, claiming, depending on the version, different areas of many surrounding countries, regardless of non-Serb populations present.
The Greater Serbian ideology includes claims to various territories aside from modern-day Serbia, including the whole of the former Yugoslavia except Slovenia and part of Croatia. According to Jozo Tomasevich, in some historical forms, Greater Serbian aspirations also included parts of Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. Its inspiration comes from the medieval Serbian Empire which existed briefly in 14th century Southeast Europe from 1346 to 1371, prior to the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. Some territories intended to be incorporated in the Greater Serbia exceeded the boundaries of the Serbian Empire, however.
Historical perspective
Following the growing nationalistic tendency in Europe from the 18th century onwards, such as the Unification of Italy, Serbia – after first gaining its principality within the Ottoman Empire in 1817 – experienced a popular desire for full unification with the Serbs of the remaining territories, mainly those living in neighbouring entities.
The idea of territorial expansion of Serbia was formulated in 1844 in Načertanije, a secret political draft of the Principality of Serbia made by Ilija Garašanin, a conservative statesman with Bismarckian aspirations. According to the draft, the new Serbian state could include the neighboring areas of Montenegro, Northern Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the early 20th century, all political parties of the Kingdom of Serbia (except for the Social Democratic Party) were planning to create a Balkan Federation, generally accepted the idea of uniting all Serbs into one only Serbian state which would be a part of the Balkan federation. From the creation of the Principality until the First World War, the territory of Serbia was constantly expanding.
After the end of the Balkan Wars, the Kingdom of Serbia achieved the expansion towards the south, but there was a mixed reaction to the events, for the reason that the promises of lands gaining access to the Adriatic Sea were not fulfilled. Instead, Serbia received the territories of Vardar Macedonia that was intended to become part of the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the Serbian Army had to leave those coastal territories that would become part of the newly formed Principality of Albania. This event, together with the Austro-Hungarian Annexation of Bosnia, frustrated Serbian aspirations, since there was still a large number of Serbs remaining out of the Kingdom.
The Serbian victory in the First World War was supposed to serve as compensation to this situation and there was an open debate between the followers of the Greater Serbia doctrine, that defended the incorporation of the parts of the defeated Austro-Hungarian Empire where Serbs lived to Serbia, opposed by the ones that supported an idea of uniting not only all the Serbian lands, but also to include other South Slav nations into a new country.
The Serbian Royal family of Karađorđević was set to rule this new state, called Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, that would be renamed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. Initially, the proponents of the Greater Serbia doctrine felt satisfied, since the main goal of uniting all Serbian-inhabited lands under the rule of a Serbian Monarchic dynasty was mostly achieved. During the inter-war period, the majority of Serbian politicians defended a strong centralised country, while their opponents demanded major autonomy for the regions.
Following the German-led invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, these tensions grew to become one of the most brutal civil wars that occurred in World War II. The Royal Government soon capitulated and fled to exile in London. Resistance was initially made by the Chetniks, who defended the restoration of the Monarchy but would eventually collaborate with the Axis powers with the goal of forming a post-war Greater Serbia, and the Partisans, a multi-ethnic antifascist movement who waged a guerrilla campaign against occupying forces and supported the transformation of Yugoslavia into a socialist federal republic. The Serbs were largely divided into these two factions with differing ideologies and goals, leading to internal fighting. Others found themselves in the collaborationist factions of Milan Nedić and Dimitrije Ljotić such as the Serbian Volunteer Corps. Beside this, other Yugoslav non-Serb nationalists took advantage of the situation and allied themselves with the Axis countries, regarding this moment as their historical opportunity of fulfilling their own irredentist aspirations. Another portion of non-Serbs also fought under the Partisan movement towards a united communist-led Yugoslavia.
After the war, victorious Partisan leader Marshal Josip Broz Tito became the head of state of Yugoslavia until his death in 1980. During this period the country was divided in six republics. In 1976, within the Socialist Republic of Serbia two autonomous provinces, SAP Kosovo and SAP Vojvodina, were created. During this period, most of the Greater Serbian ideology followers were incarcerated as accused of betrayal, or exiled. Within the rest of the Serbian population, the vast majority became strong supporters of this new Non-Aligned Yugoslavia.
History
Obradović's Pan-Serbism
The first person to formulate the modern idea of Pan-Serbism was Dositej Obradović (1739–1811), a writer and thinker who dedicated his writings to the "Slavoserbian people", which he described as "the inhabitants of Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Croatia, Syrmium, Banat, and Bačka", and who he regarded as all his "Serbian brethren, regardless of their church and religion". Other proponents of Pan-Serbism included historian Jovan Rajić and politician and lawyer Sava Tekelija, both of whom published works incorporating many of the aforementioned areas under a single umbrella name of "Serbian lands".
The concept of Pan-Serbism espoused by these three was not an imperialist one, based upon the notion of Serbian conquest, but a rationalist one. They all believed that rationalism would overcome the barriers of religion that separated the Slavs into Orthodox Christians, Catholics, and Muslims, uniting the peoples as one nation.
The idea of a unification and homogenization by force was propounded by Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (1813–1851).
Garašanin's Načertanije
Some authors claim that the roots of the Greater Serbian ideology can be traced back to Serbian minister Ilija Garašanin's Načertanije (1844). Načertanije (Начертаније) was influenced by "Conseils sur la conduite a suivre par la Serbie", a document written by Polish Prince Adam Czartoryski in 1843 and the revised version by Polish ambassador to Serbia, Franjo Zach, "Zach's Plan".
The work claimed lands that were inhabited by Bulgarians, Macedonians, Albanians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, Hungarians and Croats as part of Greater Serbia. Garašanin's plan also included methods of spreading Serbian influence in the claimed lands. He proposed ways to influence Croats and Slavic Muslims, who Garašanin regarded as "Serbs of Catholic faith" and "Serbs of Islamic faith". The document also emphasized the necessity of cooperation between the Balkan nations and it advocated that the Balkans should be governed by the nations from the Balkans.
This plan was kept secret until 1906 and has been interpreted by some as a blueprint for Serbian national unification, with the primary concern of strengthening Serbia's position by inculcating Serbian and pro-Serbian national ideology in all surrounding peoples that are considered to be devoid of national consciousness. Because Načertanije was a secret document until 1906, it could not have affected national consciousness at the popular level. However, some scholars suggest that from the second half of the nineteenth century to the outbreak of World War I, “leading political groups and social strata in Serbia were thoroughly imbued with the ideas in the Nacertanije and differed only in intensity of feeling and political conceptualization”. Political insecurity, more so than Yugoslavism or Serbian nationalism, appeared to be the prevailing reasoning behind the idea of expanding Serbian borders. The document is one of the most contested of nineteenth-century Serbian history, with rival interpretations. Some scholars argue that Garašanin was an inclusive Yugoslavist, while others maintain that he was an exclusive Serbian nationalist seeking a Greater Serbia.
Vuk Karadžić's Pan-Serbism
The most notable Serbian linguist of the 19th century, Vuk Karadžić, was a follower of the view that all south Slavs that speak the Shtokavian dialect (of Serbo-Croatian) were Serbs, speaking the Serbian language. As this definition implied that large areas of continental Croatia, Dalmatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, including areas inhabited by Roman Catholics – Vuk Karadžić is considered by some to be the progenitor of the Greater Serbia program. More precisely, Karadžić was the shaper of modern secular Serbian national consciousness, with the goal of incorporating all indigenous Shtokavian speakers (Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim) into one, modern Serbian nation. German historian Michael Weithmann
considers that Karadžić expressed dangerous ideological and political idea in scientific shape ie that all southern Slavs are Serbs while Czech historian Jan Rychlik consider that Karadžić became a propagator of greater Serbian ideology and uttered a theory according to which are all Yugoslav people talking shtokavian dialect Serbs.
This view is not shared by Andrew Baruch Wachtel (Making a Nation, Breaking a Nation) who sees him as a partisan of South Slav unity, albeit in a limited sense, in that his linguistic definition emphasized what united South Slavs rather than the religious differences that had earlier divided them. However, one might argue that such a definition is very partisan: Karadžić himself eloquently and explicitly professed that his aim was to unite all native Shtokavian speakers whom he identified as Serbs. Therefore, Vuk Karadžić's central linguistic-political aim was the growth of the realm of Serbdom according to his ethnic-linguistic ideas and not a unity of any sort between Serbs and the other nations.
Balkan Wars
The idea of reclaiming historic Serbian territory has been put into action several times during the 19th and 20th centuries, notably in Serbia's southward expansion in the Balkan Wars. Serbia claimed "historical rights" to the possession of Macedonia, acquired by Stephen Dušan in fourteenth century.
Serbia gained significant territorial expansion in the Balkan Wars and almost doubled its territory, with the areas populated mostly by non-Serbs (Albanians, Bulgarians, Turks and others). Serbia's most important goal of the Balkan Wars was access to the open sea. so the Kingdom of Serbia occupied most of the interior of Albania and Albania's Adriatic coast. A series of massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were committed by the Serbian and Montenegrin Army. According to the Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars, Serbia consider annexed territories "as a dependency, a sort of conquered colony, which these conquerors might administer at their good pleasure". Newly acquired territories were subjected to military government, and were not included in Serbia's constitutional system. The opposition press demanded the rule of law for the population of the annexed territories and the extension of the constitution of the Kingdom of Serbia to these regions.
The Royal Serbian Army captured Durazzo () on 29 November 1912 without any resistance. Orthodox Christian metropolitan of Durrës Jakob gave a particularly warm welcome to the new authorities. Due to Jakob's intervention to the Serbian authorities several Albanian guerrilla units were saved and avoided execution.
However, the army of the Kingdom of Serbia retreated from Durrës in April 1913 under pressure of the naval fleet of Great Powers, but it remained in other parts of Albania for the next two months.
Black Hand
The secret military society called Unity or Death, popularly known as the Black Hand, headed by Serbian colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević Apis, which took an active and militant stance on the issue of a Greater Serbian state. This organization is believed to have been responsible for numerous atrocities following the Balkan Wars in 1913.
World War I and the creation of Yugoslavia
By 1914 the Greater Serbian concept was eventually replaced by the Yugoslav Pan-Slavic movement. The change in approach was meant as a means to gain support of other Slavs which neighboured Serbs who were also occupied by Austria-Hungary. The intention to create a south Slav or "Yugoslav" state was expressed in the Niš declaration by Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić in 1914, as well as in Serbia's regent Alexander's statement in 1916. The documents showed that Serbia would pursue a policy that would integrate all territory that contained Serbs and southern Slavs (except Bulgarians), including Croats and Slovenes.
The Treaty of London (1915) of the allies would assign to Serbia the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Srem, Bačka, Slavonia (against Italian objections) and northern Albania (to be divided with Montenegro).
After the First World War, Serbia achieved a maximalist nationalist aspirations with the unification of the south Slavic regions of Austria-Hungary and Montenegro, into a Serbian-dominated Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
During the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the government of the Kingdom pursued a linguistic Serbisation policy towards the Macedonians in Macedonia, then called "Southern Serbia" (unofficially) or "Vardar Banovina" (officially). The dialects spoken in this region were referred to as dialects of Serbo-Croatian.
Either way, those southern dialects were suppressed with regards education, military and other national activities, and their usage was punishable.
World War II and Moljević's Homogenous Serbia
During World War II, the Serbian royalist Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland which was headed by General Draža Mihailović attempted to define its vision of a postwar future. One of its intellectuals was the Bosnian Serb nationalist Stevan Moljević who, in 1941, proposed in a paper which was titled "Homogenous Serbia" that an even larger Greater Serbia should be created, incorporating not only Bosnia and much of Croatia but also chunks of Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and Hungary in areas where Serbs don't represent a significant minority. In the territories which were under their military control, the Chetniks waged ethnic cleansing in a genocidal campaign against ethnic Croats and Bosnian Muslims.
It was a point of discussion at a Chetnik congress which was held in the village of Ba in central Serbia in January 1944; however, Moljević's ideas were never put into practice due to the Chetniks' defeat by Josip Broz Tito's Partisans (initially a movement predominantly composed of Serbs which became more multi-ethnic by this time) and it is difficult to assess how influential they were, due to the lack of records from the Ba congress. Nonetheless, Moljević's core idea—that Serbia is defined by the pattern of Serb settlement, irrespective of existing national borders—was to remain an underlying theme of the Greater Serbian ideal.
Role in the dissolution of Yugoslavia
SANU Memorandum
Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (1986) was the single most important document to set into motion the pan-Serbian movement of the late 1980s which led to Slobodan Milošević's rise to power and the subsequent Yugoslav wars. The authors of the Memorandum included the most influential Serbian intellectuals, among them: Dobrica Ćosić, Pavle Ivić, Antonije Isaković, Dušan Kanazir, Mihailo Marković, Miloš Macura, Dejan Medaković, Miroslav Pantić, Nikola Pantić, Ljubiša Rakić, Radovan Samardžić, Miomir Vukobratović, Vasilije Krestić, Ivan Maksimović, Kosta Mihailović, Stojan Čelić and Nikola Čobelić. Philosopher Christopher Bennett characterized the memorandum as "an elaborate, if crude, conspiracy theory." The memorandum claimed systematic discrimination against Serbs and Serbia culminating with the allegation that the Serbs of Kosovo and Metohija were being subjected to genocide. According to Bennett, despite most of these claims being obviously absurd, the memorandum was merely one of several similar polemics published at the time.
The Memorandum's defenders claim that far from calling for a breakup of Yugoslavia on Greater Serbian lines, the document was in favor of Yugoslavia. Its support for Yugoslavia was however conditional on fundamental changes to end what the Memorandum argued was the discrimination against Serbia which was inbuilt into the Yugoslav constitution. The chief of these changes was abolition of the autonomy of Kosovo and Vojvodina. According to Norman Cigar, because the changes were unlikely to be accepted passively, the implementation of the Memorandum's program would only be possible by force.
Milošević's rise to power
With the rise to power of Milošević the Memorandum's discourse became mainstream in Serbia. According to Bennett, Milošević used a rigid control of the media to organize a propaganda campaign in which the Serbs were the victims and stressed the need to readjust Yugoslavia due to the alleged bias against Serbia. This was then followed by Milošević's anti-bureaucratic revolution in which the provincial governments of Vojvodina and Kosovo and the Republican government of Montenegro, were overthrown giving Milošević the dominating position of four votes out of eight in Yugoslavia's collective presidency. Milošević had achieved such a dominant position for Serbia because, according to Bennett, the old communist authorities had failed to stand up to him. During August 1988, supporters of the Anti-Bureaucratic Revolution were reported to have shouted Greater Serbia themed chants of "Montenegro is Serbia!"
Croatia and Slovenia denounced the demands by Milošević for a more centralized system of government in Yugoslavia and they began to demand that Yugoslavia be made a full multi-party confederal state. Milošević claimed that he opposed a confederal system but also declared that should a confederal system be created, the external borders of Serbia would be an "open question", insinuating that his government would pursue creating a Greater Serbia if Yugoslavia was decentralized. Milosevic stated: "These are the questions of borders, essential state questions. The borders, as you know, are always dictated by the strong, never by weak ones."
By this point several opposition parties in Serbia were openly calling for a Greater Serbia, rejecting the then existing boundaries of the Republics as the artificial creation of Tito's partisans. These included Šešelj's Serbian Radical Party, claiming that the recent changes had rectified most of the anti-Serb bias that the Memorandum had alleged. Milošević supported the groups calling for a Greater Serbia, insisting on the demand for "all Serbs in one state". The Socialist Party of Serbia appeared to be defenders of the Serb people in Yugoslavia. Serbian president Slobodan Milošević, who was also the leader of the Socialist Party of Serbia, repeatedly stated that all Serbs should enjoy the right to be included in Serbia. Opponents and critics of Milošević claimed that "Yugoslavia could be that one state but the threat was that, should Yugoslavia break up, then Serbia under Milošević would carve out a Greater Serbia".
Major changes took place in Yugoslavia in 1990 when free elections brought opposition parties to power in Croatia and Slovenia. In 1990, power had seeped away from the federal government to the republics and were deadlocked over the future of Yugoslavia with the Slovene and Croatian republics seeking a confederacy and Serbia a stronger federation. Gow states, "it was the behavior of Serbia that added to the Croatian and Slovene Republic's belief that no accommodation was possible with the Serbian Republic's leadership". The last straw was on 15 May 1991 when the outgoing Serb president of the collective presidency along with the Serb satellites on the presidency blocked the succession of the Croatian representative Stjepan Mesić as president. According to Gow, from this point on Yugoslavia de facto "ceased to function".
Virovitica–Karlovac–Karlobag line
The Virovitica–Karlovac–Karlobag line ( / Virovitica–Karlovac–Karlobag linija) is a hypothetical boundary that describes the western extent of an irredentist nationalist Serbian state. It defines everything east of this line, Karlobag–Ogulin–Karlovac–Virovitica, as a part of Serbia, while the west of it would be within Slovenia, and all which might remain of Croatia. Such a boundary would give the majority of the territory of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the Serbs.
This line was frequently referenced by Serbian politician Vojislav Šešelj.
A greater Serbian state was supported for irredentist as well as economical reasons, as it would give Serbia a large coastline, heavy industries, agricultural farmland, natural resources and all of the crude oil (mostly found in the Pannonian Plain, and particularly in the Socialist Republic of Croatia). There were various Serbian politicians associated with Slobodan Milošević in the early 1990s who publicly espoused such views: Mihalj Kertes, Milan Babić, Milan Martić, Vojislav Šešelj, Stevan Mirković.
In his speeches and books, Šešelj claimed that all of the population of these areas are in fact ethnic Serbs, of Orthodox, Roman Catholic or Muslim faith. However, outside of Šešelj's Serbian Radical Party, the line as such was never promoted in recent Serbian political life.
Yugoslav wars
The war crimes charges against Milošević are based on the allegation that he sought the establishment of a "Greater Serbia". Prosecutors at the Hague argued that "the indictments were all part of a common scheme, strategy or plan on the part of the accused [Milošević] to create a 'Greater Serbia', a centralized Serbian state encompassing the Serb-populated areas of Croatia and Bosnia and all of Kosovo, and that this plan was to be achieved by forcibly removing non-Serbs from large geographical areas through the commission of the crimes charged in the indictments. Although the events in Kosovo were separated from those in Croatia and Bosnia by more than three years, they were no more than a continuation of that plan, and they could only be understood completely by reference to what had happened in Croatia and Bosnia."
The Hague Trial Chamber found that the strategic plan of the Bosnian Serb leadership consisted of "a plan to link Serb-populated areas in BiH together, to gain control over these areas and to create a separate Bosnian Serb state, from which most non-Serbs would be permanently removed". It also found that media in certain areas focused only on Serb Democratic Party policy and reports from Belgrade became more prominent, including the presentation of extremist views and promotion of the concept of a Greater Serbia, just as in other parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina the concept of a Greater Croatia was openly advocated.
Vuk Drašković, leader of the Serbian Renewal Movement, called for the creation of a Greater Serbia which would include Serbia, Kosovo, Vojvodina, Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as regions within Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia with high concentrations of Serbs. About 160,000 Croats were expelled from territories Serbian forces sought to control.
Much of the fighting in the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s was the result of an attempt to keep Serbs unified. Mihailo Marković, the Vice President of the Main Committee of Serbia's Socialist Party, rejected any solution that would make Serbs outside Serbia a minority. He proposed establishing a federation consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Serbs residing in the Serbian Autonomous Region of Krajina, Slavonia, Baranja, and Srem.
Later developments
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) accused Slobodan Milošević and other Serb leaders of committing crimes against humanity which included murder, forcible population transfer, deportation and "persecution on political, racial or religious grounds." Tribunal prosecutor's office has accused Milosevic of "the gravest violations of human rights in Europe since the Second World War and genocide."
Serbian historian Sima Ćirković stated that grumblings about Greater Serbia and pointing fingers at Garašanin's Načertanije and the "Memorandum" is not helping to solve the existing problems and that it is an abuse of history.
Serbian academic Čedomir Popov considers that the allegations of "Greater Serbian intentions" are often used for politically anti-Serbian interests and that they are factually incorrect. Popov stated that throughout the Serbian history there never was nor ever will be a Greater Serbia.
In 2008, Aleksandar Vučić, a former member of the Serbian Radical Party, which advocated the creation of a Greater Serbia, stated that Šešelj's vision of Greater Serbian was unrealistic and that idea of Greater Serbia was unrealistic at the moment because of balance of power held by the great powers.
Recent events
In 2011, there was a movement calling for the unification of Republika Srpska with Serbia.
This idea is detested by Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina where it is seen as an act of breaking the Dayton Agreement, while Serbs see it as an example of self-determination.
Serbian World
Ever since 2020, a new term called Serbian World () came to use among prominent Serbian politicians such as Aleksandar Vulin. Regional media and political commentators saw this term as a substitute for earlier "Greater Serbia".
See also
Anti-Croat sentiment
Anti-Serb sentiment
Far-right politics in Serbia
Greater Albania
Greater Bosnia
Greater Croatia
Proposed secession of Republika Srpska
Serbian nationalism
References
Literature
External links
From Project Rastko website:
Ilija Garasanin's "Nacertanije": A Reasessment, including full translation of the document to English language
Full Memorandum SANU (73 pages)
Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts – Answers to Criticism
From Croatian Information Centre website:
"Greater Serbia – from Ideology to Aggression" , book of excerpts of influential Serbians supporting the idea
Henri Pozzi:Black Hand Over Europe
Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Stevan Moljević:Homogenous Serbia
An end to the myth of "Greater Serbia"? A rebuttal by a grandson of the man who coined the term
International sources
The policy creating greater Serbia (UN report)
Greater Serbia in modern times: Paul Garde's opinion
Bosnia: a single country or an apple of discord? , Bosnian Institute, 12 May 2006
Serbian-Greek Confederation as proposed by Slobodan Milošević and Karadžić
The End of Greater Serbia By Nicholas Wood-The New York Times
Globalizing the Holocaust: A Jewish 'useable past' in Serbian Nationalism – David MacDonald, University of Otago
Serbian nationalism in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Serbian nationalism in Croatia
Serbian nationalism in Kosovo
Serbian nationalism in Montenegro
Serbian nationalism in North Macedonia
Political terminology of Serbia
|
417954
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Caledonian
|
British Caledonian
|
British Caledonian (BCal) was a British private independent airline which operated out of London Gatwick Airport in south-east England during the 1970s and 1980s. It was created as an alternative to the British government-controlled corporation airlines and was described as the "Second Force" in the 1969 Edwards report. It was formed by the UK's second-largest, independent charter airline Caledonian Airways taking over British United Airways (BUA), then the largest British independent airline and the United Kingdom's leading independent scheduled carrier. The carrier slogan was Let's go British Caledonian in the 1970s and We never forget you have a choice in the 1980s. The BUA takeover enabled Caledonian to realise its long-held ambition to transform itself into a scheduled airline. The merged entity eventually became the UK's foremost independent, international scheduled airline.
A series of major financial setbacks during the mid-1980s combined with the airline's inability to grow sufficiently to reach a viable size put the airline at serious risk of collapse. British Caledonian began looking for a merger partner to improve its competitive position. In December 1987, British Airways (BA) bought the airline. The Caledonian name was used to rebrand BA's Gatwick-based subsidiary British Airtours as Caledonian Airways.
History
Inception
On St. Andrew's Day (30 November) in 1970, Caledonian Airways acquired British United Airways (BUA) from British and Commonwealth (B&C) for £6.9 million. Caledonian Airways also purchased three new BAC One-Eleven 500 aircraft, which B&C had leased to BUA, for a further £5 million.
Caledonian's acquisition of BUA from B&C did not include the assets of British United Island Airways (BUIA), BUA's regional affiliate.
BCal was a wholly owned subsidiary of Caledonian Airways Ltd. BCal itself had a number of subsidiaries as well. Amongst these were Caledonian Airways Equipment Holdings and Caledonian Airways (Leasing), which were set up to acquire and dispose of aircraft on behalf of the airline as well as to sell maintenance, training and management expertise to third parties. BCal also owned two package holiday companies as well as several hotels in Spain and Sierra Leone. BCal also inherited BUA's minority stakes in Gambia Airways, Sierra Leone Airways and Uganda Aviation Services.
The airline's formation followed publication of the Edwards report entitled British Air Transport in the Seventies in 1969. and a subsequent White paper from the government The report recommended the creation of a "Second Force", private sector carrier to take on the state-owned corporations — British European Airways (BEA) and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) — by providing competing domestic and international scheduled services on trunk routes. The government rejected the proposed transfer of routes from BOAC and BEA to the Second Force, and held that dual designation on a route should be open to any British independent. The new airline established its headquarters and operational base at Gatwick Airport and Sir Adam Thomson, one of the five co-founders as well as one of the main shareholders of Caledonian Airways, became its chairman and managing director.
BCal was a full member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA) at its inception as a result of inheriting BUA's membership. This included membership of IATA's trade association as well as participation in tariff co-ordination with other member airlines in the organisation's annual traffic conferences. BCal also had its own air freight terminal at Heathrow
BCal inherited from its predecessors 31 jet aircraft: 11 long-haul aircraft (seven ex-Caledonian Boeing 707s and four ex-BUA Vickers VC10) and 20 short-haul planes (eight ex-BUA and four ex-Caledonian BAC One-Eleven 500s and eight ex-BUA BAC One-Eleven 200s). The issued share capital was £12 million — more than that of any other wholly private, British independent airline at the time — and its workforce numbered 4,400.
This made BCal the UK's foremost independent airline of the time. Although Dan-Air and Britannia Airways exceeded BCal's total annual passenger numbers from 1975, BCal maintained its position as Britain's leading independent international scheduled airline, in terms of both the number of scheduled passengers carried each year and the total yearly scheduled capacity measured in passenger kilometres, throughout its 17-year existence.) The newly created company's output measured in available capacity tonne kilometres was greater than that of some of the smaller, contemporary European flag carriers, such as Aer Lingus, Air India, Sabena, or Swissair. By that measure, BCal was about the same size as Australia's flag carrier Qantas.
The institutional investors that had helped Sir Adam Thomson and John de la Haye launch Caledonian Airways back in 1961 were also among the shareholders of the newly constituted airline. They included The Automobile Association (AA), Great Universal Stores (GUS), Hogarth Shipping, Lyle Shipping, Industrial and Commercial Finance Corporation (ICFC) — one of the two predecessors of Investors in Industry, Kleinwort Benson, the Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) and Schroders. (Airways Interests (Thomson), which had been set up at Caledonian's inception a decade earlier as an investment vehicle for that airline's founders to enable them to maintain control, was renamed Caledonian Airways Ltd and became the new group holding company.)
Before adopting the British Caledonian name, the new airline legally constituted two separate entities — Caledonian Airways (Prestwick) Ltd and British United Airways Ltd. These traded together under the interim name Caledonian//BUA until September 1971. The combined airline carried a total of 2.6 million passengers during its first year of operation.
For accounting purposes, BCal's aircraft were respectively allocated to a "BUA Division" and "Caledonian Division" during the interim period. The former was responsible for all IATA activities. This encompassed all scheduled services. The latter was responsible for all non-IATA work. This included all non-scheduled operations. At that time, two-thirds of all passengers were carried on charter flights.
During that period, former BUA air hostesses still wearing that airline's blue uniforms were working alongside their tartan-clad, former Caledonian counterparts in the cabins of all passenger flights. Eventually, the Caledonian tartan uniforms became BCal's standard for female staff.
Following the interim period, Caledonian Airways (Prestwick) Ltd and British United Airways Ltd were merged into British Caledonian Airways Ltd (BCal). All former BUA aircraft were repainted adopting Caledonian's livery featuring a prominent Scottish Lion Rampant on its aircraft's fins. At that time, all aircraft were named after famous Scots and well-known Scottish places. This tradition was continued throughout the airline's 17-year existence. Some BCal aircraft were also allocated out-of-sequence registrations. (For instance, G-BCAL was allocated to one of the Boeing 707s, G-CLAN and G-SCOT were the registrations of the Piper Navajo Chieftains, G-DCIO was the registration of the eighth DC-10 and G-HUGE was the Boeing 747 Combi registration)
The "Second Force" inherited BUA's extensive network of scheduled routes serving the British Isles, Continental Europe, Africa and South America. Its scheduled ambitions were aided by the British Government transferring to it BOAC's West African trunk routes to Nigeria and Ghana as well as the corporation's North African route to Libya. These routes represented only 3% of BOAC's annual, worldwide turnover.
The Government also agreed to let it serve Casablanca in Morocco from Gatwick in competition with BEA's service from Heathrow. Furthermore, the Government agreed to license BCal to operate non-stop scheduled services between London and Paris and to begin negotiations with the French authorities to secure reciprocal approval for BCal to be able to commence scheduled operations on what was then the busiest international air route in Europe. BCal moreover received Government assurances that it would be designated as the UK's sole flag carrier on all routes transferred to it and that it would be assisted in obtaining traffic rights for additional, selected scheduled routes where it wished to compete with the corporations, including the lucrative London—New York and London—Los Angeles routes.
Another important concession by the Government designed to improve the competitiveness of the "Second Force" was to permit it to provide a first class cabin on its East African routes. (BUA, from whom BCal inherited these routes, had been prevented from offering a first class on its East African routes. To compensate for this loss of competitiveness, Sir Freddie Laker, BUA's managing director from 1960 to 1965, had come up with the idea of designing a cargo door to be installed on the left-hand side of the forward fuselage of that airline's long-haul VC10s, where the first class cabin was normally located. This modification permitted the carriage of additional freight instead of first class passengers on the East African routes.)
In addition, BCal became the Government's "chosen instrument of the private sector". This meant that the Government agreed to accord preferential status to BCal's worldwide scheduled ambitions, especially in the award of additional licences to operate scheduled services on major domestic and international trunk routes. The Government hoped that putting BCal's requirements ahead of other UK-based independent airlines' rival scheduled ambitions would help the new "Second Force" develop into a fully fledged, major international scheduled airline, thereby enabling it to achieve the critical mass to challenge the corporations' near-monopoly among UK-based scheduled airlines.
The Central London air terminal at Victoria Station in London's West End, which the "Second Force" inherited from BUA as well, allowed passengers to complete all check-in formalities, including dropping off their hold luggage, before boarding their train to the airport.
BCal also had a Gatwick airside lounge for its premium passengers, which it named Clansmen Lounge.
Formative years
BCal commenced scheduled operations from Gatwick to Nigeria (Lagos and Kano) and Ghana (Accra) in April 1971. Scheduled services from Gatwick to Tripoli began in July 1971. On each of these routes BCal replaced BOAC as the designated UK flag carrier. On 1 November 1971, BCal started scheduled flights between London Gatwick and Paris Le Bourget Airport, where it replaced BEA's London Heathrow—Paris Le Bourget service and competed with that airline's Heathrow—Paris Orly Airport service. This was the first time since the 1930s that an independent airline commenced a scheduled service on that trunk route.
BCal ended its 1970/71 financial year to 30 September 1971 with a profit of £1.7 million (after accounting for BUA's £600,000 loss)
In 1972, BCal extended its East African network to the Seychelles. The same year it also introduced a new Edinburgh—Newcastle—Copenhagen regional scheduled service to live up to its claim of being "Scotland's international airline". This complemented the Glasgow—Newcastle—Amsterdam regional route BCal had inherited from BUA.
1972 was also the year BCal introduced the UK's first-ever "no frills" type service on the two main domestic trunk routes linking London and Scotland. The airline introduced simultaneous night-time departures from Gatwick, Glasgow and Edinburgh, resulting in an overall frequency increase to six daily round-trips on each route. The company charged a very low £5 one-way fare on these night-time services, which were marketed under the Moonjet trademark. This move, which was modelled on the high-frequency-low-fares operation run by Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA), the original "no frills" airline, along the busy San Diego—Los Angeles—San Francisco air corridor in California, boosted passenger numbers and profitability on both routes.
During that year, larger capacity, longer range and more fuel-efficient Boeing 707s replaced VC10s on BCal's South American routes, where the 707's greater range enabled the airline to run non-stop flights between London Gatwick and Rio de Janeiro, as well as on the West African trunk routes to Nigeria and Ghana.
As a result of the then prevailing, ruinous rates in the charter market, which still accounted for half of BCal's business, the airline incurred a loss of £194,000 during the financial year to 30 September 1972.
To support its ambitious expansion plans, BCal acquired a number of additional, second-hand Boeing 707s from various sources through its aircraft trading and leasing subsidiaries during the early 1970s. These included a pair of 320C series aircraft procured on a long-term lease from Britannia Airways featuring a two-class, "widebody look" interior. Another three 707s received re-modelled "widebody" cabins. All five were used to inaugurate the airline's transatlantic scheduled routes to New York and Los Angeles where the established competition was operating widebodied aircraft, such as the Boeing 747 "jumbo jet". It was thought that the aircraft's widebody style interiors would leave passengers with the impression that BCal was operating widebodied aircraft when in fact it was not. During that time, BCal placed an order with the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) for two new One-Eleven 500s and acquired additional second-hand examples. At the same time, the airline disposed of some of its 707s, VC10s and One-Eleven 200s. These included the original pair of 399C series 707 aircraft that had been delivered to Caledonian Airways direct from the manufacturer in 1967/68.
BCal inaugurated its two transatlantic flagship services from London Gatwick to John F. Kennedy Airport (JFK) on 1 April 1973, followed by Gatwick — Los Angeles International a few days later. Earl Mountbatten of Burma was BCal's chief guest on board its inaugural Gatwick—JFK flight. (The flight diverted to Boston due to inclement weather in the New York area.) This occasion marked the first time that a British independent airline commenced non-stop transatlantic scheduled services on routes linking the UK and the US. Also on 1 April 1973, BCal replaced the two-letter CA airline designator – which was originally used to prefix all Caledonian Airways flight numbers and continued to prefix flight numbers allocated to transatlantic charter flights until 31 March 1973 – with the BR airline designator it had inherited from BUA at the time of its formation. This resulted in exclusive use of the BR designator as a prefix for all BCal flight numbers.
In 1973, BCal also inaugurated its fourth scheduled domestic trunk route between London Gatwick and Manchester. The new service was contracted to British Island Airways (BIA), BUIA's successor, which operated two daily return trips using its Handley Page Dart Herald turboprops.
On 20 March 1974, BCal switched its Gatwick—Paris services to the then brand-new Charles de Gaulle Airport in the northern Paris suburb of Roissy-en-France, thus becoming the first scheduled carrier to operate between London and the new Paris airport.
To further extend the network's reach and improve its connectivity, BCal agreed to host Dan-Air's new, twice daily Gatwick—Newcastle flights, which began on 20 April 1974, in its computer reservation system (CRS) as part of a combined marketing effort.
June 1974 saw the launch of BCal's non-stop Gatwick—Brussels scheduled route, the third European trunk route on which the airline operated scheduled services in competition with the incumbent flag carriers' established services from Heathrow.
1974 crisis year
The creation of British Airways (BA) as a result of the 1974 BEA-BOAC merger came against the background of the first global oil crisis in the wake of the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, which led to the quadrupling of the price of a barrel of oil as a consequence of the decision by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to boycott the West in retaliation for its support of Israel during that war. This meant that the newly merged corporation's original revenue and profit projections were far too optimistic. During that time, BA began exerting pressure on the Government, at the time its sole owner as well as the regulator for all UK airlines, to curtail the activities of its independent competitors generally and of the "Second Force" in particular.
The difficult operating environment at the time did not affect BA alone. In fact, the major scheduled airlines were all losing enormous amounts of money at the time. The sudden spike in the oil price caused a major recession during the second half of 1974 as well as the first half of 1975, with much reduced demand for air travel. This in turn led to the collapse of a number of prominent travel companies and their associated airlines — most notably the Court Line group and Horizon Holidays, the latter having provided work for three BCal short-haul aircraft prior to its collapse. There was also massive overcapacity on the North Atlantic routes.
These circumstances forced BCal to put in place a major programme of retrenchment, known internally as Plan "S" (from "survival") Plan "S" began to be implemented from 1 November 1974. It resulted in route cut-backs — including the suspension of the transatlantic "flagship" services, of which Flight International said the fuel crisis was a "heaven-sent excuse" to back out of a failure. the immediate withdrawal and subsequent disposal of the remaining VC10 long-haul aircraft, the grounding of a number of short-haul aircraft as well 827 redundancies out of the company's 5,673 staff. It also resulted in organisational changes that saw Adam Thomson become the airline's chief executive in addition to continuing in his role as chairman of a reconstituted board, and the transfer of all aircraft leasing, purchase and sale activities to a new subsidiary. British Caledonian Aircraft Trading was the name of the company that succeeded Caledonian Airways Equipment Holdings, Caledonian Airways (Leasing) and other related interests. It became one of the most profitable parts of the business.
In addition to withdrawing from the prestigious long-haul routes to New York and Los Angeles after only 18 months, other specific measures the airline took at the time to ensure its survival included dropping all scheduled flights to Belfast, Copenhagen, Gibraltar, Ibiza, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca and Tunis, indefinitely suspending scheduled services on the Glasgow—Southampton route as well as cutting the number of frequencies on the Gatwick—Glasgow and Gatwick—Edinburgh routes from six to four daily round trips. Two surplus aircraft were leased out to Air Malta and Austrian Airlines respectively for the duration of the 1975 summer timetable period. Another aircraft was stationed at West Berlin's Tegel Airport during the month of July of that year to fulfill a short-term charter contract to carry Turkish migrant workers to and from Istanbul on behalf of a local tour operator. BCal also decided to increase its 707 freighter fleet from one to four aircraft and to acquire a five-seater Piper Aztec to serve the rapidly growing executive charter market. These changes left BCal with 25 operational aircraft for the 1975 summer season. To reduce operating costs further, the airline decided to contract out its scheduled operations between Gatwick and Le Touquet to BIA. The reason for replacing BCal's One-Eleven 200 jet aircraft on this route with that airline's Herald turboprops at the beginning of the 1975 summer timetable period was the high price of jet fuel, which had made BCal's own jet aircraft operations uneconomic.
Even during this period of severe retrenchment, BCal continued launching scheduled services to new destinations. Dakar joined the airline's network on 1 November 1974, followed by Kinshasa on 1 April 1975.
As a result of the "success" of Plan "S", BCal's fortunes quickly recovered. The airline operation itself made a small profit of £250,000 during the financial year ended 30 September 1975 after having lost £4.3 million the year before.
Spheres of influence
The then Trade Secretary Peter Shore conducted a review of the Government's aviation policy and in 1976 announced a new "spheres of influence" policy that ended dual designation for British airlines on all long-haul routes. It was no longer believed that competition was increasing the UK market share of the traffic. As a result, BA and BCal were no longer permitted to run competing scheduled services on long-haul routes, and BCal had to withdraw from the East African routes inherited from BUA as well as from the London—New York and London—Los Angeles routes. BCal lost its licences to New York, Los Angeles, Boston and Toronto – routes it had stopped running in 1974. It gained Lusaka (Zambia) In return, BCal became the sole British flag carrier to the entire South American mainland by taking over the former BA routes to Colombia, Peru and Venezuela. The net losses of revenues was about equal for the two airlines.
The Government's new "spheres of influence" aviation policy confined BCal's long-haul scheduled operations to two continents — Africa and South America. The loss of BCal's East African routes enabled the airline to replace the one-stop scheduled service via Nairobi to Lusaka with non-stop flights.
During 1976, BCal's recovery continued, leading to the introduction of a new scheduled route to Algiers and the reinstatement of scheduled services to Tunis. It also led to BCal's decision to replace the two daily Gatwick—Manchester round-trips BIA had operated with turboprops with a BCal One-Eleven service from the start of the 1976–77 winter timetable period. This equipment change was accompanied by the addition of a third daily frequency.
BCal ended its 1975/76 financial year with a healthy profit of £5.6 million.
Bermuda II treaty
In July 1976, Edmund Dell, the then new Secretary of State for Trade, renounced the original Bermuda air services agreement of 1946 and initiated bilateral negotiations with his US counterparts on a new air services agreement, which resulted in the Bermuda II Agreement of 1977. This presented BCal with new transatlantic opportunities to begin scheduled services to additional gateway cities in the US.
Under the new agreement, BCal had its licences to commence scheduled services from its Gatwick base to both Houston and Atlanta confirmed and was designated as the UK's exclusive flag carrier on both routes. It also obtained a licence and sole UK flag carrier status to commence scheduled services from Gatwick to Dallas–Fort Worth. In addition, BCal obtained a licence and sole UK flag carrier status to commence scheduled all cargo flights between Gatwick and Houston — including an optional stop at Manchester or Prestwick in either direction.
During the Bermuda II negotiations, the UK side succeeded in having inserted into the new air services agreement a clause stating that Gatwick — rather than Heathrow — was to be nominated as the designated US flag carrier's London gateway airport whenever BCal was going to be the sole designated UK flag carrier on the same route. This clause was meant to support the growth of BCal's scheduled operation at Gatwick as well as to redress the competitive imbalance between it and its much bigger, more powerful rivals.
The UK side furthermore succeeded in negotiating a three-year exclusivity period for the incumbent operator on any new route with their US counterparts.
For Gatwick-based BCal this meant that it did not have to face any competitor that was using Heathrow, a more accessible airport with a bigger catchment area and a far greater number of passengers connecting between flights, on any of the new routes it was planning to launch to the US. It also meant that it had any new route to the US completely to itself for the first three years of operation, which most airline industry analysts reckon is sufficiently long for a brand-new scheduled air service to become profitable.
At British insistence, Bermuda II furthermore contained clauses that made it illegal for any airline operating scheduled flights between the UK and the US to resort to predatory pricing or capacity dumping. Air fares were only approved if they reflected the actual cost of providing these services. Similarly, capacity increases were sanctioned on a reciprocal basis only. The reason for insisting on the inclusion of these provisions in the Bermuda II agreement was to prevent the much bigger, better financed and commercially far more aggressive US carriers from undercutting BCal with loss-leading fares cross-subsidised with profits those carriers' vast domestic networks generated, as well as to stop them from marginalising the UK carrier by adding capacity far in excess of what the market could sustain.
Both sides also agreed to continue dual designation on the London—New York and London—Los Angeles routes. The principle of dual designation was to be extended to another two high-volume routes.
BCal resumed scheduled transatlantic services on 24 October 1977. The airline became the first UK carrier to launch a daily, non-stop London (Gatwick)—Houston scheduled service as well as a weekly, direct all-cargo service on the same route, which operated via Prestwick on the outbound leg and via Manchester on the return leg. BCal inaugurated the daily scheduled passenger flights with a Boeing 707-320C narrow-bodied aircraft. In April 1978, BCal re-configured the 707s plying this route in a three-class layout, which featured a dedicated Executive cabin, in addition to a first and an economy class section. This was the first time since the beginning of the jet age that a scheduled airline had offered a "third" class specifically aimed at the business traveller. It was intended to replace the 707s operating the all-passenger services with a brand-new, larger capacity as well as more fuel-efficient DC-10 widebodied aircraft at the start of the 1978/79 winter timetable period.
Beginning of the widebody era
Following an exhaustive, three-week evaluation of the Boeing 747, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar during the early summer of 1976, BCal chose the DC-10 as the wide-bodied aircraft best suited to serve its expanding long-haul route network. The immediate availability of the aircraft was important so there was no British-engine option, the 747 too large and the Tristar could not be delivered in time. On 3 June 1976, the airline placed a US$70 million order for two long-range series 30 aircraft with an option on another two. To ensure an early delivery, the company took over a delivery slot for two aircraft that had originally been booked by China Airlines.
On 13 March 1977, the first of the two DC-10s ordered arrived at the airline's Gatwick base from Prestwick at the end of a delivery flight from the manufacturer's plant in Long Beach, California.
The aircraft, which was configured in a 265-seat, two-class layout, entered commercial service on BCal's busy West African trunk routes to Nigeria and Ghana later the same month, replacing the airline's Boeing 707s on six of the seven weekly services on these routes.
The second aircraft, which arrived at Gatwick in early May of that year, was initially configured in a 295-seat, single-class layout. It entered service later that month on BCal's Advance Booking Charter (ABC) routes to the US and Canada. The aircraft was re-configured in the airline's contemporary, 265-seat, two-class scheduled layout at the end of the summer period. It replaced Boeing 707s on two of BCal's three weekly South Atlantic schedules to Brazil, Argentina and Chile, as well as on one of the company's two weekly mid-Atlantic schedules to Venezuela, Colombia and Peru from the beginning of the 1977/78 winter timetable period.
The DC-10's superior operating economics compared with the 707 enabled BCal to operate the aircraft non-stop from Buenos Aires to Gatwick with a viable payload.
Although the introduction of the DC-10 resulted in a huge increase in BCal's long-haul passenger and cargo capacity, the actual loads exceeded the airline's forecasts and helped it grow its traffic volumes on its scheduled services to West Africa and South America.
BCal was so pleased with the DC-10's performance that it decided to convert both of the options it had taken when placing the original order for two aircraft during 1976 into firm orders for delivery in autumn 1978 and spring 1979 respectively. However, a subsequent strike at the manufacturer's plant meant that McDonnell Douglas could not honour its delivery schedules. This necessitated the temporary lease of a Boeing 747-100 from Aer Lingus, and the use of BA flightdeck crews to operate the aircraft. The aircraft, which wore a slightly modified BCal livery, was operating the Gatwick—Houston schedule during the 1978/79 winter timetable period to cover for the late delivery of the airline's third DC-10.
Attaining success
By 1978, BCal had fully recovered from the 1974 crisis year, which had threatened its very existence at that time. After the severe contraction forced upon it by the early 1970s' oil crisis, the company's core scheduled operation was growing again with new widebodied aircraft and routes being added and schedules being expanded. Business was booming with planes being fuller than at any time in the firm's history. The airline recorded a pre-tax profit of £12.2 million during its 1977/78 financial year to 31 October 1978. This translated into a £10 million retained profit. It was the company's best financial result since its formation back in November 1970. BCal's senior management decided to allocate £644,000 of the retained profit to a new profit-share scheme to reward its staff for their hard work, and as an incentive for the future. BCal's profit-share scheme, which began the following year, was one of the first of its kind in the UK airline industry.
BCal also became a "scheduled service only" airline during 1978, implementing a decision taken the year before when the share of passengers travelling on charter flights had declined to just 15% of all passengers carried. There were two reasons for BCal's withdrawal from the charter market:
A 25% contraction of the transatlantic ABC flights market as a result of the initial success of the daily Laker Airways Skytrain low-fares, "no frills" scheduled operation between London Gatwick and New York JFK, which had begun in the previous year's autumn season.
A steady decline in charter rates in the European package tour holiday market where BCal used to supply whole-plane charter seats to its Blue Sky Holidays tour operator affiliate as well as third party tour companies.
1978 was also the first year BCal operated the majority of its scheduled services plying the prime long-haul routes to West Africa and South America with widebody equipment.
At the start of that year's summer timetable period, flight frequencies on BCal's Gatwick—Glasgow and Gatwick—Amsterdam routes increased to five round-trips per day on week days. During that period, the airline also resumed its Edinburgh—Newcastle—Copenhagen service, which it had abandoned in 1974.
During 1978, Abidjan and Birmingham joined BCal's scheduled route network. At the start of the 1978/79 winter timetable period, Benghazi joined the network. At that time, the airline also increased frequencies between London Gatwick and Paris Charles de Gaulle to seven daily round-trips on week days, with flights operating at two-hourly intervals. The addition of twice-weekly flights to the Libyan port city of Benghazi to the existing five weekly services to Tripoli meant that for the first time BCal was able to offer its passengers daily flights to Libya, an important market for profitable, oil-related business travel. BCal's introduction of a 747 on the daily Gatwick—Houston schedule furthermore enabled it to replace its two-class configured One-Eleven 500s on the West African coastal schedule to Banjul (The Gambia) and Freetown (Sierra Leone) via Casablanca and Las Palmas with 707s. The 707's greater range enabled it to cut out intermediate stops and offer its passengers a more convenient, direct routeing that took less time. BCal replaced two-class One-Elevens operating on the Tripoli route with 707s.
In early 1978, BCal introduced an updated livery.
1978 was furthermore the year Adam Thomson held the chairmanship of the Association of European Airlines (AEA).
In addition, the British Airports Authority had just completed the first phase of a major refurbishment and extension of BCal's Gatwick base. The centrepiece of this revamp was a completely refurbished centre pier featuring 11 telescopic, widebody-compatible loading bridges. These were the first loading bridges to be installed at Gatwick, which was a single-terminal airport at the time. For the first time in its history, BCal also gained a dedicated check-in area for all its flights.
The year before, the Government had announced its intention to take pro-active steps to help ensure Gatwick's development as a genuine alternative to Heathrow. It was hoped that this in turn would assist BCal's development as a serious alternative to BA and the other major, established scheduled airlines. These steps included inviting BCal and Britain's other independent airlines to apply to the CAA for route licences to operate scheduled services to destinations in the British Isles and in Continental Europe that were not already served from Gatwick, thereby increasing the reach of the airport's scheduled route network as well as providing more connecting traffic for BCal.
BCal was keen to expand its limited short-haul European network beyond the existing four routes linking London Gatwick with Paris Charles de Gaulle, Amsterdam Schiphol, Brussels National and Genoa. The airline needed to develop its connecting traffic at Gatwick by growing the European network to include destinations in Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia and southern Europe to help it increase load factors on its long-haul flights to Africa, South America and the US as well as to improve the profitability of these services. The airline had planned to commence new short-haul scheduled services from Gatwick to Copenhagen, Gothenburg, Oslo and Stockholm during summer 1978, using the licences the CAA had awarded it the year before. However, BCal was unable to use its newly awarded licences as there was no provision in the bilateral air services agreements the UK had concluded with Denmark, Norway and Sweden for another carrier to operate scheduled services on the main trunk routes between London and these countries. This meant that BA and Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) had an effective monopoly on most routes between the UK and Scandinavia. The UK Government agreed to assist BCal in securing reciprocal traffic rights for the London—Scandinavia licences during its negotiations on a new bilateral air services agreement with its three Scandinavian counterparts in December 1978. It was hoped that this would enable BCal to commence its first-ever scheduled services from London to Scandinavia at the start of the 1979 summer timetable period.
Government initiatives in support of Gatwick's development also included new policies to transfer all scheduled services between London and Canada as well as London and the Iberian peninsula from Heathrow to Gatwick by 1 April 1979, banning whole-plane charters at Heathrow and to compel all airlines that were planning to operate a scheduled service to or from London for the first time to use Gatwick instead of Heathrow. The latter policy was officially known as the "London [Air] Traffic Distribution Rules". It came into effect on 1 April 1978 and was applied retroactively from the beginning of April 1977. These rules were designed to achieve a fairer distribution of traffic between London Heathrow and London Gatwick, the UK's two main international gateway airports. The policy was aimed at increasing Gatwick's utilisation to help the airport make a profit.
Another pro-active measure the Government took to aid BCal's and Gatwick's development at the time was to grant permission for Airlink, a high-frequency helicopter shuttle service linking both of London's main airports. The new helicopter shuttle service linking London Heathrow and London Gatwick was inaugurated on 9 June 1978.
This service was operating 10 times a day in each direction using a 28-seater Sikorsky S-61N helicopter, which was owned by the BAA. BCal held the licence to operate the service, provided the cabin crew and was in charge of reservations and ticketing. British Airways Helicopters, the wholly owned helicopter subsidiary of BA whose headquarters were located at Gatwick, provided the flightdeck crew and engineering support.
The service gave BCal's passengers easier access to flight connections at Heathrow, especially to destinations not served by scheduled flights from Gatwick at the time.
It was used by 60,000 passengers during the first year of its operation.
1978 was also the year BCal set up a task force headed by Gordon Davidson, BA's former Concorde director, to investigate the possibility of operating the Concorde supersonic airliner viably on the airline's long-haul route network as there were still two unsold, "white tail" examples available at that time.
Another important reason for BCal's decision to set up a Concorde task force was that the 1976 aviation policy review had exempted Concorde from the "spheres of influence" policy and therefore it was possible for BA to operate supersonic services to prime business and leisure destinations within BCal's sphere of influence, such as Lagos or Rio de Janeiro for example. To ward off this potential threat, BCal's senior management decided to develop its own Concorde plans, either independently or in partnership with BA.
The most obvious choice for a supersonic service was Gatwick—Lagos, the backbone and main money spinner of BCal's scheduled operation. BCal's Concorde task force's brief was to assess the viability of a second daily all-premium supersonic service complementing the airline's existing daily subsonic, mixed-class widebody service on this route.
BCal put in a bid to acquire one of the remaining two "white tail" aircraft. The bid was not successful.
However, BCal eventually arranged for two aircraft to be leased from BA and Aérospatiale respectively and to have them maintained by either BA or Air France. It became necessary to find additional work for BCal's envisaged two-strong Concorde fleet to increase the aircraft's utilisation, thus permitting a cost-effective operation. Therefore, BCal decided to use the second aircraft to launch a supersonic service between Gatwick and Atlanta, with a technical stop at either Gander or Halifax. It also considered using the aircraft to serve Houston and points on its South American network at a later stage.
Both supersonic services were to be launched at the start of the 1980 summer timetable period.
In 1979, the airline took delivery of its delayed third and fourth McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodied aircraft during the first and third quarter. This permitted the aircraft's introduction on its daily Gatwick—Houston schedule as well as the replacement of the remaining 707-operated services on its mid- and South Atlantic routes. The narrow-bodied capacity released was used to add frequencies on existing routes as well as to launch services to new medium- and long-haul destinations. As a result, BCal launched a fourth weekly service to Brazil. It also launched a new route to Oran and added Quito and Guayaquil to the mid-Atlantic schedule. The company furthermore increased frequencies on its short-haul routes. A fourth daily round-trip was added to both Gatwick—Manchester and Gatwick—Brussels. A third daily frequency operating on week days was added to the Newcastle—Amsterdam sector of BCal's Glasgow—Newcastle—Amsterdam regional route.
During that year, BCal also established a wholly owned helicopter subsidiary and it placed the UK launch order for a brand-new widebodied aircraft, the Airbus A310.
This was also the time BCal came up with a proposal to create a new network of European low-fare services. These were to be marketed under the trademark Miniprix and were meant to counter Laker Airways's plans for a pan-European Skytrain operation. Excluding BCal's existing four European destinations, it envisaged linking Gatwick with 20 additional points on the Continent. These services were to be operated during off-peak times, initially using the airline's existing narrowbody aircraft. Only six of 22 licences applied for were granted but even those did not lead to routes as the Department of Trade would not start discussions with the European authorities, which they believed would be blocked due to the destination countries' domestic concerns. None of Laker's 36 applications were approved.
BCal was evaluating both the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 narrowbody as well as the Airbus A310 and Boeing 767 widebodies as suitable long-term replacements for its existing narrow-bodied aircraft on these routes.
BCal's setbacks during 1979 included continuing frustration of the airline's desire to launch scheduled services to Scandinavia despite the conclusion of a new Anglo-Scandinavian bilateral air services agreement and the temporary grounding of the airline's widebodied fleet — three McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30s — during the second quarter following the crash of American Airlines flight 191, a DC-10-10, in Chicago in May that year.
With their DC-10s grounded, BCal took a short-term lease of a 747 to provide adequate capacity on its Nigerian trunk routes during that period. BCal also operated a Dan-Air Comet on short-term lease between Gatwick and Tripoli while the 707s normally used on that service were redeployed to operate a reduced schedule to Houston and South America. In addition to these aircraft, a Boeing 707-120B was leased during that period as well to cover the shortfall in capacity.
Network expansion
BCal took delivery of three more McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodied aircraft in 1980.
These planes enabled the launch of new routes – to Atlanta on 1 June, and to Hong Kong on 1 August, though in the latter Cathay Pacific and Laker Airways were also permitted without restriction on frequency or fares. Routes to San Juan, Puerto Rico's Isla Verde International Airport, and Dallas/Fort Worth followed on 26 October. It also enabled the airline to replace the Boeing 707s, with which it had inaugurated another new route to St. Louis in April of that year, with its newly delivered DC-10 widebodies at the end of October when St. Louis became a stop on the new Dallas/Fort Worth route. During that year, the company also added Tangier to its North African network.
This accelerated pace of growth made BCal the fastest growing member airline of the Association of European Airlines (AEA) in both 1980 and 1981.
BCal received a boost during 1980, when the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) approved carriers (BCal, Cathay Pacific and Laker – subject to ratification) on the London – Hong Kong route to be able to pick up and put down passengers at intermediate stops in the Gulf states as the Hong Kong route was not otherwise expected to generate enough revenue for four carriers. For BCal this meant using their Dubai refuelling stop to carry passengers, cargo and mail between London and Dubai and Dubai and Hong Kong, despite objections from British Airways (BA) which already had such rights for Dubai and Bahrain.
BCal's 10th anniversary on 30 November 1980 coincided with the completion of its new corporate headquarters — aptly named Caledonian House — in Crawley's Lowfield Heath area close to the airline's Gatwick base. It was the first purpose-built headquarters in the company's history, which was designed to accommodate all 1,100 office-based staff at the airline's Gatwick base under one roof.
The high oil price during that period was a mixed blessing for BCal. It helped the airline fill its premium cabins on its oil-related business routes to Nigeria, Libya and Texas. On the other hand, the escalation of the jet fuel price and the fact that the high price of oil had considerably worsened the severe recession in Britain at that time significantly increased the company's operating costs, while at the same time reducing overall demand for its flights. BCal therefore decided to reduce off-peak frequencies on most of its short-haul routes from the start of the 1980/81 winter timetable period. This also included combining week-end, off-peak flights from Gatwick to Glasgow, Edinburgh and Manchester by converting non-stop flights into one-stop operations.
Among the set-backs BCal suffered at that time were the CAA's rejection of its application to serve Manila (Philippines) from Hong Kong or Singapore and BA's successful lobbying of the Government to revoke BCal's long-standing Gatwick—Bahrain—Singapore exempt charter licence in return for having granted it permission to launch a fully fledged scheduled service to Hong Kong.
BCal ended the 1979/80 financial year with a healthy profit of £9.7 million.
BCal received another new DC-10-30 widebody in 1981. The delivery of this aircraft enabled the airline to increase frequencies on the prime long-haul routes to West Africa from seven to 10 weekly round-trips. It also permitted a frequency increase on the Gatwick—Dubai—Hong Kong route from four to five weekly round-trips.
At the start of the 1981/82 winter timetable period, BCal added Douala (Cameroon) to its network.
Also in 1981, BCal opened a new engine overhaul plant at Prestwick Airport near Glasgow in Scotland. The new engine overhaul plant was owned and run by Caledonian Airmotive, a dedicated, wholly owned subsidiary of the airline, which had been set up with technical support from GE.
BCal's search for a more fuel-efficient replacement for its ageing BAC One-Eleven fleet — especially, the range-limited One-Eleven 200s — acquired a new sense of urgency during 1981 against a backdrop of further escalating fuel prices. The airline was evaluating both the new BAe ATP turboprop for entry into service during 1986 and the BAe 146, the UK aircraft manufacturer's new, four-engined regional jet that was due to enter service in 1983, in addition to the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 and the new Boeing 737-300. Both British Aerospace types were rejected because it was felt that they had insufficient range to permit non-stop flights from BCal's Gatwick base to some of the more distant points BCal already served or planned to serve in Europe and North Africa. Moreover, BCal felt that operating a turboprop on trunk routes would meet with passenger resistance as by that time most people had become accustomed to travelling on jets on these routes.
In 1981, BCal applied to the UK and Australian authorities for permission to launch a fully fledged, three-class scheduled service between Gatwick and Brisbane (via Colombo and Melbourne), and between Gatwick and Adelaide (via Perth), at a frequency of two flights a week each, in both directions. BCal proposed to inaugurate what would have been the first ever scheduled operation "Down Under" by a wholly private, British independent airline with McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30s. BCal wanted this to be a joint operation with Ansett Airlines, one of Australia's two leading contemporary domestic airlines, and held out the prospect of placing an order for brand-new, higher capacity Boeing 747-200SUDs to replace the DC-10s on that route as soon as this was justified by increased demand. It also promised to give a major boost to Australia's inbound tourism from the UK and to deliver a steady stream of international transfer passengers to Ansett. BCal's application did not succeed, mainly because of British Airways's and Qantas's determined opposition to any move by the authorities in the UK and Australia to dilute the lucrative BA-Qantas duopoly on the "kangaroo route". The CAA turned down BCal's application although it considered it superior to a rival application by Laker Airways as it felt that there was no realistic chance of obtaining reciprocal approval for the proposed service from the relevant Australian authorities, as long as there was no desire on their part to license a second Australian carrier as well. It did promise to look favourably on the application if BCal re-submitted it with specific proposals for a joint Anglo-Australian operation, once Australia no longer opposed licensing additional carriers on that route.
BCal ended its 1980/81 financial year with a £6.2 million loss as a result of high fuel prices, a major recession on both sides of the Atlantic and heavy route development costs.
Expanding eastwards
As a result of the network structure BCal had inherited from British United Airways (BUA), an exclusive north–south airline, it became a predominantly north–south orientated carrier as well. The predominant north–south route structure had been further reinforced by the 1976 "spheres of influence" policy, which had locked the airline's long-haul operation into two continents — Africa and South America.
BCal's senior management realised that it needed to develop the traffic flows across its network in an east–west direction to increase the network's reach and to enable its passengers to make omnidirectional flight connections. This was also essential to enable the airline to increase its economies of scale and to reach the minimum size envisaged in the Edwards report.
BCal's new Gatwick—Dubai—Hong Kong route was intended to be just the first step in this expansion to the East. The Hong Kong route had come about as a result of the UK government decision in 1979 to open up the lucrative route between London and the Crown Colony of Hong Kong to additional competition. This was to be provided by a second British scheduled carrier to ease the shortage of capacity passengers were experiencing at peak times on the monopoly service operated by BA from Heathrow to Hong Kong. BCal, Laker and Cathay Pacific, Hong Kong's airline and its de facto "flag carrier", all applied to the CAA.
BCal had proposed running a conventional scheduled service from Gatwick to Hong Kong via Dubai utilising its rapidly growing fleet of McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodies in a three-class configuration featuring a first and an executive class in addition to an economy cabin. BCal had also agreed to offer a limited number of low fares that would match the lowest fares Laker had proposed. The CAA decided to license BCal to operate unlimited scheduled services between London and Hong Kong., rejecting both Cathay Pacific's and Laker's applications, clearing the way for BCal to become the second British scheduled carrier on that route.
However, Hong Kong's Air Transport Licensing Authority (ATLA) unexpectedly refused to endorse BCal because many influential people in the Crown Colony felt very upset that Cathay Pacific was going to be excluded from one of the world's most lucrative air routes. This caused a minor diplomatic row between the UK government and the colonial administration in Hong Kong. Cathay Pacific immediately began a back-door lobbying campaign in the Crown Colony as well as in London, stressing that it had invested millions of pounds in the British economy at a time of high unemployment in the UK by placing large orders for Rolls-Royce RB211-powered Boeing 747s. The UK government allowed Cathay Pacific and Laker to appeal to John Nott, the British Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, against the CAA's decision. Nott overturned the CAA's decision opening the route to all three without imposing any restrictions on service frequencies.
With the competition from Cathay Pacific, BCal decided to operate only four weekly round-trips instead of a daily service they had originally planned. Cathay Pacific commenced a thrice-weekly service between Hong Kong and Gatwick via Bahrain on 17 July 1980 ahead of BCal, which began its four-times-a-week Gatwick—Hong Kong service via Dubai on 1 August 1980.
Routes to Europe
Following BA's decision to abandon the short-haul routes it had been operating from London Gatwick at low frequencies since 1978 and to surrender a number of unused licences to the CAA, BCal, Laker Airways and Dan-Air requested the CAA to transfer these licences to themselves.
BCal applied to take over BA's London Gatwick—Frankfurt route and its dormant Gatwick—Geneva licence. BCal was awarded licences for both routes.
The fairly liberal bilateral air services agreements between the UK and Germany as well as between the UK and Switzerland enabled BCal to commence double daily flights to Frankfurt and 10 services a week to Geneva within a relatively short time span following the award of the licences. This was the first time since 1974 that BCal was able to launch new routes from Gatwick to Europe. These were BCal's first scheduled services to Germany and Switzerland, which were going to be important sources of feeder traffic for the airline's long-haul services from Gatwick.
The launch of the two new routes coincided with the introduction of a dedicated business class cabin on all of BCal's short-haul flights to Europe, the first time the airline had offered two classes on its short-haul routes since its inception, with the exception of a brief period in the early 1970s during which it had offered a first class on the Gatwick—Paris route. BCal used the Executive Class brand for both its new European and its longer established long-haul business class.
Falklands War and re-entry into the charter market
The 1982 Falklands War was an unexpected, major setback for BCal. Argentina's decision to close its airspace and airports to all UK-based airlines as well as to all UK-registered aircraft and Peru's decision to follow suit resulted in the loss of the most profitable parts of BCal's South American network, especially Buenos Aires — its most profitable destination in that part of the world — and the lucrative "fifth freedom" traffic rights between Madrid and Buenos Aires. That conflict left the airline with an unprofitable rump network because the remaining routes to Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia did not generate sufficient traffic to be profitable on their own, even after a reduction in frequencies. Another negative consequence for BCal was that one of its eight McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodied jets suddenly became surplus to its long-haul scheduled requirements, forcing the airline to look for alternative work to increase long-haul fleet utilisation.
Laker Airways's collapse at the beginning of February of that year provided BCal with additional work to utilise its spare aircraft capacity.
Laker Airways's demise also enabled BCal to relaunch a daily service between Gatwick and Los Angeles, to acquire six aircraft from the failed carrier's estate and to move into the hangar it had occupied at Gatwick. The ex-Laker aircraft that joined BCal's fleet included two DC-10-10s and four BAC One-Eleven 300s. BCal used the DC-10-10s to set up a new charter subsidiary named British Caledonian Airways Charter as a joint venture with the Rank Organisation The latter aircraft and three second-hand One-Eleven 500s that had been acquired from other sources replaced BCal's seven, ageing One-Eleven 200s.
Despite being a difficult year for BCal, it managed to stay in the black during that period. The airline made a pre-tax profit of £1.1 million, which translated into a £300,000 retained profit, in the financial year to 31 October 1982.
Launching a new narrow-bodied aircraft
In 1983, BCal became the first non-French airline to order the Airbus A320. BCal placed a firm order for seven A320s and took an option on another three, with deliveries of the aircraft on firm order due to commence during the spring of 1988. The options were subsequently converted into firm orders as well.
Although the A320 was bigger than BCal's actual requirement, it was the technologically most advanced contender with 27% lower seat-mile costs than the BAC One-Eleven. Airbus Industrie had also offered the airline a generous discount to sign up as a launch customer. Having BCal [co-]launch a brand-new narrow-bodied aircraft, gave the manufacturer added credibility in its global sales campaigns. This was of particular importance in the all-important US market, which Airbus needed to penetrate with its new aircraft if it wanted to break the stranglehold Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment with the 737 for over 15 years. Airbus knew that the major US carriers would be suspicious of the new aircraft's commercial credentials if only state-owned (and at the time subsidised) airlines (Air France and Lufthansa) of countries, whose aerospace industries benefitted from orders, as launch customers. Therefore, having a successful wholly independent airline with a major, worldwide scheduled presence like BCal order a brand-new, technologically advanced aircraft came in handy.
BCal intended to use its A320s to replace the ageing One-Elevens on its short-haul European and medium-haul North African routes.
1983 turned out to be another tough year for BCal. Continuing restrictions on the airline's South American services and other schedule cutbacks in response to the early 80s recession reduced aircraft utilisation. This led to a decision to fill spare long-haul aircraft capacity with third-party work. BCal's third-party business included a twice weekly Gatwick—Luxembourg—Barbados service on behalf of Caribbean Airways, weekly Gatwick—Frankfurt—Mahé services under contract to Air Seychelles and a wet lease agreement with Surinam Airways to operate a weekly Paramaribo—Gatwick—Amsterdam service. The Caribbean Airways and Air Seychelles contracts used spare capacity on BCal's DC-10-30s, while the Surinam Airways wet lease utilised the ex-Laker DC-10-10s operated by British Caledonian Charter. Although BCal's airline operation incurred a loss of £655,000 in the financial year to 31 October 1983, the airline managed to make an overall pre-tax profit of £2.6 million. This translated into a £300,000 retained profit at group level.
Reorganisation and improved industrial relations
During the early 1980s, BCal and its affiliated companies adopted a new organisational structure to reflect the growth in the group's business and the diversification into new activities. Caledonian Aviation Group (renamed British Caledonian Group in 1986) became the new holding company. It had an issued share capital of £20 million in June 1987. Apart from the airline, subsidiaries included British Caledonian Aircraft Trading, British Caledonian Flight Training, British Caledonian Helicopters, Caledonian Airmotive, Caledonian Hotel Holdings and Caledonian Leisure Holdings.
In addition, this was the time BCal, which had always prided itself on its industrial relations record, claiming it never lost a full day's operation as a result of industrial action began implementing a new co-operative, industrial relations strategy. The airline termed its new industrial relations strategy "The Way Ahead". This strategy was designed to make the airline the most productive among its peers in Europe by redefining established working practices. Its aim was to achieve a significant reduction in labour costs through increased productivity, thereby putting the firm ahead of its rivals. It was hoped that this would ultimately translate into higher profits as well.
The strategy sought to gain acceptance (among eligible BCal employees) by offering them a higher basic rate of pay and a greater personal involvement in the management's decision-making process in return for forgoing overtime pay and agreeing to new, more efficient working practices that resulted in increased labour productivity.
The successful implementation of the new industrial relations strategy in 1983 made BCal employees the highest paid airline staff in the UK at the time.
A major shakeup
In 1984, the UK Government began to prepare then wholly state-owned BA for privatisation in earnest by appointing a new board of directors with several years' experience in private industry and by changing its legal status from a Crown Corporation to a public limited company. BCal's senior management saw this as a major threat to the company's continuing existence as the UK's second largest international scheduled airline. According to BCal's own calculations, the relevant figures for 1983 had shown that BA alone accounted for 83% of all UK scheduled airline capacity measured in tonne kilometers as opposed to a mere 13–14% for BCal. These figures also showed that BA carried seven-and-a-half times as many passengers as BCal, and that Heathrow's share of international scheduled air traffic was five-and-a-half times greater than Gatwick's (79% and 14% respectively). This meant that a privatised BA on this scale would enjoy far greater financial clout than BCal. It also meant that BA's market power would be disproportionate compared with that of any other UK airline as a result of its much greater economies of scale. Furthermore, the Government's decision to proceed with BA's privatisation inevitably meant the end of the "Second Force" policy, which had guided BCal's development since its inception. In addition, the transfer of BA's ownership from the public to the private sector meant that BCal could no longer rely on the indirect protection Government ownership afforded it to prevent BA from abusing its power — for example, by engaging in anti-competitive behaviour against BCal.
To redress this competitive imbalance, BCal proposed to the Government the transfer of several of BA's most lucrative long-haul routes to itself — including BA's profitable Saudi Arabian routes as well as that airline's routes to Abu Dhabi, Kuwait, Harare, Islamabad, Kolkata, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Tokyo, Seoul and Beijing. BCal also proposed the transfer of BA's short-/medium-haul routes from Heathrow to Vienna, Helsinki, Athens, Istanbul, Malta and Larnaca, which it wanted to serve from Gatwick, and the removal of capacity restrictions on its existing short-haul European routes from Gatwick. The airline furthermore proposed to take over BA's services from Gatwick to the Iberian peninsula and that airline's services from Gatwick to the Caribbean. Moreover, BCal wanted the Government to pursue additional opportunities for dual designation in its [re-]negotiations of existing and new bilateral air services agreements with foreign governments on its behalf — in particular, to the Far East and Australia as well as to East and South Africa and Canada at a later stage. BCal was prepared to pay BA between £200 million and £250 million for the routes to be transferred as well as for the associated staff and infrastructure. BCal estimated that it would require nine more aircraft — six long-haul and three short-haul planes — to operate the additional routes. It also reckoned that this would allow it to grow to the minimum size that was required to turn its Gatwick base into an efficient hub to enable it to prosper in the post-BA privatisation environment. BCal was furthermore of the opinion that this would allow it to increase its scheduled capacity to about 20% of all UK scheduled airline capacity while permitting BA to continue in its role as the dominant UK scheduled carrier, which would still have accounted for 70% of total scheduled capacity.
BCal's senior management told the Government that the only alternatives to this proposal were shifting its existing scheduled operation from Gatwick to Heathrow's then new Terminal 4, which it expected to produce an additional annual profit of at least £20 million in the first year itself, or to merge with BA. BCal's senior management also told the Government that its preferred option was to remain at Gatwick and to strengthen its position there through the proposed route transfers to enable BCal to turn it into an efficient hub-and-spoke operation that would allow it to compete with BA and the giant US carriers on a level playing field. The airline's senior management furthermore told the Government that a merger with BA was its least preferred option.
Lord King of Wartnaby, BA's newly appointed chairman, infamously dismissed BCal's offer to purchase BA's assets for £200 million + as a "smash-and-grab raid". He made it clear to the Government that he and his fellow board members opposed transferring any of these assets to BCal. Lord King also left the Government in no doubt that it would find itself in the embarrassing situation of having to dismiss the entire board if it imposed a route transfer to BCal against the BA board's will.
In June 1984, BCal's original proposal to share out BA's routes ahead of the latter's privatisation was followed up by a plan BCal had jointly formulated with eight other UK independent airlines. This plan sought to give the independents a greater share of the UK's air transport market by reducing BA's share. Measured in terms of capacity tonne kilometres (CTKs), it would have increased the independents' share from 17% to 40% while reducing BA's share from 83% to 60%. For BCal alone this would have doubled its share from 15% to 30%. In their submission the independents claimed that privatising BA in its existing shape would allow it to dominate and destroy its competition. They also regarded BA's continuing dominance as incompatible with the CAA's goal of a less-regulated air transport market. BA countered the independents' contentions by maintaining that rather than benefiting consumers through increased competition, the independents' intent generally, and BCal's in particular, would merely result in substituting its own services with those of other carriers.
The opposing views of Britain's leading independent airlines on one hand and BA on the other regarding the future shape of the British air transport industry led to a review of the Government's airline competition policy by the CAA. The result was CAP 500, a Government-commissioned White Paper in which the CAA outlined the findings of its review of existing UK airline competition policy. CAP 500 also contained a number of recommendations that were designed to ensure that a competitive balance between BCal and the UK's other independent airlines on one hand and a privatised BA on the other was maintained.
The CAA broadly endorsed BCal's proposals by recommending the transfer of BA's routes to Saudi Arabia and Harare as well as its Caribbean and Iberian peninsula routes to BCal. The CAA also recommended removing all capacity restrictions on BCal's existing short-haul European routes. It furthermore advocated increasing the opportunities for designating BCal as the second UK flag carrier on additional long-haul routes where BA was the only UK scheduled airline. This was to be achieved through appropriate amendments to the relevant bilateral agreements.
Full implementation of CAP 500 would have resulted in strengthening BCal's position at Gatwick by making it the sole UK scheduled airline on all trunk routes from that airport while maintaining BA's status as the dominant UK scheduled carrier at Heathrow.
In the event, under pressure from BA's board and to ensure BA's successful flotation, the Government decided not to accept the CAA's recommendations in full. Instead, it settled on a limited route transfer from BA to BCal. This entailed transferring BA's profitable Saudi Arabian routes to Dhahran and Jeddah to BCal to add to its new route to the Saudi capital Riyadh. The Government thought that this would strengthen BCal by making it the sole UK flag carrier to all of Saudi Arabia and that it would tie in well with BCal's "linking the oil capitals of the world" corporate strategy, which it had successfully pursued since the late 1970s. To be seen as even-handed by both parties and to counter BA's accusations of displaying favouritism towards BCal, the Government required BCal to hand over to BA its loss-making South American routes as well as its unused licences to serve a number of additional destinations in the US and Morocco.
The limited route transfer on which the Government had decided was far less ambitious than either BCal's own proposals or the CAA's recommendations and would still leave it far smaller than BA and the giant US carriers. Although this was less than it had bargained for, BCal's senior management decided to accept the Government's decision because they estimated the two Saudi Arabian routes BA was going to transfer to be worth £18 million in additional annual profits. This would be only £2 million less than what BCal expected to earn in extra yearly profits from its existing network had it been able to transfer its entire operation to Heathrow. Given these magnitudes and Heathrow's already tight slot situation at peak times, BCal's senior management considered this difference in annual profitability immaterial.
The route transfer was to take place at the start of the 1985 summer timetable period.
Reaching new heights
1984 was a record year for BCal. It ended the financial year to 31 October 1984 with a pre-tax profit of £17.1 million, which surpassed the record financial performance of 1978. This translated into a £10.9 million retained profit at group level. These profits were the result of improvements in the British economy, which had recovered from the severe recession of the early 1980s, and BCal beginning to reap the benefits of the new industrial relations strategy it had begun implementing the year before.
Also in 1984, BCal received two brand-new A310-200 widebodies at its Gatwick base.
In 1984, the CAA awarded BCal a licence to commence scheduled services from Gatwick to Riyadh and authorised the airline to operate dedicated scheduled services to Abu Dhabi, Doha, Dubai and Muscat, rather than serving these destinations as intermediate points only.
Libreville was added to the network during 1984. At the start of the summer timetable period, frequencies to Frankfurt and Geneva increased to three daily round-trips. Connectair and RFG joined the British Caledonian Commuter scheme adding new, regional feeder routes from Gatwick to Antwerp and Paderborn. Connectair also assumed the operation of BCal's Gatwick—Brussels route. BCal furthermore decided to withdraw its Glasgow—Newcastle—Amsterdam regional service to focus its operations on providing worldwide scheduled services from London only.
BCal decided to retire the four ex-Laker One-Eleven 300s and to acquire another second-hand One-Eleven 500, giving it a total fleet strength of 13. Standardizing its short-haul, narrow-bodied fleet on the same aircraft sub-type enhanced its ability to interchange aircraft across that fleet. As part of a "mid-life update", of its entire One-Eleven fleet, hush kits were fitted to comply with stricter, post-1985 noise abatement rules. This was to keep the One-Eleven effective until more modern aircraft were delivered in 1988.
1984 also marked the end of the long-haul, narrow-bodied era for BCal when the last Boeing 707 left its fleet.
1985 was the year that broke all previous financial records at BCal. The pre-tax profit in the financial year to 31 October 1985 reached an all-time high of £21.4 million. The retained group profit for that period was £11.3 million. The profit attributable to BCal's airline operation represented an improvement of almost £12 million compared with the previous year's results. During that year, BCal carried 8% more passengers and 20% more cargo compared with the year before.
The limited route transfer on which BCal had agreed with BA and the Government took effect at the start of the 1985 summer timetable period, when BCal commenced scheduled operations from Gatwick to Dhahran and Jeddah, replacing the BA service from Heathrow. At the same time, BCal relinquished its traffic rights to Recife, Salvador, Rio, São Paulo, San Juan, Caracas and Bogotá. BA acquired these traffic rights and began serving most of these destinations from Heathrow.
A second 747 wearing BCal's full livery joined the fleet permitting the resumption of a daily service between Gatwick and New York's John F. Kennedy Airport (JFK) during the summer of 1985, after the airline's absence from that route for over a decade. BCal's 1985 re-launch of scheduled Gatwick—JFK services coincided with the introduction of its door-to-door limousine service for premium travellers.
The temporary lease of a Viscount sporting the full BCal livery for the duration of the 1985 summer timetable period enabled the airline to increase capacity on the Gatwick—Brussels route by replacing smaller aircraft Connectair had used to operate that service under the British Caledonian Commuter scheme and to add more capacity on week-ends on the busy Gatwick—Jersey route.
Two more, second-hand DC-10-30s were acquired to replace BCal's A310s, which left the fleet when the additional DC-10s arrived.
1985 also saw the establishment of British Caledonian Flight Training, a new flight crew training facility.
As Gatwick became busier, BCal's senior management called on the Government to ban all charter flights from the airport and to move those services to Stansted.
The Government decided to meet BCal's request for a ban on all charter flights from Gatwick half-way by agreeing to give preference to scheduled services in all future slot allocations at the airport.
A new airline for Europe
The collapse of the oil price during the mid-1980s had serious repercussions for BCal's revenue and profit projections as this impacted the oil-related business routes on which the airline had depended for most of its profits since the late 1970s. All of these routes carried fewer premium business travellers than anticipated. This in turn led to a sharp decline of those routes' profitability and, hence, their contribution to the airline's overall profitability. In the case of the newly acquired Saudi Arabian routes this meant that they delivered less than half the projected profits.
The limited route transfer had allowed BCal to grow its scheduled capacity to about 18% of all UK scheduled airline capacity, while BA only suffered an insignificant reduction in its share of total scheduled capacity.
BCal's 18% share was still far less than the minimum size BCal needed to acquire the economies of scale to compete with BA and the giant US carriers on a level playing field. This was also less than what had been envisaged in the Edwards report prior to BCal's formation.
This situation was unsatisfactory for the airline and unrewarding for its shareholders.
Therefore, under pressure from its controlling shareholder 3i, the search for a new, long-term strategy began.
As a consequence of its main shareholder's dissatisfaction, the British Caledonian Group's board of directors established contact with ILG's board in November 1985. The purpose of this meeting was to begin exploring ways of combining BCal's and Air Europe's separate short-haul operations in a new joint venture that would have enabled both airlines to acquire the economies of scale to compete with a privatised BA on a level playing field. Another objective of this exercise was to smooth out each other's peaks and troughs, for BCal's peaks occurred during week days while Air Europe's occurred on week-ends. This meant that both airlines could offer their spare capacities to each other to achieve an overall higher level of equipment utilisation and higher load factors throughout the week. ILG's dominant position in the inclusive tour market would also have helped BCal to significantly increase its generally low short-haul loads by filling seats that would otherwise remain empty with ILG's clients, especially on week-ends. A series of meetings ensued. The result was a 150-page study entitled An Airline for Europe. It envisaged the commencement of joint scheduled operations from Gatwick to Hamburg, Munich, Düsseldorf, Milan Linate and Nice in 1987. The next stage of development was to occur during the 1988/89 winter timetable period when further routes linking Gatwick with Copenhagen, Stockholm, Vienna, Rome and Athens were to be added. The study also envisaged adding services from Gatwick to Zürich, Dublin, Madrid and Lisbon at a later stage to enable the joint venture to acquire sufficient economies of scale to become a viable entity in the long term. However, it recognised that it might be difficult to implement the last stage of the envisaged expansion as the relevant routes had already been licensed to Dan-Air.
The study also made profit projections for each stage of the envisaged joint venture's development.
These were:
£3.7 million for 1987/88.
£5.5 million for 1988/89.
£25.2 million for 1989/90.
The latter represented a return on total equity employed plus previously retained earnings of 18.2%. This was substantially better than BCal's short-haul operation could have hoped to achieve on its own.
Despite several rounds of talks being held that lasted well into the first half of 1986, both sides eventually decided not to proceed further with their joint venture study and to go their separate ways.
Unexpected reversal of fortunes
BCal had high hopes for 1986. It expected to make record profits representing a substantial improvement on the previous year's pre-tax profits of £21.4 million. The British Caledonian Group expected its turnover to exceed half-a-billion pounds while BCal expected to carry just under two-and-a-half million passengers. The year's crowning glory was to be the flotation of the British Caledonian Group on the London Stock Exchange.
Instead, 1986 turned out to be BCal's "annus horribilis" during which it faced its most acute crisis as a result of events beyond its control. The airline was never going to recover from this crisis, which ultimately sealed the company's fate.
The events that brought about a dramatic turn-around in BCal's fortunes plunging it into a £19.3 million pre-tax loss (translated into a £14.4 million retained group loss). included
the American bombings of Libya during April 1986 in retaliation for that country's (at the time) alleged involvement in the bombing of La Belle nightclub in West Berlin, which injured over 200 and killed three.
the world's worst nuclear accident in Chernobyl in the then Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on 26 April 1986
the adverse impact of the devaluation of the Nigerian currency on BCal's earnings from passenger and freight bookings originating in Nigeria and paid for in the local currency, which the Nigerian government of the day prevented from being repatriated to the UK.
The first two events almost emptied the cabins of BCal's widebodied planes plying the transatlantic routes linking Gatwick with Houston, Dallas/Fort Worth, Atlanta, New York JFK and Los Angeles because of a sudden surge in cancellations, especially from passengers based in the US. Many of BCal's American passengers cancelled or postponed their trips at that time because they feared retaliatory attacks by Libyan secret service agents and did not want to risk exposing themselves to the radioactive fallout from the Ukrainian nuclear catastrophe while conducting their business or spending their holidays in Europe. At the time, BCal's transatlantic scheduled services accounted for a quarter of the airline's worldwide revenues and 37% of its passenger traffic. The Libyan bombings also dashed any hopes BCal had to resume operations on its profitable Gatwick—Tripoli route later that year, resulting in a further loss of expected revenues and profits.
The third had a serious impact on BCal's finances at a time of crisis as it denied the airline speedy access to a substantial amount of money derived from passenger and cargo sales in its most important and most profitable overseas market. This resulted in a significant revenue loss.
What was already a bad situation for the airline was made worse by the continuing decline of the oil price, which had started the year before. The rapid fall in the oil price reduced the oil industry's spending power, thereby significantly reducing the number of oil-related business passengers planning to fly with BCal in future. As these passengers used to account for a major share of the airline's high-yield premium bookings, future revenue and profit projections needed to be revised as well to take account of much reduced demand for the company's most expensive tickets.
In addition, the Government announced the withdrawal of BCal's licence to operate the high-frequency Gatwick—Heathrow Airlink helicopter shuttle service as a result of the completion of the M25 London orbital motorway, thereby denying the airline's passengers easy access to connecting flights from Heathrow and depriving passengers travelling with airlines based at that airport of the opportunity to avail themselves of convenient onward connections from Gatwick. The resulting reduction in the number of passengers changing flights at BCal's Gatwick base had a detrimental effect on load factors on the airline's profitable long-haul routes. This in turn reduced the profitability of these routes, as well as the airline's overall profitability by an estimated £2 million per annum.
As a result of the problems it was facing during that time, BCal announced 1,000 job losses out of a total worldwide workforce of 7,700 which given there was no overall reduction in services Flight International described as suggesting "that the slim down was overdue" It also needed to make adjustments to its schedule to take account of the expected changes in traffic patterns. This led to an immediate reduction in the number of weekly frequencies on BCal's underperforming Saudi Arabian routes. The aircraft capacity released was redeployed on BCal's well-performing route to Dubai and Hong Kong.
Altogether BCal suffered a total revenue loss of £80 million while the airline itself lost two-and-a-half million pounds every month at that time.
The airline embarked upon a major asset disposal programme to compensate for this significant revenue loss and to have sufficient funds to keep the business running. These asset disposals included the profitable sale of two, relatively young McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodied aircraft to Continental Airlines, the sale and lease-back of the entire 13-strong, short-haul BAC One-Eleven fleet, the sale of six of Caledonian Hotel Holdings' hotels, the sale of Caledonian Airmotive to US-based Ryder Systems, the sale of Caledonian Leisure Holdings and the disposal of British Caledonian Helicopters the following year.
Despite facing a major crisis, BCal continued adding new aircraft, routes and flight frequencies in an effort to maintain a competitive operation.
Two more 747s joined the fleet during 1986. This permitted a major capacity increase on the popular Gatwick—Dubai—Hong Kong route.
During that year, Muscat, Gaborone and Aberdeen joined the network.
BCal's acquisition of a fifth 747 the following year permitted the launch of a new route from Gatwick to Tokyo on 31 May 1987, at a frequency of three return flights per week. In addition, for the first time in five years, two new European routes were launched from Gatwick. These served Milan Linate and Nice at a frequency of 13 and three return flights per week, respectively.
Merger discussions
By July 1987, BCal had already exhausted most of the proceeds from the asset disposal programme.
The proceeds from the sale of two DC-10s to Continental Airlines was all that was left to keep the airline in business. Senior management realised that the company was unlikely to survive on its own and that it needed to act fast if it wanted to avoid BCal's collapse.
Therefore, the search for a financially strong partner acquired a renewed sense of urgency.
Several rounds of talks that were aimed at achieving a full-scale merger ensued with various airlines in the UK, the US, Canada and Europe.
BCal's future prospects as a stand-alone, medium-sized airline operating a variety of short-, medium- and long-haul scheduled services were rapidly diminishing against a background of looming consolidation in the airline industry. This was driven by the giant US carriers that had begun channeling their traffic flows into powerful hub-and-spoke operations, rather than feeding these into the networks of BCal and other international partner airlines, in the wake of US deregulation. In addition, BA's impending privatisation and the Government's refusal to fully implement the recommendations contained in the CAA's airline competition White Paper meant that BCal was unable to acquire the economies of scale it needed to compete with these airlines on a level playing field. This prevented BCal from achieving higher volumes over which to spread its fixed costs. It also deprived the airline of the capacity to generate the funds to continue investing in fleet renewal, further network expansion and new information technology systems.
BCal's basic dilemma at the time can be summed up as follows:
It had become a mid-sized airline that was too big to be a specialist, niche operator. Yet it was too small to effectively compete with BA and the US giants in terms of economies of scale and scope. At the same time, it was unable to match the significantly lower costs of emerging, aggressively expanding Far East competitors, such as Cathay Pacific.
BCal's precarious financial position made it obvious for most of its rivals and seasoned industry observers that the ailing airline lacked the financial strength to survive on its own for much longer.
BCal had valuable traffic rights to operate scheduled services on a number of lucrative, long-haul routes to parts of the world that were not served by any other British airline at that time. It therefore became a desirable takeover target and a bidding war ensued between several potential suitors.
The chief protagonists in this takeover battle were BCal's archrival BA as well as ILG/Air Europe and SAS.
Proposed BA-BCal merger
On 16 July 1987, Sir Adam Thomson and Lord King of Wartnaby, chairmen of British Caledonian Group and British Airways respectively, surprisingly announced at a press conference the intention of the latter to acquire the former in an agreed £237 million bid. They had agreed on this deal only the day before. Officially this was presented as a "merger between equals" but within the industry it was widely acknowledged as a mutually agreed rescue deal to avoid the collapse of BCal. In addition, BA, which had been privatised only in February of that year, was keen to get hold of its main home-grown competitor's most valuable assets. These included BCal's lucrative traffic rights to those parts of the world BA could not serve itself as a result of the now defunct "Second Force" policy. This itself had resulted in a "spheres of influence" policy for BA and BCal that had prevented both airlines from competing with each other on a number of important long-haul routes. BA also saw this as a necessary move to fill the gaps in its global route map to acquire the economies of scale that would permit it to compete against the giant US carriers on a level-playing field. BCal's financial difficulties furthermore presented an opportunity for BA to forestall any competitive threat a revitalised BCal could pose to it in future, either on its own or in alliance with another airline. It therefore wanted to get hold of these assets before any competitor could lay its hands on them. Moreover, BA wanted to prevent BCal's assets from passing into the hands of any [partially] foreign-owned or controlled competitors. It felt that under such a scenario the long-term competitiveness of the entire UK air transport industry was threatened.
ILG/Air Europe's unsolicited counter bid
Following Sir Adam's outright rejection of ILG chairman Harry Goodman's offer to purchase BCal's short-haul operation, and to merge that operation with the short-haul operations of ILG subsidiary Air Europe in return for not having the proposed BA-BCal deal referred to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (MMC), ILG decided at the end of July 1987 to launch a counter bid for the entire British Caledonian Group.
Air Europe was concerned that a new entity combining BA and BCal had the power to destroy the UK's remaining independent airlines, especially with regard to their ability to compete with such a behemoth. At the time, Air Europe had ambitions of its own to become a major short-haul scheduled operator. It was planning to launch 11 new routes from Gatwick to Europe, thereby replacing and enhancing the services BCal had provided. Given a combined BA-BCal's superior financial strength, considerably lower borrowing costs and far greater economies of scale, Air Europe's management felt that it would be imprudent to launch these new routes if it had to compete with BA out of Heathrow and Gatwick as well. Therefore, its parent ILG had decided to make a counter bid, which it hoped would either kill off BA's proposal to take over BCal lock, stock and barrel or result in it being referred to the MMC.
To enhance its credibility as a serious contender, Air Europe's bid contained a detailed proposal to return BCal to profitability by way of a reorganisation. This proposal had been prepared by a retired BA head of route planning whom ILG had specifically hired for this purpose. BCal would be split into four discrete businesses, each of which with its own management accountable for the performance of that unit. The businesses would be a long-haul operation under the BCal brand, a short-haul operation merged with Air Europe's existing short-haul operation using the BCal brand on business routes and the Air Europe brand in leisure markets, and an engineering and a ground handling unit.
The long-haul operation was to be re-equipped with a brand-new fleet comprising six Boeing 747-400s and 10 Boeing 767-300ERs to achieve a substantial reduction in operating costs and to permit an increase in frequencies. There were to be fewer services to Africa — where the new management wanted to keep only the really profitable routes to Nigeria and Ghana — while a second daily service to New York JFK was to be launched, Dubai was to be de-linked from the Hong Kong service and Hong Kong was to be served non-stop with the new 747-400s. In addition, there were to be more flights to the Middle East making use of unused licences to serve additional destinations in the region, which BCal had obtained during the early 1980s. There was also a plan to apply for traffic rights to serve other destinations in the Far East non-stop from Gatwick in competition with BA's existing services from Heathrow. This combination of more non-stop flights and higher frequencies to prime long-haul destinations would have resulted in a more attractive product for high-yield business travellers, thereby enabling the revamped BCal to become profitable again within a short period of time.
The short-haul operation was to have brand-new aircraft as well, which would have resulted in replacing BCal's ageing BAC One-Eleven 500s with the new Boeing 737-300s Air Europe had on order. It would also have resulted in adopting the Air Europe short-haul inflight product.
BCal's senior management rejected ILG's bid. They felt that both airlines' nature of operations and their business strategies were incompatible and that therefore there were no synergies to be gained from combining BCal with what was in their opinion "essentially a charter company".
Other contenders
The October 1987 stock market crash and ILG's successful referral of the original BA-BCal merger proposal to the MMC resulted in BA tabling a revised bid to take over BCal. The fall in BA's stock value left BA's original offer worth £156.7 million and a condition of MMC approval was that BCal had to give up some routes reducing its value to BA. BA's materially inferior offer to buy out the shareholders of the British Caledonian Group led to BCal's senior management turn against BA and to recommend to their shareholders not to accept the revised bid. Instead, with the backing of BCal's controlling shareholder 3i, a desperate search for a "white knight", who was prepared to pay the same amount of money BA had offered to pay in its original bid, began.
Talks with British Midland, UTA and SAS ensued. Among these sets of talks the one with SAS seemed to be the most promising.
Had parallel talks to merge with UTA, at the time the largest wholly private airline in France and the closest French equivalent to a "Second Force", succeeded, this would have resulted in a near perfect fit of both airlines' long-haul networks as these were largely complementary. It would also have given UTA, an exclusively long-haul carrier at the time, access to BCal's short-haul network. This could have delivered additional passengers transferring at UTA's Paris Charles de Gaulle base between that airline's long-haul services and BCal's short-haul feeder flights from/to London Gatwick. However, at the time the French authorities were thought to disapprove of establishing an equity link between any of their airlines and a foreign carrier.
Parallel talks with British Midland, which wanted to transfer all of BCal's scheduled services from Gatwick to Heathrow, ended without result at an early stage because BCal's senior management felt that this was not feasible given the tight slot situation at London's premier airport.
BCal maintained that it had held several rounds of exploratory talks concerning the airline's potential takeover with a number of US carriers that were willing to pay a substantial premium over BA's original bid to acquire BCal. These talks had come to nothing because the US carriers feared that there were insurmountable regulatory obstacles to such a cross-border acquisition in the highly regulated airline industry.
SAS's emergence as a potential "white knight"
SAS was prepared to offer £110 million for 26% of the British Caledonian Group's stock, valuing the entire group at £400 million. Jan Carlzon, the then chairman of the SAS group, was well aware that so-called "nationality clauses" in most bilateral air services agreements and most countries' legal framework regulating the ownership of their airlines would restrict SAS's direct involvement in BCal's finances to acquiring a minority stake in its holding company. SAS therefore dispatched a team of executives headed by Jan Carlzon to the UK to work out details of a joint bid. This envisaged setting up an employee trust fund that would hold the same percentage of British Caledonian Group stock on behalf of the group's employees as SAS itself was seeking to acquire, so as to be compliant with any rules limiting the stakes foreign individuals or entities could own in a British airline. They were prepared to extend a loan to the trustees of the envisaged employee trust fund to enable them to acquire an equal number of shares on the employees' behalf. Goldman Sachs, the investment bank that worked on SAS's bid for 26% of the British Caledonian Group's common stock, proposed this to be structured as a so-called "exploding share". This would have enabled SAS to increase its holding in British Caledonian Group plc to a maximum of 40% through subsequent acquisition of additional non-voting shares. These in turn would have become ordinary shares following greater market liberalisation. The SAS executives discussed these ideas with BCal's senior management and the unions representing its staff at the British Caledonian Group's Crawley headquarters as well as with Government officials in London.
SAS faced a barrage of hostile propaganda and delaying tactics from BA that were designed to stall any third party's competing bid to acquire BCal for as long as possible and got a mixed response to its planned counter bid for BCal from various departments of the UK Government.
To counter these negative sentiments, SAS's proposals also included a plan to offer Dan-Air to participate in its merger with BCal by merging its scheduled services division with the new airline combine's scheduled operation, thereby strengthening its position at Gatwick and the airport as a hub.
SAS's rationale for launching a counter bid for BCal was the airline's desire not to be left behind in the then widely expected scramble for consolidation in the airline industry by becoming part of one of the four or five global airline groupings that were predicted to dominate the entire industry.
SAS thought that BCal's Gatwick base would give it access to a centrally located hub in the world's biggest international air travel market, thereby helping it to overcome its geographic isolation on the margins of Northern Europe. It also thought that BCal's lucrative long-haul routes from Gatwick to Africa and the Middle East would give it access to markets it could not profitably serve itself from relatively sparsely populated Scandinavia, and that this would make a good fit with its short-haul European routes — especially its comprehensive schedule to the UK from Scandinavia. SAS furthermore thought that by agreeing to transfer these services from Heathrow to Gatwick, it could also help solve BCal's long-standing problem of not operating enough short-haul flights to improve its long-haul loads from Gatwick.
Takeover by British Airways
On 11 December, the CAA told SAS that it needed a British investor to match the SAS bid or the CAA would recommend to the Department of Trade and Industry that BCal no longer qualified as a British airline and the trade secretary indicated to the House of Commons that in that case he would be likely to revoke BCal's licences.
To counter SAS proposals, BA made an alternative cash offer of £200 million for all of BCal's stock (equivalent to 972 pence per share) while also leaving the alternative of 80 million BA shares still open.
Faced with the prospect of its takeover target being snatched away from under its nose by SAS, British Airways initially began resorting to bullying tactics. In this it had the implicit backing of Lord Tebbit, then a prominent cabinet member of Britain's ruling Conservative Party, who publicly referred to SAS as "Viking raiders".
BA was using a mix of rational and emotive arguments to convince both the regulators and the shareholders of the British Caledonian Group that its revised offer was in their best, long-term interest.
At the time, SAS used to pursue a high-fares-high-yield strategy in its Danish, Norwegian and Swedish home markets. BA argued that the SAS bid for BCal would lead to higher fares and thus would not benefit British consumers. In addition, BA also argued that BCal's takeover by SAS, in which the governments of Denmark, Norway and Sweden jointly held a 50% stake at that time, effectively represented a back-door nationalisation of a significant part of Britain's privatised air transport industry and contrasted this with its own, recent privatisation. In this context, BA highlighted that two of these governments represented countries — Norway and Sweden — that were not even members of the European Economic Community (EEC) at that time and therefore were not bound by moves to liberalise its member states' air transport markets. BA furthermore argued that this would call into question BCal's international traffic rights as most bilateral air services agreements contained a clause demanding airlines to be substantially owned and controlled by interests based in the countries they represented, and went on to argue that this could force the British Government to make concessions to its overseas counterparts that were not in the interest of the British air transport industry to preserve BCal's UK flag carrier status. BA moreover backed up its arguments with the threat that it would immediately apply to the CAA to have all of BCal's licences to operate scheduled air services revoked. BA based these threats on a clause in the 1982 Civil Aviation Act, which states that any airline claiming UK flag carrier status must be substantially owned and controlled by individuals who are UK nationals or entities whose headquarters are located in the UK.
In the event, the British Caledonian Group's controlling shareholder 3i decided to accept BA's final £250 million offer which it presented on 21 December 1987 with the proviso that it needed to be accepted or rejected that day. As the uncertainty surrounding BCal's future led to a further, significant deterioration of its financial position and BA's final bid trumped SAS, the fiduciary responsibilities of the British Caledonian Group's board towards their shareholders meant that the only option left was to recommend the acceptance of the BA bid. 3i and the other shareholders decided to sell their stakes in British Caledonian Group plc to British Airways relinquishing control of BCal.
Following BA's successful takeover of BCal, SAS had a giant hoarding erected at the entrance to Heathrow's central area featuring an advertisement that ended with BCal's famous 1980s marketing slogan we never forget you have a choice.
The referral of BA's original bid to take over the entire British Caledonian Group to the MMC had resulted in the imposition of several conditions before the proposed deal was allowed to go ahead. These included BA releasing a minimum of 5,000 annual slots BCal had held at Gatwick to competitors and requiring it to surrender to the CAA several of BCal's licences to operate scheduled services from Gatwick on a number of important, short-haul feeder routes. Although BA had been permitted to re-apply for these licences, the CAA decided to re-allocate all of them to rival airlines.
BA also needed to withdraw the objections to Air Europe's application to the CAA for licences to launch new scheduled services on several short-haul routes BCal already used to serve from Gatwick.
Furthermore, both companies' combined turnover exceeded the minimum threshold that automatically triggers the referral of a proposed merger between two or more companies that conduct a significant part or all of their business in EU member states to the European competition authorities in Brussels. Therefore, the Competition Directorate of the European Commission (EC) needed to clear BA's takeover of BCal as well.
In addition to the conditions imposed by the MMC, BA agreed further concessions with the EC's Competition Directorate to prevent BA from abusing its dominant position at both of London's main airports. These included limiting BA's presence at Gatwick to a maximum of 25% of all available slots, relinquishing BCal's unused route licences and to not oppose Air Europe's designation as an additional UK flag carrier on Gatwick—Rome. BA also had to give a legally binding undertaking that it would not seek to increase its share of Gatwick slots above 25% through any additional acquisitions of other airlines and/or their slots until 1992. These measures were primarily intended as safeguards for other airlines that required access to a sufficient number of attractive slots at Gatwick to launch viable scheduled services in competition with BA. Otherwise, BA's dominant position at both of London's main airports would have made it virtually impossible for the much smaller independents to replace and enhance capacity lost as a result of BCal's takeover, especially on routes where BCal had competed with BA and which accounted for more than half of its net revenue earned from scheduled services.
Air UK was awarded the licences for BCal's former London—Scotland trunk routes from Gatwick to Glasgow and Edinburgh. Dan-Air obtained the licences for the old BCal routes from Gatwick to Manchester and Aberdeen as well as from Gatwick to Paris Charles de Gaulle and Nice. The licence for BCal's Gatwick—Brussels route was transferred to Air Europe. The CAA also granted Air Europe permission to increase the frequency on its existing route between Gatwick and Paris Charles de Gaulle, where it had already competed with BCal, so that it could match Dan-Air's frequency. Both Air Europe and Connectair were successful in their applications for BCal's unused European route licences.
BA continued serving the routes until the new licence holders were ready to assume operations at the start of the 1988/89 winter timetable period.
BCal ceased to exist as a legal entity at 00.01 hrs. on 14 April 1988.
Cal Air International, the former British Caledonian Charter operation, and British Caledonian Flight Training were not included in BA's acquisition of the British Caledonian Group.
British Airtours, BA's wholly owned, Gatwick-based charter subsidiary, was rebranded Caledonian Airways. The aircraft were repainted in a variation of BA livery with BCal's lion rampant on the aircraft fins and cabin crew members taking to wearing the tartan.
BA replaced the former BCal short-haul fleet of 13 BAC One-Eleven 500s with 14 Boeing 737-200 Advanced.
The One-Elevens were transferred to BA's regional bases in Birmingham and Manchester.
The five second-hand 747s BA had inherited from BCal were replaced with its own 747-100/200s.
In addition, BA stationed three Lockheed L-1011 Tristar widebodied aircraft at Gatwick, which were used to operate the former BCal West African coastal schedule as well as a number of new routes to North Africa and the Middle East that had been transferred to Gatwick from Heathrow.
The only former BCal aircraft BA kept for its Gatwick operation were eight McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30s that had formed BA's erstwhile competitor's core long-haul fleet.
BA transferred the former BCal routes to Tokyo and Saudi Arabia to Heathrow. To compensate for this loss and to utilise its full slot allocation at Gatwick, BA moved its routes to Amman, Bermuda, Cairo, Khartoum, Larnaca, Luxor and Nassau to Gatwick, and routed a new Manchester—London—Islamabad service via Gatwick instead of Heathrow.
BA transferred all of its international operations from Gatwick — including those it had inherited from BCal — to the then brand-new North Terminal, which opened in March 1988.
The A320s BCal had ordered in 1983 began arriving at BA's new Gatwick base during the spring of 1988. These aircraft had been painted in BA's contemporary Landor Associates designed livery. BA operated its first commercial A320 service between London Gatwick and Geneva before transferring the entire A320 fleet to its main base at Heathrow later that year.
Reasons for the failure of British Caledonian
British Caledonian Commuter Services
To further improve its network connectivity and to transform Gatwick into a US style airline hub, BCal established a dedicated commuter services network under the British Caledonian Commuter Services brand at the start of the 1982/83 winter timetable period. BCal's commuter network was modelled on the Allegheny Airlines commuter system, the first dedicated commuter operation in the world launched in 1967.
The first airline to join the British Caledonian Commuter scheme in 1982 was Humberside Airport-based Genair.
Genair, which had been formed as a Manchester-based executive charter airline in November 1980, commenced operations with a single Beech King Air E90. Following its move to Liverpool in February 1981, in June of that year, it acquired an 18-seater Embraer Bandeirante and began regional scheduled services to Amsterdam and London Gatwick. Closer links with BCal, followed by Genair's participation in the British Caledonian Commuter scheme and its subsequent relocation to Humberside in late 1982, resulted in acquisition of a small fleet of Short SD3-30 and Short SD3-60 commuter turboprop planes, which were [re-]painted in British Caledonian Commuter colours. Genair used these aircraft to replace Bandeirantes on Gatwick—Liverpool and launch new feeder routes linking BCal's Gatwick base with Humberside, Norwich, Teesside, Leeds/Bradford, Bristol and Cardiff. All flights on these routes were operated under BCal flight numbers using the BR designator. Barbara Harmer, one of Genair's SD3-30 pilots at the time, joined BCal in March 1984, where she first flew One-Elevens before transitioning to DC-10s. Harmer subsequently became the UK's first and only female Concorde pilot following BCal's takeover by BA.
Other airlines that joined the British Caledonian Commuter scheme at its inception included Brymon Airways and Guernsey Airlines. The former operated the feeder routes from Gatwick to Birmingham, East Midlands and Plymouth, while the CAA had transferred Air UK's Gatwick—Guernsey licence to the latter following numerous passenger complaints about the service Air UK had previously provided since it had assumed the former BIA operation on that route.
Fleet
Fleet details
BCal and its subsidiaries operated the following fixed wing aircraft types:
Airbus A310-200
BAC One-Eleven 200/300/400/500 series
Boeing 707-120B/320B/320C
Boeing 747-100/200B/200B "Combi"
McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10/30
Piper PA-23 Aztec
Piper PA-31 Navajo Chieftain
Vickers VC10 1103/1109 series
Vickers Viscount 800 series
Lockheed L-1011 TriStar 100 series
Fleet in 1972
In May 1972 BCal's fleet comprised 32 jet aircraft.
5,300 people were employed.
Fleet in 1975
In March 1975 BCal's fleet comprised 24 jet aircraft.
4,846 people were employed.
Fleet in 1978
In April 1978 BCal's fleet comprised 29 aircraft with two DC-10-30 on order.
5,500 people were employed.
Fleet in 1981
In May 1981 BCal's fleet comprised 29 jet aircraft.
6,600 people were employed.
Fleet in 1984
In March 1984 BCal's mainline fleet comprised 25 jet aircraft.
6,300 people were employed.
Fleet in 1986
In March 1986 BCal's mainline fleet comprised 27 jet aircraft with seven Airbus A320 on order. BCal employed 6,750 staff.
Incidents and accidents
BCal had an enviable safety record during its 17-year existence. Its aircraft were never involved in fatal accidents.
There were a few noteworthy non-fatal incidents involving the airline's aircraft.
On 24 September 1971, a Vickers VC10 1103 (registration: G-ASIX) was hit by clear air turbulence (CAT) en route from Santiago de Chile to Buenos Aires while operating the first sector of BCal's weekly Santiago–Gatwick schedule. While the aircraft was cruising above the Andes, it encountered CAT above the mountain peaks. This resulted in the aircraft being thrown up on to its side at a greater-than-90-degree angle, and then tossed, headlong, nose down, towards the up to high peaks just a few thousand feet (several hundred metres) below. The severity of this incident injured an air hostess who was working in the rear galley and knocked out the powered control units (PCUs) of almost every flight control surface, leaving the aircraft to plummet downwards at a speed approaching Mach 1. The crew managed a successful recovery and reset the aircraft's PCUs. Following the aircraft's safe landing at Buenos Aires, a thorough ground check was performed before the aircraft was allowed to resume its flight to Gatwick. A detailed inspection of the aircraft at Gatwick revealed a fracture in one of the tail fin support spars, necessitating a lengthy repair. On an airliner with wing-mounted engines under the same circumstances, the engine mounting pins would probably have snapped.
On 28 January 1972, a Vickers VC10-1109 (registration: G-ARTA) sustained severe structural damage to the fuselage as a result of an exceptionally hard landing at Gatwick at the end of a short ferry flight from Heathrow. The airline decided that repairs were not cost-effective and the aircraft was written off and scrapped at Gatwick in 1975.).
On 19 July 1972, a BAC One-Eleven 501EX (registration: G-AWYS) sustained substantial damage as a result of aborting takeoff from Corfu Airport too late. The aircraft had passed through a pool of standing water close to its decision speed during the takeoff run. This caused a temporary reduction of engine thrust which the flight's commander interpreted as engine failure requiring an immediate rejection of takeoff. The flight deck crew's decision to abandon their takeoff was delayed and as a result, the aircraft did not stop on the runway but, after crossing some rough ground, finally came to rest in a -deep lagoon. None of the six crew members and 79 passengers was seriously injured in the crash, but an elderly female passenger collapsed after being helped from the aircraft and subsequently died of cardiac arrest on her way to hospital.
See also
List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Notes and citations
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
(Kelsey Publishing Group online)
External links
British Caledonian — A Tribute.
Monopolies and Mergers Commission report on proposed British Airways takeover of British Caledonian
BA-BCal merger as reported on BBC News, 16 July 1987
contemporary timetable images
Daily Telegraph obituary of Sir Peter Masefield, BCal's former deputy chairman from 1978–1987
History of British Caledonian's VC-10s
[ Privatisation of British Airways: Its Management and Politics 1982–1987 (Kyohei Shibata, EUI Working Paper EPU No.93/9, European University Institute, Florence, Italy, 1994)]
Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Airlines established in 1970
Airlines disestablished in 1988
Scottish brands
Companies based in Crawley
1988 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
|
417972
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazanlak
|
Kazanlak
|
Kazanlak ( ; ), known as Seuthopolis () in ancient times, is a town in Stara Zagora Province, Bulgaria. It is located in the middle of the plain of the same name, at the foot of the Balkan mountain range, at the eastern end of the Rose Valley. It is the administrative centre of the homonymous Kazanlak Municipality.
The town is among the 15 biggest industrial centres in Bulgaria, with a population of 44,760 people as of Dec 2017.
It is the center of rose oil extraction in Bulgaria and the oil-producing rose of Kazanlak is one of the most widely recognizable national symbols.
History
The oldest settlement in the area of the modern-day city dates back to the Neolithic era (6th-5th millennium BCE). During the 4th-3rd centuries BCE the lands on the upper Tundzha river were within the dominion of the Thracian ruler Seuthes III and took an important place in the historical development of Thrace during the Hellenistic era. The Thracian city of Seuthopolis (Σευθόπολις) was uncovered near Kazanlak and thoroughly studied at the time of the construction of the Koprinka Reservoir. In the 4th century BCE, near the ancient Thracian capital of Seuthopolis and close to the city, a magnificent Thracian tomb was built. Consisting of a vaulted brickwork "beehive" (tholos) tomb, it contains, among other things, painted murals representing a Thracian couple at a ritual funeral feast. The tomb was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.
In the Middle Ages the valley became an administrative center of the Krun region where the Bulgarian boyar Aldimir (Eltimir) ruled. After 1370 Kazanlak was under Ottoman dominion. Its modern name is derived from the Turkish Kazanlik.
The modern city dates back to the beginning of the 15th century. It was founded as a military fortress to protect the Shipka Pass and later developed as a city of craftsmen. More than 50 handcrafts developed such as tanning, coppersmithing, goldsmithing, frieze weaving, shoemaking, cooperage and, of course, rose cultivation. The oil-producing rose, imported from central Asia via Persia, Syria and Turkey, found all the necessary conditions to thrive – proper temperature, high moisture and light, sandy, cinnamon-forest soils. Kazanlak rose oil has won gold medals at expositions in Paris, London, Philadelphia, Antwerp, Laet, and Milan. After Bulgarian independence the handcrafts declined due to the loss of the markets in the huge Ottoman Empire. The textile, aerospace and military industries were developed.
Geography
Climate
The Bulgarian climate is temperate, with average temperatures from to in January, and in July. The average altitude is .
Spring temperatures rise comparatively early and are usually above (in the first half of March) and above (in the first half of April) but sometimes there are also some cold spring periods.
The summer temperatures are moderate and the average summer rainfall is rather high, especially at the beginning of summer. During the second half of the summer and the beginning of the autumn, there are continuous drops in rainfall. Until the middle of November, the average autumn temperature is above , and above until the end of October.
The winter is mild, with comparatively low snowfall, short-lasting snow-cover and low minimum temperatures. The highest rainfall is in June, and the lowest in February and March. The general wind direction is from north-east.
Relief
The town of Kazanlak and the surrounding region is situated in the western part of the Kazanlak Valley. There are various soil types, mostly maroon soils (about 50%) which are very suitable for growing oleaginous cultures and herbs.
The Kazanlak Valley was formed during the Quaternary Period with the rise of the Balkan and Sredna Gora Mountains and the submergence of the Fore-Balkan fields. The fault character of the Valley is evidenced by the hot mineral springs near the village of Ovoshtnik, Yagoda and the town of Pavel Banya.
Morphologically, the Kazanlak Valley is divided into three areas. The western area is the broadest one and has a lot of hills due to the numerous alluvials, formed by the rivers flowing through the Balkan Mountains. Although the average altitude is , here it reaches up to . The central area is narrower and lower, and the relief of the eastern area is much more complex.
Soils and mineral resources
Soil cover is closely related to the relief, climate, flora of the region and the economical activity of the man. The varied Bulgarian natural environment has produced about 20 soil types and subtypes.
This region is characterised mainly by cinnamon-forest soil. The spreading of the accumulative river materials along the Tundzha river and the Eninska river has formed alluvial soil types and subtypes. The draining and the deeply intended geological base together with the drought-resistant and thermophilic forest vegetation (oak, field elm, hornbeam) are the reason for the spreading of the forest soils.
The arable lands related to this soil type are inclined and that leads to the degradable effect of the plane, linear and ravine erosion. The alluvial soils are high-productive – they are represented by arable lands of I, II and III category. They cover two-thirds of the searched territory and this is an obstruction to the town growth.
The lands are planted mainly with roses and perennial plants. Low-productive and degraded lands are located only north-east of Kazanlak. Part of them are covered with meadows and pastures. This region is not rich in mineral resources of industrial importance but there are several non-metalliferous minerals of local importance. There is a clay deposit for brick manufacturing in Manastirska Niva locality two km west of Kazanlak. A greisen-pit for broken stone, paving stones, and kerbs is located east of the town in Kara Dere locality.
Sand, gravel, and felt are extracted from the pits near the villages of Ovoshtnik and Cherganovo.
There are granite pits near the villages of Kanchevo and Bouzovgrad. The granite is used for kerbs, paving stones, and others.
Water resources
The Kazanlak valley is drained by the Tundzha river and its tributaries. The Tundzha river rises in the highest part of the Balkan east of Mount Botev, flows across several fields – Kalofersko Pole, Kazanlashko Pole, Slivensko Pole, Yambolsko Pole and Elhovsko Pole and empties into the Maritsa river. The total length of its Bulgarian section is , and its drainage basin area is . The river flows slowly in Kazanlak valley near the north slopes of Sredna Gora mountain. The average annual water quantity increases southwards.
At Koprinka dam it is per second on average or about per year; at the village of Knezha it is per second or per year. But this water quantity is not equally distributed during the whole year. The maximum is in spring (April and May) due to the intensive snow melting and high rainfalls in spring. The underground waters of the considerable in range and flow rate alluvial cones play an important role in the drain regulation during summer season when the rainfall is minimum. Southwest of the village of Koprinka the river valley is deeply cut in the slope of Sredna Gora mountain and this narrowness was used for the Koprinka dam construction which permits the irrigation of the land round Kazanlak and Stara Zagora. Many tributaries feed the Tundzha river; those rising in the Balkan mountains are numerous and deeper.
The rivers Tazha, Leshnitsa, Eninska and Maglizhka and their deeply cut in the Balkan slopes valleys are of remarkable beauty. The Kran river rises in the village of Kran and collecting several spring flows through the western part of the town and gradually disappears in the terrace materials of the Tundzha river.
The Eninska river rises in the Balkan, collects the waters of many springs, flows through the eastern part of Kazanlak and empties into the Tundzha river south of the town. Both tributaries have deeply cut valleys in their upper courses. In the lower courses the terrain is not so inclined and the river beds are wider. The average annual water quantity of the Eninska river at the village of Enina is per second. The maximum water flow is in April and May, at and per second, respectively. The minimum is in September at per second. These tributaries (especially the Eninska river) are characterised by plenty of alluvial formations.
Many gullies run down the slopes of Tulbeto hill (located in the north-eastern part of the town) when heavy rain falls or snow melts and carry to the Eninska river heavy alluvial formations. Two or three km north of Kazanlak the rivers Eninska and Kranska are connected by a drain carrying off the water directed towards the town. South of the town there is another drain system carrying the disappearing in the alluvial cone waters from the rivers Eninska and Kranska towards the Tundzha river.
Population
During the first decade after the liberation of Bulgaria, in the 1880s the population of Kazanlak numbered about 9,000. Since then it started growing decade by decade, mostly because of the migrants from the rural areas and the surrounding smaller towns, reaching its peak in 1985 exceeding 60,000. After this time, the population has started decreasing rapidly in consequence of the poor economic situation in the Bulgarian provinces during the 1990s that led to a new migration in the direction of the country capital Sofia and abroad.
Ethnic groups
Culture
Kazanlak has a long, solid tradition in the area of culture and enlightenment. At the every beginning of the Revival, the populace of Kazanlak was already opening school and cultural reading centers – including the Pedagogical school of Kazanlak, which prepared teachers for the entire country. For many well-known Bulgarian artists and performers, this was the place where their physical and creative lives began. The cultural centre of Kazanlak is the Iskra chitalishte, founded in 1860. It contains a library, theatre, cinema, and museum. It was host to the first Bulgarian opera, Siromahkinya.
Iskra Library – one of the oldest libraries in Bulgaria, founded in 1860, now holds over 500 volumes.
Rosarium Park with many spots for recreation.
The House – museums of famous Bulgarian artists Dechko Uzunov and Nenko Balkanski.
The Thracian tombs. The remains discovered from the ancient Thracian culture – objects, jewelry, and vessels of gold, silver, bronze and clay – have long since become part of the world historical legacy.
Iskra Town History Museum
The Iskra Town History Museum is one of the first provincial town museums in Bulgaria. It was founded on 29 June 1901, by Peter Topuzov – a bright man of enterprise from Kazanlak and by decision of the leaders of Iskra Studious Club. More than 50 000 exhibits revealing the history of Kazanlak area from ancient times until nowadays have been kept at Iskra museum. The finds from Thracian town of Seuthopolis are displayed in three separate halls. Temporary exhibitions with valuable articles from this museum and loan-collections are arranged during the active tourist season.
Rose Museum
The museum is a part of the Historical Museum "Iskra" in Kazanlak. In 1967 a small exposition was created, which was dedicated to rose-picking in Kazanlak and the region. In 1969 the exposition grew into an independent museum. Nowadays the Rose Museum stores more than 15 000 exponents related to rose-picking and rose-production in Bulgaria. The museum exposition includes original pictures and documents of the development of rose production, instruments for processing of the rose gardens, vessels for storing and exporting rose oil and rose water. Restorations of a rose warehouse and the first laboratory for examination of rose oil created in 1912 are made in the museum. One of the biggest attractions in the museum is a rose oil vessel which had been used for the last time in 1947 to this day a strong rose scent can still be smelled around it.
Koulata Ethnographic Complex
The charming cobbled Mirska Street is in the oldest part of the city – Koulata District, near the world-famous Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak. This is where traditional architecture from the period of the Bulgarian National Revival (18th–19th centuries) can be found. The traditional buildings there constitute the Koulata Ethnographic Complex, restored and open to visitors since 1976. They "take us back" to the unique, diverse material culture of Bulgarians from the Kazanlak region of the past.
Before stepping through the gate, visitors can hear the coppersmiths’ hammers. They tell the stories of the typical local coppersmiths’ craft. Opposite are the violin-makers and next door is the goldsmith's. The country house nestles among bushes and trees. It is one-storied and asymmetrical. It has the characteristic of the Balkan valley houses from the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century.
The lifestyle of the late 19th and early 20th century inhabitants of the region is shown in the restored houses from the time of the Bulgarian Renaissance. The artefacts displayed here are kept in the Ethnography department. Kazanlak was a famous crafts town in the near past. Visitors can try some of the rose industry products – jam, liqueur, and gyulovitsa (rose brandy).
Buzludzha National Park
Buzludzha National Park rises east of the Shipka pass. It is a very important part of Bulgarian history – here, on 30 July 1868, Hadzhi Dimitar fell in battle. He was at the head of a small group of rebels fighting the numerous Turkish enemy. In 1961 a monument was built here to commemorate this act of heroism. The impressive marble figure of Hadji Dimiter is outlined against the green background of the pine-trees. Near it, under the venerable beeches, a stone bas relief commemorates another event in Bulgarian history – founding of the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party on 2 August 1891, after a clandestine congress. Buzludzha with its numerous chalets, rest homes and hotels offers excellent opportunities for the lovers of winter sports and tourism.
Shipka National Park
Shipka National Park is founded on the same area where the bloody battles of the Russian-Turkish Liberation War occurred during the 1870s. It represents a complex of memorial tablets, monuments, trenches, and bunkers reminiscent of the battle.
On the top of the mount at Shipka rises the "Freedom Monument". It was paid for by voluntary donations of the Bulgarian people and built after the design of Atanas Donkov, an architect, and Alexander Andreev, a sculptor. The monument was opened officially in 1934. The monument's expositions relate the story of Russian soldiers' and Bulgarian volunteers' heroism during the five-month defence of the pass. From the last ground there is a panorama of the restored details of the battle field, monuments and common graves reminiscent of the self-sacrifice of the Russian and Bulgarian heroes.
The locality offers excellent conditions for relaxation and tourism. Several shops, cafes with well-stocked wet-bars, camping, a comfortable hotel-restaurant, and a petrol station.
The national Shipka-Buzludza park-museum includes Shipka Memorial Church (or Church of the Nativity) near the town of Shipka, Shipka National Park, Freedom Monument near the village of Sheinovo, and Buzludza National Park.
The Shipka Memorial Church
The Shipka Memorial Church is north of Kazanlak, at the south foot of the Stara Planina mountains near the town of Shipka. It was erected after Bulgarian independence as a monument to Russian and Bulgarian dead. The golden domes and the green and pink façade loom against the mountains and attract the attention of the travelers in the Shipka pass.
The project design following 17th century Russian church architecture with arks, friezes, pediments, and gold-plated ornaments, was the work of the Czech architect A.I. Tomisko. The main entrance has three arks, topped off with the distinctive high spire of the bell tower. There are 17 bells; the heaviest of them weighs about . The lime-tree iconostasis is richly decorated with gilded wood-carvings and is of great artistic value.
The icons were presented by Russian monks from the monastery of St. Pantaleimon on Mount Athos, Greece. The names of the Russian regiments and of Russian and Bulgarian dead are inscribed on 34 marble plates built in the walls of the church. The honoured dust of the Russian soldiers killed at Shipka Pass (1877–78) have been kept in 17 stone sarcophagi in the crypt. The Shipka Memorial church was ceremoniously consecrated on 27 September 1902.
Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak
The tomb is part of a large Thracian necropolis. It comprises a narrow corridor and a round burial chamber, both decorated with murals representing a Thracian couple at a ritual funeral feast. The monument dates back to the 4th century BCE and has been on the UNESCO protected World Heritage Site list since 1979. The murals are memorable for the splendid horses and for a gesture of farewell, in which the seated couple grasp each other's wrists in a moment of tenderness and equality (according to Lyudmila Zhivkova—a view that is not shared by all specialists). The paintings are Bulgaria's best-preserved artistic masterpieces from the Hellenistic period.
The tomb is situated near the ancient Thracian capital of Seuthopolis in a region where more than a thousand tombs of kings and members of the Thracian aristocracy can be found.
The seated woman of the murals is depicted on the reverse of the Bulgarian 50 stotinki coin issued in 2005.
The Kosmatka Tomb
One of the most impressive monuments of the Thracian civilization in the Valley of the Thracian Kings, is the heroon (a temple-tomb of a hero of royal status) of Seuthes III. In the summer of 2004 a team of Bulgarian archaeologists unearthed a large, intact Thracian mausoleum dating back from the 5th century BCE near the Bulgarian town of Shipka, Kazanlak municipality. The temple was buried under the high "Golyamata Kosmatka" mound. "This is probably the richest tomb of a Thracian king ever discovered in Bulgaria. Its style and its making are entirely new to us as experts," said Georgi Kitov, the head of the team.
The Kosmatka Tomb represents a remarkable Thracian heroon built accordingly to the Orphic traditions of the end of the 5th or beginning of the 4th century BCE. Serving also as a symbolic tomb of Seuthes III, it contained an enormous treasure, exhibited now in the Iskra Museum and Art Gallery. More than 70 silver, gold and bronze objects, which were used as ritual offering to the gods, were discovered during the excavations.
The temple was used between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 3rd century BCE, when a symbolic burial ceremony of Seuthes III took place, the famous founder of the Thracian city of Seuthopolis, located only away. After the symbolic burial ceremony, the temple was closed and the entrance sealed and buried.
Literary and Art Museum of "Chudomir"
Among the town's more interesting attractions is the house of the acclaimed Bulgarian writer, artist, and activist Dimitar Chorbadzhiiski, whose pen name was Chudomir (1890–1967). The house was declared a museum the year after his death, in 1968, and now has the status of a national historical cultural landmark, as confirmed by Protocol 15 of the State Records for 3 December 1968. The museum complex, remodeled and reopened in 1979, now includes the artist's house and an art exhibition and related documents housed in three halls, covering an area of 300 square meters. Here there are more than 15,000 original manuscripts, paintings, sketches, letters, books, and personal effects that belonged to Chudomir and his wife, the artist Mara Chorbadzhiiska. This is the only museum in Bulgaria dedicated to both literature and art, and it is also the headquarters of the respected Chudomir Cultural Foundation. The museum is also one of the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria.
Economy
For official and up to date information on the economy of Kazanlak municipality, visit ИКОНОМИКА
The following sectors dominate the economy of Kazanlak Municipality:
► Industry (represented by the production of hydraulic elements, metal processing, processing industry)
► Agriculture (mainly oilseed cultivation, rose oil production)
► Tourism
In the period 2014-2018, the total number of operating enterprises in Kazanlak municipality increased by 180. Micro-enterprises have the largest share, and in 2018 their number was 2,982. or 92.4% of the total. They increased their number by 155 in the period 2014-2018. Small enterprises are 6.3% of the total number, their increase is by 28. The share of medium-sized enterprises is 1.05%, and of large enterprises - 0.25%. A decrease in the number of medium-sized and large enterprises was observed, respectively by 1 and 2 in the period 2014-2018. The number of enterprises in the municipality is 20% of the number of the same in Stara Zagora district in 2018.
Net revenues from sales in the period 2014-2018 increased by BGN 6.54 thousand/inhabitant, with an increase for the country by BGN 9.27 thousand/inhabitant. At the end of 2018, the net sales revenue in the municipality reached 56.4% of the national average. Almost double the lower sales revenue compared to the national average indicates that the output produced has low added value and/or labor productivity is low.
Net revenue from sales per 1 resident as of 31.12. 2018 in thousand BGN/capita
Source NSI regional statistics LAUI 2000-2019
Rose industry
The city lies at the eastern end of the famous Rose Valley. It is flanked with mid-height mountain ranges on opposite sides, and is especially marvelous in mid May when rose fields blossom and the fragrance is unparalleled. The harvesting of roses, and the production of rose oil for export to international parfumiers, is of major importance to the local economy. Here are a few oil factories: Lema ; Damascena
According to The Ultimate Visual Encyclopedia, Bulgaria is the major supplier of a certain type of rose oil in the world and Kazanlak's rose gardens are the largest rose gardens in the whole world.
Rose Festival
Rose Festival is one of the most remarkable events in Bulgaria, dedicated to beauty and flowers, to spring and the fragrance of the priceless Kazanlak rose. This year (2023) the festival is marking its 120 year anniversary. The beautiful celebrations for the blossom of the roses there take place in the first week of June. The program for the whole week is full of attractions of all sorts: cultural, adventure and outdoors as well as culinary and wine exposes. That week is also interesting, because there is a beauty pageant and on the last day of the celebrations, for the most beautiful girl in the city is chosen. They call her "The Queen Of Roses" . The Rose Festival was celebrated for the first time in 1903 and since then it has traditionally been held during the first weekend of June. This is the season when the gentle oleaginous Kazanlak rose comes to bloom, filling the air with its scent. Nowadays the Rose Festival has evolved into an international event where thousands of tourists and guests of the town are entertained.
The official municipal website for tourism where you can find the Rose festival program is visitkazanlak.bg, unfortunately the website is only available in Bulgarian language. Find English version here: rose festival program 2023.
Other industries
The municipality of Kazanlak has a well-developed processing industry, which is also the most developed sector in the Stara Zagora region. Manufacturing companies contribute 75% of value added to the local economy and employ 66% of workers in 2019. The sector generates 55% of net income and 79% of payroll. The most significant production subsectors in terms of added value are the processing of metals and metal parts (63% of the added value in production), the production of machinery and equipment (21% of the added value). The productivity of the companies is guaranteed by capital investments in long-lasting tangible assets and by the active absorption of funding from European funds - a total of 29% of the amount for the region for the period 2014-2019.
Prominent among Kazanlak's manufacturers is Arsenal Corp. Founded in 1924, it manufactures and develops a wide range of military equipment, including small arms (especially AK models), anti-aircraft missiles, and heavy machine guns.
Also located in the city are M+S Hydraulic M+S Hydraulic and Caproni JSC, manufacturers of hydraulic components.
Kazanlak has three textile factories, one for woolen cloth, the second producing thread of different types and the last producing cloth from synthetic materials. Check: Bulgaria Tex and Bulgaria K
In Kazanlak is located for more than 90 years one of the biggest factories for musical instruments in the country Kremona .
► Micro- and small enterprises submitted 167 projects under the measure "Overcoming the shortage of funds and the lack of liquidity that occurred as a result of the epidemic explosion of COVID-19", and 108 of them received the maximum permissible support of BGN 10,000 (1,080 000 BGN in total), and the other 59 projects received support in the amount of BGN 324,870 in total. The amount of financial support received is BGN 1,404,870.
► 5 projects with a total value of BGN 136,078 were submitted under the measures "Support for SMEs carrying out bus transport to overcome the economic consequences of COVID-19" and "Support for medium-sized enterprises to overcome the economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic".
As of February 15, 2021, a total of 50 projects for nearly BGN 42 million have been submitted under the other OPIC measures, as follows:
► Priority axis "Technological development and innovation" - a total of 11 projects (10 completed, 1 in progress) with a total value of BGN 12,084,369
► Priority axis "Entrepreneurship and growth capacity of SMEs" - a total of 29 projects with a total value of BGN 19,795,811
► Priority axis "Energy and resource efficiency" - a total of 8 projects (7 completed and 1 in progress) with a total value of BGN 10,037,083.
To increase the competitiveness of enterprises on the territory of the municipality for the period 2014-2020, projects for nearly BGN 52 million are being implemented.
The economic development of Kazanlak municipality in recent years is characterized by certain dynamics. The data show a process of development and growth of the main economic indicators for the period from 2014 to 2019, which is proof of the stable economic condition of the municipality.
Education
Kazanlak is home to the following schools:
Exarch Anthim I Secondary School
Paisiy Hilendarski Primary School
Nikola Obreshkov High School of Science
Sts. Cyril and Methodius High School
Bulgarska Roza Secondary School
Ivan Hadjienov Professional High School
Mati Bolgaria Primary School
Technical School of Transportation
Vocational School of Hydraulics
National High School of Plastic Arts and Design
Notable people
Hristo Yanev, football player of CSKA SOFIA
Todor Yanchev, football player of CSKA SOFIA
Chudomir, writer
Ivan Enchev-Vidyu, painter and folklorist
Emanuil Manolov, composer
Petko Staynov, composer
Dechko Uzunov, artist
Nenko Balkanski, artist
Svetla Ivanova, pop singer
Elvira Georgieva, estrada and chalga singer
Petko Orozov, philanthropist, Rose Oil industrialist and innovator
Ivan Milev, artist
Borislav Sabchev, religious philosopher / academic
Petya Pendareva, athlete, 60 m silver medallist at the 2000 European Indoor Athletics Championships
International relations
its international relations primarily fall under the purview of Bulgaria's foreign policy and international engagements. Here are some key points related to the international relations of Kazanlak:
European Union (EU): Bulgaria is a member of the European Union, and as such, Kazanlak is part of the broader EU framework for international relations. This includes trade agreements, cooperation on various policies, and access to EU funding for regional development.
NATO: Bulgaria is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which is a military alliance of countries primarily in North America and Europe. This membership involves cooperation in defense and security matters.
Bilateral Relations: Like other municipalities in Bulgaria, Kazanlak may have sister city or town relationships with counterparts in other countries. These relationships can involve cultural exchanges, economic cooperation, and other forms of collaboration.
Regional Cooperation: Kazanlak is part of the Stara Zagora Province and may engage in regional cooperation with neighboring municipalities or regions in other countries. These collaborations can focus on issues like infrastructure development, environmental protection, and economic cooperation.
Tourism: Kazanlak is known for its cultural and historical significance, particularly for the Thracian tomb and the Rose Valley. International tourism plays a role in the town's international relations, as visitors from various countries come to explore its attractions.
Economic Relations: Like other parts of Bulgaria, Kazanlak is connected to international trade and commerce. This can involve exports of local products, imports of foreign goods, and foreign investments in the region.
EU Funds: Kazanlak, like many municipalities in Bulgaria, may benefit from various EU-funded programs aimed at regional development, infrastructure improvement, and economic growth.
Cultural Exchanges: Cultural exchanges and partnerships with international organizations, embassies, and cultural institutions can contribute to Kazanlak's international relations. These exchanges often promote cultural understanding and cooperation.
Environmental Cooperation: Issues related to the environment and sustainability can also be part of Kazanlak's international relations. Collaboration with international organizations and neighboring regions on environmental initiatives is common.
It's important to note that the extent and nature of international relations can vary from one municipality to another and can change over time based on political, economic, and social developments. Therefore, the specific details of Kazanlak's international relations may evolve beyond the general points mentioned above.
Twin towns – Sister cities
Kazanlak is twinned with:
Honour
Kazanlak Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Kazanlak.
References
External links
Official website for Kazanlak
News from Kazanlak
Rose Festival Kazanlak
Kazanlak news
Kazanlak info
FC Rozova dolina (Kazanlak)
kazanlak.start.bg
Official UNESCO description of the Kazanlak tomb
Bulgarian World Heritage Sites; further professional links
Pictures from Kazanlak Info
Pictures from Kazanlak
History of Kazanlak
Official tourism portal of Bulgaria by The Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism
Populated places in Stara Zagora Province
Place names of Turkish origin in Bulgaria
|
417987
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaQuest%20DSV
|
SeaQuest DSV
|
SeaQuest DSV (stylized as seaQuest DSV and also promoted as simply seaQuest) is an American science fiction television series created by Rockne S. O'Bannon. It aired on NBC between 1993 and 1996. In its final season, it was renamed seaQuest 2032. Set in "the near future" (the year 2018 in the first season), seaQuest DSV originally mixed high drama with realistic scientific fiction. The first two seasons star Roy Scheider as Captain Nathan Bridger, designer and commander of the eponymous naval submarine seaQuest DSV 4600, the ship prefix standing for "deep-submergence vehicle". Jonathan Brandis portrays Lucas Wolenczak, a teenaged computer genius placed aboard seaQuest by his father, and Stephanie Beacham portrayed Kristin Westphalen, the chief medical officer and head of the seaQuest science department. In the opening episode of the third season Bridger departed DSV 4600 and was replaced by Captain Oliver Hudson, played by Michael Ironside. Also present was a dolphin character called Darwin who, due to technological advances, was able to communicate with the crew. Steven Spielberg expressed interest in the project and served as one of the show's executive producers during the first two seasons.
Production of the first season was marked by disputes between the producers, NBC and cast members, changes in the production staff, and an earthquake. The second season saw changes in the cast, as well as continued disputes between cast members and producers. The third season introduced a new lead actor and title. While initially popular, the series began to decline in ratings throughout its run and was abruptly canceled in the middle of its third season.
Overview
Season 1
The series follows the adventures of the high-tech submarine seaQuest DSV 4600, a deep-submergence vehicle operated by the United Earth Oceans Organization (UEO), a global coalition of up-world countries and undersea confederations, similar to the United Nations. The UEO was created following a major showdown of nations and confederations at the Livingston Trench in the North Atlantic Ocean that occurred circa 2018 as depicted in the pilot episode, "To Be Or Not to Be", and it remained a recurring element for the duration of the series. The seaQuest was designed by retired naval captain Nathan Bridger and built by NORPAC (a military organization mentioned in the pilot) and given as a loan to the UEO after its creation. The storyline begins in the year 2018, after mankind has exhausted almost all natural resources, except for the ones on the ocean floor. Many new colonies have been established there and it is the mission of the seaQuest and its crew to protect them from hostile nonaligned nations and to aid in mediating disputes as well as engage in undersea research, much of which was still in the preliminary stages when the show began production in 1993. Bridger, though originally reluctant due to a promise he made with his wife after their son, Robert, was killed in a naval military action before her death, is convinced to return to the navy, under the auspices of the UEO, and assume command of the seaQuest. The first season's storylines primarily dealt with plausible oceanographic research, environmental issues, political machinations of the world and the interpersonal relationships of the crew.
Season 2
In the first-season finale, Bridger sacrifices the seaQuest to prevent an ecological disaster and for a short time it was not known if the show would be renewed for another season. The series had suffered in the ratings, as it was pitted against Murder, She Wrote on CBS and Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman on ABC. When it was decided the show would return, NBC and Universal used this opportunity to change the show's format, beginning by relocating the show's production from Los Angeles to Orlando. Several cast changes were also made as both Royce D. Applegate (Chief Manilow Crocker) and John D'Aquino (Krieg) were released by NBC as the network wanted a younger cast for the second season (D'Aquino subsequently returned for a guest appearance in the third season). Stacy Haiduk (Hitchcock) informed producers that she did not wish to relocate to Orlando for the second season, having just returned to Los Angeles after spending four years in Florida during the production of The Adventures of Superboy. Stephanie Beacham, who as Dr. Westphalen was one of the first season's strongest characters, was also hesitant to relocate to Florida. Beacham also blamed continued disputes between the network and the show's producers as a major reason why she did not return.
Joining the series for season two were Edward Kerr as Lieutenant James Brody, seaQuests weapons officer; Kathy Evison as Lieutenant Lonnie Henderson, ship's helmsman; Rosalind Allen as Dr. Wendy Smith, the boat's new chief medical officer; Michael DeLuise as Seaman Anthony Piccolo, an ex-convict who has genetically engineered gills and Peter DeLuise as Dagwood, a prototype genetically engineered life form (G.E.L.F. or "dagger"—a racial slur) who serves as seaQuest'''s custodian. As the seaQuest itself was rebuilt in the storyline, it allowed for the sets to be redesigned for the new Florida location and a shortened version of the Emmy award winning main title theme was instituted as the series returned to the airwaves on September 18, 1994 with the two-hour television movie season premiere, "Daggers". NBC and the show's producers also decided they wanted more traditionally science-fiction oriented episodes this season, a direction that was explored toward the end of the first season when seaQuest discovered a million-year-old alien ship entombed in the ocean floor in the episode "Such Great Patience". The second season explored heavy science-fiction concepts such as genetic engineering, aliens, parapsychology, time travel and various "monsters of the week" (including killer plants, a giant fire-breathing worm, a prehistoric crocodile and an ancient demon.)
Roy Scheider was vocal in his anger at the show's new direction. In an interview given during the second season, Scheider averred: "It's childish trash... I am very bitter about it. I feel betrayed... It's (the new season) not even good fantasy. I mean, Star Trek does this stuff much better than we can do it. To me the show is now 21 Jump Street meets Star Dreck." Scheider felt the series had strayed too far away from its premise, and that he "became more of a combat commander than a scientific commander and I hadn't signed up for that." He added that after moving production to Florida, the show was "going to present human beings who had a life on land as well as on the boat... we've had one script that has done that (the episode 'Vapors')," Scheider said. "The other shows are Saturday afternoon 4 o'clock junk for children. Just junk—old, tired, time-warp robot crap," making reference to the much maligned episode "Playtime." As Scheider explained, "I don't do this kind of stuff... I said (to the production executives), 'If I wanted to do the fourth generation of Star Trek, I would have signed up for it. I wouldn't have done seaQuest. You guys have changed it from handball into field hockey and never even bothered to talk to me.'" Scheider's comments left him in trouble with some of the executive producers, including Patrick Hasburgh who, in reply, had strong words for Scheider as well: "I'm sorry he is such a sad and angry man. seaQuest is going to be a terrific show, and he is lucky to be part of it."
By the end of season two, seaQuest DSV was again suffering, partly attributed to a perceived decrease in the quality of the writing as well as preemptions by NBC due to sports coverage. The possibility of cancellation appeared likely but NBC kept the show in production after plans for a new series titled Rolling Thunder to replace seaQuest DSV were canceled. Producer Lee Goldberg claimed the new series was canceled because the premise was "awful." The season finale, written as a possible series finale, involved the seaQuest and its crew being abducted by aliens and forced into a civil war on an alien world where the ship appeared to be destroyed and the crew presumed dead.
Season 3
Blaming continued disputes with producers and abandonment of the show's original premise, Roy Scheider requested to be released from his contract with NBC. However, the network only partially agreed and demanded that Bridger would make several appearances throughout the third season. Edward Kerr had been very frustrated with the episode entitled "Alone". (Reportedly, Kerr hated the script so much that he left the set. Brody is absent from that episode) and also wished to exit the series in the third season, which is why his character was critically injured in the season finale, "Splashdown". However, NBC would only agree to release him from his contract if he continued to play Brody for a few episodes in the third season so his character could be killed off for more dramatic impact in the episode "SpinDrift". Because of rescheduling, the episode "Brainlock", with Brody still alive, aired after the character's death. Rosalind Allen was released as Dr. Smith proved to be unpopular with the audience and because producers felt that her character's telepathic abilities would not fit with the more serious tone planned for the new season. Marco Sanchez (Sensor Chief Miguel Ortiz), who had requested to remain with the series, was also released after NBC decided it wanted the principal cast number dropped from ten to nine, leaving Jonathan Brandis (Lucas Wolenczak), Don Franklin (Commander Jonathan Ford), and Ted Raimi (Lieutenant Tim O'Neill) as the only three cast members who remained with the show since the first episode. The marine trivia presentations at the end of the show, formerly hosted by oceanographer Dr. Bob Ballard in the first season and the principal cast in the second season, were dropped entirely. The show itself was renamed to seaQuest 2032, with the storyline pushed ahead ten years after the end of season two.
In the season premiere, the seaQuest reappears on Earth, its crew mostly intact, ten years after their abduction at the end of season two. Captain Bridger retires to raise his new grandson and Michael Ironside joins the cast as the more militaristic Captain Oliver Hudson. Originally, Ironside refused to take over from Scheider as star of the series. "I saw so many problems that I couldn't see where I'd be able to do the work I wanted to do." claimed Ironside. Also considered for the lead of the series was actor Jonathan Banks, who had previously appeared in the first season episode "Whale Songs" as radical environmentalist Maximilian Scully. After weeks of negotiations where Ironside offered producers a number of changes to the storytelling structure of the series, which were agreed upon, he finally signed on. "You won't see me fighting any man-eating glowworms, rubber plants, 40-foot crocodiles and I don't talk to Darwin." he said. Though not cast as the new lead of the series, Jonathan Banks would reprise his character of Scully in the third season. Also joining the cast was Elise Neal as Lieutenant J.J. Fredericks, who serves as seaQuest's sub-fighter pilot. Steering story lines back towards more reality-based themes, the third season attempted to blend the sense of the first season with some of the unique elements of the second season, while at the same time, pushing forward in an entirely new direction altogether as the UEO faces the threat of the Macronesian Alliance and the ever growing corporate conglomerate Deon International. The series was perceived as becoming much darker than it was in the previous two seasons, focusing less on science (as it had in the first season) and science fiction (as it had in the second season) and more on international politics. While these changes were met with mostly positive reactions, ratings continued to decline and NBC canceled the series after thirteen episodes. The 57th and final network airing of seaQuest 2032 took place on June 9, 1996.
Cast
Main
Season 1
Roy Scheider as Captain Nathan Bridger (47 episodes)
Jonathan Brandis as Lucas Wolenczak (57 episodes)
Stephanie Beacham as Dr. Kristin Westphalen (22 episodes)
Stacy Haiduk as Lieutenant Commander Katherine Hitchcock (23 episodes)
Don Franklin as Commander Jonathan Ford (56 episodes)
John D'Aquino as Lieutenant Benjamin Krieg (22 episodes)
Royce D. Applegate as Chief Manilow Crocker (22 episodes)
Ted Raimi as Lieutenant Tim O'Neill (54 episodes)
Marco Sanchez as Sensor Chief Miguel Ortiz (40 episodes)
Frank Welker as voice of Darwin
Dr. Bob Ballard as himself, marine trivia during credits
Season 2
Rosalind Allen as Dr. Wendy Smith (19 episodes)
Edward Kerr as Lieutenant James Brody (26 episodes)
Michael DeLuise as Seaman Anthony Piccolo (33 episodes)
Kathy Evison as Lieutenant Lonnie Henderson (32 episodes)
Peter DeLuise as Dagwood (31 episodes)
Season 3
Michael Ironside as Captain Oliver Hudson (13 episodes)
Elise Neal as Lieutenant J.J. Fredericks (10 episodes)
Recurring
Shelley Hack as Captain Marilyn Stark
Richard Herd as Admiral/Secretary General William Noyce
W. Morgan Sheppard as "The Old Man", Professor Martinson
Dustin Nguyen as Chief William Shan
Jesse Doran as General Francis Gideon Thomas
Kent McCord as Commander Scott Keller
Robert Engels as Malcolm Lansdowne
Mark Fauser as Weapons Officer Dalton Phillips
Timothy Omundson as Dr. Joshua Levin
Dan Hildebrand as Helmsman Carleton
Roscoe Lee Browne as Dr. Raleigh Young
Sarah Koskoff as Julianna
Denis Arndt as Navy Quartermaster Bickle
James Shigeta as Montegnard Confederation President Chi
Jonathan Banks as Maximilian Scully
Michael Costello as Secretary General McGath
Sam Jenkins as Mariah
Mark Hamill as Tobias LeConte
Karen Fraction as Dr. Perry
Michael York as President Alexander Bourne of Macronesia
Andrew Stahl as General Stassi
Tim DeKay as Larry Deon
Ralph Wilcox as Mason Freeman
Patricia Charbonneau as Elaine Morse
Episodes
During the first and second seasons, NBC aired the show on Sundays at 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time; however, the series was frequently preempted in the second season in favor of NBC Sports coverage. During the third season, NBC moved the show to Wednesdays at 8:00 p.m. ET; seaQuest continued to face frequent preemptions in favor of sports coverage and other television specials. Several of the show's producers, including Carleton Eastlake, believe these preemptions led to the show's cancellation.
After cancellation, the series aired on the Sci-Fi Channel in the United States, Horror Channel in the UK, Space: The Imagination Station in Canada and Network Ten in Australia.
Production
During development, the original title for the series was Deep Space, though this was changed after the announcement of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
Roy Scheider's character was based on John C. Lilly and Bob Ballard, who was also the technical advisor for the series in the first season. Lilly was a pioneer researcher into the nature of consciousness using as his principal tools the isolation tank, dolphin communication and psychedelic drugs, sometimes in combination. He was a prominent member of the Californian counterculture of scientists, mystics and thinkers that arose in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Albert Hofmann, Gregory Bateson, Ram Dass, Timothy Leary, Werner Erhard, and Richard Feynman were all frequent visitors to his home. The character's name, Nathan Hale Bridger, was in homage to Nathan Hale.
When producers began developing new characters for the second season, they named Lieutenant Brody after Police Chief Martin Brody, Roy Scheider's character in the first two Jaws films. Ralph Willcox and Karen Fraction, who both became recurring guest stars in the third season, had previously appeared as different characters in the second. Despite the numerous cast changes, Jonathan Brandis appeared in every episode of the series, Don Franklin in all but one episode ("And Everything Nice"), and Ted Raimi in all but two episodes ("Nothing But The Truth" and "The Siamese Dream").
Several of the cast's family members were brought in to play characters, as well. Brenda King, Roy Scheider's wife, portrayed Carol Bridger; Todd Allen, Rosalind Allen's husband, portrayed Clay Marshall in "The Siamese Dream"; Michael and Peter DeLuise's father, veteran actor Dom DeLuise, portrayed Nick Piccolo in "Vapors". Several cast members also dabbled on the creative side of the show, as both Ted Raimi and Jonathan Brandis penned episodes during the second season. (Brandis wrote the aforementioned "The Siamese Dream" and Raimi, "Lostland".) Conversely, Robert Engels, one of the show's executive producers (and writer of two episodes, "Greed For a Pirate's Dream" and "Hide and Seek") during the first season, portrayed the recurring character Malcolm Lansdowne.
While in production, seaQuest DSV won and was nominated for a number of awards. John Debney won the 1994 Emmy for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Main Title Theme Music" for his composition of the seaQuest DSV theme song and in 2000, it was named the 48th best theme song of all time by TV Guide. Don Davis also won an Emmy in 1995 for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series" (Dramatic Underscore) for his score for the second season premiere, "Daggers". Russ Mitchell Landau was also nominated for his work on the third season premiere, "Brave New World", in 1996. Kenneth D. Zunder was nominated for the Emmy award for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series" for the episode "Such Great Patience". Jonathan Brandis won the 1994 Young Artist Award for "Best Youth Actor Leading Role in a Television Series" for his portrayal of Lucas Wolenczak and the series was nominated for a 1994 ASC Award for "Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Movies of the Week/Pilots" as well as the Saturn Award for "Best Genre Television Series" in 1995.
A seaQuest DSV feature film was in pre-production stages, however, it never materialized.
Despite being scripted in at least one episode, Captain Bridger never refers to Dagwood by name. The closest he ever got was calling him "Dag" in the episodes "Special Delivery" and "The Siamese Dream".
Despite popular belief, Darwin was not a real dolphin but rather an animatronic animal designed and created by Walt Conti, who had created other similar effects for films such as Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, The Abyss and Free Willy. Alien creature effects were designed and created by Tony Gardner's Alterian, Inc.
Home media
In 2005, Universal announced that the first season of seaQuest DSV would be released on Region 1 DVD along with a week-long marathon of the show on the Sci Fi Channel. The DVD release included never before seen deleted scenes on selected episodes. The second season was released in 2008 in region 1. As opposed to the first season, the second season was released on eight single-sided discs and does not contain any extra features such as deleted scenes. The third season was not released on DVD in region 1 but was released in Region 4 in 2011.
On December 12, 2015, the Australian DVD label ViaVision, through its distributor Madman Distribution, released season 1 on Blu-ray in full 1080p High definition. Although presented in 1080p, the program is presented Pillarboxed to maintain the original 4:3 aspect ratio. Season 2 was released on Blu-ray on March 2, 2016. On April 15, 2020, selected episodes were made available on the early preview of the streaming service Peacock,available to Xfinity subscribers with qualifying devices.
On May 6, 2019 Mediumrare Entertainment released the complete series on DVD in Region 2 however two episodes are missing, 'Dagger Redux' and 'The Siamese Dream' instead two episodes from the previous disc are overlapped in their place. Despite this, the correct episode titles are listed in the DVD menu.
Mill Creek Entertainment announced the complete series of SeaQuest DSV on Blu-ray was released on July 19, 2022.
Merchandise
A short series of novels based on the characters and concepts depicted on seaQuest DSV were available during the first season of the show. They were:seaQuest DSV: The Novel (a novelization of the pilot episode) by Diane Duane and Peter Norwood. Published October 1993. seaQuest DSV: Fire Below by Matthew J. Costello. Published January 1994. seaQuest DSV: The Ancient by David Bischoff. Published March 1994.
Nemesis Comics published one issue of a seaQuest DSV comic book in March 1994. It contained a 23-page original story titled Deep Faith, blueprints for the Renegade submarine and for the seaQuest bridge, and two one-page "Logbook" character bios for Captain Bridger and Dr. Westphalen. The cover for the planned second issue was included on the final page of Issue #1, but it was ultimately never published.
A video game was released for the Super NES, Game Boy, and Genesis consoles in 1994.
A series of action figures designed by Playmates Toys were released in 1993. Captain Bridger, Commander Ford, Lucas Wolenczak, Lt. Commander Hitchcock, Lieutenant O'Neill, Chief Crocker, Darwin, Dr. Rubin Zellar, and The Regulator were released as part of wave one. Additional characters such as Dr. Westphalen, Chief Ortiz, and Lieutenant Krieg and a Darwin with sound effects were planned as part of wave two, but they were never released. Additionally, prototypes of the seaQuest, the Delta 4 Pirate sub, the Stinger, a seaLaunch, and a Deep Sea Mini Pickup, all with electronic lights and sounds, are known to exist but were not released.
A series of trading cards produced by SkyBox were released in 1993, depicting characters, scenes, and episodes from the first season. It consisted of 100 standard trading cards, plus four foil chase cards and two promotional cards.
Various models were produced by Monogram, including the seaQuest, a Deep Sea Mini Pickup, The Stinger, and Darwin (actually a remolded Flipper) were released.
Various pieces of clothing, including T-shirts, baseball caps, and embroidered patches of the seaQuest and UEO logos (replicas of the ones used on the show) were released.
A non-fictional large format book was released in the UK during the first season, titled seaQuest DSV: The Official Publication of the Series. It contained comprehensive interviews and production information, artwork, and design histories, as well as a production report of the episode "Hide and Seek". (Published October 1994. )
Other merchandise made available included a shot glass in cobalt blue with gold logo, key chains and pins, a book cover, 'magic rocks' sets, journal, and a set of bookmarks.
Soundtrack album
John Debney composed the original theme music and scored the pilot and season one shows, with Don Davis working on season two. When the series was revamped as SeaQuest 2032 in the final season, Russ Landau composed a new theme and scored all the episodes. In 1995, Varèse Sarabande released an album of Debney's music from the show, featuring the series main and end title themes and selections from "To Be or Not to Be" (tracks 2-8), "Knight of Shadows" (tracks 9 and 10) and "Such Great Patience" (tracks 11-13). In 2020, the label released a 2-CD expansion, with music from "To Be or Not to Be" on disc 1. Disc 2 contained music from the season one episodes “Brothers And Sisters” (tracks 1-7), “Knight Of Shadows” (8-11), “The Regulator” (12-14), “The Good Death” (15-23), “Such Great Patience” (24-31) and “The Devil's Window” (track 32).
1995 album
Main Title (1:03)
Preparing for Battle (2:51)
Bridger's Dream (:52)
Uncharted Waters (2:06)
First Engagement (3:18)
Darwin Speaks (:58)
Dangerous Adversary (1:34)
To Adventures Bold (1:31)
Waltz With the Dead (2:48)
The Forgiving/Resurrection (4:53)
The Discovery (2:15)
Lucas Meets the Alien (2:30)
Solemn Oath (2:26)
End Credits (:37)
2020 Deluxe EditionCD 1: "To Be or Not to Be"
SeaQuest Opening Credits (3:29)
SeaQuest Arrives (4:01)
Military Welcome (:37)
To The Island (1:30)
Come See Her (1:38)
seaQuest (3:32)
Playon To SeaQuest (:37)
Hitchcock Retreats (1:50)
Darwin Speaks (:59)
Stark Prepares (1:02)
Act In To SeaQuest (:46)
Transition (:34)
Attack Formation (2:48)
At The Precipice / Into The Rift (7:48)
Stark Plots (:42)
Damage Assessment (:52)
Hyper-Probe (2:05)
Impending Battle / Play On (1:51)
Bridger Returns (2:42)
Battle Stations (2:50)
Caught (1:21)
To The Bottom Of The Sea / A Tag To Bonnie The Bad Girl (6:57)
To The Ocean (4:15)
SeaQuest: End Credits (:57)
SeaQuest Opening (alternate version with Choir mixed down) (1:45)
SeaQuest (alternate version) (1:36)CD 2'': Season One Highlights
SeaQuest Series Promo (2:33)
Of Treasures In The Deep (1:14)
The Discovery (1:41)
Mind Meld #2 (1:23)
Big Tension (3:38)
Exploring The Depot (1:30)
Saying Goodbye (2:40)
Into The Ghost Ship (1:43)
The Possession Of Kristini (2:47)
Lukas Confronts Captain (3:14)
The Forgiving (4:51)
Vern Leaves (2:09)
Monkey Fish (1:42)
Inside Us All (:56)
Attacked (1:12)
Cynthia (1:20)
Drug Store (1:38)
Narrow Escape (1:57)
The Plan (1:41)
Close Call (3:31)
The Escape (4:21)
Darwin Save Malik (1:03)
Cheo Checkmate (1:08)
Discovery (2:14)
Of Gods And Astronauts (2:28)
Encounter (1:44)
Wolf In The Fold (1:37)
Intruder (4:28)
Communication (2:29)
Understanding/Possible Pickup (4:31)
Invitation Extended (2:26)
SeaQuest: End Credits (:35)
See also
List of underwater science fiction works
References
External links
"seaQuest DSV" at spacecast.com Canadian science-fiction channel's show page
1993 American television series debuts
1996 American television series endings
1990s American science fiction television series
English-language television shows
Television series set in 2018
Television series set in the 2030s
American television shows featuring puppetry
NBC original programming
Playmates Toys
Fictional submarines
Submarines in fiction
Television series by Universal Television
Television shows set in Florida
Military science fiction television series
Nautical television series
Television series by Amblin Entertainment
Underwater civilizations in fiction
Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
Television shows filmed in Florida
|
418001
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th%20Mountain%20Division%20%28United%20States%29
|
10th Mountain Division (United States)
|
The 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry) is a light infantry division in the United States Army based at Fort Drum, New York. Formerly designated as a mountain warfare unit, the division was the only one of its size in the US military to receive specialized training for fighting in mountainous conditions. More recently, the 10th Mountain has been conducting operations in Iraq and Syria advising and assisting Iraqi Security Forces and People's Defense Units.
Originally activated as the 10th Light Division (Alpine) in 1943, the division was redesignated the 10th Mountain Division in 1944 and fought in the mountains of Italy in some of the roughest terrain in World War II. On 5 May 1945, the division reached Nauders, Austria, just beyond the Reschen Pass, where it made contact with German forces being pushed south by the U.S. Seventh Army. A status quo was maintained until the enemy headquarters involved had completed their surrender to the Seventh. On 6 May, 10th Mountain troops met the 44th Infantry Division of Seventh Army.
Following the war, the division was deactivated, only to be reactivated and redesignated as the 10th Infantry Division in 1948. The division first acted as a training division and, in 1954, was converted to a full combat division and sent to Germany before being deactivated again in 1958.
Reactivated again in 1985, the division was designated the 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry) to historically tie it to the World War II division and to also better describe its modern disposition. Since its reactivation, the division or elements of the division have deployed numerous times. The division has participated in Operation Desert Storm (Saudi Arabia), Hurricane Andrew disaster relief (Homestead, Florida), Operation Restore Hope and Operation Continue Hope (Somalia), Operation Uphold Democracy (Haiti), Operation Joint Forge (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Operation Joint Guardian (Kosovo), and several deployments as part of the Multinational Force and Observers (Sinai Peninsula).
Since 2002, the 10th Mountain Division has been the most deployed regular Army unit. Its combat brigades have seen over 20 deployments, to both Iraq and Afghanistan, in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. It took the nickname The Tenth Legion while deployed in Afghanistan in late 2001 into 2002.
History
Formation
The 10th Division was originally organized during World War I in July 1918 as a Regular Army and National Army division and was commanded by Major General Leonard Wood, formerly the Chief of Staff of the United States Army and a Medal of Honor recipient. However, due to the Armistice with Germany in November 1918 which ended hostilities, the division did not go overseas and was demobilized in February 1919 at Camp Funston, Kansas. It was redesignated the Panama Canal Division after the war and shares no connection with the 10th Mountain Division activated during World War II.
In November 1939, two months after World War II broke out in Europe, during the Soviet Union's invasion of Finland, Red Army efforts were frustrated following the destruction of two armored divisions by Finnish soldiers on skis. The conflict caught global attention as the outnumbered and outgunned Finnish soldiers were able to use the difficult local terrain to their advantage, severely hampering the Soviet attacks and embarrassing their military. Upon seeing the effectiveness of these troops, Charles Minot "Minnie" Dole, the president of the National Ski Patrol, began to lobby the War Department of the need for a similar unit of troops in the United States Army, trained for fighting in winter and mountain warfare. In September 1940, Dole was able to present his case to General George C. Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff, who agreed with Dole's assessment, deciding to create a "Mountain" unit for fighting in harsh terrain. The U.S. Army authorized the formation of the platoon-sized Army Ski Patrol in November 1940. The first Patrol was formed at Camp Murray as part of the 41st Infantry Division under Lt. Ralph S. Phelps (later to become commanding General of the 41st). The army, prompted by fears that its standing force would not perform well in the event of a winter attack on the Northeastern coast, as well as knowledge that the German Army already had three mountain warfare divisions known as Gebirgsjäger, approved the concept for a division. This required an overhaul of U.S. military doctrine, as the concept of winter warfare had not been tested in the army since 1914. At first, planners envisioned ten mountain divisions, but personnel shortages revised the goal to three. Eventually, the 10th Mountain Division would be the only one brought to active duty. Military leaders continued to express concern about the feasibility of a division-sized mountain warfare unit until the fall of 1941, when they received reports that Greek mountain troops had held back superior numbers of unprepared Italian troops in the Albanian mountains during the Greco-Italian War. The Italian military had lost a disastrous 25,000 men in the campaign because of their lack of preparedness to fight in the mountains. On 22 October 1941, General Marshall decided to form the first battalion of mountain warfare troops for a new mountain division. The Ski Patrol would assist in its training.
On 8 December 1941, the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent American entry into World War II, the army activated its first mountain unit, the 87th Mountain Infantry Battalion (which was later expanded to the 87th Infantry Regiment) at Fort Lewis, Washington, south of Tacoma. It was the first mountain warfare unit in U.S. military history. The National Ski Patrol took on the unique role of recruiting for the 87th Infantry Regiment and later the division, becoming the only civilian recruiting agency in military history. Army planners favored recruiting experienced skiers for the unit instead of trying to train standing troops in mountain warfare, so Dole recruited from schools, universities, and ski clubs for the unit. The 87th trained in harsh conditions, including Mount Rainier's peak, throughout 1942 as more recruits were brought in to form the division. Initial training was conducted by Olympian Rolf Monsen. A new garrison was built for the division in central Colorado at Camp Hale, at an elevation of above sea level.
World War II
The 10th Light Division (Alpine) was constituted on 10 July 1943 and activated five days later at Camp Hale under the command of Brigadier General Lloyd E. Jones, with Brigadier General Frank L. Culin Jr. assigned as his assistant division commander (ADC). At the time, the division had a strength of 8,500 out of the 16,000 planned, so the military transferred troops from the 30th, 31st, and 33rd Infantry Divisions along with volunteers from the National Guards of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, North and South Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah and Washington State (Specifically men who are from the Rocky Mountains region and those who are from the Northern States specifically close to the 45th Parallel of the US-Canadian Border), to fill out the remainder of the division. This lowered morale and the division faced many difficulties in the new training, which had no established army doctrine. The 10th Light Division was centered on regimental commands; the 85th, 86th, and 87th Infantry Regiments. Also assigned to the division were the 604th, 605th, and 616th Field Artillery battalions, the 110th Signal Company, the 710th Ordnance Company, the 10th Quartermaster Company, the 10th Reconnaissance Troop, the 126th Engineer Battalion, the 10th Medical Battalion, and the 10th Counter-Intelligence Detachment. The 10th Light Division was unique in that it was the only division in the army with three field artillery battalions instead of four. It was equipped with vehicles specialized in snow operation, such as the M29 Weasel, and winter weather gear, such as white camouflage and skis specifically designed for the division. The division practiced its rock climbing skills in preparation for the invasion of Italy on the challenging peaks of Seneca Rocks in West Virginia.
On 22 June 1944, the division was shipped to Camp Swift, Texas, to prepare for maneuvers in Louisiana, which were later canceled. A period of acclimation to a low altitude and hot climate was thought necessary to prepare for this training. On 6 November 1944, the 10th Division was redesignated the 10th Mountain Division. That same month, the blue and white "Mountain" tab was authorized for the division's new shoulder sleeve insignia. Also in November, the division received a new commander, Brigadier General George Price Hays, a Medal of Honor recipient and a distinguished veteran of World War I. On January 4, 1945 he received a promotion to major general.
Italy
The division sailed for the Italian front in two parts, with the 86th Infantry and support leaving Camp Patrick Henry, Virginia on 11 December 1944 aboard the SS Argentina and arriving in Naples, Italy on 22 December. The 85th and 87th Infantry left Hampton Roads, Virginia on 4 January 1945 aboard the SS West Point and arrived on 13 January 1945. By 6 January, its support units were preparing to head to the front lines. It was attached to Major General Willis D. Crittenberger's IV Corps, part of the American Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Lucian Truscott. By 8 January, the 86th Infantry had moved to Bagni di Lucca near Mount Belvedere in preparation for an offensive by the Fifth Army to capture the mountain along with surrounding high ground, which allowed the Axis to block advances to Po Valley. Starting 14 January, the division began moving to Pisa as part of the Fifth Army massing for this attack.
By 20 January, all three of the 10th's regiments were on or near the front line between the Serchio Valley and Mt. Belvedere. Col. Raymond C. Barlow commanded the 85th Regiment, Col. Clarence M. Tomlinson the 86th, and Col. David M. Fowler the 87th.
Preliminary defensive actions in mid-February were followed by Operation Encore, a series of attacks in conjunction with troops of the 1st Brazilian Infantry Division, to dislodge the Germans from their artillery positions in the Northern Apennines on the border between Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna regions, in order to make possible the Allied advance over the Po Valley. While the Brazilian division was in charge of taking Monte Castello and Castelnuovo di Vergato, the 10th Mountain Division was responsible for the Mount Belvedere area, climbing nearby Riva Ridge during the night of 18 February and attacking mount Della Torraccia on 20 February. These peaks were cleared after four days of heavy fighting, as Axis troops launched several counterattacks in these positions.
In early March, the division fought its way north of Canolle and moved to within of Bologna. On 5 March, while Brazilian units captured Castelnuovo, the 85th and the 87th Infantry took respectively Mount Della Spe and Castel D'Aiano, cutting the Axis routes of resupply and communication into the Po Valley, setting the stage for the next Fifth Army offensive. The division maintained defensive positions in this area for three weeks, anticipating a counteroffensive by the German forces.
The division resumed its attack on 14 April, attacking Torre Iussi and Rocca Roffeno to the north of Mount Della Spe. On 17 April, it broke through the German defenses, which allowed it to advance into the Po Valley area. It captured Mongiorgio on 20 April and entered the valley, seizing the strategic points Pradalbino and Bomporto. The 10th crossed the Po River at San Benedetto Po on 23 April, reaching Verona 25 April, and ran into heavy opposition at Torbole and Nago. After an amphibious crossing of Lake Garda, it secured Gargnano and Porto di Tremosine, on 30 April, as German resistance in Italy ended. After the German surrender in Italy on 2 May 1945, the division went on security duty. On 5 May 1945 the division reached Nauders, Austria, just beyond the Reschen Pass, where it made contact with German forces being pushed south by the U.S. Seventh Army. A status quo was maintained until the enemy headquarters involved had completed their surrender to the Seventh. On the 6th, 10th Mountain Division troops met the 44th Infantry Division of the Seventh Army. Between the 2nd and Victory in Europe Day on 8 May the 10th Mountain Division received the surrender of various German units and screened areas of occupation near Trieste, Kobarid, Bovec and Log pod Mangartom, Slovenia. The division moved to Udine on 20 May and joined the British Eighth Army in preventing further westward movement of ground forces from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
Casualties
Total battle casualties: 4,072
Killed in action: 992
Wounded in action: 3,134
Missing in action: 38
Prisoners of war: 28
Demobilization
Originally, the division was to be sent to the Pacific theater to take part in Operation Downfall, the invasion of mainland Japan, as one of the primary assault forces. However, Japan surrendered in August 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The division returned to the US two days later. It was demobilized and inactivated on 30 November 1945 at Camp Carson, Colorado. During World War II, the 10th Mountain Division suffered 992 killed in action and 4,154 wounded in action in 114 days of combat. Soldiers of the division were awarded one Medal of Honor (John D. Magrath), three Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, 449 Silver Star Medals, seven Legion of Merit Medals, 15 Soldier's Medals, and 7,729 Bronze Star Medals. The division itself was awarded two campaign streamers.
Cold War
In June 1948, the division was rebuilt and activated at Fort Riley, Kansas to serve as a training division. Without its "Mountain" tab, the division served as the 10th Infantry Division for the next ten years. The unit was charged with processing and training replacements in large numbers. This mission was expanded with the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. By 1953, the division had trained 123,000 new Army recruits at Fort Riley.
In 1954, the division was converted to a combat division once again, though it did not regain its "Mountain" status. Using equipment from the deactivating 37th Infantry Division, the 10th Infantry Division was deployed to Germany, replacing the 1st Infantry Division at Würzburg, serving as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defensive force. The division served in Germany for four years, until it was rotated out and replaced by the 3rd Infantry Division. The division moved to Fort Benning, Georgia, and was inactivated on 14 June 1958.
Reactivation
On 13 February 1985, the 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry) was reactivated at Fort Drum, New York. In accordance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan, the division was no longer centered on regiments, instead two brigades were activated under the division. The 1st Brigade, 10th Mountain Division (commanded by then Colonel John M. Keane, later 4-Star General and Army Vice Chief of Staff) and Division Artillery were activated at Fort Drum, while the 2nd Brigade, 10th Mountain Division was activated at Fort Benning, moving to Fort Drum in 1988. The division was also assigned a round-out brigade from the Army National Guard, the 27th Infantry Brigade. The division was specially designed as a light infantry division able to rapidly deploy. In this process, it lost its mountain warfare capability, but its light infantry organization still made it versatile for difficult terrain. Equipment design was oriented toward reduced size and weight for reasons of both strategic and tactical mobility. The division also received a distinctive unit insignia.
Structure in 1989
At the end of the Cold War, the division was organized as follows:
10th Mountain Division (Light), Fort Drum, New York
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
1st Brigade
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
1st Battalion, 22nd Infantry
2nd Battalion, 22nd Infantry
1st Battalion, 87th Infantry
2nd Brigade
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
2nd Battalion, 14th Infantry
3rd Battalion, 14th Infantry
2nd Battalion, 87th Infantry
27th Infantry Brigade (Light), Syracuse (New York Army National Guard)
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
1st Battalion, 108th Infantry, Auburn
2nd Battalion, 108th Infantry, Syracuse
3rd Battalion, 108th Infantry, Utica
1st Battalion, 156th Field Artillery, Kingston, (18 × M101 105 mm towed howitzer)
427th Support Battalion (Forward), Syracuse
Troop E, 101st Cavalry, Buffalo
827th Engineer Company, Buffalo
Aviation Brigade
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
3rd Squadron, 17th Cavalry (Reconnaissance)
2nd Battalion, 25th Aviation (Attack)
Company C, 25th Aviation (General Support)
Company D, 25th Aviation (Assault)
Division Artillery
Headquarters & Headquarters Battery
1st Battalion, 7th Field Artillery (18 × M101 105 mm towed howitzer)
2nd Battalion, 7th Field Artillery (18 × M101 105 mm towed howitzer)
Battery E, 7th Field Artillery (8 × M198 155 mm towed howitzer)
Division Support Command
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
10th Medical Battalion
10th Supply & Transportation Battalion
710th Maintenance Battalion
Company E, 25th Aviation (Aviation Intermediate Maintenance)
3rd Battalion, 62nd Air Defense Artillery
41st Engineer Battalion
10th Signal Battalion
110th Military Intelligence Battalion
10th Military Police Company
59th Chemical Company
10th Mountain Division Band
Contingencies
In 1990, the division sent 1,200 soldiers to support Operation Desert Storm. Two infantry platoons from the division were among those sent: 1st Platoon Bravo Company 1/22 and the 1/22 Scout Platoon. Once in Iraq, the scouts were sent home and First Platoon was left as a counterintelligence force. Performing three-man 24hr patrols through the remainder of their deployment, this platoon was widely regarded as the division's best at that time. Following a cease-fire in March 1991, the support soldiers began redeploying to Fort Drum through June of that year.
Hurricane Andrew struck South Florida on 24 August 1992, killing 13 people, leaving another 250,000 homeless, and causing damages in excess of $20 billion. On 27 September 1992, the 10th Mountain Division assumed responsibility for Hurricane Andrew disaster relief as Task Force Mountain. Division soldiers set up relief camps, distributed food, clothing, medical necessities, and building supplies, as well as helping to rebuild homes and clear debris. The last of the 6,000 division soldiers deployed to Florida returned home in October 1992.
Operation Restore Hope
On 3 December 1992, the division headquarters was designated as the headquarters for all Army Forces (ARFOR) of the Unified Task Force (UNITAF) for Operation Restore Hope. Major General Steven L. Arnold, the division Commander, was named Army Forces commander. The 10th Mountain Division's mission was to secure major cities and roads to provide safe passage of relief supplies to the Somali population suffering from the effects of the Somali Civil War.
Due to 10th Mountain Division efforts, humanitarian agencies declared an end to the food emergency and factional fighting decreased. When Task Force Ranger and the SAR team were pinned down during a raid in what later became known as the Battle of Mogadishu, the 10th Mountain Division provided infantry for the UN quick reaction force sent to rescue them. The 10th Mountain Division had two soldiers killed in the fighting, which was the longest sustained firefight by regular US Army forces since the Vietnam War. The division began a gradual reduction of forces in Somalia in February 1994, until the last soldiers of the 2nd Battalion, 22nd Infantry returned to the United States in March 1994.
Operation Uphold Democracy
The division formed the nucleus of the Multinational Force Haiti (MNF Haiti) and Joint Task Force 190 (JTF 190) in Haiti during Operation Uphold Democracy. More than 8,600 of the division's troops deployed during this operation. On 19 September 1994, the 1st Brigade conducted the Army's first air assault from aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. This force consisted of 54 helicopters and almost 2,000 soldiers. They occupied the Port-au-Prince International Airport. This was the largest Army air operation conducted from a carrier since the Doolittle Raid in World War II.
The division's mission was to create a secure and stable environment so the government of Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide could be reestablished and democratic elections held. After this was accomplished, the 10th Mountain Division handed over control of the MNF-Haiti to the 25th Infantry Division on 15 January 1995. The division redeployed the last of its soldiers who served in Haiti by 31 January 1995.
Operation Joint Forge
In the fall of 1998, the division received notice that it would be serving as senior headquarters of Task Force Eagle, providing a peacekeeping force to support the ongoing operation within the Multi-National Division-North area of responsibility in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Selected division units began deploying in late summer, approximately 3,000 division soldiers deployed. After successfully performing their mission in Bosnia, the division units conducted a transfer of authority, relinquishing their assignments to soldiers of the 49th Armored Division, Texas National Guard. By early summer 2000, all 10th Mountain Division soldiers had returned safely to Fort Drum.
Operation Joint Guardian
Readiness controversy
During the 2000 presidential election, the readiness of the 10th Mountain Division became a political issue when George W. Bush asserted that the division was "not ready for duty." He attributed the division's low readiness to the frequent deployments throughout the 1990s without time in between for division elements to retrain and refit. A report from the US General Accounting Office in July 2000 also noted that although the entire 10th Mountain Division was not deployed to the contingencies at once, "deployment of key components—especially headquarters—makes these divisions unavailable for deployment elsewhere in case of a major war". Conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation agreed with these sentiments, charging that the US military overall was not prepared for war due to post-Cold War drawdowns of the US Military. The Army responded that, though the 10th Mountain Division had been unprepared following its deployment as Task Force Eagle, that the unit was fully prepared for combat by late 2000 despite being undermanned. Still, the Army moved the 10th Mountain Division down on the deployment list, allowing it time to retrain and refit.
In 2002, columnist and highly decorated military veteran David Hackworth again criticized the 10th Mountain Division for being unprepared due to lack of training, low physical fitness, unprepared leadership, and low morale. He said the division was no longer capable of mountain warfare.
War on Terrorism
Initial deployments and 2004 reorganization
Following the 11 September 2001 attacks, elements of the division, including its special troops battalion and 1st Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment (1-87th) infantry deployed to Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom in late 2001. The division headquarters arrived at Karshi-Khanabad Air Base, under Major General Franklin L. Hagenbeck, on 12 December 2001 to function as the Combined Forces Land Component Command (CFLCC) (Forward). This command served as the representative for Lieutenant General Paul T. Mikolashek, the Third US Army/CFLCC commanding general (CG) in the theater of operations. As such, Hagenbeck's headquarters was responsible for commanding and controlling virtually all Coalition ground forces and ground force operations in the theater, including the security of Coalition airfields in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan, as well as the logistics operations set up to support those forces. The division was also intended to defend Uzbekistan against attacks by the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, which was seeking to overthrow Islam Karimov's secular government.
On 13 February 2002, Mikolashek ordered Hagenbeck to move CFLCC (Forward) to Bagram airfield located at Bagram and 2 days later the headquarters was officially redesignated as Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF) Mountain. It assumed responsibility for the planning and execution of what had then become known as Operation Anaconda.
Elements of the division, primarily 1-87th Infantry, remained in the country until mid-2002, fighting to secure remote areas of the country and participating in prominent operations such as Operation Anaconda, the Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif, and the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi. These 1-87th Infantry soldiers became the first conventional forces to engage in combat in Afghanistan in the US military. The division also participated in fighting in the Shahi Khot Valley in 2002. In June 2002, elements of the 82nd Airborne Division arrived to relieve CJTF Mountain, and in September, Major General John R. Vines and his Combined Task Force 82 relieved CJTF Mountain as the major subordinate headquarters to Combined Joint Task Force 180. Upon the return of the battalions, they were welcomed home and praised by President Bush.
In 2003, the division's headquarters, along with the 1st Brigade, returned to Afghanistan. During that time, they operated in the frontier regions of the country such as Paktika Province, going to places previously untouched by the war in search of Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces. Fighting in several small-scale conflicts such as Operation Avalanche, Operation Mountain Resolve, and Operation Mountain Viper, the division maintained a strategy of small units moving through remote regions of the country to interact directly with the population and drive out insurgents. The 1st Brigade also undertook a number of humanitarian missions.
In 2003 and into 2004, the division's aviation brigade deployed for the first time to Afghanistan. As the only aviation brigade in the theater, the brigade provided air support for all US Army units operating in the country. The brigade's mission at that time focused on close air support, medevac missions, and other duties involving combat with Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces in the country. The 10th Mountain Division was the first unit to introduce contract working dogs into southern Afghanistan. In the spring of 2004, they had Patriot K-9 Services supply 20 dog teams based at KAF. The teams were trained to detect explosives and perform patrol duties throughout the region. The brigade returned to Fort Drum in 2004.
On the return of the division headquarters and 1st Brigade, the 10th Mountain Division began the process of transformation into a modular division. On 16 September 2004, the division headquarters finished its transformation, adding the 10th Mountain Division Special Troops Battalion. The 1st Brigade became the 1st Brigade Combat Team, while the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division was activated for the first time. In January 2005, the 4th Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division was activated at Fort Polk, Louisiana. 2nd Brigade Combat Team would not be transformed until September 2005, pending a deployment to Iraq.
Iraq deployments
In late 2004, the 2nd Brigade Combat Team was deployed to Iraq supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom. The 2nd Brigade Combat Team undertook combat operations in western Baghdad, an area of responsibility that included Abu Ghraib, Mansour, and Route Irish. It returned to the US in late 2005. Around that time, the 1st Brigade Combat Team deployed back to Iraq, staying in the country until 2006.
The next time the 1st Brigade Combat Team was deployed was during the Surge for 15 months in Iraq. Northern Iraq was the theater of operations for 1 BCT from August 2007 until November 2008
The 4th BCT operated in Northeast Baghdad under the 4th Infantry Division headquarters from November 2007 until January 2009. The 10th Mountain participated in larger-scale operations, such as Operation Phantom Phoenix.
After a one-year rest, the headquarters of the 10th Mountain Division was deployed to Iraq for the first time in April 2008. The division headquarters served as the command element for southern Baghdad until late March 2009, when it displaced to Basrah to replace departing British forces on 31 March 2009 to coordinate security for the Multinational Division-South area of responsibility, a consolidation of the previously Polish-led south-central and British-led southeast operational areas. The 10th Mountain Division headquarters transferred authority for MND-S to the 34th Infantry Division, Minnesota Army National Guard on 20 May 2009.
The 2nd Brigade Combat Team was scheduled to deploy to Iraq in the fall of 2009, as a part of the 2009–2010 rotation to Iraq.
Afghanistan deployments
The division headquarters, the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, and two Battalion Task Forces from the 4th Brigade Combat Team deployed to Afghanistan in 2006, staying in the country until 2007. The division and brigade served in the eastern region of the country, along the border with Pakistan, fulfilling a similar role as it did during its previous deployment. During this time, the deployment of the brigade was extended along with that of the 4th Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division. It was eventually replaced by the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team which was rerouted from Iraq.
In the winter of 2006, the 10th Aviation Brigade, 10th Mountain Division, was deployed again to Afghanistan to support Operation Enduring Freedom as the only aviation brigade in the theater, stationed at Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan. Named "Task Force Falcon," the brigade's mission was to conduct aviation operations to destroy insurgents and anti-coalition militia in an effort to help build the Afghan National Security Force's capability and allow the Afghan government to increase its capabilities. In addition, the Task Force provided logistical and combat support for International Security Assistance Force forces throughout the country.
The 3rd Brigade Combat Team was slated to deploy to Iraq in 2009, but that deployment was rerouted. In January 2009, the 3rd BCT instead deployed to Kunar, Logar and Wardak Provinces, eastern Afghanistan to relieve the 101st Airborne Division, as part of a new buildup of US forces in that country. The brigade was responsible for expanding forward operating bases and combat outposts (COPs) in the region, as well as strengthening US military presence in preparation for additional US forces to arrive.
The 1st Brigade Combat Team was scheduled to deploy to Iraq in late 2009 but deployed instead to Afghanistan in March 2010 for 13 months. 1-87th Infantry deployed to Kunduz and Baghlan Provinces, establishing remote combat outposts (COPs) against the Taliban after they had taken control of these provinces over the last several years. Notably, elements of the regiment were responsible for numerous large-scale engagements, including The Battle of Shahabuddin and securing a High-Value Target (HVT) after an air assault raid. Some elements of the Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in late January 2013 to Ghazni Provence for nine months.
The 3rd Brigade Combat Team deployed to Kandahar Province, southern Afghanistan in March 2011, again relieving the 101st Airborne Division. During this deployment, 3rd BCT mainly occupied forward operating bases (FOBs) and combat outposts (COPs) in the Maywand, Zhari, and Arghandab Districts of Kandahar Province. The brigade was redeployed to Fort Drum in March 2012 after a twelve-month deployment.
The 4th Brigade Combat Team deployed to Regional Command East, under the 101st Airborne Division from October 2010 until their redeployment in October 2011. The 4th BCT deployed to both Wardak and Logar provinces. During this deployment, they went to places such as Chakh Valley in Wardak Province and Charkh Valley in Logar Province in search of elements of the Haqqani Network. In May 2013, the brigade deployed again to Afghanistan returning home in February 2014.
In 2015, Diana M. Holland became the first woman to serve as a general officer at Fort Drum, and the first woman to serve as a deputy commanding general in one of the Army's light infantry divisions (specifically, the 10th Mountain Division.)
In February 2015, 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division were deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Resolute Support Mission in the Post ISAF phase of the War in Afghanistan between late summer and early fall 2015, 300 troops from 10th Mountain's headquarters at deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Freedom's Sentinel, along with about 1,000 troops from the 3rd Brigade Combat Team.
In February 2016, the Taliban began a new assault on Sangin, Helmand Province, the US responded by deploying 500 to 800 troops from 2nd battalion 87th Infantry Regiment, 10th Mountain Division to Helmand Province in order to prop up Afghan army's 215th Corps in the province, particularly around Sangin, joining US and British special operations forces already in the area.
On 5 December 2019, the Department of the Army announced that the 1st Brigade Combat Team would replace the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 82nd Airborne Division as part of a unit rotation in support of Operation Freedom's Sentinel. The brigade deployed to Afghanistan in February 2020.
Operation Atlantic Resolve
On 3 November 2016, Stars and Stripes reported that the 10th Combat Aviation Brigade would deploy 1,750 soldiers to Eastern Europe in March 2017, in support of Operation Atlantic Resolve – as part of NATO efforts to reassure Eastern Europe in response to Russian intervention in Ukraine in 2014. The brigade arrived with approximately 60 aircraft, including CH-47 Chinooks, UH-60 Blackhawks, and medevac helicopters. The brigade was headquartered in Germany and the brigade's units were forward-based at locations in Latvia, Romania, and Poland.
Operation Inherent Resolve
Between late summer and early fall 2015, as well as again in 2016, 1,250 soldiers from the 1st Brigade Combat Team were deployed to Iraq to support Operation Inherent Resolve. During the two deployments the brigade spent in Iraq, they fought to regain control of the cities of Ramadi, Fallujah, and Mosul from the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. In 2022 the unit would redeploy again, in support of Operation Inherent Resolve.
Controversial shoot house training viral video
A viral video with a Xzibit song showed soldiers in the division conducting live fire training in a shoot house. The soldiers violated numerous safety issues, including flagging and failure to follow norms of room clearing, such as failure to clear corners or follow points of domination, with observers giving no correction. Responding to the viral incident, Division CSM Mario O. Terenas addressed the incident on Twitter: "it's 10th Mountain Division. We ran it down to the ground and it is 10th Mountain Division. It is our folks, and it really, really hurts to say that...It is not the standard, it is not how we do business, and it is not acceptable. We're running this thing down to the ground. We will investigate it, we will take action, and we will re-train. That is a guarantee."
Honors
The 10th Mountain Division was awarded two campaign streamers in World War II, one campaign streamer for Somalia, and four campaign streamers in the War on Terrorism for a total of seven campaign streamers and three unit decorations in its operational history. Note that some of the division's brigades received more or fewer decorations depending on their individual deployments.
Unit decorations
Campaign streamers
Legacy
The 10th Mountain Division was the subject of the 1996 film Fire on the Mountain, which documented its exploits during World War II. The 10th Mountain Division is also a prominent element of the book and film Black Hawk Down, which portrays the Battle of Mogadishu and the division's participation in that conflict. Among the division's other appearances are the Tom Clancy novel Clear and Present Danger, the SCI FI 2005 film Manticore, Steven Spielberg's War of the Worlds, and Sean Parnell's war memoir about his platoon's experiences in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom, titled Outlaw Platoon in 2012. The 10th Mountain Division was also briefly mentioned in Days Gone where the main protagonist Deacon St. John served as a corporal. In The West Wing episode And It’s Surely To Their Credit the 10th Mountain Division is briefly mentioned.
Skiing associations subsequently contend that veterans of the 10th Mountain Division had a substantial effect on the post-World War II development of skiing as a vacation industry and major sport. Ex-soldiers from the 10th laid out ski hills, designed ski lifts, became ski coaches, racers, instructors, patrollers, shop owners, and filmmakers. They wrote and published ski magazines, opened ski schools, improved ski equipment, and developed ski resorts. Up to 2,000 of the division's troops were involved in skiing-related professions after the war, and at least 60 ski resorts were founded by men of the division.
People associated with the 10th Mountain Division later went on to achieve notability in other fields. Among these are anthropologist Eric Wolf, mathematician Franz Alt, avalanche researcher and forecasting pioneer Montgomery Atwater, Congressman Les AuCoin, mountaineer and teacher who helped develop equipment for the 10th Mountain Robert Bates, noted mountaineer Fred Beckey, United States Ski Team member and Black Mountain of Maine resort co-founder Chummy Broomhall, former American track and field coach and co-founder of Nike, Inc. Bill Bowerman, former Executive Director and Sierra Club leader David R. Brower, former United States Ski Team member World War II civilian mountaineer trainer H. Adams Carter, former Senate Majority Leader and Presidential candidate Bob Dole, champion skier Dick Durrance, ski resort pioneer John Elvrum, Norwegian-American skier Sverre Engen, fashion illustrator Joe Eula, Olympic equestrian Earl Foster Thomson, civilian founder of the National Ski Patrol Charles Minot Dole, painter Gino Hollander, Paleoclimatologist John Imbrie, theoretical physicist Francis E. Low, US downhill ski champion Toni Matt, falconer and educator Morley Nelson, comic book artist Earl Norem, founder of National Outdoor Leadership School and The Wilderness Education Association Paul Petzoldt, world downhill ski champion Walter Prager, demolition derby driver Joshua Tagliaboschi, retired broadcasting executive William Lowell Putnam III, Massachusetts Governor Francis W. Sargent, World War II civilian ski instructor and division trainer Hannes Schneider, founder of Vail Ski Resort Pete Seibert, actor and Olympic medalist Floyd Simmons, historian and author Page Smith, members of the famous von Trapp family singers Werner von Trapp and Rupert von Trapp, Rawleigh Warner, Jr., Chairman and CEO of Mobil, civilian technical adviser Fritz Wiessner, William John Wolfgram, Olympic Ski jumper Gordon Wren, Massachusetts Congressional candidate Nathan Bech, leader of Chalk 4 during the Battle of Mogadishu Matt Eversmann, Middle East analyst, blogger, and author Andrew Exum, and author Craig Mullaney.
Additionally, four members of the division have been awarded the Medal of Honor. In 1945 John D. Magrath became the first member of the division to receive this award during World War II. The second, Jared C. Monti, received it posthumously in 2009, for actions during a combat operation on 21 June 2006 as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. The third, William D. Swenson, received it in 2013, for actions on 8 September 2009, during the Battle of Ganjgal in Afghanistan. The fourth, Travis W. Atkins, received it posthumously on 27 March 2019, for actions on 1 June 2007 during a patrol in Iraq.
The division's efforts in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom and beyond led to the division being referred to as the "Tribe of Crossed Swords" by some Afghans.
In Popular Culture
In MacGyver (2016 TV series), flashbacks of MacGyver's time in Afghanistan show him wearing the unit patches for the 10th Mountain Division and the 71st Ordnance Group (EOD).
In the 2020 film Sonic the Hedgehog, the army is sent into the fictional Green Hills, Montana to investigate an energy spike caused by the titular Sonic. The army unit sent by the DoD is the 10th Mountain Division.
Organization
This division consists of a division headquarters and headquarters battalion, three infantry brigade combat teams, a division artillery, a combat aviation brigade, and a division sustainment brigade. The division artillery has training and readiness oversight over the division's field artillery battalions, which remain organic to their brigade combat teams.
10th Mountain Division
Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion (DHHB)"Gauntlet"
Headquarters Support Company
Signal, Intelligence, and Sustainment Company
10th Mountain Division Band
Light Fighters School
1st Infantry Brigade Combat Team (1st IBCT) "Warrior"
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC),1st Infantry Brigade Combat Team (1st IBCT)
3rd Squadron,71st Cavalry Regiment
2nd Battalion,22nd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion,32nd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion,87th Infantry Regiment
3rd Battalion,6th Field Artillery Regiment (3-6th FAR)
7th Brigade Engineer Battalion (7th BEB)
10th Brigade Support Battalion (10th BSB)
2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (2nd IBCT) "Commandos"
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC),2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (2nd IBCT)
1st Squadron,89th Cavalry Regiment
2nd Battalion,14th Infantry Regiment
4th Battalion,31st Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion,87th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion,15th Field Artillery Regiment (2-15th FAR)
41st Brigade Engineer Battalion (41st BEB)
210th Brigade Support Battalion (210th BSB)
3rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (3rd IBCT) "Patriots", based at Fort Johnson, (Louisiana)
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC),3rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (3rd IBCT)
3rd Squadron,89th Cavalry Regiment
2nd Battalion,2nd Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion,4th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion,30th Infantry Regiment
5th Battalion,25th Field Artillery Regiment (5-25th FAR)
317th Brigade Engineer Battalion (317th BEB) "Buffalo"
710th Brigade Support Battalion (710th BSB) "Patriot Support"
10th Division Artillery (10th DIVARTY)
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery (HHB) 10th Division Artillery
10th Combat Aviation Brigade (10th CAB) "Falcons"
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC),10th Combat Aviation Brigade (10th CAB)
1st Battalion,10th Aviation Regiment (Attack) (1-10th Attack Battalion) "Tigershark"
2nd Battalion,10th Aviation Regiment (Assault) (2-10th Assault Battalion)
3rd Battalion,10th Aviation Regiment (General Support) (3-10th General Support Battalion)"Phoenix"
6th Squadron,6th Cavalry Regiment "Six Shooters"
277th Aviation Support Battalion (277th ASB) "Mountain Eagle"
10th Division Sustainment Brigade
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
Division Sustainment Troops Battalion (DSTB) "Workhorse"
548th Division Sustainment Support Battalion (548th DSSB)
Previous commanders
Individuals who have served as commanders and command sergeants major of the 10th Mountain Division include:
Notable former members
Travis Atkins, Iraq
Skippy Baxter, World War II
Bill Bowerman, World War II
David Brower, World War II
Bob Dole, World War II
Donald G. Dunn, World War II
Billy Kearns, World War II
Chelsea Manning, Iraq
John David Magrath, World War II
Jared C. Monti, Afghanistan
Walter Prager, World War II
Paul Petzoldt, World War II
Michael Prysner, Iraq
Pete Seibert, World War II
William D. Swenson, Afghanistan
Alejandro Villanueva, Afghanistan
Rupert von Trapp, World War II
Werner von Trapp, World War II
Eric Wolf, World War II
References
Sources
plus Author Webcast Interview
Further reading
Mountaineers (Denver: Artcraft Press, n.d.)
Harris Dusenbery, The North Apennines and Beyond with the 10th Mountain Division (Portland: Binford & Mort, 1998)
Harris Duesenbery, Ski the High Trail: World War II Ski Troopers in the High Colorado Rockies (Portland:Binford & Mort, 1991)
Frank Harper, Night Climb (New York: Longmans, Green, & Co, 1946)
Maurice Isserman, The Winter Army: The World War II Odyssey of the 10th Mountain Division, America's Elite Alpine Warriors (New York: HarperCollins, 2019)
External links
3rd BCT Spartan Association
10th Infantry Division, First World War
10th Mountain Division Official Homepage
10th Mountain Division Association, Inc.
10th Mountain Division Memorial at Ski Cooper
010th Mountain Division, U.S.
Military units and formations established in 1943
Military units and formations in New York (state)
Mountain infantry divisions
Mountain Division, U.S. 010th
United States Army divisions of World War I
|
418065
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuyvesant%20High%20School
|
Stuyvesant High School
|
Stuyvesant High School (pronounced ), commonly referred to among its students as Stuy (pronounced ), is a public college-preparatory, specialized high school in New York City, United States. Operated by the New York City Department of Education, these specialized schools offer tuition-free accelerated academics to city residents. It is one of the most selective public high schools in New York City, New York State, and the United States.
Stuyvesant was established as an all-boys school in the East Village of Manhattan in 1904. An entrance examination was mandated for all applicants starting in 1934, and the school started accepting female students in 1969. Stuyvesant moved to its current location at Battery Park City in 1992 because the student body had become too large to be suitably accommodated in the original campus. The old building now houses several high schools.
Admission to Stuyvesant involves passing the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test. Every March, the 800 to 850 applicants with the highest SHSAT scores out of the around 30,000 students who apply to Stuyvesant are accepted. The school has a wide range of extracurricular activities, including a theater competition called SING! and two student publications.
Notable alumni include former United States Attorney General Eric Holder, physicists Brian Greene and Lisa Randall, economist Thomas Sowell, mathematician Paul Cohen, chemist Roald Hoffmann, genome researcher Eric Lander, Angel Investor Naval Ravikant, Oscar-winning actor James Cagney, comedian Billy Eichner, and chess grandmaster Robert Hess. Stuyvesant is one of only six secondary schools worldwide that has educated four or more Nobel laureates.
History
Planning
New York City's Superintendent of Schools, William Henry Maxwell, had first written about the need to construct manual trade schools in New York City in 1887. At the time, C. B. J. Snyder was designing many of the city's public school buildings using multiple architectural styles. The first trade school in the city was Manual Training High School in Brooklyn, which opened in 1893. By 1899, Maxwell was advocating for a manual trade school in Manhattan.
In January 1903, Maxwell and Snyder submitted a report to the New York City Board of Education in which they suggested the creation of a trade school in Manhattan. The Board of Education approved the plans in April 1904. They suggested that the school occupy a plot on East 15th Street, west of First Avenue. However, that plot did not yet contain a school building, and so the new trade school was initially housed within PS 47's former building at 225 East 23rd Street. The Board of Education also wrote that the new trade school would be "designated as the Stuyvesant High School, as being reminiscent of the locality." Stuyvesant Square, Stuyvesant Street, and later Stuyvesant Town (which was built in 1947) are all located near the proposed 15th Street school building. All of these locations were named after Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor of New Netherland and owner of the area's Stuyvesant Farm. The appellation was selected in order to avoid confusion with Brooklyn's Manual Training High School.
Opening and boys' school
Stuyvesant High School opened in September 1904 as Manhattan's first manual trade school for boys. At the time of its opening, the school consisted of 155 students and 12 teachers.
At first, the school provided a core curriculum of "English, Latin, modern languages, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, [and] music," as well as a physical education program and a more specialized track of "woodworking, metalworking, mechanical drawing, [and] freehand drawing." However, in June 1908, Maxwell announced that the trade school curriculum would be separated from the core curriculum and a discrete trade school would operate in the Stuyvesant building during the evening. Thereafter, Stuyvesant became renowned for excellence in math and science. In 1909, eighty percent of the school's alumni went to college, compared to other schools, which only sent 25% to 50% of their graduates to college.
By 1919, officials started restricting admission based on scholastic achievement. Stuyvesant implemented a double session plan in 1919 to accommodate the rising number of students: some students would attend in the morning, while others would take classes in the afternoon and early evening. All students studied a full set of courses. These double sessions ran until Spring 1957. The school implemented a system of entrance examinations in 1934. The examination program, developed with the assistance of Columbia University, was expanded in 1938 to include the newly founded Bronx High School of Science.
In 1956, a team of six students designed and began construction of a cyclotron. A low-power test of the device succeeded six years later. A later attempt at full-power operation, however, knocked out the power to the school and surrounding buildings.
Co-educational school
In 1967, Alice de Rivera filed a lawsuit against the Board of Education, alleging that she had been banned from taking Stuyvesant's entrance exam because of her gender. The lawsuit was decided in the student's favor, and Stuyvesant was required to accept female students. The first female students were accepted in September 1969, when Stuyvesant offered admission to 14 girls and enrolled 12 of them. The next year, 223 female students were accepted to Stuyvesant. By 2015, females represented 43% of the total student body.
In 1972, the New York State Legislature passed the Hecht–Calandra Act, which designated Brooklyn Technical High School, Bronx High School of Science, Stuyvesant High School, and the High School of Music & Art (now Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School) as specialized high schools of New York City. The act called for a uniform exam to be administered for admission to Brooklyn Tech, Bronx Science, and Stuyvesant. The exam, named the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test (SHSAT), tested the mathematical and verbal abilities of students who were applying to any of the specialized high schools. The only exception was for applicants to LaGuardia High School, who were accepted by audition rather than examination.
September 11 attacks
The current school building is about away from the site of the World Trade Center, which was destroyed in the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The school was evacuated during the attack. Although the smoke cloud coming from the World Trade Center engulfed the building at one point, there was no structural damage to the building, and there were no reports of physical injuries. Less than an hour after the collapse of the second World Trade Center tower, concern over a bomb threat at the school prompted an evacuation of the surrounding area, as reported live on the Today show. When classes resumed on September 21, 2001, students were moved to Brooklyn Technical High School while the Stuyvesant building served as a base of operations for rescue and recovery workers. This caused serious congestion at Brooklyn Tech, and required the students to attend in two shifts, with the Stuyvesant students attending the evening shift. Normal classes resumed nearly a month after the attack, on October 9.
Because Stuyvesant was so close to the World Trade Center site, there were concerns of asbestos exposure. The U.S. EPA indicated at that time that Stuyvesant was safe from asbestos, and conducted a thorough cleaning of the Stuyvesant building. However, the Stuyvesant High School Parents' Association contested the accuracy of the assessment. Some problems, including former teacher Mark Bodenheimer's respiratory problems, have been reported—he accepted a transfer to The Bronx High School of Science after having difficulty continuing his work at Stuyvesant. Other isolated cases include Stuyvesant's 2002 class president Amit Friedlander, who received local press coverage in September 2006 after being diagnosed with cancer. While there have been other cases linked to the same dust cloud that emanated from Ground Zero, there is no definitive evidence that such cases have directly affected the Stuyvesant community. Stuyvesant students did spend a full year in the building before the theater and air systems were cleaned, however, and a group of Stuyvesant alumni has been lobbying for health benefits since 2006 as a result. In 2019, during a hearing on the reauthorization of the 9/11 Victims Compensation Fund, alumnus Lila Nordstrom testified before the House Judiciary Committee about the conditions at Stuyvesant on and after 9/11.
Nine alumni were killed in the World Trade Center attack. Another alumnus, Richard Ben-Veniste of the class of 1960, was on the 9/11 Commission. On October 2, 2001, the school newspaper, The Spectator, created a special 24-page full-color 9/11 insert containing student photos, reflections and stories. On November 20, 2001, the magazine was distributed for free to the greater metropolitan area, enclosed within 830,000 copies of The New York Times. In the months after the attacks, Annie Thoms, an English teacher at Stuyvesant and the theater adviser at the time, suggested that the students take accounts of staff and students' reactions during and after September 11, 2001, and turn them into a series of monologues. Thoms then published these monologues as With Their Eyes: September 11—The View from a High School at Ground Zero.
Later history
During the 2003–2004 school year, Stuyvesant celebrated the 100th anniversary of its founding with a full year of activities. Events included a procession from the 15th Street building to the Chambers Street one, a meeting of the National Consortium for Specialized Secondary Schools of Mathematics, Science and Technology, an all-class reunion, and visits and speeches from notable alumni.
In the 21st century, keynote graduation speakers have included Attorney General Eric Holder (2001), former President Bill Clinton (2002), United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan (2004), Late Night comedian Conan O'Brien (2006), Humans of New York founder Brandon Stanton (2015), actor George Takei (2016), and astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson (2018).
Buildings
15th Street building
In August 1904, the Board of Education authorized Snyder to design a new facility for Stuyvesant High School at 15th Street. The new school would be shaped like the letter "H" in order to maximize the number of windows on the building. The cornerstone for the new building was laid in September 1905. Approximately $1.5 million was spent on constructing the school, including $600,000 for the exterior alone. In 1907, Stuyvesant moved to the new building on 15th Street. The new building had a capacity of 2,600 students, more than double that of the existing school building at 23rd Street. It contained 25 classrooms devoted to skilled industrial trades such as joinery, as well as 53 regular classrooms and a 1,600-seat auditorium.
During the 1950s, the building underwent a $2 million renovation to update its classrooms, shops, libraries, and cafeterias.
Through the 1970s and 1980s, when New York City public schools, in general, were marked by violence and low grades among their students, Stuyvesant had a reputation for being a top-notch school. However, the school building was deteriorating due to overuse and lack of maintenance. A New York Times report stated that the building had "held out into old age with minimal maintenance and benign neglect until its peeling paint, creaking floorboards and antiquated laboratories became an embarrassment." The five-story building could not cater adequately to the several thousand students, leading the New York City Board of Education to make plans to move the school to a new building in Battery Park City, near lower Manhattan's Financial District. The 15th Street building remains in use as the "Old Stuyvesant Campus," housing three schools: the Institute for Collaborative Education, the High School for Health Professions and Human Services, and PS 226.
Current building
In 1987, New York City Mayor Ed Koch and New York State Governor Mario Cuomo jointly announced the construction of a new Stuyvesant High School building in Battery Park City. The Battery Park City Authority donated of land for the new building. The authority was not required to hire the lowest bidder, which meant that the construction process could be accelerated in return for a higher cost. The building was designed by the architectural firms of Gruzen Samton Steinglass and Cooper, Robertson & Partners. The structure's main architect, Alexander Cooper of Cooper, Robertson & Partners, had also designed much of Battery Park City.
Stuyvesant's principal at the time, Abraham Baumel, visited the country's most advanced laboratories to gather ideas about what to include in the new Stuyvesant building's 12 laboratory rooms. The new 10-story building also included banks of escalators, glass-walled studios on the roof, and a four-story northern wing with a swimming pool, five gymnasiums, and an auditorium. Construction began in 1989. When it opened in 1992, the building was New York City's first new high school building in ten years. The new Stuyvesant Campus cost $150 million, making it the most expensive high school building ever built in the city at the time. The library has a capacity of 40,000 volumes and overlooks Battery Park City.
Shortly after the building was completed, the $10-million Tribeca Bridge was built to allow students to enter the building without having to cross the busy West Street. The building was designed to be fully compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act and is listed as such by the New York City Department of Education. As a result, the building is one of the 5 additional sites of P721M, a school for students with multiple disabilities who are between the ages of 15 and 21.
In 1997, the eastern end of the mathematics floor was dedicated to Richard Rothenberg, the math department chairman who had died from a sudden heart attack earlier that year. Sculptor Madeleine Segall-Marx was commissioned to create the Rothenberg Memorial in his honor. She created a mathematics wall entitled "Celebration", consisting of 50 wooden boxes—one for each year of his life—behind a glass wall, featuring mathematical concepts and reflections on Rothenberg.
In 2006, Robert Ira Lewy of the class of 1960 made a gift worth $1 million to found the Dr. Robert Ira Lewy M.D. Multimedia Center. and donated his personal library in 2007. In late 2010, the school library merged with the New York Public Library (NYPL) network in a four-year pilot program, in which all students of the school received a student library card so they could check books out of the school library or any other public library in the NYPL system.
An escalator collapse at Stuyvesant High School on September 13, 2018 injured 10 people, including 8 students.
Mnemonics
During construction, the Battery Park City Authority, the Percent for Art Program of the City of New York, the Department of Cultural Affairs, and the New York City Board of Education commissioned Mnemonics, an artwork by public artists Kristin Jones and Andrew Ginzel. Four hundred hollow glass blocks were dispersed randomly from the basement to the tenth floor of the new Stuyvesant High School building. Each block contains relics providing evidence of geographical, natural, cultural, and social worlds, from antiquity to the present time.
The blocks are set into the hallway walls and scattered throughout the building. Each block is inscribed with a brief description of its contents or context. The items displayed include a section of the Great Wall of China, fragments of the Mayan pyramids, leaves from the sacred Bo tree, water from the Nile and Ganges Rivers, a Revolutionary War button, pieces of the 15th Street Stuyvesant building, a report card of a student who studied in the old building, and fragments of monuments from around the world, various chemical compounds, and memorabilia from each of the 88 years' history of the 15th Street building. Empty blocks were also installed to be filled with items chosen by each of the graduating classes up through 2080. The installation received the Award for Excellence in Design from the Art Commission of the City of New York.
Transportation
The New York City Subway's Chambers Street station, served by the , is located nearby, as well as the Chambers Street–World Trade Center station served by the . Additionally, New York City Bus's and routes stop near Stuyvesant. Students residing a certain distance from the school are provided full-fare or half-fare student MetroCards for public transportation at the start of each term, based on how far away the student resides from the school.
Enrollment
Entrance examination
Stuyvesant has a total enrollment of over 3,000 students and is open to residents of New York City entering ninth or tenth grade. Enrollment is based solely on performance on the three-hour Specialized High Schools Admissions Test, which is administered annually. Approximately 28,000 students took the test in 2017. The list of schools using the SHSAT has since grown to include eight of New York's nine specialized high schools. The test score necessary for admission to Stuyvesant has consistently been higher than that needed for admission to the other schools using the test. Admission is currently based on an individual's score on the examination and the pre-submitted ranking of Stuyvesant among the other specialized schools. Ninth- and rising tenth–grade students are also eligible to take the test for enrollment, but far fewer students are admitted that way. The test covers math (word problems and computation) and verbal (reading comprehension) skills. Former Mayor John Lindsay and community activist group Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now (ACORN) have argued that the exam may be biased against African and Hispanic Americans, while attempts to eliminate the exam have been criticized as discriminatory against Asian Americans.
Demographics and SHSAT controversy
For most of the 20th century, the student body at Stuyvesant was heavily Jewish. A significant influx of Asian students began in the 1970s; by 2019, 74% of the students in attendance were Asian-American (53% from families with low incomes). In the 2013 academic year, the student body was 72.43% Asian, 21.44% Caucasian, 1.03% African American, 2.34% Hispanic, and 3% unknown/other. The paucity of Black and Hispanic students at Stuyvesant has often been an issue for some city administrators. In 1971, Mayor John Lindsay argued that the test was culturally biased against black and Hispanic students and sought to implement an affirmative action program. However, protests by parents forced the plan to be scrapped and led to the passage of the Hecht-Calandra Act, which preserved admissions by examination only. A small number of students judged to be economically disadvantaged and who came within a few points of the cut-off score were given an extra chance to pass the test.
Community activist group ACORN published two reports in 1996, titled Secret Apartheid and Secret Apartheid II. In these reports, ACORN called the SHSAT "permanently suspect" and described it as a "product of an institutional racism," saying that black and Hispanic students did not have access to proper test preparation materials. Along with Schools Chancellor Rudy Crew, they began an initiative for more diversity in the city's gifted and specialized schools, in particular demanding the SHSAT be suspended altogether until the Board of Education was able to show all children have had access to appropriate materials to prepare themselves. Students published several editorials in response to ACORN's claims, stating the admissions system at the school was based on student merit, not race.
A number of students take preparatory courses offered by private companies such as The Princeton Review and Kaplan in order to perform better on the SHSAT, often leaving those unable to afford such classes at a disadvantage. To bridge this gap and boost minority admissions, the Board of Education started the Math Science Institute in 1995, a free program to prepare students for the admissions test. Students attend preparatory classes through the program, now known as the Specialized High School Institute (also known as DREAM), at several schools around the city from the summer after sixth grade until the eighth-grade exam. Despite the implementation of these free programs for improving underprivileged children's enrollment, black and Hispanic enrollment continued to decline. After further expansion of those free test prep programs, there was still no increase in percentages to the attendance of black and Hispanic children. , fewer than 1% of freshman openings were given to black students, while over 66% were given to Asian-American students, most of whom had similar socioeconomic backgrounds to those of the black students.
The New York City Department of Education reported in 2003 that public per student spending at Stuyvesant is slightly lower than the city average. Stuyvesant also receives private contributions.
Academics
The college-preparatory curriculum at Stuyvesant mostly includes four years of English, history, and laboratory-based sciences. The sciences courses include requisite biology, chemistry, and physics classes. Students also take four years of mathematics. Students also take three years of a single foreign language; a semester each of introductory art, music, health, and technical drawing; one semester of computer science; and two lab-based technology courses. Several exemptions from technology education exist for seniors. Stuyvesant offers students a broad selection of elective courses. Some of the more notable offerings include astronomy, New York City history, Women's Voices, and the mathematics of financial markets. Most students complete the New York City Regents courses by junior year and take calculus during their senior year. However, the school offers math courses through differential equations for the more advanced students. A year of technical drawing was formerly required; students learned how to draft by hand in its first semester and how to draft using a computer in the second. Now, students take a one-semester compacted version of the former drafting course, as well as a semester of introductory computer science. For the class of 2015, the one-semester computer science course was replaced with a two-semester course.
As a specialized high school, Stuyvesant offers a wide range of Advanced Placement (AP) courses. These courses focus on math, science, history, English, or foreign languages. This gives students various opportunities to earn college credit. AP computer science students can also take three additional computer programming courses after the completion of the AP course: systems level programming, computer graphics, and software development. In addition, there is a one-year computer networking class which can earn students Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification.
Stuyvesant's foreign language offerings include Mandarin Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Latin, and Spanish. In 2005, the school also started offering courses in Arabic after the school's Muslim Student Association had raised funds to support the course. Stuyvesant's biology and geo-science department offers courses in molecular biology, human physiology, medical ethics, medical and veterinary diagnosis, human disease, anthropology and sociobiology, vertebrate zoology, laboratory techniques, medical human genetics, botany, the molecular basis of cancer, nutrition science, and psychology. The chemistry and physics departments include classes in organic chemistry, physical chemistry, astronomy, engineering mechanics, and electronics.
Although Stuyvesant is primarily known for its math and science focus, the school also has a comprehensive humanities program. The English Department offers students courses in British and classical literature, Shakespearean literature, science fiction, philosophy, existentialism, debate, acting, journalism, creative writing, and poetry. The Social Studies core requires two years of global history (or one year of global followed by one year of European history), one year of American history, as well as a semester each of economics and government. Humanities electives include American foreign policy; civil and criminal law, prejudice and persecution, and race, ethnicity and gender issues.
In 2004, Stuyvesant entered into an agreement with City College of New York in which the college funds advanced after-school courses that are taken for college credit but taught by Stuyvesant teachers. Some of these courses include linear algebra, advanced Euclidean geometry, and women's history.
Prior to the 2005 revision of the SAT, Stuyvesant graduates had an average score of 1408 out of 1600 (685 in the verbal section of the test, 723 in the math section). In 2010, the average score on the SAT for Stuyvesant students was 2087 out of 2400, while the class of 2013 had an average SAT score of 2096. , Stuyvesant students' average SAT score was 1510 of 1600 points. Stuyvesant also administers more Advanced Placement exams than any other high school in the world, as well as the highest number of students who reach the AP courses' "mastery level". , there are 31 AP classes offered, with a little more than half of all students taking at least one AP class, and about 98% of students pass their AP tests.
Extracurricular activities
Sports
Stuyvesant fields 32 varsity teams, including the swimming, golf, bowling, volleyball, soccer, basketball, gymnastics, wrestling, fencing, baseball/softball, American handball, tennis, track/cross country, cricket, football, and lacrosse teams. In addition, Stuyvesant has ultimate teams for the boys' varsity, boys' junior varsity, and girls' varsity divisions.
In September 2007, the Stuyvesant football team was given a home field at Pier 40, located north of the school at Houston Street and West Street. In 2008, the baseball team was granted use of the pier after construction and delivery of an artificial turf pitching mound that met Public Schools Athletic League specifications. Stuyvesant also has its own swimming pool, but it does not contain its own running track or tennis court. Unlike most American high schools, most sports teams at Stuyvesant are individually known by different names. Only the football, cheerleading, girls' table tennis, baseball, girls' handball, and boys' lacrosse teams retain the traditional Pegleg monikers.
Student government
The student body of Stuyvesant is represented by the Stuyvesant Student Union, a student government. It comprises a group of students (elected each year for each grade) who serve the student body in two important areas: improving student life by promoting and managing extracurricular activities (clubs and publications), by organizing out-of-school activity such as city excursions or fundraisers; and providing a voice to the student body in all discussion of school policy with the administration.
Clubs and publications
Stuyvesant allows students to join clubs, publications, and teams under a system similar to that of many colleges. , the school had 150 student clubs.
The Spectator
The Spectator is Stuyvesant's official in-school newspaper, which is published biweekly and is independent from the school. There are over 250 students who help with publication. At the beginning of the fall and spring terms, there are recruitments, but interested students may join at any time.
Founded in 1915, The Spectator is one of Stuyvesant's oldest publications. It has a long-standing connection with its older namesake, Columbia University's Columbia Daily Spectator, and has been recognized by the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism's Columbia Scholastic Press Association.
The Voice
The Voice was founded in the 1973–1974 academic year as an independent publication only loosely sanctioned by school officials. It had the appearance of a magazine and gained a large readership. The Voice attracted a considerable amount of controversy and a First Amendment lawsuit, after which the administration forced it to go off-campus and to turn commercial in 1975–1976.
At the beginning of the 1975–1976 academic year, The Voice decided to publish the results of a confidential random survey measuring the "sexual attitudes, preferences, knowledge and experience" of the students. The administration refused to permit The Voice to distribute the questionnaire, and the Board of Education refused to intervene, believing that "irreparable psychological damage" would be occasioned on some of the students receiving it. The editor-in-chief of The Voice, Jeff Trachtman, brought a First Amendment challenge to this decision in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in front of Judge Constance Baker Motley.
Motley, relying on the relatively recent Supreme Court precedent Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (holding that "undifferentiated fear or apprehension of disturbance is not enough to overcome the right to freedom of expression"), ordered the Board of Education to come up with an arrangement permitting the distribution of the survey to the juniors and seniors. However, Motley's ruling was overturned on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Judge J. Edward Lumbard, joined by Judge Murray Gurfein and over an impassioned dissent by Judge Walter R. Mansfield, held that the distribution of the questionnaires was properly disallowed by the administration since there was the basis for the belief that it might "result in significant emotional harm to a number of students throughout the Stuyvesant population." The Supreme Court denied certiorari review.
SING!
The annual theater competition known as SING! pits seniors, juniors, and "soph-frosh" (freshmen and sophomores working together) against each other in a contest to put on the best performance. SING! started in 1947 at Midwood High School in Brooklyn and has expanded to many New York City high schools since then. SING! at Stuyvesant started as a small event in 1973, and since then, has grown to a school-wide event; in 2005, nearly 1,000 students participated. The entire production is written, directed, produced, and funded by students. Their involvement ranges from being members of the production's casts, choruses, or costume and tech crews to Step, Hip-Hop, Swing, Modern, Belly, Flow, Tap or Latin dance groups. SING! begins in late January to February and culminates in final performances on three nights in March/April. Scoring is done on each night's performances and the winner is determined by the overall total. In 2023, soph-frosh won SING! for the first time in the tradition's fifty-one year history.
Reputation
Stuyvesant has produced many notable alumni, including four Nobel laureates. In 2017, Stuyvesant was ranked 71st in national rankings by U.S. News & World Report, and 21st among STEM high schools. According to a September 2002 high school ranking by Worth magazine, 3.67% of Stuyvesant students went on to attend Harvard, Yale, and Princeton universities, ranking it as the 9th top public high school in the United States and 120th among all schools, public or private. In December 2007, The Wall Street Journal studied the freshman classes at eight selective colleges and reported that Stuyvesant sent 67 students to these schools, comprising 9.9% of its 674 seniors. In recent years, the Stuyvesant Spectator has reported on college admissions of the graduating classes, with Class of 2021 having 133 students offered admission to Ivy League institutions.
Stuyvesant, along with other similar schools, has regularly been excluded from Newsweek'''s annual list of the Top 100 Public High Schools. The May 8, 2008, issue states the reason as being, "because so many of their students score well above average on the SAT and ACT." U.S. News & World Report, however, included Stuyvesant on its list of "Best High Schools" published in December 2009, ranking 31st. In its 2010 progress report, the New York City Department of Education assigned it an "A", the highest possible grade.
Stuyvesant has contributed to the education of several Nobel laureates, winner of the Fields Medal, and other accomplished alumni. In recent years, it has had the second highest number of National Merit Scholarship semi-finalists, behind Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Alexandria, Virginia. From 2002 to 2010, Stuyvesant has produced 103 semi-finalists and 13 finalists on the Intel Science Talent Search, the second most of any secondary school in the United States behind the Bronx High School of Science. In 2014, Stuyvesant had 11 semifinalists for the Intel Search, the highest number of any school in the U.S.
In the 2010s, exam schools, including Stuyvesant, have been the subject of studies questioning their academic effectiveness. A study by Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Duke University economists compared high school outcomes for Stuyvesant students who barely passed the SHSAT score required for admission, to those of applicants just below that score, using the latter as a natural control group of peers who attended other schools. The study found no discernible average difference in the two groups' later performance on New York state exams.
Notable people
Notable scientists among Stuyvesant alumni include mathematicians Bertram Kostant (1945) and
Paul Cohen (1950), string theorist Brian Greene (1980), physicist Lisa Randall (1980), and genomic researcher Eric Lander (1974). Other prominent alumni include civil rights leader Bob Moses, MAD Magazine editor Nick Meglin (1953), entertainers such as songwriter and Steely Dan founder Walter Becker, Thelonious Monk (1935), and actors Lucy Liu (1986), Tim Robbins (1976), and James Cagney (1918), comedian Paul Reiser (1973), playwright Arthur M. Jolly (1987), sports anchor Mike Greenberg (1985), and basketball player and bookmaker Jack Molinas (1949). In business, government and politics, former United States Attorney General Eric Holder (1969) is a Stuyvesant alumnus, as are Senior Advisor to President Obama David Axelrod (1972), former adviser to President Clinton Dick Morris (1964), and founder of 5W Public Relations Ronn Torossian (1992).
Pulitzer Prize-winning author Frank McCourt taught English at Stuyvesant before the publication of his memoirs Angela's Ashes, 'Tis, and Teacher Man. Teacher Man third section, titled Coming Alive in Room 205, concerns McCourt's time at Stuyvesant, and mentions a number of students and faculty. Former New York City Council member Eva Moskowitz (1982) graduated from the school, as did the creator of the BitTorrent protocol, Bram Cohen (1993). A notable Olympic medalist from the school was foil fencer Albert Axelrod. Economist Thomas Sowell was also a student of Stuyvesant High School, but dropped out at age 17 because of financial difficulties and problems in his home. Russian journalist Vladimir Pozner Jr., known in the West for his appearances on Nightline, U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge and Phil Donahue, was also a student of Stuyvesant High School.
Four Nobel laureates are Stuyvesant alumni:
Joshua Lederberg (1941) – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1958
Robert Fogel (1944) – Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 1993
Roald Hoffmann (1954) – Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1981
Richard Axel (1963) – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2004
In the media
In the film The Glass Wall'', the character Freddie Zakoyla attended "Peter Stuyvesant High School."
See also
Education in New York City
Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
References
Further reading
External links
Stuyvesant High School's Official Newspaper—The Spectator
The Campaign for Stuyvesant Endowment Fund
Educational institutions established in 1904
Gifted education
Public high schools in Manhattan
Specialized high schools in New York City
Stuyvesant
Battery Park City
1904 establishments in New York City
New Classical architecture
|
418082
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Toft
|
Mary Toft
|
Mary Toft (née Denyer; c. 1701–1763), also spelled Tofts, was an English woman from Godalming, Surrey, who in 1726 became the subject of considerable controversy when she tricked doctors into believing that she had given birth to rabbits.
In 1726, Toft became pregnant, but following her reported fascination with the sighting of a rabbit, she miscarried. Her claim to have given birth to various animal parts prompted the arrival of John Howard, a local surgeon, who investigated the matter. He delivered several pieces of animal flesh and duly notified other prominent physicians, which brought the case to the attention of Nathaniel St. André, surgeon to the Royal Household of King George I.
St. André concluded that Toft's case was genuine but the king also sent surgeon Cyriacus Ahlers, who remained skeptical. By then quite famous, Toft was brought to London where she was studied in detail; under intense scrutiny and producing no more rabbits she confessed to the hoax, and was subsequently imprisoned as a fraud.
The resultant public mockery created panic within the medical profession and ruined the careers of several prominent surgeons. The affair was satirised on many occasions, not least by the pictorial satirist and social critic William Hogarth, who was notably critical of the medical profession's gullibility. Toft was eventually released without charge and returned home.
Account
The story first came to the public's attention in late October 1726, when reports began to reach London. An account appeared in the Mist's Weekly Journal, on 19November 1726:
The 'poor Woman', Mary Toft, was twenty-four or twenty-five years old. She was baptised Mary Denyer on 21 February 1703, the daughter of John and Jane Denyer. In 1720 she married Joshua Toft, a journeyman clothier and together the couple had three children, Mary, Anne and James. As an 18th-century English peasant, circumstances dictated that when in 1726 Toft again became pregnant, she continue working in the fields. She complained of painful complications early in the pregnancy and in early August egested several pieces of flesh, one "as big as my arm". This may have been the result of an abnormality of the developing placenta, which would have caused the embryo to stop developing and blood clots and flesh to be ejected. Toft went into labour on 27 September. Her neighbour was called and watched as she produced several animal parts. This neighbour then showed the pieces to her mother and to her mother-in-law, Ann Toft, who by chance was a midwife. Ann Toft sent the flesh to John Howard, a Guildford-based man-midwife of thirty years' experience.
Initially, Howard dismissed the notion that Toft had given birth to animal parts, but the next day, despite his reservations, he went to see her. Ann Toft showed him more pieces of the previous night's exertions, but on examining Mary, he found nothing. When Mary again went into labour, appearing to give birth to several more animal parts, Howard returned to continue his investigations. According to a contemporary account of 9November, over the next few days he delivered "three legs of a Cat of a Tabby Colour, and one leg of a Rabbet: the guts were as a Cat's and in them were three pieces of the Back-Bone of an Eel ... The cat's feet supposed were formed in her imagination from a cat she was fond of that slept on the bed at night." Toft seemingly became ill once more and over the next few days delivered more pieces of rabbit.
As the story became more widely known, on 4November Henry Davenant, a member of the court of King George I, went to see for himself what was happening. He examined the samples Howard had collected and returned to London, ostensibly a believer. Howard had Toft moved to Guildford, where he offered to deliver rabbits in the presence of anyone who doubted her story. Some of the letters he wrote to Davenant to notify him of any progress in the case came to the attention of Nathaniel St. André, since 1723 a Swiss surgeon to the Royal Household. St. André would ultimately detail the contents of one of these letters in his pamphlet, A short narrative of an extraordinary delivery of rabbets (1727):
Investigation
By the middle of November the British Royal Family were so interested in the story that they sent St. André and Samuel Molyneux, secretary to the Prince of Wales, to investigate. Apparently, they were not disappointed; arriving on 15November they were taken by Howard to see Toft, who within hours delivered a rabbit's torso. St. André's account details his examination of the rabbit. To check if it had breathed air, he placed a piece of its lung in water to see if it would float—which it did. St. André then performed a medical examination on Toft, and concluded that the rabbits were bred in her Fallopian tubes.
In the doctors' absence, Toft later that day reportedly delivered the torso of another rabbit, which the two also examined. They again returned that evening to find Toft again displaying violent contractions. A further medical examination followed, and St. André delivered some rabbit skin, followed a few minutes later by a rabbit's head. Both men inspected the egested pieces of flesh, noting that some resembled the body parts of a cat.
Fascinated, the king then sent surgeon Cyriacus Ahlers to Guildford. Ahlers arrived on 20November and found Toft exhibiting no signs of pregnancy. He may have already suspected the affair was a hoax and observed that Toft seemed to press her knees and thighs together, as if to prevent something from "dropping down". He thought Howard's behaviour just as suspicious, as the man-midwife would not let him help deliver the rabbits—although Ahlers was not a man-midwife and in an earlier attempt had apparently put Toft through considerable pain. Convinced the affair was a hoax, he lied, telling those involved that he believed Toft's story, before making his excuses and returning to London, taking specimens of the rabbits with him. Upon closer study, he reportedly found evidence of them having been cut with a man-made instrument, and noted pieces of straw and grain in their droppings.
On 21November Ahlers reported his findings to the king and later to "several Persons of Note and Distinction". Howard wrote to Ahlers the next day, asking for the return of his specimens. Ahlers' suspicions began to worry both Howard and St. André, and apparently the king, as two days later St. André and a colleague were ordered back to Guildford. Upon their arrival they met Howard, who told St. André that Toft had given birth to two more rabbits. She delivered several portions of what was presumed to be a placenta but she was by then quite ill, and suffering from a constant pain in the right side of her abdomen.
In a pre-emptive move against Ahlers, St. André collected affidavits from several witnesses, which in effect cast doubt on Ahlers' honesty, and on 26November gave an anatomical demonstration before the king to support Toft's story. According to his pamphlet, neither St. André nor Molyneux suspected any fraudulent activity.
St. André was ordered by the king to travel back to Guildford and to bring Toft to London, so that further investigations could be carried out. He was accompanied by Richard Manningham, a well-known obstetrician who was knighted in 1721, and the second son of Thomas Manningham, Bishop of Chichester. He examined Toft and found the right side of her abdomen slightly enlarged. Manningham also delivered what he thought was a hog's bladder—although St. André and Howard disagreed with his identification—but became suspicious as it smelled of urine. Nevertheless, those involved agreed to say nothing in public and on their return to London on 29November lodged Toft in Lacey's Bagnio, in Leicester Fields.
Examination
Printed in the early days of newspapers, the story became a national sensation, although some publications were skeptical, the Norwich Gazette viewing the affair simply as female gossip. Rabbit stew and jugged hare disappeared from the dinner table, while as unlikely as the story sounded, many physicians felt compelled to see Toft for themselves. The political writer John Hervey later told his friend Henry Fox that:
Under St. André's strict control, Toft was studied by a number of eminent physicians and surgeons, including John Maubray. In The Female Physician Maubray had proposed women could give birth to a creature he named a sooterkin. He was a proponent of maternal impression, a widely held belief that conception and pregnancy could be influenced by what the mother dreamt, or saw, and warned pregnant women that over-familiarity with household pets could cause their children to resemble those pets. He was reportedly happy to attend Toft, pleased that her case appeared to vindicate his theories, but man-midwife James Douglas, like Manningham, presumed that the affair was a hoax and despite St. André's repeated invitations, kept his distance.
Douglas was one of the country's most respected anatomists and a well-known man-midwife, whereas St. André was often considered to be a member of the court only because of his ability to speak the king's native German. St. André therefore desperately wanted the two to attend Toft; after George I's accession to the throne the Whigs had become the dominant political faction, and Manningham and Douglas's Whig affiliations and medical knowledge might have elevated his status as both doctor and philosopher. Douglas thought that a woman giving birth to rabbits was as likely as a rabbit giving birth to a human child, but despite his scepticism he went to see her. When Manningham informed him of the suspected hog's bladder, and after he examined Toft, he refused to engage St. André on the matter:
Under constant supervision, Toft went into labour several times, to no avail.
Confession
The hoax was uncovered less than a week later on 4 December. Thomas Onslow, 2nd Baron Onslow, had begun an investigation of his own and discovered that for the past month Toft's husband, Joshua, had been buying young rabbits. Convinced he had enough evidence to proceed, in a letter to physician Sir Hans Sloane he wrote that the affair had "almost alarmed England" and that he would soon publish his findings. The same day, Thomas Howard, a porter at the bagnio, confessed to Justice of the Peace Sir Thomas Clarges that he had been bribed by Toft's sister-in-law, Margaret, to sneak a rabbit into Toft's chamber. When arrested and questioned Mary denied the accusation, while Margaret, under Douglas's interrogation, claimed that she had obtained the rabbit for eating only.
Manningham examined Toft and thought something remained in the cavity of her uterus, and so he successfully persuaded Clarges to allow her to remain at the bagnio. Douglas, who had by then visited Toft, questioned her on three or four occasions, each time for several hours. After several days of this Manningham threatened to perform a painful operation on her, and on 7December, in the presence of Manningham, Douglas, John Montagu and Frederick Calvert, Toft finally confessed. Following her miscarriage and while her cervix permitted access, an accomplice had inserted into her womb the claws and body of a cat, and the head of a rabbit. They had also invented a story in which Toft claimed that during her pregnancy and while working in a field, she had been startled by a rabbit, and had since become obsessed with rabbits. For later parturitions, animal parts had been inserted into her vagina.
Pressured again by Manningham and Douglas (it was the latter who took her confession), she made a further admission on 8 December and another on 9 December, before being sent to Tothill Fields Bridewell, charged on a statute of Edward III as a "vile cheat and impostor". In her earlier, unpublished confessions, she blamed the entire affair on a range of other participants, from her mother-in-law to John Howard. She also claimed that a travelling woman told her how to insert the rabbits into her body, and how such a scheme would ensure that she would "never want as long as I liv'd". The British Journal reported that on 7 January 1727 she appeared at the Courts of Quarter Sessions at Westminster, charged "for being an abominable cheat and imposter in pretending to be delivered of several monstrous births". Margaret Toft had remained staunch, and refused to comment further. Mist's Weekly Journal of 24 December 1726 reported that "the nurse has been examined as to the person's concerned with her, but either was kept in the dark as to the imposition, or is not willing to disclose what she knows; for nothing can be got from her; so that her resolution shocks others."
Aftermath
Following the hoax, the medical profession's gullibility became the target of a great deal of public mockery. William Hogarth published Cunicularii, or The Wise Men of Godliman in Consultation (1726), which portrays Toft in the throes of labour, surrounded by the tale's chief participants. Figure "F" is Toft, "E" is her husband. "A" is St. André, and "D" is Howard. In Dennis Todd's Three Characters in Hogarth's Cunicularii and Some Implications the author concludes that figure "G" is Mary Toft's sister-in-law, Margaret Toft. Toft's confession of 7December demonstrates her insistence that her sister-in-law played no part in the hoax, but Manningham's 1726 An Exact Diary of what was observ'd during a Close Attendance upon Mary Toft, the pretended Rabbet-Breeder of Godalming in Surrey offers eyewitness testimony of her complicity. Hogarth's print was not the only image that ridiculed the affair—George Vertue published The Surrey-Wonder, and The Doctors in Labour, or a New Wim-Wam in Guildford (12 plates), a broadsheet published in 1727 which satirises St. André, was also popular at the time.
The timing of Toft's confession proved awkward (and unfortunate) for St. André, who on 3December had published his forty-page pamphlet A Short Narrative of an Extraordinary Delivery of Rabbets. On this document the surgeon had staked his reputation, and although it offers a more empirical account of the Toft case than earlier more fanciful publications about reproduction in general, ultimately it was derided. Ahlers, his scepticism justified, published Some observations concerning the woman of Godlyman in Surrey, which details his account of events and his suspicion of the complicity of both St. André and Howard.
St. André recanted his views on 9December 1726. In 1729, following the death of Samuel Molyneux, he married Molyneux's widow, Elizabeth. This did little to impress his peers. Molyneux's cousin accused him of the poisoning, a charge that St. André defended by suing for defamation, but the careers of St. André and his wife were permanently damaged. Elizabeth lost her attendance on Queen Caroline, and St. André was publicly humiliated at court. Living on Elizabeth's considerable wealth, they retired to the country, where St. André died in 1776, aged 96. Manningham, desperate to exculpate himself, published a diary of his observations of Mary Toft, together with an account of her confession of the fraud, on 12December. In it he suggested that Douglas had been fooled by Toft, and concerned with his image Douglas replied by publishing his own account. Using the pseudonym 'Lover of Truth and Learning', in 1727 Douglas also published The Sooterkin Dissected. A letter to Maubray, Douglas was scathingly critical of his sooterkin theory, calling it "a mere fiction of your [Maubray's] brain". The damage done to the medical profession was such that several doctors not connected with the tale felt compelled to print statements that they had not believed Toft's story. On 7January 1727 John Howard and Toft appeared before the bench, where Howard was fined £800 (£ today). He returned to Surrey and continued his practice, and died in 1755.
Crowds reportedly mobbed Tothill Fields Bridewell for months, hoping to catch a glimpse of the now infamous Toft. By this time she had become quite ill, and while incarcerated had her portrait drawn by John Laguerre. She was ultimately discharged on 8April 1727, as it was unclear as to what charge should have been made against her. The Toft family made no profit from the affair, and Mary Toft returned to Surrey. In February 1728 (recorded as 1727 Old Style), she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, noted in the Godalming parish register as her "first child after her pretended Rabett-breeding." Little is known of Toft's later life. She briefly reappeared in 1740 when she was imprisoned for receiving stolen goods. She died in 1763, and her obituary ran in London newspapers alongside those of aristocrats. She was buried in Godalming on 13January 1763.
The case was cited by Robert Walpole's opponents as symbolising the age, which they perceived as greedy, corrupt and deceitful. One author, writing to the Prince of Wales's mistress, suggested the story was a political portent of the approaching death of the prince's father. On 7January 1727 Mist's Weekly Journal satirised the matter, making several allusions to political change, and comparing the affair to the events of 1641 when Parliament began its revolution against King Charles I. The scandal provided the writers of Grub Street with enough material to produce pamphlets, squibs, broadsides and ballads for several months. With publications such as St. André's Miscarriage (1727) and The anatomist dissected: or the man-midwife finely brought to bed (1727) satirists scorned the objectivity of men-midwives, and critics of Toft's attendants questioned their integrity, undermining their profession with sexual puns and allusions. The case raised questions about England's status as an "enlightened" nation—Voltaire used the case in his brief essay Singularités de la nature to describe how the Protestant English were still influenced by an ignorant Church.
Toft did not escape the ire of the satirists, who concentrated mainly on sexual innuendo. Some took advantage of a common 18th-century word for a rabbit track—prick—and others were scatological in nature. However, Much Ado about Nothing; or, A Plain Refutation of All that Has Been Written or Said Concerning the Rabbit-Woman of Godalming (1727) is one of the more cutting satires on Toft. The document supposes to be the confession of 'Merry Tuft', "... in her own Stile and Spelling". Poking fun at her illiteracy, it makes a number of obscene suggestions hinting at her promiscuity—"I wos a Wuman as had grate nattural parts, and a large Capassiti, and kapible of being kunserned in depe Kuntrivansis." The document also ridicules several of the physicians involved in the affair, and reflects the general view portrayed by the satirists that Toft was a weak woman and the least complicit of "the offenders" (regardless of her guilt). The notion contrasts with that expressed of her before the hoax was revealed and may indicate an overall strategy to disempower Toft completely. This is reflected in one of the most notable satires of the affair, Alexander Pope and William Pulteney's anonymous satirical ballad The Discovery; or, The Squire Turn'd Ferret. Published in 1726 and aimed at Samuel Molyneux, it rhymes "hare" with "hair", and "money" with "conney". The ballad opens with the following verse:
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1700s births
1763 deaths
18th-century English people
18th-century hoaxes
18th-century English women
Hoaxers
Hoaxes in England
Medical scandals in the United Kingdom
People from Godalming
Surrey folklore
18th-century women farmers
18th-century English farmers
|
418087
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pu%27er%20tea
|
Pu'er tea
|
Pu'er or pu-erh (Wade-Giles p'u-erh) is a variety of fermented tea traditionally produced in Yunnan Province, China. In the context of traditional Chinese tea production terminology, fermentation refers to microbial fermentation (called 'wet piling'), and is typically applied after the tea leaves have been sufficiently dried and rolled. As the tea undergoes controlled microbial fermentation, it also continues to oxidize, which is also controlled, until the desired flavors are reached. This process produces tea known as 黑茶 hēichá (lit. 'black tea') (which is different from the English-language black tea that is called 红茶 hóngchá (lit. 'red tea') in Chinese). Pu'er falls under a larger category of fermented teas commonly translated as dark teas.
Two main styles of pu'er production exist: a traditional, longer production process known as shēng (raw) pu'er; and a modern, accelerated production process known as shóu (ripe) pu'er. Pu'er traditionally begins with a raw product called "rough" (máo) chá (毛茶, lit. fuzzy/furry tea) and can be sold in this form or pressed into a number of shapes and sold as "shēng chá (生茶, lit. raw tea). Both of these forms then undergo the complex process of gradual fermentation and maturation with time. The wòduī (渥堆) fermentation process developed in 1973 by the Kunming Tea Factory created a new type of pu'er tea. This process involves an accelerated fermentation into shóu (or shú) chá (熟茶, lit. ripe tea) that is then stored loose or pressed into various shapes. The fermentation process was adopted at the Menghai Tea Factory shortly after and technically developed there. The legitimacy of shóu chá is disputed by some traditionalists when compared to the traditionally, longer-aged teas, such as shēng chá.
Pu’er can be stored and permitted to age and to mature, like wine, in non-airtight containers before consumption. This is why it has long been standard practice to label all types of pu’er with the year and region of production.
Name
Pu'er is the pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of Chinese Pu-erh is a variant of the Wade-Giles romanization (properly p‘u-êrh) of the same name. In Hong Kong the same Chinese characters are read as Bo-lei, and that is therefore a common alternative English term for this tea. The tea got its name from the ancient tea-trading town of Pu'er (普洱), which is today's Ning'er Town (宁洱镇) in Ning'er County, Pu'er prefecture-level city of Yunnan. Pu'er County had its name changed into Simao, after Simao Town, the new county seat in 1950 following the Communist victory. The County of Simao became a prefecture level City and had its name changed to Pu'er in 2007. Although the urban center of the modern Pu'er City remained in Simao, the whole Pu'er region is now sometimes considered the appellation for pu'er proper.
Pu'er (and all tea) terminology varies from language to language. For example, pu-er is known in Chinese as a type of 'dark tea' (heicha) while in Spanish it is considered ‘té rojo’ (red tea) and, conversely, what in Chinese is called 'red tea' (hongcha) is known in Spanish as 'té negro' (black tea).
History
Fermented tea leaves has a long history among ethnic groups in Southwest China. These crude teas were of various origins and were meant to be low cost. Darkened tea, or hēichá, is still the major beverage for the ethnic groups in the southwestern borders and, until the early 1990s, was the third major tea category produced by China mainly for this market segment.
There had been no standardized processing for the darkening of hēichá until the postwar years in the 1950s, when there was a sudden surge in demand in Hong Kong, perhaps because of the concentration of refugees from the mainland. In the 1970s the improved process was taken back to Yunnan for further development, which has resulted in the various production styles variously referred to as wòduī today. This new process produced a finished product in a matter of months that many thought tasted similar to teas aged naturally for 10–15 years and so this period saw a demand-driven boom in the production of hēichá by the artificial ripening method.
In recent decades, demand has come full circle and it has become more common again for hēichá, including pu'er, to be sold as the raw product without the artificial accelerated fermentation process.
Pu'er tea processing, although straightforward, is complicated by the fact that the tea itself falls into two distinct categories: the "raw" shēngchá and the "ripe" shóuchá. All types of pu'er tea are created from máochá (毛 茶), a mostly unoxidized green tea processed from Camellia sinensis var. assamica, which is the large leaf type of Chinese tea found in the mountains of southern and western Yunnan (in contrast to the small leaf type of tea used for typical green, oolong, black, and yellow teas found in the other parts of China).
Máochá can be sold directly to market as loose leaf tea, compressed to produce "raw" shēngchá, naturally aged and matured for several years before being compressed to also produce "raw" shēngchá or undergo wòduī ripening for several months prior to being compressed to produce "ripe" shóuchá. While unaged and unprocessed, Máochá pǔ'ěr is similar to green tea. Two subtle differences worth noting are that pǔ'ěr is not produced from the small-leaf Chinese varietal but the broad-leaf varietal mostly found in the southern Chinese provinces and India. The second is that pǔ'ěr leaves are picked as one bud and 3-4 leaves whilst green tea is picked as one bud and 1-2 leaves. This means that older leaves contribute to the qualities of pǔ'ěr tea.
Ripened or aged raw pǔ'ěr has occasionally been mistakenly categorized as a subcategory of black tea due to the dark red color of its leaves and liquor. However, pǔ'ěr in both its ripened and aged forms has undergone secondary oxidization and fermentation caused both by organisms growing in the tea and free-radical oxidation, thus making it a unique type of tea. This divergence in production style not only makes the flavor and texture of pu'er tea different but also results in a rather different chemical makeup of the resulting brewed liquor.
The fermented dark tea, hēichá (黑茶), is one of the six classes of tea in China, and pǔ'ěr is classified as a dark tea (defined as fermented), something which is resented by some who argue for a separate category for pǔ'ěr tea. As of 2008, only the large-leaf variety from Yunnan can be called a pǔ'ěr.
Processing
Pu'er is typically made through two steps. First, all leaves must be roughly processed into maocha to stop oxidation. From there it may be further processed by fermentation, or directly packaged. Summarising the steps:
Maocha: Killing Green (杀青) -- Rolling (揉捻) -- Sun Drying (晒干)
green/raw (生普, sheng cha)
dark/ripe (熟普, shu cha): -- Piling(渥堆))-- Drying(干燥))
Both sheng and ripe pu'er can be shaped into cakes or bricks and aged with time.
Maocha or rough tea
The intent of the máochá stage (青 毛 茶 or 毛 茶; literally, "light green rough tea" or "rough tea" respectively) is to dry the leaves and keep them from spoiling. It involves minimal processing and there is no fermentation involved.
The first step in making raw or ripened pu'er is picking appropriate tender leaves. Plucked leaves are handled gingerly to prevent bruising and unwanted oxidation. It is optional to wilt/wither the leaves after picking and it depends on the tea processor, as drying occurs at various stages of processing. If so, the leaves would be spread out in the sun, weather permitting, or a ventilated space to wilt and remove some of the water content. On overcast or rainy days, the leaves will be wilted by light heating, a slight difference in processing that will affect the quality of the resulting maocha and pu'er.
The leaves are then dry-roasted using a large wok in a process called "killing the green" (殺 青; pinyin: shā qīng), which arrests most enzyme activity in the leaf and prevents full oxidation. After pan-roasting, the leaves are rolled, rubbed, and shaped into strands through several steps to lightly bruise the tea and then left to dry in the sun. Unlike green tea produced in China which is dried with hot air after the pan-frying stage to completely kill enzyme activity, leaves used in the production of pu'er are not air-dried after pan-roasting, which leaves a small amount of enzymes which contribute a minor amount of oxidation to the leaves during sun-drying. The bruising of the tea is also important in helping this minimal oxidation to occur, and both of these steps are significant in contributing to the unique characteristics of pu'er tea.
Once dry, máochá can be sent directly to the factory to be pressed into raw pu'er, or to undergo further processing to make fermented or ripened pu'er. Sometimes Mao Cha is sold directly as loose-leaf "raw" Sheng Cha or it can be matured in loose-leaf form, requiring only two to three years due to the faster rate of natural fermentation in an uncompressed state. This tea is then pressed into numerous shapes and sold as a more matured "raw" Sheng Cha.
Pressing
To produce pu'er, many additional steps are needed prior to the actual pressing of the tea. First, a specific quantity of dry máochá or ripened tea leaves pertaining to the final weight of the bingcha is weighed out. The dry tea is then lightly steamed in perforated cans to soften and make it more tacky. This will allow it to hold together and not crumble during compression. A ticket, called a "nèi fēi" (内 飞) or additional adornments, such as colored ribbons, are placed on or in the midst of the leaves and inverted into a cloth bag or wrapped in cloth. The pouch of tea is gathered inside the cloth bag and wrung into a ball, with the extra cloth tied or coiled around itself. This coil or knot is what produces the dimpled indentation at the reverse side of a tea cake when pressed. Depending on the shape of the pu'er being produced, a cotton bag may or may not be used. For instance, brick or square teas often are not compressed using bags.
Pressing can be done by:
A press. In the past, hand lever presses were used, but were largely superseded by hydraulic presses. The press forces the tea into a metal form that is occasionally decorated with a motif in sunken-relief. Due to its efficiency, this method is used to make almost all forms of pressed pu'er. Tea can be pressed either with or without it being bagged, with the latter done by using a metal mould. Tightly compressed bǐng, formed directly into a mold without bags using this method are known as tié bǐng (鐵 餅, literally "iron cake/puck") due to its density and hardness. The taste of densely compressed raw pu'er is believed to benefit from careful aging for up to several decades.
A large heavy stone, carved into the shape of a short cylinder with a handle, simply weighs down a bag of tea on a wooden board. The tension from the bag and the weight of the stone together give the tea its rounded and sometimes non-uniform edge. This method of pressing is often referred to as: "hand" or "stone-pressing", and is how many artisanal pu'er bǐng are still manufactured.
Pressed pu'er is removed from the cloth bag and placed on latticed shelves, where they are allowed to air dry, which may take several weeks or months, depending on the wetness of the pressed cakes. The pu'er cakes are then individually wrapped by hand, and packed.
Fermentation
Pu'er is a microbially fermented tea obtained through the action of molds, bacteria and yeasts on the harvested leaves of the tea plant. It is thus truly a fermented tea, whereas teas known in the west as black teas (known in China as Red teas) have only undergone large-scale oxidation through naturally occurring tea plant enzymes. Mislabelling the oxidation process as fermentation and thus naming black teas, such as Assam, Darjeeling or Keemun, as fermented teas has long been a source of confusion. Only tea such as pu'er, that has undergone microbial processing, can correctly be called a fermented tea.
Pu'er undergoes what is known as a solid-state fermentation where water activity is low to negligible. Both endo-oxidation (enzymes derived from the tea-leaves themselves) and exo-oxidation (microbial catalysed) of tea polyphenols occurs. The microbes are also responsible for metabolising the carbohydrates and amino acids present in the tea leaves. Although the microbes responsible have proved highly variable from region to region and even factory to factory, the key organism found and responsible for almost all pu'er fermentation has been identified in numerous studies as Aspergillus niger, with some highlighting the possibility of ochratoxins produced by the metabolism of some strains of A.niger having a potentially harmful effect through consumption of pu'er tea. This notion has recently been refuted through a systematic chromosome analysis of the species attributed to many East Asian fermentations, including those that involve pu'er, where the authors have reclassified the organisms involved as Aspergillus luchuensis. It is apparent that this species does not have the gene sequence for coding ochratoxin and thus pu'er tea should be considered safe for human consumption.
Ripe and raw pu'er
"Ripened" Shu Cha (熟茶) tea is pressed maocha that has been specially processed to imitate aged "raw" Sheng Cha tea. Although it is also known in English as cooked pu'er, the process does not actually employ cooking to imitate the aging process. The term may be due to inaccurate translation, as shóu (熟) means both "fully cooked" and "fully ripened".
The process used to convert máochá into ripened pu'er manipulates conditions to approximate the result of the aging process by prolonged bacterial and fungal fermentation in a warm humid environment under controlled conditions, a technique called Wò Duī (渥 堆, "wet piling" in English), which involves piling, dampening, and turning the tea leaves in a manner much akin to composting. Studies have shown that the soil suitable for planting Pu'er tea trees is slightly acidic soil with loose soil, deep soil layer, good drainage and ventilation.
The piling, wetting, and mixing of the piled máochá ensures even fermentation. The bacterial and fungal cultures found in the fermenting piles were found to vary widely from factory to factory throughout Yunnan, consisting of multiple strains of Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., yeasts, and a wide range of other microflora. Control over the multiple variables in the ripening process, particularly humidity and the growth of Aspergillus spp., is key in producing ripened pu'er of high quality. Poor control in fermentation/oxidation process can result in bad ripened pu'er, characterized by badly decomposed leaves and an aroma and texture reminiscent of compost. The ripening process typically takes between 45 and 60 days on average.
The Wò Duī process was first developed in 1973 by Menghai Tea Factory and Kunming Tea Factory to imitate the flavor and color of aged raw pu'er, and was an adaptation of wet storage techniques used by merchants to artificially simulate ageing of their teas. Mass production of ripened pu'er began in 1975. It can be consumed without further aging, or it can be stored further to "air out" some of the less savory flavors and aromas acquired during fermentation. The tea is sold both in flattened and loose form. Some tea collectors believe "ripened" Shu Cha should not be aged for more than a decade.
Wet pile fermented pu'er has higher levels of caffeine and much higher levels of gallic acid compared with traditionally aged raw pu'er. Additionally, traditionally aged pu'er has higher levels of the antioxidant and carcinogen-trapping epigallocatechin gallate as well as (+)-catechin, (–)-epicatechin, (–)-epigallocatechin, gallocatechin gallate, and epicatechin gallate than wet pile fermented pu'er. Finally, wet pile fermented puer has much lower total levels for all catechins than traditional pu'er and other teas except for black tea which also has low total catechins.
Classification
Aside from vintage year, pu'er tea can be classified in a variety of ways: by shape, processing method, region, cultivation, grade, and season.
Shape
Pu'er is compressed into a variety of shapes. Other lesser seen forms include: stacked "melon pagodas", pillars, calabashes, yuanbao, and small tea bricks (2–5 cm in width). Pu'er is also compressed into the hollow centers of bamboo stems or packed and bound into a ball inside the peel of various citrus fruits (Xiaoqinggan) or sold as nuggets (Suiyinzi 碎银子 or fossilized tea 茶化石) or bundles made from tea at the center of wet piles (Laotoucha 老头茶).
Process and oxidation
Pu'er teas are often collectively classified in Western tea markets as post-fermentation, and in Eastern markets as black teas, but there is general confusion due to improper use of the terms "oxidation" and "fermentation". Typically black tea is termed "fully fermented", which is incorrect as the process used to create black tea is oxidation and does not involve microbial activity. Black teas are fully oxidized, green teas are unoxidized, and Oolong teas are partially oxidized to varying degrees.
All pu'er teas undergo some oxidation during sun drying and then become either:
Fully fermented with microbes during a processing phase which is largely anaerobic, i.e. without the presence of oxygen. This phase is similar to composting and results in Shu (ripened) pu'er
Partly fermented by microbial action, and partly oxidized during the natural aging process resulting in Sheng (raw) pu'er. The aging process depends on how the sheng pu'er is stored, which determines the degree of fermentation and oxidization achieved.
According to the production process, four main types of pu'er are commonly available on the market:
Maocha, green pu'er leaves sold in loose form as the raw material for making pressed pu'er. Badly processed maocha will produce an inferior pu'er.
Green/raw pu'er, pressed maocha that has not undergone additional processing; high quality green pu'er is highly sought by collectors.
Ripened/cooked pu'er, maocha that has undergone an accelerated fermentation process lasting 45 to 60 days on average. Badly fermented maocha will create a muddy tea with fishy and sour flavors indicative of inferior aged pu'er.
Aged raw pu'er, a tea that has undergone a slow secondary oxidation and microbial fermentation. Although all types of pu'er can be aged, the pressed raw pu'er is typically the most highly regarded, since aged maocha and ripened pu'er both lack a clean and assertive taste.
Flavour
Ripe pu'er is often described by its multiple layers of aroma: duiwei (堆味) or fermented flavour, cangwei (仓味) or storage flavour, xingwei (腥味) or fish flavour and meiwei (霉味) moldy flavour. The storage locations (Yunnan, Canton or Hong Kong) and storing conditions (wet versus dry storage) will result in distinct flavours. The aromas can be annotated as camphora (樟香), ginseng (参香), jujube (枣香), costus (木香), minty (荷香) or very aged (陈香). Raw pu'er is often distinguished by its floral (花香), grassy (草香), fresh (清香), herbal (药香), fruity (水果) or honey (蜜香)aroma.
Some pu'er are flavour-infused. Sticky rice pu'er (nuomixiang, 糯米香) is infused with leaves of Semnostachya menglaensis, native to Mengla, which gives it a young rice flavour. Bamboo-roasted pu'er is encased in bamboo tubes and undergoes a smoking process. Tangerine pu'er (xiaoqinggan, 小青柑) is made with small green tangerines stuffed with tea. Flower-infused pu'er is made in the form of tea balls (龙珠) or tea cakes.
Regions
Yunnan
Pu'er is produced in almost every county and prefecture in the province. Proper pu'er is sometimes considered to be limited to that produced in Pu'er City.
Six Great Tea Mountains
The best known pu'er areas are the Six Great Tea Mountains (), a group of mountains in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, renowned for their climates and environments, which not only provide excellent growing conditions for pu'er, but also produce unique taste profiles (akin to terroir in wine) in the produced pu'er tea. Over the course of history, the designated mountains for the tea mountains have either been changed or listed differently.
In the Qing dynasty government records for Pu'er (普洱府志), the oldest historically designated mountains were said to be named after six commemorative items left in the mountains by Zhuge Liang, and using the Chinese characters of the native languages (Hani and Tai) of the region. These mountains are all located northeast of the Lancang River (Mekong) in relatively close proximity to one another. The mountains' names, in the Standard Chinese character pronunciation are:
Gedeng (革 登 山)
Yiwu (易 武 山)
Mangzhi (莽 枝 山)
Manzhuan (蠻 磚 山)
Yibang (倚 邦 山)
Yōulè (攸 樂 山)
Southwest of the river there are also nine lesser known tea mountains, which are isolated by the river. They are:
Mengsong (勐宋):
Pasha (帕沙):
Jingmai (景迈):
Nánnuò (南 糯): a varietal of tea grows here called zĭjuān (紫 娟, literally "purple lady") whose buds and bud leaves have a purple hue.
Bada (巴达):
Hekai (贺开):
Bulangshan (布朗山):
Mannuo (曼糯):
Xiao mengsong (小勐宋):
For various reasons, around the end of the Qing dynasty and at the beginning of the ROC period (the early twentieth century), tea production in these mountains dropped drastically, either due to large forest fires, overharvesting, prohibitive imperial taxes, or general neglect. To revitalize tea production in the area, the Chinese government in 1962 selected a new group of six great tea mountains that were named based on the more important tea-producing mountains at the time, including Youle mountain from the original six.
Other areas of Yunnan
Many other areas of Yunnan also produce pu'er tea. Yunnan prefectures that are major producers of pu'er include Lincang, Dehong, Simao, Xishuangbanna, and Wenshan. Other notable tea mountains famous in Yunnan include among others:
Bāngwǎi (邦 崴 山)
Bānzhāng (班 章): this is not a mountain but a Hani village in the Bulang Mountains, noted for producing powerful and complex teas that are bitter with a sweet aftertaste
Yìwǔ (易 武 山)
Bada (巴達山)
Wuliang
Ailuo
Jinggu
Baoshan
Yushou
Region is only one factor in assessing a pu'er tea, and pu'er from any region of Yunnan can be as prized as any from the Six Great Tea Mountains if it meets other criteria, such as being wild growth, hand-processed tea.
Other provinces
While Yunnan produces the majority of pu'er, other regions of China, including Hunan and Guangdong, have also produced the tea. The Guangyun Gong cake, for example, although the early productions were composed of pure Yunnan máochá, after the ‘60s the cakes featured a blend of Yunnan and Guangdong máochá, and the most recent production of these cakes contains mostly from the latter.
In late 2008, the Chinese government approved a standard declaring pu'er tea as a "product with geographical indications", which would restrict the naming of tea as pu'er to tea produced within specific regions of the Yunnan province. The standard has been disputed, particularly by producers from Guangdong. Fermented tea in the pu'er style made outside of Yunnan is often branded as "dark tea" in light of this standard.
Other regions
In addition to China, border regions touching Yunnan in Vietnam, Laos, and Burma are also known to produce pu'er tea, though little of this makes its way to the Chinese or international markets.
Cultivation
The method of cultivation can have as much of an effect on the final product as region or grade. There are three widely used methods of cultivation for pu'er:
Plantation bushes (guànmù, 灌 木; taídì, 台 地): Cultivated tea bushes, from the seeds or cuttings of wild tea trees and planted in relatively low altitudes and flatter terrain. The tea produced from these plants are often considered inferior due to the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizer in cultivation, the lack of pleasant flavors, and the presence of bitterness or astringency.
"Wild arbor" trees (yěfàng, 野 放): Though often conflated with wild tree especially by producers, this method involves trees from older plantations that were cultivated in previous generations that have gone feral due to the lack of care. These trees are said to produce teas of better flavor due to the higher levels of secondary metabolites produced in the tea tree. Additionally, the trees are typically cared for using organic practices, which includes the scheduled pruning of the trees in a manner similar to pollarding. Despite the good quality of their produced teas, "wild arbor" trees are often not as prized as truly wild trees.
Wild trees (gŭshù, 古 树; literally "old tree"): Teas from old wild trees, grown without human intervention, are typically the highest valued pu'er teas. Such teas are valued for having deeper and more complex flavors, often with camphor or "mint" notes, said to be imparted by the many camphor trees that grow in the same environment as the wild tea trees. Young raw pu'er teas produced from the leaf tips of these trees also lack overwhelming astringency and bitterness often attributed to young pu'er. Pu'er made from the distinct but closely related so-called wild species Camellia taliensis can command a much higher price than pu'er made from the more common Camellia sinensis.
Determining whether or not a tea is wild is a challenging task, made more difficult through the inconsistent and unclear terminology and labeling in Chinese. Terms like yěshēng (野 生; literally "wild" or "uncultivated"), qiáomù (乔 木; literally "tall tree"), yěshēng qiáomù (野 生 乔 木; literally "uncultivated trees"), and gǔshù are found on the labels of cakes of both wild and "wild arbor" variety, and on blended cakes, which contain leaves from tea plants of various cultivations. These inconsistent and often misleading labels can easily confuse uninitiated tea buyers regardless of their grasp of the Chinese language. As well, the lack of specific information about tea leaf sources in the printed wrappers and identifiers that come with the pu'er cake makes identification of the tea a difficult task. Pu'er journals and similar annual guides such as The Profound World of Chi Tse, Pu-erh Yearbook, and Pu-erh Teapot Magazine contain credible sources for leaf information. Tea factories are generally honest about their leaf sources, but someone without access to tea factory or other information is often at the mercy of the middlemen or vendor. Many pu'er aficionados seek out and maintain relationships with vendors who they feel they can trust to help mitigate the issue of finding the "truth" of the leaves.
Even in the best of circumstances, when a journal, factory information, and trustworthy vendor all align to assure a tea's genuinely wild leaf, fakes teas are common and make the issue even more complicated. Because collectors often doubt the reliability of written information, some believe certain physical aspects of the leaf can point to its cultivation. For example, drinkers cite the evidence of a truly wild old tree in a menthol effect ("camphor" in tea specialist terminology) supposedly caused by the Camphor laurel trees that grow amongst wild tea trees in Yunnan's tea forests. As well, the presence of thick veins and sawtooth-edged on the leaves along with camphor flavor elements are taken as signifiers of wild tea.
Grade
Pu'er can be sorted into ten or more grades. Generally, grades are determined by leaf size and quality, with higher numbered grades meaning older/larger, broken, or less tender leaves. Grading is rarely consistent between factories, and first grade tea leaves may not necessarily produce first grade cakes. Different grades have different flavors; many bricks blend several grades chosen to balance flavors and strength.
Season
Harvest season also plays an important role in the flavor of pu'er. Spring tea is the most highly valued, followed by fall tea, and finally summer tea. Only rarely is pu'er produced in winter months, and often this is what is called "early spring" tea, as harvest and production follows the weather pattern rather than strict monthly guidelines.
Tea factories
Factories are generally responsible for the production of pu'er teas. While some individuals oversee small-scale production of high-quality tea, the majority of tea on the market is compressed by factories or tea groups. Until recently factories were all state-owned and under the supervision of the China National Native Produce & Animal Byproducts Import & Export Corporation (CNNP), Yunnan Tea Branch. Kunming Tea Factory, Menghai Tea Factory, Pu'er Tea Factory and Xiaguan Tea Factory are the most notable of these state-owned factories. While CNNP still operates today, few factories are state-owned, and CNNP contracts out much production to privately owned factories.
Different tea factories have earned good reputations. Menghai Tea Factory and Xiaguan Tea Factory, which date from the 1940s, have enjoyed good reputations, but in the twenty-first century face competition from many of the newly emerging private factories. For example, Haiwan Tea Factory, founded by former Menghai Factory owner Zhou Bing Liang in 1999, has a good reputation, as do Changtai Tea Group, Mengku Tea Company, and other new tea makers formed in the 1990s. However, due to production inconsistencies and variations in manufacturing techniques, the reputation of a tea company or factory can vary depending on the year or the specific cakes produced during a year.
The producing factory is often the first or second item listed when referencing a pu'er cake, the other being the year of production.
Recipes
Tea factories, particularly formerly government-owned factories, produce many cakes using recipes for tea blends, indicated by a four-digit recipe number. The first two digits of recipe numbers represent the year the recipe was first produced, the third digit represents the grade of leaves used in the recipe, and the last digit represents the factory. The number 7542, for example, would denote a recipe from 1975 using fourth-grade tea leaf made by Menghai Tea Factory (represented by 2).
Factory numbers (fourth digit in recipe):
Kunming Tea Factory
Menghai Tea Factory aka Dayi
Xiaguan
Lan Cang Tea Factory or Feng Qing Tea Factory
Pu-erh Tea Factory (now Pu-erh Tea group Co. Ltd )
Six Famous Tea Mountain Factory
unknown / not specified
Haiwan Tea Factory and Long Sheng Tea Factory
Tea of all shapes can be made by numbered recipe. Not all recipes are numbered, and not all cakes are made by recipe. The term "recipe," it should be added, does not always indicate consistency, as the quality of some recipes change from year-to-year, as do the contents of the cake. Perhaps only the factories producing the recipes really know what makes them consistent enough to label by these numbers.
Occasionally, a three digit code is attached to the recipe number by hyphenation. The first digit of this code represents the year the cake was produced, and the other two numbers indicate the production number within that year. For instance, the seven digit sequence 8653-602, would indicate the second production in 2006 of factory recipe 8653. Some productions of cakes are valued over others because production numbers can indicate if a tea was produced earlier or later in a season/year. This information allows one to be able to single out tea cakes produced using a better batch of máochá.
Tea packaging
Pu'er tea is specially packaged for trade, identification, and storage. These attributes are used by tea drinkers and collectors to determine the authenticity of the pu'er tea.
Individual cakes
Pu'er tea cakes, or bǐngchá (饼茶 or 餅茶), are almost always sold with a:
Wrapper: Made usually from thin cotton cloth or cotton paper and shows the tea company/factory, the year of production, the region/mountain of harvest, the plant type, and the recipe number. The wrapper can also contain decals, logos and artwork. Occasionally, more than one wrapper will be used to wrap a pu'er cake.
Nèi fēi (内 飞 or 內 飛): A small ticket originally stuck on the tea cake but now usually embedded into the cake during pressing. It is usually used as proof, or a possible sign, to the authenticity of the tea. Some higher end pu'er cakes have more than one nèi fēi embedded in the cake. The ticket usually indicates the tea factory and brand.
Nèi piào (内 票): A larger description ticket or flyer packaged loose under the wrapper. Both aid in assuring the identity of the cake. It usually indicates factory and brand. As well, many nèi piào contain a summary of the tea factories' history and any additional laudatory statements concerning the tea, from its taste and rarity, to its ability to cure diseases and effect weight loss.
Bǐng (饼 or 餅): The tea cake itself. Tea cakes or other compressed pu'er can be made up of two or more grades of tea, typically with higher grade leaves on the outside of the cake and lower grades or broken leaves in the center. This is done to improve the appearance of the tea cake and improve its sale. Predicting the grade of tea used on the inside takes some effort and experience in selection. However, the area in and around the dimple of the tea cake can sometimes reveal the quality of the inner leaves.
Recently, nèi fēi have become more important in identifying and preventing counterfeits. Menghai Tea Factory in particular has begun microprinting and embossing their tickets in an effort to curb the growth of counterfeit teas found in the marketplace in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Some nèi fēi also include vintage year and are production-specific to help identify the cake and prevent counterfeiting through a surfeit of different brand labels.
Counterfeit pu'er is common. The practices include claiming the tea is older than it actually is, misidentifying the origin of the leaf as Yunnan instead of a non-Yunnan region, labeling terrace tea as forest tea, and selling green tea instead of raw pu'er. The interpretation of the packing of pu'er is usually dependent on the consumer's knowledge and negotiation between the consumer and trader.
Wholesale
When bought in large quantities, pu'er tea is generally sold in stacks, referred to as a tǒng (筒), which are wrapped in bamboo shoot husks, bamboo stem husks, or coarse paper. Some tongs of vintage pu'er will contain a tǒng piào (筒 票), or tong ticket, but it is less common to find them in productions past the year 2000. The number of bǐngchá in a tǒng varies depending on the weight of individual bǐngchá. For instance one tǒng can contain:
Seven 357–500 g 'bǐngchá',
Five 250 g mini-'bǐngchá'
Ten 100 g mini-'bǐngchá'
Twelve tǒng are referred to as being one jiàn (件), although some producers/factories vary how many tǒng equal one jiàn. A jiàn of tea, which is bound together in a loose bamboo basket, will usually have a large batch ticket (大 票; pinyin: dàpiào) affixed to its side that will indicate information such as the batch number of the tea in a season, the production quantities, tea type, and the factory where it was produced.
Aging and storage
Pu'er teas of all varieties, shapes, and cultivation can be aged to improve their flavor, but the tea's physical properties will affect the speed of aging as well as its quality. These properties include:
Leaf quality: Maocha that has been improperly processed will not age to the level of finesse as properly processed maocha. The grade and cultivation of the leaf also greatly affect its quality, and thus its aging.
Compression: The tighter a tea is compressed, the slower it will age. In this respect, looser hand- and stone-pressed pu'er teas will age more quickly than denser hydraulic-pressed pu'er.
Shape and size : The more surface area, the faster the tea will age. Bǐngchá and zhuancha thus age more quickly than golden melon, tuocha, or jincha. Larger bingcha age slower than smaller 'bǐngchá', and so forth.
Just as important as the tea's properties, environmental factors for the tea's storage also affect how quickly and successfully a tea ages. They include:
Air flow: Regulates the oxygen content surrounding the tea and removes odors from the aging tea. Dank, stagnant air will lead to dank, stale smelling aged tea. Wrapping a tea in plastic will eventually arrest the aging process.
Odors: Tea stored in the presence of strong odors will acquire them, sometimes for the duration of their "lifetime." Airing out pu'er teas can reduce these odors, though often not completely.
Humidity : The higher the humidity, the faster the tea will age. Liquid water accumulating on tea may accelerate the aging process but can also cause the growth of mold or make the flavor of the tea less desirable. 60–85% humidity is recommended. There is an ongoing argument as to whether high fluctuations in humidity negatively impact tea quality.
Sunlight: Tea that is exposed to sunlight dries out prematurely, and often becomes bitter.
Temperature: Teas should not be subjected to high heat since undesirable flavors will develop. However at low temperatures, the aging of pu'er tea will slow down drastically. It is argued whether tea quality is adversely affected if it is subjected to highly fluctuating temperature.
When preserved as part of a tong, the material of the tong wrapper, whether it is made of bamboo shoot husks, bamboo leaves, or thick paper, can also affect the quality of the aging process. The packaging methods change the environmental factors and may even contribute to the taste of the tea itself.
Age is not the sole factor in determining pu'er quality. Similar to aging wine, the tea reaches a peak with age and can degrade in quality afterwards. Due to the many recipes and different processing methods used in the production of different batches of pu'er, the optimal age for each tea will vary. Some may take 10 years while others 20 or 30+ years. It is important to check the status of ageing for your teacakes to know when they have peaked so that proper care can be given to halt the ageing process.
Raw pu'er
Over time, raw pu'er acquires an earthy flavor due to slow oxidation and other, possibly microbial processes. However, this oxidation is not analogous to the oxidation that results in green, oolong, or black tea, because the process is not catalyzed by the plant's own enzymes but rather by fungal, bacterial, or autooxidation influences. Pu'er flavors can change dramatically over the course of the aging process, resulting in a brew tasting strongly earthy but clean and smooth, reminiscent of the smell of rich garden soil or an autumn leaf pile, sometimes with roasted or sweet undertones. Because of its ability to age without losing "quality", well aged good pu'er gains value over time in the same way that aged roasted oolong does.
Raw pu'er can undergo "wet storage" (shīcāng, 湿仓) and "dry storage" (gāncāng 干仓), with teas that have undergone the latter ageing more slowly, but thought to show more complexity. Dry storage involves keeping the tea in "comfortable" temperature and humidity, thus allowing the tea to age slowly. Wet or "humid" storage refers to the storage of pu'er tea in humid environments, such as those found naturally in Hong Kong, Guangzhou and, to a lesser extent, Taiwan.
The practice of "Pen Shui" 喷 水 involves spraying the tea with water and allowing it dry off in a humid environment. This process speeds up oxidation and microbial conversion, which only loosely mimics the quality of natural dry storage aged pu'er. "Pen Shui" 喷 水 pu'er not only does not acquire the nuances of slow aging, it can also be hazardous to drink because of mold, yeast, and bacteria cultures.
Pu'er properly stored in different environments can develop different tastes at different rates due to environmental differences in ambient humidity, temperature, and odors. For instance, similar batches of pu'er stored in the different environments of Yunnan, Guangzhou and Hong Kong are known to age very differently. Because the process of aging pu'er is lengthy, and teas may change owners several times, a batch of pu'er may undergo different aging conditions, even swapping wet and dry storage conditions, which can drastically alter its flavor. Raw pu'er can be ruined by storage at very high temperatures, or exposure to direct contact with sunlight, heavy air flow, liquid water, or unpleasant smells.
Although low to moderate air flow is important for producing a good-quality aged raw pu'er, it is generally agreed by most collectors and connoisseurs that raw pu'er tea cakes older than 30 years should not be further exposed to "open" air since it would result in the loss of flavors or degradation in mouthfeel. The tea should instead be preserved by wrapping or hermetically sealing it in plastic wrapping or ideally glass.
Ripe pu'er
Since the ripening process was developed to imitate aged raw pu'er, many arguments surround the idea of whether aging ripened pu'er is desirable. Mostly, the issue rests on whether aging ripened pu'er will, for better or worse, alter the flavor of the tea.
It is often recommended to age ripened pu'er to air out the unpleasant musty flavors and odors formed due to maocha fermentation. However, some collectors argue that keeping ripened pu'er longer than 10 to 15 years makes little sense, stating that the tea will not develop further and possibly lose its desirable flavors. Others note that their experience has taught them that ripened pu'er indeed does take on nuances through aging, and point to side-by-side taste comparisons of ripened pu'er of different ages. Aging the tea increases its value, but may be unprofitable.
Vintaging
The common misconception is that all types of pu'er tea will improve in taste—and therefore gain in value—as they get older. Many different factors play into what makes a tea ideal for aging and the aging process itself. Further, ripe (shu) pu'er will not evolve as dramatically as raw (sheng) pu'er will over time due to secondary oxidation and fermentation.
As with aging wine, only finely made and properly stored teas will improve and increase in value. Similarly, only a small percentage of teas will improve over a long period of time.
From 2008 Pu'er prices dropped dramatically. Investment-grade Pu'er did not drop as much as the more common varieties. Many producers made large losses, and some decided to leave the industry altogether.
Preparation
Preparation of pu'er involves first separating a portion of the compressed tea for brewing. This can be done by flaking off pieces of the cake or by steaming the entire cake until it is soft from heat and hydration. A pu'erh knife, which is similar to an oyster knife or a rigid letter opener, is used to pry large horizontal flakes of tea off the cake to minimize leaf breakage. Smaller cakes such as tuocha or mushroom pu'erh are often steamed until they can be rubbed apart and then dried. In both cases, a vertical sampling of the cake should be obtained since the quality of the leaves in a cake usually varies between the surface and the center.
Pu'erh is commonly brewed in the Gongfu style using Yixing teaware or a gaiwan, a Chinese brewing vessel consisting of bowl, lid, and saucer. Optimum water temperatures are generally regarded to be in the range of 85-99 °C depending on the quality and processing of the pu'erh. The leaves are traditionally given one or more "rinses" before the first infusion, involving exposing them to hot water for 2–5 seconds and subsequently discarding the extract produced. This is done to saturate the leaf with water and allow it to decompress, as well as remove any small leaf particles that could adversely affect the outcome of the first infusion. The first infusion is steeped for 12 to 30 seconds, followed by later infusions repeatedly increasing by 2–10 seconds. The prolonged steeping sometimes used in the west can produce dark, bitter, and unpleasant brews. Quality aged pu'erh can yield many more infusions, with different flavor nuances when brewed in the traditional Gongfu method.
Because of the prolonged fermentation in ripened pu'erh and slow oxidization of aged raw pu'erh, these teas often lack the bitter, astringent properties of other teas, and can be brewed much stronger and repeatedly, with some claiming 20 or more infusions of tea from one pot of leaves. On the other hand, young raw pu'erh is known and expected to be strong and aromatic, yet very bitter and somewhat astringent when brewed, since these characteristics are believed to produce better aged raw pu'erh.
Judging quality
Quality of the tea can be determined through inspecting the dried leaves, the tea liquor, or the spent tea leaves. The "true" quality of a specific batch of pu'erh can ultimately only be revealed when the tea is brewed and tasted. Although not concrete and sometimes dependent on preference, there are several general indicators of quality:
Dried tea: There should be a lack of twigs, extraneous matter and white or dark mold spots on the surface of the compressed pu'erh. The leaves should ideally be whole, visually distinct, and not appear muddy. The leaves may be dry and fragile, but not powdery. Good tea should be quite fragrant, even when dry. Good pressed pu'er cakes often have a matte sheen on the surface, though this is not necessarily a sole indicator of quality.
Liquor: The tea liquor of both raw and ripe pu'erh should never appear cloudy. Well-aged raw pu'erh and well-crafted ripe pu'erh tea may produce a dark reddish liquor, reminiscent of a dried jujube, but in either case the liquor should not be opaque, "muddy," or black in color. The flavors of pu'erh liquors should persist and be revealed throughout separate or subsequent infusions, and never abruptly disappear, since this could be the sign of added flavorants.
Young raw pu'erh: The ideal liquors should be aromatic with a light but distinct odors of camphor, rich herbal notes like Chinese medicine, fragrance floral notes, hints of dried fruit aromas such as preserved plums, and should exhibit only some grassy notes to the likes of fresh sencha. Young raw pu'er may sometimes be quite bitter and astringent, but should also exhibit a pleasant mouthfeel and "sweet" aftertaste, referred to as gān (甘) and húigān (回甘).
Aged raw pu'erh: Aged pu'er should never smell moldy, musty, or strongly fungal, though some pu'erh drinkers consider these smells to be unoffensive or even enjoyable. The smell of aged pu'erh may vary, with an "aged" but not "stuffy" odor. The taste of aged raw pu'erh or ripe pu'erh should be smooth, with slight hints of bitterness, and lack a biting astringency or any off-sour tastes. The element of taste is an important indicator of aged pu'erh quality, the texture should be rich and thick and should have very distinct gān (甘) and húigān (回甘) on the tongue and cheeks, which together induces salivation and leaves a "feeling" in the back of the throat.
Spent tea: Whole leaves and leaf bud systems should be easily seen and picked out of the wet spent tea, with a limited amount of broken fragments. Twigs and the fruits of the tea plant should not be found in the spent tea leaves; however, animal (and human) hair, strings, rice grains and chaff may occasionally be included in the tea. The leaves should not crumble when rubbed, and with ripened pu'erh, it should not resemble compost. Aged raw pu'erh should have leaves that unfurl when brewed while leaves of most ripened pu'erh will generally remain closed.
Practices
In Cantonese, the tea is called po-lay (). It is often drunk during dim sum meals, as it is believed to help with digestion. It is not uncommon to add dried osmanthus flowers, pomelo rinds, or chrysanthemum flowers into brewing pu'er tea in order to add a light, fresh fragrance to the tea liquor. Pu'er with chrysanthemum is the most common pairing, and referred as guk pou or guk bou (菊 普; ; pinyin: jú pǔ).
Sometimes wolfberries are brewed with the tea, plumping in the process.
Research
There is no evidence that consuming pu'er tea promotes loss of body weight in humans.
Popular culture
In the Japanese manga Dragon Ball, the name of the character Pu'ar is a pun on pu'er tea.
See also
List of Chinese teas
Anhua tea
Liubao tea
Notes
References
Further reading
Chinese teas
Green tea
Fermented tea
Dim sum
Chinese tea grown in Yunnan
Yunnan cuisine
Tourism in Yunnan
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.