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4154892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy%20of%20Norway | Monarchy of Norway | The Norwegian monarch is the head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The Norwegian monarchy can trace its line back to the reign of Harald Fairhair and the previous petty kingdoms which were united to form Norway; it has been in unions with both Sweden and Denmark for long periods.
The present monarch is King Harald V, who has reigned since 17 January 1991, succeeding his father, Olav V. The heir apparent is his only son, Crown Prince Haakon. The crown prince undertakes various public ceremonial functions, as does the king's wife, Queen Sonja. The crown prince also acts as regent in the king's absence. There are several other members of the royal family, including the king's daughter, grandchildren and sister. Since the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden and the subsequent election of a Danish prince as King Haakon VII in 1905, the reigning royal house of Norway has been a branch of the Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg branch of the House of Oldenburg; originally from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany, agnatically (through Prince Philip) the same royal house as the British (since the accession of Charles III), Danish and former Greek royal families.
Whilst the Constitution of Norway grants important executive powers to the King, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King (King's Council, or cabinet). Formally the King appoints the government according to his own judgment, but parliamentary practice has been in place since 1884. Constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word King in most articles of the constitution from the king personally to the elected government. The powers vested in the monarch are significant but are treated only as reserve powers and as an important security part of the role of the monarchy.
The King does not, by convention, have direct participation in government. He ratifies laws and royal resolutions, receives and sends envoys from and to foreign countries, and hosts state visits. He has a more tangible influence as the symbol of national unity. The annual New Year's Eve speech is one occasion when the King traditionally raises negative issues. The King is also Supreme Commander of the Norwegian Armed Forces and Grand Master of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit.
The King has no official role in the Church of Norway, but is required by the Constitution to be a member.
History
The position of King of Norway has been in continuous existence since the unification of Norway in 872. Although Norway has officially been a hereditary kingdom throughout that time, there have been several instances of elective succession: most recently, the people of Norway electorally confirmed the accession of Haakon VII to the position of king through a 1905 plebiscite. In recent years members of the Socialist Left party have proposed the abolition of the monarchy during each new session of parliament, though without any likelihood of success. This gives the Norwegian monarchy the unique status of being a popularly elected royal family and receiving regular formal confirmations of support from the Storting.
Germanic kingdom
Prior to and in the early phase of the Viking Age Norway was divided into several smaller kingdoms. These are thought to have followed the same tradition as other Germanic monarchies of the time: the king was usually elected by the high-ranking farmers of the area and served mainly as a judge at popular assemblies, as a priest on the occasion of sacrifices, and as a military leader in time of war.
Harald Fairhair was the first king of Norway. The date of the first formation of a unified Norwegian kingdom is set as 872 when he defeated the last petty kings who resisted him at the Battle of Hafrsfjord; however, the consolidation of his power took many years. The boundaries of Fairhair's kingdom were not identical to those of present-day Norway, and upon his death, the kingship was shared among his sons. Some historians emphasise the actual monarchial control over the country and assert that Olaf II, alias Saint Olaf, who reigned from 1015 to 1028, was the first king to control the entire country. Olaf is generally held to have been the driving force behind Norway's final conversion to Christianity. Furthermore, he was in 1031 revered as Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae ("Eternal King of Norway"), and subsequently, the 1163 Succession Law stated that all kings after Olaf II's son, Magnus I, were not independent monarchs, but vassals holding Norway as a fief from Saint Olaf.
Middle Ages
In the 12th and 13th centuries the Norwegian kingdom was at its geographical and cultural peak. The kingdom included Norway (including the now Swedish provinces of Jemtland, Herjedalen, Særna, Idre and Båhuslen), Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Shetland, Orkney and other smaller areas in the British Isles. The king had diplomatic relations with most of the European kingdoms and formed alliances with Scotland and Castile, among others. Large castles such as Haakon's Hall and cathedrals, the foremost being Nidaros Cathedral, were built.
In the tradition of Germanic monarchy the king had to be elected by a representative assembly of noblemen. Men eligible for election had to be of royal blood; but the eldest son of the previous king was not automatically chosen. During the civil war era the unclear succession laws and the practice of power-sharing between several kings simultaneously gave personal conflicts the potential to become full-blown wars. Over the centuries kings consolidated their power, and eventually a strict succession law made Norway a principally hereditary kingdom. In practice the king was elected by the Riksråd in a similar way to Denmark. He adhered to a håndfæstning and governed in the council of Norwegian noblemen according to existing laws.
After the death of Haakon VI of Norway in 1380, his son Olav IV of Norway succeeded to the thrones of both Norway and Denmark and was also elected King of Sweden. After his death at the age of 17 his mother Margrethe united the three Scandinavian kingdoms in personal union under one crown, in the Kalmar Union. Olav's death extinguished the Norwegian male royal line; he was also the last Norwegian king to be born on Norwegian soil for the next 567 years.
The Black Death of 1349–51 contributed to the decline of the Norwegian monarchy, as the noble families and the population in general were gravely affected. However, the most devastating factor for the nobility and the monarchy in Norway was the steep decline in income from their holdings. Many farms were deserted and rents and taxes suffered. This left the Norwegian monarchy weakened in manpower, noble support, defensibility and economic power.
Union with Denmark
The Kalmar Union was not only possible due to the complex history of the royal dynasties of Scandinavia but was also, among other things, a direct reaction to the expansive and aggressive policies of the Hanseatic League.
On 6 June 1523 Sweden left the union permanently, leaving Norway in an unequal union with a Danish king already embarked on centralising the government of the union.
In the following centuries the Norwegian monarchs mostly resided abroad. This weakened the monarchical governing structures of Norway: the Riksråd, for example, was gradually undermined as the Norwegian nobles did not have the King's confidence to the same extent as their Danish counterparts. The King was also less able to govern according to Norwegian needs, as the distance meant he and his advisors had less knowledge of conditions in Norway.
Norway was one of few countries where the archdiocese was coterminous with the national territory. The church was an important factor in trying to maintain the separate Norwegian monarchy. In the 16th century the power struggle between the Norwegian nobles and the king culminated at the same time as the Protestant Reformation. This prompted a set of events in which the struggle against Danish dominance in Norway was coupled with the struggle against the Reformation. When both failed the effects were harsh. The Norwegian Catholic bishops were replaced with Danes and the Norwegian church was subdued and made wholly Danish. The Norwegian Riksråd was abolished in 1536, and more and more foreigners were appointed to important positions in Norway.
The Danish nobles pushed the king to reduce Norway to a Danish province in order for them to gain more control in the election of future kings. However, the hereditary nature of the Norwegian monarchy meant that the King had to maintain the basic principle of Norway being a separate and extant kingdom. If the Danish nobles were to elect as king someone other than the next in line to the throne the Union would be dissolved. This gave the king the upper hand in the negotiations for the håndfesting. Potential heirs to Norway were present in both the royal dynasties of Sweden and Schleswig-Holstein, so if the King of Denmark did not assert his position as King of Norway they would.
During this time the Danish kings were more preoccupied with securing the traditionally Danish fringe territories, and therefore paid little attention to and made few attempts at maintaining Norwegian interests. As a result, Jemtland, Herjedalen, Båhuslen, Shetland and Orkney were lost to Sweden and Scotland. In addition all contact with Greenland ceased.
In 1661 Frederick III introduced absolute monarchy in Denmark and Norway and introduced new laws in both countries to that effect. Until then the law of Magnus the law-mender given in 1274 and 1276 had been the law of Norway. Christian IV's Norwegian law was in effect a translation into Danish of that older law. 1661 also marks the point when the last remnants of representational local government were removed and had to be rebuilt. However, that process started almost immediately when local men of means started putting pressure on local governors in order to gain or regain influence on local matters.
Emerging independence
During the Napoleonic Wars the King aligned Denmark–Norway with France. When Napoleon lost the war, the king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden under the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. It was initially proposed that the Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroes would remain with Norway, but that point was dropped during the negotiations, so they became Danish.
On hearing news of the treaty, the Prince of the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway, Christian Frederick, the resident viceroy in Norway, participated in founding a Norwegian independence movement. The independence movement was successful, partly due to clandestine support from the Danish Crown, but also because of the strong desire for independence in Norway. On 10 April, a national assembly met at Eidsvoll to decide on a constitution. Norway declared independence on 17 May 1814, electing Christian Frederick as King. A short war with Sweden later that year ended with the Convention of Moss. This led to the ousting of Christian Frederick, and the Norwegian Storting electing Charles XIII of Sweden as King of Norway, creating the union between Sweden and Norway. In turn the king recognised the Norwegian constitution, which was only changed to facilitate the union.
The end result was that the Norwegian monarchy became a constitutional monarchy. In this new union the King was much more a King of Norway than under the previous Danish system. The only area of policy not in the hands of the Norwegians was foreign policy.
Norway had been brought along into the new developments of the world as they arrived in Denmark. However, with the break the Norwegians were able to forge a more progressive political development than was the case in Denmark. Denmark introduced a constitutional monarchy 35 years after Norway. Parliamentarism was introduced in Norway 17 years before Denmark and 33 years before Sweden. The union with Denmark also had its adverse effects on the monarchy: among other things it resulted in the Crown of Norway losing territory which today amounts to 2 322 755 km2 (although most of this was uninhabited areas of Greenland). Very little royal activity had been relocated to Norway; the country thus lacks the monumental palaces of the period which can be seen in Copenhagen and other parts of Denmark.
Union with Sweden
The Treaty of Kiel stipulated that Norway was to be ceded by the king of Denmark–Norway to the king of Sweden. This was however rejected in Norway, where calls for self-determination were already mounting. A Norwegian constituent assembly was called, and a liberal constitution was adopted on 17 May 1814. A short war ensued, ending in a new agreement between the Norwegian parliament and the Swedish king.
The Convention of Moss was from a Norwegian point of view a significant improvement over the terms dictated to Denmark-Norway at the treaty of Kiel. Notably, Norway was no longer to be treated as a Swedish conquest but rather as an equal party in a personal union of two independent states. Both the principle and substance of the Norwegian Constitution were preserved, with only such amendments as were required to allow for the union with Sweden. Norway retained its own parliament and separate institutions, except for the common king and foreign service.
The Norwegian Storting would propose Norwegian laws without interference from Sweden, to be approved by the common King in his capacity as King of Norway. The King would occasionally enact laws unfavourable to Sweden. As the Norwegian movement towards full independence gained momentum, the King approved the building of forts and naval vessels intended to defend Norway against a Swedish invasion.
The union was nevertheless marked by the Norwegians' constant and growing discontent with being in a union of any kind. The Storting would propose laws to reduce the king's power or to assert Norwegian independence. These would most often be vetoed by the king, but as he only had the power to veto the same law twice, it would eventually be passed. The constitution of 1814 already specified that Norway would have a separate flag, and the present design was introduced in 1821. The flags of both kingdoms were defaced with the union mark in 1844 to denote their equal status within the union. Despite royal objections, this was removed from the Norwegian flag in 1898. In 1837 local self-government in certain areas of policy was introduced in rural areas as well as towns. A Parliamentary system was introduced in 1884.
The Royal House of Bernadotte tried hard to be a Norwegian royal house as well as a Swedish one. The Royal Palace in Oslo was built during this period. There were separate coronations in Trondheim, as stipulated in the Constitution. The royal princes even had a hunting lodge built in Norway so that they could spend more private time there. King Oscar II spoke and wrote Norwegian fluently.
Full independence
In 1905 a series of disputes between parliament and the King culminated with the matter of separate Norwegian consuls to foreign countries. Norway had grown into one of the world's leading shipping nations, but Sweden retained control of both the diplomatic and consulate corps. Although businessmen needed assistance abroad, the Swedes had little insight into Norwegian shipping, and consulates were not even established in several important shipping cities. The demand for separate Norwegian consuls was seen as very important by the Norwegian parliament and society. The Storting proposed a law establishing a separate Norwegian consulate corps. King Oscar II refused to ratify the law and subsequently the Norwegian cabinet resigned. The king was unable to form any other government that had the support of parliament, and so it was deemed on 7 June that he had failed to function as King of Norway.
In a plebiscite of the Norwegian people on 13 August, there were an overwhelming 368,208 votes (99.95%) in favor of dissolution of the Union, against 184 (0.05%) opposed, with 85% of Norwegian men voting. No women voted, as universal suffrage was not granted until 1913; however Norwegian feminists collected more than 200,000 signatures in favor of dissolution.
During the summer a Norwegian delegation had already approached the 33-year-old Prince Carl of Denmark, the second son of the Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark. The Norwegian parliament had considered other candidates but ultimately chose Prince Carl, partly because he already had a son to continue the line of succession, but more significantly because he was descended from independent Norwegian kings and Carl was also married to Maud of Wales, the daughter of King Edward VII. By bringing in a king with British royal ties, it was hoped that Norway could court Britain's support.
Prince Carl impressed the delegation in many ways, not least because of his sensitivity to the liberal and democratic movements that had led to Norway's independence. Though the Norwegian constitution stipulated that the Storting could choose a new king if the throne were vacant, Carl was aware that many Norwegians – including leading politicians and high-ranking military officers – favored a republican form of government. Attempts to persuade the prince to accept the throne on the basis of Parliament's choice failed; Carl insisted that he would accept the crown only if the Norwegian people expressed their will for monarchy by referendum and if the parliament then elected him king.
On 12 and 13 November, in the second constitutional plebiscite in three months, Norwegian voters decided by a nearly 79% majority (259,563 to 69,264) to keep the monarchy rather than establish a republic. The parliament, by an overwhelming majority, then offered Carl a clear mandate to the Norwegian throne on 18 November. The prince accepted the same evening, choosing the name Haakon, a traditional name used by Norwegian kings. The last king with that name had been Haakon VI, who died in the year 1380.
Thus the new king became Haakon VII, King of Norway. His two-year-old son Alexander, the heir apparent, was renamed Olav and became Crown Prince Olav. The new royal family arrived in the capital Kristiania (later Oslo) on 25 November. Haakon VII was sworn in as king of Norway on 27 November.
A new monarchy
The early years of the new Norwegian monarchy were marked by a shortage of funds. The Norwegian state was poor and funds were needed elsewhere than in the upkeep of a large court. In that sense it was a stroke of good fortune that Prince Carl had set as a condition for accepting the throne that he would not be forced to keep a large court. However, the royal travels and the upkeep of the royal residences, after the initial refurbishment in 1905, were to some extent neglected. One example of the negative financial situation is that Prince Carl had been promised a Royal Yacht when he accepted the throne, but this was not fulfilled until 1947.
One important incident in the early years of the new monarchy was in 1928 when the King appointed the first Labour government. The Norwegian Labour Party was at that time quite radical, and even had the abolition of monarchy as part of their programme. It was the custom for the King to rely on the advice of the previous Prime Minister in deciding whom to give the assignment as new Prime Minister. In this case, the previous conservative Prime Minister was opposed to giving power to the radicals, and advised the appointment of someone else. However, the King adhered to the established practice of parliamentarism and decided to appoint Christopher Hornsrud as the first Labour Prime Minister. The Labour Party later dropped the abolition of monarchy from their programme.
During the German occupation of World War II, the King was an important symbol of national unity and resistance. His steadfast opposition to the German demands of surrender was important for the fighting spirit of the Norwegian population. The constitutional powers granted to the King in the Norwegian monarchial system made his position very important and enabled the government in exile to continue its work with the utmost legitimacy.
After the war, the Norwegian royal house succeeded in maintaining a balance between regality and approachability. King Olav V was deemed the people's king and the spontaneous show of mourning from the population upon his death in 1991 demonstrated the high standing he had among the Norwegian people. Even republicans were among the masses lighting candles in front of the Palace.
In later years the marriages of the then Crown Prince Harald in 1968 and of Crown Prince Haakon in 2001 sparked considerable controversy, but the lasting effect on the popularity of the monarchy has been minimal. Although decreased from its level of above 90 percent after the war, support for the monarchy seems to remain stable around and mostly above the 70 percent mark. In an opinion poll in 2012 93% of the people agreed the current Monarch does a good job for the country.
Constitutional and official role
Although the 1814 constitution grants important executive powers to the King, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King.
Contemporary Norwegian constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word "king" in most articles from the meaning the King-in-person; apart from those dealing with the monarchy specifically, as opposed to those dealing with the apparatus of government and affairs of state at large; to the cabinet of the Prime Minister (also known as the King-in-Council when chaired by the King), which is accountable to the Storting, and thus ultimately to the electorate.
Immunity
Article 5 stated: The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council.
This article applies to the king personally. The king has legal sovereign immunity, though his status as sacred was dissolved on 8 May 2018.<ref>NTB 2018. 'Fra tirsdag er ikke kongen lenger hellig'. NRK, 7 May. Retrieved on 8 May. https://www.nrk.no/norge/fra-tirsdag-er-ikke-kongen-lenger-hellig-1.14039929</ref>
Article 37 states: The Royal Princes and Princesses shall not personally be answerable to anyone other than the King, or whomever he decrees to sit in judgment on them.This means that the Princes and Princesses also have immunity on the discretion of the king. He could decide to let them be judged by the regular courts or he could decide to judge them himself. This has never been tested in practice.
Council of State
The Council of State consists of the King, Prime Minister and other members, all of whom are appointed by the King on the advice of Prime Minister. The Council of State is the Government of Norway and is chaired by the King. It meets under the King's chairmanship at least once a week usually on Fridays. The King also orders the holding of extraordinary sessions of the council of state in situations that require urgent actions that cannot wait for the next scheduled meeting. Parliamentarism has been in place since 1884 and entails that the cabinet must not have the parliament against it, and that the appointment by the King is a formality. In practice, the monarch will ask the leader of a parliamentary block that has a majority in the Storting to form a government. The King relies on the advice of the previous prime minister and the President of the Storting in this question. The last time the King appointed a new prime minister contrary to the advice of the previous was in 1928 when he appointed the first Labour government.
Article 12 states:The King himself chooses a Council from among Norwegian citizens who are entitled to vote.
[...]The King apportions the business among the Members of the Council of State, as he deems appropriate.Article 30 states: [...] Everyone who has a seat in the Council of State has the duty frankly to express his opinion, to which the King is bound to listen. But it rests with the King to make a decision according to his own judgment. [...]
Veto of laws
The King has to sign all laws in order for them to become valid. He can veto any law. However, if two separate Stortings approve the law, it becomes valid even without the King's consent. The Crown has not vetoed any law since the dissolution of the union with Sweden.
Article 78 states: If the King assents to the Bill, he appends his signature, whereby it becomes law.If he does not assent to it, he returns it to the Storting with a statement that he does not for the time being find it expedient to sanction it. In that case the Bill must not again be submitted to the King by the Storting then assembled. [...]
Church of Norway
Until 2012 the constitutional head of the Church of Norway, also known as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway, was the King. The Church of Norway professes the Lutheran branch of Christianity, and is a member of the Porvoo Communion.
Since 2012 the Church has been self-governing, although it remains the established state church, which 86% of Norwegians are members of. In accordance with the constitution, the Norwegian King as head of state must be a member of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway.
Pardoning criminals
Article 20 states: The King shall have the right in the Council of State to pardon criminals after sentence has been passed.A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it. It may be given if new information on the crime or criminal has come to light after sentencing has begun. A pardon may entail a complete or partial withdrawal of punishment.
The practical execution of this right has been delegated to the Ministry of Justice which may dismiss an application for a pardon. The formal approval of a pardon has to be done by the King in Council. In 2004 a total of 51 applications for pardon were approved and 274 were denied.
In impeachment proceedings, the King cannot pardon a defendant without the consent of the Storting.
Appointing senior officials
Article 21 states: The King shall choose and appoint, after consultation with his Council of State, all senior civil, and military officials.
The appointment is made by the Monarch after having been advised by the council of state and having received its consent.
Dismissing the government
Article 22 states: The Prime Minister and the other Members of the Council of State, together with the State Secretaries, may be dismissed by the King without any prior court judgment, after he has heard the opinion of the Council of State on the subject.Chivalric orders
Article 23 states: The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases, as a reward for distinguished services[...]
Norway has two chivalric orders: the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit. In addition the King awards several other distinguished medals for a wide range of accomplishments.
War
Article 25 states: The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm.The King is also Commander-in-Chief of the Norwegian Air Force: but it is not explicitly mentioned because there was no Air Force in 1814.
Article 26 states: The King has the right to call up troops, to engage in hostilities in defence of the Realm and to make peace, to conclude and denounce conventions, to send and to receive diplomatic envoys.The King is treated by the armed forces as their highest commander, but there is, beyond legal fiction, no doubt that the complete control of the armed forces is actually held by the elected government of the day. The Kings of Norway have traditionally received an extensive military training and to some extent pursued a career within the armed forces before acceding to the throne. During World War II the King took a more active role in the decision-making and while the government still had the last word the King's advice was given much weight. On one occasion during the invasion the King was given an ultimatum by the Germans demanding Norway's surrender. King Haakon VII told the government he would abdicate if they decided to accept. In 1944 Crown Prince Olav was appointed Chief of Defence based on his military leadership abilities.
Coronation
From before recorded Norwegian history the monarch would be installed by acclamation, a ceremony held on the ting where the king swore to uphold the laws of the land and the assembled chieftains swore allegiance to him. The first coronation in Norway and in all Scandinavia took place in Bergen in 1163 or 1164. For a long time both ceremonies were used in Norway. That way the king was invested with powers both from the noblemen and from the church. The coronations also symbolised that the king would hold the kingdom in fief to St. Olav the eternal king of Norway. The last acclamation took place on Akershus Castle in 1648. The last medieval coronation in Norway took place 29 July 1514. During the age of absolute monarchy (1660–1814), Norway's kings were crowned in Copenhagen, using the Throne Chair. Today the king still goes through a ceremony similar to the acclamation when he takes the oath of allegiance to the Constitution in the Storting. The Norwegian Constitution of 1814 determined that any Norwegian coronations from that time onward were to take place in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. This re-established the relationship to the sacred king's burial church. The constitutional article about the coronation was annulled in 1908. When king Olav V ascended the throne in 1957 he still wanted to receive the blessing of the church for his reign and the Benediction of the king was introduced. The benediction is a much simpler ceremony, but it still takes place in Nidaros Cathedral and with the Royal Regalia at the high altar. The regalia is currently located in the old Archbishop's Palace in Trondheim. King Harald V and Queen Sonja also received the benediction in 1991.
The Constitution requires the new King to immediately take an oath before the Storting (or, if the Storting is not in session, before the Council of State and again before the Storting once it is in session). The oath is as follows: "I promise and swear that I will govern the Kingdom of Norway in accordance with its Constitution and Laws; so help me God, the Almighty and Omniscient."
Succession
The order of succession to the Norwegian throne has followed absolute primogeniture since 1990, as is described in article 6 in the Constitution of Norway. Only people descended from the reigning monarch are entitled to succeed to the throne. If the line of succession comes to an end then the Storting may elect a new king or queen.
Finances
The King, Queen, Crown Prince and Crown Princess are exempt from paying any taxes and their personal finances are not revealed to the public. Other members of the royal family have lost that privilege upon marriage. It is believed that only the King has a personal fortune of a notable size.
The royal farms generate some revenue, but this is always re-invested in the farms themselves.
In the Norwegian state budget of 2010 the sum of 142.5 million Norwegian kroner was allocated to the Royal Household. 16.5 million was also given to the monarchs as appanage. 20.9 million was in addition allocated to rehabilitation of royal property. In 2010, the Royal Household of Norway claimed that King Harald V's fortune was close to a 100 million Norwegian kroner. 500 million Norwegian kroner was in the late 1990s allocated to the extensive refurbishments of the royal residences that have been taking place and are still under way. The restoration of the Royal Palace in Oslo went far beyond budget because the structural state of the palace was much worse than expected. However, the large expense was criticised in the media.
Residences
The royal family and the monarch have several residences at their disposal throughout the country. All of the official residences are partially open to the public.
Current residences
Royal Palace
The Royal Palace in Oslo functions as the main official residence of the monarch. Built in the first half of the 19th century as the Norwegian residence of Norwegian and Swedish king Charles III (Carl Johan, Charles XIV of Sweden, reigned 1818–1844), it serves as the official residence of the present Norwegian Monarch.
Gamlehaugen
Gamlehaugen is a mansion and estate which functions as the monarch's residences in Bergen. Originally the home of Prime Minister Christian Michelsen, the estate became the royal family's residence in 1927.
Stiftsgården
Stiftsgården in Trondheim is a large wooden townhouse which has been used by the royal family since the early 1800s. The building has been the setting for the main festivities during coronations, benedictions and weddings which traditionally have taken place in the Nidaros Cathedral.
Ledaal
Ledaal is a large manor house in Stavanger. The manor originally belonged to the influential Kielland family but has been the property of Stavanger Museum since 1936 and a became royal residence in 1949.
Other residences
Bygdøy Royal Estate, the official summer residence, is situated in Oslo. Bygdøy has been under extensive restoration and has therefore not been used regularly since the accession of King Harald V in 1991. The restoration was finalized in 2007 and has been frequently used by the royal family ever since. The Royal Lodge or Kongsseteren is located in Holmenkollen, and used by the Royal Family as a residence for Christmas and Holmenkollen Ski Festival each year. Oscarshall palace, a maison de plaisance,'' also situated in Oslo, but seldom used.
The crown princely couple resides at Skaugum Manor in Asker municipality outside of Oslo, while the three princesses of Norway live on estates in Oslo, Fredrikstad and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Both Skaugum and Bygdøy Royal Estate are working farms producing grain, milk and meat; the profits are re-invested in the farms themselves. In 2004 the King transferred management of the farming activities on Bygdøy to the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History.
The King owns a royal yacht bearing the name HNoMY Norge. Manned and maintained by the Royal Norwegian Navy, it is used both for official and private travels in Norway and abroad. The Norwegian Railway Museum maintains a royal train carriage.
The royal family also possess several other holiday homes of a private nature.
Former and historic residences
Paléet. A magnificent townhouse which was as a royal residence between 1801 and 1849 prior to the construction of the Royal Palace.
Akershus Fortress. The castle in Oslo was converted into a palace by King Christian IV during the union between Denmark and Norway
Bergenhus Fortress. Originally, the medieval castle was a residential palace while Sverresborg provided defence for the city.
Tønsberg Fortress. The castle in Tønsberg was used as a residence by several kings, including Håkon V Magnusson who was the last king of Norway prior to the establishment of the Kalmar Union.
Various Kongsgård estates were used by the Norwegian kings during the Viking Age and early Middle Ages. This includes significant estates like Alrekstad, Avaldsnes Kongsgård estate and the Oslo Kongsgård estate.
Royal coat of arms
The Coat of arms of Norway is one of the oldest in Europe and serves both as the coat of arms of the nation and of the Royal House. This is in keeping with its origin as the coat of arms of the kings of Norway during the Middle Ages.
Håkon the Old (1217–1263) used a shield with a lion. The earliest preserved reference to the colour of the arms is the King's Saga written down in 1220.
In 1280 King Eirik Magnusson added the crown and silver axe to the lion. The axe is the martyr axe of St. Olav, the weapon used to kill him in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030.
The specific rendering of the Norwegian arms has changed through the years, following changing heraldic fashions. In the late Middle Ages, the axe handle gradually grew longer and came to resemble a halberd. The handle was usually curved in order to fit the shape of shield preferred at the time, and also to match the shape of coins. The halberd was officially discarded and the shorter axe reintroduced by royal decree in 1844, when an authorized rendering was instituted for the first time. In 1905 the official design for royal and government arms was again changed, this time reverting to the medieval pattern, with a triangular shield and a more upright lion.
The coat of arms of the royal house as well as the Royal Standard uses the lion design from 1905. The earliest preserved depiction of the Royal Standard is on the seal of Duchess Ingebjørg from 1318. The rendering used as the official coat of arms of Norway is slightly different and was last approved by the king 20 May 1992.
When used as the Royal coat of arms the shield features the insignias of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav around it and is framed by a royal ermine robe, surmounted by the crown of Norway.
The Royal coat of arms is not used frequently. Instead, the king's monogram is extensively used, for instance in military insignia and on coins.
See also
List of Norwegian monarchs
Norwegian Royal Family
Royal coronations in Norway
House of Glücksburg
Politics of Norway
Lèse majesté in Norway
Abel Prize
Republicanism in Norway
References
External links
Video from NRK of the history of the present monarchy
Norwegian royal dynasties
Government of Norway
House of Glücksburg (Norway) |
4155247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental%20rotation | Mental rotation | Mental rotation is the ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual representation of such rotation within the human mind. There is a relationship between areas of the brain associated with perception and mental rotation. There could also be a relationship between the cognitive rate of spatial processing, general intelligence and mental rotation.
Mental rotation can be described as the brain moving objects in order to help understand what they are and where they belong. Mental rotation has been studied to try to figure out how the mind recognizes objects in their environment. Researchers generally call such objects stimuli. Mental rotation is one cognitive function for the person to figure out what the altered object is.
Mental rotation can be separated into the following cognitive stages:
Create a mental image of an object from all directions (imagining where it continues straight vs. turns).
Rotate the object mentally until a comparison can be made (orientating the stimulus to other figure).
Make the comparison.
Decide if the objects are the same or not.
Report the decision (reaction time is recorded when a lever is pulled or a button is pressed).
Assessment
Originally developed in 1978 by Vandenberg and Kuse based on the research by Shepard and Metzler (1971), a Mental Rotation Test (MRT) consists of a participant comparing two 3D objects (or letters), often rotated in some axis, and states if they are the same image or if they are mirror images (enantiomorphs). Commonly, the test will have pairs of images each rotated a specific number of degrees (e.g. 0°, 60°, 120° or 180°). A set number of pairs will be split between being the same image rotated, while others are mirrored. The researcher judges the participant on how accurately and rapidly they can distinguish between the mirrored and non-mirrored pairs.
Notable research
Shepard and Metzler (1971)
Roger Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler (1971) were some of the first to research the phenomenon. Their experiment specifically tested mental rotation on three-dimensional objects. Each subject was presented with multiple pairs of three-dimensional, asymmetrical lined or cubed objects. The experiment was designed to measure how long it would take each subject to determine whether the pair of objects were indeed the same object or two different objects. Their research showed that the reaction time for participants to decide if the pair of items matched or not was linearly proportional to the angle of rotation from the original position. That is, the more an object has been rotated from the original, the longer it takes an individual to determine if the two images are of the same object or enantiomorphs.
Vandenberg and Kuse (1978)
In 1978, Steven G. Vandenberg and Allan R. Kuse developed the Mental Rotations Test (MRT) to assess mental rotation abilities that was based on Shepard and Metzler's (1971) original study. The Mental Rotations Test was constructed using India ink drawings. Each stimulus was a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object drawn by a computer. The image was then displayed on an oscilloscope. Each image was then shown at different orientations rotated around the vertical axis. The original test contained 20 items, demanding the comparison of four figures with a criterion figure, with two of them being correct. Following the basic ideas of Shepard and Metzler's experiment, this study found a significant difference in the mental rotation scores between men and women, with men performing better. Correlations with other measures showed strong association with tests of spatial visualization and no association with verbal ability.
Neuropsychology
In 2000, a study was conducted to find out which part of the brain is activated during mental rotation. Seven volunteers (four males and three females) between the ages of twenty-nine to sixty-six participated in this experiment. For the study, the subjects were shown eight characters 4 times each (twice in normal orientation and twice reversed) and the subjects had to decide if the character was in its normal configuration or if it was the mirror image. During this task, a PET scan was performed and revealed activation in the right posterior parietal lobe.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of brain activation during mental rotation reveal consistent increased activation of the parietal lobe, specifically the inter-parietal sulcus, that is dependent on the difficulty of the task. In general, the larger the angle of rotation, the more brain activity associated with the task. This increased brain activation is accompanied by longer times to complete the rotation task and higher error rates. Researchers have argued that the increased brain activation, increased time, and increased error rates indicate that task difficulty is proportional to the angle of rotation.
A 2006 study observed the following brain areas to be activated during mental rotation as compared to baseline: bilateral medial temporal gyrus, left medial occipital gyrus, bilateral superior occipital gyrus, bilateral superior parietal lobe, and left inferior occipital gyrus during the rotation task.
Development
A study from 2008 suggested that differences may occur early during development. The experiment was done on 3- to 4-month-old infants using a 2D mental rotation task. They used a preference apparatus that consists of observing during how much time the infant is looking at the stimulus. They started by familiarizing the participants with the number "1" and its rotations. Then they showed them a picture of a "1" rotated and its mirror image. It appears that gendered differences may appear early in development, as the study showed that males are more responsive to the mirror image. According to the study, this may mean that males and females process mental rotation differently even as infants. Supporting the presence of such differences early in development, other studies have found that gendered differences in mental rotation tests were visible in all age groups, including young children. Interestingly, these differences emerged much later for other categories of spatial tests.
In 2020, Advances in Childhood Development and Behavior examined mental rotation abilities during very early development. They discovered that an ability to mentally rotate objects can be detected in infants as young as 3 months of age. Also, MR processes in infancy likely remain stable over time into adulthood, indicating an innate, static component to human conception of MR. Additional variables that appeared to influence infants' MR performance include motor activity, stimulus complexity, hormone levels, and parental attitudes.
Factors that affect performance
Color
Physical objects that people imagine rotating in everyday life have many properties, such as textures, shapes, and colors. A study at the University of California Santa Barbara was conducted to specifically test the extent to which visual information, such as color, is represented during mental rotation. This study used several methods such as reaction time studies, verbal protocol analysis, and eye tracking. In the initial reaction time experiments, those with poor rotational ability were affected by the colors of the image, whereas those with good rotational ability were not. Overall, those with poor ability were faster and more accurate identifying images that were consistently colored. The verbal protocol analysis showed that the subjects with low spatial ability mentioned color in their mental rotation tasks more often than participants with high spatial ability. One thing that can be shown through this experiment is that those with higher rotational ability will be less likely to represent color in their mental rotation. Poor rotators will be more likely to represent color in their mental rotation using piecemeal strategies (Khooshabeh & Hegarty, 2008).
Athletic, musical, and artistic skills
Research on how athleticism and artistic ability affect mental rotation has been conducted. Pietsch, S., & Jansen, P. (2012) showed that people who were athletes or musicians had faster reaction times than people who were not. They tested this by splitting people from the age of 18 and higher into three groups. The groups consisted of music students, sports students, and education students. It was found that students who were focused on sports or music did much better than those who were education majors. Also, it was found that the male athletes and education majors in the experiment were faster than the respective females, but male and female musicians showed no significant difference in reaction time.
A 2007 study supported the results that musicians perform better on mental rotation tasks than non-musicians. In particular, orchestral musicians' MRT task performance exhibited aptitude levels significantly higher than the population baseline.
Moreau, D., Clerc, et al. (2012) also investigated if athletes were more spatially aware than non-athletes. This experiment took undergraduate college students and tested them with the mental rotation test before any sport training, and then again afterward. The participants were trained in two different sports to see if this would help their spatial awareness. It was found that the participants did better on the mental rotation test after they had trained in the sports, than they did before the training. This experiment brought to the research that if people could find ways to train their mental rotation skills they could perform better in high context activities with greater ease.
Researchers studied the difference in mental rotation ability between gymnasts, handball, and soccer players with both in-depth and in-plane rotations. Results suggested that athletes were better at performing mental rotation tasks that were more closely related to their sport of expertise.
There is a correlation in mental rotation and motor ability in children, and this connection is especially strong in boys ages 7–8. The study showed that there is considerable overlap between spatial reasoning and athletic ability, even among young children.
A mental rotation test (MRT) was carried out on gymnasts, orienteers, runners, and non athletes. Results showed that non athletes were greatly outperformed by gymnasts and orienteers, but not runners. Gymnasts (egocentric athletes) did not outperform orienteers (allocentric athletes). Egocentric indicates understanding the position of your body as it relates to objects in space, and allocentric indicates understanding the relation of multiple objects in space independently of the self-perspective.
A study investigated the effect of mental rotation on postural stability. Participants performed a MR (mental rotation) task involving either foot stimuli, hand stimuli, or non-body stimuli (a car) and then had to balance on one foot. The results suggested that MR tasks involving foot stimuli were more effective at improving balance than hand or car stimuli, even after 60 minutes.
Contrary to what one might expect, previous studies examining whether artists are superior at mental rotation have been mixed, and a recent study substantiates the null findings. It has been theorized that artists are adept at recognizing, creating, and activating visual stimuli, but not necessarily at manipulating them.
A 2018 study examined the effect of studying various subjects within higher education on mental rotation ability. The researchers found that architecture students performed significantly better than art students, who performed significantly better than both psychology and business majors, with gender and other demographic differences accounted for. These findings make sense intuitively, given that architecture students are highly acquainted with manipulating the orientation of structures in space.
Sex
Following the Vandenberg and Kuse study, subsequent research attempted to assess the presence of gendered differences in mental rotation ability. For the first couple of decades immediately following the research, the topic was addressed in different meta-analyses with inconclusive results. However, Voyer et al. conducted a comprehensive review in 1995, which showed that gender differences were reliable and more pronounced in specific tasks, indicating that sex affects the processes underlying performance in spatial memory tests. Analogous to other types of spatial reasoning tasks, men tended to outperform women by a statistically significant margin among the MR literature.
As mentioned above, many studies have shown that there is a difference between male and female performance in mental rotation tasks. To learn more about this difference, brain activation during a mental rotation task was studied. In 2012, a study was done in which males and females were asked to execute a mental rotation task, and their brain activity was recorded with an fMRI. The researchers found a difference of brain activation: males presented a stronger activity in the area of the brain used in a mental rotation task.
Furthermore, sex-related differences in mental rotation abilities may reflect evolutionary differences. Men assumed the role of hunting and foraging, which necessitates a greater degree of visual-spatial processing than the child-rearing and domestic tasks which women performed. Biologically, males receive higher fetal exposure to androgens than females, and retain these relatively higher levels for life. This difference plays a significant role in human sexual dimorphism, and may be a causal factor in the differences observed regarding mental rotation. Interestingly, women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who are exposed to higher levels of fetal androgen than control women, tend to perform better on the MRT than women with normal amounts of fetal androgen exposure. Additionally, the significant role of hormonal variation between the sexes was supported by a 2004 study, which revealed that testosterone (a principal androgen) level in young men was negatively correlated with the number of errors and response time in the MRT. Therefore, higher levels of testosterone probably contribute to better performance.
Another study from 2015 was focused on women and their abilities in a mental rotation task and an emotion recognition task. In this experiment they induced a feeling or a situation in which women feel more powerful or less powerful. They were able to conclude that women in a situation of power are better in a mental rotation task (but less performant in an emotion recognition task) than other women. Interestingly, the types of cognitive strategies that men and women typically employ may be a contributing factor. The literature has established that men generally prefer holistic strategies, whereas women prefer analytic-verbal strategies and focus on specific parts of the whole puzzle. Women tended to act more conservatively as well, sacrificing time to double-check the incorrect items more often than men. Consequently, women require more time to execute their technique when completing tasks like the MRT. In order to determine the extent of this variable's significance, Hirnstein et al. (2009) created a modified MRT in which the number of matching figures could vary between zero and four, which, compared to the original MRT, favored the strategy most often employed by women. The research found that gender differences declined somewhat, but men still outperformed women.
Along the same lines, a 2021 study found intriguing results in an attempt to discern the mechanisms behind the established gender disparity. The researchers hypothesized that task characteristics, not only anatomical or social differences, could explain men's advantage in mental rotation. In particular, the objects to be rotated were changed from the typical geometric or spherical shapes to male or female stereotyped objects, such as a tractor and a stroller, respectively. The results revealed significant gender differences only when male-stereotyped objects were used as rotational material. When female-stereotyped rotational material was used, men and women performed equally. This finding may explain underlying causes behind the usual disparate outcomes, in that the male ability to do somewhat better on MRT tests probably stems from the evolutionary applicability of spatial reasoning. Objects that aren't relevant to historical male gender roles, and are consequently generally unfamiliar to men, are much more difficult for men to conceptualize spatially than more familiar shapes. Likewise, other recent studies suggest that difference between Mental rotation cognition task are a consequence of procedure and artificiality of the stimuli. A 2017 study leveraged photographs and three-dimensional models, evaluating multiple approaches and stimuli. Results show that changing the stimuli can eliminate any male advantages found from the Vandenberg and Kuse test (1978).
Studying differences between male and female brains can have interesting applications. For example, it could help in the understanding of the autism spectrum disorders. One of the theories concerning autism is the EMB (extreme male brain). This theory considers autistic people to have an "extreme male brain". In a study from 2015, researchers confirmed that there is a difference between male and female in mental rotation task (by studying people without autism): males are more successful. Then they highlighted the fact that autistic people do not have this "male performance" in a mental rotation task. They conclude their study by "autistic people do not have an extreme version of a male cognitive profile as proposed by the EMB theory".
Current and future research directions
Much of the current and future research directions pertain to expanding on what has been established by the literature and investigating underlying causes behind previous results. Future studies will consider additional factors that could influence MR ability, including demographics, various aptitudes, personality, rare/deviant psychological profiles, among others. Many current and future studies are and will be examining the ways that certain brain abnormalities, including many of those caused by traumatic injuries, affect one's ability to perform mental rotation. There is some evidence that what appears to be mental rotation in depth is actually a response to the properties of flat pictures.
There may be relationships between competent bodily movement and the speed with which individuals can perform mental rotation. Researchers found children who trained with mental rotation tasks had improved strategy skills after practicing. People use many different strategies to complete tasks; psychologists will study participants who use specific cognitive skills to compare competency and reaction times. Others will continue to examine the differences in competency of mental rotation based on the objects being rotated. Participants' identification with the object could hinder or help their mental rotation abilities across gender and ages to support the earlier claim that males have faster reaction times. Psychologists will continue to test similarities between mental rotation and physical rotation, examining the difference in reaction times and relevance to environmental implications.
See also
Mental event
Space mapping
Notes
References
Campos-Juanatey, D., Pérez-Fabello, M. J., & Campos, A. (2018). Differences in image rotation between undergraduates from different university degrees. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 38(2), 173–185.
Cimadevilla, J. M., Piccardi, L., Kranz, G. S. Savic, I. (2020). Spatial Skills. Handbook of Clinical Psychology, 175, 65–79. Retrieved 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64123-6.00006-0.
Drake, J. E., Simmons, S., Rouser, S., Poloes, I., & Winner, E. (2021). Artists excel on image activation but not image manipulation tasks. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 39(1), 3–16.
Halari, R., Sharma, T., Hines, M., Andrew, C., Simmons, A., & Kumari, V. (2006). Comparable fMRI activity with differential behavioural performance on mental rotation and overt verbal fluency tasks in healthy men and women. Experimental Brain Research, 169(1), 1–14.
Hirnstein, M., Bayer, U., & Hausmann, M. (2009). Sex-specific response strategies in mental rotation. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(2), 225-228.
Hooven, C. K., Chabris, C. F., Ellison, P. T., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2004). The relationship of male testosterone to components of mental rotation. Neuropsychologia, 42(6), 782-790.
Moore, D. S., Johnson, S. P., & Benson, J. B. (2020). The development of mental rotation ability across the first year after birth. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 58, pp. 1–33). essay, Science Direct.
Plant, Tony M.; Zeleznik, Anthony J.; Forger, Nancy G.; de Vries, Geert J.; Breedlove, S. Marc (2015). "47". Knobil and Neill's Physiology of Reproduction (Fourth Edition). United States: Academic Press. pp. 2109–2155.
Rahe, M., Ruthsatz, V., & Quaiser-Pohl, C. (2021). Influence of the stimulus material on gender differences in a mental-rotation test. Psychological Research, 85(8), 2892-2899.
In Body, Language and Mind, vol. 2. Zlatev, Jordan; Ziemke, Tom; Frank, Roz; Dirven, René (eds.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, forthcoming 2006.
Shepard, R and Cooper, L. "Mental images and their transformations." Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982. .
Sluming, V., Brooks, J., Howard, M., Downes, J. J., & Roberts, N. (2007). Broca's area supports enhanced visuospatial cognition in orchestral musicians. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27(14), 3799–3806.
Vandenberg, S., & Kuse, A. (1978). Mental Rotation, a Group Test of Three-Dimensional Spatial Visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 599-604.
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities: A Meta-Analysis and Consideration of Critical Variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 250-270.
External links
Mental rotation lesson using PsyToolkit
"Shepard-Metzler resource pack". An open source collection of items for use in the creation of mental rotation tasks.
Cognitive science
Cognitive tests
Visual thinking
Vision
Spatial cognition |
4155391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Oakland%2C%20California | List of people from Oakland, California | This is a list of people from Oakland, California, people born in Oakland or who lived in Oakland for a significant time.
Academics
Robert Harvey – comparative literature, philosophy
Gail Mahood – geology (born in Oakland)
Nanos Valaoritis – comparative literature, poetry
Artists and designers
Natalia Anciso – artist and educator
Olive Ayhens – painter
Steven F. Arnold – filmmaker, photographer, painter, illustrator, set and costume designer, and assemblage artist
Garry Knox Bennett – woodworker, metalworker, furniture maker, artist
Bernice Bing – artist, activist
Warrington Colescott – artist and educator
Henry Doane – landscape painter, commercial artist
Janet Doub Erickson artist and author
Roger C. Field – industrial designer, graduated from California College of the Arts
Liz Hernández – painter, sculptor, graphic designer
Oliver Lee Jackson – painter, printmaker, sculptor
Walter J. Mathews – architect, designed the First Unitarian Church of Oakland
Bernard Maybeck – architect
Jeremy Mayer – sculptor
Julia Morgan – architect, raised and buried in Oakland
Willis O'Brien – animator
Nathan Oliveira – painter, printmaker, sculptor, professor
Adrienne Keahi Pao; photographer, artist
Lisa Quinn – artist, author, designer
Mel Ramos – painter
Favianna Rodriguez – painter, artist
Galen Rowell – photographer
J. Otto Seibold – artist, illustrator, author
Elizabeth Sher – documentary and short filmmaker, artist
Seasick Steve – blues musician
Betty Swords – cartoonist
Morrie Turner – artist, illustrator, author of the Wee Pals comic strip
Wendy Yoshimura – artist
Athletes
Zack Andrews – baseball player
Ron Allen (skateboarder) – professional skateboarder
Pervis Atkins – NFL football player, Los Angeles Rams, Washington Redskins, Oakland Raiders, actor, The Longest Yard
Don Barksdale – basketball player
Drew Barry – basketball player
Jon Barry – basketball player and sportscaster
Charlie Beamon – baseball pitcher
Charlie Beamon Jr. – baseball player
Davion Berry (born 1991), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Davone Bess – football player
Will Blackwell – football player
Linc Blakely – Major League Baseball player, Cincinnati Reds
Marlin Briscoe – football player
John Brodie – football player and sportscaster
Jabari Brown – basketball player
Steve Brye baseball player, No. 1 pick of Twins, played nine years in majors
Don Budge – tennis player
Chris Burford – football player
Glenn Burke – baseball player
Steve Clark – swimmer, won five Olympic gold medals
Ray Crouse – football player
Bruce Cunningham – Major League Baseball player, Boston Braves
Jared Cunningham - basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Antonio Davis – basketball player
Steve DeBerg – football player
Bernie DeViveiros – Major League Baseball player, Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers
Taylor Douthit – Major League Baseball player, St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds
Forey Duckett – football player
Dennis Eckersley – baseball player
Manny Fernandez – football player
Eric Fernsten – basketball player, NBA, CBA, and Europe
Curt Flood – Major League Baseball player, Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals, Washington Senators known for challenging the Reserve clause
Greg Foster – basketball player
La Vel Freeman – baseball player
Len Gabrielson – Major League Baseball player, Philadelphia Phillies
Len Gabrielson – Major League Baseball player, Milwaukee Braves, Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, California Angels, Los Angeles Dodgers
Joe Gaines – Major League Baseball player, Cincinnati Reds, Baltimore Orioles, Houston Astros
Derrick Gardner – football player
Kiwi Gardner – basketball player
Brad Gilbert – tennis player and coach
John Gillespie – Major League Baseball player, Cincinnati Reds
Jesse Gonder –baseball player
Drew Gooden – basketball player
Alexis Gray-Lawson – basketball player, Phoenix Mercury
Bob Greenwood – Major League Baseball player, Philadelphia Phillies
Bud Hafey – Major League Baseball player, Chicago White Sox, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, Philadelphia Phillies
Tom Hafey – Major League Baseball player, New York Giants, St. Louis Browns
Roger Harding – football player
Rickey Henderson – baseball player
Jan Henne – swimmer, two-time gold medalist at 1968 Summer Olympics
Steve Hosey – baseball player
Al Hrabosky – baseball pitcher and sportscaster
Proverb Jacobs – NFL football player, Philadelphia Eagles, New York Giants
Jackie Jensen – baseball player
Brian Johnson – baseball player
Josh Johnson – Quarterback for the Cincinnati Bengals
Maurice Jones-Drew – football player
Robert Jordan – football player
Bobby Kemp – football player
Jason Kidd – basketball player and coach
MacArthur Lane – football player
Cookie Lavagetto – baseball player and manager
Tony Lema – golfer
Bill Lester – NASCAR driver
Damian Lillard – basketball player
Ernie Lombardi – baseball player
Don Lofgran – professional basketball player
Terrell Lowery – baseball player
Lorenzo Lynch – football player
Marshawn Lynch – football player
Eddie McGah – baseball player, part-owner of Oakland Raiders
Bill McKalip – college All-American football player, NFL player, Portsmouth Spartans / Detroit Lions
Joe Mellana – Major League Baseball player, Philadelphia Athletics
Demetrius "Hook" Mitchell – streetball player
Joe Morgan – baseball second baseman and sportscaster
Kirk Morrison – football player
Hank Norberg – football player
Mike Norris – baseball player
Lee Norwood – ice hockey player
Zoe Ann Olsen – olympic diver
Gary Payton – basketball player, born and raised in Oakland
Gary Pettis – baseball player and coach
Paul Pierce – basketball player
Vada Pinson – baseball player and coach
Jim Pollard – basketball player
Damon Powell – basketball player
Leon Powe – basketball player
Jarrod Pughsley – football player
John Ralston – football player and coach
Isiah Rider – basketball player
Chris Roberson – baseball player
Frank Robinson – baseball player and manager
Jimmy Rollins – baseball player
Bill Russell – basketball player and coach
Brian Shaw – basketball player and coach
Paul Silas – basketball player and coach
Fred Silva – football official
Marvel Smith – football player
Dave Stewart – baseball player and executive
John Sutro – football player
Ron Theobald – baseball player
Jim Tobin – baseball player
Marviel Underwood – football player
Kwame Vaughn (born 1990), basketball player for Maccabi Haifa in the Israeli Basketball National League
Langston Walker – football player
Andre Ward – professional boxer
George Wells – professional wrestler
Ray Wells – football player
Bill Werle – baseball player
Archie Williams – runner
Dontrelle Willis – baseball player
Rodney Williams – American football player
Businesspeople, entrepreneurs and industrialists
Stephen Bechtel – engineer, president, CEO of Bechtel Corporation, 1933-1960
Anthony Chabot – entrepreneur, father of hydraulic mining, namesake of Chabot Space & Science Center, Lake Chabot, and Chabot College, buried in Oakland
Charles Crocker – railroad tycoon, buried in Oakland
Debbi Fields – entrepreneur, founder of Mrs. Fields cookies
Domingo Ghirardelli – founder of the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company based in San Francisco, buried in Oakland
Ken Hofmann – former owner of the Oakland Athletics
Henry J. Kaiser – entrepreneur, businessman, founder of Kaiser Permanente and Kaiser Family Foundation, buried in Oakland
Mark Mastrov – founder of 24 Hour Fitness, partial owner of the Sacramento Kings
Jonah Peretti – founder of BuzzFeed
Francis Marion Smith (also known as "Borax" Smith) – miner, business magnate
Chefs
Tanya Holland – chef, restaurateur, podcast host, and cookbook author.
Nelson German – chef
Nite Yun - chef and restaurateur.
Entertainment
Mahershala Ali – Academy Award-winning actor
Eddie Anderson – actor
Max Baer Jr. – actor, film director
Matt Bettinelli-Olpin – filmmaker and musician
Pamela Blake – actress
True Boardman – silent film actor
Alex Bretow – film producer, director, and screenwriter
David Carradine – actor
Rafael Casal – actor, writer
Connie Cezon – actress
Angus Cloud – actor
Keyshia Cole – musician
Tracie Collins – actress, writer, theatre director and producer
Ryan Coogler – director
Buster Crabbe – actor
T. D. Crittenden – silent film actor
Robert Culp – actor
Mark Curry – actor/comedian
Gloria Dea – actress, dancer and magician
Walter DeLeon – screenwriter
Daveed Diggs – actor and rapper
Rockmond Dunbar – actor, mixed-media artist
Michael Earl – puppeteer
Clint Eastwood – actor, Academy Award-winning film producer, and director
Lyndsy Fonseca – actress
Squire Fridell – actor
Cary Fukunaga – Emmy Award-winning director
Sylvia Gerrish – musical comedy and light opera
Sumner Getchell – actor
Gary Goldman – filmmaker
Michael A. Goorjian – actor and filmmaker
R. Henry Grey – silent film actor
Khamani Griffin – child actor
MC Hammer – rapper
Mark Hamill – actor
Bernie Hamilton – actor, Starsky and Hutch
Tom Hanks – Academy Award-winning actor, raised in Oakland
Susan Seaforth Hayes – actor
Claude Heater – opera singer and actor, Ben-Hur (1959 film)
Russell Hornsby – actor
Moshe Kasher – comedian, actor, and author/writer; raised in Oakland
Kehlani – singer
Joe Knowland – newspaper publisher, actor
David Labrava – actor, writer, tattoo artist
Remy Lacroix – adult actress
Ted Lange – actor
Brandon Lee (son of Bruce Lee) – actor, born in Oakland
Bruce Lee – actor, martial artist
Nnegest Likké – film director
Caryl Lincoln – actress
Delroy Lindo – actor
Dakin Matthews – actor
Russ Meyer – film director
Jefferson Moffitt – screenwriter, film director
Paul Mooney – comedian
Shemar Moore – actor, model
Mitch Mullany – actor
Kali Muscle – actor
Roger Nichols – recording engineer
Natalie Nunn – television personality
Laura Oakley – silent film actress
Orunamamu (Marybeth Washington-Stofle) – storyteller
Frank Oz – actor, director, puppeteer for Bert, Cookie Monster and Grover on Sesame Street
Chelsea Peretti – comedian, actress
Dorothy Revier – silent film actress, dancer
Cherie Roberts – adult model, photographer
Raphael Saadiq – singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and record producer
Timothy B. Schmit – singer, bassist of The Eagles, born in Oakland
G-Eazy – rapper
Sheila E. – percussionist
Kellita Smith – actress and model
Jack Soo (Goro Suzuki) – comedian, actor, Barney Miller
George Stevens – Academy Award-winning film director
Cynthia Stevenson – actress, born in Oakland
Ethel Grey Terry – silent film actress
Colin Trevorrow – film director
Jo Van Fleet – actress
Matt Vasgersian – actor, sports broadcaster
Mills Watson – actor
Robert Webber – film and TV actor, 12 Angry Men
Will Wright – game designer
Daniel Wu – actor
Bassem Youssef – satirist
Zendaya – Emmy Award-winning actress
Leaders (activists and politicians)
Richard Aoki – activist
William P. Baker – politician
Sonny Barger – founder of the Hells Angels motorcycle club
Henry G. Blasdel – first governor of Nevada; resident of Oakland
Jerry Brown – politician, former governor of California and mayor of Oakland
Albert E. Carter – politician
Frank Chu – eccentric street protester
William Clark Jr. – diplomat, ambassador
C. L. Dellums – organizer and leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
Ron Dellums – politician, former U.S. Congressman and Representative, mayor of Oakland
Frank M. Dixon, politician, former governor of Alabama
Warren B. English – Confederate war veteran, politician, realtor
Heather Fargo – politician, mayor of Sacramento, California
Lydia Flood Jackson, businesswoman, club woman, suffragist, an oldest living native of Oakland when she died in 1963
Marcus Foster – educator, the first African-American Superintendent of the Oakland Unified School District
Alicia Garza – co-founder of Black Lives Matter
Elihu Harris – politician, former mayor of Oakland
Juju Harris – food-affordability activist
Kamala Harris – politician, U.S. Senator, first female African-American attorney general of California; first female, African-American, and Asian-American Vice President of the United States
Van Jones – founder, Ella Baker Center for Human Rights and Special Advisor for Green Jobs under US President Barack Obama
Fred Korematsu – Japanese-American who fought forced internment, testing the law in Korematsu v. United States
Joseph R. Knowland – former U.S. Representative and former owner of the Oakland Tribune, cremated in Oakland
William F. Knowland – former U.S. Senator
Barbara Lee – U.S. Representative
Charles Goodall Lee – dentist, civic leader, benefactor of the Chinese American Citizens Alliance
Clara Elizabeth Chan Lee – activist, first Chinese-American woman voter in the U.S.
Richard Lee – horticulturist, activist for the legalization of marijuana
Joseph McKenna – former Congressman, Justice 9th US Circuit, Attorney General and Associate Justice US Supreme Court.
Edwin Meese III – former U.S. Attorney General
Victor H. Metcalf – politician, attorney, banker
Jessica Mitford – writer, activist, former Communist
Paul Montauk – Communist politician and two-time candidate for Oakland mayor
Ethel Moore – civic, education, and national defense work leader
Anca Mosoiu – technology activist
Nancy Nadel – member of the Oakland City Council
Huey P. Newton – activist, co-founder of the Black Panther Party
Andrew Nisbet Jr. – member of the Washington House of Representatives and United States Army officer
Pat Parker – black lesbian poet and activist
Ed Rosenthal – horticulturist, publisher, activist for the legalization of marijuana
Byron Rumford – pharmacist
John A. Russo – Oakland city attorney, former city councilman
Bobby Seale – activist, co-founder of the Black Panther Party
Hettie B. Tilghman – African-American activist and suffragist
Robert Treuhaft – activist for labor and leftist causes, attorney, writer
Charles Stetson Wheeler – attorney, Regent of the University of California
Earl Warren – Assistant Attorney City of Oakland, District Attorney of Alameda County, Attorney General of California, Governor of California and U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice
Lionel J. Wilson – politician, first African-American mayor of Oakland
Mother Wright – anti-hunger activist
Military
Bud Anderson – USAF (served 1942-1972) fighter pilot and commander, triple ace who retired at the rank of colonel
Jeremiah C. Sullivan – Civil War general in the Union Army and staff member of Ulysses S. Grant, buried in Oakland
Musicians, composers and dancers
3XKrazy – male rap group
Thomas Lauderdale – musician and pianist
A-Plus – rapper
Billie Joe Armstrong – co-founder of Green Day
Tim Armstrong – musician, lead vocalist of punk rock band Rancid
Paul Baloff (d. 2002) – former lead singer of thrash metal band Exodus
Ant Banks – rapper, producer
Gaylord Birch – musician
Carla Bley – composer, musician
Boots Riley – rapper, filmmaker
Mike Botts – studio musician, drummer for rock band Bread
Bobby Brackins – rapper, songwriter
Ian Brennan – Grammy Award-winning record producer and author
Antonia Brico (born Wilhelmina Wolthius) classical pianist, first woman conductor of New York Philharmonic
Chris Broderick – musician, lead guitarist for the heavy metal band Megadeth
Peter Buck – musician, guitarist and co-founder of the alternative rock band R.E.M.
Aaron Burckhard – musician, first drummer of the grunge band Nirvana
Kevin Cadogan – musician, original lead guitarist of Third Eye Blind
Emilio Castillo – musician, a founding member of Tower of Power
Casual – rapper
Mike Clark – musician
Cold Blood – rock, soul, jazz band
Keyshia Cole – Grammy Award-nominated R&B singer-songwriter, record producer, born and raised in Oakland
The Coup – hip hop group
Jason Cropper – original band member of Weezer
Del tha Funkee Homosapien – musician
Daveed Diggs – rapper and actor
Mike Dirnt – co-founder of Green Day
Digital Underground – rap group
Sue Draheim – fiddler
Mac Dre – rapper, born in Oakland, raised in Vallejo
Dru Down – rapper
Isadora Duncan – dancer
Sheila E. – drummer, born in Oakland
E-A-Ski – rapper, record producer
En Vogue – Grammy Award-nominated female R&B singing group, originated from Oakland in 1990
Pete Escovedo – musician, born in Oakland
Robb Flynn – musician best known as rhythm guitarist and vocalist for Machine Head
Michael Franti – musician
Fred Frith – improvisational musician, guitarist, composer, professor of music
Nils Frykdahl – musician, a founding member of Sleepytime Gorilla Museum and Idiot Flesh
David Garibaldi – musician, member of Tower of Power
G-Eazy – rapper and producer
Mic Gillette – musician, a founding member of Tower of Power
Goapele – soul and R&B singer
Guapdad 4000 – rapper, musician
Larry Graham – musician
MC Hammer – musician, born in Oakland
Jeff Hanneman – former guitarist for heavy metal band Slayer
Shawn Harris – musician; former member of The Matches
Davey Havok – musician, lead singer for AFI
Edwin and Walter Hawkins – gospel singers
Hieroglyphics – rap group, originated from Oakland
Earl Hines – jazz pianist
John Lee Hooker – blues singer
Paul Jackson – musician
Henry Kaiser – musician, grandson of Henry J. Kaiser
Keak da Sneak – musician
Kehlani – singer
Kid 606 – musician
Sharon Knight – Celtic musician, founding member of pagan rock band Pandemonaeon
Kreayshawn – rapper
Stephen "Doc" Kupka – musician, founding member of Tower of Power
LaToya London – singer; born in San Francisco, raised in Oakland
Pep Love – rapper
The Lovemakers – pop band
The Luniz – Grammy Award-nominated rap duo
MC Lars – rapper; post-punk laptop rap
Michael Manring – bassist, born in D.C., lives in Oakland
Adrian Marcel – singer
Jim Martin – musician
Tony Martin – singer, actor
Dave Mencetti – rock musician; born and raised in Oakland; lead singer/lead guitarist for Y&T
Seagram Miller – rapper
Mistah F.A.B. – rapper
David Murray – musician
mxmtoon – singer/songwriter
Fantastic Negrito – musician
Noaccordion – multimedia project of Onah Indigo
Numskull – rapper
Ray Obiedo – musician
Marty Paich – pianist, composer, arranger, producer, director, conductor
Harry Partch – composer
The Phenomenauts – science and space band, refer to Oakland as "Earth's capital"
Phesto – rapper, producer
Matt Pike – guitarist of Sleep and High on Fire
The Pointer Sisters – Grammy Award-winning R&B singing group
Pooh-Man – rapper
PopLyfe – pop group
Francis Rocco Prestia – musician
Perri "Pebbles" Reid – singer-songwriter, manager of TLC
San Quinn – rapper, born in Oakland, raised in San Francisco
Richie Rich – rapper
Cynthia Robinson – musician
Raphael Saadiq – musician
Arion Salazar – musician in Third Eye Blind
Pharoah Sanders – musician
Timothy B. Schmit – rock musician, bassist for the Eagles
E.C. Scott – blues singer, songwriter and record producer; television host
Tupac Shakur – rapper, lived in Oakland
Shock G – rapper
Sharon Shore – ballet dancer, model
Calvin E. Simmons – symphony orchestra conductor, namesake of Calvin Simmons Theatre, born in San Francisco
Souls of Mischief – rap group
J. Stalin – rapper, co-founder of Livewire Records
Steady Mobb'n – rap duo
Jamie Stewart – frontman of the experimental group Xiu Xiu
Shakir Stewart – record producer, Senior Vice President of Island Def Jam Music Group
Freddie Stone – musician
Rose Stone – musician
Sly Stone – musician
Bill Summers – musician
The Team – rap group
Tony! Toni! Toné! – R&B singing group
Too Short – rapper, born in Los Angeles, lived in Oakland from 1980 to 1994
Tower of Power – band, formed and based in Oakland
Tune-Yards – band; indie, afro-funk
Weasel Walter – progressive rock and free jazz musician/composer
Freddie Washington – musician
Lenny Williams – musician, early member of Tower of Power
Y&T – rock band, formed in Oakland 1974
Yukmouth – rapper
Baba Zumbi – co-founder of hip hop group Zion I
Physicians
Eric Andrew Coleman – physician, practiced in Denver, recipient of MacArthur Foundation Fellowship ("Genius Grant") and Director of Care Transitions Program
Samuel Merritt – physician, practiced in San Francisco, namesake of Merritt College, Merritt Hospital, and Lake Merritt, buried in Oakland
Virginia Prentiss - nanny to Jack London, midwife and former slave
Religious leaders
Emma Pow Bauder – Conference Missionary of the United Brethren's California Conference
David A. Bednar – LDS Apostle, born in Oakland
David Berg – controversial cult leader, founder of Children of God
Yusuf Bey – controversial Black Muslim activist
Mose Durst – author, educator, former president of the Unification Church
James Ishmael Ford – Zen Buddhist priest and Unitarian Universalist minister
Ray Frank – female Jewish leader
Jack Hayford – minister, chancellor, songwriter
Judah Leon Magnes – prominent Reform rabbi, first President of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Carol Anne O'Marie – Roman Catholic nun, mystery fiction writer
Bebe Patten – evangelist and founder of Patten University
Clarence Richard Silva – Catholic bishop from Oakland, current bishop of Honolulu
Richard B. Stamps – anthropologist, archeologist, president of the Taipei Mission of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
Allen Henry Vigneron – Catholic bishop, leader of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland
Scientists and inventors
Harold C. Bradley – professor of biochemistry
Dean Burk – medical researcher
Fernando J. Corbató – computer scientist
Frederick Cottrell – inventor
Kim Eric Drexler – engineer, molecular nanotechnology theorist
Frank Epperson – popsicle inventor
Alexei Filippenko – astrophysicist, professor of astronomy
Lloyd N. Ferguson – first African American to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley
Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, biochemist and virologist; died in Oakland
Ansel Franklin Hall – first park naturalist for Yosemite National Park, first Chief Forester for the National Park Service
Richard F. Johnston – ornithologist, academic and author
Ingemar Henry Lundquist – inventor and mechanical engineer
Stanley Miller – chemist
Sten Odenwald – NASA Astrophysicist
Wendell Phillips – archaeologist and oil magnate
Lydia Weld, first woman to get a degree in engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and naval architect in World War II
William Shurtleff, researcher, technical writer, bibliographer, historian, and popularizer of soyfoods
Writers and poets
Daniel Alarcón – writer, currently resides in Oakland
Catherine Asaro – writer
Chauncey Bailey – journalist assassinated by an agent of Your Black Muslim Bakery
Delilah L. Beasley – first African-American columnist to be published in a major newspaper
Charles Borden – writer, sailed around the globe four times
Anthony Boucher – writer
GenHalley Kretschmer Brice – Poet laureate of Vallejo, California
Garrett Caples – poet, writer
Jon Carroll – columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle
Frank Chin – writer
Daniel Clowes – comic book writer, Academy Award-nominated screenwriter, currently resides in Oakland
Robert Duncan – poet
Sarah Webster Fabio – African-American writer, poet, educator; born in Nashville, lived in Oakland 1955-1979
Robert Harvey – literary theorist, born in Oakland
Bruce Henderson – author, born in Oakland
Sidney Howard – Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright, Academy Award-winning screenwriter
Daedalus Howell – writer, currently resides in Oakland
Maxine Hong Kingston – writer, currently resides in Oakland
Richard Lange – Los Angeles-based author, born in Oakland
Yiyun Li – writer, former creative writing instructor at Mills College
Jack London – writer, raised in Oakland, namesake of Jack London Square
Anthony Marra – writer
Rod McKuen – poet, composer, singer
Joaquin Miller – poet, lived in Oakland from 1886–1913
Jessica Mitford – author
Leila Mottley – author and poet
Jess Mowry – writer
Ray Nelson – science-fiction writer
Frank Norris – author, buried in Oakland
Colleen Patrick-Goudreau – author, speaker, and podcaster
Ishmael Reed – writer, currently resides in Oakland
Mary Roach – science writer, currently resides in Oakland
William Saroyan – dramatist, author, lived in Oakland from 1913-1918
Jason Shiga – author, cartoonist, puzzle designer
Emji Spero – writer, poet, performance artist
Jan Steckel – poet, writer, bisexual activist
Alex Steffen – writer, born in Oakland
Gertrude Stein – writer
Robert Louis Stevenson – writer
Tina Susman – journalist, Time senior editor, former national editor of BuzzFeed News
Amy Tan – writer, born in Oakland
Ben Fong-Torres – rock journalist
Jack Vance – science fiction writer
Nellie Wong – poet and activist, born in Oakland
Shawn Wong – writer, English professor
Helen Zia – writer, journalist, and activist, currently resides in Oakland
Criminals
Felix Mitchell – notorious drug lord and gang leader of the 1970s and early 1980s
Hans Reiser – computer programmer, owner of Namesys, convicted of murdering his wife
Tommy Lynn Sells – murderer and suspected serial killer
References
See also
List of people from San Francisco
List of people from Palo Alto
List of people from San Jose, California
List of people from Santa Cruz, California
List of people from Berkeley, California
List of mayors of Oakland, California
Oakland
Oakland, California
People |
4155456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects%20of%20the%20Chernobyl%20disaster | Effects of the Chernobyl disaster | The 1986 Chernobyl disaster triggered the release of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere in the form of both particulate and gaseous radioisotopes. , it was the world's largest known release of radioactivity into the environment.
The work of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), suggests that the Chernobyl incident cannot be directly compared to atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons by simply saying that it's better or worse. This is partly because the isotopes released at Chernobyl tended to be longer-lived than those released by the detonation of atomic bombs.
The economic damage caused by the disaster is estimated at $235 billion.
Radiation effects on humans
In a 2009 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) study, the Chernobyl accident had by 2005 caused 61,200 man-Sv of radiation exposure to recovery workers and evacuees, 125,000 man-Sv to the populace of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia, and a dose to most other European countries amounting to 115,000 man-Sv. The report estimated a further 25% more exposure would be received from residual radioisotopes after 2005. The global collective dose from Chernobyl was earlier estimated by UNSCEAR in 1988 to be "600,000 man Sv, equivalent on average to 21 additional days of world exposure to natural background radiation."
Dose to the general public within 30 km of the plant
The inhalation dose (internal dose) for the public during the time of the accident and their evacuation from the area in what is now the 30 km evacuation zone around the plant has been estimated, based on ground deposition of caesium-137, to be between 3 and 150 mSv.
Thyroid doses for adults around the Chernobyl area were estimated to be between 20 and 1000 mSv, while for one-year-old infants, these estimates were higher, at 20 to 6000 mSv. For those who left the area soon after the accident, the internal dose due to inhalation was 8 to 13 times higher than the external dose due to gamma/beta emitters. For those who remained until later (day 10 or later), the inhalation dose was 50 to 70% higher than the dose due to external exposure. The majority of the dose was due to iodine-131 (about 40%) and tellurium and rubidium isotopes (about 20 to 30% for Rb and Te).
The ingestion doses in this same group of people have also been estimated using the cesium activity per unit of area, isotope ratios, an average day of evacuation, intake rate of milk and green vegetables, and what is known about the transfer of radioactivity via plants and animals to humans. For adults, the dose has been estimated to be between 3 and 180 mSv, while for one-year-old infants, a dose of between 20 and 1300 mSv has been estimated. Again, the majority of the dose was thought to be due to iodine-131.
Childhood exposure
Ukraine, Belarus and parts of Russia were exposed to radiation after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, but prior to the disaster the number of children affected by thyroid cancer was relatively low globally. Every year about, "0.1–2.2 individuals per million of all aged under 15 years old world wide" were affected by thyroid cancer. Research has shown after the Chernobyl disaster the level of thyroid cancer, particularly in children near the radiation exposure, increased. Although iodine-131 has a short half-life compared to other radioactive isotopes, iodine-131 made its way through the food chain through a milk-to-consumer pathway. 95% of iodine-131 was ingested through milk after the disaster. Communities were unaware of the contamination deposited in soil and the transforming capabilities of radiation into other food sources. Children also absorbed radiation after drinking milk.
The absorption rate discovered in children has also shown to be inversely proportional to age.
There is a high rate of thyroid cancer among children less than 15 years old who were exposed to the radiation after the disaster and an increasing level of dosage as age decreases. This inverse proportion could be explained by the way in which children absorb iodine-131. Children have smaller thyroid glands compared to adults and have a different dosage response after the ingestion of iodine-131. A cohort study conducted in 2013 discovered a similar trend between age and dosage response. The cohort was composed of 12,000 participants, all of which were exposed to the radiation in Belarus and reported to be under the age of 18 at the time of the exposure.
Future study
Studying the populations that were exposed to radiation after the Chernobyl accident has provided data linking exposure to radiation and the future development of cancer.
Cases of pediatric thyroid cancer, likely caused by absorption of Iodine-131 into the thyroid gland, increased in Ukraine and Belarus 3 to 4 years after the accident. Children were most at risk, and cases did not seem to increase in adults. The greatest increase was seen in children who were the youngest at the time of exposure, and most of the pediatric thyroid cases were reported in Gomel, Belarus, where the population was exposed to the highest levels of contamination. The majority of the cases that appeared in the exposed population were papillary thyroid cancer.
Before the accident, the rate of thyroid cancer in children in Belarus was less than 1 per million. By 1995, nine years after the disaster, the number of cases of pediatric thyroid cancer in Gomel Oblast rose to 100 per million per year. Even as adults those who were exposed to the radiation as children may still be at risk of developing thyroid cancer decades after the exposure. It is important to study the at risk population throughout their lives, and observe if different patterns arise in tumors that develop with longer latency.
A group of experts who are part of the Agenda for Research on Chernobyl Health (ARCH) have proposed a series of potential studies that would examine the continued effects from the Chernobyl accident, and provide more information on the full extent of related health consequences. Results from lifelong observation of the exposed population could provide more information on risks as well as future protection against radiation exposure.
Short-term health effects and immediate results
The explosion at the power station and subsequent fires inside the remains of the reactor resulted in the development and dispersal of a radioactive cloud which drifted not only over Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, but also over most of Europe and as far as Canada.
The initial evidence that a release of radioactive material had occurred came not from Soviet sources, but from Sweden, where on 28 April, two days after the disaster itself, workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant, approximately 1100 km from the Chernobyl site were found to have radioactive particles on their clothing.
It was Sweden's search for the source of the radioactivity, after they had determined there was no leak at the Swedish plant, that led to the first hint of a critical incident in the Western Soviet Union.
Contamination from the Chernobyl disaster was not evenly spread across the surrounding countryside but scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions. Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that Belarus received about 60% of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. A large area in Russia south of Bryansk was also contaminated, as were parts of northwestern Ukraine.
203 people were hospitalized, of whom 31 died. 28 of them died from acute radiation exposure. Most of these were fire and rescue workers trying to bring the disaster under control, who were not aware of how dangerous the radiation exposure from the smoke was. (For a discussion of the more important isotopes in fallout see fission products). 135,000 people were evacuated from the area, including 50,000 from the nearby town of Pripyat, Ukraine. Health officials have predicted that over the next 70 years there will be a 28% increase in cancer rates in much of the population which was exposed to the 5–12 EBq (depending on source) of radioactive contamination released from the reactor.
Soviet scientists reported that the Chernobyl Unit 4 reactor contained about 180–190 metric tons of uranium dioxide fuel and fission products. Estimates of the amount of this material that escaped range from 5 to 30%. Because of the heat of the fire, and with no containment building to stop it, part of the ejected fuel was vaporized or particularized and rose into the atmosphere, where it spread.
Workers and "liquidators"
The workers involved in the recovery and clean up after the disaster, called "liquidators", received high doses of radiation. In most cases, these workers were not equipped with individual dosimeters to measure the amount of radiation received, so experts could only estimate their doses. Even where dosimeters were used, dosimetric procedures varied - some workers are thought to have been given more accurate estimated doses than others. According to Soviet estimates, between 300,000 and 600,000 people were involved in the cleanup of the 30 km evacuation zone around the reactor, but many of them entered the zone two years after the disaster.
Estimates of the number of "liquidators" vary; the World Health Organization, for example, puts the figure at about 600,000; Russia lists as liquidators some people who did not work in contaminated areas. In the first year after the disaster, the number of cleanup workers in the zone was estimated to be 2,000. These workers received an estimated average dose of 165 millisieverts (16.5 REM).
A sevenfold increase in DNA mutations has been identified in children of liquidators conceived after the accident, when compared to their siblings that were conceived before. However, this effect has diminished over time.
Evacuation
Soviet Military authorities started evacuating people from the area around Chernobyl on the second day after the disaster (after about 36 hours). By May 1986, about a month later, all those living within a radius of the plant (about 116,000 people) had been relocated. This area is often referred to as the zone of alienation. However, radiation affected the environment over a much wider scale than this 30 km radius encloses.
According to reports from Soviet scientists, 28,000 square kilometers (km2, or 10,800 square miles, mi2) were contaminated by caesium-137 to levels greater than 185 kBq per square meter. 830,000 people lived in this area. About 10,500 km 2 (4,000 mi2) were contaminated by caesium-137 to levels greater than 555 kBq/m2. Of this total, roughly 7,000 km2 (2,700 mi2) lie in Belarus, 2,000 km2 (800 mi2) in the Russian Federation and 1,500 km2 (580 mi2) in Ukraine. About 250,000 people lived in this area. These reported data were corroborated by the International Chernobyl Project.
Civilians
Some children in the contaminated areas were exposed to high thyroid doses of up to 50 gray (Gy), mostly due to an intake of radioactive iodine-131 (a relatively short-lived isotope with a half-life of 8 days) from contaminated milk produced locally. Several studies have found that the incidence of thyroid cancer among children in Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia has risen since the Chernobyl disaster. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) notes "1800 documented cases of thyroid cancer in children who were between 0 and 14 years of age when the disaster occurred, which is far higher than normal", although this source fails to note the expected rate. The childhood thyroid cancers that have appeared are of an aggressive type but, if detected early, can be treated. Treatment entails surgery followed by iodine-131 therapy for any metastases. To date, such treatment appears to have been successful in the vast majority of cases.
Late in 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) linked nearly 700 cases of thyroid cancer among children and adolescents to the Chernobyl disaster, and among these, some 10 deaths are attributed to radiation. However, the rapid increase in thyroid cancers detected suggests some of this increase may be an artifact of the screening process. Typical latency time of radiation-induced thyroid cancer is about 10 years, but the increase in childhood thyroid cancers in some regions was observed as early as 1987.
Plant and animal health
A swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the Red Forest. The dead pines were bulldozed and buried. Livestock were removed during the human evacuations. Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radioactivity were examined in various natural food stocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were banned for resale and landowners were advised not to consume certain types.
Animals living in contaminated areas in and around Chernobyl developed side effects caused by the initial levels of radiation. When the disaster first occurred, the health and reproductive ability of animals and plants were negatively affected for the first six months.
Invertebrate populations (including bumblebees, butterflies, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and spiders) decreased. As of 2009, most radioactivity around Chernobyl was located in the top layer of soil, where many invertebrates live or lay their eggs.
Radionuclides migrate through either soil diffusion or transportation within the soil solution. The effects of ionizing radiation on plants and trees in particular depends on factors that include climatic conditions, the mechanism of radiation deposition, and the soil type. Altitude, soil disturbance, and biological activity are also factors that influence the amount of radioisotopes in soil. Radiated vegetation affects organisms further up the food chain. Upper-level trophic organisms may have received less contamination, due to their ability to be more mobile and feed from multiple areas.
The amount of radioactive nuclides found to have been deposited into surrounding lakes has increased the normal baseline radioactive amounts by 100 percent. Most of the radionuclides in surrounding water areas were found in the sediments at the bottom of the lakes. There has been a high incidence of chromosomal changes in plant and animal aquatic organisms, and this generally has correlated with the contamination and resulting genetic instability. Most of the lakes and rivers surrounding the Chernobyl exclusion zone are still contaminated with radionuclides (and will be for many years to come) as the natural decontamination processes of nuclides with longer half-lives can take years.
One of the mechanisms by which radionuclides were passed to humans was through the ingestion of milk from contaminated cows. Most of the rough grazing that the cows took part in contained plant species such as coarse grasses, sedges, rushes, and plants such as heather (also known as Calluna vulgaris). These plant species grow in soils that are high in organic matter, low in pH, and are often well hydrated, thus making the storage and intake of these radionuclides more feasible and efficient.
Shortly after the Chernobyl accident, high levels of radionuclides were found in the milk and were a direct result of contaminated feeding. Within two months of banning most of the milk that was being produced in the affected areas, officials had phased out the majority of the contaminated feed that was available to the cows and much of the contamination was isolated. In humans, ingestion of milk containing abnormally high levels of iodine radionuclides was the precursor for thyroid disease, especially in children and in the immunocompromised.
Due to the bioaccumulation of caesium-137, some mushrooms as well as wild animals which eat them, e.g. wild boars hunted in Germany and deer in Austria, may have levels which are not considered safe for human consumption. Mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in parts of the UK that graze on lands with contaminated peat was lifted in 2012.
While effects on the immediate physical health of individual animals within the affected area tended to be negative, population levels of animals in the affected areas began to increase following the evacuation of humans.
In the 1996 BBC Horizon documentary 'Inside Chernobyl's Sarcophagus', birds are seen flying in and out of large holes in the structure itself. Other casual observations also reported an increase in biodiversity due to the reduced human presence.
Human pregnancy
Despite spurious studies from Germany and Turkey, the only robust evidence of negative pregnancy outcomes that transpired after the accident was the increase in elective abortions, these "indirect effects", in Greece, Denmark, Italy etc., have been attributed to "anxieties created" by the media.
Researchers at the time knew that high doses of radiation increase the rate of physiological pregnancy and fetal abnormalities, but select researchers who were familiar with both the prior human exposure data and animal testing knew that, unlike the dominant linear no-threshold model of radiation and cancer rate increases, the "Malformation of organs appears to be a deterministic effect (an effect not caused by chance) with a threshold dose" below which no rate increase is observed. Frank Castronovo of the Harvard Medical School discussed this teratology (birth defects) issue in 1999, publishing a review of dose reconstructions and the available pregnancy data following the Chernobyl accident, which included data from Kiyv's two largest obstetrics hospitals.
Castronovo concludes that "the lay press with newspaper reporters playing up anecdotal stories of children with birth defects" and dubious studies flawed by "selection bias", are the two primary factors causing the persistent belief that Chernobyl increased the background rate of birth defects. However, the data does not support this perception because, since no pregnant individuals took part in the most radioactive liquidator operations, no pregnant individuals were exposed to the threshold dose.
Despite Castronovo's statements, Karl Sperling, Heidemarie Neitzel and Hagen Scherb reported that the prevalence of Down syndrome (trisomy 21) in West Berlin, Germany, peaked 9 months following the main fallout.[ 11, 12] From 1980 to 1986 the birth prevalence of Down syndrome was quite stable (i.e., 1.35–1.59 per 1,000 live births [27–31 cases]). In 1987, 46 cases were diagnosed (prevalence = 2.11 per 1,000 live births) and most of the increase resulted from a cluster of 12 children born in January 1987. The prevalence of Down Syndrome in 1988 was 1.77, and in 1989, it reached pre-Chernobyl values. The authors noted that the cluster of children would have been conceived when radioactive clouds containing radionucleotides with short half-lives, like iodine, would have been covering the region and also that the isolated geographical position of West Berlin prior to reunification, the free genetic counseling, and complete coverage of the population through one central cytogenetic laboratory supported completeness of case ascertainment; in addition, constant culture preparation and analysis protocols ensure a high quality of data.
Long-term health effects
Science and politics: the problem of epidemiological studies
The issue of long-term effects of the Chernobyl disaster on civilians is controversial. Over 300,000 people were resettled because of the disaster. Millions lived and continue to live in the contaminated area. On the other hand, most of those affected received relatively low doses of radiation; there is little evidence of increased mortality, cancers or birth defects among them; and when such evidence is present, existence of a causal link to radioactive contamination is uncertain.
An increased incidence of thyroid cancer among children in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia affected by the Chernobyl disaster has been established as a result of screening programs and, in the case of Belarus, an established cancer registry. The findings of most epidemiological studies must be considered interim, say experts, as analysis of the health effects of the disaster is an ongoing process. Multilevel modelling indicates that long-term psychological distress among Belarusians affected by the Chernobyl disaster is better predicted by stress-moderating psychosocial factors present in one's daily life than by level of residential radiation contamination.
Epidemiological studies have been hampered in Ukraine, Russian Federation and Belarus by a lack of funds, an infrastructure with little experience in chronic disease epidemiology, poor communication facilities, public health issues and a political culture of secrecy and deception. Emphasis has been placed on screening rather than on well-designed epidemiological studies. International efforts to organize such studies have been slowed in particular by the lack of a suitable scientific infrastructure.
The political nature of nuclear energy has affected scientific studies. In Belarus, Yury Bandazhevsky, a scientist who questioned the official estimates of Chernobyl's consequences and the relevancy of the official maximum limit of 1,000 Bq/kg, was imprisoned from 2001 to 2005. Bandazhevsky and some human rights groups allege his imprisonment was a reprisal for his publication of reports critical of the official research being conducted into the Chernobyl incident.
The activities undertaken by Belarus and Ukraine in response to the disaster — remediation of the environment, evacuation and resettlement, development of uncontaminated food sources and food distribution channels, and public health measures — have overburdened the governments of those countries. International agencies and foreign governments have provided logistic and humanitarian assistance. In addition, the work of the European Commission and World Health Organization in strengthening the epidemiological research infrastructure in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus is laying the basis for advances in these countries' general ability to conduct epidemiological studies.
Caesium radioisotopes
The main health concern initially involved radioactive iodine, with a half-life of eight days. Today, there is concern about contamination of the soil with strontium-90 and caesium-137, which have half-lives of about 30 years. The highest levels of caesium-137 are found in the surface layers of the soil where they are absorbed by plants, insects and mushrooms, which then enter the local food supply ). Some scientists fear that radioactivity will affect the local population for the next several generations. Note that caesium is not mobile in most soils because it binds to the clay minerals.
Tests () showed that caesium-137 levels in trees were continuing to rise. It is unknown if this is still the case. There is evidence that contamination is migrating into underground aquifers and closed bodies of water such as lakes and ponds (2001, Germenchuk). The main source of elimination is predicted to be natural decay of caesium-137 to stable barium-137, since runoff by rain and groundwater has been demonstrated to be negligible. In 2021, Italian researcher Venturi reported the first correlations between caesium-137, pancreas and pancreatic cancer with the role of non-radioactive caesium in biology and of caesium-137 in chronic pancreatitis and in diabetes of pancreatic origin (Type 3c).
Thyroid cancer
An increased incidence of thyroid cancer was observed for about 4 years after the accident and slowed in 2005. The increase in incidence of thyroid cancer happened amongst individuals who were adolescents and young children living during the time of the accident, and residing in the most contaminated areas. High levels of radioactive iodine were released in the environment from the Chernobyl reactor after the accident, and accumulated in pastures which were eaten by cows. The milk was later consumed by children who already had an iodine deficient diet, therefore causing more of the radioactive iodine to be accumulated. Radioactive iodine has a short half-life, 8.02 days, if the contaminated milk had been avoided or stopped, it is likely that most of the rise in radiation-induced thyroid cancer wouldn't have happened.
Within the highly contaminated areas – Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, there were around 5000 cases of thyroid cancer that have been diagnosed since the accident. These cases were found in individuals who were aged 18 and younger during the time of the accident.
Supported by the Russian Federation and Ukraine, The European Commission, the National Cancer Institute of the US, and the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation, The Chernobyl Tissue Bank (CTB) was created in 1998, 6 years after published research showed a rise in childhood thyroid cancer. The project is the first international co-operation that collects biological samples from patients exposed to radioiodine during childhood. It started collecting a variety of biological samples from patients on 1 October 1998 and since July 2001 has been a source for ethically available tissue samples - specifically extracted nucleic acids and tissue sections - for 21 research projects in Japan, Europe and the USA. The CTB serves as a model for tissue banking for cancer research in the molecular age.
Contamination in the food supply
Twenty-five years after the incident, restriction orders had remained in place in the production, transportation and consumption of food contaminated by Chernobyl fallout. In the UK, only in 2012 was the mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in contaminated parts of the UK that graze on lands was lifted. They covered 369 farms on 750 km2 and 200,000 sheep. In parts of Sweden and Finland, restrictions are in place on stock animals, including reindeer, in natural and near-natural environments.
"In certain regions of Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania and Poland, wild game (including boar and deer), wild mushrooms, berries and carnivorous fish from lakes reach levels of several thousand Bq per kg of caesium-137", while "in Germany, caesium-137 levels in wild boar muscle reached 40,000 Bq/kg. The average level is 6,800 Bq/kg, more than ten times the EU limit of 600 Bq/kg", according to the TORCH 2006 report. The European Commission has stated that "The restrictions on certain foodstuffs from certain Member States must therefore continue to be maintained for years to come".
As of 2009, sheep farmed in some areas of the UK are still subject to inspection which may lead to them being prohibited from entering the human food chain because of contamination arising from the accident:
369 farms and 190,000 sheep are still affected, a reduction of 95% since 1986, when 9,700 farms and 4,225,000 sheep were under restriction across the United Kingdom.
Restrictions were finally lifted in 2012.
In Norway, the Sami people were affected by contaminated food (the reindeer had been contaminated by eating lichen, which accumulates some types of radioactivity emitters).
Data from a long-term monitoring program from 1998 to 2015 (The Korma Report II) shows a significant decrease in internal radiation exposure of the inhabitants of small villages in Belarus 80 km north of Gomel. Resettlement may even be possible in parts of the prohibited areas provided that people comply with appropriate dietary rules.
A 2021 study based on whole-genome sequencing of children of parents employed as liquidators in Chernobyl indicated no trans-generational genetic effects of exposure of parents to ionizing radiation.
Long-term effects on plant and animal health
Over time there have been many reports documenting and discussing the prevalence and health of plants and animals within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone.
The absence of humans from the Exclusion Zone has made it attractive to wildlife, which now inhabit the area in larger numbers. This has led some scientists and reporters to describe the area as a natural wildlife sanctuary, and to enthuse about the ability of wildlife in the area to recover.
However, the mere presence of wildlife does not present a complete picture: the ongoing health of individuals and the health of the ecosystems in which they live are also of concern. These issues are difficult to study because many factors interact. Radiologic tolerance and the effects of fallout contamination vary with different species. In addition to ongoing low-dose radiation and quality of local habitat, it has been suggested that fauna in the area may inherit a higher likelihood for genetic damage from ancestors affected by the initial high doses of radiation.
Radiation levels
According to reports from Soviet scientists at the First International Conference on the Biological and Radiological Aspects of the Chernobyl Accident (September 1990), fallout levels in the 10 km zone around the plant were as high as 4.81 GBq/m2. The so-called "Red Forest" (or "Rusted Forest") is the swath of pine trees, located immediately behind the reactor complex within the 10 km zone, which were killed off by heavy radioactive fallout. The forest is so named because in the days following the disaster the trees appeared to have a deep red hue as they died because of extremely heavy radioactive fallout. In the post-disaster cleanup operations, a majority of the 10 km2 forest was bulldozed and buried. The site of the Red Forest remains one of the most contaminated areas in the world.
Population density
In the decades following the evacuation of its human population due to the disaster, the 30 km (19-mile) "exclusion zone" surrounding the Chernobyl disaster has become a de facto wildlife sanctuary. Animals have reclaimed the land including species such as the Przewalski's horse, Eurasian lynx, wild boar, grey wolf, elk, red deer, moose, brown bear, turtle, voles, mice, shrews, European badger, Eurasian beaver, raccoon dog, red fox, roe deer, European bison, black stork, golden eagle, white-tailed eagle and eagle owl.
A 2015 study found similar numbers of mammals in the zone compared to nearby similar nature reserves.
Long-term empirical data showed no evidence of a negative influence of radiation on mammal abundance.
In 2007, the Ukrainian government designated the Exclusion Zone as a wildlife sanctuary, and at 488.7 km2 it is one of the largest wildlife sanctuaries in Europe.
In 2016, the Ukrainian government designated its part of the area as a radiological and environmental biosphere reserve as part of a six-year project funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
Health impacts
According to a 2005 U.N. report, wildlife has returned despite radiation levels that are presently 10 to 100 times higher than normal background radiation. Radiation levels were significantly higher soon after the accident, but have fallen since then because of radioactive decay.
While there are demonstrably populations of a wide variety of species within the zone, there are still concerns about the ongoing health of individuals within those populations and their ability to reproduce.
Møller and Mousseau have published the results of the largest census of animal life in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. It said, contrary to the Chernobyl Forum's 2005 report that the biodiversity of insects, birds and mammals in the exclusion zone is declining.
Møller et al. (2005) suggested that the reproductive success and annual survival rates of barn swallows are lower in the Exclusion Zone; 28% of barn swallows inhabiting Chernobyl return each year, while at a control area at Kanev, 250 km to the southeast, the return rate is around 40%.
Barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) sampled between 1991 and 2006 in the Chernobyl exclusion zone are also claimed to display an increased rate of physical abnormalities compared to swallows from uncontaminated areas. Møller et al. (2007) reported an elevated frequency of eleven categories of physical abnormalities including
such as partially albinistic plumage, deformed toes, tumors, deformed tail feathers, deformed beaks, and deformed air sacks. Abnormal barn swallows mated with lower frequency, and had a reduced viability in the wild and a decrease in fitness. Effects were attributed to radiation exposure and elevated teratogenic effects of radioactive isotopes in the environment.
Smith et al. (2008) have disputed Møller's findings and instead proposed that a lack of human influence in the Exclusion Zone locally reduced the swallows' insect prey and that radiation levels across the vast majority of the exclusion zone are now too low to have an observable negative effect. The criticisms were responded to in the same issue by Møller et al. (2008). It is possible that barn swallows are vulnerable to elevated levels of ionizing radiation because they are migratory; they arrive in the exclusion area exhausted and with depleted reserves of radio-protective antioxidants after their journey.
Oxidative stress and low levels of antioxidants can affect the development of the nervous system, including reduced brain size and impaired cognitive abilities. It has been reported that birds living in contaminated areas have smaller brains, which has shown to be a deficit to viability in the wild.
Possible adaptation
It has been suggested that some plants and animals are able to adapt to the increased radiation levels present in and around Chernobyl.
Further research is needed to assess the long-term health effects of elevated ionizing radiation from Chernobyl on flora and fauna.
Several research groups have suggested that plants in the area have adapted to cope with the high radiation levels, for example by increasing the activity of DNA cellular repair machinery and by hypermethylation.
Arabidopsis, a plant native to Chernobyl, was able to resist high concentrations of ionizing radiation and resist forming mutations. This species of plant has been able to develop mechanisms to tolerate chronic radiation that would otherwise be harmful or lethal to other species.
Various birds in the area may have adapted to lower levels of radiation by producing more antioxidants, such as glutathione, to help mitigate oxidative stress.
Using robots, researchers have retrieved samples of highly melanized black fungus from the walls of the reactor core itself. It has been shown that certain species of fungus, such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Cladosporium, can actually thrive in a radioactive environment, growing better than non-melanized variants, implying that they use melanin to harness the energy of ionizing radiation from the reactor.
Chernobyl Forum report and criticisms
In September 2005, a comprehensive report was published by the Chernobyl Forum, composed of agencies that included the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. This report titled: "Chernobyl's legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts", authored by about 100 recognized experts, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the disaster around 4,000, of which 2,200 deaths are expected to be in the ranks of 200,000 liquidators. This predicted death toll includes the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster, nine children who died from thyroid cancer and an estimated 4000 people who could die from cancer as a result of exposure to radiation. This number was updated to 9,000 excess cancer deaths.
An IAEA press officer admitted that the 4,000 figure was given prominence in the report "...to counter the much higher estimates which had previously been seen. ... "It was a bold action to put out a new figure that was much less than conventional wisdom.""
The report stated that, apart from a 30 kilometre area around the site and a few restricted lakes and forests, radiation levels had returned to acceptable levels.
The methodology of the Chernobyl Forum report, supported by Elisabeth Cardis of the International Agency for Research on Cancer, has been disputed by some advocacy organizations opposed to nuclear energy, such as Greenpeace and the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), as well as some individuals such as Michel Fernex, retired medical doctor from the WHO, and campaigner Dr. Christopher Busby (Green Audit, LLRC). They criticized the restriction of the Forum's study to Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Furthermore, it only studied the case of 200,000 people involved in the cleanup, and the 400,000 most directly affected by the released radioactivity. German Green Party Member of the European Parliament Rebecca Harms, commissioned a report on Chernobyl in 2006 (TORCH, The Other Report on Chernobyl). The 2006 TORCH report claimed that:
While the IAEA/WHO and UNSCEAR considered areas with exposure greater than 40,000 Bq/m2, the TORCH report also included areas contaminated with more than 4,000 Bq/m2 of Cs-137.
The TORCH 2006 report "estimated that more than half the iodine-131 from Chernobyl [which increases the risk of thyroid cancer] was deposited outside the former Soviet Union. Possible increases in thyroid cancer have been reported in the Czech Republic and the UK, but more research is needed to evaluate thyroid cancer incidences in Western Europe". It predicted about 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths, 7 to 15 Times greater than the figure of 4,000 in the IAEA press release; warned that predictions of excess cancer deaths strongly depend on the risk factor used; and predicted excess cases of thyroid cancer range between 18,000 and 66,000 in Belarus alone depending on the risk projection model. Elevated incidence thyroid cancer is still seen among Ukrainians who were exposed to radioactivity due to Chernobyl accident during their childhood, but who were diagnosed the malignancy as adults.
Another study claims possible heightened mortality in Sweden.
Greenpeace quoted a 1998 WHO study, which counted 212 dead from only 72,000 liquidators. The environmental NGO estimated a total death toll of 93,000 but cite in their report that "The most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine alone the disaster could have resulted in an estimated 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004." In its report, Greenpeace suggested there will be 270,000 cases of cancer alone attributable to Chernobyl fallout, and that 93,000 of these will probably be fatal compare with the IAEA 2005 report which claimed that "99% of thyroid cancers wouldn't be lethal".
In 2006, the Union Chernobyl, the main organization of liquidators, stated that 10% of the 600,000 liquidators were dead, and 165,000 disabled.
An April 2006 report by the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), entitled "Health Effects of Chernobyl - 20 years after the reactor catastrophe", stated that more than 10,000 people are today affected by thyroid cancer and 50,000 cases are expected. In Europe, the IPPNW claims that 10,000 deformities have been observed in newborns because of Chernobyl's radioactive discharge, with 5,000 deaths among newborn children. They also state that several hundreds of thousands of the people who worked on the site after the disaster are now sick because of radiation, and tens of thousands are dead.
Revisiting the issue for the 25th anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster, the Union of Concerned Scientists described the Forum's estimate of four thousand as pertaining only to "a much smaller subgroup of people who experienced the greatest exposure to released radiation". Their estimates for the broader population are 50,000 excess cancer cases resulting in 25,000 excess cancer deaths.
Human health effects Studies
The majority of premature deaths caused by Chernobyl are expected to be the result of cancers and other diseases induced by radiation in the decades after the event. This will be the result of a large population exposed to relatively low doses of radiation increasing the risk of cancer across that population. Some studies have considered the entire population of Europe. Interpretations of the current health state of exposed populations vary. Therefore, estimates of the ultimate human impact of the disaster have relied on numerical models of the effects of radiation on health. The effects of low-level radiation on human health are not well understood, and so the models used, notably the linear no threshold model, are open to question.
Given these factors, studies of Chernobyl's health effects have come up with different conclusions and are sometimes the subject of scientific and political controversy. The following section presents some of the major studies on this topic.
Official studies
Chernobyl Forum report
In September 2005, a draft summary report by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of UN agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), other UN bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, set the number of deaths due to the accident at about 50 (47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome and 9 children who died from thyroid cancer), and added that a "total of up to 4000 people could eventually die of radiation exposure from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident" (excess cancer deaths which might eventually happen among the 600,000 with the highest levels of exposure.).
The full version of the WHO health effects report adopted by the UN, published in April 2006, included an added 5000 eventually possible fatalities from contaminated areas in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine and predicted that, in total, an upper limit of 9000 might eventually die from cancer among the 6.9 million most-exposed Soviet citizens. Some newspapers and antinuclear organizations claimed the paper was minimizing the consequences of the accident.
2008 UNSCEAR report
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) produced a detailed report on the effects of Chernobyl for the General Assembly of the UN in 2011. This report concluded that 134 staff and emergency workers developed acute radiation syndrome and of those 28 died of radiation exposure within three months. Many of the survivors developed skin conditions and radiation induced cataracts, and 19 had since died, but from conditions not necessarily associated with radiation exposure. Of the several hundred thousand liquidators, apart from some emerging indications of increased leukaemia, there was no other evidence of health effects.
In the general public in the affected areas, the only effect with 'persuasive evidence' was the fraction of the 6,000 cases of thyroid cancer in adolescents of whom by 2005 15 cases had proved fatal. There was no evidence of increased rates of solid cancers or leukaemia among the general population. However, there was psychological worry about the effects of radiation.
The total deaths reliably attributable by UNSCEAR to the radiation produced by the accident therefore was 62.
The report concluded that 'the vast majority of the population need not live in fear of serious health consequences from the Chernobyl accident'.
Unofficial studies
TORCH report
In 2006 German Green Party Member of the European Parliament Rebecca Harms commissioned UK scientists Ian Fairlie and David Sumner for an alternate report (TORCH, The Other Report on CHernobyl) in response to the UN report. The report included areas not covered by the Chernobyl forum report, and also lower radiation doses. It predicted about 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths and warned that predictions of excess cancer deaths strongly depend on the risk factor used, and urged more research stating that large uncertainties made it difficult to properly assess the full scale of the disaster.
In 2016, an updated TORCH report was written by Ian Fairlie with support of Friends of the Earth Austria.
Greenpeace
Greenpeace claimed contradictions in the Chernobyl Forum reports, quoting a 1998 WHO study referenced in the 2005 report, which projected 212 dead from 72,000 liquidators. In its report, Greenpeace suggested there will be 270,000 cases of cancer attributable to Chernobyl fallout, and that 93,000 of these will probably be fatal, but state in their report that "The most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine alone the accident could have resulted in an estimated 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004."
Blake Lee-Harwood, campaigns director at Greenpeace, believes that cancer was likely to be the cause of less than half of the final fatalities and that "intestinal problems, heart and circulation problems, respiratory problems, endocrine problems, and particularly effects on the immune system," will also cause fatalities. However, concern has been expressed about the methods used in compiling the Greenpeace report. It is not peer reviewed nor does it rely on peer review science as the Chernobyl Forum report did.
April 2006 IPPNW report
According to an April 2006 report by the German affiliate of the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), entitled "Health Effects of Chernobyl", more than 10,000 people are today affected by thyroid cancer and 50,000 cases are expected. The report projected tens of thousands dead among the liquidators. In Europe, it alleges that 10,000 deformities have been observed in newborns because of Chernobyl's radioactive discharge, with 5000 deaths among newborn children. They also claimed that several hundreds of thousands of the people who worked on the site after the accident are now sick because of radiation, and tens of thousands are dead.
Yablokov/Nesterenko publication
Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment is an English translation of the 2007 Russian publication Chernobyl by Alexey Yablokov, Vassily Nesterenko and Alexey Nesterenko. It was published online in 2009 by the New York Academy of Sciences in their Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. The New York Academy of Sciences included a disclaimer to inform readers it did not commission, endorse or peer review the work.
"In no sense did Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences or the New York Academy of Sciences commission this work; nor by its publication does the Academy validate the claims made in the original Slavic language publications cited in the translated papers. Importantly, the translated volume has not been formally peer‐reviewed by the New York Academy of Sciences or by anyone else."
The report presents an analysis of scientific literature and concludes that medical records between 1986, the year of the accident, and 2004 reflect 985,000 deaths as a result of the radioactivity released. The authors suggest that most of the deaths were in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, but others were spread through the many other countries the radiation from Chernobyl struck. The literature analysis draws on over 1,000 published titles and over 5,000 internet and printed publications discussing the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. The authors contend that those publications and papers were written by Eastern European authorities and have been downplayed or ignored by the IAEA and UNSCEAR. Author Alexy V. Yablokov was also one of the general editors on the Greenpeace commissioned report also criticizing the Chernobyl Forum findings published one year prior to the Russian-language version of this report.
A critical review by Dr. Monty Charles in the journal Radiation Protection Dosimetry states that Consequences is a direct extension of the 2005 Greenpeace report, updated with data of unknown quality. The New York Academy of Sciences also published a severely critical review by M. I. Balonov from the Institute of Radiation Hygiene (St. Petersburg, Russia) which stated that "The value of [Consequences] is not zero, but negative, as its bias is obvious only to specialists, while inexperienced readers may well be put into deep error." Several other critical responses have also been published.
In 2016, 187 local Ukrainians had returned and were living permanently in the zone.
Higher than statistically normal appearances of defects
The American Academy of Pediatrics published a study state that the overall rate of neural tube defects in the Rivne region of Ukraine is one of the highest in Europe (22 per 10,000 live births). The rate in Polissia (Ukraine) is 27.0 per 10,000. The study suggested that rates of microcephaly and microphthalmia may also be higher than normal.
Other studies and claims
The claim is made, by Collette Thomas, writing on 24 April 2006, that someone in the Ukrainian Health Ministry claimed in 2006 that more than 2.4 million Ukrainians, including 428,000 children, have health problems related to the catastrophe. The claim appears to have been invented by her through interpretation of a webpage of the Kyiv Regional Administration. Psychological after-effects, as the 2006 UN report pointed out, have also had adverse effects on internally displaced persons.
In a recently published study scientists from Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany, published the "Korma-Report" with data of radiological long-term measurements that were performed between 1998 and 2007 in a region in Belarus that was affected by the Chernobyl accident. The internal radiation exposure of the inhabitants in a village in Korma County/Belarus caused by the existing radioactive contamination has experienced a decrease from a very high level. The external exposure, however, reveals a different picture. Although an overall decrease was observed, the organic constituents of the soil show an increase in contamination, not observed in soils from cultivated land or gardens. According to the Korma Report the internal dose will decrease to less than 0.2 mSv/a in 2011 and to below 0.1 mSv/a in 2020. Despite this, the cumulative dose will remain higher than "normal" due to external exposure. Resettlement may even be possible in former prohibited areas provided that people comply with appropriate dietary rules.
Study of heightened mortality in Sweden. But it must be pointed out that this study, and in particular the conclusions drawn has been very criticized.
One study reports increased levels of birth defects in Germany and Finland in the wake of the accident.
A change in the human sex ratio at birth from 1987 onward in several European countries has been linked to Chernobyl fallout.
In the Czech Republic, thyroid cancer has increased significantly after Chernobyl.
The Abstract of the April 2006 International Agency for Research on Cancer report Estimates of the cancer burden in Europe from radioactive fallout from the Chernobyl accident stated "It is unlikely that the cancer burden from the largest radiological accident to date could be detected by monitoring national cancer statistics. Indeed, results of analyses of time trends in cancer incidence and mortality in Europe do not, at present, indicate any increase in cancer rates – other than of thyroid cancer in the most contaminated regions – that can be clearly attributed to radiation from the Chernobyl accident." They estimate, based on the linear no threshold model of cancer effects, that 16,000 excess cancer deaths could be expected from the effects of the Chernobyl accident up to 2065. Their estimates have very wide 95% confidence intervals from 6,700 deaths to 38,000.
The application of the linear no threshold model to predict deaths from low levels of exposure to radiation was disputed in a BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) Horizon documentary, broadcast on 13 July 2006. It offered statistical evidence to suggest that there is an exposure threshold of about 200 millisieverts, below which there is no increase in radiation-induced disease. Indeed, it went further, reporting research from Professor Ron Chesser of Texas Tech University, which suggests that low exposures to radiation can have a protective effect. The program interviewed scientists who believe that the increase in thyroid cancer in the immediate area of the explosion had been over-recorded, and predicted that the estimates for widespread deaths in the long term would be proved wrong. It noted the view of the World Health Organization scientist Dr Mike Rapacholi that, while most cancers can take decades to manifest, leukemia manifests within a decade or so: none of the previously expected peak of leukemia deaths has been found, and none is now expected. Identifying the need to balance the "fear response" in the public's reaction to radiation, the program quoted Dr Peter Boyle, director of the IARC: "Tobacco smoking will cause several thousand times more cancers in the [European] population."
An article in Der Spiegel in April 2016 also cast doubt on the use of the linear no threshold model to predict cancer rates from Chernobyl. The article claimed that the threshold for radiation damage was over 100 millisieverts and reported initial results of large-scale trials in Germany by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research and three other German institutes in 2016 showing beneficial results of decreasing inflammation and strengthening bones from lower radiation doses.
Professor Wade Allison of Oxford University (a lecturer in medical physics and particle physics) gave a talk on ionising radiation 24 November 2006 in which he gave an approximate figure of 81 cancer deaths from Chernobyl (excluding 28 cases from acute radiation exposure and the thyroid cancer deaths which he regards as "avoidable"). In a closely reasoned argument using statistics from therapeutic radiation, exposure to elevated natural radiation (the presence of radon gas in homes) and the diseases of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors he demonstrated that the linear no-threshold model should not be applied to low-level exposure in humans, as it ignores the well-known natural repair mechanisms of the body.
A photographic essay by photojournalist Paul Fusco documents problems in the children in the Chernobyl region. No evidence is offered to suggest these problems are in any way related to the nuclear incident
The work of photojournalist Michael Forster Rothbart documents the human impact of the disaster on residents who stayed in the affected area.
Bandashevsky measured levels of radioisotopes in children who had died in the Minsk area that had received Chernobyl fallout, and the cardiac findings were the same as those seen in test animals that had been administered Cs-137.
French legal action
Since March 2001, 400 lawsuits have been filed in France against "X" (the French equivalent of John Doe, an unknown person or company) by the French Association of Thyroid-affected People, including 200 in April 2006. These persons are affected by thyroid cancer or goitres, and have filed lawsuits alleging that the French government, at the time led by Prime Minister Jacques Chirac, had not adequately informed the population of the risks linked to the Chernobyl radioactive fallout. The complaint contrasts the health protection measures put in place in nearby countries, warning against consumption of green vegetables or milk by children and pregnant women, with the relatively high contamination suffered by the east of France and Corsica. Although the 2006 study by the French Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety said that no clear link could be found between Chernobyl and the increase of thyroid cancers in France, it also stated that papillary thyroid cancer had tripled in the following years.
International response
After the Chernobyl Disaster, a number of countries were reluctant to expand their nuclear programs. Italy and Switzerland tried to ban nuclear power all together. Other countries, such as the Netherlands and Finland postponed the addition of nuclear power plants. The disaster reaffirmed policy made by Austria and Sweden to terminate use of all nuclear energy. Germany set up regulatory organizations and new policy including the Federal Ministry of Environment and Reactor Safety and a new act for precaution protection against nuclear radiation.
Policy levers were not only implemented on a national level, but on an international level as well. In June 1986, the European Community implemented new standards for cesium. They attempted to do the same for iodine, but could not reach an agreement. Several international programs were formed, including the World Association of Nuclear Operators. This association essentially linked 130 operators in 30 countries. Nuclear engineers would visit nuclear plants worldwide to learn and work towards better safety precautions.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), established in 1957, created the Nuclear Safety Assistance Coordination Centre, which serves as an example of the international, multilateral cooperation resulting from the disaster (World Nuclear, 2016). They created the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency. Nations called for a more comprehensive set of obligatory regulations for nuclear power plants from safe management of installation to safe management of radioactive waste. They created the Joint Convention of Safety of Spent Fuel Management in which obliged nations to create proper policy to control nuclear power plant management.
See also
References
External links
Animated map of radioactive cloud, French IRSN (official Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire — Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety)
Chernobyl animals worse affected than thought: study
25 years of satellite imagery over Chernobyl
Radiation health effects
Environment of Ukraine
Health in the Soviet Union
Environment of the Soviet Union |
4155495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community-led%20total%20sanitation | Community-led total sanitation | Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) is an approach used mainly in developing countries to improve sanitation and hygiene practices in a community. The approach tries to achieve behavior change in mainly rural people by a process of "triggering", leading to spontaneous and long-term abandonment of open defecation practices. It focuses on spontaneous and long-lasting behavior change of an entire community. The term "triggering" is central to the CLTS process: It refers to ways of igniting community interest in ending open defecation, usually by building simple toilets, such as pit latrines. CLTS involves actions leading to increased self-respect and pride in one's community. It also involves shame and disgust about one's own open defecation behaviors. CLTS takes an approach to rural sanitation that works without hardware subsidies and that facilitates communities to recognize the problem of open defecation and take collective action to clean up and become "open defecation free".
The concept was developed around the year 2000 by Kamal Kar for rural areas in Bangladesh. CLTS became an established approach around 2011. Non-governmental organizations were often in the lead when CLTS was first introduced in a country. Local governments may reward communities by certifying them with "open defecation free" (ODF) status. The original concept of CLTS purposefully did not include subsidies for toilets as they might hinder the process.
CLTS is practiced in at least 53 countries. CLTS has been adapted to the urban context. It has also been applied to post-emergency and fragile states settings.
Challenges associated with CLTS include the risk of human rights infringements within communities, low standards for toilets, and concerns about usage rates in the long-term. CLTS is in principle compatible with a human rights based approach to sanitation but there are bad practice examples in the name of CLTS. More rigorous coaching of CLTS practitioners, government public health staff and local leaders on issues such as stigma, awareness of social norms and pre-existing inequalities are important. People who are disadvantaged should benefit from CLTS programmes as effectively as those who are not disadvantaged.
Definitions
Open defecation is the practice of defecating out in the open, rather than using a toilet.
"Open defecation free" (ODF) is a central term for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. It primarily means the eradication of open defecation in the entire community. However, ODF can also include the additional criteria, such as:
Household latrines or toilets are hygienic, provide the safe containment of feces, offer privacy and a roof to protect the user, have a lid to cover the hole, or a water seal for toilets.
All household members and all members of the community use these latrines or toilets.
A handwashing facility with water, soap or ash is nearby and used regularly.
Even more stringent criteria which may be required before a community is awarded "ODF status" might include:
Safe drinking water and storage.
Food hygiene.
Greywater disposal.
Solid waste management.
Provision of toilets for schools, markets, clinic or visitors to the community.
Aims and rationale
CLTS focuses on community-wide behavioural change, rather than merely toilet construction. The process raises the awareness that as long as even a minority continues to defecate in the open, everyone is at risk of disease. CLTS uses community-led methods, such as participatory mapping and analyzing pathways between feces and the mouth (fecal–oral transmission of disease), as a means of teaching the risks associated with OD.
The concept originally focused mainly on provoking shame and disgust about open defecation. It also involved actions leading to increased self-respect and pride in one's community. With time, CLTS evolved away from provoking negative emotions to educating people about how open defecation increases the risk of disease. Currently, CLTS triggering events focus more on promoting self-respect and pride.
CLTS shifted the focus on personal responsibility and low-cost solutions. CLTS aims to totally stop open defecation within a community rather than facilitating improved sanitation only to selected households. Combined with hygiene education, the approach aims to make the entire community realise the severe health impacts of open defecation. Since individual carelessness may affect the entire community, pressure on each person becomes stronger to follow sanitation principles such as using sanitary toilets, washing hands, and practising good hygiene. To introduce sanitation even in the poorest households, low-cost toilets are promoted, constructed with local materials. The purchase of the facility is not subsidised, so that every household must finance its own toilets.
Use or non-use of subsidies
Prior to CLTS, most traditional sanitation programs relied on the provision of subsidies for the construction of latrines and hygiene education. Under this framework, the subsidised facilities were expensive and often did not reach all members of a community. In addition, the subsidies may have reduced the feeling of personal responsibility for the toilets.
The original concept of CLTS did not include subsidies for toilets. CLTS proponents at that time believed that provoking behavior change in the people alone would be sufficient to lead them to take ownership of their own sanitation situation, including paying for and constructing their own toilets. This was not always the case.
Kamal Kar and Robert Chambers stated in their 2008 CLTS Handbook:
In time, NGOs and governments began to see the value of the approach and ran their own schemes in various countries, some with less aversion to subsidies than Kamal Kar.
Phases
Pre-triggering
Pre-triggering is the process by which communities are assessed to be suitable for CLTS intervention. This involves visits and a number of different criteria, which are used to identify communities likely to respond well to triggering. During pre-triggering, facilitators introduce themselves to community members and begin to build a relationship.
Triggering
A tool called "triggering" is used to propel people into taking action. This takes place over a day with a team of facilitators. The team visits a community which is identified as practicing open defecation and encourages villagers to become aware of their own sanitation situation. This aims to cause disgust in participants, and the facilitators help participants to plan appropriate sanitation facilities.
Using the term "shit" (or other locally used crude words) during triggering events or presentations – rather than feces or excreta – is a deliberate aspect of the CLTS approach, as it is meant to be a practical, straight forward approach rather than a theoretical, academic conversation.
The "CLTS Handbook" from 2008 states that there is no "one way" of doing triggering in CLTS. A rough sequence of steps is given in this handbook which could be followed. Facilitators are encouraged to modify and change activities depending on the local situation.
The UNICEF manual approved for use of CLTS in Sierra Leone suggests the following steps for the triggering process:
Visit the community, emphasising the purpose of learning about their sanitation situation
Facilitate "Kaka Mapping" – drawing a map of important locations in the village, then adding common sites for defecation
Pretend to leave
Facilitate a "Walk of Shame" to sites with frequent Open Defecation
Collect a piece of feces in a bag
Put feces on the ground where all present can see it, and discuss how flies move between food and feces
Wait for the shocked realization that the community is indirectly eating each other's feces
Put some feces into a water bottle and ask if anyone would drink it
Calculate how much feces is produced each day and ask where it goes
Ignition (see below)
Wait for the emergence of "Natural Leaders" to work with in order to develop a plan of action.
The "ignition" phase occurs when the community becomes convinced that there is a real sanitation problem, and motivated to do something about it. Natural Leaders are members of the community who are engaged by the process, and able to drive change.
The goal of the triggering process is to let people see the problem first-hand, thereby evoking disgust. However, it has been reported that communities which respond favorably tend to be motivated more by improved health, dignity, and pride than by shame or disgust.
Post-triggering
After a positive response to the ignition phase, NGO facilitators work with communities to deliver sanitation services by providing information and guidance relevant to the local situation.
There are many challenges that occur in the post-triggering phase. These are mainly related to the supply of durable and affordable latrine hardware and technical support on latrine construction. Toilet owners may need advice how to upgrade and improve sanitation and handwashing facilities using local materials.
Applications and scale
Millions of people worldwide have benefitted from CLTS which has resulted reductions in open defecation and increases in latrine coverage in many rural communities. Practitioners have declared many villages as "ODF villages", where ODF stands for "open defecation free".
CLTS is practiced in at least 53 countries. CLTS has spread throughout Bangladesh and to many other Asian and African countries with financial support from the Water and Sanitation Program of the World Bank, DFID, Plan International, WaterAid, CARE, UNICEF and SNV. Large INGOs and many national NGOs have also been involved. Many governments have in the meantime initiated CLTS processes or made it a matter of national policy.
Community-led Total Sanitation as an idea had grown beyond its founder and is now often being run in slightly different ways, e.g. in India, Pakistan, Philippines, Nepal, Sierra Leone and Zambia. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were often in the lead when CLTS was first introduced in a country. India was an exception – here the government led the somewhat similar "Total Sanitation Campaign" which has been turned into the "Clean India Mission" or Swachh Bharat Abhiyan in 2014.
CLTS as an idea now has many supporters around the world, with Robert Chambers, co-writer of the CLTS Foundation Handbook, describing it this way:
The Institute of Development Studies (IDS) coordinated research programme on CLTS since about 2007 and regards it as a "radically different approach to rural sanitation in developing countries which has shown promising successes where traditional rural sanitation programmes have failed".
Today there are many NGOs and research institutes with an interest in CLTS, including for example the CLTS Knowledge Hub of the Institute of Development Studies, the CLTS Foundation led by Kamal Kar, The World Bank, Wateraid, Plan USA and the Water Institute at UNC, SNV from the Netherlands and UNICEF.
Applications to urban situations, schools and other settings
Since about 2016, CLTS has been adapted to the urban context. For example, in Kenya the NGOs Plan and Practical Action have implemented a form of urban CLTS. CLTS has also been used in schools and the surrounding communities, which is referred to as "school-led total sanitation". The school children act as messengers of change to households.
CLTS has also been applied to post-emergency and fragile states settings. There has been some experience with this in Haiti, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Philippines and Indonesia. In 2014, UNICEF reported positive outcomes with CLTS in fragile and insecure contexts, namely in Somalia and South Sudan.
People who are disadvantaged should benefit from CLTS programmes as effectively as those who are not disadvantaged. This is referred to as equality and nondiscrimination (EQND).
Effectiveness
To be successful in the longer term, CLTS should be treated as part of a larger WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) strategy rather than as a singular solution to changing behavior.
A systematic review of 200 studies concluded in 2018 that the evidence base on CLTS effectiveness is still weak. This means that practitioners, policy makers, and program managers have little available evidence to inform their actions.
There is currently a lack of scientific review about the effectiveness of CLTS, although this has been changing since 2015. A study in 2012 reviewed reports by NGOs and practitioners and found that there was little review of the impact of local Natural Leaders, that anecdotes were used without assessing impacts, and that claims were made without supporting evidence. It concluded that these kinds of reports focus on the 'triggering' stage of CTLS instead of the measurable outcomes. A peer-reviewed article considered the sustainability of CLTS in the longer term: It found that there was little monitoring or evaluation of the impacts of CLTS, even though large international organizations were involved in funding the process.
Reviews about the effectiveness of CLTS to eliminate open defecation, reduce diarrhea and other gastrointestinal diseases, and decrease stunting in children are currently underway. In some cases, CLTS has been compared with India's Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) when assessing the effectiveness of the approach. However, this comparison may be invalid, as the presence of subsidies in the TSC process may fundamentally change the effectiveness of the CLTS process.
One small study compared different CLTS programmes. Participants from NGOs involved in delivering CLTS reported that although they included some of the activities described in the guidance materials, they often omitted some and included others depending on the local situation. Some reported that subsidies were included, and some offered specific design and construction options.
A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Mali conducted during 2011 to 2013 found that CLTS with no monetary subsidies did not affect diarrhea incidences, but substantially increased child growth (thereby reducing stunting), particularly in children under two years of age.
Challenges and difficulties
Human rights
The CLTS behavioral change process is based on the use of shame. This is meant to promote collective consciousness-raising of the severe impacts of open defecation and trigger shock and self-awareness when participants realize the implications of their actions. The triggering process can however infringe the human rights of recipients, even if this was not intended by those promoting CLTS. There have been cases of fines (monetary and non-monetary), withholding of entitlements, public taunting, posting of humiliating pictures and even violence. In some cases CLTS successes might be based on coercion only. On the other hand, CLTS is in principle compatible with a human rights based approach to sanitation but there are bad practice examples in the name of CLTS. More rigorous coaching of CLTS practitioners, government public health officials and local leaders on issues such as stigma, awareness of social norms and pre-existing inequalities are important.
Catarina de Alburquerque, the former United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Water and Sanitation, is quoted as saying that "Observers have also recognized that incentives for encouraging behavior change and the construction of latrines are sometimes unacceptable, and include public shaming, including photographing, of those who still practice open defecation."
More debate is still needed regarding humans rights consequences of post-triggering punitive measures.
Toilet standards and toilet types
CLTS does not specify technical standards for toilets. This is a benefit in terms of keeping the costs of constructing toilets very low and allowing villagers to start building their own toilets immediately. However, it can produce two problems: first in flood plains or areas near water tables, poorly constructed latrines are likely to contaminate the water table and thus represent little improvement. Second, long-term use of sanitation facilities is related to the pleasantness of the facilities, but dirty overflowing pits are unlikely to be utilised in the longer term. A related issue here is that CLTS does not address the issue of latrine emptying services or where they exist, how they dispose of waste. This has led some researchers to say that the success of CLTS is largely down to the cultural suitability of the way it is delivered and the degree to which supply-side constraints are addressed.
If villagers do not know about alternative toilet options (like urine-diverting dry toilets or composting toilets), and are not told about these options by the facilitators of the CLTS process, they may opt for pour flush pit latrines even in situations where groundwater pollution is a significant problem.
Reuse of treated excreta as fertiliser
Feces are given a strong negative connotation in the CLTS approach. This can cause confusion for villagers who are already using treated human excreta as a fertiliser in agriculture and can, in fact, discourage the reuse of human excreta.
Long-term usage rates (sustainability)
There is also concern about the number of people who go back to open-defecation some months after having been through the CLTS process. A Plan Australia study from 2013 investigated that 116 villages were considered Open Defecation Free (ODF) following CLTS across several countries in Africa. After two years, 87% of the 4960 households had fully functioning latrines – but these were considered the most basic and none of the communities had moved up the sanitation ladder. 89% of households had no visible excreta in the vicinity, but only 37% had handwashing facilities present. When broader criteria for declaring communities ODF was used, an overall "slippage rate" of 92% was found. Some researchers suggest that this means support is needed to support communities to upgrade facilities in ODF villages which have been triggered by CLTS.
A study in 2018 has found little evidence for sustained sanitation behavior change as a result of CLTS.
History
In 1999 and 2000, Kamal Kar was working in a village called Mosmoil in Rajshahi, Bangladesh, and decided that a system of attitudinal changes by villagers might have a longer-lasting effect than the existing top-down approach involving subsidies from NGOs and government. The Bangladeshi government began a programme of installing expensive latrines in the 1970s, but the government decided this was too costly, and many of the original latrines were abandoned. In the 1990s, a social mobilisation plan was begun to encourage people to demand and install better sanitation systems, but early success did not last, according to Kar. At that point Kar, a participatory development expert from India, was brought in by Wateraid and he concluded that the problem with previous approaches was that local people had not "internalised" the demand for sanitation. He suggested a new approach: abandoning subsidies and appealing to the better nature of villagers and their sense of self-disgust to bring about change. The CLTS Foundation is the organisation set up by Kar to promote these ideas.
It eventually became standard practice for NGOs to leave the community quite soon after "triggering" activities. When communities took the lead, change in sanitation practices was more longer term and sustainable.
See also
Ecopsychology
Orangi Pilot Project
Self-supply of water and sanitation
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission)
WASH (Water, sanitation and hygiene)
References
External links
CLTS Knowledge Hub at Institute for Development Studies (IDS) in the UK
CLTS Foundation by Kamal Kar
Publications on CTLS in the library of the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)
Testing CLTS Approaches for Scalability
Rural community development
Sewerage
Sanitation |
4155777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhtar%20Hameed%20Khan | Akhtar Hameed Khan | Akhter Hameed Khan (, pronounced ; 15 July 1914 – 9 October 1999) was a Pakistani development practitioner and social scientist. He promoted participatory rural development in Pakistan and other developing countries, and widely advocated community participation in development. His particular contribution was the establishment of a comprehensive project for rural development, the Comilla Model (1959). It earned him the Ramon Magsaysay Award from the Philippines and an honorary Doctorate of law from Michigan State University.
In the 1980s he started a bottom-up community development initiative of Orangi Pilot Project, based in the outskirts of Karachi, which became a model of participatory development initiatives. He also directed many programmes, from microcredit to self-finance and from housing provision to family planning, for rural communities and urban slums. It earned him international recognition and high honours in Pakistan. Khan was fluent in at least seven languages and dialects. Apart from many scholarly books and articles, he also published a collection of poems and travelogues in Urdu.
Early life
Khan was born on 15 July 1914 in Agra. He was among the four sons and three daughters of Khansaahib Ameer Ahmed Khan and Mehmoodah Begum. His father, a police inspector, was inspired by the reformist thinking of Syed Ahmed Khan. In his early age, Khan's mother introduced him to the poetry of Maulana Hali and Muhammad Iqbal, the sermons of Abul Kalam Azad, and the Sufist philosophy of Rumi. This upbringing influenced his interest in historical as well as contemporary social, economic, and political affairs.
Khan attended Government High School at Jalam (Uttar Pradesh), and completed his education in 1930 at Agra College where he studied English literature and history. He read English literature, history, and philosophy for a Bachelor of Arts degree at Meerut College in 1932. At that point, his mother was diagnosed with tuberculosis. She died in the same year at the age of 36. Khan continued his studies and was awarded a Master of Arts in English Literature from Agra University in 1934. He worked as a lecturer at Meerut College before joining the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in 1936. As part of the ICS training, he was sent to read literature and history at Magdalene College, Cambridge, England. During the stay, he developed a friendship with Choudhary Rahmat Ali.
Khan married Hameedah Begum (the eldest daughter of Allama Mashriqi) in 1940. Together, they had three daughters (Mariam, Amina, and Rasheeda) and a son (Akbar). After Hameedah Begum's death in 1966, he married Shafiq Khan and had one daughter, Ayesha. During his ICS career, Khan worked as collector of revenue, a position that brought him into regular contact with living conditions in rural areas of East Bengal. The Bengal famine of 1943 and subsequent handling of the situation by the colonial rulers led him to resign from the Indian Civil Service in 1945. He wrote, "I realised that if I did not escape while I was young and vigorous, I will forever remain in the trap, and terminate as a bureaucratic big wig." During this period, he was influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche and Mashriqi, and joined the Khaksar Movement. This attachment was brief. He quit the movement and turned to Sufism. According to Khan, "I had a profound personal concern; I wanted to live a life free from fear and anxiety, a calm and serene life, without turmoil and conflict. ... when I followed the advice of the old Sufis and sages, and tried to curb my greed, my pride and aggression, fears, anxieties and conflicts diminished."
For the next two years, Khan worked in Mamoola village near Aligarh as a labourer and locksmith, an experience that provided him with firsthand knowledge of the problems and issues of rural communities. In 1947, he took up a teaching position at the Jamia Millia, Delhi, where he worked for three years. In 1950, Khan migrated to Pakistan to teach at Islamia College, Karachi. In the same year, he was invited by the Government of Pakistan to take charge as Principal of Comilla Victoria College in East Pakistan, a position he held until 1958. During this time (1950–58) he also served as President of the East Pakistan Non-Government Teachers' Association.
Rural development initiatives
During his tenure as principal of Comilla Victoria College, Khan developed a special interest in grassroots actions. Between 1954 and 1955, he took a break to work as director of the Village Agricultural and Industrial Development (V-AID) Programme. However, he was not satisfied with the development approach adopted in the programme that was limited to the training of villagers. In 1958, he went to Michigan State University to acquire education and training in rural development. Returning in 1959, he established the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development (PARD, eventually renamed as Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development) at Comilla on 27 May 1959 and was appointed as its founding director. Khan became vice-chairman of the board of Governors of PARD in 1964, and in the same year, was awarded an honorary Doctorate of law by Michigan State University. In 1969, he established collaborative links with Arthur Lewis.
Advisory roles
Following his move to Pakistan, Khan was asked to implement the Comilla Model in rural settlements of North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Punjab, and Sindh. He declined the offer on the grounds that the proposals were predominantly motivated by political interests rather than the common well-being. However, he continued to advise the authorities on various aspects of rural development, such as participatory irrigation management. He worked as a research fellow at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad from 1971 to 1972, and as Director of Rural Economics Research Project at Karachi University from 1972 to 1973. Khan went to Michigan State University as a visiting professor in 1973 and remained there until 1979. During this time, he carried on advising the Rural Development Academy at Bogra in northern Bangladesh, and the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, Peshawar, on the Daudzai Integrated Rural Development Programme. In 1974, he was appointed as a World Bank consultant to survey rural development situations in Java, Indonesia. He also briefly worked as a visiting professor at Lund University, Harvard University, and the University of Oxford.
In 1980, Khan moved to Karachi and started working on the improvement of sanitary conditions in Karachi suburbs. He laid the foundations of the Orangi Pilot Project for the largest squatter community of Orangi in the city. He remained associated with this project until his death in 1999. Meanwhile, he maintained his support for rural communities around Karachi, and also helped to develop the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme. OPP became a model for participatory bottom-up development initiatives.
Major development programmes
Comilla Cooperative Pilot Project
The Comilla Model (1959) was Khan's initiative in response to the failure of a Village Agricultural and Industrial Development (V-AID) programme that was launched in 1953 in East and West Pakistan with technical assistance from the US government. V-AID remained a government-level attempt to promote citizen participation in the sphere of rural development. Khan launched the project in 1959 on his return from Michigan, and developed a methodology of implementation in the area of rural development on the principle of grassroots-level participation. Initially, the aim was to provide a development model of programmes and institutions that could be replicated across the country. Advisory support in this respect was provided by experts from Harvard and Michigan State Universities, the Ford Foundation, and USAID.
Comilla Model simultaneously addressed the problems that were caused by the inadequacy of both local infrastructure and institutions through a range of integrated programmes. The initiatives included the establishment of: a training and development centre; a road-drainage embankment works programme; a decentralized, small scale irrigation programme; and, a two-tiered cooperative system with primary cooperatives operating in the villages, and federations operating at sub-district level.
After Khan's departure from Comilla, the cooperative's model failed in independent Bangladesh because only a few occupational groups managed to achieve the desired success. By 1979, only 61 of the 400 cooperatives were functioning. The model actually fell prey to the ineffective internal and external controls, stagnation, and diversion of funds. This prompted the subsequent scholars and practitioners in microfinance, such as Muhammad Yunus of Grameen Bank and Fazle Hasan Abed of BRAC, to abandon the cooperative approach in favour of more centralised control and service delivery structures. The new strategy targeted the poorest villagers, while excluding the 'less poor'. However, Khan's leadership skills during the course of his association with the project remained a source of inspiration for these leaders, as well as other participatory development initiatives in the country.
Orangi Pilot Project
The Orangi poverty alleviation project (known as the Orangi Pilot Project, or OPP) was initiated by Khan as an NGO in 1980. Orangi is located on the northwest periphery of Karachi. At that time, it was the largest of the city's approximately 650 low-income squatter settlements (known as katchi abadi). The locality was first developed in 1963 as a government township of . The influx of migrants after the creation of Bangladesh swelled the settlement to about one million people crowded over an area of more than . The working class multi-ethnic population was predominantly composed of day labourers, skilled workers, artisans, small shopkeepers, peddlers and low-income white collar workers. The project proved an impetus to the socio-economic development of the population of the area. As the project director, Khan proved to be a dynamic and innovative leader. The project initially focused on creating a system of underground sewers, using local materials and labour, and succeeded in laying hundreds of kilometres of drainage pipes along with auxiliary facilities. Within a decade of the initiative, local residents had established schools, health clinics, women's work centres, cooperative stores and a credit organisation to finance enterprise projects. By 1993, OPP had managed to provide low-cost sewers to more than 72,000 houses. The project subsequently diversified into a number of programmes, including a people's financed and managed low-cost sanitation programme; a housing programme; a basic health and family planning programme; a programme of supervised credit for small family enterprise units; an education programme; and a rural development programme in the nearby villages.
Comparing the OPP with Comilla project, Akhter Hameed Khan once commented:
The Orangi Pilot Project was very different from the Comilla Academy. OPP was a private body, dependent for its small fixed budget on another NGO. The vast resources and support of the government, Harvard advisors, MSU, and Ford Foundation was missing. OPP possessed no authority, no sanctions. It may observe and investigate but it could only advise, not enforce.
The successful OPP model became an inspiration for other municipalities around the country. In 1999, Khan helped to create Lodhran Pilot Project (LPP) to collaborate with Lodhran municipal committee. Learning from past experiences, the project extended its scope to the whole town instead of concentrating on low-income settlements only. The municipal partnership was itself a new initiative that ensured wider civic co-operation.
The success of OPP did come at a cost for Dr Khan as his liberal views and self-help initiatives were questioned and criticised by certain interest groups. At two occasions, he was accused of blasphemy. However, all allegations against him were acquitted by the courts of law and cleared by independent religious scholars.
Death
In 1999, Khan was visiting his family in the United States when he suffered from kidney failure. He died of myocardial infarction on 9 October in Indianapolis at the age of 85. His body was flown to Karachi on 15 October, where he was buried on the grounds of the OPP office compound.
Legacy
Khan's ideology and leadership skills were a source of inspiration for his students and colleagues, and continue to serve as guiding principles even after his death. Edgar Owens, who became an admirer of Khan's ideology while working at USAID's Asia Bureau, co-authored a book with Robert Shaw as a result of observations and discussions with Khan at Comilla Academy. A later study of various rural development experiences from South Asia, edited by Uphoff and Cambell (1983) was jointly dedicated to Khan and Owens.
Soon after Khan's death, on 10 April 2000, the Government of Pakistan renamed the National Centre for Rural Development the Akhter Hameed Khan National Centre for Rural Development and Municipal Administration.
Later in 2005, the Council of Social Sciences, Pakistan, in collaboration with the National Rural Support Programme and other institutions, announced the Akhter Hameed Khan Memorial Award. The annual cash award is given on Khan's birthday to a Pakistani author for a book on issues related to rural and urban development, peace, poverty alleviation, or gender discrimination. At the occasion of the award ceremony in 2006, a documentary film about the life and times of Akhter Hameed Khan was premiered. The film includes archival footage and interviews with family members, colleagues, and contributors and beneficiaries of the Comilla and OPP projects.
The Akhter Hameed Khan Resource Centre (AHK Resource Center)was established in Islamabad, under the auspices of the Institute of Rural Management, as a repository of published and digital resources on rural development. The Akhter Hameed Khan Resource Center was initially formed in 2010 as a repository of works and writings by Khan and his mentee Shoaib Sultan Khan; after 2015 the resource center transitioned into an NGO that established an experimental site in urban development in Dhok Hassu, Rawalpindi.
Awards and honours
Khan received the following civil awards:
Jinnah Award (Posthumous, 2004) for services to people as founder of the Orangi Pilot Project.
Nishan-e-Imtiaz (Posthumous, 2001) for services to the community.
Ramon Magsaysay Award (31 August 1963, Manila, Philippines) for services to rural development.
Sitara-e-Pakistan (1961) for pioneering work in rural development.
Publications
Khan was fluent in Arabic, Bengali, English, Hindi, Pali, Persian, and Urdu. He wrote several reports and monographs, mostly relating to rural development in general or his various successful and model initiatives in particular. He also published collections of poems and travelogues in Urdu.
In English
1956, Bengal Reminances, vol 1, 2 & 3. Comilla Academy (now the Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development), Comilla, Bangladesh.
1965, Rural Development in East Pakistan, Speeches By Akhter Hameed Khan. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.
1974, Institutions for rural development in Indonesia, Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. Karachi.
1985, Rural development in Pakistan. Vanguard Books. Lahore.
1994, What I learnt in Comilla and Orangi. Paper presented at the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) seminar. Islamabad.
1996, Orangi Pilot Project: Reminiscences and Reflections. The Oxford University Press: Karachi. (editions: 1996, 1999, 2005).
1997 The sanitation gap: Development's deadly menace . The Progress of Nations . UNICEF.
1998, Community-Based Schools and the Orangi Project. In Hoodbhoy, P (ed.), Education and the State: Fifty Years of Pakistan, Chapter 7, Karachi: Oxford University Press.
2000, Twenty Weeks in America: A Diary, 3 September 1969 – 21 January 1970. Translated from Urdu by Aqila Ismail. City Press.
In Urdu
1972, Safar-e-Amrika ki Diary (A Diary of Travels in America). The City Press: Karachi. 2nd Edition: Atlantis Publications, Karachi 2017.
1988, Chiragh aur Kanwal (Collection of poems in Urdu). Saad Publishers. Karachi.
See also
Civil society
Social entrepreneurship
Social innovation
Notes
References
Abadi, H. (2006). Dr. Akhter Hameed Khan. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
BARD (1983). The Works of Akhter Hameed Khan. Volumes I–III. Comilla: Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development.
Barmazel, S. (2005). "Orangi Pilot Project: An NGO Helping to Build Community" in O.P. Richmond and H.F. Carey (eds.) Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 191–98.
Chowdhury, A.N. (1990). Let Grassroots Speak: People's Participation Self-Help Groups and NGO's in Bangladesh. Dhaka: South Asia Books.
Chaudhuri, M.A. (1969). Rural Government in East Pakistan. Dhaka: Puthighar Ltd.
Dowla, A. and Barua, D. (2006). The Poor Always Pay Back: The Grameen II Story. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.
Hasan, A. (1994). "Replicating the Low-Cost Sanitation Programme Administered by the Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Pakistan" in I. Serageldin, M.A. Cohen, and K.C. Sivaramakrishnan (eds.) The Human Face of the Urban Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development. (19–21 September). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Hasan, A. (1996). "Introduction" in A.H. Khan Orangi Pilot Project: Reminiscences and Reflections. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. xi–xli.
Hasan, A. (1999). Akhter Hameed Khan and the Orangi Pilot Project. Karachi: City Press.
Hasan, A. (2002). "A model for government-community partnership in building sewage systems for urban areas: The experiences of the OPP-RTI". Water Science and Technology Vol. 45, No. 8, pp. 199–216.
Khan, A.H. (1996). Orangi Pilot Project: Reminiscences and Reflections. Karachi: Oxford University Press. (editions: 1996, 1999, 2005).
Nigam, A. and Rasheed, S. (1998). "Financing of Fresh Water for All: A Rights Based Approach" in UNICEF Staff Working Papers. Evaluation, Policy and Planning Series, No. EPP-EVL-98-003.
NRSP (2000). In commemoration of The Life and Times of Akhter Hameed Khan: Talks of Akhter Hameed Khan at the National Rural Support Programme. Islamabad: National Rural Support Programme (NRSP).
Raper, A.F. (1970). Rural Development in Action: The Comprehensive Experiment at Comilla, East Pakistan. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Valsan, E.H. (2005). "Leadership in Public Administration for Alleviating Poverty and Development: A Conceptual Approach", in J. Jabes (ed.) The Role of Public Administration in Alleviating Poverty and Improving Governance, NAPSIPAG. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Yousaf, N. (2003). Allama Mashriqi and Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan: Two Legends of Pakistan. New York: Xlibris.
External links
Akhter Hameed Khan Memorial Award, at Council of Social Sciences (COSS) website
AHK Resource Centre and Digital Library
AHK Photo Gallery at Institute of Rural Management (IRM) website
1914 births
1999 deaths
Development specialists
Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge
Academics from Karachi
Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Pakistani humanitarians
Recipients of Hilal-i-Imtiaz
Pakistani cooperative organizers
Microfinance people
Muhajir people
Pakistani Sunni Muslims
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
Michigan State University alumni
People from Agra
Fellows of Pakistan Academy of Sciences
20th-century Pakistani economists
Academic staff of Comilla Victoria Government College
Recipients of the Sitara-e-Pakistan
Pakistani squatter leaders
Indian Civil Service (British India) officers
People from Karachi |
4155870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste%20Management%20%28company%29 | Waste Management (company) | Waste Management, Inc., doing business as “WM”, is a waste management, comprehensive waste, and environmental services company operating in North America. Founded in 1968, the company is headquartered in the Bank of America Tower in Houston, Texas.
The company's network includes 346 transfer stations, 293 active landfill disposal sites, 146 recycling plants, 111 beneficial-use landfill gas projects and six independent power production plants. Waste Management provide environmental services to nearly 21 million residential, industrial, municipal and commercial customers in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico. With 26,000 collection and transfer vehicles, the company has the largest trucking fleet in the waste industry. Combined with its largest competitor Republic Services, Inc, the two handle more than half of all garbage collection in the United States.
History
In 1893, Harm Huizenga, a Dutch immigrant, began hauling garbage at $1.25/wagon in Chicago. In 1968, Harm's grandson Wayne Huizenga, Dean Buntrock, and Larry Beck founded Waste Management, Inc. and began aggressively purchasing many of the smaller garbage collection services across the country. In 1971, Waste Management went public, and by 1972, the company had made 133 acquisitions with $82 million in revenue. It had 60,000 commercial and industrial accounts and 600,000 residential customers in 19 states and the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. In the 1980s, Waste Management acquired Service Corporation of America (SCA) to become the largest waste hauler in the country.
Between the years of 1976 and 1997, the executive officers of Waste Management, Inc. began "cooking" the accounting books by refusing to record expenses necessary to write off the costs of unsuccessful and abandoned landfill development projects; establishing inflated environmental reserves (liabilities) in connection with acquisitions so that the excess reserves could be used to avoid recording unrelated operating expenses, improperly capitalizing a variety of expenses; failing to establish sufficient reserves (liabilities) to pay for income taxes and other expenses; avoiding depreciation expenses on their garbage trucks by both assigning unsupported and inflating salvage values and extending their useful lives; assigned arbitrary salvage values to other assets that previously had no salvage value; failed to record expenses for decreases in the value of landfills as they were filled with waste, used netting to eliminate approximately $490 million in current period operating expenses and accumulated prior period accounting misstatements by offsetting them against unrelated one-time gains on the sale or exchange of assets; and used geography entries to move tens of millions of dollars between various line items on the company's income statement. Officers were accused of making "the financials look the way we want to show them." The top officers settled with the federal government for $30.8 million in 2005, without admitting guilt.
When a new CEO took charge of the company in 1997, he ordered a review of the company's accounting practices in 1997. In 1998 Waste Management restated its 1992–1997 earnings by $1.7 billion, making it the largest restatement in history.
In 1998 Waste Management merged with USA Waste Services, Inc. USA Waste Services CEO John E. Drury retained the chairmanship and CEO position of the combined company. Waste Management then relocated its headquarters from Chicago to Houston. The merged company retained the Waste Management brand. In late 1999, John Drury stepped down as chairman due to brain surgery. Rodney R. Proto then took the position of chairman and CEO. That year also brought trouble for the newly expanded company in the form of an accounting scandal.
In November 1999, turn-around CE was brought in to help Waste Management recover. The company has since implemented new technologies, safety standards, and operational practices.
On July 14, 2008, Waste Management offered a $34 per share all-cash bid to acquire arch-competitor Republic Services, Inc. On August 11, 2008, the bid was raised to $37 per share. On August 15, 2008, Republic Services, Inc. denied Waste Management's bid for a second time. On October 13, 2008, Waste Management withdrew its bid for Republic Services, citing financial market turmoil.
In January 2009, a global economic crisis forced Waste Management to aggressively reduce and restructure its corporate workforce.
On February 7, 2010, CBS debuted a new TV series called Undercover Boss after the Super Bowl. Waste Management COO Lawrence O'Donnell III participated in this first episode and got a chance to see up close the inner workings of the company he helped run. O'Donnell left Waste Management on July 1, 2010.
In 2015, Winters Brothers assumed all of WM's operations in Connecticut and New York (excluding New York City, and continues to service these regions under contract with WM.
Waste Management sponsored the #14 car of Sterling Marlin from 2006 until 2007 in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series.
Rebranding to WM
In February 2022, Waste Management announced the company would be rebranding to be referred to simply as WM. This came with an increased emphasis on sustainability and environmental services, and not just waste collection and disposal.
Recycling
Waste Management currently manages the recycling of more than 8.5 million tons of materials, including metal, plastic, glass, electronics and paper at 128 facilities.
One service provided by Waste Management, single-stream recycling, allows recyclable materials to be comingled, rather than separated by the customer and handled separately by the collection provider. The company currently operates 30 single-stream recycling facilities throughout North America. Because the single-stream recycling process eliminates the need for customers to separate items before they are collected, it usually leads to higher recycling participation rates in local communities.
Electronics recycling, or ecycling, is another focus for Waste Management. This refers to the proper disposal of electronic items like televisions, computers, microwave ovens, cellular phones, VCRs and DVDs and other such products. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages consumers to reuse and recycle these products to keep them out of the waste stream. With this in mind, Waste Management has partnered with several companies, like LG Electronics, to recycle electronics for reprocessing.
The company operates approximately 150 e-cycling centers throughout the country through its subsidiary, WM Recycle America. In January 2010, the company announced that WM Recycle America was implementing the Responsible Recycling (R2) Program for electronics recyclers, which established accepted practices to help protect the environment and workers' health and safety while e-waste is handled. In addition, these practices allow third parties to monitor activity and create greater transparency in the e-cycling sector.
Waste Management has also invested in new methods and technologies for reusing and recycling non-traditional materials, such as organic waste and construction debris. In 2010, Waste Management announced two strategic investments to advance recycling technologies in North America:
In January 2010, Waste Management announced it would fund Boston-area company Harvest Power, which specializes in turning food and yard waste into compost. Harvest Power is also working to develop anaerobic digester technology that uses waste to create a biogas, which can produce electricity, heat or be converted to natural gas.
In May 2010, Waste Management announced its investment in MicroGREEN Polymers Inc., which specializes in reducing the amount plastic required for production of consumer products, like plastic bottles.
In June 2009, Waste Management signed an agreement with BigBelly Solar to be the sole waste company distributor of BigBelly's technology in North America. BigBelly compactors are self-powered by built-in solar panels and are capable of holding 180 gallons of waste. The compactors decrease the need for trash pickup by 80 percent, which reduces production costs, fuel use, and greenhouse gas emissions.
Waste Management Solar Compactors became a staple at the WM Phoenix Open; the company replaced FBR as the title sponsor of this PGA TOUR tournament in December 2009. As title sponsor, Waste Management introduced a variety of technologies to make the Phoenix Open one of the most eco-friendly tournaments on the PGA TOUR. Waste Management has been working with other sports and music venues across the nation to increase recycling among patrons. It teamed up with Live Nation to forward the Recycling Rocks! campaign across the U.S.
Additionally, its subsidiaries GreenOps, LLC and Greenopolis placed recycling kiosks in front of grocery stores and collected more than 4,000,000 bottles and cans. Waste Management then partnered with PepsiCo to use that technology to develop the Dream Machine recycling initiative to increase beverage container recycling throughout the U.S. Dream Machine kiosks are computerized recycling receptacles that include a personal reward system that allows users to accumulate and redeem points for every item they recycle at www.greenopolis.com.
Waste Management is also involved in landfill gas utilization, including landfill-gas-to-energy (LFGTE) production. The company has over 115 LFGTE facilities, and plans to add another 60 facilities by 2012. LFGTE facilities collect methane and carbon dioxide gases emitted during the natural anaerobic decomposition of organic waste in the landfill. These gases are then used to fuel engines or turbines that generate electricity to power surrounding areas.
In August 2009, Waste Management announced that it would join Valero Energy Corporation as a strategic investor in Terrabon L.L.C.'s waste-to-fuel conversion technology. Waste Management will also assist Terrabon in securing organic waste streams. Terrabon specializes in refining municipal solid wastes and sewage sludge into non-hazardous organic salts. The organic salts are then sent to Valero where they can be converted into gasoline, diesel or jet fuel.
Around this same time, Waste Management launched a joint venture with Oregon-based company InEnTec to form S4 Energy Solutions. S4 uses a process called plasma gasification (also known as plasma arc waste disposal) to heat waste materials until they break down to produce a synthesis gas, or syngas. The syngas can be converted into transportation fuels, such as ethanol or diesel, or can be used as a substitute for natural-gas heating and electricity.
In February 2010, Waste Management announced a strategic investment agreement with Enerkem Inc., a Canadian-based company that specializes in converting waste materials that are most often landfilled, such as carbon-based feedstock, municipal solid waste, construction and demolition wood and agricultural and forest residues, into biofuels like ethanol. The investment signifies Waste Management's continued efforts to invest in upcoming green technologies and to double its renewable energy production.
International
In 2009, Waste Management purchased a 40-percent stake in Shanghai Environment Group Co Ltd, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Shanghai Chengtou Holding Co Ltd. SEG sought Waste Management's investment in order to benefit from Waste Management's experience in the waste disposal field, as well as improve their technology for waste disposal.
Corporate issues
1995 lawsuit
Shareholders sued Wheelabrator Technologies's (WTI) board of directors for breach of their fiduciary duty, challenging the merger of WTI into Waste Management. In 1995, the case, In re Wheelabrator Technologies, Inc. Shareholders Litigation, came before the Court of Chancery of Delaware on an appeal regarding the Board's motion for summary judgment. The shareholders argued the Board breached their duty of care because there was not sufficient process, they didn't look at alternative transactions, didn't consider information regarding waste's legal liabilities, they didn't appoint a committee of independent directors to negotiate the merger, and they didn't adequately consider the terms of the merger; they breached their duty of loyalty, and; they breached their duty to disclose relevant information regarding the merger. Ultimately, the court dismissed the duty of disclosure claim but allowed the duty of loyalty claim to a degree. In regards to the duty of loyalty claim, the court disagreed with both the shareholders and the Board. It labelled the merger as an interested transaction, not a controlled shareholder transaction, so the business judgment rule applies and the burden to prove waste is on the shareholders.
Accounting improprieties
Revelations of irregular accounting led to a major drop in stock price and to the replacement of top executives after a new CEO ordered a review of the company's accounting practices in 1998. Waste Management's shareholders lost more than $6 billion in the market value of their investments when the stock price plummeted by more than 33%. The company had augmented the depreciation time length for their property, plant, and equipment, artificially inflating the company's after-tax profits by US$1.7 billion. On July 8, 1999, a class action lawsuit was filed against WMI and certain officers for issuing false statements. Waste Management paid US$457 million to settle a shareholder class-action suit in 2003. The SEC fined Waste Management's independent auditor, Arthur Andersen, US$7 million for its role.
ERP software implementation failure
In 2005, Waste Management entered into a Software Licensing Agreement (SLA) with SAP AG. Under the agreement, SAP and its wholly owned subsidiary, Tomorrow Now, were to implement SAP's Enterprise Resource Planning software. The implementation began when an eight month pilot program was established in Waste Management's New Mexico market area, the market-share area at the time. This initial implementation was to be followed in two months with a company-wide implementation from Waste Management's headquarters in Houston, Texas.
In December 2007, Waste Management ended their ERP implementation effort. Waste Management characterized the ERP implementation as non-functional. An SAP sponsored "Solution Review" determined that a customized ERP, based upon an updated SAP ERP, would need to be made in order to accommodate a company-wide implementation.
Waste Management sued SAP for the US$100 million to recover the funds it had spent on the failed ERP implementation. In the lawsuit, Waste Management accused SAP of fraud and deception. SAP countered that Waste Management failed to present knowledgeable workers and accurate business models and failed to migrate data from legacy systems. The suit concluded in 2010 under confidential terms and a one time payment from SAP to Waste Management disclosed to the SEC.
Labor relations
In 2007, Waste Management locked out Teamsters at its largest hauling operation in Alameda County, CA. The lockout lasted a little less than a month and put 900 members of the Teamsters, ILWU, and Machinists Union on picket lines and raised concerns over sanitary impact on the affected communities. The lockout was stopped when affected communities started legal actions against Waste Management. According to Waste Management officials, the company worked over three months to negotiate an agreement fair to both Waste Management and the union. The union did not want to negotiate over the company's proposals and refused to offer their own proposal unless Waste Management agreed to withdraw all proposals from the table. Oakland's City Council reached a settlement with Waste Management over the dispute in March, 2008. The company rebated more than $3 million to customers and Oakland customers received additional services over the next five years.
Environmental policy and record
In 1990, the board of Waste Management adopted an environmental policy, including a policy of no-net-loss of biodiversity on the company’s properties. Waste Management also took positions around that time supporting legislation on hazardous waste reduction (1988), waste export control (1989), and protection of endangered species (1992).
Waste Management's operations consist of environmental protection, groundwater protection, environmental engineering, and air and gas management. Waste Management currently operates ten full-scale waste treatment landfill projects in the U.S. and Canada. As a member of the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX), Waste Management made a commitment during the pilot phase to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by four percent below the average of its 1998–2001 baseline by 2006. They have also replaced nearly 500 diesel-fueled trucks with vehicles that run on 100 percent natural gas. These new garbage and recycling trucks comprise one of the nation's largest fleets of heavy-duty trucks powered exclusively by natural gas.
In November 2009, at Waste Management's Altamont Landfill, a new plant began producing 13,000 gallons a day of LNG fuel from methane gas from the landfill that had fueled an electric power plant since 1969. Waste Management has said that the plant, announced in April 2008, and built and operated by The Linde Group with state funding, is the world's largest facility to convert landfill gas into vehicle fuel.
Waste Management works with environmental groups in the U.S. to set aside land to create and manage wetlands and wildlife habitats. The company's landfills currently provide approximately of protected land for wildlife; 73 landfills are certified by the Wildlife Habitat Council.
In May 2011, Waste Management's Wheelabrator division agreed to pay a record $7.5 million settlement with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for a host of environmental violations at its plants in North Andover, Saugus, and Millbury, Massachusetts. The settlement was announced on May 2, 2011 by the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection and Attorney General Martha Coakley's office.
Marketing
In February 2022 at the WM Phoenix Open, Waste Management announced they would be rebranding to WM. They also adopted a new slogan, dropping "think green", for "for tomorrow."
They also were featured in a Walt Disney World Epcot attraction, Innoventions.
Waste Management has also tried to soften its impact on communities through public relations, such as its 2011 renaming of Mount Trashmore in northern Broward County, Florida, from the "North Broward County Resource Recovery and Central Disposal Sanitary Landfill" to the "Monarch Hill Renewable Energy Park."
Television
In February 2010, Waste Management was the first company featured on CBS television series Undercover Boss. Chief Operating Officer Lawrence (Larry) O'Donnell, III learned of many policies he introduced but wished to change to improve the working environment of his employees. In one example, route supervisors sometimes observe garbage collecting to monitor quality, productivity and adherence to safety rules. Some garbage collectors perceived this as spying, a characterization that disturbed O'Donnell. In another example, O'Donnell chose to end the practice of deduction of pay for time clock rules violations during the lunch hour.
O'Donnell personally intervened in the career of an administrative assistant he met while filming the series. The administrative assistant had put her family's house up for sale due to lack of sufficient income despite working two jobs. O'Donnell promoted the employee to a supervisor position, which included a higher rate of pay and bonus eligibility, thus allowing her to keep the house.
Product placement
The Waste Management brand is featured in several recent films. Waste Management vehicles and equipment are featured prominently in several scenes in Transformers: Dark of the Moon. In the film, one character transforms from a robot into a Waste Management collection vehicle. A Waste Management branded roll-off box can be seen in the background of a scene in the 2009 film Paul Blart: Mall Cop and a character dressed as a Waste Management employee appears in the film, The Spy Next Door. A Mack TerraPro truck owned by Waste Management that transforms into three Junkheaps appears in Transformers: Age of Extinction.
Financial restatements
On November 14, 1997, the company reclassified or adjusted certain items in its financial statements for 1996 and the first nine months of 1997.
On August 3, 1999, the company would have to restate first-quarter results downward, partly because of changes in the value of landfills and other
assets in connection with its acquisition last year of Wheelabrator Technologies Inc.
See also
List of waste management companies
Notes
External links
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Accounting scandals
Companies based in Houston
American companies established in 1971
Waste companies established in 1971
Multinational companies
Waste management companies of Canada
Waste management companies of the United States
Articles containing video clips |
4156126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Amazing%20Race%20Asia | The Amazing Race Asia | The Amazing Race Asia is an Asian reality competition show based on the American series The Amazing Race. Following the premise of other versions in the Amazing Race franchise, the show follows teams of two as they race across Asia and around the world. Each season is split into legs, with teams tasked to deduce clues, navigate themselves in foreign areas, interact with locals, perform physical and mental challenges, and travel by air, boat, car, taxi, and other modes of transport. Teams are progressively eliminated at the end of most legs for being the last to arrive at designated Pit Stops. The first team to arrive at the Finish Line wins the grand prize of 100,000.
The Asian cable TV network AXN Asia was among the first to acquire the rights to produce a version of The Amazing Race for its territories. The first few seasons of the series were produced by Australian television production company ActiveTV and Sony Pictures Television Networks, in association with Disney Media Distribution (formerly as Buena Vista International Television-Asia Pacific (2006-2007), then Disney-ABC International Television (2007-2010)) and ABC Studios. Production was later taken over by creator Bertram Van Munster's production company Profiles TV in association with AXN. The host for the show is Singapore based Chinese-American actor Allan Wu.
In mid 2016, it was announced that the series would return in late 2016 after a six-year hiatus.
The Race
The Amazing Race Asia is a reality television competition between teams of two in a race around the world. The race is divided into a number of legs wherein teams travel and complete various tasks to obtain clues to help them progress to a Pit Stop where they are given a chance to rest and recover before starting the next leg twelve hours later. The first team to arrive at a Pit Stop is often awarded a prize while the last team is normally eliminated (except in non-elimination legs, where the last team to arrive may be penalised in the following leg). The final leg is run by the last three remaining teams, and the first to arrive at the final destination wins the 100,000 cash prize.
Teams
Each team is composed of two individuals who have some type of relationship to each other. A total of 80 participants have joined The Amazing Race Asia, many of which have been celebrities in their native country.
Because of the various languages spoken around Asia and the fact that the show is broadcast on an English-language network, participants are all required to be able to communicate in English. The contestants chosen to appear are from various Asian countries and not limited to one country of origin. Participating countries include all citizens of the continent of Asia except the Middle East, Laos, North Korea, Russia and East Timor, but including Palau and non-Asian workers who are living in Asia for a long period of time. From season 2 onwards, Japanese residents were eligible to participate, having been ineligible for season 1. Fiji was formerly able to apply, but as of Season five is no longer eligible.
Route Markers
Route Markers are yellow and red flags that mark the places where teams must go. Most Route Markers are attached to the boxes that contain clue envelopes, but some may mark the place where the teams must go in order to complete tasks, or may be used to line a course that the teams must follow. Route Markers were, however, coloured yellow and white in the second leg of season 3 to avoid confusion with the flag of South Vietnam.
Clues
Clues are found throughout the legs in sealed envelopes, normally inside clue boxes. They give teams the information they need and tasks they need to do in order for them to progress through the legs.
Route Info: A general clue that may include a task to be completed by the team before they can receive their next clue.
Detour: A choice of two tasks. Teams are free to choose either task or swap tasks if they find one option too difficult.
Roadblock: A task only one team member can complete. Teams must choose which member will complete the task based on a brief clue about the task before fully revealing the details of the task.
Fast Forward: A task that only one team may complete, allowing that team to skip all remaining tasks and head directly for the next Pit Stop. Teams may only claim one Fast Forward during the entire season.
Obstacles
Teams may encounter the following that may affect their position:
Yield: It is where a team can force another trailing team to wait a pre-determined amount of time before continuing the race. Teams may only use their ability to Yield another team once.
Intersection: Introduced in season 2, it indicates that two teams must complete further tasks together until a clue indicates that they are no longer joined.
U-Turn: Introduced in season 3, It is located after a Detour where a team can force another trailing team to complete the other option of the Detour they did not select. Teams may only use their ability to U-turn another team once. In Season 5, the U-Turn board was located at the Detour decision, before the Detour tasks (the first time the twist was introduced was during season 27 of the American Version).
In seasons 3 and 4, both the Yield and the U-Turn were seen in separate legs (the U-Turn replaced the Yield in the 12th season of the American version) and since a team can use each once during the season, it is therefore possible for a single team to use their U-Turn power even if they have already used their Yield power in a prior leg (Geoff and Tisha, season 3). In season 5, both of the Yield and U-Turn were featured and used in a same leg, marking the first ever season in all Amazing Race franchises to feature Yield and U-Turn in the same leg.
Legs
At the beginning of each leg, teams receive an allowance of cash, usually in U.S. dollars, to cover expenses during the legs (except for the purchase of airline tickets, which are paid-for by credit cards provided to the teams). Teams penalised for being last in certain non-elimination legs have to surrender all of their money and will not receive any allowance on the next leg.
Teams then have to follow clues and Route Markers that will lead them to the various destinations and tasks they will face. Modes of travel between these destinations include commercial and chartered airplanes, boats, trains, taxis, buses, and rented vehicles provided by the show, or the teams may simply travel by foot. Each leg ends with a twelve-hour Pit Stop where teams are able to rest and where teams that arrive last are progressively eliminated from the race until only three remain. In some legs, the first teams to arrive at the Pit Stop win prizes, usually from the show's sponsors.
In season 1, all teams were required to take show-sponsored AirAsia flights as opposed to choosing whatever airline they wished while in season 5, all teams were required to take race-sponsored Garuda Indonesia when travelling in and out of Indonesia.
The clue which directs a team to the Finish Line mentions it not as such but as a "Final Pit Stop." Instead of having an elevated red carpet with The Amazing Race logo enlarged on it as in the American edition, the Finish Line consists only of a regular check-in mat for the final three teams.
Non-elimination Legs
Each race has a number of predetermined non-elimination legs, in which the last team to arrive at the Pit Stop is not eliminated and is allowed to continue.
In all seasons except the third and fifth, the first leg was a non-elimination leg. By comparison, the fifteenth American season was the first season to have the first leg being a non-elimination one, although there was an elimination at the start of that season. Before this, the first leg had always been an elimination one. The first season that has a non-elimination leg in the style of the American one that has no one being eliminated at first is season 18.
Stripped of money and belongings
In season one through three, the last team to check in was stripped of all their money and was not given any money at the start of the next leg, forcing that team to literally beg for money from the local population of the city they were in for such expenses as cab, bus, or train fare.
Marked for elimination
Used from season 2 to 4, a team that comes in last on a non-elimination leg were "marked for elimination"; if they did not come in first on the next leg, they would receive an immediate 30-minute penalty upon checking in at the mat, possibly allowing other teams to catch up and check in ahead of them at the pit stop during their penalty time; if all the trailing teams were to check in during the penalty, the penalized team could fall to last place and could be eliminated unless they receive another penalty at the end of the next leg.
Speed Bump
Introduced in season 5, the penalty for finishing last in a non-elimination leg is that the affected team will have to perform a "Speed Bump" task at some point during the next leg. Teams would be alerted to the upcoming Speed Bump by a Route Marker clue prior to it, while the Speed Bump itself is displayed in a manner similar to the Yield showing the affected team's picture at a stand near to the regular Route Marker. Once the team completes the Speed Bump task, they may receive the next clue that they would have gotten at the Route Marker, or they may have to backtrack to the location of the clue box to get their next clue, depending on the task. If the team fails to complete the Speed Bump, they will receive a four-hour penalty at the Pit Stop. The tasks that teams have been called on to perform are generally not very difficult or time-consuming, and the majority of teams that have been hit by the Speed Bump have recovered from it quickly enough to avoid immediate elimination.
Unusual eliminations
The first unusual elimination occurred in season 5 where only 10 clues were available, and the Race began with eleven teams. After ten teams completed the task at the starting line and received their next clue, the last team remaining was eliminated and at the Pit Stop later, the last team was also being eliminated.
Double-length Legs
Like in the show's American counterpart, The Amazing Race Asia has featured double-length legs or "superlegs". These occur when teams reach a Virtual Pit Stop. They are told that "the leg is not over" and are given their next clue to continue racing. Teams have not received prizes for coming in first at a Virtual Pit Stop, nor penalties for coming in last.
In season 1, teams were instructed to "Find Allan Wu", avoiding the term Pit Stop. In seasons 2 and 4, these checkpoints were alluded to being normal Pit Stops. On-screen graphics displaying "Proceed to Pit Stop" were used on the show so that viewers wouldn't guess that a superleg was coming up.
Rules and penalties
Most of the rules and penalties are adopted directly from the American edition; but in some of cases, the Asian version has been seen to have a unique set of additional rules.
Rules
Each team will have to sign a confidentiality agreement preventing themselves from revealing the details of the season before airing. Teams will be fined with five million U.S. dollars if the contract is breached.
If a team member is injured during the race, he/she has to pass medical evaluation to ensure they are fit to continue racing. In the American edition, if the injury is not serious or life-threatening, the team may choose to continue or quit. This occurred to Marshall & Lance during season 5. Margie suffered heatstroke at the end Leg 7 in season 14 and their team was allowed to continue.
Teams must follow local road laws and regulations and be responsible to pay any fines and demerits they incur.
Penalties
If teams violate speeding laws, the number of minutes for the time penalty is the amount of speed in kilometers per hour that the team traveled minus the legal speed limit then multiplied by two minutes. However, this penalty is only served at the beginning of the next leg of the race, and causes criticisms from among the teams (see criticisms). While speeding is also against the rules in the American version (as shown in season 2 and season 13), the penalty is not given in a measurement of time additional miles per hour over the speed limit but rather of time gained plus an additional 30 minutes.
In the American edition, the teams who quit a Roadblock must serve a four-hour penalty assessed starting from when the next team arrives at the task site, whereas in the Asian edition, this four-hour penalty applies at the Pit Stop prior to checking in and not at the Roadblock itself.
Hitchhiking (travelling in privately owned vehicles) is prohibited; if a team violates this rule, they incur a one-hour penalty. In the American version, a hitchhiking team generally does not incur a time penalty. But if the clue says that the team must take an appropriate form of transportation, they are asked to go back and take it as directed (Nathan & Jennifer, season 12). Note that Nathan & Jennifer committed this mistake on their way to the Pit Stop and had been possible to correct the mistake whereas Sahil & Prashant (season 1) committed their mistake for one of the earlier tasks in the leg and may not be corrected before receiving their next clue. However, Richard & Richard in season 4 were asked to go back to their original location before returning to their destination when they hitchhiked.
Seasons
The show first aired in 2006 with the first season premiere airing in November 2006 and ending in February 2007. The first three seasons were aired yearly, but season 4 was delayed by a year and returned to television in 2010.
Countries and locales visited
As of 15 December 2016, The Amazing Race Asia has visited 20 countries and has visited four continents.
Asia
Europe
Africa
Oceania
Notes
This count only includes countries that fielded actual route markers, challenges or finish mats. Airport stopovers are not counted or listed.
Only visited the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong (2, 3) and Macau (3).
Includes 5 Finish Lines
Reception
Ratings
The premiere episode of Season 1 was highly successful and was the No. 1 show in its timeslot in Singapore and Malaysia and No. 2 in the Philippines, as well as No.1 in its timeslot for Adults 18-39 in New Zealand. The ratings for the finale of its second season increased over that of Season 1 in Malaysia and Singapore. In Season 3 the show reached 18.8 million viewers in selected countries, and in its first three seasons it reached over 34 million viewers across Asia. It was the highest rated program of its timeslot among all international channels in Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines and Hong Kong. The fourth season of The Amazing Race Asia, saw a 71% increase in average ratings over the previous season country of the winning team. Overall it had a viewing audience of 19.3 million viewers across Asia. The fifth season returned after a six-year hiatus, and its premiere and finale were the highest rated show in its timeslot among all regional English language entertainment pay-TV channels in Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines.
Awards and nominations
The show has won consecutive Asian Television Awards for "Best Adaptation of an Existing Format" in 2008 and 2009. Its third season was nominated for an International Emmy in 2009. After returning from a six-year hiatus, the show swept all three nominations at the Asian Television Awards.
Criticisms
Time penalties
Season 1 has seen a greater use of time penalties. While time penalties were generally served prior to the team being allowed to check into the Pit Stop (therefore possibly pushing them down the ranking lists and opening them to a possible last place finish and certain elimination, as was the case with Sahil & Prashant in Leg 5, Season 1), controversy has arisen over the fact that some time penalties are served at the beginning of the next leg.
This was the case with Andy & Laura, who departed the Chard Farm Winery Pit Stop in Queenstown at the start of Leg 7 with a 92-minute time penalty as a result of Andy's speeding in Leg 6. Had this 92-minute penalty been applied prior to Andy & Laura being allowed to check into the Pit Stop at the end of Leg 6, it would have pushed them into last place and certain elimination. Melody & Sharon, who were eliminated in that leg of the Race revealed in a press interview that they were really shocked that this 'speeding rule' did not apply at the Pit Stop, despite having learnt how the rules could be applied.
Miscellaneous criticism
Despite the success of the first season, many fans criticised that teams did not always "self-drive" to their next destination. Fans also criticised the fact that teams were always clumped in the same flight. This was according to an interview with Wu. The second season promised to tackle these issues.
Others have criticized the show for blatant commercialism of their sponsors on the show. This is most prevalent in tasks that involve the use of high definition cameras as well as the prizes of leg races that are usually technological gadgets supplied by sponsors, rather than vacations and trips like the show's American counterpart (which is sponsored by Travelocity). The executive producer and co-creator of The Amazing Race, Bertram van Munster, conceded that there were more product placements, but said that they had much less money to work with for The Amazing Race Asia, that he was "not too crazy about blatant product placement, but the bill has to be paid."
There was also criticism in the ambiguity of clues and the supposed impossibility of completing some of the tasks in season 1, in particular the roadblock in Leg 3 which saw 5 out of the 9 teams fail to complete the roadblock. In addition, ambiguous clues like 'you know it when you see it' led to some teams going around in circles searching for clues.
International broadcast
In 2010, The first three seasons of the show premiered with Hungarian voiceovers in Hungary on AXN Hungary and Animax Eastern Europe as "The Amazing Race Ázsia" on Saturday and Sunday afternoons from 7 February.
References
External links
The Amazing Race Format makes a pit stop in Asia Pacific
Asia
2006 Singaporean television series debuts
2016 Singaporean television series endings
Television series revived after cancellation
Non-American television series based on American television series
Television shows set in Africa
Television shows set in Asia
Television shows set in Europe
Television shows set in Oceania |
4156145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerli | Kerli | Kerli Kõiv (; born 7 February 1987), better known mononymously as Kerli, is an Estonian singer and songwriter.
Born in Elva, Kerli entered multiple singing competitions before being signed to Island Records in 2006 by LA Reid. In 2007, she released her debut self-titled extended play and in 2008, released her debut studio album, Love Is Dead, which charted on the Billboard 200. The lead single from the album, "Walking on Air," charted in many countries and was also featured as the iTunes Store's Single of the Week where it was downloaded over 500,000 times, a record at that time. In the years following, Kerli was featured on Almost Alice with the song "Tea Party" and she began to abandon her alternative rock sound and started to adopt a more electronic and dance-influenced sound, as can be heard in her 2010 single "Army of Love".
Following the release of Love Is Dead, Kerli began production on a second studio album which became her second extended play Utopia, released in early 2013, where it became Kerli's second release to chart on the Billboard 200. Two promotional singles from the EP, "Army of Love" and "Zero Gravity", were released prior to the release of the album's first official single, "The Lucky Ones". All three songs entered the top ten of Billboards Hot Dance Club Songs chart; two of them peaking at number one. Two songs which were co-written by Kerli for Utopia — "Skyscraper" and "I Feel Immortal" — were later recorded by artists Demi Lovato and Tarja Turunen, respectively. Kerli's version of "I Feel Immortal" was later released on Frankenweenie Unleashed!.
In 2013, Kerli performed twice on Dancing with the Stars; Vibe called the performances a "major milestone in the EDM world." In November 2013, Kerli left Island Records and signed a record deal with Ultra Music.
In 2019, Kerli's second studio album Shadow Works was released.
Early life
Kerli Kõiv was born in Elva on 7 February 1987. Her mother, Piret Kõiv, was a social worker, and her father, Toivo Kõiv, was an auto mechanic. Her parents separated when she was 16. Kerli has stated that when she wrote "Supergirl"—a song about domestic violence written for Utopia—she "put [herself] in [her] mother's body, and said things that [she] wished that [her mother] would've said to her dad when [she] was little". Her younger sister, Eliisa, is also a musician who competed in the third season of Eesti otsib superstaari.
As a child, Kerli studied ballroom dancing for eight years, practicing five days a week. She was first introduced to music by her kindergarten teacher, who told her mother that Kerli had "nice pitch" and that she was interested in taking her to various singing competitions. At eight years old, Kerli gained an interest in classical music, and as there was an absence of music in her early life, she only possessed two cassettes, which were albums of Bonnie Tyler and Phil Collins. She began writing stories, mini books, and poems at the age of 10 to escape from her "abusive" household to an "imaginary world". Despite being discouraged from doing so, Kerli dropped out of school at the age of 16 to pursue her musical career.
Career
2002–2005: Career beginnings
In 2002, Kerli competed in the singing competition Laulukarussell in the age group category 13–15 and on 18 May won with the song "Bridge over Troubled Water". Also in 2002, she falsified her age to enter the Baltic song contest Fizz Superstar, as the minimum age was fifteen. She ended up winning the contest, gaining a singing contract to Universal Republic Records by Rob Stevenson. She was later dropped as Stevenson's position at the label changed. Later, Estonian media began to use the term "Kerli Syndrome" as a synonym for "failure". Kerli has stated, however, that she feels no resentment towards her home country. In a 2008 interview she said the following:
Stevenson later signed Kerli to his label Stolen Transmission but the label went bankrupt. At the age of 16, Kerli moved to Stockholm where she competed in Melodifestivalen in 2003 but was eliminated in the second semifinals. In 2004, she was the runner-up in that year's Eurolaul – a televised competition that determines the song that will represent Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest – with her song "Beautiful Inside". While in Stockholm for two years, she worked with numerous producers and due to lack of money as the contracts she had gained previously were unsuccessful, she ate nothing but rice for three months, lived in an abandoned house during winter and slept on a cot. At the age of 18, she moved to the United States where she continued to perform and write songs, ultimately getting an audition with L.A. Reid, who signed her to The Island Def Jam Music Group in 2006.
2006–2009: Love Is Dead
In 2006, Kerli worked with producer, songwriter, and mixer David Maurice on an autobiographical set of songs, the first set of which were released on a self-titled EP in 2007. She finally released her debut album, titled Love Is Dead on 8 July 2008, following her debut single "Walking on Air" which charted at number 75 on the European Hot 100, and a promotional single "Creepshow". "Creepshow" was featured in the TV series Fringe, The City, as well as in the video game Burnout Paradise. The music video for the song "Love Is Dead" was released on 29 February 2008 and the music video for "Walking on Air" premiered on MTV Overdrive on 20 May 2008. "Walking on Air" was downloaded 550,000 times when it was featured as iTunes' "Single of the Week", which was a record at the time. The song appeared twice on So You Think You Can Dance? as well in an advertisement for Fringe. Love Is Dead charted at number 126 on the Billboard 200 for the week of 26 July.
Later in 2008, she was selected to perform a song titled "When Nobody Loves You" for the video game 007: Quantum of Solace, as well as the song "Bulletproof" on the official soundtrack of Punisher: War Zone.
In 2009, Kerli performed at the Estonian music festival Õllesummer in Tallinn. On 10 September 2009, Island Def Jam announced Kerli's iPhone application and the first song, "Saima", was released the following month. Kerli re-released her song "The Creationist" as a duet with the Italian songwriter Cesare Cremonini.
Kerli received a European Border Breakers Award for the success of the album Love Is Dead in Estonia.
2010–2014: Utopia, and label change
On 2 March 2010, Almost Alice, a compilation album featuring music inspired by Disney's Alice in Wonderland was released. It contains two songs performed by Kerli, "Tea Party" and "Strange", the latter being a collaboration with Tokio Hotel. A remix album of "Tea Party" was released on 15 June 2010. She covered the song "Nature Boy" for a promo for the tenth season of Smallville.
On 19 December 2010, Kerli performed a song in Estonian titled "Sa kuldseks jää" ("Stay Golden") at her grandparents' art show in Estonia. Kerli stated that she wished to officially release the song in Estonia to gain local airplay.
After the release of Love Is Dead, Kerli began working on her second studio album, which later became her third major release and second EP titled Utopia. She has stated that she has developing a "new musical style called Bubble Goth" and that the Love Is Dead album was "really moody and dark and introverted, so this album is actually more fun, but it still has that twistedness" and that she has "trying to develop a whole new sound-scape that [she does not think she has] heard before". She has also said that it is "a very strong album" about "overcoming the darkness in [her]..overcoming blaming the world for what's wrong...taking responsibility, being inspired and inspiring others." "Army of Love" was released for free via download on Kerli's official website. It was then released as a single for purchase on 12 April 2011. The song was considered for promotion to become the album's lead single. The music video for "Army of Love" was filmed over several days in Estonia during early November. The video "sets the undertone of [her] entire new album". The music video officially premiered on December 22, 2010. "Army of Love" peaked at number one on Billboard'''s Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week of 7 May 2011.
A song titled "Skyscraper" was written by Toby Gad, Lindy Robbins, and Kerli for Utopia however the song did not make it to her album and instead Kerli gave it to be recorded by American musician Demi Lovato for her album Unbroken. Kerli was very pleased by Lovato's recording and responded by saying "I really think that artists are story tellers and are here to deliver a message and there's no better person that I can think of right now than her to deliver that very story. So although I did write this song for my album, it's really her song. She nails it, she owns it. I am just the Santa's little helper here." Gad, Robbins, and Kerli also penned a song titled "I Feel Immortal" for Kerli that also did not make it to her album. The song was eventually recorded by Finnish musician Tarja for her album What Lies Beneath. A version of the track titled "Immortal" recorded by Kerli appears on Frankenweenie Unleashed!, an album consisting of tracks from and inspired by the Tim Burton film Frankenweenie.
The music video for "Zero Gravity" began production on 25 January and premiered on 21 March. It is directed by Canadian director Alon Isocianu. It was supposed to be the first single from the new album as well as "Army of Love", but later Kerli stated that neither "Zero Gravity" nor "Army of Love" were official singles and that they were only buzz singles. In May 2012, Kerli wrote on Facebook the album was finished and mastered, and in September confirmed that a single from the album titled "The Lucky Ones" would be released on 29 October 2012. It was written by Kerli, Svante Halldin, and Jakob Hazell. A press release by Warner Music Group stated the album would be released in spring 2013. The music video for the song is directed by Ethan Chancer, and was released on 5 December. In March 2013, the official tracklist as well as the artwork for Utopia EP was released. It was actually first supposed to be a full LP, but as it completely leaked in the middle of December, the label wanted to cut out some songs for March and wanted to release it as an EP; the final official track listing for the EP only includes "Can't Control the Kids", "The Lucky Ones", "Sugar", "Love Me or Leave Me", "Here and Now", "Chemical" and a "The Lucky Ones" remix by one of the Estonian rising DJs Syn Cole, leaving out six songs: "Made For Loving You", "Last Breath", "Supergirl", "Speed Limit", "Kaleidoscope" (which was later released as a Benny Benassi collaboration featuring Kerli), and also "Zero Gravity" was left out, which was first supposed to be on the album too. The EP was finally released digitally on 19 March and physically on 13 May (only in the Baltic states and Finland).
In October 2012, Kerli participated in ASCAP's week-long songwriting retreat at the Château Marouatte in Dordogne before joining Warner/Chappell Music. Kerli also collaborated with Australian trance musician tyDi on the tracks "Glow in the Dark" and "Something About You", as well as with Cash Cash on a track titled "Here and Now". Kerli is currently working on her third studio album and has stated that she would like it to be "a little more punk rock" and "a little more raw" than her previous work.
In November 2013, Kerli parted ways with Island Records and joined Ultra Music. Kerli collaborated with Seven Lions in two songs for his EP Worlds Apart, with the title song being released as a single by Ultra Records at 3 June 2014. An accompanying music video for the song was released by 16 August. Kerli teamed up with Benny Benassi on 21 July; for a re-edit of "Kaleidoscope", a song originally recorded for her shelved second album Utopia. By the end of September, Kerli worked again with Australian DJ tyDi in a song called "Perfect Crush" for tyDi's album Redefined.
In 2014, Kerli co-wrote the song "See Through" by Pentatonix with Joonas Angeria and Thomas Kirjonen for their third extended play, PTX, Vol. III.
2015–present: Eesti Laul and Shadow Works
On 5 November 2015, it was revealed that Kerli composed a song for Eesti Laul 2016, Estonia's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2016. In 2015, Kerli left Los Angeles and returned to Estonia, where she spent nine months with no running water and only her music-making gear to keep her company, where she produced her first independent album.
Her single "Feral Hearts" was released digitally worldwide on 19 February 2016. The music video for "Feral Hearts" was released the following week on February 25. "Blossom", the second single from her second studio album, followed with a video on 28 April and the song's release on iTunes the next day.
On 26 June, Kerli released the song "Racing Time". She explained that it was one of three songs written for the 2016 film Alice Through the Looking Glass. She had previously contributed to the Almost Alice concept album for the 2010 film Alice in Wonderland. However, the songs were not included on the latest movie's soundtrack. On 27 July, she released the third single from her upcoming sophomore studio album, "Diamond Hard", along with its music video.
On 22 April 2016, Kerli was featured as a vocalist and co-wrote a song on British artist Katy B's Honey album. She co-wrote and sang the hook on "I Wanna Be".
On 8 November 2016, it was revealed that Kerli would compete in Eesti Laul 2017, with the song "Spirit Animal". She reached the final and finished second in the competition. She was later announced to be representing Estonia in the OGAE Second Chance Contest 2017 with "Spirit Animal", held in Warsaw. On 24 April 2017, Kerli and Illenium released their collaboration song "Sound of Walking Away", included in Illenium's second studio album Awake (2017).
By late 2018, the original second studio album, including the 2016 singles, was announced to be scrapped. To replace it, on 12 November 2018, it was announced that Kerli's new album, which was a brand new project, will be released on 22 February 2019, with three singles being released prior the album. The first one, titled "Savages", on 30 November 2018. "Better" was released as the second on 18 January 2019, and "Legends" followed as the third on February 8, 2019. The album cover and the track listing were revealed on 30 November, along with the pre-order of the album on iTunes. It was also announced that only two videos from the three singles would be released, one being "Savages" and the other is yet to be announced. The music video for "Savages" was released. The album, titled Shadow Works, was released in 2019.
On 11 August 2020, Kerli was featured on the album Another Life/Eternally Yours: Motion Picture Collection by the heavy metal band Motionless in White. A re-recording of their song "Another Life" featured Kerli on guest vocals. In February of 2023, Kerli came out with her newest single titled "21st Century Kids".
Artistry
Style and influences
In an interview, Kerli recalled buying The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill by Lauryn Hill (which she called "one of [her] favourite records of all time") at a metro station in Russia. She asked them to "give [her] something else really good", "something that people buy". She was given Greatest Hits by Björk, whom she was unfamiliar with at the time. She now cites Björk as a major influence and her favourite musician. Kerli cites Bonnie Tyler and Phil Collins as influences as well as they recorded the only two albums she possessed prior to this.
Among her other influences are Anouk, Joni Mitchell, Janis Joplin, Massive Attack, Kidneythieves, Pendulum, the Cocteau Twins, A Perfect Circle, Deftones, Incubus, Apparat, and Imogen Heap.
Kerli also attributes her beliefs in angels and fairies to be an influence in her music, and said the song "Xtal" by Aphex Twin was her "favourite piece of music of all time". She has also spoken of influence from Sigur Rós and has cited them as her favourite band.
After the release of Love Is Dead, Kerli was labelled as "goth" and a disagreeing critic said she was more along the lines of "bubblegum goth." Kerli stated "that's exactly what I am" and that she was "going to take this concept and roll with it" and she created the derivative "BubbleGoth". Described by Kerli, BubbleGoth is "putting together light and dark, opposites, and things that you don't really necessarily think go together." Kerli cites the Spice Girls as being a major influence on BubbleGoth, which she stated is "like a gothic spice girl".
Kerli is fond of wearing various unique and colourful hairstyles, often inspired by cyberpunk and goth fashion.
The difference in musical style and composition in Love Is Dead compared to Kerli's further releases is significant. Love Is Dead being alternative rock and her current music being along the lines of synthpop. Kerli describes herself as being very depressed during the production of Love Is Dead and that she felt "scattered" and describes the transition to the new sound as an attempt to "make it really radio friendly without losing what people already love about [her]." In response to criticism concerning her sound compared to her older sound, Kerli said she was "not the same person anymore", stating "Maybe I will be [on] my third album. Maybe I'll be totally depressed and write another really dark album. I have no idea where I'm going to go. All I know is that I'm just always going to try to grow and do my best. And whatever comes out of me is just going to be a reflection of who I am at that moment."
Public image
Kerli frequently wears three dots called "moon marks" that represent integrity, love and unity, three things that are also followed by Moon Children: an elaborated fan community/street team established by Kerli in 2006 for people who "feel too much and find it hard to exist in this world, so that they wouldn't think they're crazy." It originally began as a "gathering for Indigo kids" but developed into a "movement of Integrity, Love and Unity" which is "trying to be the best you can be, taking responsibility for your reality and living with your eyes open. It's not some religious preachy thing, rather being a passenger in this dimension, trying to make the most of your experience and striving for perfection while understanding it's okay not to be perfect."
In regards to LGBT rights, she has stated that she wishes "the world would already be in a place where everyone is equally able to marry, adopt and live their life without having to explain themselves" and that it is "not a matter of political views, it's a matter of human rights. All humans need to have equal rights, straight or gay. As long as one likes to go to church and believe in God and that makes them a better, nicer person, that's great. Once hatred and superiority comes to play, I'm against religion." In 2011, Kerli stated that in Estonia, "there really is no gay scene" but that "it's starting to emerge, and [she’s] trying to support it as much as [she] can." In June 2011 and 2012, Kerli performed at pride festivals in Boston, Detroit, Nashville, and San Francisco. She is also a participant in the NOH8 Campaign.
In 2011, Kerli was listed as one of the 100 Most Influential Estonian Women.
Personal life
At the age of 15, Kerli asked her mother for a tattoo that read "music" in Chinese (""). Dubious, her mother told her that if she read "every book in town" on China and wrote a report on it, she would be allowed to get the tattoo. Kerli did as requested, and her mother took her to get the tattoo the day before her 16th birthday. She has three tattoos on her forearm; one is of a butterfly which symbolises "living every day like it was [her] last" and that she would never "leave a person that [she] loves without them knowing how much [she] loves them", one is the Triple Goddess symbol, and the other states in Latin "", which Kerli translates "a friend of the human race". A tattoo on her left forearm, again in Latin, reads "". On her right foot, she has the letter "E", an initial of someone who "broke [her] heart". In 2017, Kerli got a tattoo of a snake around her wrist.
While not belonging to any religion, nor labelling herself as such, Kerli believes in reincarnation as well as other forms of life after death, fairies (which she has cited as being a large element of her life), angels, and demons, once defining them as "reflections" of one's "inner light" and "inner darkness", respectively. However, besides thanking her guardian angels in the liner notes for Love Is Dead, she has also stated she feel angels are beings, as well as using "angel cards".
Kerli has said that she has bipolar disorder and attempted suicide when she was 17 as a result of her troubled upbringing, stating that her background has "made [her] stronger and now [she] can be here for other kids who are like [her]" and that she is happy to be alive, describing life as a "beautiful and rare gift". During a live video chat with fans on 7 October 2011, Kerli recalled when she was 17 and would ask her local doctor to sedate her with medication because it "hurt [her] so much to be awake" due to her depression. She also recalled an instance when she was home alone at age 17, where she covered the windows with dark towels to block out the sunlight and began cutting herself and slitting her arms with rusty scissors, stating that she "wanted to die" and "couldn't feel any physical pain at all because [she] was just hurting so much inside".
Discography
Studio albums
Love Is Dead (2008)
Shadow Works (2019)
EPs
Kerli (2007)
Utopia (2013)
Deepest Roots (2016)
Music Videos
"Goodbye" (2007) Directed By Dave Schwep
"Love Is Dead" (2007) Directed By Josh Mond
"Walking On Air" (2008) Directed By Alex Topaller & Daniel Shapiro
"Creepshow" (2008) Directed By Daniel Muntinen and Jaagup Metal
"Tea Party" (2009) Directed By Justin Harder
"Army of Love" (2011) Directed By Kaiser Kukk
"Zero Gravity" (2012) Directed By Alon Isocianu
"Glow in the Dark" (2012) Directed By Darren Teale
"The Lucky Ones" (2012) Directed By Ethan Chancer
"Worlds Apart" (2014) Directed By Bobby Galvan
"Feral Hearts" (2016) Directed By CJ Kask
"Feral Hearts (Sacred Forrest Session)" (2016) Directed By CJ Kask
"Blossom" (2016) Directed By CJ Kask
"Blossom (The Halls Heaven Session)" (2016) Directed By CJ Kask
"Diamond Hard" (2016) Directed By Kerli
"Diamond Hard (360)" (2016) Directed By CJ Kask
"Savages" (2019) Directed By Kerli & Everett Lee-Sung
"21st Century Kids" (2023) Directed By Kerli
Awards and nominations
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2008
| Herself
| MTV Europe Music Award for Best Baltic Act
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|-
| rowspan="3" | "Walking on Air"
| MTV Europe Music Award for Best Video
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|-
| rowspan="5" | 2009
| Raadio 2 Hit of the Year
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| Estonian Music Award for Music Video of the Year
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|-
| rowspan="2" | Herself
| Estonian Music Award for Pop Artist of the Year
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| Estonian Music Award for Female Artist of the Year
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| rowspan="2" | Love Is Dead
| Estonian Music Award for Album of the Year
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|-
| rowspan="2" | 2010
| European Border Breakers Award
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|-
| rowspan="2" | "Army of Love"
| Raadio 2 Hit of the Year
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|| 2011
| Estonian Music Award for Music Video of the Year
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|-
| 2012
| rowspan=2|"Zero Gravity"
| MP3 Music Award for The BNA Award
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|-
|| 2013
| Estonian Music Award for Music Video of the Year
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|-
| rowspan="2" | 2014
| rowspan="2" | Utopia''
| Estonian Music Award for Best Female Album
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| Estonian Music Award for Best Pop Album
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|| 2017
| "Feral Hearts"
| Estonian Music Award for Music Video of the Year
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|}
References
External links
1987 births
Dance musicians
English-language singers from Estonia
Estonian expatriates in the United States
Estonian expatriates in Sweden
21st-century Estonian women singers
Estonian pianists
Estonian pop singers
Estonian record producers
Estonian rock singers
Estonian songwriters
Women rock singers
Island Records artists
Estonian LGBT rights activists
Living people
People from Elva, Estonia
People with bipolar disorder
Synth-pop singers
21st-century pianists
Women record producers
Eesti Laul contestants
Women in electronic music
21st-century women pianists |
4156767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20Civil%20Rights%20Initiative | Michigan Civil Rights Initiative | The Michigan Civil Rights Initiative (MCRI), or Proposal 2 (Michigan 06–2), was a ballot initiative in the U.S. state of Michigan that passed into Michigan Constitutional law by a 58% to 42% margin on November 7, 2006, according to results officially certified by the Michigan Secretary of State. By Michigan law, the Proposal became law on December 22, 2006. MCRI was a citizen initiative aimed at banning consideration of race, color, sex, or religion in admission to colleges, jobs, and other publicly funded institutions – effectively prohibiting some affirmative action by public institutions based on those factors. The Proposal's constitutionality was challenged in federal court, but its constitutionality was ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States.
Summary of Court challenges
On 21 March 2008, Judge David M. Lawson of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan dismissed a case filed by plaintiffs challenging the constitutionality of Proposal 2. Judge Lawson held that Proposal 2 does not violate the United States Constitution.
The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit overturned MCRI on July 1, 2011. Judges R. Guy Cole Jr. and Martha Craig Daughtrey said that "Proposal 2 reorders the political process in Michigan to place special burdens on minority interests." Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette said he would appeal the court ruling.
Bill Schuette, Attorney General for the State of Michigan announced his appeal of the Sixth Circuit's decision on July 28, 2011. The MCRI stood in effect until this appeal was complete.
On November 16, 2012, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, sitting en banc, upheld the earlier ruling that the MCRI was unconstitutional. Schuette then announced his intention to appeal to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari in Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action on March 25, 2013. The Court heard arguments in the case on October 15, 2013, and the Court ruled on April 22, 2014 "that there is no authority ... for the judiciary to set aside Michigan laws that commit to the voters the determination whether racial preferences may be considered in governmental decisions, in particular with respect to school decisions." Thereby upholding the Constitutionality of the amendment.
Text of the Amendment
The ballot initiative amended the Michigan Constitution to include a new section (Section 26 of Article I):
Background
The subject of the proposal has been hotly debated, with the very definition of what it encompasses at the center of the controversy. Proponents argue that it bans programs in public hiring, public employment, and public education that "give preferential treatment to" or "discriminate against" individuals on the basis of race, gender, ethnicity, or national origin. Opponents argue that Proposal 2 bans all affirmative action programs in the operation of public employment, education, or contracting.
Proponents cite the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the "Equal Protection" clause of the 14th Amendment that forbids the United States or any state from denying "equal protection of the law" to any citizen as models for the proposal. It is a near copy of similar initiatives passed in California (Proposition 209) and Washington (Initiative 200).
In 2004, When the first attempt was made to place the measure on the ballot, Gregory Creswell was MCRI spokesperson, volunteer coordinator, and an organizer. In a pre-kick-off announcement, he articulated some reasons he was working for the amendment: "I believe it is wrong for the government and politicians to dictate to an employer who they must or must not hire, just as I believe Jim Crow is immoral and just as I believe apartheid in South Africa was immoral," said Creswell.
At the petition kick-off meeting affirmative action advocate Rev. Horace Sheffield III clashed with Creswell after being denied entry to the event. Creswell's rivalry with Sheffield dated back to 2000 when Creswell criticized a protest outside the Detroit Police headquarters, following a couple shootings of suspects by police.
After some early court challenges, a state appeals court permitted MCRI petitioners to continue gathering signatures, but the effort was postponed till the 2006 cycle due to time constraints.
During the early debate about the proposal shortly following the collection of signatures (508,282 submitted January 6, 2005), the Michigan Civil Rights Commission, a governmental body charged with investigating civil rights violations in the state of Michigan, concluded an investigation of MCRI and asserted that supporters of the MCRI had committed widespread and systematic racially targeted fraud in their petition campaign to secure ballot access. The proponents of the initiative issued a multi-page refutation of the report, including a notation that it was never signed by the commission and alleging misconduct by the Commission itself.
In September 2006, after opponents filed a federal lawsuit against the MCRI alleging fraud in the collection of petition signatures, a federal judge in Detroit found that some voter fraud had in fact taken place but denied an injunction to have the initiative barred.
First federal lawsuit against MCRI
Oral arguments in a federal lawsuit charging MCRI and the State of Michigan with violating the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were heard on August 17, 2006, with attorneys presenting their closing arguments on the morning of August 18, 2006. The case was heard by U.S. District Court Judge Arthur Tarnow, who promised to rule on the matter by September 8, 2006, to give officials enough time to print up the ballot. During the first day of the hearing, hundreds of protesters picketed outside the courthouse chanting among other things, "Racist fraud, hell no! MCRI has got to go!" The lawsuit was filed by Operation King's Dream, Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick, Detroit City Council, American-Arab Anti Discrimination Committee, Michigan Legislative Black Caucus, Keep the Vote No Takeover, AFSCME Locals 207, 312, and 2920, and UAW 2200 as well as several individual voters. Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm submitted an amicus brief in support of the plaintiffs.
On August 29, 2006, the case was decided with Judge Tarnow, a Democratic judicial appointee, refusing to remove the initiative from the ballot. However, Judge Tarnow declared that "MCRI engaged in systematic voter fraud by telling voters that were signing a petition supporting affirmative action." However, because the case was not decided on these grounds, this statement is legally characterized as "dicta"—judicial commentary that is not relevant to the outcome of a case. Tarnow also found the testimony of Jennifer Gratz (MCRI's executive director) in the court to be evasive and misleading. His stated reason for refusing an injunction to remove the MCRI from the ballot was the MCRI "targeted all Michigan voters for deception without regard to race." He ruled that the Voting Rights Act was not violated because it "is not a general anti-voter fraud statute, but rather prohibits practices which result in unequal access to the political process because of race."
Luke Massie, national co-chair of the Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, Integration, and Immigrant Rights & Fight for Equality By Any Means Necessary (BAMN) announced that the plaintiffs would appeal Tarnow's decision to the U.S. 6th Circuit Court of Appeals, saying "It makes no sense to conclude there was fraud and allow the vote to go forward." The 6th Circuit rejected the appeal in mid-September.
Voting and poll results
On November 27, 2006, Proposal 2 was certified officially by the Michigan Secretary of State to have passed by a margin of 58% to 42% (2,141,010 "Yes" votes to 1,555,691 "No" votes). The last reported poll of October 15, by The Detroit News, showed MCRI to have up to a 50–41% lead. In another Free Press—Local 4 Michigan poll conducted by Selzer & Co. Inc. of Des Moines between October 8 to October 11 of 643 likely voters, it was shown that 41% were in favor of the MCRI, while 44% opposed the measure, and 15% of the voter poll were undecided. The poll had a margin of error of 3.9% making the poll a statistical dead-heat. Another poll, from mid-September 2006, showed MCRI was up 48–37 with 15% undecided, with the pollster admitting that his previous polls had not used the exact language of the proposal until the Sept. poll. The entire polling process highlighted an ongoing debate about the scientific value of modern phone polling on questions of race or controversial social issues where the polled members of the public may be "embarrassed" by social desirability bias to give a truthful response about their intended vote for fear that the interviewer will judge them.
Board of Canvassers meeting
In July 2005, the Michigan State Board of Canvassers declined to certify the MCRI proposal for Michigan's November 2006 ballot after hearing allegations that a significant number of signatures were obtained by telling supporters of affirmative action that the petition was likewise, in support of affirmative action. Counter-allegations were made by MCRI supporters that the allegations were fabricated and that the Board of Canvassers' decision-process itself was being improperly influenced by politics because Michigan Democratic Party Chairman Mark Brewer was "giving orders" to the two members of the Board appointed by Democrats, and backed up by the linked videotape shot by MCRI Treasurer and publisher Chetly Zarko. Despite the deadlocked vote by the Canvassers and their inability to certify the petition as a result, in October of the same year the Michigan Court of Appeals ordered the board to certify the petitions.
On December 14, 2005, in Lansing, Michigan, while attempting to comply with that court order to certify the petitions, the board's four members were scheduled to make the final vote to certify the petitions for the November ballot. However, the meeting attended by hundreds of Detroit high school students. The crowd began to shout "No voter fraud," until they became so loud that the members left the room adjourning until 2pm. Chanting, "They say Jim Crow! We say hell no!," the emotion-surged crowd of students continued until a table was overturned in the commotion and the Lansing police came in to control the situation. Opponents of MCRI labeled their own conduct civil disobedience while proponents argued it crossed the line into outright violence and intentional intimidation. Video of the situation can be seen here.
After the protest, the election panel again failed to certify the petitions with a vote of 2–1, falling short of the required three votes. Republican board members Katherine Degrow and Lyn Banks voted in favor with Democrats Paul Mitchell voting no and Doyle O'Connor not voting.
The meeting received considerable media attention because of the protest. In the months following the controversial board meeting, Mitchell resigned from the board and O'Connor was charged with contempt of court; however the charges were dismissed after O'Connor sought disclosure of improper communications between the chief judge and the Republican leadership of the Legislature. O'Connor later testified against the MCRI at the August 17 federal court hearing, relaying how he had witnessed two African-American women circulating the anti-affirmative action petition in Detroit telling signers that it was in support of affirmative action.
"Preferential Treatment"
Proponents of the MCRI claim that the initiative will make illegal only those programs and policies, affecting university admissions, public employment, and contracting, that grant "preferential treatment" based on gender, race, or ethnicity. These claims were disputed by some opponents who cite California's Proposition 209, alleging that the language of that proposal outlawed "all affirmative action policies" and programs, and MCRI's language is nearly identical. Proponents counter this argument by arguing that while MCRI is nearly identical to California's amendment, neither MCRI or 209 outlawed "all" or any "affirmative action." They point to programs such as California's use of socio-economic indicators, outreach targeted at the 150 lowest scoring high schools, and traditional anti-discrimination enforcement as some among many race-neutral types of "affirmative action". On March 7, 2007, however, the Michigan Civil Rights Commission, which had previously fought against Proposal 2, issued a report at the behest of the Governor, taking the position that Proposal 2 did not eliminate "all" affirmative action. In their summary of a 63-page report, Linda Parker, chair of the commission, now agreed with Proposal 2 advocates, "With this Report, the Commission and Department confirm that Proposal 2 does not mean the end of equal opportunity or diversity in Michigan,". The Report explicitly cites the difference between "preferential treatment" and "affirmative action". Proponent of Proposal 2, Chetly Zarko, argued that this "flip-flop" by the Commission not only proved MCRI was correct all along about the legal issues and difference, but that it disproved the commission's report alleging "fraud" in signature-collection since the commission had previously alleged in its June 2006 fraud-allegation report that petitioners should have used the words "affirmative action" in their presentation..
Post-election
Several groups have challenged the constitutional amendment since its passage.
On November 8, 2006, BAMN called a press conference announcing that they had launched a second lawsuit against Proposal 2 in conjunction with United for Equality and Affirmative Action and Rainbow/PUSH Coalition, claiming that it violates both the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and the First Amendment as affirmed by the Supreme Court decision, Grutter v. Bollinger.
That same day, about 2,000 students gathered on the diag at the University of Michigan where University President Mary Sue Coleman gave a speech in which she promised U-M would go to court to defend its efforts to promote diversity, even though the people of Michigan had voted against affirmative action. Two weeks later, on November 21, Grand Rapids Mayor George Heartwell said he was considering having the city file a federal lawsuit to overturn Proposal 2.
On December 19, U.S. District Court Judge David Lawson ruled that the state's three largest public universities—the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Wayne State University—could delay implementation of Proposal until July 1, 2007. The universities had filed a lawsuit seeking the delay, charging fairness in admissions, in response to BAMN's lawsuit in which all three universities were named as defendants. The Center for Individual Rights has asked the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals to overturn Judge Lawson's ruling and force the universities to adhere to this amendment, to the Michigan Constitution, immediately.
On December 29, a 3-judge panel of the 6th US Circuit Court of Appeals lifted Judge Lawson's injunction granting the 3 universities the July 1 implementation delay and ordered them to implement Proposal 2 immediately.
The city of Lansing has also filed a lawsuit to delay implementation of Prop 2 until July 2007. In Detroit, Matt Allen, a spokesman for Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick said the city illegally "will continue doing business as it has been" in spite of the passage of the statewide initiative.
Another lawsuit has been filed in federal court by the NAACP and the ACLU to block the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative.
On January 4, 2007, the Center for Individual Rights filed a lawsuit in Washtenaw Circuit Court, asking a judge to order the University of Michigan to immediately comply with Proposal 2, and abandon their affirmative action programs. The case was resolved on January 29 when Eric Russell, whom the Center for Individual Rights was representing voluntarily withdrew the lawsuit.
Jan. 9–10: BAMN held a press conference at Cass Tech High School in Detroit announcing that their appeal of the Federal Appeals Court decision overturning the delay of the ban on affirmative action. The next day, after placing holds on admissions, the University of Michigan announced that they will comply with the ban on affirmative action. Hours later, Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens responded to BAMN's appeal of the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals decision overturning the delay of Proposal 2's implementation and ordered all briefs due by January 17. U-M, Wayne State, MSU, and Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm all filed briefs in support. Michigan Attorney General Mike Cox urged Stevens to deny the injunction. On January 19, the Supreme Court denied BAMN's appeal without comment.
On Thursday, February 15, BAMN submitted 2,000 petitions to the Board of Regents of the University of Michigan demanding that there be no drop in minority enrollment. The following Tuesday, on February 20, the Michigan Student Assembly, the elected student government of U-M passed a resolution demanding that there be no drop in underrepresented minority student enrollment.
On Friday, July 1, 2011, the Federal Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals held the amendment unconstitutional on the grounds that it "reorders the political process in Michigan to place special burdens on minority interests," and thus violates the 14th Amendment. Attorney General Bill Schuette then announced that he would appeal the ruling and ask to have the case re-heard "en banc," by all active judges rather than a panel of three.
On Thursday, November 3, 2011, the Equal Justice Society and more than a dozen other organizations announced that they had filed an amicus brief in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, urging the court to strike down Michigan's Proposal 2 as unconstitutional. The brief authors argue that Proposal 2 violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment of the Constitution by creating procedural barriers for people of color.
On 16 November 2012, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals sitting en banc upheld the earlier ruling that the Initiative is unconstitutional. Supporters announced their intention to appeal to the Supreme Court.
On March 25, 2013, the Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari, agreeing to hear the case. Arguments were heard during the Supreme Court term beginning in October 2013.
On April 22, 2014, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative as Constitutional.
Effects
On Friday, February 16, 2007, the University of Michigan released admissions data showing that, in a period that includes the time after Proposal 2 was implemented, minority admissions of primarily lower test scores declined 25% from the same period a year before. The data also show that in the period immediately before Proposal 2 was implemented, minority admissions was up 55% from the same period in 2006. A spokeswoman for the university, Julie Peterson, has said that since the numbers aren't final and since so many minority students applied early, the drop cannot necessarily be attributed to the amendment itself.
Notable endorsers
Notable endorsers of the MCRI include:
Michigan Association of Scholars
National Association of Scholars
Ward Connerly: California businessman who led a similar campaign in California with Proposition 209
Jennifer Gratz: executive director of the MCRI, plaintiff in the Supreme Court case Gratz v. Bollinger
Barbara Grutter: plaintiff in Grutter v. Bollinger, co-chair of Towards a Fair Michigan
Michigan Attorney General Michael (Mike) Cox
Bill Schuette, Mike Cox's successor as Michigan Attorney General
Michigan State Representative Leon Drolet: steering committee chair of MCRI
William B. Allen: Michigan State University political science professor, co-chair of Towards a Fair Michigan
Dr. Carl Cohen: University of Michigan philosophy professor
Chetly Zarko : former Treasurer/Director of Media, MCRI, political consultant
Doug Tietz: MCRI campaign manager, former U-M YAF Chair
Greg Creswell: Libertarian Candidate for Governor of Michigan
Scotty Boman: Libertarian Candidate for Lt. Governor of Michigan
Reverend Jerry Zandstra: Republican primary candidate for US Senate, Michigan
Howard Schwartz: Professor, Oakland University
Arthur White: Professor, Western Michigan University
Council of Conservative Citizens
Libertarian Party of Michigan
Opposition
Notable opponents of the MCRI include:
One United Michigan
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Former Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm
Former Michigan gubernatorial candidate Dick DeVos
Former Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick
Oakland County sheriff and 2006 Republican U.S. Senate candidate Mike Bouchard.
By Any Means Necessary (BAMN)
Grand Rapids Mayor George Heartwell
Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition
Association of Michigan Universities (AMU)
Michigan Civil Rights Commission
Al Sharpton
Detroit City Council
American-Arab Anti Discrimination Committee (ADC)
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
Detroit Federation of Teachers
Arab American Institute
Green Party of Michigan (GPMI)
Socialist Party of Michigan (SPMI)
See also
Affirmative action
Ward Connerly
Gratz v. Bollinger
Grutter v. Bollinger
References
External links
Michigan Attorney General Bill Schute's press release (Announcing his appeal of the 6th Circuit's ruling to the Supreme Court)
One United Michigan (opposed to MCRI)
MCRI proponents
Equality Talk
MichiganProposal2.org
TAFM (Towards a Fair Michigan)
BAMN
Zarko Research & Consulting (blog of former Director of Media Relations for MCRI)
Why Voters Should Approve the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative
History of affirmative action in the United States
Government of Michigan
Opposition to affirmative action |
4157164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography%20of%20the%20history%20of%20the%20Republican%20Party | Bibliography of the history of the Republican Party | These are the references for further information regarding the history of the Republican Party in the U.S. since 1854.
Secondary sources
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Dinkin, Robert J. Voting and Vote-Getting in American History (2016), expanded edition of Dinkin, Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices. (Greenwood 1989) online 1989 edition
, the best overview.
, very well written scholarly work
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Prentice, David L. "The Republican Party and US Foreign Relations" (2019) Oxford Research Encyclopedias
Rutland, Robert Allen. The Republicans: From Lincoln to Bush (1996), popular
, long essays by specialists on each time period:
includes: "'To One or Another of These Parties Every Man Belongs;": 1820–1865 by Joel H. Silbey; "Change and Continuity in the Party Period: 1835–1885" by Michael F. Holt; "The Transformation of American Politics: 1865–1910" by Peter H. Argersinger; "Democracy, Republicanism, and Efficiency: 1885–1930" by Richard Jensen; "The Limits of Federal Power and Social Policy: 1910–1955" by Anthony J. Badger; "The Rise of Rights and Rights Consciousness: 1930–1980" by James T. Patterson; and "Economic Growth, Issue Evolution, and Divided Government: 1955–2000" by Byron E. Shafer
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier Jr. ed. History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (various multivolume editions, latest is 2011 with Gil troy as coeditor). For each election includes good scholarly history and selection of primary document. Essays on the most important election are reprinted in Schlesinger, The Coming to Power: Critical presidential elections in American history (1972) online editions of multivolume set
1854–1900
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, the major scholarly study
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Persico, Joseph E. The Imperial Rockefeller: A Biography of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1982 (The author was a senior aide).
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White, Theodore. The Making of the President: 1960 (1961); The Making of the President: 1964 (1965); The Making of the President 1968 (1969) classic narratives
1980–2016
The Almanac of American Politics (2022) details on members of Congress, and the governors: their records and election results; also state and district politics; revised every two years since 1975. details
American National Biography (20 volumes, 1999) covers all politicians no longer alive; online at many academic libraries and at Wikipedia Library.
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Sabato, Larry J. Divided States of America: The Slash and Burn Politics of the 2004 Presidential Election (2005).
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Mel Steely. The Gentleman from Georgia: The Biography of Newt Gingrich Mercer University Press, 2000. .
Wooldridge, Adrian and John Micklethwait. The Right Nation: Conservative Power in America sophisticated study by two British journalists (2004).
Recent years
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Cronin, Christopher. "Endless Love: Evangelical Voters, the Republican Party, and Donald Trump." in The 2020 Presidential Election: Key Issues and Regional Dynamics (2022): 113–129.
Dodson, Kyle, and Clem Brooks. "All by Himself? Trump, Isolationism, and the American Electorate." Sociological Quarterly 63.4 (2022): 780–803. on foreign policy;
Eichengreen, Barry. The Populist Temptation: Economic Grievance and Political Reaction in the Modern Era (2018)
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Hopkins, David A. "How trump Changed the Republican Party – and the Democrats, too." in The Trump Effect: Disruption and Its Consequences in US Politics and Government (2022): 21+ online.
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Piazza, James, and Natalia Van Doren. "it’s about hate: approval of Donald Trump, racism, xenophobia and support for political violence." American Politics Research 51.3 (2023): 299–314. online
Sisco, Tauna S. et al. eds. The Unforeseen Impacts of the 2018 US Midterms (2020)
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Primary sources
Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (1951), compilation of public opinion polls from the United States and elsewhere.
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier, Jr. ed. History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (various multivolume editions, latest is 2001). For each election includes brief history and selection of primary documents.
The national committees of major parties published a "campaign textbook" every presidential election from about 1856 to about 1932. They were designed for speakers and are jammed with statistics, speeches, summaries of legislation, and documents, with plenty of argumentation. Only large academic libraries have them, but some are online.''
Democratic National Committee. The Campaign Text Book: Why the People Want a Change. The Republican Party Reviewed... (1876)
Campaign Text Book of the National Democratic Party (1896) by Democratic Party (U.S.) National committee this is the Gold Democrats handbook; it strongly opposed Bryan
The Republican Campaign Text Book for 1882 by Republican Congressional Committee
The Republican Campaign Text Book for 1884
The Republican Campaign Text Book for 1888
Republican Campaign Text Book, 1894
See also
External links
Republican Party (United States)
Republican Party
Conservatism-related lists
Political history of the United States
Republican Party (United States)-related lists |
4157461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Lyon%20Fremantle | Arthur Lyon Fremantle | General Sir Arthur James Lyon Fremantle (11 November 1835 – 25 September 1901) was a British Army officer and a notable British witness to the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. Whilst holding the rank of "Captain and Lieutenant Colonel" he spent three months (from 2 April until 16 July 1863) in North America, travelling through parts of the Confederate States of America and the Union. Contrary to popular belief, Colonel Fremantle was not an official representative of the United Kingdom; instead, he was something of a war tourist.
Early life and career
Fremantle was born into a distinguished military family; his father, Lieutenant-General John Fremantle, had commanded a battalion of the Coldstream Guards, and had served during the Peninsular War and Waterloo Campaign, as well as acting as aide-de-camp to Lieutenant-General John Whitelocke during the abortive British invasion of Buenos Aires in 1807. Arthur's middle name, Lyon, came from his mother, Agnes Lyon. He was called "Arthur" after the Duke of Wellington, who had been the first witness at his parents' wedding in 1829.
After his graduation from Royal Military College, Sandhurst, Arthur Fremantle was commissioned into the British Army in 1852, serving firstly as an ensign in the 70th Foot, before being transferred to the 52nd Foot almost immediately thereafter. The following year, Fremantle became ensign and lieutenant in the Coldstream Guards, and continued to receive promotions until, in 1860, at the age of 25, he held the rank of captain of his regiment and lieutenant colonel in the Army.
The same year, Fremantle was appointed to the position of assistant military secretary at Gibraltar under Governor William Codrington. In January 1862, the Confederate commerce raider CSS Sumter, pursued by the Union Navy, arrived in port. The ship's commander, Raphael Semmes, sought to have his ship repaired and refitted, although ultimately the Sumter was sold and its crew transferred to the newly constructed CSS Alabama. Sometime in early 1862, the young British captain met the flamboyant Confederate captain, and was inspired by Semmes' tales of blockade running and combat on the high seas.
Like many other officers of his generation, including Lieutenant Colonel Garnet Wolseley, Fremantle had a considerable interest in the American Civil War. Unlike most of the others, however, he decided to take a tour of the South, and applied for a leave of absence in 1863. By his own admission, his initial sympathies lay with the Union, due to his natural distaste for slavery. But as stated in his own book, in the Preface:
On 2 March 1863, Captain and Lieutenant Colonel Fremantle left England on board the mail steamer Atrato.
Travelling through Texas
Fremantle entered the Confederacy through the Mexican town of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, on 2 April on board the Royal Navy frigate HMS Immortalité to avoid being in violation of the Union blockade, and crossed the Rio Grande into Brownsville, Texas. Within three hours of his arrival in the Confederacy, Fremantle encountered 'frontier justice' for the first time, finding the body of a renegade, known as Montgomery, half-buried and stripped of flesh at the roadside. Spending almost two weeks in Brownsville, with occasional visits across the border to Matamoros and the village of Bagdad, Fremantle became acquainted with General Hamilton P. Bee and several merchants and diplomats who were facilitating the trade of cotton across the border with Mexico. Part of the reasoning for Fremantle's tenure in Brownsville may have been that he wished to meet General John B. Magruder, for whom he had a letter of introduction. However, Magruder was delayed, and Fremantle left Brownsville on 13 April in a carriage in the company of some of his merchant friends. Their driver and his assistant, Mr Sargeant and Judge Hyde, are particularly memorable figures from Fremantle's diary, in no small part due to Fremantle's astonishment that a member of the justiciary should be working on a stagecoach. Later, General Longstreet would recall meeting the same two men during his own service in Texas.
After finally meeting with General Magruder shortly after leaving Brownsville, Fremantle continued his journey across the South Texas prairie, dutifully recording in his diary his observations about the taste of polecat, the snuff habits of Texan women, and allusions to the coarse language of his drivers and travelling companions. He finally arrived in San Antonio, Texas, on 24 April, where he sold most of his luggage, and from there travelled to Houston, Texas, where he arrived on 30 April. Here, he dined with General William Read Scurry, and observed that those Confederate officers he encountered were extremely complimentary about Great Britain and the Queen, even proposing toasts to her health and to the Empire. Fremantle now proceeded with haste across the remaining Texan countryside, as rumours concerning the fate of Alexandria, Louisiana began to reach him. Furthermore, the continuing siege of Vicksburg, Mississippi, was another source of anxiety, as the capture of the city would make passage across the Mississippi River practically impossible.
Setting off for Galveston, Texas, on 2 May, Fremantle found himself meeting Sam Houston, the father of Texan independence, though he found the elder statesman to be vain and egotistical, as well as bitter and uncouth in his mannerisms. This occurred less than three months before Houston's death, presumably making Fremantle one of the last foreign visitors to meet the general. The English observer finally left Texas on 8 May, arriving in Shreveport, Louisiana, and partaking of the hospitality of General Edmund Kirby Smith and his wife.
From Louisiana to Tennessee
On the advice of General Kirby Smith, Fremantle made his way to Monroe, Louisiana, to attempt to cross the river from there due to the uncertainty surrounding the status of Alexandria. By the morning of 10 May, the day Fremantle's stagecoach arrived at its destination, travellers began to report that the city had fallen. In Monroe itself, Fremantle learned of the Confederate victory at Chancellorsville, although the news was accepted by locals without excitement. The wounding of Stonewall Jackson, however, caused some distress. The high expectations of Southerners, and their contempt for their enemies, would be among the few major points of criticism made by Fremantle. After considerable anxiety on board a steamer on the Mississippi, Fremantle finally crossed the river and arrived in Natchez, Mississippi, on 15 May.
From Natchez, Fremantle travelled to Jackson, which he reached on 18 May. As the city had been evacuated and attacked only a few days earlier, Fremantle was treated with some suspicion by soldiers and locals, who expressed scepticism that an English officer should be travelling alone through the South. One local, the gun-toting Mr Smythe, even went so far as to threaten the foreign visitor with execution should he be unable to prove his identity and credentials. Upon 'examination' by a mob in a hotel, Fremantle finally convinced a Confederate cavalry officer and an Irish doctor of his legitimacy, and was spirited away to meet General Joseph E. Johnston, who accepted the peculiar traveller into his company. Fremantle remained near Johnston for several days, learning of the death of General Jackson from his Chancellorsville wound.
Fremantle's next stop was at Mobile, Alabama, which he reached on 25 May after an eventful journey by train, in which a railway engineer shot a passenger. After inspecting the defences of the city with General Dabney H. Maury, Fremantle briefly visited Montgomery, the former capital of the Confederate States, before arriving in Chattanooga, Tennessee, on 28 May. Here, Fremantle met yet more prominent figures, including Generals William J. Hardee and Leonidas Polk, and Clement Vallandigham, the leader of the Copperheads. Later, Fremantle also encountered Braxton Bragg, who supplied the Englishman with letters of introduction and passes, allowing him to travel to Shelbyville, which he reached the following day. Fremantle remained here until 5 June, inspecting troops in the company of General Hardee, his fellow Englishman Colonel George St. Leger Grenfell and the Irish-born General Patrick Cleburne. He also witnessed the baptism of General Bragg, and a small skirmish between Federal and Confederate forces outside the town, before leaving for Charleston the following day.
On to Richmond
Increasingly, Lieutenant Colonel Fremantle became possessed of a desire to get to the Confederate capital, Richmond, and from there attempt to locate the Army of Northern Virginia, with which he intended to journey for a while. From Tennessee, he travelled through Augusta and Atlanta, before arriving in Charleston, South Carolina, the birthplace of the war, on 8 June. The English tourist was keen to inspect the defences of the city, and remained there until 15 June, inspecting Fort Sumter and visiting Morris Island in the company of General Roswell S. Ripley, commander of South Carolina's First Military District. During this stay, Fremantle also met General PGT Beauregard, and a member of Captain Raphael Semmes' crew from the CSS Sumter, whom Fremantle had first met in Gibraltar in 1862.
En route to Richmond, Fremantle passed through Wilmington, North Carolina, and Petersburg, Virginia, before arriving in the Confederate capital two days after leaving Charleston. On the day of his arrival, he was granted a meeting with Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin. During the audience, Benjamin assured Fremantle that British diplomatic recognition of the C.S.A. would terminate the war without more bloodshed, though the British officer was concerned about a possible Union invasion of Canada. Benjamin also complained to his guest about revelations about his gambling habits made by the former correspondent of The Times, William Howard Russell. Benjamin then took Fremantle to see President Jefferson Davis, with whom he spoke for an hour. From Fremantle's account, it is possible to conclude that the Confederate leaders may have been trying to impress their British visitor on the matter of diplomatic intervention, without real consideration of his lack of power to do so.
Intent on finding Lee's army at the earliest opportunity, Fremantle visited the Confederate Secretary of War James Seddon on 18 June, where he was furnished with letters of introduction to Generals Lee and Longstreet. Leaving Richmond two days later, Fremantle came upon the division of General William Dorsey Pender on 21 June, and reached Lee's headquarters at Berryville a day later.
Here, Fremantle met the individuals who would be his companions for the next two weeks. Among them were Francis Charles Lawley, the Times correspondent who had replaced Russell, Captain Fitzgerald Ross, an Austrian cavalry officer, and Captain Justus Scheibert, a Prussian army engineer who had been sent to inspect Confederate fortifications by his government. The accounts of these four men present the most enlightening accounts written by foreigners of the Campaign and Battle of Gettysburg.
Gettysburg
Lieutenant Colonel Fremantle introduced himself to General Longstreet on 27 June, a crucial meeting since it allowed Fremantle to observe the advance through Maryland and Pennsylvania in close quarters to the General and his staff. As well as the other foreign observers, Fremantle also became well acquainted with some of Longstreet's staff officers, including Gilbert Moxley Sorrel, Thomas Goree, and the medical staff, Doctors Cullen and Maury. As a neutral observer, Fremantle was allowed to enter the town of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, which was off-limits to most soldiers and officers on the orders of General Lee.
On 30 June, Fremantle met the famous commander of the Army of Northern Virginia for the first time, and learned from Longstreet that General George Meade had replaced Joseph Hooker as commander of the Army of the Potomac. In the camp, Fremantle spoke to the staff officers about the likelihood of battle in the near future. The next day, the sound of artillery fire alerted the English visitor that the two armies had indeed met each other. According to Fremantle's diary, a spy, presumably Henry Thomas Harrison, informed the company that there was a significant concentration of Union troops around Gettysburg. Whilst talking to Union prisoners, Fremantle met General Ambrose Powell Hill, who complained of being ill. Later in the evening, when the Union forces had reformed on Cemetery Ridge, Fremantle climbed a tree to observe the last of the fighting, before consulting with Longstreet again about the following day's action.
On 2 July, the four foreign observers returned to the battlefield at 5 am, in time to witness a meeting between Generals Lee, Longstreet, Hill, John Bell Hood and Henry Heth. Once more, Fremantle climbed his tree to see what was happening, this time in the company of Captain Scheibert. After touring the Confederate lines, Fremantle returned to that position at about 2 pm on the advice of General Longstreet, but was frustrated that the attack did not take place until well after 4 pm. For the first time, the Englishman heard the 'Rebel Yell', as well as a Confederate band playing polkas and waltzes above the din of battle. That evening, news reached the observers of the wounding of General Hood, as well as the death of General William Barksdale.
On the morning of 3 July, Captain Ross and Colonel Fremantle made an inspection of the town of Gettysburg itself, intending to get to the cupola of the seminary, which had been used by General John Buford as a vantage point two days earlier. The commencement of the Union bombardment stopped the two observers, and so they returned to Longstreet's headquarters early in the afternoon. Fremantle alone found the General sitting on a small fence. Thinking that the battle was just getting under way, Fremantle commented to Longstreet that he 'wouldn't have missed this for anything'. Longstreet wryly pointed out to his guest that the attack had already happened, and had been repulsed. Longstreet asked if Fremantle had anything to drink, at which the Englishman made a gift to the general of his silver hip flask.
Coming upon Lee, Fremantle found him rallying the defeated troops, reassuring them and trying to rally them ahead of an anticipated Union counterattack. The Union counterattack did not come, however, and Fremantle retreated along with the rest of the Confederate Army on the night of 4 July. As the army fell back into Maryland, Fremantle met Jeb Stuart, the cavalry commander whose absence during the preceding battle cost Lee valuable intelligence. On 7 July, Fremantle took his leave of Longstreet and his staff, intending to cross the Union lines and make his way to New York City. A parting remark made by Major Latrobe did little to reassure him: 'You may take your oath he'll be caught for a spy'. Longstreet was more confident of Fremantle's abilities, informing his aide that, since Fremantle had managed to travel across lawless areas of Texas, crossing the Union lines would cause him little difficulty.
Two days later, in Hagerstown, Fremantle left Lawley and Ross, and made his way towards the Union Army. Despite initial suspicion, Fremantle convinced General Benjamin Franklin Kelley that he was no spy, even showing the officer a pass from General Lee verifying Fremantle's neutral status.
New York and the Draft Riots
His passage having been secured, Fremantle arrived by train in New York City on the night of 12 July, booking into the Fifth Avenue Hotel.
The following day, Fremantle went out for a walk along Broadway. Upon his return to the hotel, he found that shopkeepers were closing their shutters early, and then noticed that several buildings were ablaze. Fire engines were present, but the crowd was not permitting them to be used. Increasingly alarmed, Fremantle saw a black youth pursued by the mob, eventually finding refuge with a company of soldiers, to the disgust of the massed protestors. Bewildered, the Englishman asked a bystander why the crowds were so vehement in their hatred of blacks. In response, he was told that they were 'the innocent cause of all these troubles'.
In fact, the New York City draft riots (13–16 July 1863), the most violent insurrection in the history of the US had begun, and were eventually to evolve into an anti-black pogrom. A day later, Fremantle noted that the activities of the mob were worsening, with battles between police and rioters now taking place in the streets. An English captain reported that the mob had forced their way onto his ship and beaten his black crew members, forcing a French warship to threaten violence against any attacks against foreign vessels.
Return to England
On 15 July, amidst the violence and terror gripping large parts of the city, Fremantle boarded the SS China, and began his voyage back to Britain.
Upon returning to England, the young Lieutenant Colonel Fremantle found himself being questioned by friends and colleagues on the truth of the situation in the Confederate States, as only Union newspapers were readily available in England. Suitably encouraged, Fremantle wrote a book on his experiences in America, Three Months in the Southern States, based on the diary which he kept throughout his sojourn in the South. Published in 1864, the book was well-received both in Great Britain and in the Union, and it was even printed in Mobile by S.H. Goetzel & Co., being eagerly read even by the beleaguered Southerners, who wanted to see how their struggle was being reported by a foreign visitor.
Later life and career
Fremantle married shortly after his return to Great Britain, and served with his regiment until 1880, when he was placed on half pay after 28 years of service without seeing any active duty. The following year, however, he was promoted to the rank of major general and assigned as aide-de-camp to Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief of the British Army.
The United Kingdom was upset by the disasters suffered by the Anglo-Egyptian forces contending with the Mahdist army in the Sudan (Battle of El Obeid; 1st Battle of El Teb). Fremantle was sent to the Sudan, temporarily serving as garrison commander at the port of Suakin.
Fremantle followed General Graham in his inland raid when he intended to crush the Mahdist Osman Digna. Fremantle was in command of the Brigade of Guards and as such took part in the harsh Battle of Tamai.
After the fall of Khartoum and the departure of the British from the Sudan, Fremantle stayed for a brief time in Cairo, then returned to England in 1886, serving in the War Office as Deputy Adjutant-General for Militia, Yeomanry and volunteers. In February 1893 he became Commander-in-Chief, Scotland, a post he held for less than a year.
He ended his career on a high note by being appointed to the office of Governor of Malta in January 1894. During his time on the island, Fremantle became a popular governor, presiding over political decisions such as the matter of mixed and non-Catholic marriages, and the issue of the payment of reparations to the Maltese ecclesiastical authorities from the Napoleonic Wars. In 1897, Fremantle renamed the line of fortifications that was under construction the Victoria Lines to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. In November 1898, he hosted a visit to the island by the German Emperor, Kaiser William II, who arrived in Valletta on board his personal yacht, the Hohenzollern, upon which Governor Fremantle joined the Kaiser for dinner.
In 1899, after his term in office ended, Lieutenant-General Arthur Fremantle returned to England. Fremantle was appointed a Knight of Grace of the Order of St John on 7 March 1900.
A member of the Royal Yacht Squadron, General Fremantle died at the age of 65 in the Squadron's headquarters in Cowes Castle on the Isle of Wight from complications of asthma on 25 September 1901. On the centenary of his funeral, a ceremony marking the restoration of his grave in Woodvale Cemetery, near Brighton, was conducted by his descendants and by Civil War re-enactors from the United States.
Legacy
Although the book was a best-seller at the time, the ultimate defeat of the Confederacy led to a sharp decrease in Britain of the appetite for Civil War diaries after 1865, including Fremantle's diary. In 1952, however, historian Walter Lord published a revised edition of Three Months in the Southern States, retitled The Fremantle Diary, which featured an introduction by the editor and detailed references.
In popular media
Part of the reason for the enduring fame of Fremantle compared to his fellow observers may be his role in Civil War literature and film, thanks to the success of Michael Shaara's historical novel, The Killer Angels. The novel, published in 1974, deals with the events of the Battle of Gettysburg and the effects of the engagement on some of the main protagonists, including Generals Longstreet and Lee, as well as Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain and General John Buford. Shaara's primary source material for researching the novel included the diaries, letters and correspondence of figures who were either involved in or present at the Battle.
In the 1993 film adaptation of Shaara's novel, retitled Gettysburg, Lieutenant Colonel Fremantle is portrayed by James Lancaster. His character changes little from the book, once again engaging in important discussions with General Longstreet and his officers on the Confederacy's relations with the United Kingdom. However his appearance is substantially different from reality: in the movie he is shown in a scarlet British uniform sipping tea from a china cup, whereas, being in an unofficial capacity, he was dressed in a "gray shooting-jacket" and had been living rough like many others in the country.
Since 1993, Fremantle has been portrayed in historical re-enactments in the United States by Roger Hughes, who also led the efforts to have Fremantle's grave in Brighton restored in 2001. Hughes maintains a website providing considerable information on Fremantle, his family, his travels and Civil War re-enactments.
References
Sources
Further reading
Longstreet, James, From Manassas to Appomattox: Memoirs of the Civil War in America, J. B. Lippincott and Co., 1896, (reprinted by Da Capo Press) .
Lonn, Ella, Foreigners in the Confederacy, University of North Carolina Press, 1940, (reprinted 2002), .
External links
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4157820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20State%20Water%20Project | California State Water Project | The California State Water Project, commonly known as the SWP, is a state water management project in the U.S. state of California under the supervision of the California Department of Water Resources. The SWP is one of the largest public water and power utilities in the world, providing drinking water for more than 27 million people and generating an average of 6,500 GWh of hydroelectricity annually. However, as it is the largest single consumer of power in the state itself, it has a net usage of 5,100 GWh.
The SWP collects water from rivers in Northern California and redistributes it to the water-scarce but populous cities through a network of aqueducts, pumping stations and power plants. About 70% of the water provided by the project is used for urban areas and industry in Southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area, and 30% is used for irrigation in the Central Valley. To reach Southern California, the water must be pumped over the Tehachapi Mountains, with at the Edmonston Pumping Plant alone, the highest single water lift in the world. The SWP shares many facilities with the federal Central Valley Project (CVP), which primarily serves agricultural users. Water can be interchanged between SWP and CVP canals as needed to meet peak requirements for project constituents. The SWP provides estimated annual benefits of $400 billion to California's economy.
Since its inception in 1960, the SWP has required the construction of 21 dams and more than of canals, pipelines and tunnels, although these constitute only a fraction of the facilities originally proposed. As a result, the project has only delivered an average of annually, as compared to total entitlements of . Environmental concerns caused by the dry-season removal of water from the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, a sensitive estuary region, have often led to further reductions in water delivery. Work continues today to expand the SWP's water delivery capacity while finding solutions for the environmental impacts of water diversion.
History
The original purpose of the project was to provide water for arid Southern California, whose local water resources and share of the Colorado River were insufficient to sustain the region's growth. The SWP was rooted in two proposals. The United Western Investigation of 1951, a study by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, assessed the feasibility of interbasin water transfers in the Western United States. In California, this plan contemplated the construction of dams on rivers draining to California's North Coast – the wild and undammed Klamath, Eel, Mad and Smith River systems – and tunnels to carry the impounded water to the Sacramento River system, where it could be diverted southwards. In the same year, State Engineer A.D. Edmonston proposed the Feather River Project, which proposed the damming of the Feather River, a tributary of the Sacramento River, for the same purpose. The Feather River was much more accessible than the North Coast rivers, but did not have nearly as much water. Under both of the plans, a series of canals and pumps would carry the water south through the Central Valley to the foot of the Tehachapi Mountains, where it would pass through the Tehachapi Tunnel to reach Southern California.
Calls for a comprehensive statewide water management system (complementing the extensive, but primarily irrigation-based Central Valley Project) led to the creation of the California Department of Water Resources in 1956. The following year, the preliminary studies were compiled into the extensive California Water Plan, or Bulletin No. 3. The project was intended for "the control, protection, conservation, distribution, and utilization of the waters of California, to meet present and future needs for all beneficial uses and purposes in all areas of the state to the maximum feasible extent." California governor Pat Brown would later say it was to "correct an accident of people and geography".
The diversion of the North Coast rivers was abandoned in the plan's early stages after strong opposition from locals and concerns about the potential impact on the salmon in North Coast rivers. The California Water Plan would have to go ahead with the development of the Feather River alone, as proposed by Edmonston. The Burns-Porter Act of 1959 provided $1.75 billion of initial funding through a bond measure. Construction on Stage I of the project, which would deliver the first of water, began in 1960. Northern Californians opposed the measure as a boondoggle and an attempt to steal their water resources. In fact, the city of Los Angeles – which was to be one of the principal beneficiaries – also opposed the project; locals saw it as a ploy by politicians in the other Colorado River basin states to get Los Angeles to relinquish its share of the Colorado River. Historians largely attribute the success of the Burns-Porter Act and the State Water Project to major agribusiness lobbying, particularly by J.G. Boswell II of the J.G. Boswell cotton company. The bond was passed on an extremely narrow margin of 174,000 out of 5.8 million ballots cast.
In 1961, ground was broken on Oroville Dam, and in 1963, work began on the California Aqueduct and San Luis Reservoir. The first deliveries to the Bay Area were made in 1962, and water reached the San Joaquin Valley by 1968. Due to concerns over the fault-ridden geography of the Tehachapi Mountains, the tunnel plan was scrapped; the water would have to be pumped over the mountains' crest. In 1973, the pumps and the East and West branches of the aqueduct were completed, and the first water was delivered to Southern California. A Peripheral Canal, which would have carried SWP water around the vulnerable and ecologically sensitive Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, was rejected in 1982 due to environmental concerns. The Coastal Branch, which delivers water to coastal central California, was completed in 1997.
Project description
Feather River facilities
The Feather River, a tributary of the Sacramento River, provides the primary watershed for the State Water Project. Runoff from the Feather River headwaters is captured in Antelope, Frenchman, and Davis reservoirs, which impound tributaries of the North and Middle forks of the Feather River. Collectively referred to as the Upper Feather River Lakes, these three reservoirs provide a combined storage capacity of about .
Water released from the Upper Feather River system flows into Lake Oroville, which is formed by the Oroville Dam several miles above the city of Oroville. At , Oroville is the tallest dam in the United States; by volume it is the largest dam in California. Authorized by an emergency flood control measure in 1957, Oroville Dam was built between 1961 and 1967 with the reservoir filling for the first time in 1968.
Lake Oroville has a capacity to store approximately of water which accounts for 61 percent of the SWP's total system storage capacity, and is the single most important reservoir of the project.
Water stored in Lake Oroville is released through the 819 MW Edward Hyatt pumped-storage powerplant and two other hydroelectric plants downstream of Oroville Dam, which together make up the Oroville-Thermalito Complex. The Thermalito Forebay and Afterbay support the 120 MW Thermalito Pumping-Generating Plant, and the Thermalito Diversion Dam supports a smaller 3.3 MW powerplant. The entire system generates approximately 2.2 billion kilowatt hours per year, making up about a third of the total power generated by SWP facilities.
Delta facilities
From Oroville, a regulated water flow travels down the Feather and Sacramento Rivers to the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. North of Rio Vista, about per year is pumped into the North Bay Aqueduct, completed in 1988. The aqueduct delivers water to clients in Napa and Solano counties.
The vast majority of the SWP water is drawn through the Delta's complex estuary system into the Clifton Court Forebay, located northwest of Tracy on the southern end of the Delta. Here, the Harvey O. Banks Pumping Plant lifts water into the California Aqueduct. Completed in 1963, the eleven pump units can lift up to of water – upgraded in 1986 from its original capacity of across seven units.
From here the water flows briefly south along the California Aqueduct to the Bethany Reservoir. The South Bay Pumping Plant supplies the South Bay Aqueduct, which has delivered water west to Alameda County since 1962 and Santa Clara County since 1965. The aqueduct carries a maximum of per year. Up to of this water can be stored in Lake Del Valle, an offstream reservoir located near Livermore.
California Aqueduct
South of the Bay Area diversions, the bulk of the SWP water – ranging from per year – travels south along the western flank of the San Joaquin Valley through the California Aqueduct. The main section of the aqueduct stretches for ; it is composed mainly of concrete-lined canals but also includes of tunnels, of pipelines and of siphons. The aqueduct reaches a maximum width of and a maximum depth of ; some parts of the channel are capable of delivering more than . The section of the aqueduct that runs through the San Joaquin Valley includes multiple turnouts where water is released to irrigate roughly of land on the west side of the valley.
The aqueduct enters the O'Neill Forebay reservoir west of Volta, where water can be pumped into a giant offstream storage facility, San Luis Reservoir, formed by the nearby B.F. Sisk Dam. San Luis Reservoir is shared by the SWP and the federal Central Valley Project; here water can be switched between the California Aqueduct and Delta-Mendota Canal to cope with fluctuating demands. The SWP has a 50 percent share of the of storage available in San Luis Reservoir.
South of the San Luis Reservoir complex, the aqueduct steadily gains elevation through a series of massive pumping plants. Dos Amigos Pumping Plant is located shortly south of San Luis, lifting the water . Near Kettleman City, the Coastal Branch splits off from the main California Aqueduct. Buena Vista, Teerink and Chrisman Pumping Plants are located on the main aqueduct near the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley near Bakersfield. The aqueduct then reaches A.D. Edmonston Pumping Plant, which lifts the water over the Tehachapi Mountains that separate the San Joaquin Valley from Southern California. It is the highest pump-lift in the SWP, with a capacity of across fourteen units. Initial construction of Edmonston was completed in 1974, with the last three units installed in the 1980s.
Once reaching the crest of the Tehachapis, the aqueduct runs through a series of tunnels to the Tehachapi Afterbay, where its flow is partitioned between West and East Branches.
Coastal Branch
The Coastal Branch diverts about per year from the California Aqueduct to parts of San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties. The aqueduct stretches for , and is mostly made up of buried pipeline. Pumping plants at Las Perillas, Badger Hill, Devil's Den, Bluestone, and Polonio Pass serve to lift the water over the California Coast Ranges. Once over the crest of the mountains, the water is reregulated in a series of small reservoirs numbered Tanks 1 through 5. The Coastal Branch was completed in 1994 following a severe drought that led to calls for importation of SWP water.
Through a pipeline known as the Central Coast Water Authority extension, completed in 1997, the Coastal Branch supplies water to Lake Cachuma, a reservoir on the Santa Ynez River.
West Branch
From the terminus of the main California Aqueduct at Tehachapi Afterbay, the West Branch carries water to a second reservoir, Quail Lake, via the Oso Pumping Plant. The water then runs south by gravity to the 78 MW William E. Warne Powerplant, located on the Pyramid Lake reservoir. The West Branch delivered about per year for the period 1995–2010.
From Pyramid Lake, water is released through the Angeles Tunnel to the Castaic Power Plant on Elderberry Forebay and the Castaic Lake reservoir located north of Santa Clarita. Castaic Power Plant is a pumped-storage hydroelectric plant capable of producing 1,247 MW on peak demand. Together, Pyramid and Castaic Lakes form the primary storage for West Branch water delivered to Southern California. Water is supplied to municipalities in Los Angeles and Ventura counties.
East Branch
The East Branch takes water from Tehachapi Afterbay along the north side of the San Gabriel Mountains and San Bernardino Mountains to the Silverwood Lake reservoir, which can hold . From here it passes through a tunnel under the San Bernardino Mountains to the Devil Canyon Powerplant, the largest "recovery plant", or aqueduct power plant, of the SWP system. The water then flows through the Santa Ana Tunnel to Lake Perris, which can store up to .
Water deliveries through the East Branch averaged per year from 1995 through 2012. The East Branch principally provides water for cities and farms in the Inland Empire, Orange County, and other areas south of Los Angeles. Through Lake Perris, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California receives a large portion of its water from the SWP. Water is also supplied to the San Diego Aqueduct through a connection from Perris to Lake Skinner, further south.
Proposed and unbuilt features
North Coast diversions
The original 1957 California Water Plan included provisions for dams on the Klamath, Eel, Mad and Smith Rivers of California's North Coast. Fed by prolific rainfall in the western Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains, these rivers discharge more than to the Pacific each year, more than that of the entire Sacramento River system. The plan was basically a variation of a contemporary Bureau of Reclamation project, the Klamath Diversion.
A series of dams in these watersheds would shunt water through interbasin transfers into the Klamath River system. The centerpiece of the project would be a reservoir on the Klamath River – the largest man-made lake in California – from where the water would flow through the Trinity Tunnel into the Sacramento River, and thence to the canals and pump systems of the SWP. This would have provided between of water each year for the SWP. The diversion of the North Coast rivers, however were dropped from the initial SWP program.
In the mid-1960s, devastating flooding brought renewed interest in damming the North Coast rivers. The Department of Water Resources formed the State-Federal Interagency Task Force with the Bureau of Reclamation and the Army Corps of Engineers to develop plans for developing the rivers in the name of flood control – which would, incidentally, provide a way to divert some of their water into the SWP system. Although most of the proposed projects met their demise over political squabbles, one that persisted was the Dos Rios Project on the Eel River system, which would have involved constructing a gigantic dam on the Middle Fork of the Eel River, diverting water through the Grindstone Tunnel into the Sacramento Valley. Supporters of this project cited the disastrous Christmas flood of 1964 and the flood control benefits Dos Rios would provide to the Eel River basin.
The Klamath and Dos Rios diversions were heavily opposed by local towns and Native American tribes, whose land would have been flooded under the reservoirs. Fishermen expressed concerns over the impact of the dams on the salmon runs of North Coast rivers, especially the Klamath – the largest Pacific coast salmon river south of the Columbia River. The project would have eliminated 98 percent of the salmon spawning grounds on the Klamath. California Governor Ronald Reagan refused to approve the Dos Rios project, citing economic insensibility and fraudulent claims made by project proponents. The flood control benefits, for example, were largely exaggerated; the Dos Rios dam would have reduced the record Eel River flood crest of 1964 by only had it been in place.
In 1980, the North Coast rivers were incorporated into the National Wild and Scenic Rivers system, effectively eliminating the possibility of any projects to divert them.
Peripheral Canal/California WaterFix
California WaterFix, is a planned twin tunnel project that would extend through the center of the Delta, below ground. Earlier designs called for a Peripheral Canal to skirt the Delta to the east. The tunnels would draw water from the Sacramento River to bypass the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, a vast estuary and agricultural region consisting of over of tidal waterways. Supporters of the canal and tunnel have included the Central Valley farmers and the Metropolitan Water District and urban developers in Los Angeles. They claim it would eliminate the need to pull water directly through this sensitive region, reducing salinity intrusion and water quality problems during the dry season. The canal was included in the initial SWP planning, and the lack of the canal is among the principal reasons the SWP has never been able to deliver its full entitlement.
Tunnel opponents believe the construction project would do extensive damage to the sensitive Delta ecosystem, farms and communities. Opponents also believe there will be long-term damage to the Delta ecosystem from fresh water being removed prior to flushing through the Delta and flowing more naturally to the San Francisco Bay.
Governor Jerry Brown had supported a ballot initiative approving the canal in the early 1980s, and stated his intention to finish the project in its tunnel form during his second governorship (2011-2019). His successor, Gavin Newsom, has also supported the project. Supporters of the tunnel argue that water being drawn from the southern intakes creates problems for wildlife and changes the natural flow in these areas, which would be corrected by drawing water from farther north. Supporters also claim that the California levees are also vulnerable to earthquakes and directing water away from them protects the supply of water. Delta farmers, communities, and commercial salmon and bass fishermen are especially concerned about the tunnel. However, some Delta scientists disagree. The new proposed canal would transport of water to Silicon Valley, southern California and the majority of it would be directed to the Central Valley, a location with political influence and interest in the canal being built.
Sites Reservoir
Since the 1980s, there has been interest in creating a large off-stream reservoir in the Sacramento Valley. Water "skimmed" off high winter flows in the Sacramento River would be pumped into a storage basin in the western side of the valley known as Sites Reservoir. The reservoir would hold about of water to be released into the Sacramento River during low-flow periods, boosting the water supply available for SWP entitlement holders and improving water quality in the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. This project has previously arisen in several forms, including proposals for a Glenn Reservoir or the Glenn-Colusa Complex on nearby streams, which would also have been receiving reservoirs for water sent east through the Dos Rios Project's Grindstone Tunnel or other transfers from North Coast rivers.
With its large storage capacity, Sites Reservoir would increase the production and flexibility of California's water management system, yielding of new water per year. This project is being seriously considered by the Department of Water Resources, as California's water system is expected to face serious shortfalls of per year by 2020. However, the project has been criticized for its high cost, and potential disruption of fish migration when large amounts of water are drawn from the Sacramento River during the wet season.
Los Banos Grandes
The Los Banos Grandes reservoir was first proposed in 1983 and would have served a similar purpose to Sites. The reservoir would have been located along the California Aqueduct several miles south of San Luis Reservoir, and would have allowed for the storage of water during wet years when extra water could be pumped from the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. Pumped-storage hydroelectric plants would have been built between Los Banos Grandes and the existing Los Banos flood control reservoir, and between that reservoir and the aqueduct. The current status of Los Banos Grandes remains uncertain, as the DWR has been unable to appropriate funding since the 1990s.
Modern issues
The existing SWP facilities are collectively known as Stage I. Stage II, which includes such works as the Peripheral Canal and Sites Reservoir, was to have been built beginning in the late 1970s and 1980s – but due to concerted opposition from Northern Californians, environmentalist groups and some economic interests, as well as the state's increasing debt, attempts to begin construction have all met with failure. Parties currently receiving SWP water are also opposed to its expansion, because water rates could be raised up to 300 percent to help pay for the cost. As a result, SWP capacity falls short by an average of each year; contractors only occasionally receive their full shares of water.
The disparity of costs to the project's various constituents has been a frequent source of controversy. Although the overall average cost of SWP water is $147 per acre-foot ($119 per 1,000 m3), agricultural users pay far less than their urban counterparts for SWP water. The Kern County Water Agency (the second largest SWP entitlement holder) pays around $45–50 per acre-foot ($36–41 per 1,000 m3) of SWP water, which is mostly used for irrigation. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (the largest entitlement holder) pays $298 per acre-foot ($241 per 1,000 m3). This basically means that cities are subsidizing the cost of farm water, even though the cities also provided primary funding for the construction of the SWP.
In the early 1970s, the SWP system still had a lot of "surplus" – water supply developed through the construction of Oroville Dam, which was running unused to the Pacific Ocean because the water delivery infrastructure for Southern California had not yet been completed (and when it was, southern California was slow to use the water). The surplus water was given for irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley instead. Because the water would only be a temporary supply, farmers were advised to use it for seasonal crops (such as alfalfa or hay) rather than permanent crops such as orchards. Nevertheless, many farmers used the water to develop new permanent crops, creating a dependency on SWP water that is technically part of Southern California's entitlement, This is now causing tensions as Southern California continues to increase its use of SWP water, decreasing the amount of surplus available to the system, especially in years of drought.
In dry years, water pumped from the Delta creates a hazard to spring-run salmon. As the Banks Pumping Plant pulls water from the Sacramento River southward across the Delta, it disrupts the normal flow direction of east to west that salmon smolt follow to the Pacific Ocean. Populations of salmon and steelhead trout have reached critically low levels in the decades after SWP water withdrawals began. The fish migration issue has become hotly contested in recent years, with rising support for the construction of the Peripheral Canal, which would divert water around the Delta, restoring the natural flow direction.
Water use and environmental problems associated with the SWP led to the creation of the CALFED Bay-Delta Program (CALFED) in 1994. The primary goals are to improve quality of SWP water while preventing further ecological damage in the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta.
In January 2014, after the moderately dry year of 2012 and the record California drought of 2013, the Department of Water Resources announced that the SWP would be making zero deliveries that year, the first time in the project's history, due to dangerously low snowpack and reservoir levels. On April 18, 2014, the Department of Water Resources increased the SWP allocation back to five percent and that level remained until the initial allocation for 2015 was give on December 1, 2014.
Project data
Contracting water agencies
Dams and reservoirs
Background color denotes facility shared with Central Valley Project.
*This is the portion of total capacity of San Luis Reservoir allocated to SWP; the total capacity is
Aqueducts
Pump plants
Powerplants
See also
Central Valley Project
Patrick D. McGee (1916–70), California State Assembly member who fought for the State Water Project
Peripheral Canal
Water in California
South–North Water Transfer Project, a project with similar goals in China
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
State Water Project - page at Maven's Notebook
California Department of Water Resources State Water Project overview
CALFED
State Water Project - Santa Clara Valley
Image of three California State Water Project employees picketing Castaic Reservoir, California, 1972. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
Water management authorities in California
Water in California
Interbasin transfer
1960 establishments in California
Government agencies established in 1960
Public utilities established in 1960
Hydroelectric power plants in California |
4157907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fucked%20Up | Fucked Up | Fucked Up is a Canadian hardcore punk band from Toronto, Ontario, formed in 2001. The band consists of guitarists Mike Haliechuk and Josh Zucker, bassist Sandy Miranda, lead vocalist Damian Abraham and drummer Jonah Falco. From 2007 to 2021, the band also included guitarist and vocalist Ben Cook.
To date, the band has released six studio albums, alongside numerous EPs, singles, and companion releases. The band won the 2009 Polaris Music Prize for their second studio album, The Chemistry of Common Life.
History
2001–2007
The band formed and played their first shows in early 2001. The initial practicing lineup consisted of lead guitarist Mike Haliechuk of 10,000 Marbles, rhythm guitarist Josh Zucker of Concentration Camp, bassist Sandy Miranda of Mustard Gas and lead vocalist Chris Colohan of Left For Dead/The Swarm fame and Cursed. Just prior to recording their demo tape, vocal duties were taken over from Colohan by Pink Eyes (Damian Abraham, also known as Mr. Damian). Drums were played by Mr. Jo (Jonah Falco, also credited as G. Beat or J. Falco).
Following the release of the demo, the band embarked on a long series of 7-inch records. The band released the "No Pasaran" 7-inch in May 2002. The Police 7-inch was released in March 2003, quickly followed the Baiting the Public 7-inch in May 2003. Two more 7-inches followed in 2004, the single Dance of Death, and the 4-song EP Litany. The vinyl releases to this point were collected on 2004s Epics in Minutes CD. The band was the subject of a two-minute 16 mm film showing its links to the Toronto hardcore scene, a local infoshop and punk radio show.
The band's use of imagery and symbolism (notable the use of Sigils) took a decided turn after the release of Epics in Minutes, as it was followed by two limited 12-inches, the Looking for Gold 12-inch, and the live Let Likes be Cured by Likes 12-inch. The Looking for Gold 12-inch contained no liner notes or credits, no song titles, and a hidden track. It was self-released by the band in 2004 in two limited runs of 300 and 400 copies. The title track was 16 minutes long, used 18 guitar tracks, had a three-minute drum solo and contained 5 minutes of whistling.
In the summer of 2004, the band released the Generation 7-inch and 12-inch EPs. After touring for most of 2005 the band took on David Eliade as a quasi-full-time manager/promoter. In early 2006 Eliade began shopping demos of songs from the planned Hidden World album to labels, ending with the band signing to Jade Tree Records for an early fall 2006 release of the album. Jade Tree is distributed by Touch & Go which in turn has a distribution agreement with ADA (Warner Music Group). Jade Tree licensed the vinyl version to Deranged Records, which released it as a double album in November 2006.
Several other records, such as Year of the Dog 12-inch were released, before the band went on the European tour, visiting England, Germany, and Spain, among other places. January 16, 2007, marked the band's live television debut on MTV Live, where they were introduced as "Effed Up". During their performance of their song "Baiting the Public", the majority of the audience were moshing and causing damage to the set (also visible was a cut on Damian's forehead), resulting in a sum of $2,000 in damages. This performance sparked controversy and resulted in MTV Canada banning moshing from future MTV Live performances. In November 2007, the band played a show in New York that was filmed for the movie Burn, directed by Richard Roepnack. The performance was positively reviewed in The New York Times, although the Times chose not to print the band's name, referring to them instead as a string of asterisks.
2008–present
On October 9, 2008, the band returned to MTV Live, this time performing in the men's washroom. Once again, the band (and their fans) caused a large amount of damage, destroying the ceiling, spray painting walls and knocking over amps and a motorcycle which was brought into the washroom as a prop. Fans, who were told beforehand to stay out of the washroom and to watch from outside the door, rushed the doors and joined in the destruction the band had already started. The band was supposed to play three songs but were stopped after the first song as MTV was not aware of the destruction the band had planned and were concerned about the safety of the band, audience and crew.
On October 10 Abraham blogged about the performance on the MTV Live website, saying the bathroom performance was "f**king out of control terrifying."
The band signed to Matador Records in Spring of 2008. That summer, Matador reissued the "Year Of The Pig" 12-inch single. This time it came out with additional formats including a series of three 7-inches, for the US, UK and Japan respectively, each with a different edit of the A-side and a new B-side. A CDEP compiled all the versions from the various vinyl versions. The band toured extensively in the UK behind this release, following it with a trip up the West Coast.
On October 7, 2008, Matador released Fucked Up's second album, The Chemistry Of Common Life. The album received near-universal critical acclaim from publications such as the NME, The New York Times, Blender, Pitchfork, Alternative Press, Q Magazine, and would later go on to win the 2009 Polaris Music Prize. The band toured the Eastern US in October, including a much-covered 12-hour long show on the Bowery in New York on October 14. They were joined by musical guests including Ezra Koenig of Vampire Weekend, Moby, John Joseph of the Cro-Mags, members of Endless Boogie, Les Savy Fav, Dinosaur Jr., and others.
In November 2008, the band participated with other similarly named bands, including Holy Fuck, Fuck, and Fuck Buttons in the Festival of the Fuck Bands music festival in the village of Fucking, Austria. In 2009 Fucked Up took part in an interactive documentary series called City Sonic. The series, which featured 20 Toronto artists, had lead singer Damian Abraham inside Rotate This talking about his love of vinyl and punk music.
Fucked Up played the ATP New York 2010 music festival in Monticello, New York in September 2010 as well as an annual Halloween gig in Toronto. In February 2011, the band toured Australia for the first time, as a part of the Soundwave Festival, along with side-shows from the festival with artists as diverse as the Bronx, Terror, H2O, Trash Talk and Polar Bear Club.
The band's third studio album, David Comes to Life, was released in June 2011. A self-professed "rock opera" set in Thatcherite Britain, it tells a story of love, loss and redemption, with the story complicated by misdirection and unreliable narrators. The record debuted at No. 83 on the Billboard 200 in the US and received wide critical acclaim. Spin magazine named David Comes to Life its No. 1 Album of 2011, and put the band on the cover, writing "Fucked Up have synthesized 40 years of rock into what's ostensibly a hardcore record, and in doing so created its own logic." Like the previous release, this album was also nominated for the Polaris Music Prize, the nomination describing the record as "Excessive? Sure. Ridiculous? At times. Brilliant? Sounds pretty damn close to it." They did not win for a second time, being beaten by Feist's album Metals.
In late 2011 the year the band went on hiatus to allow Abraham to raise his family, but they returned in June 2012 to play the Metallica-curated Orion Music + More Festival in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and went on to play Fun Fun Fun Fest in November, 2012, in Austin, Texas.
Fucked Up's fourth LP, named Glass Boys, was released by Matador Records on June 3, 2014. Avatars of the band and their songs "Paper the House" and "Queen of Hearts" were featured in the 2016 video game "Loud on Planet X".
In 2016 the band self-released Zanzibar, a soundtrack, recorded in 2011, to Tod Browning's silent movie from 1928 West of Zanzibar starring Lon Chaney. Their fifth studio album, Dose Your Dreams was released in October 2018 by Merge Records. Driven by guitarist Haliechuk, it is a concept album focusing on the band's recurring character David, and featuring several guest lead vocalists, alongside Abraham, Falco, and Haliechuk.
The band released their sixth studio album and the ninth installment in the Zodiac series, Year of the Horse, in full on May 7, 2021. It was ranked number eleven on Decibel magazine's list of the "Top 40 Albums of 2021" and seventh on the "10 best albums of 2021" list of The Plain Dealer.
In November 2021, it was revealed that longtime guitarist Ben Cook had left the band, with Haliechuk revealing that Robin Hatch would be replacing him during live performances.
On January 27, 2023, the band released their sixth studio album, One Day.
Lawsuit
In January 2008, Fucked Up, along with Xiu Xiu, filed a lawsuit against Rolling Stone and Camel Cigarettes for an advertisement that included both bands in an Indie Rock Universe special. The advertisement apparently portrayed the bands as supporters of Camel.
On January 28, 2010, The Court of Appeal of the State of California for the First Appellate District reversed the lower court's ruling, saying constitutional principles of freedom of speech and the press require that the lawsuit be dismissed.
Collaborations
Fucked Up has collaborated extensively with other artists on record and during live performances. Hidden World features guest instrumentation from Final Fantasy, as well as guest vocals by Ben Cook of No Warning, two years before he joined Fucked Up, George Pettit and Dallas Green, formerly of Alexisonfire, Chris Colohan of Cursed, and Heidi Hazelton. Year of the Pig was written in part with Max Mccabe-Locos of The Deadly Snakes, who plays piano and organ on the record, and a lead vocal by Jennifer Castle of Castlemusic. In late 2007, the holiday charity single David Christmas featured guest vocals from Nelly Furtado, Davey Havok, David Cross, Shenae Grimes of Degrassi: The Next Generation and Faris Badwan of The Horrors, among others.
Circle Jerks singer Keith Morris has performed live with Fucked Up, singing Backed Against the Wall, Beverly Hills, and the Black Flag song Nervous Breakdown in March 2008, at the Mess With Texas Fest in Austin, Texas, and again on Nervous Breakdown in February 2009, at the Echoplex in Los Angeles. The band were joined by former Dead Kennedys singer Jello Biafra, for their encore of the Ramones' Blitzkrieg Bop at the same Los Angeles gig.
Fucked Up released a second all-star Christmas single in December 2009, this time a cover of Band Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas, featuring Ezra Koenig of Vampire Weekend, the members of Yo La Tengo, David Cross (again), Kevin Drew of Broken Social Scene, Tegan & Sara, Andrew W.K., Bob Mould, Kyp Malone of TV On The Radio, and GZA. Proceeds from the single go to benefit three charitable organizations working to publicize the high disappearance rate of Aboriginal women in Canada.
For Record Store Day in April 2011 Fucked Up released a special exclusive LP entitled David's Town. It is not billed to Fucked Up, and instead pretends to be a compilation album documenting the scene in the fictitious UK city of Byrdesdale Spa, the late '70s setting for the band's upcoming "rock opera" David's Come To Life. Each song featured a guest singer (one was sung by the band's vocalist Abraham, three were sung by other band members), including Danko Jones, Wesley Patrick Gonzalez, Dan Romano, Simone Schmidt, Cee Kay, A.C. Newman and Dylan Baldi.
Television appearances
This is the list of all known appearances of Fucked Up or their songs on mainstream television.
MTV Live Canada - 2 live performances
"Baiting The Public" (from Hidden World) is used in The Bad Girls Club episode 30.
"Son The Father" (from The Chemistry of Common Life) is used in Friday Night Lights and Skins. It was also used in the film Cedar Rapids (film).
Red Eye host Greg Gutfeld declared The Chemistry of Common Life the best album of 2008 and interviewed Abraham.
George Stroumboulopoulos Tonight Christmas Special 2010
Cedar Rapids 2011, song "Born Again" is featured in a scene.
George Stroumboulopoulos Tonight December 2011
Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations Season 7 Episode 17 "Holiday Special" performing "Jingle Bells" (December 12, 2011)
The Layover Season 2, Episode 5 (December 17, 2012)
The Chris Gethard Show Episode 97 (June 26, 2013)
Billions Season 2, Episode 8 (April 9, 2017)
Members
Current members
Mike Haliechuk — lead guitar, backing vocals (2001–present)
Sandy Miranda — bass, backing vocals (2001–present)
Josh Zucker — rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2001–present)
Damian Abraham — lead vocals (2001–present)
Jonah Falco — drums, backing vocals (2001–present)
Touring members
Robin Hatch — keyboards, backing vocals (2022)
Former members
Ben Cook — rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2007–2021)
Chris Colohan — drums (2001)
Discography
Studio albums
Hidden World (2006)
The Chemistry of Common Life (2008)
David Comes to Life (2011)
Glass Boys (2014)
Dose Your Dreams (2018)
One Day (2023)
Zodiac series
2006 "Year of the Dog" 12-inch (Blocks Recording Club)
2008 "Year of the Pig" 12-inch (Vice Records & What's Your Rupture?) + CD (Matador Records)
2009 "Year of the Rat" 12-inch (What's Your Rupture?)
2010 "Year of the Ox" 12-inch (Merge Records + Matador Europe)
2012 "Year of the Tiger" 12-inch (Matador Records)
2014 "Year of the Dragon" 12-inch (Tankcrimes)
2015 "Year of the Hare" 12-inch (Deathwish Inc.)
2017 "Year of the Snake" 12-inch (Tankcrimes)
2021 "Year of the Horse" 12-inch (Tankcrimes)
Live albums
2020 Rivoli (Recorded live at The Rivoli Club in Toronto in 2014)
2020 Live at CBGB's (Recorded live at CBGB's in New York in 2006)
2021 Live at Third Man Records (Recorded live to acetate at Third Man Records during the fabled 9-piece-band "Zodiac Tour" in the summer of 2015)
2022 David Comes to LIVE - Live at Warsaw, Brooklyn November 2011 (Recorded live in Warsaw, Brooklyn, NYC November 15, 2011)
Collaborations
2011 David's Town (Matador Records)
Compilation albums
2004 Epics in Minutes CD (Deranged Records)
2010 Couple Tracks: Singles 2002-2009 CD (Matador Records)
2022 Do All Words Can Do LP (Matador Records)
Soundtrack album
2016 Zanzibar (recorded in 2011) (self-released)
Other 12-inches
2004 Let Likes be Cured by Likes 12-inch (Schizophrenic Records)
2004 Looking for Gold 12-inch (self-released)
2005 Generation 12-inch (Slasher Records)
2005 Litany + 1 12-inch (Test Pattern)
2009 Bruises - Live in Muenster Germany 12-inch (Slowboy Records)
2011 Coke Sucks, Drink Pepsi - Live 12-inch (Chunklet)
2013 21st Century Cling-Ons on Sugar Daddy Live Split Series Vol. 8 split 12-inch with the Melvins (Amphetamine Reptile Records)
2016 This Mother Forever 12-inch (self-released)
Singles, EPs, demos, mixtapes, splits, and tapes
2001 Demo 2001 cassette (Breakout Fanzine)
2002 Demo tape (self-released)
2002 No Pasaran 7-inch (Deranged Records)
2003 Police 7-inch (Deranged Records)
2003 Baiting the Public 7-inch (Deranged Records)
2003 Generation/Last Man Standing from Toronto City Omnibus 12-inch (Schizophrenic Records)
2003 88 from Town of Hardcore CD (Town of Hardcore fanzine)
2003 Dance of Death 7-inch (Deranged Records)
2003 Epics in Minutes 7-inch (self-released)
2003 Epics in Minutes 7-inch (fake version, self-released) (really Baiting the Public 7-inch)
2004 Litany 7-inch EP (Test Pattern Records, repressed on Havoc in 2006)
2004 Split with Haymaker 7-inch (Deep Six Records)
2005 Dangerous Fumes 7-inch (fake version, self-released) (really Baiting the Public 7-inch)
2005 Generation 7-inch (Slasher Records)
2005 Mix Tape Volume One cassette tape (Hidden World/Deranged Records)
2005 Black Cross 7-inch (Burning Sensation)
2005 Black Army 7-inch (Burning Sensation)
2005 Dropout from Generations: A Hardcore Compilation CD (Revelation Records)
2005 Search For The Words / Dance Of Death (Original Rough Mix) from Pink Eye Club Chi-Town Get Down CDR (self-released)
2006 Try a Little Togetherness from Killed by Canada CD (Fans Of Bad Productions)
2006 Fucked Up Tape cassette tape (Harsh Brutal Cold Productions - reissued by Trujaca Fala Records in 2007)
2006 Triumph of Life 7-inch (Peter Bower Records / Vice Records UK)
2006 Triumph of Life 3 song CD (Go Down Fighting Records / Vice Records UK)
2006 Dangerous Fumes 7-inch (Deranged Records)
2006 Dangerous Fumes 7-inch (Hate Records; German Edition)
2006 Split with Think I Care 7-inch (Town of Hardcore)
2006 Mix Tape Volume II cassette tape (Deranged Records)
2006 Dolly Mixture 7-inch (Fucked Up Records) - two covers of Dolly Mixture
2006 Shop Assistants 7-inch (Fucked Up Records) - two covers of The Shop Assistants
2006 Humos Peligrosos 7-inch (La Vida es un Mus) - actually a different version of Dangerous Fumes 7-inch
2006 Fums Perillosos 7-inch (La Vida es un Mus) - actually a different version of Dangerous Fumes 7-inch
2006 Hoxton Cunts 7-inch ("Random 7-inch's that have fake covers and labels on it done to make fun of the band and Vice Records.")
2006 Two Snakes 7-inch (Fucked Up Records)
2006 Since U Been Gone 10-inch/12" (bootleg)
2007 Hidden World 8 Track (Welfare Records)
2007 Toronto FC 7-inch Split with Hard Skin (No Future)
2007 Year of the Pig 12-inch (What's Your Rupture?)
2007 David Christmas 7-inch (Hidden World Records)
2008 2007 Halloween Weekend DVD
2008 Year of the Pig American Edit 7-inch (Matador Records / What's Your Rupture)
2008 Year of the Pig UK Edit 7-inch (Matador Records / What's Your Rupture)
2008 Year of the Pig Japanese Edit 7-inch (Matador Records / What's Your Rupture)
2008 Baiting the Public (Recorded Live in The Pit at KFJC, Los Altos Hills, CA.) from Live At The Devil's Triangle Vol 11 CD (KFJC)
2008 Job from Killed by Trash 2 LP (P. Trash Records)
2008 Crooked Head/I Hate Summer 7-inch (Matador Records)
2008 Royal Swan 7-inch split with Katie Stelmanis 7-inch (Matador Records)
2009 Two Snakes 7-inch (HG Fact)
2009 Mixtape No. 3 (self-released)
2009 No Epiphany 7-inch (Matador Records)
2009 Singles Compilation Tape (Trujaca Fala)
2009 Singles Compilation CD (HG Fact)
2009 Neat Parts digital single (Matador Records)
2009 Do They Know It's Christmas? digital single (Matador Records)
2009 Son of Sam on Shred Yr Face Vol. 2 7-inch Split with Rolo Tomassi and The Bronx (Matador Records)
2010 Couple Tracks 7-inch (Matador Records)
2010 @WFMU 10-inch (recorded in 2007) (Altamont)
2010 Daytrotter Sessions 7-inch (two-song bootleg)
2010 Daytrotter Sessions 7-inch (three-song official release for Record Store Day) (Matador Records)
2010 Reel Live reel-to-reel tape (Welfare Records)
2010 Here Lies Are split with Serena Maneesh 12-inch (Best of Both Records)
2010 Lazer Attack from Untitled 21: A Juvenile Tribute to the Swingin' Utters CD (Red Scare Industries)
2010 Baiting the Public (Recorded Live On KBOO 90.7 FM PDX) from Mixed Combat Vol.1 cassette tape (Life During Wartime)
2010 Hotel California from Metal Hard Rock Covers 353 CD (this recording is by a different band entirely unrelated to this one
2010 Live On CBC Radio 3 May/6/2008 digital single (Free Music Archive)
2011 Mixtape No. 4 (self-released)
2011 The Other Shoe digital single (Matador Records)
2011 A Little Death digital single (Matador Records)
2011 Ship Of Fools digital single (Matador Records)
2011 Queen Of Hearts digital single (Matador Records)
2011 The Other Shoe UK tour 7-inch (self-released)
2011 Byrdesdale Garden City 7-inch (Matador Records)
2011 Do All Words Can Do 7-inch (Matador Records)
2011 Remember Me (That's All I Ask) 7-inch (Matador Records)
2011 Turn The Season 7-inch (Matador Records)
2011 Octavio Made The Bomb 7-inch (Matador Records)
2011 Full Ripe split 7-inch (bootleg) (really a fake with no connection to the band)
2011 Jingle Bells benefit 7-inch split with Sloan (self-released)
2012 Clap, Clap, Clap from Rated G.G. 7-inch (WFMU)
2012 I Hate Summer (Live) 7-inch split with The Dirtbombs (Bruise Cruise Records)
2012 What Would You Do (For Veronica) ? 7-inch split with Yamantaka/Sonic Titan (Polaris)
2013 Walking on (Crooked) Sunshine from BrooklynVegan Presents Sun Salute CD (Primary Wave)
2014 Year of the Dragon 7-inch (Tankcrimes)
2014 Glass Boys (Slow Version) CD/LP (Matador Records)
2014 Paper the House 7-inch (Matador Records)
2014 Led by Hand 7-inch (Matador Records)
2014 Sun Glass 7-inch (Matador Records)
2014 The Art of Patrons 7-inch (Matador Records)
2014 Blink/The Way We Did 7-inch (self-released)
2014 Mixtape No. 5 (self-released)
2014 Voce Rubata from Broadsheet Music: A Year In Review (really a Jonah Falco solo effort released under the Fucked Up moniker) CD (Arts & Crafts)
2015 Our Own Blood 7-inch (self-released)
2016 Cream Puff War from Day of the Dead CD/LP (4AD)
2018 Raise Your Voice Joyce/Taken 7-inch (Merge Records/Arts & Crafts)
2020 Mixtape No. 6 (self-released)
Music videos
"Crooked Head" (2008)
"Queen of Hearts" (2011)
"The Other Shoe" (2011)
"Do You Feed ? (The Curry Song)" (2011)
"Turn the Season" (2012)
"Inside A Frame" (2012)
"Paper the House" (2014)
"Led by Hand" (2014)
"Sun Glass" (2014)
"The Art of Patrons" (2014)
"Year of the Hare" (2015)
"Normal People" (2018)
"Accelerate" (2018)
"Dose Your Dreams" (2019)
Motion pictures
Burn (2007)
The Last Pogo Jumps Again'' (2013)
See also
Canadian rock
References
External links
Official website
Fucked Up official Blog
Alternative Fucked Up Blog (by Damian)
2001 establishments in Ontario
Canadian hardcore punk groups
Jade Tree (record label) artists
Merge Records artists
Musical groups established in 2001
Musical groups from Toronto
Canadian musical quintets
Polaris Music Prize winners |
4157940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29 | History of the Republican Party (United States) | The Republican Party, also known as the GOP (Grand Old Party), is one of the two major political parties in the United States. It is the second-oldest extant political party in the United States after its main political rival, the Democratic Party.
In 1854, the Republican Party emerged to combat the expansion of slavery into American territories after the passing of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The early Republican Party consisted of northern Protestants, factory workers, professionals, businessmen, prosperous farmers, and after the Civil War, former black slaves. The party had very little support from white Southerners at the time, who predominantly backed the Democratic Party in the Solid South, and from Catholics, who made up a major Democratic voting block. While both parties adopted pro-business policies in the 19th century, the early GOP was distinguished by its support for the national banking system, the gold standard, railroads, and high tariffs. The party opposed the expansion of slavery before 1861 and led the fight to destroy the Confederate States of America (1861–1865). While the Republican Party had almost no presence in the Southern United States at its inception, it was very successful in the Northern United States, where by 1858 it had enlisted former Whigs and former Free Soil Democrats to form majorities in nearly every Northern state.
With the election of its first president, Abraham Lincoln, in 1860, the Party's success in guiding the Union to victory in the Civil War, and the Party's role in the abolition of slavery, the Republican Party largely dominated the national political scene until 1932. In 1912, former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt formed the Progressive Party after being rejected by the GOP and ran unsuccessfully as a third-party presidential candidate calling for social reforms. After 1912, many Roosevelt supporters left the Republican Party, and the Party underwent an ideological shift to the right. The GOP lost its congressional majorities during the Great Depression (1929–1940); under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democrats formed a winning New Deal coalition that was dominant from 1932 through 1964.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Southern strategy, the party's core base shifted with the Southern states becoming more reliably Republican in presidential politics and the Northeastern states becoming more reliably Democratic. White voters increasingly identified with the Republican Party after the 1960s. Following the Supreme Court's 1973 decision in Roe v. Wade, the Republican Party opposed abortion in its party platform and grew its support among evangelicals. The Republican Party won five of the six presidential elections from 1968 to 1988. Two-term President Ronald Reagan, who held office from 1981 to 1989, was a transformative party leader. His conservative policies called for reduced social government spending and regulation, increased military spending, lower taxes, and a strong anti-Soviet Union foreign policy. Reagan's influence upon the party persisted into the next century. In 2016, businessman and former reality TV star Donald Trump became the party's nominee for president, won the presidency, and shifted the party further to the right. Since Trump's nomination in 2016, the party is seen to be split between the Trumpist faction, which ranges from far-right nationalists to populists, and the anti-Trump faction, which consists of center-right conservatives, moderate centrists, as well as some traditional conservatives. Since the 1990s, the Party's support has chiefly come from the South, the Great Plains, the Mountain States, and rural areas in the North. Today, it supports free market economics, cultural conservatism, and originalism in constitutional jurisprudence. There have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one political party.
Beginnings: 1854–1860
The American party system had been dominated by Whigs and Democrats for decades leading up to the Civil War. But the Whig party's increasing internal divisions had made it a party of strange bedfellows by the 1850s. An ascendant anti-slavery wing clashed with a traditionalist and increasingly pro-slavery Southern wing. These divisions came to a head in the 1852 election, where Whig candidate Winfield Scott was trounced by Franklin Pierce. Southern Whigs, who had supported the prior Whig president Zachary Taylor, had been burned by Taylor and were unwilling to support another Whig. Taylor, who despite being a slaveowner, had proved notably anti-slave after campaigning neutrally on the issue. With the loss of Southern Whig support, and the loss of votes in the North to the Free Soil Party, Whigs seemed doomed. So they were, as they would never again contest a presidential election.
The final nail in the Whig coffin was the Kansas–Nebraska Act, passed by Democrats in 1854. It was also the spark that began the Republican Party, which would take in both Whigs and Free Soilers and create an anti-slavery party that the Whigs had always resisted becoming. The Act opened Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory to slavery and future admission as slave states, thus implicitly repealing the prohibition on slavery in territory north of 36° 30′ latitude that had been part of the Missouri Compromise. This change was viewed by anti-slavery Northerners as an aggressive, expansionist maneuver by the slave-owning South. Opponents of the Act were intensely motivated and began forming a new party. The Party began as a coalition of anti-slavery Conscience Whigs such as Zachariah Chandler and Free Soilers such as Salmon P. Chase.
The first anti-Nebraska local meeting where "Republican" was suggested as a name for a new anti-slavery party was held in a Ripon, Wisconsin schoolhouse on March 20, 1854. The first statewide convention that formed a platform and nominated candidates under the Republican name was held near Jackson, Michigan, on July 6, 1854. At that convention, the party opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories and selected a statewide slate of candidates. The Midwest took the lead in forming state Republican Party tickets; apart from St. Louis and a few areas adjacent to free states, there were no efforts to organize the Party in the southern states.
New England Yankees, who dominated that region and much of upstate New York and the upper Midwest, were the strongest supporters of the new party. This was especially true for the pietistic Congregationalists and Presbyterians among them and, during the war, many Methodists and Scandinavian Lutherans. The Quakers were a small, tight-knit group that was heavily Republican. By contrast, the liturgical churches (Roman Catholic, Episcopal and German Lutheran) largely rejected the moralism of the Republican Party; most of their adherents voted Democratic.
The new Republican Party envisioned modernizing the United States, emphasizing expanded banking, more railroads and factories, and giving free western land to farmers ("free soil") as opposed to letting slave owners buy up the best properties. It vigorously argued that free market labor was superior to slavery and was the very foundation of civic virtue and true republicanism; this was the "Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men" ideology. Without using the term "containment", the Republican Party in the mid-1850s proposed a system of containing slavery. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy: The federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a 'cordon of freedom' around slavery, hemming it in until the system's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery.
The Republican Party launched its first national organizing convention in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on February 22, 1856. This gathering elected a governing National Executive Committee and passed resolutions calling for the repeal of laws enabling slaveholding in free territories and "resistance by Constitutional means of Slavery in any Territory", defense of anti-slavery individuals in Kansas who were coming under physical attack, and a call to "resist and overthrow the present National Administration" of Franklin Pierce, "as it is identified with the progress of the Slave power to national supremacy". Its first national nominating convention was held in June 1856 in Philadelphia. John C. Frémont ran as the first Republican nominee for President in 1856 behind the slogan "Free soil, free silver, free men, Frémont and victory!" Although Frémont's bid was unsuccessful, the party showed a strong base. It dominated in New England, New York and the northern Midwest and had a strong presence in the rest of the North. It had almost no support in the South, where it was roundly denounced in 1856–1860 as a divisive force that threatened civil war.
The Republican Party absorbed many of the previous traditions of its members, who had come from an array of political factions, including Working Men, Locofoco Democrats, Free Soil Democrats, Free Soil Whigs, anti-slavery Know Nothings, Conscience Whigs, and Temperance Reformers of both parties. Many Democrats who joined were rewarded with governorships, or seats in the U.S. Senate, or House of Representatives.
During the presidential campaign in 1860, at a time of escalating tension between the North and South, Abraham Lincoln addressed the harsh treatment of Republicans in the South in his famous Cooper Union speech: [W]hen you speak of us Republicans, you do so only to denounce us as reptiles, or, at the best, as no better than outlaws. You will grant a hearing to pirates or murderers, but nothing like it to "Black Republicans." ... But you will not abide the election of a Republican president! In that supposed event, you say, you will destroy the Union; and then, you say, the great crime of having destroyed it will be upon us! That is cool. A highwayman holds a pistol to my ear, and mutters through his teeth, "Stand and deliver, or I shall kill you, and then you will be a murderer!"
Republican dominance: 1860–1896
Civil War
The election of Lincoln as president in 1860 opened a new era of Republican dominance based in the industrial North and agricultural Midwest. The Third Party System was dominated by the Republican Party (it lost the presidency only in 1884 and 1892). Lincoln proved brilliantly successful in uniting the factions of his party to fight for the Union in the Civil War. However, he usually fought the Radical Republicans who demanded harsher measures. Led by Senator William P. Fessenden and Congressman Thaddeus Stevens, Congress took the lead in economic policy, bringing in high tariffs, a new income tax, a national banking system, paper money ("Greenbacks") and enough taxes and loans to pay for the war.
Many conservative Democrats became War Democrats who had a deep belief in American nationalism and supported the war. When Lincoln added the abolition of slavery as a war goal, the Peace Democrats were energized and carried numerous state races, especially in Connecticut, Indiana and Illinois. Democrat Horatio Seymour was elected Governor of New York and immediately became a likely presidential candidate. Most of the state Republican parties accepted the antislavery goal except Kentucky.
During the Civil War, the party passed major legislation in Congress to promote rapid modernization, including a national banking system, high tariffs, the first income tax, many excise taxes, paper money issued without backing ("greenbacks"), a huge national debt, homestead laws, railroads and aid to education and agriculture.
The Republicans denounced the peace-oriented Democrats as disloyal Copperheads and won enough War Democrats to maintain their majority in 1862. In 1864, they formed a coalition with many War Democrats as the National Union Party. Lincoln chose Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate and was easily re-elected. During the war, upper-middle-class men in major cities formed Union Leagues to promote and help finance the war effort. Following the 1864 elections, Radical Republicans Led by Charles Sumner in the Senate and Thaddeus Stevens in the House set the agenda by demanding more aggressive action against slavery and more vengeance toward the Confederates.
Reconstruction (freedmen, carpetbaggers and scalawags): 1865–1877
Under Republican congressional leadership, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution—which banned slavery in the United States—passed the Senate in 1864 and the House in 1865; it was ratified in December 1865. In 1865, the Confederacy surrendered, ending the Civil War. Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865; following his death, Andrew Johnson took office as President of the United States.
During the post-Civil War Reconstruction era, there were major disagreements on the treatment of ex-Confederates and of former slaves, or freedmen. Johnson broke with the Radical Republicans and formed a loose alliance with moderate Republicans and Democrats. A showdown came in the Congressional elections of 1866, in which the Radicals won a sweeping victory and took full control of Reconstruction, passing key laws over the veto. Johnson was impeached by the House, but acquitted by the Senate.
With the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868, the Radicals had control of Congress, the party and the army and attempted to build a solid Republican base in the South using the votes of Freedmen, Scalawags and Carpetbaggers, supported directly by United States Army detachments. Republicans all across the South formed local clubs called Union Leagues that effectively mobilized the voters, discussed issues and when necessary fought off Ku Klux Klan (KKK) attacks. Thousands died on both sides.
Grant supported radical reconstruction programs in the South, the Fourteenth Amendment and equal civil and voting rights for the freedmen. Most of all he was the hero of the war veterans, who marched to his tune. The party had become so large that factionalism was inevitable; it was hastened by Grant's tolerance of high levels of corruption typified by the Whiskey Ring.
Many of the founders of the GOP joined the liberal movement, as did many powerful newspaper editors. They nominated Horace Greeley for president, who also gained the Democratic nomination, but the ticket was defeated in a landslide. The depression of 1873 energized the Democrats. They won control of the House and formed "Redeemer" coalitions which recaptured control of each southern state, in some cases using threats and violence.
Reconstruction came to an end when the contested election of 1876 was awarded by a special electoral commission to Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, who promised through the unofficial Compromise of 1877 to withdraw federal troops from control of the last three southern states. The region then became the Solid South, giving overwhelming majorities of its electoral votes and Congressional seats to the Democrats through 1964.
In terms of racial issues, Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins argues that in Alabama: White Republicans as well as Democrats solicited black votes but reluctantly rewarded blacks with nominations for office only when necessary, even then reserving the more choice positions for whites. The results were predictable: these half-a-loaf gestures satisfied neither black nor white Republicans. The fatal weakness of the Republican Party in Alabama, as elsewhere in the South, was its inability to create a biracial political party. And while in power even briefly, they failed to protect their members from Democratic terror. Alabama Republicans were forever on the defensive, verbally and physically.
Social pressure eventually forced most Scalawags to join the conservative/Democratic Redeemer coalition. A minority persisted and, starting in the 1870s, formed the "tan" half of the "Black and Tan" Republican Party, a minority in every Southern state after 1877. This divided the party into two factions: the lily-white faction, which was practically all-white; and the biracial black-and-tan faction. In several Southern states, the "Lily Whites", who sought to recruit white Democrats to the Republican Party, attempted to purge the Black and Tan faction or at least to reduce its influence. Among such "Lily White" leaders in the early 20th century, Arkansas' Wallace Townsend was the party's gubernatorial nominee in 1916 and 1920 and its veteran national GOP committeeman. The factionalism flared up in 1928 and 1952. The final victory of its opponent the lily-white faction came in 1964.
Gilded Age: 1877–1890
The party split into factions in the late 1870s. The Stalwarts, followers of Senator Roscoe Conkling, defended the spoils system. The Half-Breeds, who followed Senator James G. Blaine of Maine, pushed for reform of the civil service. Upscale reformers who opposed the spoils system altogether were called "Mugwumps". In 1884, Mugwumps rejected James G. Blaine as corrupt and helped elect Democrat Grover Cleveland, though most returned to the party by 1888. In the run-up to the 1884 Republican National Convention, Mugwumps organized their forces in the swing states, especially New York and Massachusetts. After failing to block Blaine, many bolted to the Democrats, who had nominated reformer Grover Cleveland. Young Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, leading reformers, refused to bolt—an action that preserved their leadership role in the GOP.
As the Northern post-war economy boomed with industry, railroads, mines and fast-growing cities as well as prosperous agriculture, the Republicans took credit and promoted policies to keep the fast growth going. The Democratic Party was largely controlled by pro-business Bourbon Democrats until 1896. The GOP supported big business generally, the gold standard, high tariffs and generous pensions for Union veterans. However, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers. The high McKinley Tariff of 1890 hurt the party and the Democrats swept to a landslide in the off-year elections, even defeating McKinley himself.
Foreign affairs seldom became partisan issues (except for the annexation of Hawaii, which Republicans favored and Democrats opposed). Much more salient were cultural issues. The GOP supported the pietistic Protestants (especially the Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Scandinavian Lutherans) who demanded prohibition. That angered wet Republicans, especially German Americans, who broke ranks in 1890–1892, handing power to the Democrats.
Demographic trends aided the Democrats, as the German and Irish Catholic immigrants were mostly Democrats and outnumbered the British and Scandinavian Republicans. During the 1880s, elections were remarkably close. The Democrats usually lost, but won in 1884 and 1892. In the 1894 Congressional elections, the GOP scored the biggest landslide in its history as Democrats were blamed for the severe economic depression 1893–1897 and the violent coal and railroad strikes of 1894.
Pietistic Republicans versus Liturgical Democrats: 1890–1896
From 1860 to 1912, the Republicans took advantage of the association of the Democrats with "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion". Rum stood for the liquor interests and the tavernkeepers, in contrast to the GOP, which had a strong dry element. "Romanism" meant Roman Catholics, especially Irish Americans, who ran the Democratic Party in every big city and whom the Republicans denounced for political corruption. "Rebellion" stood for the Democrats of the Confederacy, who tried to break the Union in 1861; and the Democrats in the North, called "Copperheads", who sympathized with them.
Demographic trends aided the Democrats, as the German and Irish Catholic immigrants were Democrats and outnumbered the British and Scandinavian Republicans. During the 1880s and 1890s, the Republicans struggled against the Democrats' efforts, winning several close elections and losing two to Grover Cleveland (in 1884 and 1892).
Religious lines were sharply drawn. Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Scandinavian Lutherans and other pietists in the North were tightly linked to the GOP. In sharp contrast, liturgical groups, especially the Catholics, Episcopalians and German Lutherans, looked to the Democratic Party for protection from pietistic moralism, especially prohibition. Both parties cut across the class structure, with the Democrats more bottom-heavy.
Cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign language schools became important because of the sharp religious divisions in the electorate. In the North, about 50% of the voters were pietistic Protestants (Methodists, Scandinavian Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Disciples of Christ) who believed the government should be used to reduce social sins, such as drinking.
Liturgical churches (Roman Catholics, German Lutherans and Episcopalians) comprised over a quarter of the vote and wanted the government to stay out of the morality business. Prohibition debates and referendums heated up politics in most states over a period of decade as national prohibition was finally passed in 1919 (repealed in 1933), serving as a major issue between the wet Democrats and the dry GOP.
Progressive Era: 1896–1932
The election of William McKinley in 1896 marked a resurgence of Republican dominance and was a realigning election. The GOP now had a decisive advantage nationwide and in the industrial states; the Democrats were left with the Solid South and mixed opportunities elsewhere. The large cities had Republican or Democratic machines. With fewer competitive states, turnout fell steadily. Blacks in the South lost the vote in general elections, but still had a voice in the Republican National Convention. New immigrants were pouring in from Eastern and Southern Europe. The Jewish element favored socialism; the others were largely ignored because machines did not need their votes. The women's suffrage movement was increasingly successful in the Western states. A major threat to machines came from the Progressive Movement, which fought corruption and waste in government.
McKinley
The Progressive Era (or "Fourth Party System") was dominated by Republican Presidents, with the sole exception of Democrat Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921). McKinley promised that high tariffs would end the severe hardship caused by the Panic of 1893 and that the GOP would guarantee a sort of pluralism in which all groups would benefit. He denounced William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee, as a dangerous radical whose plans for "Free Silver" at 16–1 (or Bimetallism) would bankrupt the economy.
McKinley relied heavily on finance, railroads, industry and the middle classes for his support and cemented the Republicans as the party of business. His campaign manager, Ohio's Mark Hanna, developed a detailed plan for getting contributions from the business world and McKinley outspent his rival Democrat William Jennings Bryan by a large margin. This emphasis on business was in part reversed by Theodore Roosevelt, the presidential successor after McKinley's assassination in 1901, who engaged in trust-busting. McKinley was the first President to promote pluralism, arguing that prosperity would be shared by all ethnic and religious groups.
Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt, who became president in 1901, had the most dynamic personality of the era. Roosevelt had to contend with men like Senator Mark Hanna, whom he outmaneuvered to gain control of the convention in 1904 that renominated him and he won after promising to continue McKinley's policies. More difficult to handle was conservative House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon, who blocked most of Roosevelt's legislative goals in 1906–1908.
Roosevelt achieved modest legislative gains in terms of railroad legislation and pure food laws. He was more successful in Court, bringing antitrust suits that broke up the Northern Securities Company trust and Standard Oil. Roosevelt moved to the left in his last two years in office, but was unable to pass major Square Deal proposals. He did succeed in naming his successor, Secretary of War William Howard Taft, who easily defeated Bryan again in the 1908 presidential election.
By 1907, Roosevelt identified himself with the left-center of the Republican Party. He explained his balancing act:
Again and again in my public career I have had to make head against mob spirit, against the tendency of poor, ignorant and turbulent people who feel a rancorous jealousy and hatred of those who are better off. But during the last few years it has been the wealthy corruptionists of enormous fortune, and of enormous influence through their agents of the press, pulpit, colleges and public life, with whom I've had to wage bitter war."
Tariffs
Protectionism was the ideological cement holding the Republican coalition together. High tariffs were used by Republicans to promise higher sales to business, higher wages to industrial workers, and higher demand for their crops to farmers. Progressive insurgents said it promoted monopoly. Democrats said it was a tax on the little man. It had greatest support in the Northeast, and greatest opposition in the South and West. The Midwest was the battle ground. The tariff issue was pulling the GOP apart. Roosevelt tried to postpone the issue, but Taft had to meet it head on in 1909 with the Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act. Eastern conservatives led by Nelson W. Aldrich wanted high tariffs on manufactured goods (especially woolens), while Midwesterners called for low tariffs. Aldrich outmaneuvered them by lowering the tariff on farm products, which outraged the farmers. The great battle over the high Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act in 1910 ripped the Republicans apart and set up the realignment in favor of the Democrats.
Insurgent Midwesterners led by George Norris revolted against the conservatives led by Speaker Cannon. The Democrats won control of the House in 1910 as the GOP rift between insurgents and conservatives widened.
1912 personal feud becomes ideological split
In 1912, Roosevelt broke with Taft, rejected Robert M. La Follette, and tried for a third term, but he was outmaneuvered by Taft and lost the nomination. The 1912 Republican National Convention turned a personal feud into an ideological split in the GOP. Politically liberal states for the first time were holding Republican primaries. Roosevelt overwhelmingly won the primaries—winning 9 out of 12 states (8 by landslide margins). Taft won only the state of Massachusetts (by a small margin); he even lost his home state of Ohio to Roosevelt. Senator Robert M. La Follette, a reformer, won two states. Through the primaries, Senator La Follette won a total of 36 delegates; President Taft won 48 delegates; and Roosevelt won 278 delegates. However 36 more conservative states did not hold primaries, but instead selected delegates via state conventions. For years Roosevelt had tried to attract Southern white Democrats to the Republican Party, and he tried to win delegates there in 1912. However Taft had the support of black Republicans in the South, and defeated Roosevelt there. Roosevelt led many (but not most) of his delegates to bolt out of the convention and created a new party (the Progressive, or "Bull Moose" ticket), in the election of 1912. Few party leaders followed him except Hiram Johnson of California. Roosevelt had the support of many notable women reformers, including Jane Addams. The Roosevelt-caused split in the Republican vote resulted in a decisive victory for Democrat Woodrow Wilson, temporarily interrupting the Republican era.
Regional, state and local politics
The Republicans welcomed the Progressive Era at the state and local level. The first important reform mayor was Hazen S. Pingree of Detroit (1890–1897), who was elected Governor of Michigan in 1896. In New York City, the Republicans joined nonpartisan reformers to battle Tammany Hall and elected Seth Low (1902–1903). Golden Rule Jones was first elected mayor of Toledo as a Republican in 1897, but was reelected as an independent when his party refused to renominate him. Many Republican civic leaders, following the example of Mark Hanna, were active in the National Civic Federation, which promoted urban reforms and sought to avoid wasteful strikes. North Carolina journalist William Garrott Brown tried to convince upscale white southerners of the wisdom of a strong early white Republican Party. He warned that a one party solid South system would negate democracy, encourage corruption, because the lack of prestige of the national level. Roosevelt was following his advice. However, in 1912, incumbent president Taft needed black Republican support in the South to defeat Roosevelt at the 1912 Republican national convention. Brown's campaign came to nothing, and he finally supported Woodrow Wilson in 1912.
Republicans dominate the 1920s
The party controlled the presidency throughout the 1920s, running on a platform of opposition to the League of Nations, support for high tariffs, and promotion of business interests. Voters gave the GOP credit for the prosperity and Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover were resoundingly elected by landslides in 1920, 1924 and 1928. The breakaway efforts of Senator Robert M. La Follette in 1924 failed to stop a landslide for Coolidge and his movement fell apart. The Teapot Dome Scandal threatened to hurt the party, but Harding died and Coolidge blamed everything on him as the opposition splintered in 1924.
GOP overthrown during Great Depression
The pro-business policies of the decade seemed to produce an unprecedented prosperity—until the Wall Street Crash of 1929 heralded the Great Depression. Although the party did very well in large cities and among ethnic Catholics in the presidential elections of 1920 and 1924, it was unable to hold those gains in 1928. By 1932, the cities—for the first time ever—had become Democratic strongholds.
Hoover was by nature an activist and attempted to do what he could to alleviate the widespread suffering caused by the Depression, but his strict adherence to what he believed were Republican principles precluded him from establishing relief directly from the federal government. The Depression cost Hoover the presidency with the 1932 landslide election of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt's New Deal coalition controlled American politics for most of the next three decades, excepting the presidency of Republican Dwight Eisenhower 1953–1961. The Democrats made major gains in the 1930 midterm elections, giving them congressional parity (though not control) for the first time since Wilson's presidency.
Fighting the New Deal coalition: 1932–1980
Historian George H. Nash argues: Unlike the "moderate," internationalist, largely eastern bloc of Republicans who accepted (or at least acquiesced in) some of the "Roosevelt Revolution" and the essential premises of President Truman's foreign policy, the Republican Right at heart was counterrevolutionary. Anticollectivist, anti-Communist, anti-New Deal, passionately committed to limited government, free market economics, and congressional (as opposed to executive) prerogatives, the G.O.P. conservatives were obliged from the start to wage a constant two-front war: against liberal Democrats from without and "me-too" Republicans from within.
The Old Right emerged in opposition to the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Hoff says that "moderate Republicans and leftover Republican Progressives like Hoover composed the bulk of the Old Right by 1940, with a sprinkling of former members of the Farmer-Labor party, Non-Partisan League, and even a few midwestern prairie Socialists."
The New Deal Era: 1932–1939
After Roosevelt took office in 1933, New Deal legislation sailed through Congress at lightning speed. In the 1934 midterm elections, ten Republican senators went down to defeat, leaving them with only 25 against 71 Democrats. The House of Representatives was also split in a similar ratio. The "Second New Deal" was heavily criticized by the Republicans in Congress, who likened it to class warfare and socialism. The volume of legislation, as well as the inability of the Republicans to block it, soon made the opposition to Roosevelt develop into bitterness and sometimes hatred for "that man in the White House". Former President Hoover became a leading orator crusading against the New Deal, hoping unrealistically to be nominated again for president.
Most major newspaper publishers favored Republican moderate Alf Landon for president. In the nation's 15 largest cities the newspapers that editorially endorsed Landon represented 70% of the circulation. Roosevelt won 69% of the actual voters in those cities by ignoring the press and using the radio to reach voters directly.
Roosevelt carried 46 of the 48 states thanks to traditional Democrats along with newly energized labor unions, city machines and the Works Progress Administration. The realignment creating the Fifth Party System was firmly in place. Since 1928, the GOP had lost 178 House seats, 40 Senate seats and 19 governorships, though it retained a mere 89 seats in the House and 16 in the Senate.
The black vote held for Hoover in 1932, but started moving toward Roosevelt. By 1940, the majority of northern blacks were voting Democratic. Southern blacks seldom were allowed to vote, but many became Democrats. Roosevelt made sure blacks had a share in relief programs, the wartime Army and wartime defense industry, but did not challenge segregation or the denial of voting rights in the South.
Minority parties tend to factionalize and after 1936 the GOP split into a conservative faction (dominant in the West and Midwest) and a liberal faction (dominant in the Northeast)—combined with a residual base of inherited progressive Republicanism active throughout the century. In 1936, Kansas governor Alf Landon and his liberal followers defeated the Herbert Hoover faction. Landon generally supported most New Deal programs, but carried only two states in the Roosevelt landslide. The GOP was left with only 16 senators and 88 representatives to oppose the New Deal, with Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as the sole victor over a Democratic incumbent.
Roosevelt alienated many conservative Democrats in 1937 by his unexpected plan to "pack" the Supreme Court via the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. Following a sharp recession that hit early in 1938, major strikes all over the country, the CIO and AFL competing with each other for membership and Roosevelt's failed efforts to radically reorganize the Supreme Court, the Democrats were in disarray. Meanwhile, the GOP was united as they had shed their weakest members in a series of defeats since 1930. Re-energized Republicans focused attention on strong fresh candidates in major states, especially Robert A. Taft the conservative from Ohio, Earl Warren the moderate who won both the Republicans and the Democratic primaries in California and Thomas E. Dewey the crusading prosecutor from New York. The GOP comeback in the 1938 United States elections was made possible by carrying 50% of the vote outside the South, giving GOP leaders confidence it had a strong base for the 1940 presidential election.
The GOP gained 75 House seats in 1938, but were still a minority. Conservative Democrats, mostly from the South, joined with Republicans led by Senator Robert A. Taft to create the conservative coalition, which dominated domestic issues in Congress until 1964.
World War II and its aftermath: 1939–1952
From 1939 through 1941, there was a sharp debate within the GOP about support for the United Kingdom as it led the fight against a much stronger Nazi Germany. Internationalists, such as Henry Stimson and Frank Knox, wanted to support Britain and isolationists, such as Robert A. Taft and Arthur Vandenberg, strongly opposed these moves as unwise for risking a war with Germany. The America First movement was a bipartisan coalition of isolationists. In 1940, a dark horse Wendell Willkie at the last minute won over the party, the delegates and was nominated. He crusaded against the inefficiencies of the New Deal and Roosevelt's break with the strong tradition against a third term, but was ambiguous on foreign policy.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 ended the isolationist-internationalist debate, as all factions strongly supported the war effort against Japan and Germany. The Republicans further cut the Democratic majority in the 1942 midterm elections in a very low turnout episode. With wartime production creating prosperity, the conservative coalition terminated nearly all New Deal relief programs (except Social Security) as unnecessary.
Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio represented the wing of the party that continued to oppose New Deal reforms and continued to champion non-interventionism. Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, represented the Northeastern wing of the party. Dewey did not reject the New Deal programs, but demanded more efficiency, more support for economic growth and less corruption. He was more willing than Taft to support Britain in 1939–1940. After the war the isolationists wing strenuously opposed the United Nations and was half-hearted in opposition to world communism.
As a minority party, the GOP had two wings: The left-wing supported most of the New Deal while promising to run it more efficiently and the right-wing opposed the New Deal from the beginning and managed to repeal large parts during the 1940s in cooperation with conservative Southern Democrats in the conservative coalition. Liberals, led by Dewey, dominated the Northeast while conservatives, led by Taft, dominated the Midwest. The West was split and the South was still solidly Democratic.
In 1944, a clearly frail Roosevelt defeated Dewey for his fourth consecutive term, but Dewey made a good showing that would lead to his selection as the candidate in 1948.
Roosevelt died in April 1945 and Harry S. Truman, a less liberal Democrat became president and replaced most of Roosevelt's top appointees. With the end of the war, unrest among organized labor led to many strikes in 1946 and the resulting disruptions helped the GOP. With the blunders of the Truman administration in 1945 and 1946, the slogans "Had Enough?" and "To Err is Truman" became Republican rallying cries and the GOP won control of Congress for the first time since 1928, with Joseph William Martin Jr. as Speaker of the House. The Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 was designed to balance the rights of management and labor. It was the central issue of many elections in industrial states in the 1940s to 1950s, but the unions were never able to repeal it.
In 1948, with Republicans split left and right, Truman boldly called Congress into a special session and sent it a load of liberal legislation consistent with the Dewey platform and dared them to act on it, knowing that the conservative Republicans would block action. Truman then attacked the Republican "Do-Nothing Congress" as a whipping boy for all of the nation's problems. Truman stunned Dewey and the Republicans in the election with a plurality of just over twenty-four million popular votes (out of nearly 49 million cast), but a decisive 303–189 victory in the Electoral College.
Eisenhower, Goldwater, Nixon, and Ford : 1952–1976
In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower, an internationalist allied with the Dewey wing, was drafted as a GOP candidate by a small group of Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. in order that he challenge Taft on foreign policy issues. The two men were not far apart on domestic issues. Eisenhower's victory broke a twenty-year Democratic lock on the White House. Eisenhower did not try to roll back the New Deal, but he did expand the Social Security system and built the Interstate Highway System.
After 1945, the isolationists in the conservative wing opposed the United Nations and were half-hearted in opposition to the expansion of Cold War containment of communism around the world. A garrison state to fight communism, they believed, would mean regimentation and government controls at home. Eisenhower defeated Taft in 1952 on foreign policy issues.
To circumvent the local Republican Party apparatus mostly controlled by Taft supporters, the Eisenhower forces created a nationwide network of grass-roots clubs, "Citizens for Eisenhower". Independents and Democrats were welcome, as the group specialized in canvassing neighborhoods and holding small group meetings. Citizens for Eisenhower hoped to revitalize the GOP by expanding its activist ranks and by supporting moderate and internationalist policies. It did not endorse candidates other than Eisenhower, but he paid it little attention after he won and it failed to maintain its impressive starting momentum. Instead the conservative Republicans became energized, leading to the Barry Goldwater nomination of 1964. Long-time Republican activists viewed the newcomers with suspicion and hostility. More significantly, activism in support of Eisenhower did not translate into enthusiasm for the party cause.
Once in office, Eisenhower was not an effective party leader and Nixon increasingly took that role. Historian David Reinhard concludes that Eisenhower lacked sustained political commitment, refused to intervene in state politics, failed to understand the political uses of presidential patronage and overestimated his personal powers of persuasion and conciliation. Eisenhower's attempt in 1956 to convert the GOP to "Modern Republicanism" was his "grandest flop". It was a vague proposal with weak staffing and little financing or publicity that caused turmoil inside the local parties across the country. The GOP carried both houses of Congress in 1952 on Eisenhower's coattails, but in 1954 lost both and would not regain the Senate until 1980 nor the House until 1994. The problem, says Reinhard, was the "voters liked Ike—but not the GOP".
Eisenhower was an exception to most Presidents in that he usually let Vice President Richard Nixon handle party affairs (controlling the national committee and taking the roles of chief spokesman and chief fundraiser). Nixon was narrowly defeated by John F. Kennedy in the 1960 United States presidential election, weakening his moderate wing of the party.
Conservatives made a comeback in 1964 under the leadership of Barry Goldwater, who defeated moderates and liberals such as Nelson Rockefeller, William Scranton and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. in the Republican presidential primaries that year. Goldwater was strongly opposed to the New Deal and the United Nations, but rejected isolationism and containment, calling for an aggressive anti-communist foreign policy. In the presidential election of 1964, he was defeated by Lyndon Johnson in a landslide that brought down many senior Republican congressmen across the country. Goldwater won five states in the deep South, the strongest showing by a Republican presidential candidate in the South since 1872.
Since Reconstruction the white South identified with the Democratic Party. Few blacks voted after 1900. The Democratic Party's dominance was so strong that the region was called the Solid South. The Republicans controlled certain parts of the Appalachian Mountains and they sometimes did compete for statewide office in the border states. By 1964, the Democratic lock on the South remained strong, but cracks began to appear. Strom Thurmond was the most prominent Democrat to switch to the Republican Party. One long-term cause was that the region was becoming more like the rest of the nation and could not long stand apart in terms of racial segregation. Modernization brought factories, businesses and larger cities as well as millions of migrants from the North, as far more people graduated from high school and college. Meanwhile, the cotton and tobacco basis of the traditional South faded away as former farmers moved to town or commuted to factory jobs. Segregation, requiring separate dining and lodging arrangements for employees, was a serious obstacle to business development.
The highly visible immediate cause of the political transition involved civil rights. The civil rights movement caused enormous controversy in the white South with many attacking it as a violation of states' rights. When segregation was outlawed by court order and by the Civil Rights acts of 1964 and 1965, a die-hard element resisted integration, led by Democratic governors Orval Faubus of Arkansas, Lester Maddox of Georgia, Ross Barnett of Mississippi and, especially George Wallace of Alabama. These populist governors appealed to a less-educated, blue-collar electorate that on economic grounds favored the Democratic Party and supported segregation.
After passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, most Southerners accepted the integration of most institutions (except public schools). With the old barrier to becoming a Republican removed, Southerners joined the new middle class and the Northern transplants in moving toward the Republican Party. Integration thus liberated Southern politics from the old racial issues. In 1963, the federal courts declared unconstitutional the practice of excluding African-American voters from the Democratic primaries, which had been the only elections that mattered in most of the South. Meanwhile, the newly enfranchised black voters supported Democratic candidates at the 85–90% level, a shift which further convinced many white segregationists that the Republicans were no longer the black party.
The New Deal Coalition collapsed in the mid-1960s in the face of urban riots, the Vietnam War, the opposition of many Southern Democrats to desegregation and the Civil Rights Movement and disillusionment that the New Deal could be revived by Lyndon Johnson's Great Society. In the 1966 midterm elections, the Republicans made major gains in part through a challenge to the "War on Poverty". Large-scale civic unrest in the inner-city was escalating ( reaching a climax in 1968) and urban white ethnics who had been an important part of the New Deal Coalition felt abandoned by the Democratic Party's concentration on racial minorities. Republican candidates ignored more popular programs, such as Medicare or the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and focused their attacks on less popular programs. Furthermore, Republicans made an effort to avoid the stigma of negativism and elitism that had dogged them since the days the New Deal, and instead proposed well-crafted alternatives—such as their "Opportunity Crusade". The result was a major gain of 47 House seats for the GOP in the 1966 United States House of Representatives elections that put the conservative coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats back in business.
Nixon defeated both Hubert Humphrey and George C. Wallace in 1968. When the Democratic left took over their party in 1972, Nixon won reelection by carrying 49 states.
Nixon's involvement in Watergate brought disgrace and a forced resignation in 1974 and any long-term movement toward the GOP was interrupted by the scandal. Nixon's unelected vice president, Gerald Ford, succeeded him and gave him a full pardon, giving Democrats a powerful issue they used to sweep the 1974 off-year elections. Ford never fully recovered. In 1976, he barely defeated Ronald Reagan for the nomination. First Lady Betty Ford was notable for her liberal positions on social issues and for her work on breast cancer awareness following her mastectomy in 1974. The taint of Watergate and the nation's economic difficulties contributed to the election of Democrat Jimmy Carter in 1976.
The Reagan/First Bush Era: 1980–1992
The Reagan Revolution
Ronald Reagan was elected president in the 1980 election by a landslide electoral vote, though he only carried 50.7 percent of the popular vote to Carter's 41% and Independent John Anderson's 6.6 percent, not predicted by most voter polling. Running on a "Peace Through Strength" platform to combat the communist threat and massive tax cuts to revitalize the economy, Reagan's strong persona proved too much for Carter. Reagan's election also gave Republicans control of the Senate for the first time since 1952, gaining 12 seats as well as 33 House seats. Voting patterns and poll result indicate that the substantial Republican victory was the consequence of poor economic performance under Carter and the Democrats and did not represent an ideological shift to the right by the electorate.
Ronald Reagan produced a major realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslides. In 1980, the Reagan coalition was possible because of Democratic losses in most socioeconomic groups. In 1984, Reagan won nearly 60% of the popular vote and carried every state except his Democratic opponent Walter Mondale's home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia, creating a record 525 electoral vote total (out of 538 possible votes). Even in Minnesota, Mondale won by a mere 3,761 votes, meaning Reagan came within less than 3,800 votes of winning in all fifty states.
Political commentators, trying to explain how Reagan had won by such a large margin, coined the term "Reagan Democrat" to describe a Democratic voter who had voted for Reagan in 1980 and 1984 (as well as for George H. W. Bush in 1988), producing their landslide victories. They were mostly white, blue-collar and were attracted to Reagan's social conservatism on issues such as abortion and to his hawkish foreign policy. Stan Greenberg, a Democratic pollster, concluded that Reagan Democrats no longer saw Democrats as champions of their middle class aspirations, but instead saw it as being a party working primarily for the benefit of others, especially African Americans and social liberals.
Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue: "The Republican party, nationally, moved from right-center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s".
Reagan reoriented American politics and claimed credit in 1984 for an economic renewal—"It's morning again in America!" was the successful campaign slogan. Income taxes were slashed 25% and the upper tax rates abolished. The frustrations of stagflation were resolved under the new monetary policies of Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, as no longer did soaring inflation and recession pull the country down. Working again in bipartisan fashion, the Social Security financial crises were resolved for the next 25 years.
In foreign affairs, bipartisanship was not in evidence. Most Democrats doggedly opposed Reagan's efforts to support the contra guerrillas against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua and to support the dictatorial governments of Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador against communist guerrilla movements. He took a hard line against the Soviet Union, alarming Democrats who wanted a nuclear freeze, but he succeeded in increasing the military budget and launching the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)—labeled "Star Wars" by its opponents—that the Soviets could not match.
Reagan fundamentally altered several long standing debates in Washington, namely dealing with the Soviet threat and reviving the economy. His election saw the conservative wing of the party gain control. While reviled by liberal opponents in his day, his proponents contend his programs provided unprecedented economic growth and spurred the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Detractors of Reagan's policies note that although Reagan promised to simultaneously slash taxes, massively increase defense spending and balance the budget, by the time he left office the nation's budget deficit had tripled in his eight years in office. In 2009, Reagan's budget director noted that the "debt explosion has resulted not from big spending by the Democrats, but instead the Republican Party's embrace, about three decades ago, of the insidious doctrine that deficits don't matter if they result from tax cuts". He inspired conservatives to greater electoral victories by being reelected in a landslide against Walter Mondale in 1984, but oversaw the loss of the Senate in 1986.
When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in Moscow, many conservative Republicans were dubious of the growing friendship between him and Reagan. Gorbachev tried to save communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive arms race with America, then in 1989 by shedding the East European empire. Communism finally collapsed in the Soviet Union in 1991.
President George H. W. Bush, Reagan's successor, tried to temper feelings of triumphalism lest there be a backlash in the Soviet Union, but the palpable sense of victory in the Cold War was a triumph that Republicans felt validated the aggressive foreign policies Reagan had espoused. As Haynes Johnson, one of his harshest critics admitted, "his greatest service was in restoring the respect of Americans for themselves and their own government after the traumas of Vietnam and Watergate, the frustration of the Iran hostage crisis and a succession of seemingly failed presidencies".
Emergence of neoconservatives
Some liberal Democratic intellectuals in the 1960s and 1970s who became disenchanted with the leftward movement of their party in domestic and foreign policy became "neoconservatives" ("neocons"). A number held major appointments during the five presidential terms under Reagan and the Bushes. They played a central role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, while not identifying themselves as neoconservatives, listened closely to neoconservative advisers regarding foreign policy, especially the defense of Israel, the promotion of democracy in the Middle East and the buildup of the United States Armed Forces to achieve these goals. Many early neoconservative thinkers were Zionists and wrote often for Commentary, published by the American Jewish Committee. The influence of the neocons on the White House faded during the Obama years, but it remains a staple in Republican Party arsenal.
The Clinton years and the Congressional ascendancy: 1992–2000
After the election of Democratic President Bill Clinton in 1992, the Republican Party, led by House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich campaigning on a "Contract with America", were elected to majorities to both Houses of Congress in the Republican Revolution of 1994. It was the first time since 1952 that the Republicans secured control of both houses of U.S. Congress, which with the exception of the Senate during 2001–2002 was retained through 2006. This capture and subsequent holding of Congress represented a major legislative turnaround, as Democrats controlled both houses of Congress for the forty years preceding 1995, with the exception of the 1981–1987 Congress in which Republicans controlled the Senate.
In 1994, Republican Congressional candidates ran on a platform of major reforms of government with measures such as a balanced budget amendment and welfare reform. These measures and others formed the famous Contract with America, which represented the first effort to have a party platform in an off-year election. The Contract promised to bring all points up for a vote for the first time in history. The Republicans passed some of their proposals, but failed on others such as term limits.
Democratic President Bill Clinton opposed some of the social agenda initiatives, but he co-opted the proposals for welfare reform and a balanced federal budget. The result was a major change in the welfare system, which conservatives hailed and liberals bemoaned. The Republican-controlled House of Representatives failed to muster the two-thirds majority required to pass a Constitutional amendment to impose term limits on members of Congress.
In 1995, a budget battle with Clinton led to the brief shutdown of the federal government, an event which contributed to Clinton's victory in the 1996 election. That year, the Republicans nominated Bob Dole, who was unable to transfer his success in Senate leadership to a viable presidential campaign.
The incoming Republican majority's promise to slow the rate of government spending conflicted with the president's agenda for Medicare, education, the environment and public health, eventually leading to a temporary shutdown of the U.S. federal government. The shutdown became the longest-ever in U.S. history, ending when Clinton agreed to submit a CBO-approved balanced budget plan. Democratic leaders vigorously attacked Gingrich for the budget standoff and his public image suffered heavily.
During the 1998 midterm elections, Republicans lost five seats in the House of Representatives—the worst performance in 64 years for a party that did not hold the presidency. Polls showed that Gingrich's attempt to remove President Clinton from the office was widely unpopular among Americans and Gingrich suffered much of the blame for the election loss. Facing another rebellion in the House Republican Conference, he announced on November 6, 1998, that he would not only stand down as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, but would leave the House as well, even declining to take his seat for an 11th term after he was handily re-elected in his home district.
The second Bush era: 2000–2008
George W. Bush, son of George H. W. Bush, won the 2000 Republican presidential nomination over Arizona Senator John McCain, former Secretary of Labor and Transportation Elizabeth Dole, and others. With his highly controversial and exceedingly narrow victory in the 2000 election against the Vice President Al Gore, the Republican Party gained control of the presidency and both houses of Congress for the first time since 1952. However, it lost control of the Senate when Vermont Senator James Jeffords left the Republican Party to become an independent in 2001 and caucused with the Democrats.
In the wake of the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001, Bush gained widespread political support as he pursued the War on Terrorism that included the invasion of Afghanistan and the invasion of Iraq. In March 2003, Bush ordered for an invasion of Iraq because of breakdown of United Nations sanctions and intelligence indicating programs to rebuild or develop new weapons of mass destruction. Bush had near-unanimous Republican support in Congress plus support from many Democratic leaders.
The Republican Party fared well in the 2002 midterm elections, solidifying its hold on the House and regaining control of the Senate in the run-up to the war in Iraq. This marked the first time since 1934 that the party in control of the White House gained seats in a midterm election in both houses of Congress (previous occasions were in 1902 and following the Civil War). Bush was renominated without opposition as the Republican candidate in the 2004 election and titled his political platform "A Safer World and a More Hopeful America".
It expressed Bush's optimism towards winning the War on Terrorism, ushering in an ownership society and building an innovative economy to compete in the world. Bush was re-elected by a larger margin than in 2000, but won the smallest share ever of the popular vote for a reelected incumbent president. However, he was the first Republican candidate since 1988 to win an outright majority. In the same election that year, the Republicans gained seats in both houses of Congress and Bush told reporters: "I earned capital in the campaign, political capital, and now I intend to spend it. It is my style".
Bush announced his agenda in January 2005, but his popularity in the polls waned and his troubles mounted. Continuing troubles in Iraq as well as the disastrous government response to Hurricane Katrina led to declining popular support for Bush's policies. His campaign to add personal savings accounts to the Social Security system and make major revisions in the tax code were postponed. He succeeded in selecting conservatives to head four of the most important agencies, Condoleezza Rice as Secretary of State, Alberto Gonzales as Attorney General, John Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and Ben Bernanke as Chairman of the Federal Reserve.
Bush failed to win conservative approval for Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court, replacing her with Samuel Alito, whom the Senate confirmed in January 2006. Bush and McCain secured additional tax cuts and blocked moves to raise taxes. Through 2006, they strongly defended his policy in Iraq, saying the Coalition was winning. They secured the renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act.
In the November 2005 off-year elections, New York City, Republican mayoral candidate Michael Bloomberg won a landslide re-election, the fourth straight Republican victory in what is otherwise a Democratic stronghold. In California, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger failed in his effort to use the ballot initiative to enact laws the Democrats blocked in the state legislature. Scandals prompted the resignations of Congressional Republicans House Majority Leader Tom DeLay, Duke Cunningham, Mark Foley and Bob Ney. In the 2006 midterm elections, the Republicans lost control of both the House of Representatives and Senate to the Democrats in what was widely interpreted as a repudiation of the administration's war policies. Exit polling suggested that corruption was a key issue for many voters. Soon after the elections, Donald Rumsfeld resigned as secretary of defense to be replaced by Robert Gates.
In the Republican leadership elections that followed the general election, Speaker Hastert did not run and Republicans chose John Boehner of Ohio for House Minority Leader. Senators chose whip Mitch McConnell of Kentucky for Senate Minority Leader and chose their former leader Trent Lott as Senate Minority Whip by one vote over Lamar Alexander, who assumed their roles in January 2007. In the October and November gubernatorial elections of 2007, Republican Bobby Jindal won election for governor of Louisiana, Republican incumbent Governor Ernie Fletcher of Kentucky lost and Republican incumbent Governor Haley Barbour of Mississippi won re-election.
With President Bush ineligible for a third term and Vice President Dick Cheney not pursuing the party's nomination, Arizona Senator John McCain quickly emerged as the Republican Party's presidential nominee, receiving President Bush's endorsement on March 6, six months before official ratification at the 2008 Republican National Convention. On August 29, Senator McCain announced Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska as his running-mate, making her the first woman on a Republican presidential ticket. McCain surged ahead of Obama in the national polls following the nomination but amid a financial crisis and a serious economic downturn, McCain and Palin went on to lose the 2008 presidential election to Democrats Barack Obama and running mate Joe Biden.
The Obama years and the rise of the Tea Party: 2008–2016
Following the 2008 elections, the Republican Party, reeling from the loss of the presidency, Congress and key state governorships, was fractured and leaderless. Michael Steele became the first black chairman of the Republican National Committee, but was a poor fundraiser and was replaced after numerous gaffes and missteps. Republicans suffered an additional loss in the Senate in April 2009, when Arlen Specter switched to the Democratic Party, depriving the GOP of a critical 41st vote to block legislation in the Senate. The seating of Al Franken several months later effectively handed the Democrats a filibuster-proof majority, but it was short-lived as the GOP took back its 41st vote when Scott Brown won a special election in Massachusetts in early 2010.
Republicans strongly opposed Obama's 2009 economic stimulus package and 2010 health care reform bill. The Tea Party movement, formed in early 2009, provided a groundswell of conservative grassroots activism to oppose policies of the Obama administration. With an expected economic recovery being criticized as sluggish, the GOP was expected to make big gains in the 2010 midterm elections. However, establishment Republicans began to see themselves at odds with Tea Party activists, who sought to run conservative candidates in primary elections to defeat the more moderate establishment-based candidates. Incumbent senators such as Bob Bennett in Utah and Lisa Murkowski in Alaska lost primary contests in their respective states.
Republicans won back control of the House of Representatives in the November midterm election, with a net gain of 63 seats, the largest gain for either party since 1948. The GOP also picked up six seats in the Senate, falling short of retaking control in that chamber, and posted additional gains in state governor and legislative races. Boehner became Speaker of the House while McConnell remained as the Senate Minority Leader. In an interview with National Journal magazine about congressional Republican priorities, McConnell explained that "the single most important thing we want to achieve is for (Barack) Obama to be a one-term president".
After 2009, the voter base of the GOP changed in directions opposite from national trends. It became older and less Hispanic or Asian than the general population. In 2013, Jackie Calmes of The New York Times reported a dramatic shift in the power base of the party as it moved away from the Northeast and the West Coast and toward small-town America in the South and West. During the 2016 presidential election, the Republicans also gained significant support in the Midwest.
In a shift over a half-century, the party base has been transplanted from the industrial Northeast and urban centers to become rooted in the South and West, in towns and rural areas. In turn, Republicans are electing more populist, antitax and antigovernment conservatives who are less supportive — and even suspicious — of appeals from big business.Big business, many Republicans believe, is often complicit with big government on taxes, spending and even regulations, to protect industry tax breaks and subsidies — "corporate welfare", in their view.
In February 2011, several freshmen Republican governors began proposing legislation that would diminish the power of public employee labor unions by removing or negatively affecting their right to collective bargaining, claiming that these changes were needed to cut state spending and balance the states' budgets. These actions sparked public-employee protests across the country. In Wisconsin, the veritable epicenter of the controversy, Governor Scott Walker fought off a labor-fueled recall election, becoming the first state governor in U.S. history to defeat a recall against him.
After leading a pack of minor candidates for much of 2010 and 2011, former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, despite outmatching his opponents in both money and organization, struggled to hold on to his lead for the 2012 GOP nomination. As the presidential campaign season headed toward the voting stage in January 2012, one candidate after another surged past Romney, held the lead for a few weeks, then fell back. According to the RealClearPolitics 2012 polling index, five candidates at one time or another were the top choice of GOP voters: Texas Governor Rick Perry, motivational speaker Herman Cain, former Speaker Newt Gingrich, former senator Rick Santorum and Romney himself.
After losing to Santorum in Iowa and Gingrich in South Carolina, Romney racked up a number of wins in later contests, emerging as the eventual frontrunner after taking the lion's share of states and delegates in the crucial Super Tuesday contests, despite an embarrassing loss in the Colorado caucuses and near-upsets in the Michigan and Ohio primaries. Romney was nominated in August and chose Congressman Paul Ryan, a young advocate of drastic budget cuts, as his running mate. Throughout the summer polls showed a close race and Romney had a good first debate, but otherwise had trouble reaching out to ordinary voters. He lost to Obama 51% to 47% and instead of gaining in the Senate as expected, Republicans lost seats.
The party mood was glum in 2013 and one conservative analyst concluded: It would be no exaggeration to say that the Republican Party has been in a state of panic since the defeat of Mitt Romney, not least because the election highlighted American demographic shifts and, relatedly, the party's failure to appeal to Hispanics, Asians, single women and young voters. Hence the Republican leadership's new willingness to pursue immigration reform, even if it angers the conservative base.
In March 2013, National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging postmortem on the GOP's failures in 2012, calling on the party to reinvent itself and to endorse immigration reform and said: "There's no one reason we lost. Our message was weak; our ground game was insufficient; we weren't inclusive; we were behind in both data and digital; and our primary and debate process needed improvement". Priebus proposed 219 reforms, including a $10 million marketing campaign to reach women, minorities and gays; a shorter, more controlled primary season; and better data collection and research facilities.
The party's official opposition to same-sex marriage came under attack. Meanwhile, social conservatives such as Rick Santorum and Mike Huckabee remained opposed to same-sex marriage and warned that evangelicals would desert if the GOP dropped the issue. Many leaders from different factions spoke out in 2013 on the need for a new immigration policy in the wake of election results showing a sharp move away from the GOP among Hispanics and Asians, but the Republicans in Congress could not agree on a program and nothing was done. Republicans in Congress forced a government shutdown in late 2013 after narrowly averting similar fiscal crises in 2011 and 2012.
The Tea Party fielded a number of anti-establishment candidates in the 2014 Republican primaries, but scored very few notable wins. However, they managed to unseat House Majority Leader Eric Cantor in his Virginia primary race. GOP attacks on Obama's unpopular administration resonated with voters and the party posted major gains around the country. They regained control of the Senate and increased their majorities in the House to the highest total since 1929. They took control of governorships, state legislatures and Senate seats in nearly all Southern states, except Florida and Virginia.
Great divisions in the House GOP conference were apparent after the 2014 midterm elections, with conservative members, many of them from the right-leaning Freedom Caucus, expressing dissatisfaction with congressional leadership. John Boehner's surprise announcement in September 2015 that he would step down as Speaker sent shockwaves through the House. After Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy bowed out of the race to replace Boehner due to a lack of support, House Ways and Means Chair Paul Ryan announced he would run, with the Freedom Caucus' support. Ryan was elected Speaker on October 29.
The Trump era: 2016–2020
Businessman Donald Trump won the 2016 Republican primaries, representing a dramatic policy shift from traditional conservatism to an aggressively populist ideology with overtones of cultural identity politics. Numerous high-profile Republicans, including past presidential nominees like Mitt Romney, announced their opposition to Trump; some even did so after he received the GOP nomination. Much of the Republican opposition to Trump stemmed from concerns that his disdain for political correctness, his support from the ethno-nationalist alt-right, and his virulent criticism of the mainstream news media would result in the GOP losing the presidential election and lead to significant GOP losses in other races. In one of the biggest upsets in American political history, Trump went on to defeat Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election.
In addition to electing Donald Trump as president, Republicans maintained a majority in the Senate, in the House, and amongst state governors in the 2016 elections. The Republican Party was slated to control 69 of 99 state legislative chambers in 2017 (the most it had held in history) and at least 33 governorships (the most it had held since 1922). The party took total control of the government (legislative chambers and governorships) in 25 states following the 2016 elections; this was the most states it had controlled since 1952.
In 2017, Donald Trump promised to use protective tariffs as a weapon to restore greatness to the economy.
Sources differ over the extent Trump dominated and "remade" the Republican Party. Some have called his control "complete", noting that the few dissenting "Never Trump" Republican elected officials retired or were defeated in primaries, that conservative media strongly supported him, and that his approval rating among self-identified Republican voters was extraordinarily high, while approval among national voters was low.
According to Trump and others, his policies differed from those of his Republican predecessors (such as Reagan) in being more oriented towards the working class, more skeptical of free trade agreements, and more isolationist and confrontational with foreign allies.
Others suggested that Trump's popularity among the Republican base did not translate into as much GOP candidate loyalty as expected. Still others opined that Republican legislation and policies during the Trump administration continued to reflect the traditional priorities of Republican donors, appointees and congressional leaders. Jeet Heer of New Republic suggested that Trump's ascendancy was the "natural evolutionary product of Republican platforms and strategies that stretch back to the very origins of modern conservatism";
Donald Trump is the first president in US history to be impeached twice. The first impeachment was in December 2019 but he was acquitted by the Senate in February 2020. The second impeachment was in January 2021 where he again was acquitted after he left office.
In the 2018 midterm elections, the Republican Party lost the House of Representatives for the first time since 2011 but increased their majority in the Senate.
The Biden years: 2020–present
In the 2020 elections, the Republican Party lost the Presidency and the Senate. Despite the loss, Donald Trump initially refused to concede and attempted to overturn the election. This culminated in the storming of the United States Capitol in January 2021 as some tried to disrupt the Electoral College vote count. After the storming, Donald Trump conceded the following day that "a new administration" will take over the White House, although he has yet to concede that he lost the election. Motivated by claims of widespread election fraud in the 2020 election, Republicans initiated an effort to make voting laws more restrictive following some temporary easing of voting laws or their enforcement in that election.
In 2021, Republican-controlled state legislatures "advanced their most conservative agenda in years" and were more aggressive in doing so than previous years.
In the 2022 midterm elections, the Democratic Party lost the House of Representatives for the first time since 2019 but increased their majority in the Senate. As of October 2023, after the removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House, the Republicans in the house are in disarray when in comes to selecting the next Speaker. Patrick McHenry has been designated as Speaker Pro Tempore, the absence of a speaker is preventing the chamber from functioning, putting the legislative process of Congress to a halt. To find out more view October 2023 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election
Republican factions
The Republican Party had a progressive element, typified in the early 20th century by Theodore Roosevelt in the 1907–1912 period (Roosevelt was more conservative at other points), Senator Robert M. La Follette, Sr. and his sons in Wisconsin (from about 1900 to 1946) and western leaders such as Senator Hiram Johnson in California, Senator George W. Norris in Nebraska, Senator Bronson M. Cutting in New Mexico, Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin in Montana and Senator William Borah in Idaho. They were generally progressive in domestic policy, supported unions and supported much of the New Deal, but were isolationist in foreign policy. This element died out by the 1940s. Outside Congress, of the leaders who supported Theodore Roosevelt in 1912, most opposed the New Deal.
Starting in the 1930s, a number of Northeastern Republicans took liberal positions regarding labor unions, spending and New Deal policies. They included Mayor Fiorello La Guardia in New York City, Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, Governor Earl Warren of California, Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota, Senator Clifford P. Case of New Jersey, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. of Massachusetts, Senator Prescott Bush of Connecticut (father and grandfather of the two Bush Presidents), Senator Jacob K. Javits of New York, Senator John Sherman Cooper of Kentucky, Senator George Aiken of Vermont, Governor and later Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon, Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania and Governor George W. Romney of Michigan. The most notable of them all was Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller of New York. They generally advocated a free-market, but with some level of regulation. Rockefeller required employable welfare recipients to take available jobs or job training.
While the media sometimes called them "Rockefeller Republicans", the liberal Republicans never formed an organized movement or caucus and lacked a recognized leader. They promoted economic growth and high state and federal spending while accepting high taxes and much liberal legislation, with the provision they could administer it more efficiently. They opposed the Democratic big city machines while welcoming support from labor unions and big business alike. Religion was not high on their agenda, but they were strong believers in civil rights for African Americans and women's rights and most liberals were pro-choice. They were also strong environmentalists and supporters of higher education. In foreign policy they were internationalists, throwing their support to Dwight D. Eisenhower over the conservative leader Robert A. Taft in 1952. They were often called the "Eastern Establishment" by conservatives such as Barry Goldwater.
The Goldwater conservatives fought this establishment from 1960, defeated it in 1964 and eventually retired most of its members, although some became Democrats like Senator Charles Goodell, Mayor John Lindsay in New York and Chief Justice Earl Warren. President Richard Nixon adopted many of their positions, especially regarding health care, welfare spending, environmentalism and support for the arts and humanities. After Congressman John B. Anderson of Illinois bolted the party in 1980 and ran as an independent against Reagan, the liberal GOP element faded away. Their old strongholds in the Northeast are now mostly held by Democrats.
The term "Rockefeller Republican" was used 1960–1980 to designate a faction of the party holding "moderate" views similar to those of Nelson Rockefeller, governor of New York from 1959 to 1974 and vice president under President Gerald Ford in 1974–1977. Before Rockefeller, Thomas E. Dewey, governor of New York (1942–1954) and GOP presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948 was the leader. Dwight Eisenhower and his aide Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. reflected many of their views.
An important moderate leader in the 1950s was Connecticut Republican senator Prescott Bush, father and grandfather of Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, respectively. After Rockefeller left the national stage in 1976, this faction of the party was more often called "moderate Republicans", in contrast to the conservatives who rallied to Ronald Reagan.
Historically, Rockefeller Republicans were moderate or liberal on domestic and social policies. They favored New Deal programs, including regulation and welfare. They were supporters of civil rights. They were supported by big business on Wall Street (New York City). In fiscal policy they favored balanced budgets and relatively high tax levels to keep the budget balanced. They sought long-term economic growth through entrepreneurship, not tax cuts.
In state politics, they were strong supporters of state colleges and universities, low tuition and large research budgets. They favored infrastructure improvements, such as highway projects. In foreign policy they were internationalists and anti-communists. They felt the best way to counter communism was sponsoring economic growth (through foreign aid), maintaining a strong military and keeping close ties to NATO. Geographically their base was the Northeast, from Maine to Pennsylvania, where they had the support of major corporations and banks and worked well with labor unions.
The moderate Republicans were top-heavy, with a surplus of high visibility national leaders and a shortage of grass roots workers. Most of all they lacked the numbers, the enthusiasm and excitement the conservatives could mobilize—the moderates decided it must be an un-American level of fanaticism that drove their opponents. Doug Bailey, a senior Rockefeller aide recalled, "there was a mentality in [Rockefeller's] campaign staff that, 'Look, we have got all this money. We should be able to buy the people necessary to get this done. And you buy from the top down'". Bailey discovered that the Rockefeller team never understood that effective political organizations are empowered from the bottom up, not the top down.
Barry Goldwater crusaded against the Rockefeller Republicans, beating Rockefeller narrowly in the California primary of 1964 giving the Arizona senator, all of the California delegates and a majority at the presidential nominating convention. The election was a disaster for the conservatives, but the Goldwater activists now controlled large swaths of the GOP and they had no intention of retreating. The stage was set for a conservative takeover, based in the South and West, in opposition to the Northeast. Ronald Reagan continued in the same theme. George H. W. Bush was more closely associated with the moderates, but his son George W. Bush was firmly allied with the conservatives.
Political firsts for women and minorities
From its inception in 1854 to 1964, when Senate Republicans pushed hard for passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 against a filibuster by Senate Democrats, the GOP had a reputation for supporting blacks and minorities. In 1869, the Republican-controlled legislature in Wyoming Territory and its Republican governor John Allen Campbell made it the first jurisdiction to grant voting rights to women. In 1875, California swore in the first Hispanic governor, Republican Romualdo Pacheco. In 1916, Jeannette Rankin of Montana became the first woman in Congress—and indeed the first woman in any high level government position. In 1928, New Mexico elected the first Hispanic U.S. Senator, Republican Octaviano Larrazolo. In 1898, the first Jewish U.S. Senator elected from outside of the former Confederacy was Republican Joseph Simon of Oregon. In 1924, the first Jewish woman elected to the U.S. House of Representatives was Republican Florence Kahn of California. In 1928, the Republican U.S. Senate Majority Leader, Charles Curtis of Kansas, who grew up on the Kaw Indian reservation, became the first person of significant non-European ancestry to be elected to national office, as Vice President of the United States for Herbert Hoover.
Blacks generally identified with the GOP until the 1930s. Every African American who served in the U.S. House of Representatives before 1935 and all of the African Americans who served in the Senate before 1979, were Republicans. Frederick Douglass after the Civil War and Booker T. Washington in the early 20th century were prominent Republican spokesmen. In 1966, Edward Brooke of Massachusetts became the first African American popularly elected to the United States Senate.
Southern strategy
Some critics, most notably Dan Carter, have alleged that the rapid growth in Republican strength in the South came from a secretly coded message to Wallacites and segregationists that the GOP was a racist anti-black party seeking their votes. Political scientists and historians point out that the timing does not fit the Southern strategy model. Nixon carried 49 states in 1972, so he operated a successful national rather than regional strategy, but the Republican Party remained quite weak at the local and state level across the entire South for decades. Matthew Lassiter argues that Nixon's appeal was not to the Wallacites or segregationists, but rather to the rapidly emerging suburban middle-class. Many had Northern antecedents and they wanted rapid economic growth and saw the need to put backlash politics to rest. Lassiter says the Southern strategy was a "failure" for the GOP and that the Southern base of the Republican Party "always depended more on the middle-class corporate economy and on the top-down politics of racial backlash". Furthermore, "realignment in the South quote came primarily from the suburban ethos of New South metropolises such as Atlanta and Charlotte, North Carolina, not to the exportation of the working-class racial politics of the Black Belt".
The South's transition to a Republican stronghold took decades and happened incrementally, with national politics gradually influencing state and local politics. First the states started voting Republican in presidential elections—the Democrats countered that by nominating Southerners who could carry some states in the region, such as Jimmy Carter in 1976 and Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996. However, the strategy narrowly failed with Al Gore in 2000. The states began electing Republican senators to fill open seats caused by retirements and finally governors and state legislatures changed sides. Georgia was the last state to shift to the GOP, with Republican Sonny Perdue taking the governorship in 2002. Republicans aided the process with redistricting that protected the African-American and Hispanic vote (as required by the Civil Rights laws), but split up the remaining white Democrats so that Republicans mostly would win.
In addition to its white middle class base, Republicans attracted strong majorities from the evangelical Christian community and from Southern pockets of traditionalist Roman Catholics in South Louisiana. Media businessman and Baptist preacher, Pat Robertson, is credited with making religion central to the politics of the Republican Party. The national Democratic Party's support for liberal social stances such as abortion drove many white Southerners into a Republican Party that was embracing the conservative views on these issues. Conversely, liberal voters in the northeast began to join the Democratic Party.
In 1969, Kevin Phillips argued in The Emerging Republican Majority that support from Southern whites and growth in the South, among other factors, was driving an enduring Republican electoral realignment. In the early 21st century, the South was generally solidly Republican in state elections and mostly solidly Republican in presidential contests. In 2005, political scientists Nicholas A. Valentino and David O. Sears argued that partisanship at that time was driven by disagreements on the size of government, national security and moral issues, while racial issues played a smaller role.
See also
History of conservatism in the United States
Republican National Convention
List of Republican National Conventions
Political positions of the Republican Party
United States politics
American election campaigns in the 19th century
History of the Democratic Party (United States)
Notes
References
Further reading
Surveys
American National Biography (1999) 20 volumes; contains short biographies of all politicians no longer alive.
Carlisle, Rodney P. Encyclopedia of Politics. Vol. 2: The Right (Sage, 2005).
Cox, Heather Cox. To Make Men Free: A History of the Republican Party (2014).
Dinkin, Robert J. Voting and Vote-Getting in American History (2016), expanded edition of Dinkin, Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices, (Greenwood 1989)
Fauntroy, Michael K. Republicans and the Black vote (2007).
Gould, Lewis. Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans (2003), major overview. online
Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002) online, short scholarly biographies from George Washington to William Clinton.
Jensen, Richard. Grass Roots Politics: Parties, Issues, and Voters, 1854–1983 (1983)
Kleppner, Paul, et al. The Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1983), applies party systems model.
Kurian, George Thomas ed. The Encyclopedia of the Republican Party (4 vol. 2002).
Mayer, George H. The Republican Party, 1854–1966, 2nd ed. (1967), basic survey.
Remini, Robert V. The House: The History of the House of Representatives (2006), extensive coverage of the party.
Rutland, Robert Allen. The Republicans: From Lincoln to Bush (1996).
Shafer, Byron E. and Anthony J. Badger, eds. Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000 (2001), essays by specialists on each time period.
For each election includes short history and selection of primary document. Essays on the most important elections are reprinted in Schlesinger, The Coming to Power: Critical presidential elections in American history (1972).
1854 to 1932
Bordewich, Fergus M. Congress at War: How Republican Reformers Fought the Civil War, Defied Lincoln, Ended Slavery, and Remade America (2020) excerpt
Full biography.
Donald, David Herbert. Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War (1960); and vol 2: Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man (1970); Pulitzer Prize.
DeSantis, Vincent P. Republicans Face the Southern Question: The New Departure Years, 1877–1897 (1998).
Edwards, Rebecca. Angels in the Machinery: Gender in American Party Politics from the Civil War to the Progressive Era (1997).
Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (1970). online
Foner, Eric. Reconstruction, 1863–1877 (1998). The standard scholarly history online
Frantz, Edward O. The Door of Hope: Republican Presidents and the First Southern Strategy, 1877–1933 (UP of Florida, 2011). 295pp
Garraty, John. Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography (1953).
Gienapp, William E. The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856 (1987).
Gienapp, William E. "Nativism and the Creation of a Republican Majority in the North before the Civil War". Journal of American History 72.3 (1985): 529–59 online
Gould, Lewis L. Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics (2008) online
Gould, Lewis L. "New Perspectives on the Republican Party, 1877–1913", American Historical Review (1972) 77#4 pp. 1074–82 in JSTOR
Gould, Lewis L. The William Howard Taft Presidency (University Press of Kansas, 2009) .
Gould, Lewis L. The presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (2011) online
Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of William McKinley (1980) online
Hicks, John D. Republican ascendancy, 1921-1933 (1960). online
Hoogenboom, Ari. Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President (1995).
Hume, Richard L. and Jerry B. Gough. Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags: The Constitutional Conventions of Radical Reconstruction (LSU Press, 2008); statistical classification of delegates.
Jenkins, Jeffery A. and Boris Heersink. "Republican Party Politics and the American South: From Reconstruction to Redemption, 1865–1880" (2016 paper at the 2016 Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association); online.
Jensen, Richard. The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888–1896 (1971). online
Jensen, Richard. Grass Roots Politics: Parties, Issues, and Voters, 1854–1983 (1983)
Kehl, James A. Boss Rule in the Gilded Age: Matt Quay of Pennsylvania (1981).
Keith, LeeAnna. When It Was Grand: The Radical Republican History of the Civil War (2020) excerpt; also online review
Kleppner, Paul. The Third Electoral System 1854–1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures (1979).
Lowenstein, Roger. Ways and Means: Lincoln and His Cabinet and the Financing of the Civil War (2022)
Marcus, Robert. Grand Old Party: Political Structure in the Gilded Age, 1880–1896 (1971).
Morgan, H. Wayne. From Hayes to McKinley; National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (1969).
Morgan, H. Wayne. William McKinley and His America (1963).
(covers Presidency 1901–1909); Pulitzer Prize.
Mowry, George E. Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement (1946) online.
Mowry, George E. The Era of Theodore Roosevelt, 1900–1912 (1958) read online
Muzzey, David Saville. James G. Blaine: A Political Idol of Other Days (1934) online.
Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, (1947–70), 8-volumes cover 1848–1865; highly detailed coverage.
Oakes, James. The Crooked Path to Abolition: Abraham Lincoln and the Antislavery Constitution (W.W. Norton, 2021).
Oakes, James. Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865 (W. W. Norton, 2012)
Paludin, Philip. A People's Contest: The Union and the Civil War, 1861–1865 (1988).
Peskin, Allan. "Who were the Stalwarts? Who were their rivals? Republican factions in the Gilded Age". Political Science Quarterly 99#4 (1984): 703–16. in JSTOR.
Volume One covers Lincoln to 1863; vol 2 covers the later years.
Rhodes, James Ford. The History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 9 vol (1919), detailed political coverage to 1909. online
Richardson, Heather Cox. The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War (1997).
Rove, Karl. The Triumph of William McKinley: Why the Election of 1896 Still Matters (2015). Detailed narrative of the entire campaign by Karl Rove a prominent 21st-century Republican campaign advisor.
Silbey, Joel H. The American Political Nation, 1838–1893 (1991).
Summers, Mark Wahlgren. Rum, Romanism & Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884 (2000).
Summers, Mark Wahlgren. Party games: Getting, keeping, and using power in gilded age politics (2004).
Summers, Mark Wahlgren. The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction (2014)
Van Deusen, Glyndon G. Horace Greeley, Nineteenth-Century Crusader (1953).
Williams, R. Hal. Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the remarkable election of 1896 (UP of Kansas, 2017).
Since 1932
Aberbach, Joel D., ed. and Peele, Gillian, ed. Crisis of Conservatism?: The Republican Party, the Conservative Movement, and American Politics after Bush (Oxford UP, 2011). 403pp
New edition every two years since 1975.
Brennan, Mary C. Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP (1995).
Bowen, Michael. The Roots of Modern Conservatism: Dewey, Taft, and the Battle for the Soul of the Republican Party (2011).
Critchlow, Donald T. The Conservative Ascendancy: How the Republican Right Rose to Power in Modern America (2nd ed. 2011).
Dueck, Colin, Hard Line: The Republican Party and U.S. Foreign Policy since World War II (Princeton University Press, 2010). 386pp.
Feldman, Glenn, ed. Painting Dixie Red: When, Where, Why, and How the South Became Republican (UP of Florida, 2011) 386pp
Galvin, Daniel. Presidential party building: Dwight D. Eisenhower to George W. Bush (Princeton, NJ, 2010).
Gould, Lewis L. 1968: The Election That Changed America (1993).
Jensen, Richard. "The Last Party System, 1932–1980", in Paul Kleppner, ed. Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1981).
Kabaservice, Geoffrey. Rule and Ruin: The Downfall of Moderation and the Destruction of the Republican Party, From Eisenhower to the Tea Party (2012); scholarly history that strongly favors the moderates. Excerpt and text search.
Ladd Jr., Everett Carll with Charles D. Hadley. Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s 2nd ed. (1978).
Mason, Robert. The Republican Party and American Politics from Hoover to Reagan (2011) excerpt and text search.
Mason, Robert, and Iwan Morgan, eds. Seeking a New Majority: The Republican Party and American Politics, 1960–1980 (Vanderbilt University Press; 2013), 248 pages; scholarly studies of how the party expanded its base, appealed to new constituencies and challenged Democratic dominance.
Milbank, Dana. The Destructionists: The Twenty-Five Year Crack-Up of the Republican Party (2022) excerpt
Parmet, Herbert S. Eisenhower and the American Crusades (1972).
Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft (1972).
Patterson, James. Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933–39 (1967).
On the rise of the conservative movement in the liberal 1960s.
Perlstein, Rick. Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (2008).
Reinhard, David W. The Republican Right since 1945 (1983).
Rosen, Eliot A. The Republican Party in the Age of Roosevelt: Sources of Anti-Government Conservatism in the United States (2014).
Skocpol, Theda and Williamson, Vanessa, eds. The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism (Oxford University Press, 2012) 245 pp.
Sundquist, James L. Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (1983).
Weed, Clyda P. The Nemesis of Reform: The Republican Party During the New Deal (Columbia University Press, 1994) 293 pp.
Zake, Ieva, "Nixon vs. the GOP: Republican Ethnic Politics, 1968–1972", Polish American Studies, 67 (Autumn 2010), 53–74.
Primary sources
Porter, Kirk H., Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1980 (1982).
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier Jr. ed. History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2008 (various multivolume editions, latest is 2011). For each election includes brief history and selection of primary documents.
United States Republican Party
Republican Party
Republican
Republic Party
History of the United States by topic |
4158148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Gippsland%20railway%20line | South Gippsland railway line | The South Gippsland railway line is a partially closed railway line in Victoria, Australia. It was first opened in 1892, branching from the Orbost line at Dandenong, and extending to Port Albert. Much of it (the section up to Leongatha) remained open until December 1994 (passenger services finished the previous July). Today, only the section between Dandenong and Cranbourne remains open for use. The section of the line from Nyora to Leongatha was used by the South Gippsland Tourist Railway until it ceased operations in 2016. The section from Nyora to Welshpool, with extension trail to Port Welshpool and a portion of the former line at Koo Wee Rup, have been converted into the Great Southern Rail Trail.
History
The Melbourne and Suburban Railway Company opened a line from Princes Bridge railway station to Punt Road (Richmond) and South Yarra in 1859 and extended to Dandenong in 1879. The South Gippsland railway line was opened from Dandenong to Cranbourne in 1888 and extended to Koo Wee Rup, Nyora and Loch in 1890, Korumburra and Leongatha in 1891 and Welshpool, Alberton and Port Albert in 1892. The section from Alberton to Port Albert was closed in the 1940s. A branch line was built from Alberton to Yarram and Woodside in 1921.
The line was well known for its sharp curves and spectacular scenery and was also one of the last lines to offer a 'Mixed Passenger and Goods' service in Victoria. The section from Yarram to Woodside was closed on 26 May 1953, and the section from Welshpool to Yarram closed on 26 October 1987, when superphosphate freight services ceased. From then until 30 June 1992, the track beyond Agnes, referred to as Barry Beach Junction, received minimal usage, although a short branch leading from Agnes to Barry Beach was used extensively for goods traffic to serve the oil platforms in Bass Strait. After the withdrawal of the freight service, the line beyond Leongatha was booked out of use for all rail traffic. That section of track was dismantled in 1994, which required the strengthening of the line's derelict trestle bridges to allow the track removal machine to operate.
On 24 July 1993, the last regular V/Line passenger train operated to Leongatha, with locomotive P18 hauling the return passenger train comprising four H type carriages. Following the withdrawal of all rail services beyond Koala Siding, the section of track from Nyora to Leongatha was transferred to the South Gippsland Railway on 15 December 1994. On 15 January 1998, all regular V/Line services ceased on the line after the withdrawal of the Australian Glass Manufacturing sand train that operated between the sand mine at Koala Siding, situated between Lang Lang and Nyora railway stations, and the AGM siding at Spotswood. Since December 1999, no trains have operated beyond Cranbourne.
Branch lines
A 5 km-long narrow-gauge horse-drawn tramway was opened from Welshpool to Welshpool Jetty in 1905. It was closed in 1941.
The mountainous Strzelecki branch line, which opened in 1922, ran from Koo Wee Rup to Strzelecki. The line was closed in stages throughout the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s.
The Wonthaggi branch line, from Nyora to Wonthaggi, opened in 1910, to serve the State Coal Mine. A small extension of the line was opened in 1917. The Wonthaggi railway was closed in 1978.
The Outtrim branch line was built in two stages from Korumburra to the coal mine at Outtrim: the initial stage to Jumbunna was opened in 1894, and the final section to Outtrim opened in 1896. The line was also closed in two stages: the first from Jumbunna to Outtrim on 4 September 1951, and from Jumbunna to Korumburra on 1 October 1953.
Services
Passenger services operated on the line from its opening. Services from Melbourne to Leongatha and Yarram were withdrawn on 6 June 1981, with replacement buses starting three days later. As of July 1980, there was one loco-hauled Yarram service per day (except Sundays), with at least one air-conditioned carriage, running to Melbourne in the morning and to Yarram in the evening. There were also railcar services from Leongatha to Melbourne in the early morning and afternoon, and from Melbourne to Leongatha in the morning and between midday and the evening, depending on the day. To fill the gaps between those services, local trains were introduced on a three-month trial from Dandenong to Lang Lang, but they were withdrawn on 3 October 1981, due to insufficient patronage . Services to Leongatha were restored on 9 December 1984, with free train shuttles to Korumburra being provided to mark the occasion. The 1984 timetable included two round trips per day from Monday to Saturday, and one round trip on Sundays. However, the passenger service was again withdrawn on 24 July 1993.
With the ending of freight services from Koala siding in January 1998, the line became unused beyond Cranbourne. The exception was a tourist railway operation, which commenced operation between Nyora and Leongatha, and later became known as the South Gippsland Railway.
In 1995, the section of track between Dandenong and Cranbourne was electrified and a station added at Merinda Park, as part of a $27 million Federal Government-funded project.
The Barry Beach freight service ceased in 1992. The line beyond Leongatha was booked out of service on 30 June 1992, effectively ending all traffic on the line beyond Leongatha. V/Line passenger services ceased to Leongatha on 24 July 1993, after last train to Melbourne. By the mid-1990s only T, Y and P class diesel locomotives were used on the line, due to their low axle loads, with a 15 km/h speed limit applying to parts of the track. That continued until 15 January 1998, when the Koala Siding (near Nyora) to Spotswood sand train ceased operation. On average, it took a passenger train 2 hours and 15 minutes to travel from Spencer Street station to Leongatha during the final 10 years of service, with the replacement bus service completing the journey in an average time of 2 hours and 30 minutes.
Enthusiast trains
Given that the line was facing near closure, a number of special railway enthusiast services were operated along it during the 1980s and 1990s. Notable special journeys included K153 hauling the last steam special to Yarram on 24 October 1987, as well as an earlier Vintage Train journey to Foster and return on 6 September 1987. The last steam hauled train to run beyond Leongatha was on 13 November 1988, when steam locomotives D3.639 and K153 travelled to Foster. That was the last time the locomotive turntable at Foster was available for use prior to its relocation to Korumburra railway station for the South Gippsland Tourist Railway in 1994. Local Melbourne community groups continued to organise chartered special diesel and railcar-hauled trains beyond Leongatha until 1991. A steam and diesel special operated to Barry Beach and Welshpool on 11 November 1989, which was organised to celebrate the centenary of the opening of the Dandenong to Nyora section of the Great Southern Railway. Heritage steam locomotive J515 hauled the special to Leongatha and return, while then V/Line diesel locomotive T368 took over for the section of track beyond Leongatha, due to the turntable at Foster not being available for operation. On 12 May 1990, DERM58 ran the last advertised special train available to the public beyond Leongatha, to Welshpool and Barry Beach.
During the 1990s, steam tours only operated as far as Leongatha, with the first being run on 9 September 1990, again hauled by steam locomotive K153, which coincided with the 50th anniversary of the steam locomotive being introduced into service. In 1993, there were two notable steam-hauled trips to Leongatha. Both were operated by Steamrail Victoria, and comprised 11-car consists of Victorian Railways E-Type and W-Type wooden carriages, which ran numerous shuttles between Korumburra and Leongatha stations. The first one was on 2 May, which was supposed to be a triple header of K Class steam locomotives. However, one of the scheduled locomotives, K190, suffered a defective main internal steampipe failure at Caulfield, leaving locomotives K153 and K183 to double-head the train. On 25 July 1993, the apparent "Last Lament to Leongatha" was run, operated by K190 and K183.
After the withdrawal of passenger services to Leongatha, a few more steam-hauled trips were organised before the line was booked out of regular use between Cranbourne and Nyora. On 17 April 1994, K190 and K183 again travelled to Leongatha with the "South Gippsland Rambler", with a consist of seven wooden carriages. Steam locomotive J515 journeyed to Leongatha on 14 October 1995, for the first time since November 1989, organised by the Seymour Railway Heritage Centre and the ARHS. During the tour, J515 derailed due to a missing guide rail on the locomotive turntable at Korumburra that had been recently relocated from Foster.
The last locomotive to traverse the South Gippsland main line before its closure was steam locomotive K190 operated by Steamrail Victoria. It returned to Steamrail Victoria's base at Newport on 29 April 1998, after it was leased to the South Gippsland Tourist Railway (SGTR) in December 1996. The South Gippsland Tourist Railway had first been lent the locomotive during the summer of 1995–1996. The locomotive again returned for the summer of 1996–1997. K190 was leased to the South Gippsland Tourist Railway on 7 December 1996, when Steamrail Victoria operated another steam special to Leongatha. Diesel loco T345 was also lent to the tourist railway at that time, and formed part of the train from Newport Workshops. K183 double-headed with K190 to Nyora, with T345 attached. K190 and T345 were detached at Nyora station. Shortly afterwards, K183 ran solo to Leongatha. K190 followed to Leongatha with a consist of the tourist railway's carriages. T342, T345 and the DERM RM55 combined for a Saturday tourist railway service. Later, K183 returned to Newport Workshops with the Steamrail Victoria train. However, steam locomotives D3639 and K183 combined for the last steam excursion to traverse the South Gippsland rail line on 25 September 1997. During that time, D3639 and with K190 were on loan to the South Gippsland Tourist Railway.
Current Status
The entire track between Nyora and Leongatha has now been removed and is undergoing conversion to a rail trail. The Great Southern Rail Trail initially extend from Nyora through to Welshpool, with discussions continuing about extending it to connect with the Yarram section, which is Wellington Shire.
The track beyond Leongatha, to Yarram and the Barry Beach branch line, was dismantled in 1994, but removal of other infrastructure, such as level crossing signals, took place around mid to late 1992, soon after the last train ran to Barry Beach. The section between Leongatha and Foster was turned into the Great Southern Rail Trail in 1998. In 2011, the Tarra Rail Trail from Alberton to Yarram was completed. , the section between Foster and Toora had been complete, leaving the final section from there to Alberton being converted into the Great Southern Rail Trail.
The section from Dandenong to Cranbourne was electrified in 1995 and, as the Cranbourne Line, is now part of the Melbourne suburban rail network. The first level crossing on the closed section of the line, the South Gippsland Highway crossing in Cranbourne has since been paved over. The Victorian Transport Plan of 2009 stated that the Cranbourne line would be extended two kilometres to a new station at Cranbourne East by 2015. The new Cranbourne East station would be built near Renyard Street and the Casey Fields complex. The line from Nyora to Leongatha was used by the South Gippsland Tourist Railway until 2016. The branch line from Nyora to Wonthaggi was closed in 1978 and dismantled during 1988. It has now partly been converted to the Bass Coast Rail Trail. The former branch lines to both Outtrim and Strezlecki have long since closure been removed with almost no remains.
The remaining section of track from Cranbourne to Nyora is disused but mostly still intact. A length of track was pulled up at Koo Wee Rup in 2008 to allow the construction of toilets for the bus and coach stop, and a section of rail trail has been constructed through the town. Construction of the pipeline for Wonthaggi Desalination Plant made it necessary to remove three sections of the line. The first was about 100 metres on the down side of Monomeith Road, where about 50 metres of track were removed. The second was on the up side of Caldermeade Road, where about 30 metres of track were removed, and the third was about halfway between Caldermeade and Lang Lang stations.
Much of the operational and safeworking infrastructure remains in place in this section, including signalling equipment, level crossings, and easements. Station platforms are also in place, but mostly without station buildings, for example at Lang Lang and Tooradin. Parts of the track have warped due to erosion, ground movement or the deterioration of sleepers. That is especially evident near Lang Lang, Tooradin, and north of Koo-Wee-Rup. There are also doubts about the integrity of some bridges and culverts along the route.
Prior to the 1999 Victorian election, the state Labor Party promised to return passenger services to Leongatha. In 2008, a report commissioned by the Victorian Department of Transport found the cost of returning passenger services to Leongatha to be unjustifiably high, estimating the cost at $72 million. The report stated that only 20 per cent of respondents surveyed about their transport needs considered restoring train services to be the main priority. Instead $14.7 million was allocated to road coach service upgrades. The then Minister for Public Transport Lynne Kosky said that the State Government had provided funding for development of a rail trail between Cranbourne East and Nyora to support tourism in South Gippsland in May 2008.
On 24 February 2016, the South Gippsland Shire Council unanimously carried motions to support the return of rail services to Leongatha, following a petition, initiated by the South & West Gippsland Transport Group, which attracted 2,420 supporters. The successful motion means that the data gathered from the petition and documents prepared by South Gippsland Shire Council investigating the returning rail to South Gippsland were passed to Public Transport Victoria with a call to provide for South Gippsland rail services in the forthcoming Regional Network Development Plan. After the disbandment of the South Gippsland Tourist Railway on 16 January 2016, it was announced that VicTrack would leave the disused rail line between Cranbourne and Leongatha intact and available for future use by freight and passenger trains. This announcement has since been contradicted by removal of the rail line from Nyora to Leongatha.
Political context
While the reopening the South Gippsland railway line as far as Leongatha was a prominent issue in the region in 2013, that is no longer the case, and the focus has shifted to developing the tourist potential of the expanding rail trail. A South Gippsland Shire Council Priority Projects document, released in June 2013, acknowledged that the return of a rail service was a major community priority, with funding and support sought from all levels of government. In early 2014, a report into possible extensions of the Melbourne metropolitan rail system identified the population growth corridor from Cranbourne to Koo-Wee-Rup, along the disused Leongatha line, as a key planning priority.
The South and West Gippsland Transport Group, a public transport lobby group, established in April 2011, which was closely associated with the South Gippsland Shire Council and other local government bodies, campaigned for an integrated transport plan in the region, which included rail at the forefront. The group had been known as the South Gippsland Transport Users Group and had amalgamated with numerous rail lobby groups in 1994, shortly after the rail passenger service to Leongatha was withdrawn in July 1993. One notable milestone for the group was running a successful campaign that saw passenger rail services reinstated to Leongatha on 9 December 1984.
A promise by the Bracks Labor government in 1999 to revive the railway line for freight and passenger services was abandoned by his successor John Brumby in 2008, but a community campaign involving the South and West Gippsland Transport Group continued to lobby, in collaboration with key stakeholders and governments, to achieve the reinstatement of rail services, and the improvement of public transport provision in the region. Several reports in relation to the use of rail for the transport of goods found it was not economically viable because rail did not provide the flexibility needed by producers. There was also the problem of the Dandenong bottleneck, which causes major delays to Gippsland Line services which share the rail corridor from there to Melbourne. It is also unlikely that any future rail service would be able to use the current alignment because it would not meet the requirements of modern VLocity Trains.
References
External links
Statistics and detailed schematic map at the vicsig enthusiast website
Photos: Between Cranbourne and Clyde stations
Bikes make tracks for Gippsland
South & West Public Transport Group
South Gippsland Railway Videos by Graeme Reid
Closed regional railway lines in Victoria (state)
Railway lines opened in 1892
Transport in Gippsland (region)
Shire of South Gippsland
Shire of Wellington |
4158168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia%20%28United%20States%29 | Militia (United States) | The militia of the United States, as defined by the U.S. Congress, has changed over time. During colonial America, all able-bodied men of a certain age range were members of the militia, depending on each colony's rule. Individual towns formed local independent militias for their own defense. The year before the US Constitution was ratified, The Federalist Papers detailed the founders' paramount vision of the militia in 1787. The new Constitution empowered Congress to "organize, arm, and discipline" this national military force, leaving significant control in the hands of each state government.
Today, as defined by the Militia Act of 1903, the term "militia" is used to describe two classes within the United States:
Organized militia – consisting of the National Guard and Naval Militia.
Unorganized militia – comprising the reserve militia: every able-bodied man of at least 17 and under 45 years of age, National Guard, or Naval Militia.
Since 1933, Congress has organized the National Guard under its power to "raise and support armies" and not its power to "Provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the Militia". Congress chose to do this in the interests of organizing reserve military units which were not limited in deployment by the strictures of its power over the constitutional militia, which can be called forth only "to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions."
Etymology
The term "militia" derives from Old English milite meaning soldiers (plural), militisc meaning military and also classical Latin milit-, miles meaning soldier.
The Modern English term militia dates to the year 1590, with the original meaning now obsolete: "the body of soldiers in the service of a sovereign or a state". Subsequently, since approximately 1665, militia has taken the meaning "a military force raised from the civilian population of a country or region, especially to supplement a regular army in an emergency, frequently as distinguished from mercenaries or professional soldiers". The U.S. Supreme Court adopted the following definition for "active militia" from an Illinois Supreme Court case of 1879: " 'a body of citizens trained to military duty, who may be called out in certain cases, but may not be kept on service like standing armies, in times of peace'. . . when not engaged at stated periods . . . they return to their usual avocations . . . and are subject to call when public exigencies demand it."
The spelling millitia is often observed in written and printed materials from the 17th century through the 19th century.
History
Early-mid Colonial era (1607–1754)
See article: Colonial American military history
The early colonists of America considered the militia an important social institution, necessary to provide defense and public safety.
On August 29, 1643, the Plymouth Colony Court allowed & established a military discipline to be erected and maintained.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
See article: Provincial troops in the French and Indian Wars
During the French and Indian Wars, town militia formed a recruiting pool for the Provincial Forces. The legislature of the colony would authorize a certain force level for the season's campaign and set recruitment quotas for each local militia. In theory, militia members could be drafted by lot if there were inadequate forces for the Provincial Regulars; however, the draft was rarely resorted to because provincial regulars were highly paid (more highly paid than their regular British Army counterparts) and rarely engaged in combat.
In September 1755, George Washington, then adjutant-general of the Virginia militia, upon a frustrating and futile attempt to call up the militia to respond to a frontier Indian attack:
... he experienced all the evils of insubordination among the troops, perverseness in the militia, inactivity in the officers, disregard of orders, and reluctance in the civil authorities to render a proper support. And what added to his mortification was, that the laws gave him no power to correct these evils, either by enforcing discipline, or compelling the indolent and refractory to their duty ... The militia system was suited for only to times of peace. It provided for calling out men to repel invasion; but the powers granted for effecting it were so limited, as to be almost inoperative.
See New Hampshire Provincial Regiment for a history of a Provincial unit during the French and Indian War.
Pre-American Revolutionary War era (1763–1775)
Just prior to the American Revolutionary War, on October 26, 1774, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, observing the British military buildup, deemed their militia resources to be insufficient: the troop strength, "including the sick and absent, amounted to about seventeen thousand men ... this was far short of the number wanted, that the council recommended an immediate application to the New England governments to make up the deficiency":
... they recommended to the militia to form themselves into companies of minute-men, who should be equipped and prepared to march at the shortest notice. These minute-men were to consist of one quarter of the whole militia, to be enlisted under the direction of the field-officers, and divide into companies, consisting of at least fifty men each. The privates were to choose their captains and subalterns, and these officers were to form the companies into battalions, and chose the field-officers to command the same. Hence the minute-men became a body distinct from the rest of the militia, and, by being more devoted to military exercises, they acquired skill in the use of arms. More attention than formerly was likewise bestowed on the training and drilling of militia.
American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)
See article: List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War
See article: List of United States militia guerrilla actions in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)
The American Revolutionary War began near Boston, Massachusetts with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, in which a group of local militias constituted the American side (the "Patriots"). On April 19, 1775, a British force 800 strong marched out of Boston to Concord intending to destroy patriot arms and ammunition. At 5:00 in the morning at Lexington, they met about 70 armed militiamen whom they ordered to disperse, but the militiamen refused. Firing ensued; it is not clear which side opened fire. This became known as "the shot heard round the world". Eight militiamen were killed and ten wounded, whereupon the remainder took flight. The British continued on to Concord and were unable to find most of the arms and ammunition of the patriots. As the British marched back toward Boston, patriot militiamen assembled along the route, taking cover behind stone walls, and sniped at the British. At Meriam's Corner in Concord, the British columns had to close in to cross a narrow bridge, exposing themselves to concentrated, deadly fire. The British retreat became a rout. It was only with the help of an additional detachment of 900 troops that the British force managed to return to Boston. This marked the beginning of the war. It was "three days after the affair of Lexington and Concord that any movement was made towards embodying a regular army".
In 1777, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, which contained a provision for raising a confederal militia that consent would be required from nine of the 13 States. Article VI of the Articles of Confederation states,
... every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage.
Some militia units appeared without adequate arms, as evidenced in this letter from John Adams to his wife, dated August 26, 1777:
The militia are turning out with great alacrity both in Maryland and Pennsylvania. They are distressed for want of arms. Many have none, we shall rake and scrape enough to do Howe's business, by favor of the Heaven.
The initial enthusiasm of Patriot militiamen in the beginning days of the war soon waned. The historian Garry Wills explains,
The fervor of the early days in the reorganized militias wore off in the long grind of an eight-year war. Now the right to elect their own officers was used to demand that the men not serve away from their state. Men evaded service, bought substitutes to go for them as in the old days, and had to be bribed with higher and higher bounties to join the effort – which is why Jefferson and Samuel Adams called them so expensive. As wartime inflation devalued the currency, other pledges had to be offered, including land grants and the promise of "a healthy slave" at the end of the war. Some men would take a bounty and not show up. Or they would show up for a while, desert, and then, when they felt the need for another bounty, sign up again in a different place. ... This practice was common enough to have its own technical term – "bounty jumping".
The burden of waging war passed to a large extent to the standing army, the Continental Army. The stay-at-home militia tended then to perform the role of the internal police to keep order. British forces sought to disrupt American communities by instigating slave rebellions and Indian raids. The militia fended off these threats. Militias also spied on Loyalists in the American communities. In Albany County, New York, the militia established a Committee for Detecting and Defeating Conspiracies to look out for and investigate people with suspicious allegiances.
Confederation period (1783–1787)
Politically, the militia was highly popular during the postwar period, though to some extent, based more on pride of victory in the recent war than on the realities. This skepticism of the actual value of relying upon the militia for national defense, versus a trained regular army was expressed by Gouverneur Morris:
An overweening vanity leads the fond many, each man against the conviction of his own heart, to believe or affect to believe, that militia can beat veteran troops in the open field and even play of battle. This idle notion, fed by vaunting demagogues, alarmed us for our country, when in the course of that time and chance, which happen to all, she should be at war with a great power.
Robert Spitzer, citing Daniel Boorstin, describes this political dichotomy of the public popularity of the militia versus the military value:
While the reliance upon militias was politically satisfying, it proved to be an administrative and military nightmare. State detachments could not be easily combined into larger fighting units; soldiers could not be relied on to serve for extended periods, and desertions were common; officers were elected, based on popularity rather than experience or training; discipline and uniformity were almost nonexistent.
General George Washington defended the militia in public, but in correspondence with Congress expressed his opinion of the militia quite to the contrary:
To place any dependence on the Militia, is, assuredly, resting upon a broken staff. Men just dragged from the tender Scenes of domestic life; unaccustomed to the din of Arms; totally unacquainted with every kind of military skill, which being followed by a want of confidence in themselves, when opposed to Troops regularly trained, disciplined, and appointed, superior in knowledge and superior in Arms, makes them timid, and ready to fly from their own shadows ... if I was called upon to declare upon Oath, whether the Militia have been most serviceable or hurtful upon the whole, I should subscribe to the latter.
At the end of the Revolutionary War, a political atmosphere developed at the local level where the militia was seen with fondness, despite their spotty record on the battlefield. Typically, when the militia did act well was when the battle came into the locale of the militia, and local inhabitants tended to exaggerate the performance of the local militia versus the performance of the Continental Army. The Continental Army was seen as the protector of the States, though it also was viewed as a dominating force over the local communities. Joseph Reed, president of Pennsylvania viewed this jealousy between the militia forces and the standing army as similar to the prior frictions between the militia and the British Regular Army a generation before during the French and Indian War. Tensions came to a head at the end of the war when the Continental Army officers demanded pensions and set up the Society of the Cincinnati to honor their own wartime deeds. The local communities did not want to pay national taxes to cover the Army pensions, when the local militiamen received none.
Constitution and Bill of Rights (1787–1789)
The delegates of the Constitutional Convention (the founding fathers/framers of the United States Constitution) under Article 1; section 8, clauses 15 and 16 of the federal constitution, granted Congress the power to "provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia", as well as, and in distinction to, the power to raise an army and a navy. The US Congress is granted the power to use the militia of the United States for three specific missions, as described in Article 1, section 8, clause 15: "To provide for the calling of the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions." The Militia Act of 1792 clarified whom the militia consists of:
Civilian control of a peacetime army
At the time of the drafting of the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights, a political sentiment existed in the newly formed United States involving suspicion of peacetime armies not under civilian control. This political belief has been identified as stemming from the memory of the abuses of the standing army of Oliver Cromwell and King James II, in Great Britain in the prior century, which led to the Glorious Revolution and resulted in placing the standing army under the control of Parliament.
During the Congressional debates, James Madison discussed how a militia could help defend liberty against tyranny and oppression. (Source I Annals of Congress 434, June 8, 1789) However, during his presidency, after enduring the failures of the militia in the War of 1812, Madison came to favor the maintenance of a strong standing army.
Shift from States' power to Federal power
A major concern of the various delegates during the constitutional debates over the Constitution and the Second Amendment to the Constitution revolved around the issue of transferring militia power held by the States (under the existing Articles of Confederation) to Federal control.
Political debate regarding compulsory militia service for pacifists
Records of the constitutional debate over the early drafts of the language of the Second Amendment included significant discussion of whether service in the militia should be compulsory for all able bodied men, or should there be an exemption for the "religiously scrupulous" conscientious objector.
The concern about risks of a "religiously scrupulous" exemption clause within the second amendment to the Federal Constitution was expressed by Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts (from 1 Annals of Congress at 750, 17 August 1789):
The "religiously scrupulous" clause was ultimately stricken from the final draft of second amendment to the Federal Constitution though the militia clause was retained. The Supreme Court of the United States has upheld a right to conscientious objection to military service.
Concern over select militias
William S. Fields & David T. Hardy write:
While in The Federalist No. 46, Madison argued that a standing army of 25,000 to 30,000 men would be offset by "a militia amounting to near a half million of citizens with arms in their hands, officered by men chosen from among themselves ..." [119] The Antifederalists were not persuaded by these arguments, in part because of the degree of control over the militia given to the national government by the proposed constitution. The fears of the more conservative opponents centered upon the possible phasing out of the general militia in favor of a smaller, more readily corrupted, select militia. Proposals for such a select militia already had been advanced by individuals such as Baron Von Steuben, Washington's Inspector General, who proposed supplementing the general militia with a force of 21,000 men given government- issued arms and special training. [120] An article in the Connecticut Journal expressed the fear that the proposed constitution might allow Congress to create such select militias: "[T]his looks too much like Baron Steuben's militia, by which a standing army was meant and intended." [121] In Pennsylvania, John Smiley told the ratifying convention that "Congress may give us a select militia which will in fact be a standing army", and worried that, [p.34] with this force in hand, "the people in general may be disarmed". [122] Similar concerns were raised by Richard Henry Lee in Virginia. In his widely-read pamphlet, Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican, Lee warned that liberties might be undermined by the creation of a select militia that "[would] answer to all the purposes of an army", and concluded that "the Constitution ought to secure a genuine and guard against a select militia by providing that the militia shall always be kept well organized, armed, and disciplined, and include, according to the past and general usage of the states, all men capable of bearing arms."
Note: In Federalist Paper 29 Hamilton argued the inability to train the whole Militia made select corps inevitable and, like Madison, paid it no concern.
Federalist period (1789–1801)
In 1794, a militia numbering approximately 13,000 was raised and personally led by President George Washington to quell the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania. From this experience, a major weakness of a States-based citizen militia system was found to be the lack of systematic army organization, and a lack of training for engineers and officers. George Washington repeatedly warned of these shortcomings up until his death in 1799. Two days before his death, in a letter to General Alexander Hamilton, George Washington wrote: "The establishment of a Military Academy upon a respectable and extensive basis has ever been considered by me as an object of primary importance to this country; and while I was in the chair of government, I omitted no proper opportunity of recommending it in my public speeches, and otherwise to the attention of the legislature."
Early republic (1801–1812)
In 1802, the federal military academy at West Point was established, in part to rectify the failings of irregular training inherent in a States-based militia system.
War of 1812 (1812–1815)
See article: List of United States militia guerrilla actions in the War of 1812
In the War of 1812, the United States Militia were at times routed if they fought conventionally on the battle in the open as they were undisciplined, untrained, and underfunded. For example, at the Battle of Bladensburg, the militia were set up in linear formation with little to no entrenchments and very little help from the Regular Army. Thus the Militia were routed easily and fled from the battlefield in large numbers, allowing the smaller British force to successfully raid and destroy the White House in Washington D.C.
American militias were very effective when fighting in unconventional guerrilla warfare such as the defense of Hampton Village on June 25, 1813, where American militia conducted a few devastating ambushes, conducted harassing fire behind cover, and fought some hit-and-run engagements. Although the militia were routed and withdrew with 7 killed, 12 wounded, and 12 missing, the British suffered 120 killed and at least 95 wounded. American militia as horse-mounted raiders were very effective at conducting incursions or raids into British Canada. For instance, Duncan McArthur led a successful mounted raid into Canada with an almost entirely militia force. William Henry Harrison led an incursion into Thames with an almost entirely Kentucky mounted militia force which captured an entire British army, eliminated Tecumseh, and suffered very few casualties.
Militias fared better and proved more reliable when protected behind defensive entrenchments and fixed fortifications, using guerrilla tactics such as firing from behind cover, being reinforced with Regular armed forces, or a little bit of all those factors. In the Battle of Plattsburgh, the American militia dug entrenchments, fixed fortifications, disguised the roads with camouflage, and felled trees across the road. The Regulars and militia harassed the British army by firing at them from behind stone fences, trees, and whatever cover they could find before retreating to their entrenched fortified defense. As the British lost the naval engagement of the Plattsburgh battle, they continued to face heavy fire from the militia. Facing increased casualties, the British withdrew, making the Americans the victors.
The American militia failed if they were poorly led, had bad logistics, were not trained properly or were misused. But they could be a potent force if there was a good competent leader, better logistics, used carefully, better trained, or a combination of all those factors. However, the U.S. government still believed militia were inadequate, and the desire for a professional regular army prevailed. Military budgets were greatly increased at this time and a smaller, standing federal army, rather than States' militias, was deemed better for the national defense.
Antebellum era (1815–1861)
By the 1830s the American frontier expanded westwards, with the Indian wars in the eastern United States ending. Many states let their unorganized militia lapse in favor of volunteer militia units such as city guards who carried on in functions such as assisting local law enforcement, providing troops for ceremonies and parades or as a social club. The groups of company size were usually uniformed and armed through their own contributions. Volunteer units of sufficient size could elect their own officers and apply for a state charter under names that they themselves chose.
The states' militia continued service, notably, in the slave-holding states, to maintain public order by performing slave patrols to round up fugitive slaves.
Responding to criticisms of failures of the militia, Adjutant General William Sumner wrote an analysis and rebuttal in a letter to John Adams, May 3, 1823:
The disasters of the militia may be ascribed chiefly, to two causes, of which the failure to train the men is a principle one; but, the omission to train the officers is as so much greater, that I think the history of its conduct, where it has been unfortunate, will prove that its defects are attributable, more to their want of knowledge or the best mode of applying the force under their authority to their attainment of their object than to all others. It may almost be stated, as an axiom, that the larger the body of undisciplined men is, the less is its chance of success; ...
During this inter-war period of the nineteenth century, the states' militia tended towards being disorderly and unprepared.
The demoralizing influences even of our own militia drills has long been notorious to a proverb. It has been a source of general corruptions to the community, and formed habits of idleness, dissipation and profligacy ... musterfields have generally been scenes or occasions of gambling, licentiousness, and almost every vice. ... An eye-witness of a New England training, so late as 1845, says, "beastly drunkenness, and other immoralities, were enough to make good men shudder at the very name of a muster".
Joseph Story lamented in 1842 how the militia had fallen into serious decline:
And yet, though this truth would seem so clear, and the importance of a well regulated militia would seem so undeniable, it cannot be disguised, that among the American people there is a growing indifference to any system of militia discipline, and a strong disposition, from a sense of its burdens, to be rid of all regulations. How it is practicable to keep the people duly armed without some organization, it is difficult to see. There is certainly no small danger, that indifference may lead to disgust, and disgust to contempt; and thus gradually undermine all the protection intended by this clause of our National Bill of Rights.
Due to rising tensions between Latter-day Saints and their Missourian neighbors, in 1838, General David R. Atchison, the commander of the state militia of Northwestern Missouri, ordered Samuel Bogart to "prevent, if possible, any invasion of Ray County by persons in arms whatever". Bogart, who had participated in former anti-Mormon vigilante groups, proceeded to disarm resident Latter-day Saints and forced them to leave the county. In response David W. Patten led the Caldwell County militia to rescue Latter-day Saint residents from what they believed was a "mob". The confrontation between these two county militias (Ray and Caldwell) became known as the Battle of Crooked River and is a primary cause for Governor Lilburn Boggs issuing Missouri Executive Order 44. This order, often called the "Extermination Order", told the commander of the Missouri State Militia, General John Bullock Clark, that, "The Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the state if necessary for the public pease—their outrages are beyond description." In the following days Missouri militia killed 17 Latter-day Saints at Haun's Mill, laid siege to Far West, Missouri and jailed Latter-day Saint church leaders, including Joseph Smith.
The Mormon militia, in 1857 and 1858, fought against US federal troops in the Utah War over control of government territory.
During the violent political confrontations in the Kansas Territory involving anti-slavery Free-Staters and pro-slavery "Border Ruffians" elements, the militia was called out to enforce order on several occasions, notably during the incidents referred to as the Wakarusa War.
During John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, local militia companies from villages within a 30-mile radius of Harpers Ferry cut off Brown's escape routes and trapped Brown's men in the armory.
American Civil War
At the beginning of the American Civil War, neither the North or the South was nearly well enough prepared for war, and few people imagined the demands and hardships the war would bring. Just prior to the war the total peacetime army consisted of a paltry 16,000 men. Both sides issued an immediate call to forces from the militia, followed by the immediate awareness of an acute shortage of weapons, uniforms, and trained officers. State militia regiments were of uneven quality, and none had anything resembling combat training. The typical militia drilling at the time amounted to, at best, parade-ground marching. The militia units, from local communities, had never drilled together as a larger regiment, and thus lacked the extremely important skill, critically necessary for the war style of the time, of maneuvering from a marching line into a fighting line. Yet both sides were equally unready, and rushed to prepare.
Confederate militia
The most important:
Arkansas Militia
Missouri State Guard
Union militia
Following USA refusal to remove its militaries from newly independent republic of South Carolina, resulting in the Battle of Fort Sumter and beginning of the Civil War, President Lincoln called up 75,000 States' militiamen to retake the former USA federal fort and found that the militia "strength was far short of what the Congressional statute provided and required".
In the summer of 1861, military camps circled around Washington, D.C. composed of new three-year army volunteers and 90-day militia units. The generals in charge of this gathering had never handled large bodies of men before, and the men were simply inexperienced civilians with arms having little discipline and less understanding of the importance of discipline.
In the West, Union state and territorial militias existed as active forces in defense of settlers there. California especially had many active militia companies at the beginning of the war that rose in number until the end of the war. It provided the most volunteers from west of the Rocky Mountains: eight regiments and two battalions of infantry, two regiments and a battalion of cavalry. It also provided most of the men for the infantry regiment from Washington Territory. Oregon raised an infantry and a cavalry regiment. Colorado Territory militias were organized to resist both the Confederacy and any civil disorder caused by secessionists, Copperheads, Mormons, or most particularly the Native tribes.
The Colorado Volunteers participated in the Battle of Glorieta Pass, turning back a Confederate invasion of New Mexico Territory. Later they initiated the Colorado War with the Plains Indians and committed the Sand Creek massacre. The California Volunteers of the California Column were sent east across the southern deserts to drive the Confederates out of southern Arizona, New Mexico, and west Texas around El Paso, then fought the Navajo and Apache until 1866. They also were sent to guard the Overland Trail, keep the Mormons under observation by the establishment of Fort Douglas in Salt Lake City, and fought a campaign against the Shoshone culminating in the Battle of Bear River.
In Nevada, Oregon and Idaho Territory, California, Oregon and Washington Territorial Volunteers tried to protect the settlers and pacified tribes, fighting the Goshute, Paiute, Ute and hostile Snake Indians in the Snake War from 1864 until 1866. In California, volunteer forces fought the Bald Hills War in the northwestern forests until 1864 and also the Owens Valley Indian War in 1862–1863.
Reconstruction era
With passage of federal reconstruction laws between 1866 and 1870 the U.S. Army took control of the former rebel states and ordered elections to be held. These elections were the first in which African Americans could vote. Each state (except Virginia) elected Republican governments, which organized militia units. The majority of militiamen were black. Racial tension and conflict, sometimes intense, existed between the Negro freedmen and the ex-Confederate whites.
In parts of the South, white paramilitary groups and rifle clubs formed to counter this black militia, despite the laws prohibiting drilling, organizing, or parading except for duly authorized militia. In Reconstruction Louisiana, the Knights of the White Camelia, the Ku Klux Klan, Swamp Fox Rangers, and a couple other paramilitary groups sought to counter official governments. These groups engaged in a prolonged series of retaliatory, vengeful, and hostile acts against this black militia.
... the militia companies were composed almost entirely of Negroes and their marching and counter-marching through the country drove the white people to frenzy. Even a cool-headed man like General George advised the Democrats to form military organizations that should be able to maintain a front against the negro militia. Many indications pointed to trouble. A hardware merchant of Vicksburg reported that with the exceptions of the first year of the war his trade had never been so brisk. It was said that 10,000 Spencer rifles had been brought into the State.
The activity of the official black militia, and the unofficial illegal white rifle clubs, typically peaked in the autumn surrounding elections. This was the case in the race riot of Clinton, Mississippi in September 1875, and the following month in Jackson, Mississippi. An eyewitness account:
I found the town in great excitement; un-uniformed militia were parading the streets, both white and colored. I found that the white people—democrats—were very much excited in consequence of the governor organizing the militia force of the state. ... I found that these people were determined to resist his marching the militia (to Clinton) with arms, and they threatened to kill his militiamen.
Outright war between the state militia and the white rifle clubs was avoided only by the complete surrender of one of the belligerents, though tensions escalated in the following months leading to a December riot in Vicksburg, Mississippi resulting in the deaths of two whites and thirty-five black people. Reaction to this riot was mixed, with the local Democrats upset at the influx of federal troops that followed, and the Northern press expressing outrage: "Once more, as always, it is the Negroes that are slaughtered while the whites escape."
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
See article: Great Railroad Strike of 1877
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, beginning in July 1877 in Martinsburg, West Virginia and spreading to 15 other states across the Midwest, was the first national labor strike in United States history. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews was the first state commander-in-chief to call up militia units to suppress the strike, and this action has been viewed in retrospect as an action that would transform the National Guard by revealing the shortcomings of the state militias. In all, approximately 45,000 militiamen were called out nationwide.
Posse Comitatus Act
In 1878, Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act intended to prohibit federal troops and federal-controlled militia from supervising elections. This act substantially limits the powers of the Federal government to use the military serving on active duty under Title 10 for law enforcement, but does not preclude governors from using their National Guard in a law enforcement role as long as the guardsmen are serving under Title 32 or on state active duty.
Spanish–American War
Despite a lack of initial readiness, training, and supplies, the Militas of the United States fought and achieved victory in the Spanish–American War.
Ludlow massacre
In 1914, in Ludlow, Colorado, the militia was called out to calm the situation during a coal mine strike, but the sympathies of the militia leaders allied with company management and resulted in the deaths of roughly 19 to 25 people.
The state National Guard was originally called out, but the company was allowed to organize an additional private militia consisting of Colorado Fuel & Iron Company (CF&I) guards in National Guard uniforms augmented by non-uniformed mine guards.
The Ludlow massacre was an attack by the Colorado National Guard and Colorado Fuel & Iron Company camp guards on a tent colony of 1,200 striking coal miners and their families at Ludlow, Colorado on April 20, 1914.
In retaliation for Ludlow, the miners armed themselves and attacked dozens of mines over the next ten days, destroying property and engaging in several skirmishes with the Colorado National Guard along a 40-mile front from Trinidad to Walsenburg. The entire strike cost between 69 and 199 lives. Thomas Franklin Andrews described it as the "deadliest strike in the history of the United States".
Mexican Revolution
American organized and unorganized militias fought in the Mexican Revolution. Some campaigned in Mexico as insurgent forces and others fought in battles such as Ambos Nogales and Columbus in defense of the interests of United States.
World War I
The Plattsburg Movement Preparedness Movement. The Hays Law.
Twentieth century and current
Organized militia
Each state and most territories have two mandatory forces, namely the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. Many states also have state defense forces and a naval militia, which assist, support and augment National Guard forces.
National Guard
The National Guard (or National Guard of a State) differs from the National Guard of the United States; however, the two do go hand-in-hand.
The National Guard is a militia force organized by each of the 50 states, the U.S.'s federal capital district, and three of the five populated U.S. territories. Established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U.S. Code, the state National Guard serves as part of the first-line defense for the United States. A state or territorial National Guard is divided up into units stationed within their borders and operates under their respective state governor or territorial government. The National Guard may be called up for active duty by the state governors or territorial commanding generals to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as those caused by hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes.
The National Guard of the United States is a military reserve force composed of state National Guard members or units under federally recognized active or inactive armed force service for the United States. Created by the 1933 amendments to the National Defense Act of 1916, the National Guard of the United States is a joint reserve component of the United States Army and the United States Air Force. The National Guard of the United States maintains two subcomponents: the Army National Guard of the United States for the Army and the Air Force's Air National Guard of the United States.
The current United States Code, Title 10 (Armed forces), section 246 (Militia: Composition and Classes), paragraph (a) states: "The militia of the United States consists of all able-bodied males at least 17 years of age and, except as provided in section 313 of title 32, under 45 years of age who are, or who have made a declaration of intention to become, citizens of the United States and of female citizens of the United States who are members of the National Guard." Section 313 of Title 32 refers to persons with prior military experience. ("Sec. 313. Appointments and enlistments: age limitation
(a) To be eligible for original enlistment in the National Guard, a person must be at least 17 years of age and under 45, or under 64 years of age and a former member of the Regular Army, Regular Navy, Regular Air Force, or Regular Marine Corps. To be eligible for reenlistment, a person must be under 64 years of age. (b) To be eligible for appointment as an officer of the National Guard, a person must – (1) be a citizen of the United States; and (2) be at least 18 years of age and under 64.")
These persons remain members of the militia until age 64. Paragraph (b) further states, "The classes of the militia are: (1) the organized militia, which consists of the National Guard and the Naval Militia; and (2) the unorganized militia, which consists of the members of the militia who are not members of the National Guard or the Naval Militia."
The National Guard of the United States is the largest of the organized federal reserve military forces in the United States. The National Guard of the United States is classified (under title 10, United States Code (see above)) as the organized federal reserve military force. Under federal control, the National Guard of the United States can be called up for active duty by the President of the United States. Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, many National Guard units have served overseas – under the Total Force Policy of 1973 which effectively combined the National Guard with the federal Reserve Components of the armed forces, making them regular troops. This can lead to problems for states that also face internal emergencies while the Guard is deployed overseas. To address such issues, many of the states, such as New York and Maryland also have organized state "militia" forces or state guards which are under the control of the governor of a state; however, many of these "militia" also act as a reserve for the National Guard and are thus a part of it (this varies from state to state depending on individual state statutory laws). New York and Ohio also have active naval militias, and a few other states have on-call or proposed ones. In 1990, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the case of Perpich v. Department of Defense that the federal government has plenary power over the National Guard, greatly reducing (to the point of nonexistence) the state government's ability to withhold consent to federal deployments and training missions of the National Guard.
State defense forces
Since the Militia Act of 1903, many states have created and maintained a reserve military force known as state defense forces; some states refer to them as state military reserves or state guards. They were created to assist, support, and augment National Guard forces during peacetime conditions. During the call-up of National Guard forces for wartime deployments, state defense forces can be used to assume the full military responsibilities of the state. Their mission includes the defense of the state and the enforcement of military orders when ordered by their Governor.
Throughout the 20th century, state defense forces were used in every major war. New York Guard soldiers patrolled and secured the water aqueduct of New York and mass transit areas, and were even deployed to France to assist in logistical operations in World War I. The Texas State Guard's soldiers suppressed a riot and maintained peace and order in Texas throughout World War II.
Today state defense forces continue to assist, support, and augment the National Guard of the state. They provide logistical, administrative, medical, transportation, security, and ceremonial assistance. Some states have provided additional support, such as the New York State Defense Force (New York Guard) providing its soldiers to support and augment the National Guard CERFP Team. The California State Military Reserve provides the National Guard with soldiers to assist with military police training, and the Alaska State Defense Force constantly provides armed military police troops to assist with the security of that state. One of the major roles of the Mississippi State Guard is providing operational support during natural disasters such as hurricane relief operations.
Unorganized militia
All able-bodied men 17 to 45 of age who are not part of the organized militia are known as the unorganized militia (10 USC). Able-bodied men who are not eligible for inclusion in the reserve militia pool are those aliens not having declared their intent to become citizens of the United States (10 USC 246) and former regular component veterans of the armed forces who have reached the age of 64 (32 USC 313). All female citizens who are members of National Guard units are also included in the reserve militia pool ().
Other persons who are exempt from call to duty () and are not therefore in the reserve militia pool include:
The Vice President (also constitutionally the President of the Senate, that body which confirms the appointment of senior armed forces officers made by the Commander in Chief).
The judicial and executive officers of the United States, the several States and Territories, and Puerto Rico.
Members of the armed forces, except members who are not on active duty.
Customhouse clerks.
Persons employed by the United States in the transmission of mail.
Workmen employed in armories, arsenals, and naval shipyards of the United States.
Pilots on navigable waters.
Mariners in the sea service of a citizen of, or a merchant in, the United States.
Many individual states have additional statutes describing their residents as part of the state militia; for example Washington law specifies all able-bodied citizens or intended citizens over the age of eighteen as members of the state militia, as explicitly distinct from the National Guard and Washington State Guard. In states such as Texas, the state constitution classifies male citizens between the ages of 17 and 45 to belong to the "Unorganized Reserve Militia". The Texas constitution also grants county sheriffs and the state governor the authority to call upon the unorganized reserve militia to uphold the peace, repel invasion, and suppress rebellion, similar to the early "Texas Rangers".
Private militias and the modern citizen-militia movement
Laws authorizing the state governments to officially make privately organized militias part of the state's official military force vary; Nevada, for example, allows the governor to "issue licenses to bodies of persons to organize, drill and bear arms as volunteer military companies or volunteer military organizations," whereas South Carolina prohibits any group from being enlisted into its state guard. States with military histories that date back to the American revolution may officially recognize militias from that era that continue to exist and operate independently; Massachusetts law explicitly makes the National Lancers part of its organized militia and protects the right of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts to exist and operate as a private organization, while Rhode Island recognizes a number of independent chartered militias as a separate part of its overall military force. During World War II, Hawaii authorized several private paramilitary militias to operate, including the Businessmen's Military Training Corps and the Hawaii Air Depot Volunteer Corps.
Since approximately 1992, there have been a number of state- and regional-level private organizations in the United States that call themselves militia or unorganized militia, some of which have been tied to domestic terrorism and extremist views, which operate without any official sanctioning or licensing by their state governments. The 2000s and 2010s also saw the formation of several national-level private militia organizations, the largest of which were the Oath Keepers and Three Percenters.
List of legislated militia in the United States
U.S. federal militia forces
United States National Guard
U.S. states' militia forces
State defense forces
Naval militia
See also
Colonial American military history
Irregular military
List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War
Nauvoo Legion
References
Historic documents
Anti-Federalist Papers
Federalist Papers
Militia Act of 1792
Militia Act of 1903
National Defense Act of 1916
National Guard Mobilization Act of 1933
Total Force Policy of 1973
United States Constitution
Further reading
Singletary, Otis. Negro militia and Reconstruction, Austin: University of Texas Press. (1957)
Smith, Joshua M. "The Yankee Soldier's Might: The District of Maine and the Reputation of the Massachusetts Militia, 1800–1812," New England Quarterly LXXXIV no. 2 (June 2011), 234–264.
Stentiford, Barry M. "The Meaning of a Name: The Rise of the National Guard and the End of a Town Militia," Journal of Military History, July 2008, Vol. 72 Issue 3, pp 727–754
Stentiford, Barry M. The American Home Guard: The State Militia in the Twentieth Century (Williams-Ford Texas A&M University Military History Series)"
External links
SGAUS – State Guard Association of the United States
David C. Munn's scholarly work: Battles and skirmishes of the American Revolution in New Jersey
Military history of the United States
Gun politics in the United States |
4158193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clastic%20rock | Clastic rock | Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing minerals and rock. A clast is a fragment of geological detritus, chunks, and smaller grains of rock broken off other rocks by physical weathering. Geologists use the term clastic to refer to sedimentary rocks and particles in sediment transport, whether in suspension or as bed load, and in sediment deposits.
Sedimentary clastic rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are rocks composed predominantly of broken pieces or clasts of older weathered and eroded rocks. Clastic sediments or sedimentary rocks are classified based on grain size, clast and cementing material (matrix) composition, and texture. The classification factors are often useful in determining a sample's environment of deposition. An example of clastic environment would be a river system in which the full range of grains being transported by the moving water consist of pieces eroded from solid rock upstream.
Grain size varies from clay in shales and claystones; through silt in siltstones; sand in sandstones; and gravel, cobble, to boulder sized fragments in conglomerates and breccias. The Krumbein phi (φ) scale numerically orders these terms in a logarithmic size scale.
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
Siliciclastic rocks are clastic noncarbonate rocks that are composed almost exclusively of silicon, either as forms of quartz or as silicates.
Composition
The composition of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks includes the chemical and mineralogical components of the framework as well as the cementing material that make up these rocks. Boggs divides them into four categories; major minerals, accessory minerals, rock fragments, and chemical sediments.
Major minerals can be categorized into subdivisions based on their resistance to chemical decomposition. Those that possess a great resistance to decomposition are categorized as stable, while those that do not are considered less stable. The most common stable mineral in siliciclastic sedimentary rocks is quartz (SiO2). Quartz makes up approximately 65 percent of framework grains present in sandstones and about 30 percent of minerals in the average shale. Less stable minerals present in this type of rocks are feldspars, including both potassium and plagioclase feldspars. Feldspars comprise a considerably lesser portion of framework grains and minerals. They only make up about 15 percent of framework grains in sandstones and 5% of minerals in shales. Clay mineral groups are mostly present in mudrocks (comprising more than 60% of the minerals) but can be found in other siliciclastic sedimentary rocks at considerably lower levels.
Accessory minerals are associated with those whose presence in the rock are not directly important to the classification of the specimen. These generally occur in smaller amounts in comparison to the quartz, and feldspars. Furthermore, those that do occur are generally heavy minerals or coarse grained micas (both muscovite and biotite).
Rock fragments also occur in the composition of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and are responsible for about 10–15 percent of the composition of sandstone. They generally make up most of the gravel size particles in conglomerates but contribute only a very small amount to the composition of mudrocks. Though they sometimes are, rock fragments are not always sedimentary in origin. They can also be metamorphic or igneous.
Chemical cements vary in abundance but are predominantly found in sandstones. The two major types are silicate based and carbonate based. The majority of silica cements are composed of quartz, but can include chert, opal, feldspars and zeolites.
Composition includes the chemical and mineralogic make-up of the single or varied fragments and the cementing material (matrix) holding the clasts together as a rock. These differences are most commonly used in the framework grains of sandstones. Sandstones rich in quartz are called quartz arenites, those rich in feldspar are called arkoses, and those rich in lithics are called lithic sandstones.
Classification
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are composed of mainly silicate particles derived from the weathering of older rocks and pyroclastic volcanism. While grain size, clast and cementing material (matrix) composition, and texture are important factors when regarding composition, siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to grain size into three major categories: conglomerates, sandstones, and mudrocks. The term clay is used to classify particles smaller than .0039 millimeters. However, the term can also be used to refer to a family of sheet silicate minerals. Silt refers to particles that have a diameter between .062 and .0039 millimeters. The term mud is used when clay and silt particles are mixed in the sediment; mudrock is the name of the rock created with these sediments. Furthermore, particles that reach diameters between .062 and 2 millimeters fall into the category of sand. When sand is cemented together and lithified it becomes known as sandstone. Any particle that is larger than two millimeters is considered gravel. This category includes pebbles, cobbles and boulders. Like sandstone, when gravels are lithified they are considered conglomerates.
Conglomerates and breccias
Conglomerates are coarse grained rocks dominantly composed of gravel sized particles that are typically held together by a finer grained matrix. These rocks are often subdivided into conglomerates and breccias. The major characteristic that divides these two categories is the amount of rounding. The gravel sized particles that make up conglomerates are well rounded while in breccias they are angular. Conglomerates are common in stratigraphic successions of most, if not all, ages but only make up one percent or less, by weight, of the total sedimentary rock mass. In terms of origin and depositional mechanisms they are very similar to sandstones. As a result, the two categories often contain the same sedimentary structures.
Sandstones
Sandstones are medium-grained rocks composed of rounded or angular fragments of sand size, that often but not always have a cement uniting them together. These sand-size particles are often quartz but there are a few common categories and a wide variety of classification schemes that classify sandstones based on composition. Classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme, which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of muddy matrix between these larger grains.
Mudrocks
Rocks that are classified as mudrocks are very fine grained. Silt and clay represent at least 50% of the material that mudrocks are composed of. Classification schemes for mudrocks tend to vary, but most are based on the grain size of the major constituents. In mudrocks, these are generally silt, and clay.
According to Blatt, Middleton and Murray mudrocks that are composed mainly of silt particles are classified as siltstones. In turn, rocks that possess clay as the majority particle are called claystones. In geology, a mixture of both silt and clay is called mud. Rocks that possess large amounts of both clay and silt are called mudstones. In some cases the term shale is also used to refer to mudrocks and is still widely accepted by most. However, others have used the term shale to further divide mudrocks based on the percentage of clay constituents. The plate-like shape of clay allows its particles to stack up one on top of another, creating laminae or beds. The more clay present in a given specimen, the more laminated a rock is. Shale, in this case, is reserved for mudrocks that are laminated, while mudstone refers those that are not.
Diagenesis of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
Siliciclastic rocks initially form as loosely packed sediment deposits including gravels, sands, and muds. The process of turning loose sediment into hard sedimentary rocks is called lithification. During the process of lithification, sediments undergo physical, chemical and mineralogical changes before becoming rock. The primary physical process in lithification is compaction. As sediment transport and deposition continues, new sediments are deposited atop previously deposited beds, burying them. Burial continues and the weight of overlying sediments causes an increase in temperature and pressure. This increase in temperature and pressure causes loose grained sediments become tightly packed, reducing porosity, essentially squeezing water out of the sediment. Porosity is further reduced by the precipitation of minerals into the remaining pore spaces. The final stage in the process is diagenesis and will be discussed in detail below.
Cementation
Cementation is the diagenetic process by which coarse clastic sediments become lithified or consolidated into hard, compact rocks, usually through the deposition or precipitation of minerals in the spaces between the individual grains of sediment. Cementation can occur simultaneously with deposition or at another time. Furthermore, once a sediment is deposited, it becomes subject to cementation through the various stages of diagenesis discussed below.
Shallow burial (eogenesis)
Eogenesis refers to the early stages of diagenesis. This can take place at very shallow depths, ranging from a few meters to tens of meters below the surface. The changes that occur during this diagenetic phase mainly relate to the reworking of the sediments. Compaction and grain repacking, bioturbation, as well as mineralogical changes all occur at varying degrees. Due to the shallow depths, sediments undergo only minor compaction and grain rearrangement during this stage. Organisms rework sediment near the depositional interface by burrowing, crawling, and in some cases sediment ingestion. This process can destroy sedimentary structures that were present upon deposition of the sediment. Structures such as lamination will give way to new structures associated with the activity of organisms. Despite being close to the surface, eogenesis does provide conditions for important mineralogical changes to occur. This mainly involves the precipitation of new minerals.
Mineralogical changes during eogenesis
Mineralogical changes that occur during eogenesis are dependent on the environment in which that sediment has been deposited. For example, the formation of pyrite is characteristic of reducing conditions in marine environments. Pyrite can form as cement, or replace organic materials, such as wood fragments. Other important reactions include the formation of chlorite, glauconite, illite and iron oxide (if oxygenated pore water is present). The precipitation of potassium feldspar, quartz overgrowths, and carbonate cements also occurs under marine conditions. In non marine environments oxidizing conditions are almost always prevalent, meaning iron oxides are commonly produced along with kaolin group clay minerals. The precipitation of quartz and calcite cements may also occur in non marine conditions.
Deep burial (mesogenesis)
Compaction
As sediments are buried deeper, load pressures become greater resulting in tight grain packing and bed thinning. This causes increased pressure between grains thus increasing the solubility of grains. As a result, the partial dissolution of silicate grains occurs. This is called pressure solutions. Chemically speaking, increases in temperature can also cause chemical reaction rates to increase. This increases the solubility of most common minerals (aside from evaporites). Furthermore, beds thin and porosity decreases allowing cementation to occur by the precipitation of silica or carbonate cements into remaining pore space.
In this process minerals crystallize from watery solutions that percolate through the pores between grain of sediment. The cement that is produced may or may not have the same chemical composition as the sediment. In sandstones, framework grains are often cemented by silica or carbonate. The extent of cementation is dependent on the composition of the sediment. For example, in lithic sandstones, cementation is less extensive because pore space between framework grains is filled with a muddy matrix that leaves little space for precipitation to occur. This is often the case for mudrocks as well. As a result of compaction, the clayey sediments comprising mudrocks are relatively impermeable.
Dissolution
Dissolution of framework silicate grains and previously formed carbonate cement may occur during deep burial. Conditions that encourage this are essentially opposite of those required for cementation. Rock fragments and silicate minerals of low stability, such as plagioclase feldspar, pyroxenes, and amphiboles, may dissolve as a result of increasing burial temperatures and the presence of organic acids in pore waters. The dissolution of frame work grains and cements increases porosity particularly in sandstones.
Mineral replacement
This refers to the process whereby one mineral is dissolved and a new mineral fills the space via precipitation. Replacement can be partial or complete. Complete replacement destroys the identity of the original minerals or rock fragments giving a biased view of the original mineralogy of the rock. Porosity can also be affected by this process. For example, clay minerals tend to fill up pore space and thereby reducing porosity.
Telogenesis
In the process of burial, it is possible that siliciclastic deposits may subsequently be uplifted as a result of a mountain building event or erosion. When uplift occurs, it exposes buried deposits to a radically new environment. Because the process brings material to or closer to the surface, sediments that undergo uplift are subjected to lower temperatures and pressures as well as slightly acidic rain water. Under these conditions, framework grains and cement are again subjected to dissolution and in turn increasing porosity. On the other hand, telogenesis can also change framework grains to clays, thus reducing porosity. These changes are dependent on the specific conditions that the rock is exposed as well as the composition of the rock and pore waters. Specific pore waters, can cause the further precipitation of carbonate or silica cements. This process can also encourage the process of oxidation on a variety of iron bearing minerals.
Sedimentary breccias
Sedimentary breccias are a type of clastic sedimentary rock which are composed of angular to subangular, randomly oriented clasts of other sedimentary rocks. They may form either:
In submarine debris flows, avalanches, mud flow or mass flow in an aqueous medium. Technically, turbidites are a form of debris flow deposit and are a fine-grained peripheral deposit to a sedimentary breccia flow.
As angular, poorly sorted, very immature fragments of rocks in a finer grained groundmass which are produced by mass wasting. These are, in essence, lithified colluvium. Thick sequences of sedimentary (colluvial) breccias are generally formed next to fault scarps in grabens.
In the field, it may at times be difficult to distinguish between a debris flow sedimentary breccia and a colluvial breccia, especially if one is working entirely from drilling information. Sedimentary breccias are an integral host rock for many sedimentary exhalative deposits.
Igneous clastic rocks
Clastic igneous rocks include pyroclastic volcanic rocks such as tuff, agglomerate and intrusive breccias, as well as some marginal eutaxitic and taxitic intrusive morphologies. Igneous clastic rocks are broken by flow, injection or explosive disruption of solid or semi-solid igneous rocks or lavas.
Igneous clastic rocks can be divided into two classes:
Broken, fragmental rocks produced by intrusive processes, usually associated with plutons or porphyry stocks
Broken, fragmental rocks associated with volcanic eruptions, both of lava and pyroclastic type
Metamorphic clastic rocks
Clastic metamorphic rocks include breccias formed in faults, as well as some protomylonite and pseudotachylite. Occasionally, metamorphic rocks can be brecciated via hydrothermal fluids, forming a hydrofracture breccia.
Hydrothermal clastic rocks
Hydrothermal clastic rocks are generally restricted to those formed by hydrofracture, the process by which hydrothermal circulation cracks and brecciates the wall rocks and fills it in with veins. This is particularly prominent in epithermal ore deposits and is associated with alteration zones around many intrusive rocks, especially granites. Many skarn and greisen deposits are associated with hydrothermal breccias.
Impact breccias
A fairly rare form of clastic rock may form during meteorite impact. This is composed primarily of ejecta; clasts of country rock, melted rock fragments, tektites (glass ejected from the impact crater) and exotic fragments, including fragments derived from the impactor itself.
Identifying a clastic rock as an impact breccia requires recognising shatter cones, tektites, spherulites, and the morphology of an impact crater, as well as potentially recognizing particular chemical and trace element signatures, especially osmiridium.
References
Sedimentology
Metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks
he:סלע משקע#סלעים קלאסטיים |
4158220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link%20light%20rail | Link light rail | Link light rail is a light rail rapid transit system serving the Seattle metropolitan area in the U.S. state of Washington. It is managed by Sound Transit in partnership with local transit providers, and consists of two non-connected lines: the 1 Line (formerly Central Link) in King County, which travels for between Seattle and Seattle–Tacoma International Airport; and the T Line (formerly Tacoma Link) in Pierce County, which runs for between Downtown Tacoma and Tacoma Dome Station. In , the system had a ridership of 23.9 million, or about per weekday as of , primarily on the 1 Line. Trains run at frequencies of 6 to 24 minutes.
The Link light rail system was originally conceived in the 1980s following several earlier proposals for a heavy rail system that were rejected by voters. Sound Transit was created in 1993 and placed a ballot measure to fund and build the system, which was passed on a second attempt in 1996. Tacoma Link began construction first in 2000 and opened on August 22, 2003, at a cost of $80 million. Central Link construction was delayed because of funding issues and routing disputes, but began in November 2003 and was completed on July 18, 2009, for $2.4 billion. Central Link trains initially ran from Downtown Seattle to Tukwila International Boulevard station before being extended south to the airport in December 2009, north to the University of Washington in March 2016, and further south to Angle Lake station in September 2016. An extension to Northgate station opened on October 2, 2021.
Sound Transit plans to expand the Link light rail network to and 70 stations by 2044, using funding approved by voters in 2008 and 2016 ballot measures. An extension from the University of Washington to Northgate opened on October 2, 2021. Suburban extensions to Bellevue, Redmond, Lynnwood, and Federal Way are scheduled to open between 2024 and 2026 after construction delays. Later projects will expand the system to cover the metropolitan area from Everett to Tacoma, along with branches to Kirkland, Issaquah, and the Seattle neighborhoods of Ballard and West Seattle.
History
The first public transit networks in the Puget Sound region were various streetcar, cable cars, and interurbans constructed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which spurred the development of streetcar suburbs. Some of these systems were consolidated into the Seattle Municipal Street Railway, a city-owned network established in 1918, while others remained under the operation of their private owners. Unsuccessful proposals for a rapid transit system to connect Seattle's neighborhoods, and later other cities in the region, also emerged during the peak and later decline of streetcar and interurban service, both of which were dismantled by 1941.
Following the 1968 and 1970 rejection of the Forward Thrust ballot measure to build a rapid transit system, voters in King County approved the creation of a new countywide bus system under the management of Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle, an existing water treatment and sewage agency. The system began operating in 1973 and later included the construction of the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel in the late 1980s to relieve bus congestion on downtown streets. Metro and the Puget Sound Council of Governments also began planning a regional transit system at that time; a joint 1981 study named light rail as the preferred mode that would be able to operate on streets in some areas but generally follow freeway corridors to regional centers. A non-binding advisory ballot measure on further development of a light rail system approved by voters in 1988. Metro's transit tunnel opened for buses in September 1990 and included tracks and electrical systems that would be compatible for future conversion to light rail.
In 1993, the state legislature formed a new agency, the Central Puget Sound Regional Transit Authority (now Sound Transit), to oversee development of an inter-county transit system that would include light rail, commuter rail, and express buses in King, Pierce, and Snohomish counties. A ballot measure to fund a $6.7 billion plan (equivalent to $ in dollars) with a light rail network, which would connect Seattle to Lynnwood, Bellevue, and Tacoma, was rejected by 53 percent of voters on March 14, 1995. A revised plan announced the following year cut the light rail line to between Seattle–Tacoma International Airport and University District in Seattle and a section connecting Downtown Tacoma to the Tacoma Dome. The new package, estimated to cost $3.9 billion (equivalent to $ in dollars) with funding from a sales tax and motor vehicle excise tax, was approved by voters on November 5, 1996. In August 1997, Sound Transit adopted "Link" as the name for the light rail system along with Sounder for commuter rail and Regional Express for buses.
The Downtown Tacoma line, named Tacoma Link, was preceded by a shuttle bus from the new Tacoma Dome multimodal station built by Pierce Transit in 1997. The project was anticipated to revitalize the city's downtown and serve the new University of Washington Tacoma campus. The line's route—primarily on Commerce Street and Pacific Avenue—was approved in 1999 and construction officially began on October 18, 2000. Tacoma Link opened on August 22, 2003, with five stations, and cost $80.4 million (equivalent to $ in dollars) to construct. The line had no fares and exceeded its 2010 ridership projections by early 2003, carrying its 500,000th passenger in April of the year.
During the late 1990s and early 2000s, debates raged over various issues surrounding the Central Link line, which would connect Sea-Tac to Seattle. In the late nineties and early 2000s, Sound Transit underwent a series of financial and political difficulties. The cost of the line rose significantly, and the federal government threatened to withhold necessary grants. In 2001, Sound Transit was forced to shorten the line from the original proposal, and growing enthusiasm for the proposed monorail brought rising opposition to the light rail from Seattle-area residents.
On November 8, 2003, a groundbreaking ceremony was held for the Central Link light rail line. Central Link opened between Westlake Station and Tukwila on July 18, 2009, at a cost of $2.4 billion (equivalent to $ in dollars). It was extended to SeaTac/Airport on December 19, 2009.
In November 2006, the U.S. Federal Transit Administration approved Sound Transit's plan for University Link, a project to extend light rail north to the University of Washington after completion of an Environmental Impact Study. A grant was approved in November 2008, which allowed University Link to begin construction in December 2008. The line opened, including the University Link Tunnel, on March 19, 2016.
In September 2019, Sound Transit renamed Central Link to the Red Line and Tacoma Link to the Orange Line as part of their update to transit branding. Two months later, the agency announced that it would consider a new name for the Red Line after complaints because of the similarity of the "Red Line" with redlining as well as confusion over King County Metro's RapidRide system (which utilizes red bullets for its service routes). A new naming scheme came into effect in 2021, using the "1 Line" (green) for the existing line in Seattle, the "2 Line" (blue) for East Link, and the "T Line" (orange) for Tacoma Link. Future light rail extensions will use the "3 Line" (magenta) and the "4 Line" (purple), alongside new names for Sounder and bus rapid transit services.
Lines
1 Line (Northgate–Angle Lake)
The 1 Line, formerly Central Link, is a light rail line serving 19 stations in Seattle, SeaTac, and Tukwila, using trains of three to four cars that each have a normal capacity of 194 passengers with up to 74 seats. It connects Northgate, the University of Washington, and Downtown Seattle to the Rainier Valley and Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, using tunnels, elevated guideways, and surface-running sections. Trains run every 8 minutes during peak periods and 10–15 minutes at other times with trips from 4:00 a.m. to 1:30 a.m. on weekdays and Saturdays, and from 5:00 a.m. to 12:30 a.m. on Sundays. In 2019, the 1 Line carried over 25 million passengers and averaged nearly 80,000 on weekdays, making it the busiest transit route in the Seattle region.
The initial segment of Central Link was opened on July 18, 2009, between Westlake and Tukwila International Boulevard stations. The northernmost four stations, in the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel, were shared with buses until they were rerouted in 2019. The line was extended six months after opening to SeaTac/Airport station, a project that began construction in 2006 due to delays in planning. A northern extension to the University of Washington campus with two stations in a tunnel opened on March 19, 2016. A one-stop extension to Angle Lake station to the south opened in September of that year. The latest extension, to Northgate with two intermediate stations, opened on October 2, 2021, bringing the line to over .
T Line (Tacoma Dome–St. Joseph)
The T Line, formerly Tacoma Link, is a streetcar line that connects Downtown Tacoma and nearby neighborhoods to Tacoma Dome Station, a regional hub for buses and Sounder commuter rail. The line is long and has twelve stations that serve the University of Washington's Tacoma campus, museums, hospitals, and other facilities. It runs primarily in traffic lanes, sharing the Commerce Street transit mall with buses, and uses a mix of single and double-tracked sections. Service on the original section between Tacoma Dome Station and Downtown Tacoma began on August 26, 2003, and was expanded with the opening of an infill station at Commerce Street/South 11th Street in 2011. An extension to the Hilltop neighborhood with of track and seven new stations opened on September 16, 2023.
Trains on the line typically run every 12 minutes on weekdays and Saturdays and every 20 minutes on Sundays and holidays. The T Line has service from 4:30 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. on weekdays and reduced hours on other days, but operating hours are extended for major evening events at the Tacoma Dome. In 2019, the line carried approximately 935,000 passengers and averaged 3,100 riders on weekdays. Patronage peaked in 2012 at over 1 million passengers, but has declined since then. Fares were not collected until the 2023 opening of the Hilltop Extension; unlike the rest of the Link network, the T Line uses a flat fare rather than a distance-based fare.
Stations
, the Link light rail system has 31 stations—nineteen on the 1 Line and twelve on the T Line. The two lines use different types of station designs but share several features, including weather canopies, signage, information kiosks, ticket vending machines, seating, electronic information displays, bicycle parking, and public artwork. The system also uses proof-of-payment for fare validation with paid fare zones in lieu of faregates. To comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), all Link stations include accessible seating, signage with Braille lettering, pathways, level boarding, and tactile paving on the edge of platforms.
Platforms for both lines have a minimum width of each for a pair of side platforms and for an at-grade center platform. The majority of the 1 Line's stations are at-grade, especially in the Rainier Valley and SODO, with a mix of elevated and underground stations in other areas. These stations have platforms that are long to accommodate four-car trainsets and are connected to entrance structures at street level by stairs, elevators, and escalators. T Line platforms are typically long and at-grade with exits to adjacent sidewalks. Some stations also feature parking lots, public restrooms, retail spaces, and designated busking areas.
Infrastructure
1 Line trains are operated and maintained by King County Metro, who also run paratransit service along the corridor. The Central Operations and Maintenance Facility (OMF) in SODO is used to store, maintain, and clean trains during off-peak and overnight hours. The facility covers and is located between SODO and Beacon Hill stations. It opened in 2007 and has a capacity of 105 light rail vehicles, including nine bays inside the maintenance building that can hold 16 vehicles. An additional maintenance facility in Bellevue is planned to open with the 2 Line with a capacity of 96 vehicles. T Line trains are directly operated by Sound Transit and maintained at a facility in Tacoma.
Rolling stock
, the Link light rail system uses a total of 102 low-floor light rail vehicles—99 for the 1 Line and 3 for the T Line. The 1 Line fleet comprises two models, the Series 1 by Kinkisharyo–Mitsui and the Series 2 by Siemens Mobility, that are both long with a pair of operator cabs and an articulated center. Both models are able to run in four-car consists but do not have cross-compatibility. All Link vehicles allow for level boarding and feature accessible seating areas that can be folded up for wheelchair users. A form of positive train control is used to prevent trains from exceeding the set speed limit for a given area. By 2025, the Link fleet will have 214 total vehicles for use on the 1 Line and 2 Line as well as five for the T Line.
The Series 1 fleet of 62 cars, manufactured in Osaka and assembled in Everett, was divided into three orders beginning with a contract signed in 2003. The first vehicle was delivered in November 2006 for the Central Link project and was followed by deliveries for the SeaTac/Airport and University Link extensions that concluded in 2011; each unit was valued at $4.2 million in 2014. Each car has 74 seats and a capacity of 194 passengers during normal loads, with a maximum "crush load" of 252 people; the layout is 70 percent low floor with raised sections at each end that are accessed via stairs. Railcars include four doors on each side, a wheelchair area, and two bicycle hooks above luggage storage areas. The trains have a top speed of , but typically operate at on surface sections and on elevated and tunneled sections.
The Series 2 fleet, retroactively designated the Siemens S700, was commissioned in 2016 as part of a $642 million order to support the ST2 expansion program. The vehicles were manufactured in Sacramento, California, and are the same length and width as the Series 1 fleet, but feature a wider aisle in the articulated section, improved passenger information displays, and larger windows. The first vehicle was delivered in June 2019 and entered service in May 2021; the final car in the full 152-car order is planned to be delivered by 2024.
In 2022, Sound Transit began planning specifications for a Series 3 that would have approximately 100 vehicles. It is expected to begin delivery in 2029 and be complete in 2032 for the first batch of ST3 projects.
The T Line fleet consists of three low-floor articulated Škoda 10 T streetcars that were manufactured in the Czech Republic by Škoda Transportation. They are long, wide, and have two articulation joints, between which is a low-floor section. Each vehicle has 30 seats and can carry an additional 85 standing passengers at crush loads. The Škoda fleet will be supplemented in 2023 by a set of five Brookville Liberty streetcars, which were ordered in 2017. The Brookville Liberty streetcars each have 26 seats and can carry a total of 100 passengers; they were delivered in 2022.
Electricity
Trains are supplied electricity through an overhead catenary that is energized at 1,500 volts direct current for the 1 Line and 700 volts for the T Line. The current is converted to three-phase alternating current through on-board inverters. The 1 Line's use of 1,500 V allowed for a reduced number of electrical substations, which are spaced approximately apart.
Since December 2020, the Link light rail system has been running fully on carbon emissions-free renewable energy through Puget Sound Energy's wind electricity purchase program and Seattle City Light's fully carbon-neutral power supply.
Signals and controls
Link light rail uses some form of Positive train control and train-to-wayside communications.
Future expansion
The Link light rail system is planned to be expanded to with five lines and 70 stations by 2044 that are forecast to carry 750,000 daily passengers. The future system is anticipated to serve 750,000 daily passengers at full build-out and cost up to $131 billion. The expansions are primarily funded through local taxes passed by voters in a pair of multimodal transit ballot measures. The Sound Transit 2 (ST2) package, passed in 2008, funded several extensions to be finished by 2025, including three that opened between 2016 and 2021. Sound Transit 3 (ST3) was approved in 2016 and funded new extensions of Link that will open between 2024 and 2046, including projects in Pierce and Snohomish counties. Several deferred or truncated projects from ST2 were also funded and accelerated by the ST3 plan.
Since 2016, the original timelines for both expansion packages have been modified due to the COVID-19 pandemic, labor shortages, and construction issues. Sound Transit adopted a "realignment plan" in 2021 that delayed most projects by two to five years, primarily to address a $6.5 billion shortfall in projected revenue that would be needed to avoid reaching a state-imposed debt limit by 2029. The cost estimate for the largest project in the ST3 package, the West Seattle/Ballard Link Extension, increased by 50 percent between 2019 and 2021, reaching $12 billion due to higher property values and lower revenue amid the pandemic. A set of new delays, mainly affecting Sound Transit 2 projects, was announced in 2022 following a four-month regional strike by concrete truck drivers, as well as unexpected conditions discovered during work.
All five lines are planned to connect at various hubs and interline in some areas to increase frequency in high-demand corridors. Upon completion of several planned extensions in the 2020s and 2030s, the 1 Line would run from Tacoma Dome Station to Downtown Seattle, where it would use a new tunnel, and continue northwest to Ballard. The 2 Line and 3 Line would interline from the existing Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel on the existing 1 Line corridor to Snohomish County, sharing tracks as far north as Mariner in southern Everett. The 3 Line would continue south to West Seattle and north to Downtown Everett, while the 2 Line serves Bellevue and Redmond. The 4 Line, connecting Kirkland to Issaquah, would interline with the 2 Line in Downtown Bellevue. In addition to the new lines, three infill stations in Seattle are planned to be built by 2031 at Boeing Access Road, Graham, and Northeast 130th Street.
In 2023, the Seattle Department of Transportation published its 20-year city transportation plan that included proposals for additional Link light rail lines. These include an east–west connection between Ballard and the University District; a northern extension from Ballard to Northgate and Lake City; a line serving Aurora Avenue North; a line serving Denny Way; a line that follows 23rd Avenue; and additional connections from Tukwila International Boulevard station to West Seattle and SoDo.
2 Line (Mariner–Redmond)
The 2 Line is planned to be the third Link light rail line, connecting Seattle to the Eastside suburbs of Mercer Island, Bellevue, and Redmond. Construction began in 2016 and the $3.7 billion line was planned to open in two phases: in 2024 from South Bellevue station to Redmond Technology station in Overlake; and in 2025 from Seattle to Downtown Redmond station. The 2 Line would continue north from Seattle to Lynnwood and southern Everett by sharing tracks with the 1 Line (and later the 3 Line). The western half of the East Link Extension is being built in the median of Interstate 90, including a section on a floating bridge that would be first railway of its kind in the world.
3 Line (Everett–West Seattle)
The 3 Line is planned to open in 2032 with the completion of the West Seattle Link Extension, which would connect West Seattle to an interim terminus at SODO station. The line would be extended north to replace the 1 Line following the completion of the Ballard Link Extension in 2037, which would include a new tunnel in Downtown Seattle for trains arriving from the Rainier Valley. The final terminus of the 3 Line is planned to be Everett Station, a multimodal hub in Downtown Everett, upon completion of the Everett Link Extension in 2037 or 2041 depending on funding.
4 Line (South Kirkland–Issaquah)
The 4 Line, the fifth Link light rail line, is scheduled to open in 2041 or 2044 depending on funding availability and would only serve the Eastside. The line is planned to run from the South Kirkland park-and-ride towards Downtown Bellevue, where it would interline with the 2 Line, and continue along Interstate 90 to Issaquah. It is planned to include four new stations and total in length; an earlier proposal for the line continued on the Cross Kirkland Corridor to a terminus in Downtown Kirkland but was not included in the ST3 plan due to opposition from local residents.
Future segments
Some figures and dates are provisional due to quality control, geological risk, and labor issues that have caused delays in some projects.
Land-use impacts
An expressed purpose in building the Link light rail system has been to support a "smart growth" approach to handling the region's population growth and development. By concentrating new development along light rail lines (a practice known as "transit-oriented development"), more people can live more densely without the increases in automotive commuting traffic that might otherwise be expected. In addition, the concentration of residents near stations helps maintain ridership and revenue. Climate change activists also point out that compact development around light rail lines has been shown to result in reductions in residents' emissions, compared to more conventional suburban automotive commutes.
Environmentalists, transportation groups and some affordable housing advocates have sought greater government regulatory support for transit-oriented development along Link light rail, and in 2009 a bill was introduced in the Washington State Legislature that would have raised allowable densities (as well as lowering parking requirements and easing some other regulations on development) in station areas. As part of Sound Transit 3 in 2016, the Washington State Legislature mandated that Sound Transit reserve at least 80% of the surplus land surrounding light rail stations for affordable housing developments.
See also
Seattle Streetcar
List of rail transit systems in the United States
References
External links
Sound Transit website
System expansion
Light rail in Washington (state)
Transportation in Seattle
Railway services introduced in 2003
2003 establishments in Washington (state) |
4158400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Australian%20rules%20football%20clubs%20in%20Australia | List of Australian rules football clubs in Australia | This is a list of clubs that play Australian rules football in Australia at the senior level.
Guide to abbreviations:
FC = Football Club
AFC = Australian Football Club (mainly used if in Queensland or NSW or outside Australia) / Amateur Football Club (mainly used in the other Australian States)
ARFC = Australian Rules Football Club
Australia
National Level
Australian Football League
AFL Women's
State Level
Victorian Football League
South Australian National Football League
West Australian Football League
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Victoria
AFL Victoria
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Balwyn Football Club
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East Burwood Football Club
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Fair Park Football Club
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Forest Hill Football Club
Heathmont Football Club
Kilsyth Football Club
Knox Football Club
Lilydale Football Club
Mitcham Football Club
Montrose Football Club
Mooroolbark Football Club
Mulgrave Football Club
Noble Park Football Club
North Ringwood Football Club
Norwood Football Club
Nunawading Football Club
Park Orchards Football Club
Ringwood Football Club
Rowville Football Club
Scoresby Football Club
Silvan Football Club
South Belgrave Football Club
South Croydon Football Club
Surrey Park Football Club
Templestowe Football Club
The Basin Football Club
Upper Ferntree Gully Football Club
Vermont Football Club
Wantirna South Football Club
Warrandyte Football Club
Waverley Blues Football Club
Whitehorse Pioneers Football Club
Essendon District Football League
Aberfeldie Football Club
Airport West Football Club
Avondale Heights Football Club
Burnside Heights Football Club
Coburg Districts Football Club
Craigieburn Football Club
Doutta Stars Football Club
East Keilor Football Club
Glenroy Football Club
Greenvale Football Club
Hadfield Football Club
Hillside Football Club
Jacana Football Club
Keilor Football Club
Maribyrnong Park Football Club
Moonee Valley Football Club
Northern Saints Football Club
Oak Park Football Club
Pascoe Vale Football Club
Roxburgh Park Football Club
Strathmore Football Club
Taylors Lakes Football Club
Tullamarine Football Club
West Coburg Football Club
Westmeadows Football Club
Northern Football League
Banyule Football Club
Bundoora Football Club
Eltham Football Club
Epping Football Club
Diamond Creek Football Club
Fitzroy Stars Football Club
Greensborough Football Club
Heidelberg Football Club
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Kilmore Football Club
Lalor Football Club
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Lower Plenty Football Club
Macleod Football Club
Mernda Football Club
Montmorency Football Club
North Heidelberg Football Club
Northcote Park Football Club
Panton Hill Football Club
Reservoir Football Club
St Mary's Senior Football Club
South Morang Football Club
Thomastown Football Club
Watsonia Football Club
West Preston Lakeside Football Club
Whittlesea Football Club
Southern Football League
Ashwood Football Club
Bentleigh Football Club
Black Rock Football Club
Carrum Patterson Lakes Football Club
Caulfield Football Club
Cerberus Football Club
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Cheltenham Football Club
Clayton Football Club
Dandenong Demons Football Club
Dingley Football Club
Doveton Eagles Football Club
East Brighton Football Club
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Endeavour Hills Football Club
Frankston Dolphins Football Club
Hallam Football Club
Hampton Football Club
Hampton Park Football Club
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Highett Football Club
Keysborough Football Club
Lyndale Football Club
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Moorabbin Kangaroos Football Club
Mordialloc Football Club
Mount Waverley Football Club
Murrumbeena Football Club
Oakleigh District Football Club
Port Colts Football Club
St Kilda City Football Club
St Pauls-East Bentleigh Football Club
Sandown Cobras Football Club
Skye Football Club
South Yarra Football Club
Springvale District Football Club
Victorian Amateur Football Association
AJAX Football Club
Albert Park Football Club
Aquinas Old Collegians
Beaumaris Football Club
Box Hill North Football Club
Bulleen-Templestowe Football Club
Canterbury Football Club
Caulfield Grammarians Football Club
Collegians Football Club
De La Salle Old Collegians
Eley Park Football Club
Elsternwick Football Club
Eltham Old Collegians
Emmaus St Leo's Old Collegians Football Club
Fitzroy Football Club
Glen Eira Amateur Football Club
Hampton Rovers Football Club
Hawthorn Amateur Football Club
Ivanhoe Assumption Football Club
Kew Football Club
La Trobe University Football Club
Manningham Amateur Football Club
Marcellin Old Collegians
Masala Football Club
Mazenod Old Collegians
Melbourne High School Old Boys
Monash Blues
Mount Lilydale Football Club
North Brunswick Football Club
North Old Boys/St Pats
Oakleigh Amateur Football Club
Old Brighton Grammarians
Old Camberwell Grammarians
Old Carey Grammarians
Old Geelong
Old Haileyburians
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Old Melburnians
Old Mentonians
Old Paradians
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Old Westbourne
Ormond Amateur Football Club
Parkdale Vultures
Parkside Football Club
PEGS
Peninsula Old Boys
Powerhouse Football Club
Prahran Football Club
Preston Amateurs Football Club
Richmond Central Football Club
St Bedes/Mentone Tigers Football Club
St Bernards Old Collegians
St Francis Xavier
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St Kevins Old Boys
St Mary's/Salesian Football Club
South Melbourne Districts Football Club
South Mornington Football Club
Swinburne Football Club
Therry Penola Old Boys
University Blacks
University Blues
University High School-Victoria University Football Club
West Brunswick Football Club
Whitefriars Old Collegians
Williamstown CYMS
Old Xaverians
Yarra Valley Old Boys
Western Region Football League
Albanvale Football Club
Albion Football Club
Altona Football Club
Braybrook Football Club
Caroline Springs Football Club
Glen Orden Football Club
Hoppers Crossing Football Club
Laverton Magpies Football Club
Manor Lakes Football Club
Newport Power Football Club
North Footscray Football Club
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Parkside Football Club
Point Cook Football Club
Point Cook Centrals Football Club
Spotswood Football Club
Sunshine Football Club
Sunshine Heights Football Club
Tarneit Football Club
Werribee Districts Football Club
West Footscray Football Club
Suns Football Club
Wyndhamvale Football Club
Yarraville Seddon Football Club
Eastern Region Girls Football League
Bayswater Junior Football Club
Belgrave Football Netball Club
Blackburn Junior Football Club
Chirnside Park Football Club
Coldstream Football Club
Croydon Football Club
Donvale Football Club
East Burwood Football Club
East Ringwood Football Club
Emerald Football Club
Ferntree Gully Football Club
Forest Hill Football Club
Gembrook-Cockatoo Football Club
Glen Waverly Football Club
Healsville Football Club
Heathmont Football Club
Kilsyth Football Club
Knox Football Club
Lilydale Football Club
Mitcham Football Club
Monbulk Junior Football Club
Montrose Football Club
Mooroolbark Football Club
Mount Everlyn Football Club
North Ringwood Football Club
Norwood Football Club
Olinda Ferny Creek Football Club Inc.
Rowville Hawks Football Club
Rowville Knights Community Football Club
South Belgrave / Lysterfield Junior Football Club
The Basin Football Club
Upper Ferntree Gully Football Club
Upwey-Tecoma Junior Football Club
Vermont football Club
Wandin Football Netball Club
Waverley Blues Football Club
Yarra Glen Football Netball Club
Yarra Junction Football Club
Vic Country (VCFL)
Alberton Football League
Fish Creek Football Club
Foster Football Club
Meeniyan Dumbalk United Football Club
Stony Creek Football Club
Tarwin Football Club
Toora & District Football Club
Ballarat Football League
Bacchus Marsh Football Club
Ballarat Football Club
Darley Football Club
East Point Football Club
Lake Wendouree Football Club
Melton Football Club
Melton South Football Club
North Ballarat City Football Club
Redan Football Club
Sebastopol Football Club
Sunbury Football Club
Bellarine Football League
Anglesea Football Club
Barwon Heads Football Club
Drysdale Football Club
Geelong Amateur Football Club
Modewarre Football Club
Newcomb Power Football Club
Ocean Grove Football Club
Portarlington Football Club
Queenscliff Football Club
Torquay Football Club
Bendigo Football League
Castlemaine Football Club
Eaglehawk Football Club
Gisborne Football Club
Golden Square Football Club
Kangaroo Flat Football Club
Kyneton Football Club
Maryborough Football Club
Sandhurst Football Club
South Bendigo Football Club
Strathfieldsaye Football Club
Central Highlands Football League
Ballan Football Club
Beaufort Football Club
Bungaree Football Club
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Carngham Linton Football Club
Clunes Football Club
Creswick Football Club
Daylesford Football Club
Dunnstown Football Club
Gordon Football Club
Hepburn Football Club
Learmonth Football Club
Newlyn Football Club
Rokewood Corindhap Football Club
Skipton Football Club
Springbank Football Club
Waubra Football Club
Central Murray Football League
Balranald Football Club
Cohuna Kangas Football Club
Kerang Football Club
Koondrook Barham Football Club
Lake Boga Football Club
Mallee Eagles Football Club
Nyah Nyah West United Football Club
Swan Hill Football Club
Tooleybuc Manangatang Football Club
Tyntynder Football Club
Woorinen Football Club
Colac & District Football League
Alvie Football Club
Apollo Bay Football Club
Birregurra Football Club
Colac Imperials Football Club
Irrewarra-Beeac Football Club
Lorne Football Club
Simpson Football Club
South Colac Football Club
Otway Districts Football Club
Western Eagles Football Club
East Gippsland Football League
Boisdale Briagolong Football Club
Lakes Entrance Football Club
Lindenow Football Club
Lucknow Football Club
Orbost Snowy Rovers Football Club
Paynesville Football Club
Stratford Football Club
Wy Yung Football Club
Ellinbank & District Football League
Buln Buln Football Club
Catani Football Club
Ellinbank Football Club
Lang Lang Football Club
Longwarry Football Club
Neerim-Neerim South Football Club
Nilma Darnum Football Club
Nyora Football Club
Poowong Football Club
Warragul Industrials Football Club
Geelong Football League
Bell Park Football Club
Colac Football Club
Geelong West Giants Football Club
Grovedale Football Club
Lara Football Club
Leopold Football Club
Newtown & Chilwell Football Club
North Shore Football Club
South Barwon Football Club
St Albans Football Club
St Mary's Football Club
St Joseph's Football Club
Geelong & District Football League
Anakie Football Club
Bannockburn Football Club
Bell Post Hill Football Club
Belmont Lions Football Club
Corio Football Club
East Geelong Football Club
Geelong West Giants Football Club
Inverleigh Football Club
North Geelong Football Club
Thomson Football Club
Winchelsea Football Club
Werribee Centrals Football Club
Gippsland Football League
Bairnsdale Football Club
Drouin Football Club
Leongatha Football Club
Maffra Football Club
Moe Football Club
Morwell Football Club
Sale Football Club
Traralgon Football Club
Warragul Football Club
Wonthaggi Power Football Club
Golden Rivers Football League
Hay Football Club
Macorna Football Club
Moulamein Football Club
Murrabit Football Club
Nullawil Football Club
Quambatook Football Club
Ultima Football Club
Wakool Football Club
Wandella Football Club
Goulburn Valley Football League
Benalla Football Club
Echuca Football Club
Euroa Football Club
Kyabram Football Club
Mansfield Football Club
Mooroopna Football Club
Rochester Football Club
Seymour Football Club
Shepparton Football Club
Shepparton Swans Football Club
Shepparton United Football Club
Tatura Football Club
Hampden Football League
Camperdown Football Club
Cobden Football Club
Hamilton Football Club
Koroit Football Club
North Warrnambool Football Club
Port Fairy Football Club
Portland Football Netball Cricket Club
South Warrnambool Football Club
Terang Mortlake Football Club
Warrnambool Football Club
Heathcote District Football League
Colbinabbin Football Club
Elmore Football Club
Heathcote Football Club
Huntly Football Club
Leitchville Gunbower Football Club
Lockington Bamawm United Football Club
Mount Pleasant Football Club
North Bendigo Football Club
White Hills Football Club
Horsham & District Football League
Edenhope-Apsley Football Club
Harrow-Balmoral Football Club
Jeparit Rainbow Football Club
Kalkee Football Club
Kaniva-Leeor United Football Club
Laharum Football Club
Natimuk United Football Club
Noradjuha-Quantong Football Club
Pimpinio Football Club
Rupanyup Football Club
Stawell Swifts Football Club
Taylors Lake Football Club
Kyabram & District Football League
Ardmona Football Club
Avenel Football Club
Dookie United Football Club
Girgarre Football Club
Lancaster Football Club
Longwood Football Club
Merrigum Football Club
Murchison Football Club
Nagambie Football Club
Rushworth Football Club
Stanhope Football Club
Tallygaroopna Football Club
Undera Football Club
Violet Town Football Club
Loddon Valley Football League
Bears Lagoon-Serpentine Football Club
Bridgewater Football Club
Calivil United Football Club
Inglewood Football Club
Marong & District Football Club
Mitiamo Football Club
Newbridge Football Club
Pyramid Hill Football Club
YCW Football Club
Maryborough Castlemaine District Football League
Avoca Football Club
Campbells Creek Football Club
Carisbrook Football Club
Dunolly Football Club
Harcourt Football Club
Lexton Football Club
Maldon Football Club
Maryborough Rovers Football Club
Natte Bealiba Football Club
Navarre Football Club
Newstead Football Club
Royal Park Football Club
Talbot Football Club
Trentham Football Club
Mid Gippsland Football League
Boolarra Football Club
Hill End Football Club
Mirboo North Football Club
Morwell East Football Club
Newborough Football Club
Thorpdale Football Club
Trafalgar Football Club
Yallourn Yallourn North Football Club
Yarragon Football Club
Yinnar Football Club
Millewa Football League
Bambill Football Club
Cardross Football Club
Gol Gol Football Club
Meringur Football Club
Nangiloc Football Club
Werrimull Football Club
Mininera & District Football League
Ararat Eagles Football Club
Caramut Football Club
Glenthompson-Dunkeld Football Club
Great Western Football Club
Hawkesdale-Macarthur Football Club
Lismore-Derrinallum Football Club
Moyston-Willaura Football Club
Penshurst Football Club
SMW Rovers Football Club
Tatyoon Football Club
Wickliffe-Lake Bolac Football Club
Woorndoo-Mortlake Football Club
Mornington Peninsula Nepean Football League
Bonbeach Football Club
Chelsea Football Club
Crib Point Football Club
Devon Meadows Football Club
Dromana Football Club
Edithvale Aspendale Football Club
Frankston Bombers Football Club
Frankston YCW Football Club
Hastings Football Club
Karingal Football Club
Langwarrin Football Club
Mornington Football Club
Mount Eliza Football Club
Pearcedale Football Club
Pines Football Club
Red Hill Football Club
Rosebud Football Club
Rye Football Club
Seaford Football Club
Somerville Football Club
Sorrento Football Club
Tyabb Football Club
Murray Football League
Barooga Football Club
Cobram Football Club
Congupna Football Club
Deniliquin Football Club
Echuca United Football Club
Finley Football Club
Katandra Football Club
Moama Football Club
Mulwala Football Club
Nathalia Football Club
Numurkah Football Club
Rumbalara Football Club
Shepparton East Football Club
Tongala Football Club
Tungamah Football Club
North Central Football League
Birchip-Watchem Football Club
Boort Football Club
Charlton Football Club
Donald Football Club
St Arnaud Football Club
Sea Lake Nandaly Football Club
Wedderburn Football Club
Wycheproof-Narraport Football Club
North Gippsland Football League
Churchill Football Club
Cowwarr Football Club
Glengarry Football Club
Gormandale Football Club
Heyfield Football Club
Rosedale Football Club
Sale City Football Club
Traralgon Tyers United Football Club
Woodside Football Club
Yarram Football Club
Omeo & District Football League
Bruthen Football Club
Buchan Football Club
Lindenow South Football Club
Omeo-Benambra Football Club
Swan Reach Football Club
Swifts Creek Football Club
Ovens & King Football League
Benalla All Blacks Football Club
Bonnie Doon Football Club
Bright Football Club
Glenrowan Football Club
Goorambat Football Club
Greta Football Club
King Valley Football Club
Milawa Football Club
Moyhu Football Club
North Wangaratta Football Club
Tarrawingee Football Club
Whorouly Football Club
Ovens & Murray Football League
Albury Football Club
Corowa Rutherglen Football Club
Lavington Football Club
Myrtleford Football Club
North Albury Football Club
Wangaratta Football Club
Wangaratta Rovers Football Club
Wodonga Football Club
Wodonga Raiders Football Club
Yarrawonga Football Club
Picola & District Football League
Berrigan Football Club
Blighty Football Club
Deniliquin Rovers Football Club
Jerilderie Football Club
Katamatite Football Club
Katunga Football Club
Mathoura Football Club
Picola United Football Club
Rennie Football Club
Strathmerton Football Club
Tocumwal Football Club
Waaia Football Club
Yarroweyah Football Club
Riddell District Football League
Broadford Football Club
Diggers Rest Football Club
Lancefield Football Club
Macedon Football Club
Melton Central Football Club
Riddell Football Club
Rockbank Football Club
Romsey Football Club
Rupertswood Football Club
Sunbury Kangaroos Football Club
Wallan Football Club
Woodend/Hesket Football Club
South East Football League
Beaconsfield Football Club
Berwick Football Club
Cranbourne Football Club
Doveton Football Club
Narre Warren Football Club
Officer Football Club
Pakenham Football Club
Tooradin-Dalmore Football Club
South West District Football League
Branxholme-Wallacedale Football Club
Cavendish Football Club
Coleraine Football Club
Dartmoor Football Club
Heathmere Football Club
Heywood Football Club
Tyrendarra Football Club
Westerns Football Club
Sunraysia Football League
Imperials Football Club
Irymple Football Club
Merbein Football Club
Mildura Football Club
Ouyen United Football Club
Red Cliffs Football Club
Robinvale Euston Football Club
South Mildura Football Club
Wentworth Football Club
Tallangatta & District Football League
Barnawartha Football Club
Beechworth Football Club
Chiltern Football Club
Dederang Mount Beauty Football Club
Kiewa-Sandy Creek Football Club
Mitta United Football Club
Rutherglen Football Club
Tallangatta Football Club
Thurgoona Football Club
Wahgunyah Football Club
Wodonga Saints Football Club
Yackandandah Football Club
Upper Murray Football League
Border Walwa Football Club
Bullioh Football Club
Corryong Football Club
Cudgewa Football Club
Federal Football Club
Tumbarumba Football Club
Warrnambool & District Football League
Allansford Football Club
Dennington Football Club
East Warrnambool Football Club
Kolora-Noorat Football Club
Merrivale Football Club
Nirranda Football Club
Old Collegians Football Club
Panmure Football Club
Russell's Creek Football Club
South Rovers Football Club
Timboon Demons Football Club
Wimmera Football League
Ararat Football Club
Dimboola Football Club
Horsham Demons Football Club
Horsham Saints Football Club
Minyip Murtoa Football Club
Nhill Football Club
Southern Mallee Giants Football Club
Stawell Football Club
Warracknabeal Football Club
Yarra Valley Mountain District Football League
Alexandra Football Club
Belgrave Football Club
Emerald Football Club
Gembrook-Cockatoo Football Club
Healesville Football Club
Kinglake Football Club
Monbulk Football Club
Mount Evelyn Football Club
Olinda-Ferny Creek Football Club
Powelltown Football Club
Seville Football Club
Thornton-Eildon Football Club
Upwey-Tecoma Football Club
Wandin Football Club
Warbuton-Millgrove Football Club
Woori Yallock Football Club
Yarra Glen Football Club
Yarra Junction Football Club
Yea Football Club
Statewide Under 18
NAB League
Bendigo Pioneers
Calder Cannons
Dandenong Stingrays
Eastern Ranges
Geelong Falcons
Gippsland Power
Murray Bushrangers
North Ballarat Rebels
Northern Knights
Oakleigh Chargers
Sandringham Dragons
Western Jets
South Australia
Adelaide Football League
Adelaide Lutheran Football Club
Adelaide University Football Club
Athelstone Football Club
Blackfriars Old Scholars Football Club
Brahma Lodge Football Club
Brighton Districts and Old Scholars Football Club
Broadview Football Club
Central United Football Club
Christian Brothers College Old Collegians Football Club
Colonel Light Gardens Football Club
Eastern Park Football Club
Edwardstown Football Club
Elizabeth Football Club
Fitzroy Football Club
Flinders Park Football Club
Flinders University Football Club
Gaza Football Club
Gepps Cross Football Club
Glenunga Football Club
Golden Grove Football Club
Goodwood Saints Football Club
Greenacres Football Club
Hectorville Football Club
Henley Football Club
Hope Valley Football Club
Houghton Districts Football Club
Ingle Farm Football Club
Kenilworth Football Club
Kilburn Football Club
Lockleys Football Club
Marion Football Club
Mawson Lakes Football Club
Mitcham Football Club
Mitchell Park Football Club
Modbury Football Club
Morphettville Park Football Club
North Haven Football Club
O'Sullivan Beach-Lonsdale Football Club
Old Ignatians Football Club
Para Hills Football Club
Payneham Norwood Union Football Club
Pembroke Old Scholars Football Club
Plympton Football Club
PHOS Camden Football Club
Pooraka Football Club
Port District Football Club
Portland Football Club
Prince Alfred Old Collegians Football Club
Pulteney Football Club
Rosewater Football Club
Rostrevor Old Collegians Football Club
Sacred Heart Old Collegians Football Club
SMOSH West Lakes Football Club
St Pauls Old Scholars Football Club
St Peter's Old Collegians Football Club
Salisbury Football Club
Salisbury West Football Club
Scotch Old Collegians Football Club
Seaton Ramblers Football Club
Smithfield Football Club
Tea Tree Gully Football Club
Trinity Old Scholars Football Club
Unley Mercedes Jets Football Club
Walkerville Football Club
West Croydon Football Club
Westminster Old Scholars Football Club
Woodville South Football Club
Adelaide Plains Football League
Angle Vale Football Club
Balaklava Football Club
Hamley Bridge Football Club
Hummocks Watchman Eagles Football Club
Mallala Football Club
Two Wells Football Club
United Football Club
Virginia Football Club
Barossa Light & Gawler Football Association
Angaston Football Club
Barossa District Football Club
Freeling Football Club
Gawler Central Football Club
Kapunda Football Club
Nuriootpa Football Club
South Gawler Football Club
Tanunda Football Club
Willaston Football Club
Eastern Eyre Football League
Cleve Football Club
Cowell Football Club
Eastern Ranges Football Club
Kimba Districts Football Club
Far North Football League
East Roxby Football Club
Hornridge Football Club
Olympic Dam Football Club
Roxby Districts Football Club
Far West Football League
Blues Football Club
Koonibba Football Club
Thevenard Football Club
Western United Football Club
Great Flinders Football League
Cummins Kapinnie Football Club
Eyre United Football Club
Lock Football Club
Ramblers Football Club
Tumby Bay Football Club
United Yeelanna Football Club
Great Southern Football League
Encounter Bay Football Club
Goolwa-Port Elliot Football Club
Langhorne Creek Football Club
McLaren Football Club
Mount Compass Football Club
Myponga-Sellicks Football Club
Strathalbyn Football Club
Victor Harbor Football Club
Willunga Football Club
Yankalilla Football Club
Hills Football League
Birdwood Football Club
Blackwood Football Club
Bridgewater-Callington Football Club
Echunga Football Club
Gumeracha Football Club
Hahndorf Football Club
Ironbank-Cherry Gardens Football Club
Kangarilla Football Club
Kersbrook Football Club
Lobethal Football Club
Macclesfield Football Club
Meadows Football Club
Mount Barker Football Club
Mount Lofty District Football Club
Nairne Bremer United Football Club
Onkaparinga Valley Football Club
Torrens Valley Football Club
Uraidla Districts Football Club
Kangaroo Island Football League
Dudley United Football Club
Kingscote Football Club
Parndana Football Club
Western Districts Football Club
Wisanger Football Club
Kowree-Naracoorte-Tatiara Football League
Border Districts Football Club
Bordertown Football Club
Keith Football Club
Kingston Football Club
Kybybolite Football Club
Lucindale Football Club
Mundulla Football Club
Naracoorte Football Club
Padthaway Football Club
Penola Football Club
Mallee Football League
Border Downs Tintinara Football Club
Karoonda Football Club
Lameroo Football Club
Murrayville Football Club
Peake & District Football Club
Pinnaroo Football Club
Mid South Eastern Football League
Glencoe Football Club
Hatherleigh Football Club
Kalangadoo Football Club
Kongorong Football Club
Mount Burr Football Club
Nangwarry Football Club
Port MacDonnell Football Club
Robe Football Club
Tantanoola Football Club
Mid West Football League
Central Eyre Football Club
Elliston Football Club
West Coast Hawks Football Club
Western Districts Football Club
Wirrulla Football Club
Wudinna Football Club
North Eastern Football League
Blyth Snowtown Football Club
Brinkworth Spalding Redhill Football Club
Burra Booborowie Hallett Football Club
Eudunda-Robertstown Football Club
Mintaro Manoora Football Club
North Clare Football Club
Riverton Saddleworth Marrabel United Football Club
South Clare Football Club
Northern Areas Football Association
Booleroo Melrose Wilmington Football Club
Broughton Mundoora Football Club
Crystal Brook Football Club
Jamestown Peterborough Football Club
Orroroo Football Club
Southern Flinders Football Club
Port Lincoln Football League
Boston Football Club
Lincoln South Football Club
Mallee Park Football Club
Marble Range Football Club
Tasman Football Club
Wayback Football Club
Riverland Football League
Barmera-Monash Football Club
Berri Football Club
Blanchetown-Swan Reach Football Club
Browns Well Football Club
Cobdogla Football Club
Loxton Football Club
Loxton North Football Club
Lyrup Football Club
Paringa Football Club
Ramco Football Club
Renmark Football Club
Sedan Cambrai Football Club
Waikerie Football Club
Wunkar Football Club
River Murray Football League
Imperial Football Club
Jervois Football Club
Mannum Football Club
Meningie Football Club
Mypolonga Football Club
Rambler Football Club
Tailem Bend Football Club
Southern Football League
Aldinga Football Club
Christies Beach Football Club
Cove Football Club
Flagstaff Hill Football Club
Happy Valley Football Club
Morphett Vale Football Club
Noarlunga Football Club
Port Noarlunga Football Club
Reynella Football Club
Spencer Gulf Football League
Central Augusta Football Club
Lions Football Club
Port Football Club
Solomontown Football Club
South Augusta Football Club
West Augusta Football Club
Western Border Football League
Casterton Sandford Football Club
East Gambier Football Club
Millicent Football Club
North Gambier Football Club
South Gambier Football Club
West Gambier Football Club
Whyalla Football League
Central Whyalla Football Club
North Whyalla Football Club
Roopeena Football Club
South Whyalla Football Club
Weeroona Bay Football Club
West Whyalla Football Club
Yorke Peninsula Football League
Ardrossan Football Club
Bute Football Club
Central Yorke Cougars Football Club
CMS Crows Football Club
Kadina Football Club
Moonta Football Club
Paskeville Football Club
Southern Eagles Football Club
Wallaroo Football Club
Western Australia
Western Australian Amateur Football League
Armadale Football Club
Ballajura Football Club
Bassendean Football Club
Bayswater Football Club
Belmont Districts Football Club
Brentwood Booragoon Football Club
Bull Creek Leeming Football Club
Canning Vale Football Club
Canning Vic Park South Perth Football Club
Carlisle Football Club
Cockburn Football Club
Cockburn Lakes Football Club
Collegians Football Club
Coolbellup Football Club
Coolbinia West Perth Football Club
Cottesloe Football Club
Dianella Morley Football Club
Ellenbrook Football Club
Fremantle CBC Football Club
Forrestdale Football Club
Gosnells Football Club
Hamersley Carine Football Club
High Wycombe Football Club
Jandakot Football Club
Kalamunda Football Club
Kenwick Football Club
Kingsley Football Club
Kingsway Football Club
Kwinana Football Club
Lynwood Ferndale Football Club
Maddington Football Club
Manning Football Club
Melville Football Club
Mosman Park Football Club
Mount Lawley Football Club
Nollamara Football Club
North Beach Football Club
North Fremantle Football Club
Ocean Ridge Football Club
Osborne Park Football Club
Piara Waters Football Club
Quinns District Football Club
Rossmoyne Football Club
St Norbets Football Club
Scarborough Football Club
Secret Harbour Football Club
Stirling Football Club
Swan Athletic Football Club
Swan Valley Football Club
Thornlie Football Club
Trinity Aquinas Football Club
University Football Club
Wanneroo Football Club
Warnbro Football Club
Wembley Football Club
Wesley Curtin Football Club
West Coast Cowan Football Club
Whitford Football Club
Willetton Football Club
Yanchep Football Club
Avon Football Association
Beverley Football Club
Cunderdin Football Club
Federals Football Club
Kellerberrin/Tammin Football Club
Quairading Football Club
Railways Football Club
York Football Club
Central Kimberley Football League
Bayulu Bulldogs Football Club
Mowanjum Hawks Football Club
Muludja Lions Football Club
Noonkanbah Blues Football Club
Wangkatjungka Crows Football Club
Central Midlands Coastal Football League
Dandaragan Football Club
Cervantes Football Club
Jurien Bay Football Club
Lancelin Football Club
Moora Football Club
Central Wheatbelt Football League
Beacon Football Club
Bencubbin Football Club
Kalannie Football Club
Koorda Football Club
Mukinbudin Football Club
Nungarin Football Club
Eastern Districts Football League
Bruce Rock Football Club
Burracoppin Football Club
Corrigin Football Club
Hyden/Karlgarin Football Club
Kulin/Kondinin Football Club
Narembeen Football Club
Nukarni Football Club
Southern Cross Football Club
East Kimberley Football Association
Bow River Football Club
Halls Creek Football Club
Kundat Djaru Football Club
Kununurra Football Club
Kururrungku Football Club
Ord River Football Club
Waringarri Football Club
Warmun Football Club
Wyndham Football Club
Yardgee Football Club
Esperance District Football Association
Esperance Football Club
Gibson Football Club
Newtown Condingup Football Club
Ports Football Club
Fortescue National Football League
Panthers Football Club
Saints Football Club
Tigers Football Club
Towns Football Club
Gascoyne Football Association
Exmouth Football Club
Gascoyne Football Club
Ramblers Football Club
Warriors Football Club
Goldfields Football League
Boulder City Football Club
Kalgoorlie City Football Club
Kambalda Football Club
Mines Rovers Football Club
Railways Football Club
Great Northern Football League
Brigades Football Club
Chapman Valley Football Club
Mullewa Football Club
Northampton Football Club
Railway Football Club
Rovers Football Club
Towns Football Club
Great Southern Football League
Albany Football Club
Denmark Walpole Football Club
Mount Barker Football Club
North Albany Football Club
Railways Football Club
Royals Football Club
Hills Football Association
Bullsbrook Football Club
Chidlow Football Club
Gidgegannup Football Club
Mount Helena Football Club
Mundaring Football Club
Parkerville Football Club
Pickering Brook Football Club
Lower South West Football League
Boyup Brook Football Club
Bridgetown Football Club
Deanmill Football Club
Imperials Football Club
Kojonup Football Club
Southerners Football Club
Tigers Football Club
Mortlock Football League
Calingiri Football Club
Dalwallinu Football Club
Dowerin Wyalkatchem Football Club
Gingin Football Club
Goomalling Football Club
Toodyay Football Club
Wongan Ballidu Football Club
Newman National Football League
Centrals Football Club
Pioneers Football Club
Saints Football Club
Tigers Football Club
North Midlands Football League
Carnamah-Perenjori Football Club
Coorow-Latham Football Club
Dongara Football Club
Mingenew Football Club
Morawa Football Club
Three Springs Football Club
North Pilbara Football League
Dampier Sharks Football Club
Karratha Falcons Football Club
Karratha Kats Football Club
Port Hedland Rovers Football Club
South Hedland Swans Football Club
Wickham Wolves Football Club
Ongerup Football Association
Boxwood Hills Football Club
Gnowangerup Football Club
Jerramungup Football Club
Lake Grace/Pingrup Football Club
Newdegate Football Club
Ravensthorpe & District Football Association
Ravensthorpe Tigers Football Club
Southerners Football Club
Lakes Football Club
Peel Football League
Baldivis Football Club
Centrals Football Club
Halls Head Football Club
Mandurah Football Club
Pinjarra Football Club
Rockingham Football Club
South Mandurah Football Club
Waroona Football Club
South West Football League
Augusta Margaret River Football Club
Bunbury Football Club
Busselton Football Club
Carey Park Football Club
Collie Eagles Football Club
Donnybrook Football Club
Eaton Boomers Football Club
Harvey Brunswick Lesch Football Club
Harvey Bulls Football Club
South Bunbury Football Club
Upper Great Southern Football League
Boddington Football Club
Brookton/Pingelly Football Club
Katanning Wanderers Football Club
Kukerin/Dumbleyung Football Club
Narrogin Hawks Football Club
Wagin Football Club
Wickepin Football Club
Williams Football Club
West Kimberley Football Association
Towns Football Club
Broome Bulls Football Club
Broome Saints Football Club
Peninsula Bombers Football Club
Bidyadanga Football Club
Cable Beach Football Club
Derby Tigers Football Club
Looma Eagles Football Club
Tasmania
North West Football League
Burnie Football Club
Devonport Football Club
East Devonport Football Club
Latrobe Football Club
Penguin Football Club
Smithton Football Club
Ulverstone Football Club
Wynyard Football Club
Southern Football League
Brighton Robins
Claremont Magpies
Cygnet Football Club
Dodges Ferry Sharks
East Coast Bombers
Huonville Lions
Hobart Tigers
Lindisfarne Blues
New Norfolk Eagles
Sorell Eagles
Northern Tasmanian Football Association
Bracknell Football Club
Bridgenorth Football Club
Bridport Swans Football Club
Deloraine Football Club
East Coast Swans Football Club
Evandale Football Club
George Town Football Club
Hillwood Football Club
Lilydale Football Club
Longford Football Club
Meander Valley Football Club
Old Launcestonians Football Club
Old Scotch Football Club
Perth Football Club
Rocherlea Football Club
St. Pat's Football Club
Scottsdale Football Club
South Launceston Football Club
Tamar Cats Football Club
Uni-Mowbray Football Club
Circular Head Football Association
Forest-Stanley Football Club
Irishtown Football Club
Redpa Football Club
Scotchtown Football Club
Darwin Football Association
Cuprona Football Club
Natone Football Club
Queenstown Football Club
Ridgley Football Club
Somerset Football Club
South Burnie Football Club
Yeoman Football Club
Yolla Football Club
King Island Football Association
Currie Football Club
Grassy Football Club
North Football Club
North Western Football Association
Forth Football Club
Motton-Preston Football Club
Rosebery-Toorak Football Club
Sheffield Football Club
Spreyton Football Club
Turners Beach Football Club
Wesley Vale Football Club
West Ulverstone Football Club
East Ulverstone Football Club
Oatlands District Football Association
Bothwell Football Club
Campania Football Club
Campbell Town Football Club
Mount Pleasant Football Club
Oatlands Football Club
Swansea Football Club
Woodsdale Football Club
Old Scholars Football Association
DOSA Football Club
Hutchins Football Club
OHA Football Club
Richmond Football Club
St. Virgils Football Club
University Football Club
New South Wales
Sydney AFL
Balmain Australian Football Club
Camden Football Club
Campbelltown Football Club
East Coast Eagles
Holroyd-Parramatta Football Club
Macquarie University Football Club
Manly-Warringah Football Club
Newtown Breakaways Football Club
Nor-West Football Club
North West Sydney Redbacks Football Club
North Shore Australian Football Club
Pennant Hills Football Club
Penrith Football Club
Randwick City Saints Football Club
St George Football Club
South West Sydney Football Club
Southern Power Football Club
Sydney University Australian National Football Club
UNSW-Eastern Suburbs Bulldogs
UTS Australian Football Club
Western Magic Football Club
Western Suburbs Football Club
Wollondilly Knights Football Club
Wollongong Saints Football Club
Black Diamond AFL
Cardiff Football Club
Gosford Football Club
Killarney Vale Football Club
Lake Macquarie Football Club
Maitland Football Club
Muswellbrook Football Club
Nelson Bay Football Club
Newcastle City Football Club
Singleton Football Club
Terrigal Avoca Football Club
The Entrance Bateau Bay Football Club
Wallsend-West Newcastle Football Club
Warners Bay Football Club
Wyong Lakes Football Club
Broken Hill Football League
Central Magpies Football Club
North Bulldogs Football Club
South Roos Football Club
West Robins Football Club
Central West Australian Football League
Bathurst Bushrangers Football Club
Bathurst Giants Football Club
Dubbo Demons Football Club
Orange Tigers Football Club
Parkes Panthers Football Club
Farrer Football League
Barellan United Football Club
CSU Football Club
Coleambally Football Club
East Wagga Kooringal Football Club
Marrar Football Club
Northern Jets Football Club
North Wagga Football Club
Temora Football Club
The Rock-Yerong Creek Football Club
Hume Football League
Billabong Crows Football Club
Brock/Burrum Saints Football Club
CDHBU Football Club
Culcairn Football Club
Henty Football Club
Holbrook Football Club
Howlong Football Club
Jindera Football Club
Lockhart Football Club
Murray Magpies Football Club
Osborne Football Club
Rand-Walbundrie-Walla Football Club
North Coast Australian Football League
Coffs Breakers Football Club
Grafton Football Club
Port Macquarie Football Club
Sawtell Toormina Football Club
North West Australian Football League
Gunnedah District Bulldogs Football Club
Inverell Saints Football Club
Moree Suns Football Club
Narrabri Eagles Football Club
New England Nomads Football Club
Tamworth Kangaroos Football Club
Tamworth Swans Football Club
Northern Riverina Football League
Condobolin Milby Football Club
Hillston Football Club
Lake Cargelligo Football Club
Tullibigeal Football Club
Ungarie Football Club
West Wyalong Girral Football Club
Riverina Football League
Collingullie Glenfield Park Football Club
Coolamon Football Netball Club
Ganmain Grong Grong Matong Football Club
Griffith Football Club
Leeton/Whitton Football Club
Mangoplah Cookadinia United Eastlakes Football Club
Narrandera Football Club
Turvey Park Football Club
Wagga Tigers Football Club
Sapphire Coast Australian Football League
Eden Football Club
Merimbula Football Club
Narooma Football Club
Pambula Football Club
Tathra Football Club
South Coast Australian Football League
Bomaderry Football Club
Dapto City Stallions Football Club
Figtree Kangaroos Football Club
Kiama Football Club
Northern Districts Tigers Football Club
Nowra Albatross Football Club
Port Kembla Football Club
Shellharbour City Suns Football Club
Ulladulla Dockers Football Club
Wollongong Bulldogs Football Club
Wollongong Lions Football Club
Australian Capital Territory
AFL Canberra
Ainslie Football Club
ADFA Football Club
ANU Football Club
Belconnen Magpies Football Club
Cootamundra Football Club
Eastlake Football Club
Googong Hogs Football Club
Goulburn City Swans Football Club
Gungahlin Football Club
Molonglo Football Club
Queanbeyan Football Club
Southern Cats Football Club
Tuggeranong Hawks Football Club
Woden Blues Football Club
Yass Football Club
Queensland
Queensland Australian Football League
Queensland Football Association
Divisional Football
Alexandra Hills Bombers
Aspley Hornets
Beenleigh Buffaloes
Bond University Australian Football Club
Bribie Island Australian Football Club
Burleigh Bombers
Caloundra Panthers
Carrara Australian Football Club
Coolangatta Tweed Heads Blues
Coomera Australian Football Club
Coorparoo Kings
Ferny Grove Australian Football Club
Griffith Uni Moorooka Football Club
Hinterland Blues Australian Football Club
Ipswich Cats Australian Football Club
Ipswich Eagles
Jindalee Australian Football Club
Kedron Lions
Kenmore Australian Football Club
Marcellin AFC
Maroochydore Roos
Mayne Tigers
Moreton Bay Australian Football Club
Noosa Tigers
Park Ridge Australian Football Club
Pine Rivers Swans
Redcliffe Tigers
Robina Roos
Sandgate Hawks
Springwood Pumas
University of Queensland Red Lions
Victoria Point Australian Football Club
Wynnum Vikings
Yeronga South Brisbane Devils
Wide Bay Division
Across the Waves Australian Football Club
Brothers Bulldogs Australian Football Club
Gympie Australian Football Club
Hervey Bay Bombers Australian Football Club
Hervey Bay Power Australian Football Club
Maryborough Australian Football Club
Northern Rivers Division
Ballina Bombers Australian Football Club
Byron Magpies Australian Football Club
Lismore Swans Australian Football Club
Tweed Coast Tigers Australian Football Club
AFL Cairns
Cairns City Lions Australian Football Club
Cairns Saints Australian Football Club
Centrals Trinity Beach Australian Football Club
Manunda Hawks Australian Football Club
North Cairns Australian Football Club
Port Douglas Australian Football Club
South Cairns Australian Football Club
AFL Capricornia
Boyne Island Tannum Sands Saints
Brothers Rockhampton Roos
Gladstone Mudcrabs
Glenmore Bulls
Rockhampton Panthers
Yeppoon Swans
AFL Darling Downs
Chinchilla Suns
Dalby Swans
Coolaroo Roos
Goondiwindi Hawks
Highfields Lions
South Burnett Saints
South Toowoomba Bombers
Toowoomba Tigers
University Cougars
Warwick Redbacks
AFL Mackay
Eastern Swans
Mackay Magpies
Mackay City
North Mackay
Whitsunday Sea Eagles
AFL Mount Isa
Buffaloes
Dajarra Rhinos
Lake Nash Young Guns
Rovers
Tigers
AFL Townsville
Curra Swans
Hermit Park Tigers
Northern Beaches Lions
Thuringowa Bulldogs
University Hawks
Northern Territory
Barkly Australian Football League
Barkly Work Camp Football Club
Canteen Creek Football Club
Eagles Football Club
Elliot Football Club
Sporties Spitfires Football Club
Central Australian Football League
Areyonga Football Club
Federals Football Club
Laramba Football Club (Cowboys)
Ltyentye Apurte Football Club
MacDonnell Districts Football Club
Mulga Bore Football Club
Nyirripi Football Club
Pioneers Football Club
Plenty Highway Football Club
Rovers Football Club
South Football Club
Ti Tree Football Club
Titjikala Football Club
Western Aranda Football Club
Wests Football Club
Yuendumu Football Club
Gove Australian Football League
Baywarra Football Club
Djarrak Football Club
Gopu Football Club
Nguykal Football Club
Big Rivers Australian Football League
Beswick Football Club
Eastside Football Club
Kalano Football Club
Katherine Camels Football Club
Katherine South Football Club
Tindal Magpies Football Club
Tiwi Islands Football League
Imalu Football Club
Muluwurri Football Club
Pumarali Football Club
Ranku Football Club
Tapalinga Football Club
Tuyu Football Club
Walama Football Club
See also
List of cricket clubs in Australia
List of baseball teams in Australia
List of rowing clubs in Australia
List of rugby league clubs in Australia
List of rugby union clubs in Australia
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4158411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semde | Semde | Semde (; Sanskrit: , "mind division", "mind class" or "mind series" is the name of one of three scriptural and lineage divisions within the Dzogchen (Great Perfection) tradition. The Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism traditionally classifies its Dzogchen teaching into three main divisions: Semde, Longdé (Space Series) and Menngagde (Secret Instruction Series).
Semde texts are mostly said to be translations by figures of the early transmission (7th–9th centuries) of Buddhism to Tibet like Śrī Siṅgha, Vairotsana and Vimalamitra. These texts emphasize the "awakened mind" (Tibetan: byang-chub-kyi sems, Skt. bodhicitta), which is the true nature of the mind and is essentially pure and perfect, just like Buddhahood. Semde texts critique tantric practice as being based on effort, and instead promote simple and effortless contemplation of the mind and its emptiness, luminosity, purity and inherent gnosis.
Background and history
Earliest sources
The Dzogchen texts which are today classified as "Semde" include the earliest Dzogchen sources currently known. These are generally short texts which appeared in the ninth century and are attributed to early transmission figures like Garab Dorje (seventh century?), Śrīsiṁha (eighth century), Vairotsana (8th century) and Vimalamitra (eighth-ninth century). These teachings were influenced by tantric sources like the Guhyagarbha tantra as well as by Yogacara "mind-only" and buddha-nature literature. Various scholars have shown that early Dzogchen teachings developed out of the teachings of the Mahayoga tantras like the Guhyagarbha.
Scholars like Samten Karmay and Karen Liljenberg have also argued that other traditions like tantric Shaivism and Chan Buddhism may have had some influence on this early Dzogchen literature. Jean-luc Achard has noted some similarities between Dzogchen practices and the teachings of the Shaiva Vijñānabhairava tantra. Regarding Chan, Liljenberg notes that various documents form Dunhuang indicate that some Dzogchen practitioners were syncretizing Dzogchen with Chan and other early Dzogchen works show that other people disagreed with this trend. This is also supported by the work of the Tibetan scholar Nubchen Sanggye Yeshe. Nubchen attempts to argue for the difference between the two teachings and the superiority of Dzogchen, but he also agrees that much of their terminology is similar. Furthermore, the biography of several Dzogchen masters depict them as traveling to China (Vairotsana) or even having transmitted Chan lineages (Aro Yeshe).
Liljenberg writes that the main themes of the five early translations include non-duality (gnyis med), universal equality (mnyam nyid), "non-action" (bya med), "not seeking (rtsol med) the enlightened state", and the fact that there is "no need for meditation or gradual practices to purify or improve oneself" since "there is no path to follow, as the "destination" of enlightenment is already reached, and primordially-immanent." According to the Tibetologist David Germano, early Dzogchen "Semde" texts ignore or deny the validity and relevance of Vajrayana tantric practices and rituals in favor of terse poetic descriptions and direct experience of the awakened mind (bodhicitta). As such, he calls these works "pristine Great Perfection", and contrasts them with the later texts of the "Funerary Great Perfection" which embrace the taboo tantric imagery of violence, sex and death. Germano writes that these early sources "are marked by the absence of presentations of detailed ritual and contemplative technique," and by the lack of the "funerary Buddhism" of the anuttarayogatantras (including any discussion of charnel ground imagery, death motifs, bodily relics, funerary rituals, and bardo teachings) as well as tantric sexual motifs and practices.
Some Semde texts, like the Kunjed Gyalpo, even deny the validity and relevance of key elements of tantric buddhism (such as mandalas, empowerment, stages of practice, etc). As Liljenberg notes, the Total Space of Vajrasattva (rdo rje sems dpa’ nam mkha' che) calls tantric practice "a childish pursuit" (byis pa'i spyod yul). Sam van Schaik also writes that "later developments in the Great Perfection brought far more complex doctrines and practices, but the early mind series texts stayed close to one central theme: the immediate presence of the enlightened mind, and the consequent use- lessness of any practice that is aimed at creating, cultivating or uncovering the enlightened state." However, not all early Dzogchen sources reject tantric ritual, some of them, like Padmasambhava's Garland of Views, present Dzogchen within the framework of tantric Mahayoga. As such, it is likely there was a spectrum of early Dzogchen methodologies, some more tantric than others.
While the terms "Mind Section" (Tib. sems sde) and "Mind Orientation" (Tib. sems phyogs) are not attested prior to the 11th century (and are thus not found in the earliest Dzogchen texts), they are used by Tibetan and Western scholars retroactively to refer to a class of texts. The most of important of these are the "Eighteen Great Scriptures" (Lung-chen bco-brgyad), which came be to called "mind series" (sems de) texts at a later date. Five of these texts, the "five early translations" (snga ’gyur nga), are perhaps the earliest of these, and are attributed to the monk Vairotsana of Pagor. Manuscripts of some of these texts have been found in the Dunhuang caves. They include The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa'i khu byug), The Small Hidden Grain (gSangs rgyas sbas pa), Questions and Answers of Vajrasattva and Gold Refined from Ore (rdo la gser zhun). According to Liljenberg, Gold Refined from Ore may be the earliest of these and could indeed have been written in India.
Sam van Schaik notes that some of the earliest datable Dzogchen texts are The Meditation on the Awakened Mind by Mañjuśrīmitra (which is listed in a 9th century catalogue called the Denkarma) and various short texts which are quoted by Nubchen Sangye Yeshe's late 9th century Lamp for the Eyes of Contemplation (Samten Migdrön). Nubchen's Lamp itself is a very important commentarial source for early "Semde" Dzogchen, as it quotes numerous early sources, and is also one of the earliest texts which discuss claim that Dzogchen is a distinct vehicle of spiritual practice (yana). The Lamp also lists the “twenty or eighteen minor texts on the mind” (which refers to the eighteen great scriptures), indicating that even as early as the 9th century, these works were beginning to be considered as a group.
Another important source for early Dzogchen Semde ideas is the work of gNyan dPal dbyangs (c. 8-9th century), especially his rDo rje sems dpa’ zhus lan (Vajrasattva Questions and Answers) manuscripts of which have been found in Dunhuang and his sGron ma drug (Six Lamps), which are widely quoted by Nubchen.
Later developments
The Kun byed rgyal po (All Creating King), which is historically the most important Semde text in Nyingma, is a slightly later composite text possibly dating from the late 10th or the early 11th century which contains within it various short early Semde texts like the Cuckoo of Rigpa.
By the 11th century these traditions developed in different systems such as the Kham, the Rong and the Nyang systems, which according to Ronald Davidson "are represented by texts surviving from the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries"). The Kham system was founded by the Kham yogi Aro Yeshe Jungne (a ro ye shes 'byun gnas, 10th century). This lineage unified the teachings of Dzogchen and the Chan lineage of Heshang Moheyan what was called "the Mental Position system" (A-ro lugs). The Rong lineage is associated with Rongzom.
During the 13th century, Semde lineages and traditions became less popular and were slowly outcompeted by the much more popular Intimate Instruction (Mennagde) systems of Dzogchen, especially the Seminal Heart (Nying-thig) tradition. These new Dzogchen teachings had begun to appear in the Renaissance period (11th–12th century) and are associated with treasure revealers like Chetsün Sengé Wangchuk and Zhangton Tashi Dorje (1097-1127) who claimed they had discovered texts that had been hidden by figures like Vimalamitra.
In the new Mennagde systems, early Dzogchen teachings were first given the classification of "Semde" and were subordinated to the teachings of the Seminal Heart tradition. According to Instruction Series texts, the Mind Series is based on understanding that one's own mind is the basis of all appearances and that this basis, called mind itself, is empty and luminous.
According to the modern Dzogchen teacher Namkhai Norbu, the three series are three modes of presenting and introducing the state of Dzogchen. Norbu states that Mennagde is a more direct form of introduction, Longde is closely associated with symbolic forms of introducing Dzogchen, and Semde is more focused on oral forms of introduction.
Semde teaching
View
The focus of all these texts is the "awakened mind" (byang-chub-kyi sems, Skt. bodhicitta). According to Sten Anspal, this common Buddhist term has a special meaning in Dzogchen texts. It refers to the true nature of consciousness, "which is essentially identical to the state of Buddha". Anspal writes that according to Semde texts, accessing and abiding in this pure and perfect awakened mind "fulfills and surpasses all the various practices and methods of other Buddhist approaches."
Christopher Hatchell explains that for these early Dzogchen texts "all beings and all appearances are themselves the singular enlightened gnosis of the buddha All Good (Samantabhadra, Kuntu Zangpo)". The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal) says that "the diversity [that is] Samantabhadra" is “the principal consciousness, the Basis-of-all” (kun gzhi) which "has never stirred from the expanse of naturally-occurring primordial wisdom" and is "endowed with compassionate energy that completely pervades a thousand realms". This expansive awareness which is often compared to the vasteness of the sky is called the “Great Self” (bdag nyid chen po) in various Semde texts, including the All-Encompassing Perfection (sPyi chings). This idea of an innate awakened mind is influenced by the Mahayana Budhist buddha-nature literature which state that all sentient beings have a pure buddha-matrix or essence (tathāgatagarbha).
Mañjuśrīmitra's Meditation on the Awakened Mind describes bodhicitta as the “self-nature of experience” (Tib. sems kyi rang bzhin, Skt. citta-svabhava), and as the “ultimate nature of experience" (Tib. sems kyi chos nyid, Skt. citta-dharmata). Namkhai Norbu writes that in Semde sources, terms like bodhicitta, the very core of bodhicitta (snying po byang chub kyi sems), and “the primordial ground of being” (ye gzhi), are all synonyms for the Great Perfection (Dzogchen), which is "the primordial state of pure and total presence" that is also called “the great hypersphere” (thig le chen po), “the all-inclusive state of the individual” (bdag nyid chen po), and “spontaneous perfection” (hun grub).
One of the terms that Nubchen Sangye Yeshe draws on to explain the nature of the ground, the intrinsic state, is "spontaneous presence" (Tib. lhun grub). According to Esler, Nubchen sees this as the state in which "all the various wisdoms are spontaneously complete". Nuben calls this state "the great excellence in self and others" and compares to a wish granting jewel. Nubchen is also careful to explain that this spontenous wisdom is free of any thoughts, words, or concepts, as well as any sense of existence or non-existence, comparing it to sky-like spaciousness. As Nubchen writes:
Intrinsic awareness, aware of space, is free from thoughts:
Endowed with the force of abiding naturally,
It is without thoughts and occurs like the sky itself.
According to Keith Dowman, the five translations of Vairotsana focus on simple non-dualism and include no anthropomorphic symbolism and no "abstruse metaphysical infrastructure". Instead, the focus is on the nondual reality of the timeless "unitary light of awareness" which is a naturally perfect "all-inclusive wholeness". This enlightened mind is the ineffable ground of all things. Dowman further describes it as an "ineffable nondual reality that is a unity but at the same time a multiplicity. It is at once the source and the creation. It is inconceivable and inexpressible. It is enlightened mind or luminous mind."
Practice
According to Germano, Semde texts claim that striving for liberation through structured practices (like tantric visualization and ritual) creates more delusion. Instead, Semde works recommend simple contemplations to recognize the pure and empty awakened mind. Christopher Hatchell writes that Semde works show "a disinterest in specifying any kind of structured practices or concepts" which are used to connect with the ultimate gnosis (rigpa). Instead, Semde texts argue that "there is nothing to do and nothing to strive for, so the reality of All Good will manifest in its immediacy just by relaxing and letting go." According to van Schaik, in these early Dzogchen texts, rigpa (gnosis, knowledge) refers to a non-dual and non-conceptual awareness.
Germano writes that the main contemplation in Semde works was a formless "technique free immersion in the bare immediacy of one's own deepest levels of awareness". This formless method was seen as superior to the visual fabrications of tantric deity yoga. However, the teachers of this formless method may have also used "calming" (samatha) practices as well as some tantric practices as preparatory or secondary methods.
Dowman similarly writes that the ethos of these early Dzogchen texts is "non-action," "undirected action" or "non-deliberate action". This is because "the here and now is a field of immanent sameness, and any attempt to affect it or change it by any technique is counterproductive. Any engagement of effort diminishes it. Seeking it inhibits its discovery." As such, these texts teach the "no meditation" of letting go of all goal directed activity, since the luminous mind cannot be accessed through calculated discipline and structured activity. They also contain no teaching on graduated progress or path, since the nature of mind is already complete and perfect. It cannot be improved from its immanent perfect state and so there is no place to go or path to follow.
The Semde attitude of “nonaction” (bya ba med pa) to religious practice can be found in the following short Semde text called "The Cuckoo of Rigpa" (rig pa'i khu byug):
Esler notes that that this important text attempts to reconcile the diversity of appearances with the deeper non-dual nature of all things, which is equated with Buddha Samantabhadra (All Good). Since all appearances are ultimately good, there is nothing to do but rest in the spontaneity of what is present. According to Esler, this "non-referential" (Tib. dmigs med) form of meditation lacks any specific object of focus and instead entails repeatedly training "the ability to rest, “effortlessly,” in a state of awareness (Tib. rig pa) identified as being already perfect in every way." This is confirmed by Nubchen Sangye Yeshe who writes in his commentaries that Dzogchen transcends the use any meditation supports like mudrās, objects of mental focus and mantra repetition. This is supported by a commentary to the Cuckoo of Rigpa found at Dunhuang (ITJ 647) which states: "because of the spontaneous accomplishment of ineffable bodhicitta, the mandala is established spontaneously and abides without artifice, with no need for the activities of development and perfection."
In a similar fashion, the Semde text called the bDe ba phra bkod says:
There is no practice to be accomplished, [and] no fixation upon any deities. There is no meditation to be done; [it is] free of any object of attention.
The Realization of the True Meaning of Meditation (sGom pa don sgrub) also says that since the true nature of the mind is Dharmata (the ultimate nature of things), there is no need to meditate on anything else:
Whatever characteristics of conceptual thought may arise, if one knows that very thought to be the true nature of things, there is no need to meditate on the realm of reality anywhere else.
Norbu notes that the practice of "nondoing" in Dzogchen Semde must be grounded in a deep understanding of the nature of the mind, the mind's natural condition (i.e. rigpa). It is only in this state that there is "nothing to correct or adjust, accept or reject; there is no meditation to enter into or come out of."
Four yogas
One feature of the practice of contemplation in semde as taught today is "four yogas" (where yoga in ). The four yogas are:
Calm state (Wylie: gnas pa) this is taught as a kind of śamatha cultivation with eyes open. One method which is taught is gazing at an object, like a image of the letter A, which is the main symbol for primordial consciousness in Dzogchen according to Namkhai Norbu. Another method is practicing calm meditation without any object.
Non-movement (Wylie: mi g.yo ba), which is associated with vipaśyāna
Non-duality (Wylie: mnyam nyid, Sanskrit: ), and
"Spontaneous presence" or "the self-perfected state" (Sanskrit: or , ).
According to Namkhai Norbu, "there is no difference between the state of lhundrub and the Tregchöd spoken of in the Dzogchen Upadesha".
These four yogas are said to parallel the Four Yogas of Mahamudra.
Texts
The mind class (semde) of Dzogchen are today found in the Collected Tantras of the Ancients (Nyingma Gyubum) and in other Nyingma school collections like Collected Tantras of Vairocana.
Main Semde texts
The most important Semde texts are part of a collection that goes under various names including "the twenty or eighteen minor [texts of the] Mind" (an appellation found in Nubchen Sanggye Yeshe's Lamp for the Eyes of Contemplation), and "the Eighteen Major Crucial Teachings" (lung chen po bco brgyad). Modern scholars generally agree that the eighteen Semde texts is the earliest corpus of Dzogchen literature. However, there is much confusion and diversity regarding the contents of this collection (including the number of texts in it, hence Nubchen's statement that they consist of "the twenty or eighteen" works).
Between the 9th and 14th centuries, various lists of these main Semde texts proliferated, and these different lists vary in content. Further complicating the issue is the fact that Semde texts with the same title found in different sources can sometimes be different texts altogether. Furthermore, Karen Liljenberg has also noted that some of Semde texts in this collection may have changed names. As such, this corpus of works may have served as an "ideal" canon, rather than a specific closed list of texts.
Whatever the case, Longchenpa's list of twenty one main Semde texts in the Treasury of Spiritual and Philosophical Systems (Grub mtha’ mdzod) is the following:
The Five Early Translations (sNga ‘gyur lnga) of Vairotsana, also known as the five bodhicitta texts, which are:
The Bodhicitta Cuckoo of Rigpa ()
The Great Potency of Bodhicitta ()
The Bodhicitta Great Soaring Garuda ()
Mañjuśrīmitra's Meditation on the Awakened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa), also known as Extracting Pure Gold from Ore (). It is a logical exposition of Semde teaching which makes much use of Yogacara thought.
The Bodhicitta Unwaning Standard of Victory, also known as The Total Space of Vajrasattva (), this text also appears as the thirteenth chapter of the Kun byed rgyal po, and in other Tantras.
The thirteen later translations (Phyi ‘gyur bcu gsum), translated by Vimalamitra assisted by Nyak Jñānakumāra and Yudra Nyingpo:
The Victorious Emergence of the Peak ()
The King of Space ()
Bodhicitta's Jewel-Encrusted Ornament of Bliss ()
All-Encompassing Perfection ()
The Essence of Bodhicitta (), also known as The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po)
Infinite Bliss ()
The Wheel of Life ()
The Six Spheres ()
Bodhicitta's All-Penetrating Perfection ()
The Wish-Fulfilling Precious Jewel ()
All-Unifying Rigpa ()
The Supreme Lord ()
The Realization of the True Meaning of Meditation ()
Finally, there are three texts which are often classified separately as Semde and listed in other sources (when these are added, the collection is called the 21 Semde texts):
The All Creating King Bodhicitta Great Perfection of All Phenomena (Chö Tamched Dzogpa Chenpo Changchub Kyi Sem Kunjed Gyalpo), a composite text which contains within various early Semde works including some of the eighteen Semde texts.
The Marvelous Bodhicitta (). The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba) is the most widely quoted Semde text by Nubchen Sanggye Yeshe in his Lamp for the Eyes of Contemplation.
The Ten Concluding Teachings (mDo bcu)
Furthermore there are other Semde texts which are not part of the common list of Semde texts, but are still considered important. Two other important texts which are quoted by Nubchen in his Lamp are The Small Hidden Grain (rGum chung) and The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi spyod). Also, Longchenpa has an alternative list of 18 texts which lists the Tantra of the Edge and the Center of the Sky (Nam mkha' mtha' dbus kyi rgyud).
Other texts
Aside from the twenty one key Semde works, there are also other works in the Semde section of the Collected Tantras of the Ancients, including other tantras such as exegetical tantras, secondary tantras and secret instruction tantras. Furthermore, the collection called Transmitted Precepts of the Ancients also contains further Semde texts. For example, an anonymous commentary to Extracting Pure Gold from Ore exists, titled the Byang chub sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa.
There is also a collection of Dzogchen songs of realization (dohas) associated with the early translations. These are the Eighteen Songs of Realization (full Tibetan title: Sems sde bco brgyad kyi dgongs pa rig 'dzin rnams kyis rdo rje'i glur bzhengs pa).
Furthermore, as van Schaik notes, there are numerous manuscripts found in Dunhuang which are important for the study of early Dzogchen and Semde, even if some of these do not use the term Dzogchen. One example of these is sBas pa’i rgum chung (ITJ 594) which "looks like an early mind series text, although it is not found in any of the surviving collections."
There are also Dzogchen treatises written by early Nyingma figures. These include the works of Nubchen Sangye Yeshe, especially his Lamp for the Eyes of Contemplation (Samten Migdrön). Nubchen also wrote commentaries on some of the eighteen Semde texts, and these include the rJe btsan dam pa’i ’grel pa [Commentary on the Holy Revered One]; the Byang chub sems bde ba ’phra bkod kyi don ’grel [Meaning Commentary on the Inlaid Jewel of Bliss, the Enlightened Mind]; and the rDo rje gzong phugs kyi ’grel pa [Commentary on the Piercing Awl]. Another Semde commentary is the sPyi gsang sngags lung gi ’grel pa (General Commentary on the Authoritative Scriptures of Secret Mantra), a commentary on the Semde text called the sPyi chings (The Universal Bind) by Nyak Jñānakumāra (fl. 9th c.).
The work of early Nyingma scholars like Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (1012-1088) and Rogban Sherab (1166–1244) also quote and rely on mostly Semde texts for their explanation of Dzogchen.
Later Nyingma authors also wrote commentaries and treatises on Semde practice, such as Longchenpa's Jewel Ship (rin chen sgru bo), a commentary to The All Creating King.
English translations of Semde material
Clemente, Adriano; Guarisco, Elio; Valby, Jim. The Marvellous Primordial State, The Mejung Tantra, A Fundamental Scripture of Dzogchen Semde, Shang Shung Publications, 2012.
Clemente, Adriano; Norbu, Namkhai. The Supreme Source: The Fundamental Tantra of Dzogchen Semde Kunjed Gyalpo, Shambhala, 1999.
Dowman, Keith. Original Perfection: Vairotsana's Five Early Transmissions, 2013.
Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche, Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal Rinpoche. Pointing Out the Nature of the Mind: Dzogchen Pith Instructions of Aro Yeshe Jungne.
Kunsang, Erik Pema. Wellsprings of the Great Perfection, Rangjung Yeshe Publications, 2006. [Contains various translations]
Lipman, Kennard; Norbu, Namkhai. Primordial Experience An Introduction to rDzogs-chen Meditation. Shambala, 1987. [A translation of Gold Refined from Ore and anonymous commentary].
Lipman, Kennard. You Are the Eyes of the World, Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2000. [A translation of Longchenpa's Jewel Ship]
Neumaier-Dargyay, E.K. The Sovereign All-Creating Mind: The Motherly Buddha, Albany, 1992.
Norbu, Namkhai. Rigbai Kujyug: Six Vajra Verses, 1990.
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
Esler, Dylan. Effortless Spontaneity: The Dzogchen Commentaries by Nubchen Sangye Yeshe. Leiden: Brill, 2023. (xiv, 248 pp.) Open Access. https://brill.com/display/title/63340.
External links
Three Sections of Dzogchen
Dzogchen
Nyingma texts
Tibetan words and phrases |
4158466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20of%20Austria%20%281436%E2%80%931505%29 | Elizabeth of Austria (1436–1505) | Elizabeth of Austria (; ; ; c. 1436 – 30 August 1505) was Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania as the wife of King Casimir IV of Poland. Orphaned at an early age, she spent her childhood in the court of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. As one of the three surviving grandchildren of Emperor Sigismund, she had a strong claim to the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. That made her an attractive bride for a Polish prince. The Polish nobility, seeking to increase Polish influence in Hungary and Bohemia, pursued marriage with Elizabeth since she was born and finally succeeded in 1454. Her marriage to Casimir was one of the most successful royal marriages in Poland. She gave birth to thirteen children, eleven of whom survived to adulthood. Four of her sons were crowned as kings.
Early life
Tumultuous childhood
Elisabeth was the daughter of Albert II of Germany, Archduke of Austria, and his wife Elizabeth of Luxembourg, daughter of Emperor Sigismund. The exact date of her birth is unknown and has been variously provided between 1436 and early 1439. Her elder brother was born in February 1435. Polish chronicler Jan Długosz mentioned that Polish envoys traveled to Vienna in autumn 1436 to negotiate with Emperor Sigismund a marriage between his granddaughters, Anne and Elisabeth, who were considered heirs to the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary, and Polish princes Władysław and Casimir. While the negotiations ended without a decisive agreement, they allowed historians to conclude that Elisabeth was born in the first half of 1436.
Elisabeth's early life was marked by political turmoil. After the death of Emperor Sigismund in December 1437, Elisabeth's father was crowned as King of Hungary and Bohemia. His Bohemian title was challenged by the Hussites who promoted Polish prince Casimir IV Jagiellon as their king and a war erupted. Polish diplomats continued to pursue the plan for a marriage between Casimir and Elisabeth, who would bring Bohemia as a dowry. King Albert received the diplomats coolly as he had no intentions of surrendering his claims to Bohemia. In March 1439, Elisabeth's sister, Anne, was betrothed to William III, Landgrave of Thuringia, son of Frederick I, Elector of Saxony, and was sent to live at the Saxonian court.
King Albert died in October 1439 after a brief campaign against the Ottoman Empire. His pregnant widow considered herself to be the only rightful heir of Emperor Sigismund and fought to crown her son Ladislaus the Posthumous as King of Hungary while Hungarian nobles selected Polish King Władysław III. Princess Elisabeth's nanny Helene Kottannerin stole the Holy Crown of Hungary and brought it to Queen Elisabeth in Komárno. Three-month-old Ladislaus was crowned on 15 May 1440, but that did not stop the civil war. For their safety and protection, the two children of Albert and Elisabeth were placed in the care of Frederick III, elected but not crowned Holy Roman Emperor. As part of the agreement Elisabeth was betrothed to Frederick, nephew of Frederick III and son of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony, and Margaret of Austria.
At the emperor's court
Elisabeth and Ladislaus were initially cared for by Anna von Pottendorf at the Forchtenstein Castle. When Queen Elisabeth died in December 1442, Emperor Frederick III continued to care for the orphans who spent most of their time in Graz and Wiener Neustadt. The opposition accused the Emperor of neglecting the children, but that could be just political propaganda. Emperor Frederick III was known to be emotionally distant and frugal, but he also provided both children with a good education. Enea Silvio Piccolomini, the emperor's secretary and future Pope Pius II, wrote De liberorum educatione as instruction for educating the children.
A 1973 study of Elisabeth's remains revealed that she most likely had spinal tuberculosis at a young age. This left her skeleton visibly deformed, with an s-shaped spine, misaligned jaw, deformed thorax and her head cocked permanently to the right. The permanent tilt of her head led to stunted development of the right side of her face. Her face was narrow with a large chin. However, as her later life and frequent pregnancies showed, she was of overall good health.
In 1447, Frederick III proposed to marry Elisabeth to Charles, son of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Philip had purchased Luxembourg from Elisabeth of Bohemia. Frederick III offered 70,000 ducats, as the dowry of Elisabeth, in exchange for Luxembourg, but Philip demanded 120,000 ducats and the negotiations fell through. For unknown reasons, Elisabeth's scheduled wedding to Frederick of Saxony, negotiated by her mother Queen Elisabeth, did not take place despite a wedding treaty signed in July 1450.
After the death of Władysław III of Poland in the Battle of Varna in 1444, Hungarian nobles recognized Elisabeth's brother Ladislaus the Posthumous as their king. However, the Emperor refused to allow Ladislaus to leave his court. Political ambitions of Ulrich II, Count of Celje, cousin of Queen Elisabeth, led him to demand the release of the children into his custody. In December 1451, when the Emperor traveled to Rome to be officially crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor, he took Ladislaus with him but left Elisabeth in Vienna. Austrian nobles rebelled against Frederick III and transferred Elisabeth into the care of Ulrich. Elisabeth made a tearful public appeal in a city square calling for help to her and her brother, neglected and held virtual captive by the Emperor. When Frederick III returned in June 1452, Austrian nobles forced him to release Ladislaus to Ulrich in September 1452.
Polish queen
Wedding and family life
In August 1452, preparing for the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66) with the Teutonic Knights, the Poles sent an embassy to Vienna to once again negotiate marriage between Elisabeth and now-king Casimir IV of Poland. Ulrich II, Count of Celje, who now had custody of Elisabeth, received the proposal favorably and sent two of his men to Poland. The formal wedding agreement was reached in August 1453 in Wrocław in the presence of Polish and Austrian nobles. According to the agreement, Elisabeth's dowry, guaranteed by her brother King Ladislaus the Posthumous, was 100,000 Hungarian golden coins. The dowry was secured by lands in Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. In turn, Casimir guaranteed Koło, Opoczno, Przedecz as well as a monthly sum of 5,000 golden coins from the Bochnia and Wieliczka Salt Mines. Elisabeth had to renounce her claims to lands of Austrian rulers; the renunciation would not apply if her brother Ladislaus died without a male heir.
Elisabeth's dowry was not paid immediately and that gave her the pretext to claim the Hungarian and Bohemian crowns. Eventually, Elisabeth received two-thirds of her dowry—it was paid in 1471 and 1472 by Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor. The third of her dowry secured by lands in Bohemia was forgiven when her son Vladislaus II became King of Bohemia. Casimir compensated for the delayed dowry and provided his wife with financial security when in December 1461, after the death of Queen Sophia, he transferred a number of royal lands in Sophia's possessions to Elisabeth, including Korczyn, Wiślica, Żarnowiec, Radom, Jedlnia, Kozienice, Chęciny, Łęczyca, Kłodawa, Pyzdry, Konin, Inowrocław. In 1467, she renounced her claim to the Duchy of Luxembourg to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, whose father had bought the territory in 1443 from Elisabeth, Duchess of Luxembourg.
Elisabeth arrived to Poland in February 1454 with a retinue of nine hundred riders. Reportedly, Casimir was informed that Elisabeth was not an attractive lady and was reconsidering the marriage, but bowed to the pressure of his court. On February 9, Elisabeth arrived at Kraków and was met by Casimir and his mother Sophia of Halshany. The next day, 18-year-old Elisabeth married 27-year-old Casimir and was crowned Queen of Poland. Their 38-year marriage was happy and Elisabeth, despite frequent pregnancies, accompanied her husband on almost all travels, including about thirty visits to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They would separate infrequently and for short periods of time when Casimir lived in war camps. Their first child, Vladislaus II, was born on 1 March 1456—two years after the wedding. She gave birth to seven children in ten years. The children received extensive education, which was credited to Elisabeth by Marcin Kromer. Their tutors included Polish priest Jan Długosz and Italian humanist Filippo Buonaccorsi.
Queen Elisabeth had an influence on her husband Casimir, but she did not play a more active role in politics. Instead, Elisabeth was very actively involved in arranging her daughters' marriages. Her influence was particularly evident during the negotiations for the marriage of her daughter Hedwig to George, Duke of Bavaria in December 1474. When Elisabeth's demands exceeded the authority of Bavarian envoys, instead of sending the envoys back to discuss the demands with the Duke of Bavaria, Elisabeth took the responsibility for her demands and wrote a letter to the Duke asking him not to punish the envoys. Elisabeth did not arrange her sons' marriages and none of her sons under her influence married young: Casimir (died at age 26) and John Albert (died at age 41) never married, while Sigismund married at 47. Only Alexander, who lived in Lithuania, and Vladislaus, who lived in Bohemia, married while Elisabeth was alive.
Struggle for Hungary and Bohemia
After the 1457 death of Elisabeth's childless brother, King Ladislaus the Posthumous, she and her family started to advance their claims to the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. The Poles argued that since Elisabeth's dowry was unpaid, she was entitled to the Hungarian and Bohemian lands. However, the Golden Bull of 1356 did not recognize women's inheritance rights and Hungarian and Bohemian nobles considered their monarchy to be elective, not hereditary. Therefore, they elected Matthias Corvinus and George of Poděbrady. Since Poland was engaged in the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66), King Casimir could not enforce Elisabeth's claims. However, that did not stop political measures. In 1466, Bishop Rudolf of Rüdesheim informed Elisabeth that Pope Paul II considered George of Poděbrady to be a heretic and Elisabeth a rightful heir to the throne of Bohemia. When Matthias Corvinus proposed to Elisabeth's daughter Hedwig in 1468, Elisabeth angrily refused and called Corvinus a 'dog'.
A new chapter in Elisabeth's struggle for her inheritance began with the death of Poděbrady in 1471, Elisabeth's son Vladislaus II became King of Bohemia. At the same time a group of Catholic Bohemian nobles supported Corvinus instead of Vladislaus II. In turn, a group of Hungarian nobles conspired against Corvinus and invited the Polish king to overthrow him. With Bohemia in Vladislaus' hands, King Casimir IV decided to install his son, future Saint Casimir, in Hungary. A Polish army invaded Hungary, but the army was ill-supplied and the short Hungarian campaign was not successful. The war in Bohemia continued until the Peace of Olomouc divided Bohemia between Corvinus and Vladislaus II.
After the death of Corvinus in April 1490, Casimir and Elisabeth supported their son John I Albert as King of Hungary. Hungarian nobles preferred ineffectual Vladislaus II. After Elisabeth's pleas on behalf of John Albert, who reportedly was her favorite, failed to persuade Vladislaus II to abandon the Hungarian crown, a war erupted between the two brothers in June 1490 and lasted until January 1492. John Albert lost and returned to Poland, while Vladislaus II was crowned as King of Hungary. At last, Elisabeth's son ruled both Hungary and Bohemia, except that it was not the son she desired. Hungary and Bohemia were ruled by Vladislaus and his son Louis II of Hungary until 1526.
Queen mother
King Casimir died on 7 June 1492. Art historians believe that she hired artist Veit Stoss to create Casimir's tomb and recumbent effigy. The Lithuanian throne was already secured by Alexander Jagiellon who acted as his father's regent in Lithuania since 1490. Elisabeth took decisive actions to secure the Polish throne to her favorite son John I Albert—she wrote letters to Teutonic Grand Master Johann von Tiefen, her sons Vladislaus II and Alexander campaigning on behalf of John Albert. More importantly, she borrowed 5,675 florins from the Fischel banking family and hired a group of Hungarian soldiers. These soldiers, led by Elisabeth's son Fryderyk, marched to Piotrków Trybunalski where Polish nobles elected John Albert as their King on 27 August. The personal union between Poland and Lithuania was temporarily interrupted.
Widowed, Elisabeth led a sedentary life in Kraków in the company of her youngest daughters Barbara and Elisabeth. She was not involved in state politics. Her only known political move during the reign of John Albert was asking the King to support Frederick of Saxony in his quest for the title of Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. However, she continued to take an active role in family matters. In early 1495, she traveled to Vilnius to attend the wedding of her son Alexander and Helena of Moscow. Elisabeth wanted to convince Helena to convert from Eastern Orthodoxy to Catholicism and to obtain a position for her son Sigismund. She failed in both regards and left Lithuania angered and insulted—perhaps because of this dislike she was passive when John Albert suddenly died in 1501 and did not take any more prominent actions to support Alexander as a candidate to the Polish throne.
In 1496, she arranged the marriage of Barbara to George, Duke of Saxony. Elisabeth was left with only her youngest daughter, also named Elisabeth, as her companion in Kraków. Perhaps with his mother's help Sigismund obtained the Duchy of Głogów from his brother Vladislaus II in 1499. In 1503, she funded a chapel within Wawel Cathedral to house the tomb of her son John Albert by Florentine artist Francesco Fiorentino. She also sent a Polish governess to Vladislaus II when he was expecting his first child Anne. Elisabeth opposed the marriage of her youngest daughter Elisabeth to Bogdan III, Voivode of Moldavia. Instead, in 1504 and 1505 Queen Elisabeth assigned her lands and income to ensure her daughter's financial independence; Princess Elisabeth also inherited the bulk of the queen's wealth.
Elisabeth became ill in 1505, but her symptoms are unknown. She died on 30 August 1505. She was interred next to her husband and two daughters in her husband's tomb on 21 September in Wawel Cathedral.
Issue
Casimir and Elisabeth had the following children:
Vladislaus II (1 March 1456 – 13 March 1516), King of Bohemia and Hungary
Hedwig (21 September 1457 – 18 February 1502), married on 14 November 1475 to George, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut
Casimir (3 October 1458 – 4 March 1484), patron saint of Lithuania
John I Albert (27 December 1459 – 17 June 1501), King of Poland and Duke of Głogów
Alexander (5 August 1461 – 19 August 1506), Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland
Sophia (6 May 1464 – 5 October 1512), married on 14 February 1479 to Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach.
Elizabeth (9 May 1465 – 9 May 1466)
Sigismund I (1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania
Frederick (27 April 1468 – 14 March 1503), Archbishop of Gniezno and Primate of Poland
Elizabeth (13 May 1472 – betw. 19 May 1480/20 May 1481)
Anna (12 March 1476 – 12 August 1503), married on 2 February 1491 to Bogislaw X, Duke of Pomerania
Barbara (15 July 1478 – 15 February 1534), married on 21 November 1496 to George, Duke of Saxony
Elizabeth (13 November 1482 – 16 February 1517), married on 25 November 1515 to Frederick II, Duke of Legnica
Ancestors
Notes and references
Notes
References
1430s births
1505 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
15th-century House of Habsburg
15th-century Austrian women
Austrian princesses
Austrian people of Luxembourgian descent
Austrian royalty and nobility with disabilities
Burials at Wawel Cathedral
Bohemian princesses
Czech people with disabilities
Dukes of Luxembourg
German royalty and nobility with disabilities
Grand Duchesses of Lithuania
Lithuanian people with disabilities
Nobility from Vienna
Polish Roman Catholics
Polish people of Austrian descent
Polish people with disabilities
Queens consort of Poland
15th-century women from Bohemia
15th-century Luxembourgian women
15th-century Polish women
15th-century Polish people
15th-century German women
15th-century people from Bohemia
15th-century Luxembourgian people
15th-century German people
Daughters of kings
Queen mothers |
4159463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable%20energy%20in%20the%20European%20Union | Renewable energy in the European Union | Renewable energy plays an important and growing role in the energy system of the European Union. The Europe 2020 strategy included a target of reaching 20% of gross final energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020, and at least 32% by 2030. The EU27 reached 22.1% in 2020, up from 9.6% in 2004, but declined to 21.8% in 2021. These figures are based on energy use in all its forms across all three main sectors, the heating and cooling sector, the electricity sector, and the transport sector.
The main source of renewable energy in 2019 was biomass (57.4% of gross energy consumption). In particular, wood is the leading source of renewable energy in Europe, far ahead of solar and wind. In 2020, renewables provided 23.1% of gross energy consumption in heating and cooling. In electricity, renewables accounted for 37.5% of gross energy consumption, led by wind (36%) and hydro-power (33%), followed by solar (14%), solid biofuels (8%) and other renewable sources (8%). In transport, the share of renewable energy used reached 10.2%.
The share of renewable energy has grown in all member states since 2004. The leading state was Sweden, with 60% of its energy provided by renewable sources in 2020, followed by Finland (43.8%), Latvia (42.1%), and Austria (36.5%). The lowest proportion was recorded in Malta (10.7%), followed by Luxembourg (11.7%), Belgium (13.0%), and Hungary (13.85%).
The renewable energy directive enacted in 2009 lays out a framework for individual member states to share the overall EU-wide 20% renewable energy target for 2020.
Promoting the use of renewable energy sources is important both to the reduction of the EU's energy dependence and in meeting targets to combat global warming.
The directive sets targets for each individual member state taking into account the different starting points and potentials. Targets for renewable energy use by 2020 among different member states varies from 10% to 49%. 26 EU member states met their national 2020 targets. The sole exception was France, which had aimed for 23% but only reached 19.1%. In 2021, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Romania dropped below their 2020 target. In 2023, energy costs increased for 83% of EU enterprises, and by more than 25% for 68% of EU firms. Electricity rates in the European Union are typically three times higher than in the United States for example. Companies therefore increased their investment in energy efficiency, and spending in energy efficiency has increased to 51%. 78% of EU enterprises have implemented energy-saving measures in response to changes in the energy markets.
Policy
The Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992 set an objective of promoting stable growth while protecting the environment. The Amsterdam Treaty of 1997 added the principle of sustainable development to the objectives of the EU. Since 1997, the EU has been working towards a renewable energy supply equivalent to 12% of the total EU's energy consumption by 2010.
The Johannesburg Summit in 2002 failed to introduce the radical changes targeted for ten years after the Rio Summit. No specific goals were set for the energy sector, which disappointed many countries. While the EU had proposed an annual increase in the use of renewable energy at a rate of 1.5% worldwide until 2010, Johannesburg's action plan did not recommend such a "substantial" increase, with no concrete goals nor dates being set. The EU was unwilling to accept this result and with other nations formed a group of "pioneer countries" that promised to establish ambitious national or even regional goals to achieve global targets. The Johannesburg Renewable Energy Coalition (JREC) has a total of more than 80 member countries; the EU members, Brazil, South Africa and New Zealand amongst them.
In the European Conference for Renewable Energy in Berlin in 2004, the EU defined ambitious goals of its own. The conclusion was that by 2020, the EU would seek to obtain 20% of its total energy consumption requirements with renewable energy sources. Up until that point, the EU had only set targets up to 2010, and this proposal was the first to represent the EU's commitment up to 2020.
Renewable energy directives and targets
In 2009, the Renewables Directive set binding targets for all EU Member States, such that the EU will reach a 20% share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 and a 10% share of renewable energy specifically in the transport sector. By 2014, the EU realized a 16% share of energy from renewable sources with nine member states already achieving their 2020 goals. By 2018, this had risen to 18% with twelve member states meeting their 2020 targets early.
Article 4 of the Renewables Directive required Member States to submit National Renewable Energy Action Plans by 30 June 2010. These plans, to be prepared in accordance with the template published by the commission, provide detailed roadmaps of how each Member State expects to reach its legally binding 2020 target for the share of renewable energy in their final energy consumption.
Member States must set out the sectoral targets, the technology mix they expect to use, the trajectory they will follow and the measures and reforms they will undertake to overcome the barriers to developing renewable energy. The plans are published by the EC upon receipt in the original language, allowing public scrutiny. The commission will evaluate them, assessing their completeness and credibility. In parallel, the plans will be translated into English. In addition, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands was contracted by the European Environment Agency to create an external database and quantitative report of the reports received so far.
In 2014, negotiations about EU energy and climate targets until 2030 were initiated. Whilst seven Central and Eastern European member states had already met their 2020 targets by 2016 (amongst the eleven EU wide), a small number of others are likely to attempt to slow down the transformation process. The key parts of the European renewable energy targets agreement set in 2014 are as proposed by a Shell lobbyist in October 2011. Shell is the sixth biggest lobbyist in Brussels, spending between €4.25-4.5m a year lobbying the EU institutions. Agreement has no binding targets for member states on energy efficiency or renewable energy.
On 30 November 2016, the Commission presented a proposal for a revised Renewable Energy Directive to ensure that the target of at least 27% renewables in the final energy consumption in the EU by 2030 is met and to ensure that the EU is a global leader in renewable energy.
Links to climate policy
Underlying many of the EU's energy policy proposals is the goal to limit global temperature changes to no more than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, of which 0.8 °C has already taken place and another 0.5–0.7 °C (for total warming of 1.3-1.5 °C) is already committed. 2 °C is usually seen as the upper temperature limit to avoid 'dangerous global warming'. However some scientists, such as Kevin Anderson, professor of energy and climate change in the School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and former director of the Tyndall Centre, the UK's leading academic climate change research organisation, have argued that to be consistent with the science, 1 °C is a more accurate threshold for "dangerous" climate change.
Initiatives
Specific EU renewable energy and energy efficiency initiatives includes:
BUILD UP
The Covenant of Mayors is a cooperative network of mayors and local authorities working to implement energy initiatives.
Sustainable Energy Europe Campaign
CONCERTO
ManagEnergy
Intelligent Energy – Europe (IEE)
U4energy is an initiative funded under the IEE programme to improve energy consumption in schools and their local communities.
Eco-innovation
Member states
Croatia
One of the earliest Hydro-electric projects in the world and Europe's first Hydro electric power plant was built in Croatia near town of Sibenik in 1895, some 127 years ago, ever since Croatian energy strategy was based on Hydroelectric power generation, which today accounts for more than half of Croatia's power generation. Other sources of renewable energy in Croatia are Solar with 109MW of installed power in use and with further 350MW of solar generating power to be added to the grid in 2022 and 2023 with rurther 330MW to be added in 2024 and 2025. Croatia hopes to meet its 2030 renewable energy targets well ahead of schedule in 2025. with 109MW of Solar, 1400MW of Hydroelectric and 671MW Wind energy already commissioned, Croatia hopes to add further 1500MW of renewable energy to the power grid by or in 2025, increasing its Solar generation to 770MW, Hydroelectric to 1700MW and Wind to 1270MW. Croatia meets EU renewable energy targets, currently Croatia is in top 5 nations in the EU in terms of renewable energy target with renewable energy accounting for majority of energy power generation in Croatia. By 2023 Croatia hopes to install further 1500MW of Solar and Wind capacity increasing renewable energy share in Croatia energy mix to over 80% of energy produced in Croatia through renewable energy sources, reaching its 2050 renewable energy strategy 20 years ahead of schedule.
Croatia aims to reduce emissions by 45% by 2030 and phase out coal by 2033. However, the shift to a low-carbon economy will need significant expenditures in new energy infrastructure and additional renewable energy resources. Croatia established a 2030 National Energy and Climate Plan to attain its aim. The national policy targets for a 36.4% renewable energy share by 2030, as well as major investment in the energy industry, including hydropower, wind farms, solar photovoltaic facilities, and hydrogen energy.
Korlat is home to Croatia's largest wind farm, which consists of 18 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of 3.6 megawatts. The power station generates around 170 gigatonnes of electricity each year. That equates to around 1% of Croatia's yearly electricity use and energy for over 50 000 families. Five small solar photovoltaic facilities (totaling 22 megawatts) are being built in Croatia's southern counties of Split-Dalmatia, Zadar, Istria, and Primorje-Gorski Kotar - the projects initiated in 2022, backed by the European Investment Bank, are expected to save 66 kilotons of emissions per year and 28.8 gigatonnes of electricity per year.
France
In July 2015, the French parliament passed a comprehensive energy and climate law that includes a mandatory renewable energy target requiring 40% of national electricity production to come from renewable sources by 2030.
In 2016, renewable electricity accounted for 19.6% of France's total domestic power consumption, of which 12.2% was provided by hydroelectricity, 4.3% by wind power, 1.7% by solar power and 1.4% by bio energy.
Germany
In 2014, Germany's share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption increased by 1.4% to 13.8%. In 2004, renewables accounted for only 5.8% or about the same share as for the Netherlands in 2014 (5.5%).
In 2016, net generated electricity from renewable sources accounted for about 33.9%. Compared to the previous year, biomass, solar and wind changed their production by +4.8%, -3.1% and -1.7%, respectively, while weather permitting hydro power decreased by 10.3%. Wind and solar combined generated more energy than nuclear in 2016 (see pie-chart). Nuclear decreased production by 7.7%, while electricity generation from natural gas, brown and hard coal changed by +50.2%, -3.3% and -5.8%, respectively.
In April 2023 Germany shutdown its last three nuclear reactors, completely halting the production of nuclear power.
Italy
In 2014, 38.2% of Italian electric energy consumption came from renewable sources (in 2005 this value was 15.4%), covering 16.2% of the total energy consumption of the country (5.3% in 2005).
Solar energy production accounted for almost 9% of the total electric consumption in the country in 2014, making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world.
Lithuania
In 2016 Renewable energy in Lithuania constituted 28% of the country's overall electricity generation. The majority of renewable energy in Lithuania is from biofuel. The principal source of electricity from renewable resources is from hydropower.
Lithuania has many yet undeveloped renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal energy, municipal waste, and biomass. The amount of biomass per capita in Lithuania is one of the highest in the European Union and it is estimated that in 2020 Lithuania will be the first in the EU according to the quantity of available biomass for biofuel production. The projected production of biofuels by 2020 is 0.25 tons per capita.
Portugal
In 2010, more than 50% of all yearly electricity consumption in Portugal was generated from renewable energy sources. The most important generation sources were hydroelectric (30%) and wind power (18%), with bioenergy (5%) and photovoltaic solar power (0.5%) accounting for the rest. In 2001, the Portuguese government launched a new energy policy instrument – the E4 Programme (Energy Efficiency and Endogenous Energies), consisting of a set of multiple, diversified measures aimed at promoting a consistent, integrated approach to energy supply and demand. By promoting energy efficiency and the use of endogenous (renewable) energy sources, the programme seeks to upgrade the competitiveness of the Portuguese economy and to modernize the country's social fabric, while simultaneously preserving the environment by reducing gas emissions, especially the CO2 responsible for climatic change. As a result, in the five years between 2005 and 2010, energy production from renewable sources increased 28%.
In January 2014, 91% of the monthly needed Portuguese electricity consumption was generated by renewable sources, although the real figure stands at 78%, as 14% was exported.
The renewable energy produced in Portugal fell from 55.5% of the total energy produced in 2016 to 41.8% in 2017, due to the drought of 2017, which severely affected the production of hydro electricity. The sources of the renewable energy that was produced in Portugal in 2017 were Wind power with 21.6% of the total (up from 20.7% in 2016), Hydro power with 13.3% (down from 28.1% in 2016), Bioenergy with 5.1% (same as in 2016), Solar power with 1.6% (up from 1.4% in 2016), Geothermal energy with 0.4% (up from 0.3% in 2016) and a small amount of Wave power in the Azores. 24% of the energy produced in the Azores is geothermal.
Portugal had the second largest photovoltaic power station in the world, which was completed in December 2008. The complex, called Amareleja photovoltaic power station, covers an area of 250-hectare. The 46-megawatt solar power plant produces enough electricity for 30,000 homes and saves more than 89,400 tons a year in greenhouse gas emissions. Also in production since January 2007, the Serpa solar power plant with an installed capacity 11MW, covers an area of 60-hectare, produces enough energy for 8,000 homes and saves more than 30,000 tons a year in greenhouse gas emissions. These solar parks are approximately 30 km apart.
In 1999, Central de Ondas do Pico, one of the first Wave power centers in the world, started to work in the Pico Island, in the Azores. It has a capacity of 400 KW.
Spain
Spain as a whole has the target of generating 30% of its electricity needs from renewable energy sources by 2010, with half of that amount coming from wind power. In 2006, 20% of the total electricity demand was already produced with renewable energy sources, and in January 2009 the total electricity demand produced with renewable energy sources reached 34.8%.
Some regions of Spain lead Europe in the use of renewable energy technology and plan to reach 100% renewable energy generation in few years. Castilla y León and Galicia, in particular, are near this goal. In 2006 they fulfilled about 70% of their total electricity demand from renewable energy sources.
Through the use of nuclear power, two autonomous communities in Spain managed to fulfill their total 2006 electricity demand free of CO2 emissions: Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha.
In 2005, Spain became the first country in the world to require the installation of photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second in the world (after Israel) to require the installation of solar hot water systems.
Energy Community countries
Also the Contracting Parties of the Energy Community, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo*, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and Ukraine implement the Directive 2009/28/EC since September 2012. The shares for the Contracting Parties were calculated based on the EU methodology and reflect an equal level of ambition as the targets fixed for EU Member States. The targets for the share of renewable energy in Contracting Parties in 2020 are the following: Albania 38%, Bosnia and Herzegovina 40%, Kosovo* 25%, North Macedonia 28%, Moldova 17%, Montenegro 33%, Serbia 27% and Ukraine 11%. The deadline for transposing the Directive 2009/28/EC and the adoption of the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) was set for 1 January 2014.
With the Decision 2012/03/MC-EnC and the acceptance of binding targets Contracting Parties can participate in all cooperation mechanisms. This means in particular that statistical transfers of renewable energy for the purposes of target achievement will be possible independently from physical flow of electricity. In addition, the decision lays down a number of adaptations to the rules for statistical transfers and joint support schemes between the Contracting Parties and EU Member States to ensure the original objectives of the RES Directive are preserved.
Renewable energy sources
Bioenergy
Biomass
Biomass is material from plants or animals such as wheat stalks, yard waste, corn cobs, manure, wood or sewage. In 2017, solid biomass was the main type of bioenergy in the EU, accounting for 70% of bioenergy production. In 2016, bioenergy was the leading source of renewable energy in the European Union, at 59.2% of gross energy consumption, most of which was used for heating and cooling (74.6%), followed by electricity generation (13.4%) and biofuels (12.0%). Biomass is burned both for heating and electrical generation, often in the form of pellet fuel. In many member States, wood was the single most important source of renewable energy, such as in Latvia (29%), Finland (24%), Sweden (20%), Lithuania (17%) and Denmark (15%). The European Union has established sustainability criteria for biomass to be counted towards renewable energy targets. The EU subsidises wood energy to incentivise its use over oil and natural gas, and consumes more wood pellets than any other world region.
Wood pellets are sourced from grinded trees extracted from forests in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, the Baltic states and the southeastern United States. Some of the forests belong to natural protected areas such as the ones located in northern Romania. Although in Europe wood is considered a zero-emissions fuel and a renewable energy, this has been considered controversial and scientists have urged policy-makers to stop treating wood as a green source of energy in order to reduce the cutting down of trees.
Biofuel
Biofuels offer an alternative plant-based solution to rising problems regarding geological fuel sources. Chemically, biofuels are alcohols produced by fermenting raw materials from starch and sugars. While complete substitution is not yet common in Europe, countries like Germany have been using E10 fuel consisting of 10% ethanol since 2011. E10 fuels have replaced the previous E5 fuel, containing 5% ethanol.
Although this may seem like a slight increase in ethanol use, this progression reflects a more progressive Europe as improvements are being made based primarily upon environmentally conscious efforts, rather than geopolitical or economic pressures.
Geothermal
The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.
European Geothermal Energy Council (EGEC) promotes geothermal energy in the European Union.
Wind power
Research from a wide variety of sources in various European countries shows that support for wind power is consistently about 80% among the general public.
Installed Wind power capacity in the European Union totalled 93,957 megawatts (MW) in 2011, enough to supply 6.3% of the EU's electricity.
9,616 MW of wind power was installed in 2011 alone, representing 21.4% of new power capacity.
The EU wind industry has had an average annual growth of 15.6% over the last 17 years (1995-2011).
A 2009 European Environment Agency report, entitled Europe's onshore and offshore wind energy potential confirms wind energy could power Europe many times over.
The report highlights wind power's potential in 2020 as three times greater than Europe's expected electricity demand, rising to a factor of seven by 2030.
An EWEA report overviewing 2009 data estimated that 230 gigawatts (GW) of wind capacity will be installed in Europe by 2020, consisting of 190 GW onshore and 40 GW offshore.
This would produce 14-17% of the EU's electricity, avoiding 333 million tonnes of per year and saving Europe €28 billion a year in avoided fuel costs.
In 2018 wind energy generated enough electricity to meet 14% of the EU's electricity demand. Denmark had the highest share of wind (41%) in Europe, followed by Ireland (28%) and Portugal (24%). Germany, Spain and the UK follow with 21%, 19% and 18% respectively. Out of the EU's total electricity consumption of 2,645 TWh in 2018, onshore wind contributed 309 TWh (12%) and offshore wind contributed 53 TWh (2%), bringing the total contribution of wind energy to 362 TWh (14%). The energy comes from a total onshore wind capacity of 160 GW and a total offshore wind capacity of 18.5 GW, with an average capacity factor of 24%.
Solar energy
Photovoltaic solar power
Description: PV solar power are solar modules that are used to generate electricity.
2012 17.2 GW of PV capacity were connected to the grid in Europe, compared to 22.4 GW in 2011; Europe still accounted for the predominant share of the global PV market, with 55% of all new capacity in 2012.
2004 79% of all European capacity was in Germany, where 794 MWp had been installed. The European Commission anticipated that Germany may have installed around 4,500 MWp by 2010.
2002, The world production of photovoltaic modules surpassed 550 MW, of which more than the 50% was produced in the EU. Within 15 years even a small country in Europe might expect to exceed this amount in domestic installations.
Concentrated solar power
Description: CSV power can generate either heat or electricity according to the type used. One advantage of concentrated solar power (CSP) is the ability to include thermal energy storage to provide power up to 24 hours a day.
2015 The first commercial application of a new form of CSP called STEM will take place in Sicily . This has generated considerable academic and commercial interest internationally for off-grid applications to produce 24 hour industrial scale power for mining sites and remote communities in Italy, other parts of Europe, Australia, Asia, North Africa and Latin America. STEM uses fluidized silica sand as a thermal storage and heat transfer medium for CSP systems. It has been developed by Salerno-based Magaldi Industries.
2012 By year end in the European Union, 2,114 MWp had been installed, mainly in Spain. Gemasolar, in Spain, was the first to provide 24‑hour power.
Solar heating and cooling
Description: Solar heating is the usage of solar energy to provide space or water heating.
2016 At present the EU is second after China in the installations.
2010 If all EU countries used solar thermal as enthusiastically as the Austrians, the EU's installed capacity would already be 91 GWth (130 million m2 today, far beyond the target of 100 million m2 by 2010, set by the White Paper in 1997).
2008 The research efforts and infrastructure needed to supply 50% of the energy for space and water heating and cooling across Europe using solar thermal energy was set out under the aegis of the European Solar Thermal Technology Platform (ESTTP). Published in late December 2008, more than 100 experts developed the strategic research agenda (SRA), which includes a deployment roadmap showing the non-technological framework conditions that will enable this ambitious goal to be reached by 2050.
2007 ESTIF's minimum target is to produce solar heating equivalent to 5.600.000 tons of oil (by 2020). A more ambitious, but feasible, target is 73 million tons of oil per year (by 2020)
2005 Worldwide usage was 88 GWthermal . Growth potential is enormous. Solar heating in the EU was equivalent to more than 686.000 tons of oil.
Wave power
Description:Wave power is used to generate electricity.
2008 The world's first commercial wave farm is located at the Aguçadoura Wave Farm near Póvoa de Varzim in Portugal. The farm which uses three Pelamis P-750 machines was officially opened in by the Portuguese minister for the economy.
2007 Funding for a wave farm in Scotland using four Pelamis machines was announced on 20 February by the Scottish Executive. The funding of just over £4 million is part of a £13 million funding package for marine power in Scotland. The farm, is to be located at the European Marine Test Centre (EMEC) off the coast of Orkney and will have an installed capacity of 3MW.
Hydrogen fuel
The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, FCH JU, is a public private partnership supporting research, technological development and demonstration activities in fuel cell and hydrogen energy technologies in Europe. Its aim is to accelerate the market introduction of these technologies. The HyFLEET:CUTE is a project bringing together many partners from industry, government, academic and consulting organisations. It is intended that 47 hydrogen powered buses will operate in regular public transport service in 10 cities on three continents. Many of the HyFLEET:CUTE project partners have been involved in previous hydrogen transport projects, most notably the CUTE, ECTOS and STEP projects.
Economics
Jobs
The renewable energy industry have offered new work opportunities in the EU during 2005–2009.
Employment in the renewable energy industry has however fallen every year since 2011, reaching 34,300 jobs in 2016, according to annual data from the International Renewable Energy Agency. IRENA says economic crises and adverse policy conditions led to reduced investments in renewable energy in the EU.
In 2012, the use of intermittent renewable energy caused, according to the German newspaper Der Spiegel, increasing electricity prices and grid instability induced power outages, created by renewable energy usage. It is also claimed by German heavy industry spokesmen that this has forced their industries to close, move overseas, and resulted in the loss of German heavy industry jobs.
Fuel costs
In 2010 renewables avoided €30bn in imported fuel costs. In 2010 EU supported renewable energy with €26bn.
Statistics
Installed wind power capacity
Photovoltaics
As of the end of 2013, cumulative capacity of solar PV accounted for almost 79 gigawatts and generated more than 80 terawatt-hours in the European Union. Including non-EU countries, a total of 81.5 GW had been installed. Although Europe has lost its leadership in solar deployment, the continent still accounts for about 59 percent of global installed photovoltaics. Solar PV covered 3 percent of the electricity demand and 6 percent of the peak electricity demand in 2013. Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems account for more than 99 percent of the overall capacity, while stand-alone photovoltaic power system have become insignificant.
Source: EUROBSER'VER (Observatoire des énergies renouvelables) Photovoltaic Barometer - installations 2014
Solar heating
Biofuels
See also
List of renewable energy topics by country and territory
Climate change in Europe
Desertec
Economy of the European Union
EKOenergy ecolabel for energy
Energy Cities
Energy Community
Energy efficiency in Europe (study)
European Commissioner for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries
Eugene Green Energy Standard
Energy policy of the European Union
European Renewable Energy Council
European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register
Fraunhofer Society
Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme
Renewable Energy Directive 2018
REN21
Transport in the European Union
EurObserv'ER
References
External links
Eurostat - Statistics Explained - Renewable energy statistics
Europe's Energy Portal European platform for energy efficiency and renewable energy.
Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources
ManagEnergy, for energy efficiency and renewable energies at the local and regional level.
Reegle: Information Gateway For Renewable Energy And Energy Efficiency
All EurObserv'ER barometers - The state of renewable energies in Europe
Organizations
European Renewable Energy Council
European Forum for Renewable Energy Sources "Members of Parliament for a Sustainable Energy Future"
European Federation of Regional Energy and Environment Agencies (FEDARENE).
European Future Energy Forum
European Commission-Energy
Further reading
Joanna Krzeminska, Are Support Schemes for Renewable Energies Compatible with Competition Objectives? An Assessment of National and Community Rules, Yearbook of European Environmental Law (Oxford University Press), Volume VII, Nov. 2007, p. 125 |
4159683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camden%20Lock | Camden Lock | Camden Lock is a small part of Camden Town, London Borough of Camden, England, which was formerly a wharf with stables on the Regent's Canal. It is immediately to the north of Hampstead Road Locks, a twin manually operated lock. The twin locks together are "Hampstead Road Lock 1"; each bears a sign so marked. Hawley Lock and Kentish Town Lock are a short distance away to the east; to the west is a long level pound (also known as tract or reach) — it is to the next lock.
History
Regent's Canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained on 13 July 1812, for a canal from Paddington to Limehouse. When the directors first met, they had decided that all locks would be paired, so that some of the water from a lock emptying could be used to fill the adjacent chamber. Water saving was an important factor, as they knew that water supply would be problematic. Colonel William Congreve, a military engineer who was later knighted, proposed the use of hydropneumatic boat lifts instead of locks. Various designs of a similar nature had been tried in the early 19th century, notably at Mells on the Dorset and Somerset Canal and at Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham Canal, but none had proved successful. Congreve's design used two water-filled caissons, which were moved up and down by hand, assisted by compressed air trapped beneath the tanks. With no working examples of such lifts, the directors were understandably cautious, but following an engineer's report, decided that Maudslay & Co should build a prototype at Camden Town. There were a number of technical problems, with the canal company blaming Maudslays for poor design, and Maudslays blaming the canal company for changing the original design and failing to maintain the structure. Congreve's claim that it could be operated in just three minutes was never proved, and in 1818, the directors decided to cut their losses, and reverted to using paired locks. The lift was sold at auction in November 1819, and the 13 lots raised just £404.
Construction of the canal was overseen by architect John Nash, with James Morgan acting as supervising engineer. Hampstead Road Locks were built between 1818 and 1820, with the chambers made of brick and stone coping along the top. The two locks are arranged side by side, with an island platform between them. Each chamber has two gates at both ends, and they have been Grade II listed since 1992 (this is the initial, most common category of listing). They were the first of 12 pairs of similar locks which dropped the level of the canal by to reach Limehouse Basin. The transfer of water between the chambers made operation of the locks more complex, and so they were permanently manned during the heyday of the canal, with lock-keepers working a shift system to provide 24-hour cover. As the use of the canal declined, in part due to railway competition, manning levels were reduced, and padlocks were used to prevent operation of the locks at the weekends. Following the end of commercial traffic and the growth of leisure boating, the locks reverted to operation by boat crews, and in order to prevent flooding caused by incorrect operation of the paddles, in the 1980s most of the pairs were converted to single locks, by replacing the lower gates of one chamber with a fixed weir. Hampstead Road Lock is the only one where both chambers have been retained, although they are now emptied conventionally. In November 2013, the locks were fully drained for maintenance; the public were invited for the weekend of the 16th and 17th of that month to see the infrastructure for themselves.
The lock is to the west of the Camden High Street road bridge. When the canal was built, the road was carried over it by a brick bridge, but this was found to be inadequate, and was replaced by a cast iron girder bridge in 1878. The cost was met by the St Pancras Vestry and the Metropolitan Board of Works, and the bridge, which has brick abutments with stone coping, carries a plaque recording this fact. Like the lock, it is Grade II listed. At the south-east corner of the lock is a building dating from 1815, which was originally constructed to house air compressors for Congreve's boat lift. It was subsequently used as the lock keeper's cottage, and by 2010 had become a Starbucks coffee shop. The building was extended in 1975, when it was also stuccoed, and a crenellated parapet was added. To the west of the lock is a cast iron roving bridge, dating from the early or mid-19th century. It had wrought iron tension stays when built, but these were replaced by steel cables in the late 20th century, when the deck was also replaced. The towpath is on the northern bank of the canal at this point, and is carried over the entrance to a dock which formed part of Camden Goods Depot by a cast iron single span bridge with stone capped abutments. It was constructed by J Deeley and Co, of Newport in Monmouthshire between 1848 and 1856. The granite setts which form the approach ramps were taken up and relaid in 1978.
Camden Goods Depot
Camden Goods Depot was the London freight terminus of the London and Birmingham Railway, the first inter-city railway to reach London. Robert Stephenson was the engineer in charge of the project, and he picked the site for the goods depot so that direct interchange with the Regent's Canal was available, from where freight could reach the London docks. A site on the north bank of the canal was obtained from Lord Southampton in January 1837, and the goods depot was completed in 1839. Major features were a stationary winding engine house, which was used to pull trains up the incline from to Camden, a shed for stabling of locomotives, 18 coke ovens which were used to make smokeless fuel, two goods sheds, stables for 50 horses, a wagon repair shop, and various ancillary buildings. Much of the site was supported on brick vaults. Pickfords, the public carrier, built a warehouse on the south bank of the canal in 1841. It was designed by William Cubitt, was extended in 1846, and was the first rail, road and canal interchange building in Britain, being linked to the goods depot by a wooden railway bridge over the canal.
In 1846, the London and Birmingham Railway merged with several other railway companies to become the London and North Western Railway (LNWR). Just prior to the merger, they decided to build their own interchange facilities, rather than using Pickfords, and this was carried out by the LNWR. Semple's Wharf, on the north bank of the canal, was purchased, and the towpath bridge was built by 1846. A basin and dock were built once the sale of the wharf was completed in 1847, and a new rail link to the goods depot was added. As part of this expansion, two new engine sheds were built, one to the north of the tracks for goods locomotives, and one to the south for passenger locomotives. The southern shed was demolished in 1966, but the northern one, known as the Roundhouse, is Grade II* listed. A second wooden railway bridge crossed the canal to the former Pickfords warehouse.
Following the construction on lines to link to the East India and West India Docks in 1851, which became the North London Railway in 1853, further upgrading of the goods depot was necessary to cope with the volumes of traffic. This took place between 1854 and 1856, and included the enlargement and realignment of the canal basin. When completed, it was with railway tracks on both sides running to the edge of the canal. Four new stable blocks were built next to the Hampstead Road, and the complex was linked to the marshalling yards by the Eastern Horse Tunnel. A Western Horse Tunnel was also built to link the goods depot to new stables near the present Gloucester Avenue, to the west of the mainline tracks. In 1864, the LNWR built a new goods shed, at the time the largest in the country, and in 1876, additional stables were built to the north of Gloucester Avenue. Access to the Western Horse Tunnel was by a set of horse stairs, which have survived. The LNWR good shed was enlarged in 1931, but subsequently demolished. The goods depot closed around 1980, and many of the stables were demolished in 2000. The Interchange Warehouse was remodelled in 1989, to become offices, and further restoration work occurred in 2007, when some of the later additions were removed. It is now known as The Interchange.
Despite some demolition, the complex of buildings, which includes parts of the goods depot, the winding engine house, the Roundhouse, the eastern portal of Primrose Hill railway tunnel, and the canal, represent one of the most important groupings of 19th-century transport infrastructure to have survived in Britain. The survival of the horse tunnel and stairs shows the importance of horse-drawn transport in the developing railway system.
Camden Lock
Commercial traffic on the Regent's Canal had almost ceased by the late 1960s, and the area had become run down. Much of the industry had moved away, partly as a result of the passing of the Clean Air Act 1956, but also helped by government grants to encourage companies to move away from the city. The area around Hampstead Road Locks was populated by disused warehouses, derelict land and a towpath which desperately needed some repairs to be made. In addition, the area was blighted by the proposed London Motorway Box, which would have seen much of the canal culverted, and a sliproad built over the site of the locks. To the north of the lock was a wharf, owned by British Waterways, but rented out to Dingwall's since 1946. The company made packing cases, but their business had been hit by the change to containers, and in 1971 they decided to sell up. They had about ten years left on a 25-year lease.
The lease was bought by Northside Developments, a limited company which had been formed by Bill Fulford and Peter Wheeler, and had previously been involved in turning large houses into flats in south London. Their proposal for the yard was to create workshops, where people worked and sold their produce. They also hoped the development would include a restaurant and cinema. They approached Camden Council, who had wanted to bulldoze the whole area, and persuaded them that some of the heritage assets were worth saving. Northside were advised against including a market in their planning application by the council, and in April 1972 received planning permission for a temporary development, lasting three years, by which time the outcome of the motorway scheme would be known. With such a short lease, funding the scheme had its problems, and several joint companies were created to divide the investment into smaller packets. The plans included workshops, restaurants, sculpture studios, a snack bar, a mooring area for canal boats, and an office. The lease was soon extended to run until 1980, but Northside were refused permission to run a market on Saturdays in the yard and on Commercial Place, the road from which access to the site was gained.
On a very limited budget of £5,000, Northside set about converting the existing buildings into craft workshops. No new buildings were erected, as the whole area was still scheduled for demolition. By mid-1972, parts of the West Yard were ready to be used as workshops, and businesses began to occupy them. An official opening was held on 4 April 1973, with the Mayor of Camden presiding, and this was followed by a three-day display of work by the fifty people who were by then occupying the workshops. Plans for the motorway were dropped soon afterwards. Northside then obtained a development lease, but applications to demolish and replace many of the buildings were successfully resisted by a tenants' association, formed by the craft workers. Newspapers reported the conflicts, and the publicity drew in visitors from a much wider area.
The towpath through the area of Hampstead Road Locks was upgraded and a formal opening was held on 20 May 1972. The next major development was Dingwall's Dance Hall, which occupied the former warehouse used by the packing case company and opened in June 1973. It featured live music, and in order to stay open until 2am, the terms of the licence required an entrance fee to be charged, which was set at 50 pence by the licensing authority. Regular customers included David Hockney, Lucian Freud and George Melly, and it soon became well known as a venue for punk rock bands. Northside next obtained permission to run a Saturday antiques market in January 1974. It would run through the summer months of that year only, with a maximum of 60 stalls, set out in the yard and in a corrugated iron shed. When it opened, there were 12 stallholders, but this soon increased to 30. Better access to the canal towpath was created by knocking a hole in the wall that separated it from the East Yard. The towpath from London Zoo to Camden High Street was then opened for public access, following a campaign by the Regent's Canal Group.
The market was a success, and within a year Northside had obtained permission to extend it to Sundays and Bank Holidays. Soon there were two restaurants on the site, and the range of goods for sale on the stalls became much wider. In the 1976 Conservation Awards run by The Times newspaper and the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the market came joint third. By the early 1980, the market consisted of nearly 200 stalls, which were occupied by around 100 regular stallholders and many temporary ones. It attracted around 11,000 visitors each weekend. In addition, there were 39 businesses based in the craft workshops. Northside now decided that it was time to change the name of the access road from Commercial Place. The area had been known informally as Camden Lock for some time, and so they campaigned for it to become Camden Lock Place. Despite objections from the fire brigade, the Greater London Council eventually sanctioned the name change, and from then on, the site was marketed as Camden Lock. It became a venue for events, including a five-week Festival of Entertainment, a Clock Festival, and Gerry Cottle's Circus was also booked. British Rail carried out repairs to the railway bridge over Chalk Farm Road in the mid-1980s, and when the work was completed, the hoardings were not replaced. After long negotiations, Northside were granted permission to paint the bridge in 1989, and employed mural artist John Bulley to paint the words Camden Lock in giant letters on the superstructure, together with representations of two painters, painting the letters.
Development
By the late 1980s, Camden Lock was attracting increasing numbers of foreign tourists to the market. In the early days, the emphasis had been on hand-crafted goods, but there was a steady increase in mass-produced goods on sale, and some concern locally that Camden Town would be taken over by tourists, and lose its local amenities. Some of the craft units had become retail shops, and there was a problem with the large amount of litter that the market produced. Northside's lease only ran to the end of the 1980s, and so they proposed a £10 million redevelopment, jointly managed by UK Land Limited. They promised new shops, a new pub, and a new market yard, which would be open throughout the week, rather than just at weekends. The plans included a Victorian style retail hall, which would provide indoor accommodation for some of the market. A four-storey building was erected, fronting Chalk Farm Road, and the space between it and Dingwalls, which had been the site of the original market in the 1970s, was covered by a glazed cast iron and brick structure the designs for which were based on a Victorian gas showroom. Dingwalls Dance Hall was refurbished, and a comedy club was built in the East Yard.
The second phase of redevelopment began after the bridge sign had been painted. In January 1990 the mural was awarded an environment award by the Evening Standard, which declared it to be "a credit to London". Despite the increased timescales and costs of doing so, Northside attempted to redevelop the East Yard without closing the market, in order to retain its vibrancy. The work was completed by the summer of 1991, and although there were detractors and accusations of commercialism, it proved to be a success. Some 10 million people were visiting the various Camden markets each year, generating a turnover of an estimated £50 million. During the week, trade in the market hall was slow, as few market traders wanted to be there all week, but Northside suggested that the traders form small co-operatives, and offered discounts for those that did so. This resulted in all of the traders being there at the weekends, but them taking it in turns to look after groups of stalls during the week.
The former Dingwalls yard is now known as Camden Lock Market, and is one of a group of five markets in the vicinity which are collectively called Camden Market. It is a busy market which attracts many visitors, and with music venues, cafes and canal towpath walks, it has become one of London's most popular tourist destinations. There are a number of art installations in the area, including a large cut-steel sculpture by English artist Edward Dutkiewicz in the square beside the lock.
Culture
Mentions
Camden Lock was well known in the UK as the address of TV-am's Breakfast Television Centre, the former ITV Breakfast Television franchisee in the 1980s and early 1990s. The address was often displayed on screen for the purpose of correspondence.
The main spaceship in the British television science fiction sitcom Hyperdrive, which was screened in 2006 and 2007, is called HMS Camden Lock.
The Italian band Modena City Ramblers wrote a song "Notturno, Camden Lock", with a lyric relating to Camden town where one of the band members lived, on their 1998 album "Raccolti".
In 2005, Kate Winslet appeared in a television commercial for American Express, strolling around Camden Lock. It was part of a campaign called "My Life, My Card", and in the commercial, Winslet referred to many of the events that have occurred to the characters she has played in films.
The American band Small Town No Airport, who were based in Massachusetts, recorded a song titled "Camden Locke" on their self-titled 1992 release. The song's lyrics included the line "I met a girl down at Camden Locks she was selling pictures that she drew with chalks...".
Camden Lock is one of many landmarks in this area of London to have a corresponding structure underground in Lawrence Leonard's fantasy novel for children, The Horn of Mortal Danger (1980).
The Russian band Aquarium mentions Camden Lock in its song "Garçon Number Two".
In series 3 of British television comedy The League of Gentlemen, Legz Akimbo Theatre Company member Phil and his friend Tish stroll around Camden Lock. Tish comments "Camden's such a rip off, I love it".
The Japanese rock duo B'z re-recorded the song "Guitar Kids Rhapsody" from their second album Off the Lock. The song is referred to as "Camden Lock Style" because the music video for the re-recorded version was shot in and around Camden Lock.
Artwork
Camden and the Lock have become known for artwork in recent years. Banksy and King Robbo are both known to have used the wider Camden area to display graffiti. It was also the site of an ongoing feud between the two artists, which lasted from 2009 until 2014.
Transport
Camden Lock mooring point
The London Waterbus Company waterbus service operates from Camden Lock, heading westwards around Regent's Park, calling at London Zoo and ending at Little Venice. Three of the four boats in use in 2016 were historic vessels on the National Register of Historic Ships.
Towpath route
The canal tow path is open to pedestrians and cyclists, offering a direct route to Camden Lock from East London, Paddington and West London.
Public transport links
The nearest London Underground stations are and , both on the Northern line. The nearest London Overground station is Camden Road station.
Bibliography
References
See also
Camden Town London website – News about the Camden Markets and Camden Town
Camden Town Online – (established 1996)
Canals of the United Kingdom
History of the British canal system
Camden Town
Geography of the London Borough of Camden
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden
Locks on the Regent's Canal |
4159728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism%20of%20atheism | Criticism of atheism | Criticism of atheism is criticism of the concepts, validity, or impact of atheism, including associated political and social implications. Criticisms include positions based on the history of science, philosophical and logical criticisms, findings in both the natural and social sciences, theistic apologetic arguments, arguments pertaining to ethics and morality, the effects of atheism on the individual, or the assumptions that underpin atheism.
Carl Sagan said he sees no compelling evidence against the existence of God. Theists such as Kenneth R. Miller criticise atheism for being an unscientific position. Analytic philosopher Alvin Plantinga, Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at the University of Notre Dame, argues that a failure of theistic arguments might conceivably be good grounds for agnosticism, but not for atheism; and points to the observation of a fine-tuned universe as more likely to be explained by theism than atheism. Oxford Professor of Mathematics John Lennox holds that atheism is an inferior world view to that of theism and attributes to C.S. Lewis the best formulation of Merton's thesis that science sits more comfortably with theistic notions on the basis that men became scientific in Western Europe in the 16th and 17th century "[b]ecause they expected law in nature, and they expected law in nature because they believed in a lawgiver." In other words, it was belief in God that was the "motor that drove modern science". American geneticist Francis Collins also cites Lewis as persuasive in convincing him that theism is the more rational world view than atheism.
Other criticisms focus on perceived effects on morality and social cohesion. The Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, a deist, saw godlessness as weakening "the sacred bonds of society", writing: "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him". The father of classical liberalism, John Locke, believed that the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos. Edmund Burke, an 18th-century Irish philosopher and statesman praised by both his conservative and liberal peers for his "comprehensive intellect", saw religion as the basis of civil society and wrote that "man is by his constitution a religious animal; that atheism is against, not only our reason, but our instincts; and that it cannot prevail long". Pope Pius XI wrote that Communist atheism was aimed at "upsetting the social order and at undermining the very foundations of Christian civilization". In the 1990s, Pope John Paul II criticised a spreading "practical atheism" as clouding the "religious and moral sense of the human heart" and leading to societies which struggle to maintain harmony.
The advocacy of atheism by some of the more violent exponents of the French Revolution, the subsequent militancy of Marxist–Leninist atheism and prominence of atheism in totalitarian states formed in the 20th century is often cited in critical assessments of the implications of atheism. In his Reflections on the Revolution in France, Burke railed against "atheistical fanaticism". The 1937 papal encyclical Divini Redemptoris denounced the atheism of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, which was later influential in the establishment of state atheism across Eastern Europe and elsewhere, including Mao Zedong's China, Kim's North Korea and Pol Pot's Cambodia. Critics of atheism often associate the actions of 20th-century state atheism with broader atheism in their critiques. Various poets, novelists and lay theologians, among them G. K. Chesterton and C.S. Lewis, have also criticised atheism. For example, a quote often attributed to Chesterton holds that "[h]e who does not believe in God will believe in anything".
Definitions and concepts
Atheism is the absence of belief that any gods exist, the position that there are no gods, the proposition that God does not exist, or the rejection of belief in the existence of gods.
Deism is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but does not intervene in human affairs through special revelation. Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. Christian deism refers to a deist who believes in the moral teachings but not the divinity of Jesus.
Arguments and critiques of atheism
The last 50 years has seen an increase in academic philosophical arguments critical of the positions of atheism arguing that they are philosophically unsound. Some of the more common of these arguments are the presumption of atheism, the logical argument from evil, the evidential argument from evil, the argument from nonbelief and absence of evidence arguments.
The Presumption of Atheism
In 1976, atheist philosopher Antony Flew wrote The Presumption of Atheism in which he argued that the question of God's existence should begin by assuming atheism as the default position. According to Flew, the norm for academic philosophy and public dialogue was at that time for atheists and theists to both share their respective "burdens of proof" for their positions. Flew proposed instead that his academic peers redefine "atheism" to bring about these changes:
Flew's proposition saw little acceptance in the 20th century though in the early 21st century Flew's broader definition of atheism came to be forwarded more commonly. In 2007, analytic philosopher William Lane Craig's described the presumption of atheism as "one of the most commonly proffered justifications of atheism". In 2010, BBC journalist William Crawley explained that Flew's presumption of atheism "made the case, now followed by today's new atheism" arguing that atheism should be the default position. In today's debates, atheists forward the presumption of atheism arguing that atheism is the default position with no burden of proof and assert that the burden of proof for God's existence rests solely on the theist.
The presumption of atheism has been the subject of criticism by atheists, agnostics and theists since Flew advanced his position more than 40 years ago.
Criticism of the presumption of atheism
The agnostic Analytic Philosopher Anthony Kenny rejected the presumption of atheism on any definition of atheism arguing that "the true default position is neither theism nor atheism, but agnosticism" adding "a claim to knowledge needs to be substantiated, ignorance need only be confessed".
Atheist philosopher Kai Nielsen criticized the presumption of atheism arguing that without an independent concept of rationality or a concept of rationality that atheists and theists can mutually accept, there is no common foundation on which to adjudicate rationality of positions concerning the existence of God. Because the atheist's conceptualization of "rational" differs from the theist, Nielsen argues, both positions can be rationally justified.
Analytic philosopher and modal logician Alvin Plantinga, a theist, rejected the presumption of atheism forwarding a two-part argument. First, he shows that there is no objection to belief in God unless the belief is shown to be false. Second, he argues that belief in God could be rationally warranted if it is a properly basic or foundational belief through an innate human "sense of the divine". Plantinga argues that if we have the innate knowledge of God which he theorizes as a possibility, we could trust belief in God the same way we trust our cognitive faculties in other similar matters, such as our rational belief that there are other minds beyond our own, something we believe, but for which there can be no evidence. Alvin Plantinga's argument puts theistic belief on equal evidential footing with atheism even if Flew's definition of atheism is accepted.
University of Notre Dame philosopher Ralph McInerny goes further than Plantinga, arguing that belief in God reasonably follows from our observations of the natural order and the law-like character of natural events. McInerny argues that the extent of this natural order is so pervasive as to be almost innate, providing a prima facie argument against atheism. McInerny's position goes further than Plantinga's, arguing that theism is evidenced and that the burden of proof rests on the atheist, not on the theist.William Lane Craig wrote that if Flew's broader definition of atheism is seen as "merely the absence of belief in God", atheism "ceases to be a view" and "even infants count as atheists". For atheism to be a view, Craig adds: "One would still require justification in order to know either that God exists or that He does not exist".
Like the agnostic Anthony Kenny, Craig argues that there is no presumption for atheism because it is distinct from agnosticism:
Forty years after Flew published The Presumption of Atheism, his proposition remains controversial.
Other arguments and critiques
William Lane Craig listed some of the more prominent arguments forwarded by proponents of atheism along with his objections:
"The Hiddenness of God" is the claim that if God existed, God would have prevented the world's unbelief by making his existence starkly apparent. Craig argues that the problem with this argument is that there is no reason to believe that any more evidence than what is already available would increase the number of people believing in God.
"The Incoherence of Theism" is the claim that the notion of God is incoherent. Craig argues that a coherent doctrine of God's attributes can be formulated based on scripture like Medieval theologians had done and "Perfect Being Theology"; and that the argument actually helps in refining the concept of God.
"The Problem of Evil" can be split into two different concerns: the "intellectual" problem of evil concerns how to give a rational explanation of the co-existence of God and evil and the "emotional" problem of evil concerns how to comfort those who are suffering and how to dissolve the emotional dislike people have of a God who would permit such evil. The latter can be dealt with in a diverse manner. Concerning the "intellectual" argument, it is often cast as an incompatibility between statements such as "an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God exists" and "the quantity and kinds of suffering in the world exist". Craig argues that no one has shown that both statements are logically incompatible or improbable with respect to each other. Others use another version of the intellectual argument called the "evidential problem of evil" which claims that the apparently unnecessary or "gratuitous" suffering in the world constitutes evidence against God's existence. Craig argues that it is not clear that the suffering that appears to be gratuitous actually is gratuitous for various reasons, one of which is similar to an objection to utilitarian ethical theory, that it is quite simply impossible for us to estimate which action will ultimately lead to the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure in the world.
T.J. Mawson makes a case against atheism by citing some lines of evidence and reasoning such as the high level of fine-tuning whereby the life of morally sentient and significantly free creatures like humans has implications. On the maximal multiverse hypothesis, he argues that in appealing to infinite universes one is in essence explaining too much and that it even opens up the possibility that certain features of the universe still would require explanation beyond the hypothesis itself. He also argues from induction for fine tuning in that if one supposed that infinite universes existed there should be infinite ways in which observations can be wrong on only one way in which observations can be right at any point in time, for instance, that the color of gems stay the same every time we see them. In other words, if infinite universes existed, then there should be infinite changes to our observations of the universe and in essence be unpredictable in infinite ways, yet this is not what occurs.
Helen De Cruz argues there are two general positions of atheistic arguments: "global" which "denies the existence of any god" and "local" which "denies the existence of a particular concept of God" such as polytheism, pantheism, monotheism, etc. She states that most evidential arguments against theism assume local, not global atheism, and that as such, numerous theistic arguments are not ruled out. She argues that the widespread beliefs in various god configurations and religious experiences provide evidence against global atheism.
Amanda Askell argues that our capacity to be and rationalize prudence along with the acceptance of Pascal's Wager provide prudential objections to atheism.
C. Stephen Evans argues that our normative propensities for our natural persistence to commit to be moral and our ability to generate value in a supposedly absurd world, offer normative objections to atheism. He also argues that it is appropriate for God to make the process whereby one come to know him, to require moral and spiritual development.
Atheism and the individual
In a global study on atheism, sociologist Phil Zuckerman noted that though there are positive correlations with societal health in many countries where the atheist population is significantly high, countries with higher number of atheists also had the highest suicide rates compared to countries with lower numbers of atheists. He concludes that correlation does not necessarily indicate causation in either case. Another study found similar trends. A 2004 study of religious affiliation and suicide attempts, concluded: "After other factors were controlled, it was found that greater moral objections to suicide and lower aggression level in religiously affiliated subjects may function as protective factors against suicide attempts".
According to William Bainbridge, atheism is common among people whose social obligations are weak and is also connected to lower fertility rates in some industrial nations. Extended length of sobriety in alcohol recovery is related positively to higher levels of theistic belief, active community helping and self-transcendence. Some studies state that in developed countries health, life expectancy and other correlates of wealth tend to be statistical predictors of a greater percentage of atheists, compared to countries with higher proportions of believers. Multiple methodological problems have been identified with cross-national assessments of religiosity, secularity and social health which undermine conclusive statements on religiosity and secularity in developed democracies.
Morality
The influential deist philosopher Voltaire criticised established religion to a wide audience, but conceded a fear of the disappearance of the idea of God: "After the French Revolution and its outbursts of atheism, Voltaire was widely condemned as one of the causes", wrote Geoffrey Blainey. "Nonetheless, his writings did concede that fear of God was an essential policeman in a disorderly world: 'If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him', wrote Voltaire".
In A Letter Concerning Toleration, the influential English philosopher John Locke wrote: "Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are the bonds of human society, can have no hold upon an atheist. The taking away of God, though but even in thought, dissolves all". Although Locke was believed to be an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate atheism because the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos. According to Dinesh D'Souza, Locke, like Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky after him, argued that "when God is excluded, then it is not surprising when morality itself is sacrificed in the process and chaos and horror is unleashed on the world".
The Catholic Church believes that morality is ensured through natural law, but that religion provides a more solid foundation. For many years in the United States, atheists were not allowed to testify in court because it was believed that an atheist would have no reason to tell the truth (see also discrimination against atheists).
Atheists such as biologist and popular author Richard Dawkins have proposed that human morality is a result of evolutionary, sociobiological history. He proposes that the "moral zeitgeist" helps describe how moral imperatives and values naturalistically evolve over time from biological and cultural origins. Evolutionary biologist Kenneth R. Miller notes that such a conception of evolution and morality is a misunderstanding of sociobiology and at worst it is an attempt to abolish any meaningful system of morality since though evolution would have provided the biological drives and desires we have, it does not tell us what is good or right or wrong or moral.
Critics assert that natural law provides a foundation on which people may build moral rules to guide their choices and regulate society, but does not provide as strong a basis for moral behavior as a morality that is based in religion. Douglas Wilson, an evangelical theologian, argues that while atheists can behave morally, belief is necessary for an individual "to give a rational and coherent account" of why they are obligated to lead a morally responsible life. Wilson says that atheism is unable to "give an account of why one deed should be seen as good and another as evil". Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, outgoing Archbishop of Westminster, expressed this position by describing a lack of faith as "the greatest of evils" and blamed atheism for war and destruction, implying that it was a "greater evil even than sin itself".
According to William Lane Craig, in a world without God people are living in a state where evil is completely unregulated and also permissible, while at the same time good and self-sacrificing people would live in an unrewarded state where noble deeds lose their virtue and are rendered valueless.
Atheism as faith
According to some critics, atheism is a faith in itself as a belief in its own right, with a certainty about the falseness of religious beliefs that is comparable to the certainty about the unknown that is practiced by religions.<ref>David Limbaugh, "Does atheism require more faith?," Townhall.com, April 20, 2004
Stanley Fish, "Atheism and Evidence," Think Again, The New York Times, June 17, 2007
DHRUV K. SINGHAL, "The Church of Atheism,", The Harvard Crimson, December 14, 2008
Norman L. Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist," Crossway Books, March 01, 2004, 447 Pages,
John F. Haught, God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens, Westminster John Knox Press, December 31, 2007, 156 pages, , page 45</ref> Activist atheists have been criticized for positions said to be similar to religious dogma. In his essay Dogmatic Atheism and Scientific Ignorance for the World Union of Deists, Peter Murphy wrote: "The dogmatic atheist like the dogmatic theist is obsessed with conformity and will spew a tirade of angry words against anyone who does not conform to their own particular world view". The Times arts and entertainment writer Ian Johns described the 2006 British documentary The Trouble with Atheism as "reiterating the point that the dogmatic intensity of atheists is the secular equivalent of the blinkered zeal of fanatical mullahs and biblical fundamentalists". Though the media often portrays atheists as "angry" and studies show that the general population and "believers" perceive atheists as "angry", Brian Meier et al. found that individual atheists are no more angry than individuals in other populations.
In a study on American secularity, Frank Pasquale notes that some tensions do exist among secular groups where, for instance, atheists are sometimes viewed as "fundamentalists" by secular humanists.
In his book First Principles (1862), the 19th-century English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer wrote that as regards the origin of the universe, three hypotheses are possible: self-existence (atheism), self-creation (pantheism), or creation by an external agency (theism). Spencer argued that it is "impossible to avoid making the assumption of self-existence" in any of the three hypotheses and concluded that "even positive Atheism comes within the definition" of religion.
In an anthropological study on modernity, Talal Asad quotes an Arab atheist named Adonis who has said: "The sacred for atheism is the human being himself, the human being of reason, and there is nothing greater than this human being. It replaces revelation by reason and God with humanity". To which Asad points out: "But an atheism that deifies Man is, ironically, close to the doctrine of the incarnation".
Michael Martin and Paul Edwards have responded to criticism-as-faith by emphasizing that atheism can be the rejection of belief, or absence of belief.
Catholic perspective
The Catechism of the Catholic Church identifies atheism as a violation of the First Commandment, calling it "a sin against the virtue of religion". The catechism is careful to acknowledge that atheism may be motivated by virtuous or moral considerations and admonishes Catholics to focus on their own role in encouraging atheism by their religious or moral shortcomings:
(2125) [...] The imputability of this offense can be significantly diminished in virtue of the intentions and the circumstances. "Believers can have more than a little to do with the rise of atheism. To the extent that they are careless about their instruction in the faith, or present its teaching falsely, or even fail in their religious, moral, or social life, they must be said to conceal rather than to reveal the true nature of God and of religion.
Historical criticism
The Bible has criticized atheism by stating: "The fool has said in his heart, There is no God. They are corrupt, they have done abominable works, there is none that does good" (Psalm 14:1). In his essay On Atheism, Francis Bacon criticized the dispositions towards atheism as being "contrary to wisdom and moral gravity" and being associated with fearing government or public affairs. He also stated that knowing a little science may lead one to atheism, but knowing more science will lead one to religion. In another work called The Advancement of Learning, Bacon stated that superficial knowledge of philosophy inclines one to atheism while more knowledge of philosophy inclines one toward religion.
In Reflections on the Revolution in France, Edmund Burke, an 18th-century Irish philosopher and statesman praised by both his conservative and liberal peers for his "comprehensive intellect", wrote that "man is by his constitution a religious animal; that atheism is against, not only our reason, but our instincts; and that it cannot prevail long". Burke wrote of a "literary cabal" who had "some years ago formed something like a regular plan for the destruction of the Christian religion. This object they pursued with a degree of zeal which hitherto had been discovered only in the propagators of some system of piety... These atheistical fathers have a bigotry of their own; and they have learnt to talk against monks with the spirit of a monk". In turn, wrote Burke, a spirit of atheistic fanaticism had emerged in France.
Atheism and politics
The historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that during the 20th century atheists in Western societies became more active and even militant, expressing their arguments with clarity and skill. Like modern Christians, they reject the idea of an interventionist God and they argue that Christianity promotes war and violence. However, Blainey notes that anyone, not just Christians, can promote violence, writing "that the most ruthless leaders in the Second World War were atheists and secularists who were intensely hostile to both Judaism and Christianity. Later massive atrocities were committed in the East by those ardent atheists, Pol Pot and Mao Zedong. All religions, all ideologies, all civilizations display embarrassing blots on their pages".
Philosophers Russell Blackford and Udo Schüklenk have written: "By contrast to all of this, the Soviet Union was undeniably an atheist state, and the same applies to Maoist China and Pol Pot's fanatical Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia in the 1970s. That does not, however, show that the atrocities committed by these totalitarian dictatorships were all the result of atheist beliefs, carried out in the name of atheism, or caused primarily by the atheistic aspects of the relevant forms of communism". However, they do admit that some forms of persecutions such as those done on churches and religious people were partially related to atheism, but insist it was mostly based on economics and political reasons.
Historian Jeffrey Burton Russell has argued that "atheist rulers such as Lenin, Hitler, Stalin, Mao Zedong and Pol Pot tortured, starved and murdered more people in the twentieth century than all the combined religious regimes of the world during the previous nineteen centuries". He also states: "The antitheist argument boils down to this: a Christian who does evil does so because he is a Christian; an atheist who does evil does so despite being an atheist. The absolute reverse could be argued, but either way it's nothing but spin. The obvious fact is that some Christians do evil in the name of Christianity and some atheists do evil in the name of atheism".
William Husband, a historian of the Soviet secularization has noted: "But the cultivation of atheism in Soviet Russia also possessed distinct characteristic, none more important than the most obvious: atheism was an integral part of the world's first large-scale experiment in communism. The promotion of an antireligious society therefore constitutes an important development in Soviet Russia and in the social history of atheism globally".
Early twentieth century
In Julian Baggini's book Atheism: A Very Short Introduction, the author notes: "One of the most serious charges laid against atheism is that it is responsible for some of the worst horrors of the 20th century, including the Nazi concentration camps and Stalin's gulags". However, the author concludes that Nazi Germany was not a "straightforwardly atheist state", but one which sacralized notions of blood and nation in a way that is "foreign to mainstream rational atheism," whereas the Soviet Union was "avowedly and officially an atheist state" – this being not a reason to think that atheism is necessarily evil, though it is a refutation of the idea that atheism must always be benign as "there is I believe a salutary lesson to be learned from the way in which atheism formed an essential part of Soviet Communism, even though Communism does not form an essential part of atheism. This lesson concerns what can happen when atheism becomes too militant and Enlightenment ideals too optimistic".
From the outset, Christians were critical of the spread of militant Marxist‒Leninist atheism, which took hold in Russia following the 1917 Revolution and involved a systematic effort to eradicate religion.Alan Bullock; Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives; Fontana Press; 1993; pp.412Martin Amis; Koba the Dread; Vintage; 2003 In the Soviet Union after the Revolution, teaching religion to the young was criminalized. Marxist‒Leninist atheism and other adaptations of Marxian thought on religion enjoyed the official patronage of various one-party Communist states since 1917. The Bolsheviks pursued "militant atheism". The Soviet leaders Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin energetically pursued the persecution of the Church through the 1920s and 1930s. It was made a criminal offence for priests to teach a child the faith. Many priests were killed and imprisoned. Thousands of churches were closed, some turned into temples of atheism. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists, a "nominally independent organization established by the Communist Party to promote atheism" whose pro-atheism activities included active proselytizing of people's personal beliefs, sponsoring lectures, organizing demonstrations, printing and distribution of pamphlets and posters.
Pope Pius XI reigned from 1922 to 1939 and responded to the rise of totalitarianism in Europe with alarm. He issued three papal encyclicals challenging the new creeds: against Italian Fascism, Non abbiamo bisogno (1931; 'We do not need to acquaint you); against Nazism, Mit brennender Sorge (1937; "With deep concern"); and against atheist Communism, Divini Redemptoris (1937; "Divine Redeemer").
In Divini Redemptoris, Pius XI said that atheistic Communism being led by Moscow was aimed at "upsetting the social order and at undermining the very foundations of Christian civilization":
In Fascist Italy, led by the atheist Benito Mussolini, the Pope denounced the efforts of the state to supplant the role of the Church as chief educator of youth and denounced Fascism's "worship" of the state rather than the divine, but Church and state settled on mutual, shaky, toleration.RJB Bosworth; Mussolini's Italy; Penguin; 2005; p. 263
Historian of the Nazi period Richard J. Evans wrote that the Nazis encouraged atheism and deism over Christianity and encouraged party functionaries to abandon their religion. Priests were watched closely and frequently denounced, arrested and sent to concentration camps. In Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, the historian Alan Bullock wrote that Hitler, like Napoleon before him, frequently employed the language of "Providence" in defence of his own myth, but ultimately shared with the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin "the same materialist outlook, based on the nineteenth century rationalists' certainty that the progress of science would destroy all myths and had already proved Christian doctrine to be an absurdity". By 1939, all Catholic denominational schools in the Third Reich had been disbanded or converted to public facilities. In this climate, Pope Pius XI issued his anti-Nazi encyclical, Mit Brennender Sorge in 1937, saying:Pius XI died on the eve of World War II. Following the outbreak of war and the 1939 Nazi, and subsequently Soviet, invasion of Poland, the newly elected Pope Pius XII again denounced the eradication of religious education in his first encyclical, saying: "Perhaps the many who have not grasped the importance of the educational and pastoral mission of the Church will now understand better her warnings, scouted in the false security of the past. No defense of Christianity could be more effective than the present straits. From the immense vortex of error and anti-Christian movements there has come forth a crop of such poignant disasters as to constitute a condemnation surpassing in its conclusiveness any merely theoretical refutation".
Post-war Christian leaders including Pope John Paul II continued the Christian critique. In 2010, his successor, the German Pope Benedict XVI said:
British biologist Richard Dawkins criticised Pope Benedict's remarks and described Hitler as a "Catholic" because he "never renounced his baptismal Catholicism" and said that "Hitler certainly was not an atheist. In 1933 he claimed to have 'stamped atheism out'". In contrast, historian Alan Bullock wrote that Hitler was a rationalist and a materialist with no feeling for the spiritual or emotional side of human existence: a "man who believed neither in God nor in conscience". Anton Gill has written that Hitler wanted Catholicism to have "nothing at all to do with German society". Richard Overy describes Hitler as skeptical of all religious beliefAlan Bullock; Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives; Fontana Press; 1993; pp.413 Critic of atheism Dinesh D'Souza argues that "Hitler's leading advisers, such as Goebbels, Heydrich and Bormann, were atheists who were savagely hostile to religion" and Hitler and the Nazis "repudiated what they perceived as the Christian values of equality, compassion and weakness and extolled the atheist notions of the Nietzschean superman and a new society based on the 'will to power'".
When Hitler was out campaigning for power in Germany, he made opportunistic statements apparently in favour of "positive Christianity".Paul Berben; Dachau: The Official History 1933-1945; Norfolk Press; London; 1975; ; p. 138 In political speeches, Hitler spoke of an "almighty creator".Hitler, Adolf (1999). Mein Kampf. Ralph Mannheim, ed., New York: Mariner Books, pp. 65, 119, 152, 161, 214, 375, 383, 403, 436, 562, 565, 622, 632–633. According to Samuel Koehne of Deakin University, some recent works have "argued Hitler was a Deist". Hitler made various comments against "atheistic" movements. He associated atheism with Bolshevism, Communism and Jewish materialism. In 1933, the regime banned most atheistic and freethinking groups in Germany—other than those that supported the Nazis. The regime strongly opposed "godless communism" and most of Germany's freethinking (freigeist), atheist and largely left-wing organizations were banned. The regime also stated that the Nazi Germany needed some kind of belief.Norman H. Baynes, ed., The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922-August 1939. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1942, p. 378–386.William L. Shirer; The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich; Secker & Warburg; London; 1960; p234-240
According to Tom Rees, some researches suggest that atheists are more numerous in peaceful nations than they are in turbulent or warlike ones, but causality of this trend is not clear and there are many outliers. However, opponents of this view cite examples such as the Bolsheviks (in Soviet Russia) who were inspired by "an ideological creed which professed that all religion would atrophy [...] resolved to eradicate Christianity as such". In 1918, "[t]en Orthodox hierarchs were summarily shot" and "[c]hildren were deprived of any religious education outside the home". Increasingly draconian measures were employed. In addition to direct state persecution, the League of the Militant Godless was founded in 1925, churches were closed and vandalized and "by 1938 eighty bishops had lost their lives, while thousands of clerics were sent to labour camps".
After World War II
Across Eastern Europe following World War II, the parts of Nazi Germany and its allies and conquered states that had been overrun by the Soviet Red Army, along with Yugoslavia, became one-party Communist states, which like the Soviet Union were antipathetic to religion. Persecutions of religious leaders followed.Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Viking; 2003; p.566 & 568 The Soviet Union ended its truce against the Russian Orthodox Church and extended its persecutions to the newly Communist Eastern bloc. In Poland, Hungary, Lithuania and other Eastern European countries, Catholic leaders who were unwilling to be silent were denounced, publicly humiliated or imprisoned by the Communists. According to Geoffrey Blainey, leaders of the national Orthodox Churches in Romania and Bulgaria had to be "cautious and submissive".
Albania under Enver Hoxha became in 1967 the first (and to date only) formally declared atheist state, going far beyond what most other countries had attempted—completely prohibiting religious observance and systematically repressing and persecuting adherents. The right to religious practice was restored in the fall of communism in 1991. In 1967, Hoxha's regime conducted a campaign to extinguish religious life in Albania and by year's end over two thousand religious buildings were closed or converted to other uses and religious leaders were imprisoned and executed. Albania was declared to be the world's first atheist country by its leaders and Article 37 of the Albanian constitution of 1976 stated: "The State recognises no religion, and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people".David Binder, "Evolution in Europe; Albanian Leader Says the Country Will Be Democratized but Will Retain Socialism," The New York Times, May 14, 1990
In 1949, China became a Communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong' Chinese Communist Party. China itself had been a cradle of religious thought since ancient times, being the birthplace of Confucianism and Daoism. Under Communism, China became officially atheist, and though some religious practices were permitted to continue under state supervision, religious groups deemed a threat to order have been suppressed—as with Tibetan Buddhism since 1959 and Falun Gong in recent years. During the Cultural Revolution, Mao instigated "struggles" against the Four Olds: "old ideas, customs, culture, and habits of mind". In Buddhist Cambodia, influenced by Mao's Cultural Revolution, Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge also instigated a purge of religion during the Cambodian genocide, when all religious practices were forbidden and Buddhist monasteries were closed.Encyclopædia Britannica Online - Cambodia: Religion; accessed 10 November 2013 Evangelical Christian writer Dinesh D'Souza writes: "The crimes of atheism have generally been perpetrated through a hubristic ideology that sees man, not God, as the creator of values. Using the latest techniques of science and technology, man seeks to displace God and create a secular utopia here on earth". He also contends:
And who can deny that Stalin and Mao, not to mention Pol Pot and a host of others, all committed atrocities in the name of a Communist ideology that was explicitly atheistic? Who can dispute that they did their bloody deeds by claiming to be establishing a 'new man' and a religion-free utopia? These were mass murders performed with atheism as a central part of their ideological inspiration, they were not mass murders done by people who simply happened to be atheist.
In response to this line of criticism, Sam Harris wrote:
The problem with fascism and communism, however, is not that they are too critical of religion; the problem is that they are too much like religions. Such regimes are dogmatic to the core and generally give rise to personality cults that are indistinguishable from cults of religious hero worship. Auschwitz, the gulag and the killing fields were not examples of what happens when human beings reject religious dogma; they are examples of political, racial and nationalistic dogma run amok. There is no society in human history that ever suffered because its people became too reasonable.
Richard Dawkins has stated that Stalin's atrocities were influenced not by atheism, but by dogmatic Marxism and concludes that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists, they did not do their deeds "in the name of atheism". On other occasions, Dawkins has replied to the argument that Hitler and Stalin were antireligious with the response that Hitler and Stalin also grew moustaches in an effort to show the argument as fallacious. Instead, Dawkins argues in The God Delusion: "What matters is not whether Hitler and Stalin were atheists, but whether atheism systematically influences people to do bad things. There is not the smallest evidence that it does".
Historian Borden Painter assessed Dawkins' claims on Stalin, atheism and violence in light of mainstream historical scholarship, stating that Dawkins did not use reliable sources to reach his conclusions. He argues: "He omits what any textbook would tell him: Marxism included atheism as a piece of its secular ideology that claimed a basis in scientific thinking originating in the Enlightenment". D'Souza responds to Dawkins that an individual need not explicitly invoke atheism in committing atrocities if it is already implied in his worldview as is the case in Marxism.
In a 1993 address to American bishops, Pope John Paul II spoke of a spreading "practical atheism" in modern societies which was clouding the moral sense of humans and fragmenting society:
Journalist Robert Wright has argued that some New Atheists discourage looking for deeper root causes of conflicts when they assume that religion is the sole root of the problem. Wright argues that this can discourage people from working to change the circumstances that actually give rise to those conflicts. Mark Chaves has said that the New Atheists, amongst others who comment on religions, have committed the religious congruence fallacy in their writings by assuming that beliefs and practices remain static and coherent through time. He believes that the late Christopher Hitchens committed this error by assuming that the drive for congruence is a defining feature of religion and that Daniel Dennett has done it by overlooking the fact that religious actions are dependent on the situation, just like other actions.
Atheism and science
Early modern atheism developed in the 17th century and Winfried Schroeder, a historian of atheism, has noted that science during this time did not strengthen the case for atheism.Schroeder, Winfried. Ursprunge des Atheismus: Untersuchungen zur Metaphysik- und Religionskritik des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts. Tubingen: Frommann- Holzboog, 1998. Pg 79-80, 291, 297-302 In the 18th century, Denis Diderot argued that atheism was less scientific than metaphysics. Prior to Charles Darwin, the findings of biology did not play a major part in the atheist's arguments since it was difficult to argue that life arose randomly as opposed to being designed. As Schroeder has noted, throughout the 17th and 18th centuries theists excelled atheists in their ability to make contributions to the serious study of biological processes. In the time of the Enlightenment, mechanical philosophy was developed by Christians such as Isaac Newton, René Descartes, Robert Boyle and Pierre Gassendi who saw a self-sustained and autonomous universe as an intrinsically Christian belief. The mechanical world was seen as providing strong evidence against atheism since nature had evidence of order and providence, instead of chaos and spontaneity. However, since the 19th century both atheists and theists have said that science supports their worldviews. Historian of science John Henry has noted that before the 19th century science was generally cited to support many theological positions. However, materialist theories in natural philosophy became more prominent from the 17th century onwards, giving more room for atheism to develop. Since the 19th century, science has been employed in both theistic and atheistic cultures, depending on the prevailing popular beliefs.
In reviewing the rise of modern science, Taner Edis notes that science does work without atheism and that atheism largely remains a position that is adopted for philosophical or ethical, rather than scientific reasons. The history of atheism is heavily invested in the philosophy of religion and this has resulted in atheism being weakly tied to other branches of philosophy and almost completely disconnected from science which means that it risks becoming stagnant and completely irrelevant to science.
Sociologist Steve Fuller wrote: "Atheism as a positive doctrine has done precious little for science". He notes: "More generally, Atheism has not figured as a force in the history of science not because it has been suppressed but because whenever it has been expressed, it has not specifically encouraged the pursuit of science".
Massimo Pigliucci noted that the Soviet Union had adopted an atheist ideology called Lysenkoism, which rejected Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution as capitalist propaganda, which was in sync with Stalin's dialectic materialism and ultimately impeded biological and agricultural research for many years, including the exiling and deaths of many valuable scientists. This part of history has symmetries with other ideologically driven ideas such as intelligent design, though in both cases religion and atheism are not the main cause, but blind commitments to worldviews. Lysenkoism reigned over Soviet science since the 1920s to the early 1960s where genetics was proclaimed a pseudoscience for more than 30 years despite significant advances in genetics in earlier years. It relied on Lamarckian views and rejected concepts such as genes and chromosomes and proponents claimed to have discovered that rye could transform into wheat and wheat into barley and that natural cooperation was observed in nature as opposed to natural selection. Ultimately, Lysenkoism failed to deliver on its promises in agricultural yields and had unfortunate consequences such as the arresting, firing, or execution of 3,000 biologists due to attempts from Lysenko to suppress opposition to his theory.
According to historian Geoffrey Blainey, in recent centuries literalist biblical accounts were undermined by scientific discoveries in archaeology, astronomy, biology, chemistry, geoscience, and physics, leading various thinkers to question the idea that God created the universe at all. However, he also notes: "Other scholars replied that the universe was so astonishing, so systematic, and so varied that it must have a divine maker. Criticisms of the accuracy of the Book of Genesis were therefore illuminating, but minor". Some philosophers, such as Alvin Plantinga, have argued the universe was fine-tuned for life. Atheists have sometimes responded by referring to the anthropic principle.
Physicist Karl W. Giberson and philosopher of science Mariano Artigas reviewed the views of some notable atheist scientists such as Carl Sagan, Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, Stephen Hawking, Steven Weinberg and E. O. Wilson which have engaged popular writing which include commentary on what science is, society and religion for the lay public. Giberson and Artigas note that though such authors provide insights from their fields, they often misinform the public by engaging in non-scientific commentary on society, religion and meaning under the guise of non-existent scientific authority and no scientific evidence. Some impressions these six authors make that are erroneous and false include: science is mainly about origins and that most scientists work in some aspect of either cosmic or biological evolution, scientists are either agnostic or atheistic and science is incompatible and even hostile to religion. To these impressions, Giberson and Artigas note that the overwhelming majority of science articles in any journal in any field have nothing to do with origins because most research is funded by taxpayers or private corporations so ultimately practical research that benefit people, the environment, health and technology are the core focus of science; significant portions of scientists are religious and spiritual; and the majority of scientists are not hostile to religion since no scientific organization has any stance that is critical to religion, the scientific community is diverse in terms of worldviews and there is no collective opinion on religion.
Primatologist Frans de Waal has criticized atheists for often presenting science and religion to audiences in a simplistic and false view of conflict, thereby propagating a myth that has been dispelled by history. He notes that there are dogmatic parallels between atheists and some religious people in terms of how they argue about many issues.
Evolutionary biologist Kenneth R. Miller has argued that when scientists make claims on science and theism or atheism, they are not arguing scientifically at all and are stepping beyond the scope of science into discourses of meaning and purpose. What he finds particularly odd and unjustified is in how atheists often come to invoke scientific authority on their non-scientific philosophical conclusions like there being no point or no meaning to the universe as the only viable option when the scientific method and science never have had any way of addressing questions of meaning or lack of meaning, or the existence or non-existence of God in the first place. Atheists do the same thing theists do on issues not pertaining to science like questions on God and meaning.
Theologian scientist Alister McGrath points out that atheists have misused biology in terms of both evolution as "Darwinism" and Darwin himself, in their "atheist apologetics" in order to propagate and defend their worldviews. He notes that in atheist writings there is often an implicit appeal to an outdated "conflict" model of science and religion which has been discredited by historical scholarship, there is a tendency to go beyond science to make non-scientific claims like lack of purpose and characterizing Darwin as if he was an atheist and his ideas as promoting atheism. McGrath notes that Darwin never called himself an atheist nor did he and other early advocates of evolution see his ideas as propagating atheism and that numerous contributors to evolutionary biology were Christians.
Oxford Professor of Mathematics John Lennox has written that the issues one hears about science and religion have nothing to do with science, but are merely about theism and atheism because top level scientists abound on both sides. Furthermore, he criticizes atheists who argue from scientism because sometimes it results in dismissals of things like philosophy based on ignorance of what philosophy entails and the limits of science. He also notes that atheist scientists in trying to avoid the visible evidence for God ascribe creative power to less credible candidates like mass and energy, the laws of nature and theories of those laws. Lennox notes that theories that Hawking appeals to such as the multiverse are speculative and untestable and thus do not amount to science.
Physicist Paul Davies of Arizona State University has written that the very notion of physical law is a theological one in the first place: "Isaac Newton first got the idea of absolute, universal, perfect, immutable laws from the Christian doctrine that God created the world and ordered it in a rational way". John Lennox has argued that science itself sits more comfortably with theism than with atheism and "as a scientist I would say... where did modern science come from? It didn't come from atheism... modern science arose in the 16th and 17th centuries in Western Europe, and of course people ask why did it happen there and then, and the general consensus which is often called Merton's Thesis is, to quote CS Lewis who formulated it better than anybody I know... 'Men became scientific. Why? Because they expected law in nature, and they expected law in nature because they believed in a lawgiver.' In other words, it was belief in God that was the motor that drove modern science".
Francis Collins, the American physician and geneticist who lead the Human Genome Project, argues that theism is more rational than atheism. Collins also found Lewis persuasive and after reading Mere Christianity came to believe that a rational person would be more likely to believe in a god. Collins argues: "How is it that we, and all other members of our species, unique in the animal kingdom, know what's right and what's wrong... I reject the idea that that is an evolutionary consequence, because that moral law sometimes tells us that the right thing to do is very self-destructive. If I'm walking down the riverbank, and a man is drowning, even if I don't know how to swim very well, I feel this urge that the right thing to do is to try to save that person. Evolution would tell me exactly the opposite: preserve your DNA. Who cares about the guy who's drowning? He's one of the weaker ones, let him go. It's your DNA that needs to survive. And yet that's not what's written within me".
Dawkins addresses this criticism by showing that the evolutionary process can account for the development of altruistic traits in organisms. However, molecular biologist Kenneth R. Miller argues that Dawkin's conception of evolution and morality is a misunderstanding of sociobiology since though evolution would have provided the biological drives and desires we have, it does not tell us what is good or right or wrong or moral.
New Atheism
In the early 21st century, a group of authors and media personalities in Britain and the United States—often referred to as the "New Atheists"—have argued that religion must be proactively countered, criticized so as to reduce its influence on society. Prominent among these voices have been Christopher Hitchens, Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett and Sam Harris.
One critic of New Atheism has been the American-Iranian religious studies scholar Reza Aslan. In a New York interview in 2014, Aslan argued that the New Atheists held an "often comically simplistic view of religion that gave atheism a bad name" and continued:
Professor of comparative studies Jeff Nall argues that the New Atheists provide a foundation that is embedded in errors and fallacies for "fundamentalist atheists". He asserts that fundamentalist atheism seeks to eradicate religion and anoint atheism, based on three major fallacies: firstly, an intellectual tunnel vision and failure to accurately examine religious belief honestly in favour of labelling religion as violent, averse to critical debate, scientific development, tolerance, and social advancement; secondly, treating fundamentalist forms of religion as the root of all evil and as the norm on all religion; and, thirdly, intellectual intolerance toward religious thought and belief.
Professor of anthropology and sociology Jack David Eller believes that the four principal New Atheist authors—Hitchens, Dawkins, Dennett and Harris—were not offering anything new in terms of arguments to disprove the existence of gods. He also criticized them for their focus on the dangers of theism as opposed to the falsifying of theism, which results in mischaracterizing religions, taking local theisms as the essence of religion itself and for focusing on the negative aspects of religion in the form of an "argument from benefit" in the reverse.
Professors of philosophy and religion Jeffrey Robbins and Christopher Rodkey take issue with "the evangelical nature of the new atheism, which assumes that it has a Good News to share, at all cost, for the ultimate future of humanity by the conversion of as many people as possible". They find similarities between the new atheism and evangelical Christianity and conclude that the all-consuming nature of both "encourages endless conflict without progress" between both extremities. Sociologist William Stahl notes: "What is striking about the current debate is the frequency with which the New Atheists are portrayed as mirror images of religious fundamentalists". He discusses where both have "structural and epistemological parallels" and argues that "both the New Atheism and fundamentalism are attempts to recreate authority in the face of crises of meaning in late modernity".
The English philosopher Roger Scruton has said that saying that religion is damaging to mankind is just as ridiculous as saying that love is damaging to mankind. Like love, religion leads to conflict, cruelty, abuse and even wars, yet it also brings people joy, solitude, hope and redemption. He therefore states that New Atheists cherry-pick, ignoring the most crucial arguments in the favour of religion, whilst also reiterating the few arguments against religion. He has also stated that religion is an irrefutable part of the human condition, and that denying this is futile.
American religious studies scholar David Bentley Hart criticized New Atheism in Atheist Delusions for being “as contemptible as any other form of dreary fundamentalism” because it “consists entirely in vacuous arguments afloat on oceans of historical ignorance, made turbulent by storms of strident self-righteousness.” Of the leading New Atheists, Hart has the most respect for Daniel Dennett, but concludes that “Dennett’s argument consists in little more than the persistent misapplication of quantitative and empirical terms to unquantifiable and intrinsically nonempirical realities" and "sustained by classifications that are entirely arbitrary.”
Richard Dawkins ...does not hesitate, for instance, to claim that "natural selection is the ultimate explanation for our existence." But this is a silly assertion and merely reveals that Dawkins does not understand the words he is using. The question of existence does not concern how it is that the present arrangement of the world came about, from causes already internal to the world, but how it is that anything (including any cause) can exist at all.
In The Experience of God (2013), Hart primarily makes the case that most criticisms of theism by the New Atheists do not apply to the God of classical theism but instead to a deistic deity conceived of much later in history. Along the way, Hart covers many other specific topics including extended critiques of Daniel Dennett's philosophy of mind and an outline of logical failures in The Selfish Gene'' by Richard Dawkins.
See also
References
Criticism of religion |
4159959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shute%20Shield | Shute Shield | The Shute Shield, known as the Charter Hall Shute Shield, is a semi-professional rugby union competition in Sydney, Australia. It is the premier club competition in New South Wales. The Shute Shield is awarded to the winning team from the Sydney premiership grand final held at the end of the club rugby season.
History
Club-based rugby football began some time before 1865. The Sydney University Football Club began in 1863 (although this date is questioned by some historians) and is the oldest existing football club outside the British Isles. The first recorded rugby season in Australia was in 1865 with Sydney University, Sydney Football Club and the Australian Club reported as playing games.
On 24 June 1874, a meeting was held between ten prominent football clubs to create a governing body to administer the game within New South Wales. The Southern Rugby Football Union was formed. The first task of the Union was to decide on a set of rules for all clubs to adhere to. Clubs were given "senior" or "junior" status which could change from season to season. Although a governing body had now been formed, there was no centrally controlled competition until many years later.
The Sydney Rugby Premiership
Initially, a competition was loosely arranged by the Union where the clubs were in charge of organising their own matches. This would result in clubs not playing the same teams or the same number of teams. A "Premier Club of the Colony" was declared by the Union at an end of year meeting. It was not necessarily given to the team that had the best results on the field. Results mattered, but other criteria may have also been used. What these were are not known.
The year 1880 saw the Southern Rugby Football Union endure the first splintering of the football code in Australia. It was during this season that a newspaper "war" began. Discussions centred around the merits of Rugby Football, British Association Football (Soccer) and the Victorian game (Aussie Rules Football). As a result of these heated discussions, an association was formed under the Victorian rules with two strong clubs formed to play the game. No sooner than the dust had settled and another association was formed under the British Association rules. Despite this new competition, Rugby Football held sway as the premier code in Sydney.
In 1883, the Gardiner Challenge Cup was introduced with a mixture of "senior" and "junior" clubs competing. Foundation clubs included Redfern, Sydney University, Wallaroo, Newtown, Burwood, Oriental, Glebe, Balmain, St. Leonards, Parramatta, Arfoma and Paddington. The first Cup was won by Redfern who were undefeated. At the beginning of the season, a proposal was put to the Southern Rugby Union to change the rules determining how a game was decided. Prior to the 1883 season, a game was decided by the number of goals scored. The amendment that was successfully passed by the Union declared that games would be decided by number of points scored. A try was awarded 2 points, a conversion was 3 points and a goal kicked from the field of play 4 points.
Within a few years of the Gardiner Cup beginning, the Premiership had developed to become a more structured competition with a centralised list of fixtures and rounds. An official ladder was produced and maintained with points given for wins, draws and byes. By the 1890s a finals system was introduced to assist in determining the premiership winner.
The Sydney Rugby Premiership came under the control of the Metropolitan Rugby Union, a branch of the New South Wales Rugby Football Union (formally the Southern Rugby Football Union), in 1897.
The District Competition
As early as 1893 it had been suggested to change the current structure of the premiership to a district-based formula. In early 1900, a meeting of the Metropolitan Rugby Union was held and a recommendation to establish district football in the coming season was made. Eight clubs competed in the inaugural season: Balmain, Glebe, Newtown, South Sydney, North Sydney, Western Suburbs, Eastern Suburbs and Sydney University. The first district competition was won by Glebe who were successful in all three grade competitions.
It was during this period, in 1907, that the supremacy of the Sydney Rugby Premiership was threatened. The imminent arrival of a professional football team from New Zealand sparked heated discussion about professionalism and compensation pay for lost time at work. In August of that year, the New South Wales Rugby Football League was formed. During the following season, a professional league competition was begun. Over the next few years, players switched across to the professional competition resulting in crowd numbers falling at Union matches.
Despite this, the district competition continued to run, rebuilding its supporter base, until the outbreak of World War 1 with the last season held during 1914. With the outbreak of war, competition was suspended.
The Return of the Premiership
At the conclusion of the war, the Sydney Rugby Premiership was recommenced. With the competition returning under the control of the NSW Rugby Football Union, only six clubs competed: Cambridge, Eastern Suburbs, Glebe-Balmain, Manly, Sydney University and YMCA. The competition remained as a district-based premiership until approximately the 1940s.
The Shute Shield
The Shute Memorial Shield was struck in honour of the late Robert Elliott Stewart Shute, who died on 6 June 1922, aged 23, following a match at Manly Oval. Shute enlisted in April 1917 and served as a gunner in 30th Battery, Field Artillery A.I.F. during World War One.
On his return to Australia, Shute took up his engineering studies at the University of Sydney and joined the Sydney University rugby club as a front row forward in the first XV. Of Shute's death from a fractured skull and cerebral haemorrhage, the Sydney Morning Herald, Wednesday 7 June 1922 reported:
As a result of injuries received while playing at Manly in the Rugby football match between the team which toured New Zealand and the Next 15, Robert Elliott Shute, a front row forward in the latter team, died at a private hospital at Manly yesterday morning. The accident occurred during the latter portion of the first spell of the match. Shute secured the ball and when tackled fell heavily. He was removed to a private hospital, where it was ascertained that he was suffering from cerebral hemorrhage. Without recovering consciousness he died at 6am. A former pupil of Sydney Grammar School, Shute, who was 23 years of age, was a third year student at Sydney University and he played for the University first fifteen. He served in the AIF for four years.
The University club had the shield made following his death and donated it in 1923 to the NSWRFU to be used as a perpetual trophy for the Sydney first grade competition.
In 1966, the Sydney Rugby Union was formed to administer the running of Sydney rugby including the Shute Shield.
The Shute Shield marked its 100th year in 2022.
The NSW Championship
In late 1986, the Sydney Rugby Union (SRU) approved a new competition structure for the Shute Shield. The SRU were concerned about the falling number of clubs involved in the lower divisions. The new structure involved distributing all teams in the three competitions evenly across three new divisions with some teams earning the right to play for the premiership in the first division.
The clubs that made up first division were opposed to the new structure and sought the opportunity to form a breakaway competition affiliated directly with the NSWRFU. This resulted in the formation of a 10 club competition called the NSW Championship, while the remaining lower division clubs remained with the SRU Championship. Both competitions ran during the 1987 and 1988 seasons.
For the 1989 season, the NSW Championship clubs returned to the SRU and the Shute Shield.
In 1992, the NSW Rugby Union again took over the administration of the Shute Shield competition. In 2011, the SRU took control of the competition once again.
Toohey's New Cup and the Australian Rugby Championship
From 2002 through 2006 the Toohey's New Cup was run to fill the void between Grade Rugby and Super Rugby in Australia. This became the Sydney Premiership competition, with the Shute Shield becoming the First Grade pre-season competition. However, in 2004 the Shute Shield was awarded to the Second Grade competition.
In 2007 the Toohey's New Cup was merged into the Shute Shield to become the Toohey's New Shute Shield when an attempt at an Australian wide domestic rugby competition, the Australian Rugby Championship, was started. The Australian Rugby Championship only lasted the one season.
Shute Shield Clubs
Current clubs
Promotion/relegation from Sydney rugby premiership
After Eastwood joined the premiership in 1947, the following 11 clubs competed in the Sydney rugby premiership:
Drummoyne, Eastern Suburbs, Eastwood, Gordon, Manly, Northern Suburbs, Parramatta, Randwick, St George, Sydney University, Western Suburbs.
After the 1951 season, Western Suburbs were relegated to the Sydney Sub-Districts competition.
The premiership became the 1st division when a 2nd division was created in 1962.
In 1966, Western Suburbs and University of NSW were promoted to 1st division from the 2nd division.
In 1971, Warringah and Port Hacking were promoted to 1st division from the 2nd division.
In 1976, Hornsby and Macquarie University were promoted to 1st division from the 2nd division.
After the 1978 season, the Sydney Rugby Union reduced the 1st division to 10 teams, but introduced automatic annual promotion and relegation between the 1st and 2nd divisions.
The following changes occurred for the following seasons.
1979 Relegated clubs – Hornsby, Macquarie University, Port Hacking, St George, Drummoyne, Sydney University
1980 Promoted clubs – Sydney University, St George. Relegated clubs – University of NSW, Western Suburbs.
1981 Promoted clubs – Western Suburbs, Hornsby. Relegated clubs – Eastern Suburbs, Eastwood.
1982 Promoted clubs – Eastern Suburbs, Eastwood. Relegated clubs – Hornsby, Northern Suburbs.
1983 Promoted club – Port Hacking. Relegated club – Sydney University.
1984 Promoted club – Sydney University. Relegated club – Eastern Suburbs.
1985 Promoted club – Eastern Suburbs. Relegated club – St George.
1986 Promoted club – St George. Relegated club – Port Hacking
Automatic promotion and relegation ended after the 1986 season.
In 1989, Southern Districts took the place of St George (who had merged with Port Hacking to form the new club).
In 1990 Northern Suburbs were promoted to 1st division.
In 1991 Drummoyne were promoted to 1st division.
Before the 1992 season, Hornsby took legal action against the Sydney Rugby Union seeking promotion in place of Drummoyne but failed, at least partly because the NSWRU had taken over the running of the Sydney rugby premiership for the 1992 season.
The 2nd division ended after the 1992 season, with the NSWRU merging the 2nd division into the NSW Suburban RU competition.
In 1995 Drummoyne were dropped from the Sydney (now NSWRU) premiership and Canberra, Newcastle and Penrith were added.
In 2000 Newcastle were dropped from the NSWRU premiership.
In 2001 Canberra were dropped from the NSWRU premiership.
In 2004 Canberra were re-admitted to the NSWRU premiership.
In 2006 Canberra were dropped from the NSWRU premiership.
In 2007 Illawarra (Illawarriors) were admitted to the NSWRU premiership, but played only that season.
In 2018, a few rounds into the season, Penrith were dropped from the (again) Sydney rugby premiership.
In 2020, Penrith and Hunter (formerly Newcastle) Wildfires were re-admitted to the Sydney rugby premiership.
Ahead of the 2022 season, Penrith were dropped again from the Sydney rugby premiership.
Former clubs
Below is a list of some of the clubs that have once competed in the Sydney rugby premiership.
The following clubs also played in the Sydney premiership in the period after 1900:
Cambridge (1919)
YMCA (1919, 1923-1929)
Mosman (1920)
GPS Old Boys (1921-1924)
Petersham (1922)
Police (1929)
Illawarra (Illawarriors) (2006 pre-season Shute Shield, 2007 Toohey New Cup)
Note: The Sydney premiership became the 1st division when a 2nd division was added for 31 seasons from 1962-1992.
Media coverage
From 1957 until 2014, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation had broadcast the Match of the Day from the Shute Shield competition in NSW/ACT every Saturday afternoon and replayed nationally on Tuesday mornings. The ABC ended its 57-year partnership with the competition at the completion of the 2014 season, following the Australian Government's decision to cut funding to the national broadcaster.
On 17 March 2015, Sydney Rugby formally announced that the Seven Network would become the new free-to-air Match of the Day broadcasters of the Shute Shield in NSW, commencing on 21 March on 7TWO showing a match between Eastern Suburbs and Gordon. The Prime Network broadcasts to regional areas of NSW. This agreement has since been renewed, with the current contract running through the 2024 season.
On November 9, 2020, Nine Network confirmed their broadcast deal with Rugby Australia, giving them the rights to the Shute Shield. Beginning in 2021, 4 games a season will be televised live on one of Nine's free-to-air channels. The remainder of the games will be broadcast live on streaming service Stan.
Competition format
The competition format currently involves an 18-week round-robin competition which is followed by a three-week play-off series culminating in a grand final. The playoffs are contested by the top six placed teams following the round-robin. The first week of the play-offs sees 1st play 6th, 2nd play 5th and 3rd play 4th. The lowest two losers are eliminated and the three winners plus the highest ranked loser proceed to week 2 of the play-offs. The two winners from week 2 proceed to the Grand Final in week 3.
Premiership results
Up until 1886, the premiers were declared by the Union at an end-of-year meeting. It is not clear how the premiership was decided at these meetings.
From 1886 to 1889, the season consisted of a round of games organised as a round-robin, with the premiership awarded to the team who finished the season at the top of the ladder. However, in 1887 there was a final to decide the premier.
In 1890 and 1891, there was a final played after a round robin.
From 1892–1898, after the round-robin first round, there were knockout competitions held to determine the winners of the RAS Shield and the SCG Trophy, with the results counting for premiership points and with the premiership awarded to the team who finished the season at the top of the ladder. In 1899 the results of the knockout matches did not count for premiership points.
From 1900 onwards, the season consisted of either one or two rounds of round-robin games. The premiership was awarded to the team who finished the season at the top of the ladder. After 1907 there was a final played in some years after the round-robin.
In 1919 and 1920, the premiership returned to the previous structure of a round-robin. Again, the premiership was awarded to the team who finished the season at the top of the ladder.
From 1921, there was a final played in some years after the round robin.
From 1932, the premiership was decided by a Grand Final.
For 1987-88 a NSW Championship existed alongside the Shute Shield. The first grade teams played for the rebel NSW Championship, while the Shield contained clubs from the lower grades.
In 2000 a challenge shield in the name of Sir Roden Cutler VC was introduced, with the holders to defend it each time they play a ‘home’ game. It was initially awarded to Eastwood in recognition of their Shute Shield win in 1999.
From 2002 to 2006, the Shute Shield was awarded for a pre-season competition.
The Premier Club of the Colony
The Gardiner Challenge Cup
The Royal Agricultural Society Shield & The Sydney Cricket Ground Trophy
The District Premiership
The Shute Shield
The NSW Championship
The Sydney Rugby Premiership
Sir Roden Cutler VC Shield (Commenced 2000)
Arthur Roden Cutler (1916-2002) was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry in Syria in 1941 during WW11, knighted in 1965 after many diplomatic postings and is the longest-serving Governor in the history of NSW.
Introduced at the beginning of the 2000 season, this trophy honours a great supporter of the game of Rugby. The Shield was initially held by Eastwood (1999 premiers) and is defended at each home game by the current holder
The number in brackets is the number of successful defenses of the Shield
n.b. records are very incomplete (2000-2009) and will be progressively updated
Individual awards
Ken Catchpole Medal
Fairfax/Herald Cup
See also
Australian club championship rugby union
List of Australian club rugby union competitions
New South Wales Rugby Union
New South Wales Waratahs
List of oldest rugby union competitions
Notes
References
External links
Sports competitions in Sydney
Rugby union competitions in New South Wales
Recurring sporting events established in 1923
1923 establishments in Australia
Sports leagues established in 1923 |
4160011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Lanyon | Charles Lanyon | Sir Charles Lanyon DL, JP (6 January 1813 – 31 May 1889) was an English architect of the 19th century. His work is most closely associated with Belfast, Northern Ireland.
Biography
Lanyon was born in Eastbourne, Sussex (now East Sussex) in 1813. His father was John Jenkinson Lanyon, a purser in the Royal Navy, and his mother was Catherine Anne Mortimer.
Following his education, he became an apprentice civil engineer with Jacob Owen in Portsmouth. When Owen was made senior Engineer and Architect of the Irish Board of Works and moved to Dublin, Lanyon followed. In 1835 he married Owen's daughter, Elizabeth Helen. They had ten children, including Sir William Owen Lanyon, an army officer and colonial administrator. Charles Lanyon was county surveyor in Kildare briefly, before moving on to Antrim in 1836. He remained county surveyor of Antrim until 1860 when he resigned from the post to concentrate on private work and other interests.
Lanyon was elected Mayor of Belfast in 1862, and Conservative MP for the city between 1865 and 1868. In 1868 he was also knighted and served on the Select Committee on Scientific Instruction.
He lost his Belfast parliamentary seat in 1868 to William Johnston (the candidate of “Protestant Workingmen”) but continued to 1871 to serve as a Belfast Town councillor. From 1862 to 1886 he was Belfast Harbour Commissioner. He served as Deputy Lieutenant for County Antrim and was appointed High Sheriff of Antrim in 1876. He was also a Justice of the Peace for many years.
His other business interests included being director of the Blackstaff Flax Spinning Company and chairman of several railway companies. He was made director of the Northern Counties Railway in 1870, but resigned in 1887 because of ill-health.
Alongside his business activities he was an active Freemason and served as Provincial Deputy Grand Master of Belfast and North Down between 1863 and 1868, Provincial Deputy Grand Master of Antrim between 1868 and 1883 and Provincial Grand Master of Antrim between 1883 and 1889.
Lanyon lived at 'The Abbey' a grand house in Whiteabbey, which eventually became a sanitorium during World War I and is now part of Whiteabbey Hospital. He died there on 31 May 1889 and is buried in Knockbreda Cemetery. His will is recorded in the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland:
8 August 1889, LANYON, Sir Charles, Effects £53,785 1s 3d. The will (with 5 codiciles) of Sir Charles Lanyon, late of the Abbey, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim, Knight, to died 31 May 1889 at the same place, was proved at Belfast by John Lanyon of Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park Belfast, CE Herbert Owen Lanyon or Castletown Terrace, Belfast, Merchant, and Elizabeth Helen Lanyon of the Abbey, Whiteabbey, Spinster.
Famous works
Antrim Coast Road (1832–1842)
The north Antrim coast was difficult to reach for many years. The Irish Commissioners of Public Works promoted the construction of the Antrim Coast Road between 1832 and 1842 by civil engineer William Bald. Lanyon was the County Surveyor for part of this time (1836 to 1842) and would have had a considerable supervisory role. The route runs from Larne up through Ballygalley, Glenarm, Carnlough, Glenariff to Ballycastle. It involved removal of thousands of tonnes of rock using explosives, and building sea walls. Part of this route included the Glendun Viaduct.
Ballymoney Court House (1838)
This building one of Charles Lanyon's earlier buildings was completed in 1838. It cost £1,125, plus £40 for the bench and fitting up. It is made mostly of basalt blocks with brick dressings. The main doorway is surrounded by a thick stone frame. A lot of the window frames and sills are made of brown basalt. Strangely enough it is not currently a listed building.
Frosses Road (1839)
When a road was needed from Ballymena to Ballymoney, the straightest route was over the large Frosses Bog. Lanyon planted 1500 large Scots pine trees in two lines so that the roots would intermingle, and would create a surface for a road to be built.
Glendun Viaduct, Glendun (1839)
This huge arch-shaped viaduct was finally completely built in 1839.
Palm House, Botanic Gardens, Belfast (1840)
The palm house was probably Lanyon's only building of this type. It is a Curvilinear Iron and Glass Structure, and is one of the oldest surviving examples in the world.
St. John's Church, Whitehouse (1840)
This Church of Ireland Church was opened in 1840, by licence. It cost £716.16.0 to build. This was and still is one of the most successful churches in the Carnmoney Parish. It was designed for free by Lanyon who was a member of Carnmoney Parish. At the side of the church Lanyon built a small school hall for £300, which was used as a school until 1930. Then it was used as a NAAFI mess for the troops in the second world war, but it was demolished in 1965 to make way for a new church hall.
St John's, Glynn (1841)
This was built in 1841 for a cost of £800.
Raloo Parish Church, Glenoe (1842)
This church was built in 1842 for the cost of £436.0.0. and was designed to hold the entire population of the village (less than 200).
Gills Almshouses, Carrickfergus (1842)
This was designed to replace the old charity houses in 1842 which were in very bad repair. The front is symmetrical on either sides with black bricks on the edge it is made of normal sandstone, painted white. The Almshouse was not always white. The original sandstone was crumbling away, so it was rendered. This explains why the white walls stand out from the cornerstones instead of the other way around.
Gill's Almshouses: A : 1842; Charles Lanyon, architect. The charitable endowment of Henry Gill who, dying in 1761, bequeathed "to fourteen aged men, decayed in their circumstances, £10 each per annum and also houses and gardens", in Ellis Street (see No. 23a). Later this further block was built facing the harbour. The pretty Tudor revival style is reminiscent of contemporary churches and schools designed by the same architect, then County Surveyor of Antrim. The middle and wing bays of the symmetrical five-bay front project slightly and have tall double-shouldered gables with curious finials like inverted gate posts. Beneath the datestone the central front doorway has a four-centred arch, recessed surround, and a hood moulding with big cabbage-like bosses all dulled by dark paint. The intermediate bays have square windows with plain chamfered frames. Each wing bay has a triple window, the centre light taller than its neighbours, embraced by a label moulding which echoes the stepping of the gables. Single pointed lancets with mouldings akin to that on the front door light the gables. Above the steep tiled roof rise two chimneys with a pair of diagon¬ally set stacks apiece.
Nowadays it appears that the almshouses rival the inmates in their decayed circumstances, for, while the black and white paint-work is tidy, the facade shows an alarming inclination to land at the feet of those who stand in front to admire it. This is a good little build¬ing, adding much to the town's seafront, and worthy of careful renovation. Happily the James Butcher Housing Association is now undertaking this work.
Ulster Institute for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, Lisburn Road, Belfast (1845)
Lanyon built this large redbrick building on the Lisburn Road, on the site currently occupied by the Medical Biology Centre (MBC), Queen's University of Belfast on which he based Queens College. Unlike Queens, it was not kept well and it was demolished in 1965.
Randalstown Viaducts, Randalstown (1847)
Out of these two bridges, only the taller, newer one is designed by Sir Charles. This one bridge is a 4 arch viaduct.
Queen's University (1849)
Lanyon designed the main building of Queen's University of Belfast in 1849, the design for the central tower was based on Magdalen College in Oxford, and is repeated in the smaller towers. The back of the building is not as intricate as the front, as the college had problems with funding. The building is famous for its Gothic Revival facade and Great Hall.
The main atrium of the Lanyon building houses a marble statue of Galileo. Most notable for his advances in Physics, he was also a deep thinker and Philosopher, resulting in the statue portrayed seated.
The Great Hall underwent an extensive £2.5m renovation in 2002, restoring it to Lanyon's original plans. The restoration was funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund and the hall was reopened by The Prince of Wales. Lanyon also designed the nearby Union Theological College.
The Abbey, Whiteabbey (1850)
Whiteabbey, a village in the parish of Carnmoney, Barony of Lower Belfast, County of Antrim and province of Ulster, 4 miles (N.) from Belfast on the shore of Belfast Lough; containing 71 houses and 391 inhabitants. It takes its name from an old abbey whose picturesque ruins consist of a chapel, the remains of which denote the early English style of architecture, but at what time or name or by whom founded it is not known.
Lewis, Samuel, A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland, vol.II, London: S Lewis & Co., 1837, p712
This house was designed and built in 1850 for Richard Davison an MP, on the site of another MP, Samuel Getty, who had a gentleman's cottage on the site. It was named "The Abbey" because it was on the site of an ancient Cistercian Abbey which stood nearby from 1215 to 1925. Its entrance is very like Abbeydene, but with no pillars.
Abbey, the residence of William Getty Esquire, is a spacious and handsome residence, possessing much taste in its style of construction and presenting a handsomely ornamented and stone-finished front. It is situationed in a handsome lawn of about 10 acres, which is well laid out and planted. Abbey was erected in 1835.
Ordnance Survey, Memoirs of Ireland, Parishes of County Antrim, 1, 1838–9
In 1897, the house was purchased by Granville Hotel Company for use as a tuberculosis hydrotherapy centre, employing Sebastian Kneipp's naturopathy technique.
The residence of Sir Charles Lanyon at Whiteabbey near Belfast has been purchased by a syndicate for conversion into a hydropatholic establishment. It stands on 33 acres and in a most picturesque situation.
The Irish Builder, 15 April 1897
Whiteabbey – At Whiteabbey near Belfast, the mansion known as "The Abbey" formerly the seat of Sir Charles Lanyon was purchased by Granville Hotel Company and converted into a Hydro with all the latest improvements. Ranges of baths had been inserted and a new wing will shortly be built.
The Irish Builder, 1 December 1899, p200
The private treatment centre became Whiteabbey Sanatorium during World War 1, then developed into Whiteabbey Hospital in the 1930s, with the construction of the Lanyon Building. It is currently a non-acute medical and surgical hospital.
Crumlin Road Gaol and Courthouse (1848/1850)
Lanyon designed the Crumlin Road Gaol and opposite Courthouse between 1846 and 1850. Built in an innovative style at the time and based on London's Pentonville prison, the design is known as the "radial cellular system", and "The Crum" was the first to be built in Ireland. The building has four separate wings, each one either 3 or 4 stories high. In total there are 640 individual cells which have small windows on the doors, leading to the inspection hall. A tunnel links the gaol to the courthouse on the opposite side of the road. The building is currently derelict. However, due to its historical and architectural significance a major restoration and redevelopment is planned. The two buildings are linked by an infamous tunnel.
People commented that Lanyon's experience with churches and lecture halls had influenced his design for the courthouse. Charles was instructed that the cost should not exceed £16,000 but he tendered £16,500 which was accepted. The building is two storied and in Neo-Palladian classical style. It was enlarged in 1905 when new blocks were added to either side of the façade. It was closed in June 1998 after nearly 150 years of use. It was sold to a private developer, Barry Gilligan in 2003. On 8 February 2004 there was a large fire which broke out in the Courthouse. The building was poorly secured and was used by local youths as a drinking den, but also was an attraction for Northern Ireland urban explorers. On 12 March 2009 the Courthouse was once again set on fire, destroying some of the front offices. Finally, on 15 August 2009, a major fire broke out destroying much of the remainder, and resulting in the building becoming hazardous.
Abbeydene, Whiteabbey (1850)
Abbeydene was built in 1850 for John Finlay, who was a flax and tow merchant. The building is made from gold sandstone, and has a grand front entrance with a tall wooden door and several sandstone pillars. From 1895 until 1915 Edward Robinson of "Robinson and Cleavers" lived here. Abbeydene was originally called Lismara when it was home to Sir Crawford McCullagh, 1st Baronet, renamed in 1948 when it became a nursing home. It was recently renovated and is now a single residence again.
Waringstown Presbyterian Church (1853)
Until 1846 Waringstown was part of the Dromore Presbytery.
At this time the growing population of Presbyterians led to linen merchant John Henning presenting a request that the 80 families in the area be approved as a separate congregation. The service were held in the loft of the weaving factory adjacent to Murray House up the Banbridge Road. Michael McMurray was appointed as the Minister in 1848. He married into the Brown family who provided the site for The Desmesne in the village. In 1851the foundation for the new church in Mill Hill was laid and by 1853 the church was open for worship. The architect chosen to design the church was Ireland's foremost architect, Sir Charles Lanyon
Belfast Custom House
Considered by many to be Belfast's finest architectural feature, Lanyon designed the Custom House in 1857. Built in the Italian Renaissance style, the building features carved statues of Britannia, Neptune and Mercury. Until the 1950s the steps of the building served as Belfast's Speaker's Corner. It was here that trade union leader James Larkin addressed crowds of up to 20,000 people during the 1907 Belfast Dock strike. The writer Anthony Trollope was employed here before finding fame. Today Customs House Square and the adjoining Queen's Square are Belfast City Centre's main venue for free concerts and public events. McHugh's Bar and The Albert Clock are also located here.
Sinclair Seaman's Presbyterian Church
Lanyon designed Sinclair Seaman's Presbyterian Church in 1856. Thomas Sinclair commissioned the church in memory of his father John Sinclair, who was a merchant from Belfast. Located on Corporation Square in Belfast's docks area, locally known as Sailortown, the church has a distinctive maritime theme. The lectern is made in the shape of a ship's prow. It also features a brass wheel and capstan from a World War I wreck, navigation lights from a Guinness barge, and the ship's bell from the pre-World War I battleship HMS Hood.
Castle Leslie
Castle Leslie, situated in Glaslough, County Monaghan, Ireland, was designed by Lanyon in 1870 for John Leslie MP. Leslie was a descendant of Bishop Charles Leslie.
Other works
Other works by Lanyon in Belfast include the Linenhall Library, Belfast Castle, the Palm House at the Belfast Botanic Gardens, Stranmillis House, The Assembly Rooms in Waring Street, the Masonic Hall in Arthur Square and both the Queen's Bridge and Ormeau Bridge. He also designed Falls Road Methodist Church, Divis Street, Belfast, which was opened in 1854 and closed in 1966 when it was replaced by Divis Tower.
Outside of Belfast, Lanyon is famous for planting the Frosses Trees in 1839. Lanyon planted approximately 1,500 Scots Pine trees along the edge of what is now the A26 road, just north of the town of Ballymena. The overhanging trees are a well-known landmark for travellers en route to the north Antrim coast. For safety reasons the majority of the original trees have been cut down, with just 104 remaining.
The Campanile of the University of Dublin, Trinity College, was designed by Lanyon and completed in 1853.
Lanyon designed an extension to the east side of The Royal St. George Yacht Club in Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire) in 1865 which was accepted in principle. However uproar was caused at Committee level by the proposal, and it was rejected in favour of an alternative proposal by E.T. Owen.
Lanyon redesigned Killyleagh Castle and designed Drenagh Estate, bridges, viaducts and mausoleums and over 50 churches in Belfast and throughout Ireland.
Legacy
Alongside William J. Barre, Lanyon is considered Belfast's most important architect of the Victorian era. During this period Belfast was expanding greatly, becoming Ireland's most important industrial city, briefly becoming larger in population than Dublin. Lanyon formed a partnership in 1854 with his former apprentice William Henry Lynn. In 1860 the two incorporated with Charles' son John Lanyon as Lanyon, Lynn & Lanyon, Civil Engineers and Architects. Lanyon, Lynn & Lanyon was dissolved in 1872.
A blue plaque commemorating Lanyon is displayed at his former offices in Wellington Place. The location of Belfast's Waterfront Hall was named Lanyon Place in his honour. The Sir Charles Lanyon Memorial Prize is awarded to a final-year BSc Architecture student from the School of Architecture at Queen's University each year.
References
External links
Belfast Castle
The Linenhall Library
Queen's University
North Belfast Community Action Unit Website – Crumlin Road Gaol
1813 births
1889 deaths
Architects from Sussex
High Sheriffs of Antrim
Architects from Belfast
People associated with Queen's University Belfast
Knights Bachelor
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Belfast constituencies (1801–1922)
UK MPs 1865–1868
Irish Conservative Party MPs
19th-century British architects
Mayors of Belfast |
4160227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower%20division | Tower division | The Tower Division was a liberty in the ancient county of Middlesex, England. It was also known as the Tower Hamlets, and took its name from the military obligations owed to the Constable of the Tower of London. The term ‘Hamlets’ probably referred to territorial sub-divisions of the parish of Stepney – and its daughter parishes – rather than to the usual meaning of a small village.
In contemporary terms, the Liberty covered inner East London, the area now administered by the eponymous modern London Borough of Tower Hamlets together with most of the modern London Borough of Hackney (Shoreditch and Hackney proper). The Liberty was seen as synonymous with East London until East London extended further, east of the Lea and into Essex.
The Tower Division was formed sometime in the 17th century but the much older administrative units comprising the area were united in shared military obligations long before this time. The Liberty had judicial and some local government responsibilities, and its military function was unique.
County within a county
The growth of population around the City of London led to the Ossulstone Hundred being divided into four divisions, with each division taking on the role of the hundred. The other three divisions of the hundred were named Finsbury, Holborn and Kensington.
The Tower Division was different from the other divisions in that, as well as taking on hundred responsibilities, it also took on the responsibilities – judicial, civil and military – normally exercised at county level, making the Tower Hamlets a "county within a county", comparable to the Ridings of Yorkshire.
The area had its own Justices of the Peace (JPs), appointed by the Constable of the Tower (as Lord Lieutenant), who administered both judicial and civil functions, mainly through their quarter sessions. The usual civic functions of JPs in England included:
Repair of roads and bridges
Highway diversions
Construction and maintenance of county buildings
Administration of county prisons.
Supervision of public and private lunatic asylums
Supervision of petty sessions
Licensing of public houses
Supervision of the English Poor Laws (pre-1834)
Some responsibilities around the militia
The police
Setting county rates
There is conflicting evidence around the county-level civil responsibilities exercised by the Tower Division; the extent to which the civil autonomy mirrored the military autonomy, and for how long.
Unlike the other divisions, the Tower Division was outside the jurisdiction of the Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex, with the Constable of the Tower exercising lieutenancy powers, usually with the ex-officio title of Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. This began when the right of the Constable to exact guard duty was extended in 1605 to the raising of a militia, the Tower Hamlets Militia. Counties were the principal way in which military forces were raised and the creation of the liberty and exemption from county based obligations saw East London made a distinct military unit.
The Metropolitan Board of Works was established in 1855 in order to lead on the provision of infrastructure in the capital, and this is likely to have led to a reduced responsibilities for the Tower Hamlets JPs. The area's special status ceased in 1889 with the creation of the County of London, and the creation of a Lord Lieutenant for the new county. The Tower division appears to have persisted as a magistracy area well into the 20th century.
Military function
The Tower of London was normally garrisoned by a small force of Yeoman Warders, but these were supplemented by sometimes large numbers of local Hamlets men, known as Hamleteers. The area also provided the Tower Hamlets Militia, which could be deployed in the field in the event of invasion or rebellion.
There was no peacetime standing army in England until the interregnum , and when regular units were formed they were typically raised from wider geographical districts than the Tower Hamlets; however, the area has provided some examples of regular forces.
Origins
The earliest surviving reference to the inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets having a duty to provide a guard for the Tower of London dates from 1554, during the reign of Mary I. Sir Richard Southwell and Sir Arthur Darcye were ordered by the Privy Council in that year to muster the men of the Hamlets "whiche owe their service to the Towre, and to give commaundement that they may be in aredynes for the defence of the same. This was long before the creation of the Liberty, and as the Hamlets are described as "owing" service there must have been a customary duty long before that date.
Some believe the relationship goes back to the time of the Conqueror, but others suggest it came later in the medieval period when the Hamlets had a higher population. It is thought that duty had its origin in the rights and obligations of the Manor of Stepney which once covered most or all of the Hamlets area, with the Constable of the Tower also having responsibility for the upkeep of the local part of the Thames and Lea.
Tower Hamlets units are recorded as being present at the Tilbury muster in August 1588, when Elizabeth I reviewed the English troops available to face the expected Spanish invasion. It was there that the Queen delivered her famous Tilbury address.
Size of garrison contribution
The size of the Hamleteer contribution to the Tower's garrison seems to have varied greatly. Records from 1610 show a modest 9 men per night on duty, but in 1641, a tight of great tension, 552 Hamleteers are recorded as guarding the Tower on a nine-night rota. The size of the contribution varied according to which area's men were on duty: on one evening Whitechapel provided 45 men, while on another Hackney, Bow, Bromley-by-Bow and Old Ford together provided 85.
English Civil War
Build-up to war
In the lead-up to the war, London and the eastern counties were broadly in sympathy with Parliament and against the King, with the Tower Hamlets being notably ardent in its parliamentary sympathies. This wasn't always a militant radicalism though, as evidenced when the war-weary poor of Stepney, seeking compromise with the King, partially demolished a parliamentarian strongpoint in the Lines of Communication, a ring of parliamentary fortifications around London. Despite this the support for Parliament remained generally robust throughout the coming war.
In the lead up to war, the strategic importance of the Tower, together with its money and munitions meant Charles I was careful to install a Constable of the Tower, John Byron, who was loyal to him. In Late Dec 1641 and early Jan 1642 Byron brought in stores of artillery and otherer armaments, parliament responded by putting a guard, a limited siege, using the City of London Trained Bands (the Tower Hamlets Trained Band garrisoning the Tower were separate from the City of London Trained Bands) under the popular Philip Skippon from 12th January.
Around 20th January, the Constable (with the permission of the King) answered a summons and appeared before a House of Lords committee in Westminster to answer for his build-up of armaments. That night, with the Constable away, Skippon led a force of 500 men of the London Trained Bands under the cover of darkness, to the narrow streets of St Katharines district, by the riverside, just east of the Tower. Skippon and his men approached the Iron Gate, a small now lost feature (its site, on the east bank of the moat, is under the Tower Bridge Approach Road), outside the moat which protected a postern which opened out from the Develin Tower. The Tower was protected by a force of Hamleteers, but Skippon knew the areas political loyalties were with Parliament. Skippon believed he could seize the fortress in a coup de main by persuading the Hamleteers to let his force into the Tower, hold it and thereby transform the strategic and political situation in the capital.
Skippon called on the Sergeant on the Iron Gate to let his men through so that the Tower would fall into Parliament’s hands. The Serjeant would not let them in, and the force waited for some time in the hope that he could be talked round. The Sergeant refused a second attempt to persuade him and Skippon's force dispersed when the Constable returned from parliament just before 10pm. It seemed that the historic local bonds proved more powerful than the highly charged political affiliations of the day. Under normal circumstances Skippon would have been put on trial and executed for his actions, but Parliament swiftly exonerated him.
Before the outbreak of the first English Civil War, parliament had managed to use political pressure to get the King to install a Constable, Sir John Conyers, sympathetic to their cause. Knowing his position in London was weak, the King fled the capital before war broke out in the summer. The Tower proved an extremely valuable asset to Parliament throughout the war.
Hostilities
In the early years of the English Civil War both Parliament and the King relied on local Militias such as that of the Tower Hamlets. Generally speaking these forces were county based and very reluctant to leave their home areas. A notable few organised "Trained Bands" of more highly motivated and reliable men willing to spend more time training – Tower Hamlets had a large Trained Band ready to serve outside the Liberty and this would later be organised into two regiments.
By early 1643, the Tower Hamlets forces, together with those of Westminster and Southwark joined those of the City under the command of Sir Philip Skippon, who had previously tried to get the Tower Hamlets troops to betray the Tower to him before the start of the war. By 1644 The regiment of the Tower Hamlets is estimated to have 2-3000 men, while the strength of the reserve Yellow regiment of the Auxiliaries of the Tower Hamlets is not known.
Under Skippon's leadership, the Tower Hamlets Trained Bands saw action at Basing House (1643), Cropredy Bridge (1644), Newbridge (1644) and on their own territory, when the Yellow regiment fought at Bow Bridge in 1648.
Regimental Flag designs varied but some versions featured the Tower of London's White Tower with the Traitors' Gate watergate in the foreground. The troops wore buff sleeveless jackets to mark them out as a Trained Band, soldiers with higher status and value than ordinary Militia.
Fusiliers
In 1685, during the Monmouth Rebellion, King James II raised a force of infantry from the Tower of London garrison; the Tower Hamlets Militia. The Regiment was formed of two companies of Militia and one of miners and was known as the Ordnance Regiment and was soon renamed the Royal Fusiliers, after the fusil, the type of musket they were equipped with. The Tower Hamlets Militia helped form the Fusiliers and subsequent Tower Hamlets reserve units would come under the organisational wing of the regiment.
The regiment later became known as the 7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers) and The Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) before merging with other Fusilier regiments to form the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers in 1968. The modern regiment is headquartered at the Tower of London, where laid up Colours of the regiment are kept. The Fusiliers also maintain a museum at the Tower.
Militia and Volunteers
While most UK militia fell into disuse in the early 19th century, the Tower Hamlets Militia endured, becoming known in the late 19th century as the Tower Hamlets Militia (Queen's Own Light Infantry) and using the White Tower as its cap badge.
An invasion scare of 1857 saw the creation of the Volunteer Force which included both Engineer and Rifle Volunteer Corps and which in the case of the Tower Hamlets supplemented the existing militia.
These Volunteer units were raised by members of the community with the permission of their county's Lord Lieutenant, but as Tower Hamlets was effectively a 'county within a county', having its own Lord Lieutenant (the Constable of the Tower), it raised units in its own right (though in the Tower Hamlets, as elsewhere, not all units raised bore the name of their Lord Lieutenancy area).
A significant number of units were raised, a noteworthy example being the East Metropolitan RVC (11th Tower Hamlets) which was entirely made up of Jewish Volunteers. The profusion of units, some very short lived before being amalgamated or discontinued, makes the lineage of Tower Hamlets units sometimes unclear.
The Cardwell Reforms of 1871 saw the volunteer element of the armed forces re-organised and given more supervision and support from central government. The local engineer unit became known at this time as the 2nd Tower Hamlets (East London) Engineer Volunteers.
The infantry units retained their local identity but became reserve forces attached to a regular regiment, The Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own). The Militia became the 7th Battalion, the 2nd Tower Hamlets Rifle Volunteer Corps became the 9th Battalion and the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifle Volunteer Brigade (THVRB) also joined the regiment but retained its own name. In 1881 these latter two unit became part of the East London Brigade for training and mobilisation purposes but remained part of The Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own) regiment.
The 1st Tower Hamlets Rifle Volunteer Brigade (THVRB) used the White Tower as its cap badge at this time and used the Tower of London moat for training and drilling. Machine Gun elements of this unit were sent to the 2nd Boer War and earned a battle honour at Colenso.
In 1904 the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifle Volunteer Brigade (THVRB) was transferred from The Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own) regiment to the Royal Fusiliers a historic regiment originally formed in 1685 primarily from Tower Hamlets men.
First World War
In 1908 London's reserve infantry forces were re-organised to form a new London Regiment, though the Tower Hamlets units retained their local identities and traditions and affinities gained while attached to regular regiments. The 4th Bn Royal Fusiliers (previously the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifle Volunteer Brigade) became the 4th Bn while the 9th Bn The Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own) (previously the 2nd Tower Hamlets) became the 17th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment (Poplar and Stepney Rifles).
Both these units saw extensive combat in the First World War. The army's need for expansion saw the 4th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment "duplicated" to form four battalions (1/4th, 2/4th, 3/4th and 4/4th); while the Poplar and Stepney Rifles were "duplicated" to form the 1/17th, 2/17th and 3/17th. The Tower Hamlets Engineers, by now a part of the wider Royal Engineers and retaining their local identity but not their name, was also heavily involved in the conflict.
In 1926 the Poplar and Stepney Rifles was renamed the 17th London Regiment (Tower Hamlets Rifles).
Second World War
In 1937 the London Regiment was abolished and the Tower Hamlets Rifles were transferred back to The Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own) regiment, seeing action in North Africa and Italy.
The increasing importance of aerial warfare saw the former 4th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment being transferred to the Royal Artillery (RA) as an Anti-aircraft artillery unit, the 60th (City of London) AA Brigade, RA (TA). The unit retained its Tower Hamlets identity, if not its name, and saw action on the home front and in continental Europe.
Descendent units of the Tower Hamlets Engineers were also extensively involved in the conflict.
Cold War
After the war the Tower Hamlets units lost their identities through a series of amalgamations.
The longest to bear the local name were the Tower Hamlets Rifles who went through the Second World War as infantry. Both these Tower Hamlets Battalions (9th and 10th) of the Rifle Brigade were amalgamated to form 656th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery (Tower Hamlets) TA in 1947 and from 1961-1967 were known as the 300th (Tower Hamlets) Light Air Defence Regiment RA (TA).
In 1967 a further amalgamation saw the loss of local identity in this last Tower Hamlets unit and the last of the Tower Hamlets name in the British Army. Some current British Army units, recruited on a much broader geographical basis, count Tower Hamlets units as part of their historic lineage.
Extent
Various historical sources list different components of the division, but its overall area remained the same. The Metropolitan Police Act 1829 enumerated the "parishes, townships, precincts and places" of the Tower Division for inclusion within the Metropolitan Police District, while the Militia (Tower Hamlets) Act 1796 specified how many men each component should supply to the division's militia.
Notes
Namesakes
Parliamentary Borough
From 1832 to 1885 there was a Parliamentary Borough named "Tower Hamlets", after the Tower Division. From 1832 to 1868 it occupied the same boundaries as the Tower Division, with the best known MP for the area being Joseph d'Aguilar Samuda, a well known shipbuilder and an officer in the 2nd Tower Hamlets Rifle Volunteer Corps. After 1868, population growth saw the constituency split in two; the southern part of the area kept the name Tower Hamlets while Hackney, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green became part of a new Hackney constituency. The southern, Tower Hamlets constituency, persisted until 1885.
Modern Borough of Tower Hamlets
The name "Tower Hamlets" was subsequently used for the modern London Borough of Tower Hamlets created in 1965 from southern areas of the Tower Division.
The Shoreditch and Hackney proper areas of the Tower Division together make up most of the area of the modern London Borough of Hackney.
References
External links
Map of the three divisions: Finsbury, Tower and Holborn Divisions of Ossulstone Hundred (together with the City and Liberty of Westminster later joined with the Holborn division) - note the main administrative divisions were the many parishes (not shown)
Map of the pre-19th century parishes in Tower Division
Hundreds and divisions of Middlesex
History of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
History of local government in London (pre-1855) |
4160235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Kingdom%20of%20Portugal%2C%20Brazil%20and%20the%20Algarves | United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves | The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was a pluricontinental monarchy formed by the elevation of the Portuguese colony named State of Brazil to the status of a kingdom and by the simultaneous union of that Kingdom of Brazil with the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of the Algarves, constituting a single state consisting of three kingdoms.
The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed in 1815, following the transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil during the Napoleonic invasions of Portugal, and it continued to exist for about one year after the court's return to Europe, being de facto dissolved in 1822, when Brazil proclaimed its independence. The dissolution of the United Kingdom was accepted by Portugal and formalized de jure in 1825, when Portugal recognized the independent Empire of Brazil.
During its period of existence the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves did not correspond to the whole of the Portuguese Empire: rather, the United Kingdom was the transatlantic metropolis that controlled the Portuguese colonial empire, with its overseas possessions in Africa and Asia.
Thus, from the point of view of Brazil, the elevation to the rank of a kingdom and the creation of the United Kingdom represented a change in status, from that of a colony to that of an equal member of a political union. In the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, attempts to compromise the autonomy and even the unity of Brazil, led to the breakdown of the union.
History
Establishment
The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves came into being in the wake of Portugal's war with Napoleonic France. The Portuguese Prince Regent (the future King John VI), with his incapacitated mother (Queen Maria I of Portugal) and the Royal Court, fled to the colony of Brazil in 1808.
With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there were calls for the return of the Portuguese Monarch to Lisbon; the Portuguese Prince Regent enjoyed life in Rio de Janeiro, where the monarchy was at the time more popular and where he enjoyed more freedom, and he was thus unwilling to return to Europe. However, those advocating the return of the court to Lisbon argued that Brazil was only a colony and that it was not right for Portugal to be governed from a colony. On the other hand, leading Brazilian courtiers pressed for the elevation of Brazil from the rank of a colony, so that they could enjoy the full status of being nationals of the mother-country. Brazilian nationalists also supported the move, because it indicated that Brazil would no longer be submissive to the interests of Portugal, but would be of equal status within a transatlantic monarchy.
By a law issued by the Prince Regent on 16 December 1815, the colony of Brazil was thus elevated to the rank of a Kingdom and by the same law the separate kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves were united as a single State under the title of The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
This united kingdom included the historical Kingdom of the Algarves, which is the present-day Portuguese region of Algarve.
The titles of the Portuguese royalty were changed to reflect the creation of this transatlantic united kingdom. The styles of the Queen and of the Prince Regent were changed accordingly to Queen and Prince Regent of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The title Prince of Brazil, a title that used to pertain to the heir apparent of the Portuguese Crown, was dropped shortly afterwards, in 1817, being replaced by the title of Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, or Prince Royal for short. A new flag and coat of arms were also adopted for the new State.
Succession of John VI
On 20 March 1816 Queen Maria I died in Rio de Janeiro. Prince John, the Prince Regent, then became King John VI, the second monarch of the United Kingdom, retaining the numbering of Portuguese Sovereigns. After a period of mourning and several delays, the festivities of the acclamation of the new King were held in Rio de Janeiro on 6 February 1818.
On the date of his Acclamation, King John VI created the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa, the only order of knighthood to be created during the United Kingdom era. This Order existed in the United Kingdom alongside the old Portuguese Orders of chivalry and the Order of the Tower and Sword, an ancient Order that had been dormant and that was revived by the Portuguese monarchy in November 1808, when the royal court was already in Brazil. After the dissolution of the United Kingdom, while Brazilian branches of the old Orders of chivalry were created, resulting in Brazilian and Portuguese Orders Saint James of the Sword, of Saint Benedict of Aviz, and of Christ (there was and is also a branch of the Order of Christ maintained by the Holy See: the Supreme Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ), paradoxically, the newer Orders (the recreated Order of the Tower and Sword and the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa) remained in existence as Portuguese Orders only.
John VI's return to Europe
After the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, the King left Brazil and returned to the European portion of the United Kingdom, arriving in Lisbon on 4 July 1821. Before his departure, the King, acceding to requests made by Brazilian courtiers, decided to leave behind his heir apparent, Prince Pedro, the Prince Royal of the United Kingdom. By a decree issued on 22 April 1821, the King invested Pedro with the title of "Regent of Brazil", and granted him delegated powers to discharge the "general government and entire administration of the Kingdom of Brazil" as the King's placeholder, thus granting the Kingdom of Brazil a devolved administration within the United Kingdom.
Accordingly, with the appointment of Prince Royal Pedro as Regent of Brazil, the Brazilian provinces – that in the colonial period were united under a vice-regal administration, and that during the stay of Queen Maria I and King John VI in the American Continent remained united directly under the royal Government – continued, after the return of the King and of the Portuguese court to Europe, united under a central Brazilian Government based in Rio de Janeiro.
Prince Pedro's Regency not only assured the unity of the Brazilian people under one government, but it also enjoyed a high degree of autonomy vis-à-vis the Government of the United Kingdom.
Attempts by the Government in Lisbon to terminate Brazil's home rule and to undermine Brazilian unity would lead to the proclamation of the independence of Brazil and the dissolution of the United Kingdom.
Dissolution of the United Kingdom
Lead-up to the dissolution
The Cortes (the Parliament) assembled in Lisbon in the wake of the Constitutional Revolution of 1820 to draft a Constitution for the United Kingdom was composed of mostly Portuguese delegates. This was so because the Revolution was Portuguese in origin, so that the members of the Cortes were elected in Portugal, and only later a Brazilian delegation was elected and the Brazilian delegates crossed the Atlantic to join the ongoing deliberations. Also, Brazilian representatives were often mistreated and persecuted in the streets by Portuguese citizens who resented the end of colonial rule. On top of that, Brazilians were under-represented in the Cortes.
As for the King, upon his arrival in Lisbon, he behaved as though he accepted the new political settlement that resulted from the Liberal Revolution (a posture he would maintain until mid-1823), but the powers of the Crown were severely limited. A Council of Regency that had been elected by the Cortes to govern Portugal in the wake of the Revolution – and that replaced by force the previous governors that administered the European portion of the United Kingdom by royal appointment – handed back the reins of government to the Monarch on his arrival in Lisbon, but the King was now limited to the discharge of the Executive branch, and had no influence over the drafting of the Constitution or over the actions of the Cortes.
The Constituent Cortes, dominated by a Portuguese majority, included provisions in the Constitution being drafted that referred to the people of the United Kingdom as "the Portuguese Nation". The draft Constitution spoke of "Portuguese citizens of both hemispheres". Apart from including in the Constitution language that was seen as hostile and offensive to Brazilians, the United Kingdom Cortes assembled in Lisbon included in the proposed Constitution that was being drafted provisions that would undermine and that could even lead to the dissolution of the central Brazilian Government based in Rio de Janeiro. The draft Constitution would have maintained the Regency of the Kingdom of Brazil, but it contained provision allowing the United Kingdom Legislature to exclude Brazilian provinces from the jurisdiction of the Regency. Thus, the Government of the United Kingdom in Lisbon would have the power to sever the links between a Brazilian province and the central Brazilian government, submitting this province directly to the Lisbon Government. If enacted, those deliberations of the Cortes would not only undermine Brazilian Home Rule, but they would also endanger the unity of the Brazilian people, as Brazilians would no longer have a central government, a situation that did not exist even in the last centuries of the colonial period. Portuguese deputies in the Cortes even introduced draft legislation that would concretely sever the ties between the central devolved Government of the Kingdom of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro and some provinces in Northeastern Brazil. The Portuguese Cortes also demanded the immediate return of the Crown Prince to Europe.
Brazilian Nationalists reacted, interpreting the actions of the Cortes as an attempt to "divide and conquer". They alleged that once the provisions approved by the Cortes were enacted and enforced, Brazil, although formally remaining a part of the transatlantic monarchy, would be in reality returned to the condition of a Colony. Brazilians feared the breakup of Brazil, with the creation of provinces directly subject to the Lisbon Government.
Also, language in the draft Constitution that would have the effect of including colonies of the Portuguese colonial empire in Africa and Asia as part of the territory of the United Kingdom seemed to confirm that the intention of the Cortes was indeed to reduce Brazil to the position of a colony once again: it was clear that the territories in Africa and Asia would continue to be colonies, and to be subject to economic exploitation and domination by means of restrictions in foreign trade, etc.; but those colonies would now be declared parts of the United Kingdom, meaning that, with the inclusion of the whole of the Portuguese Empire in the United Kingdom, the definition of the United Kingdom itself would change: the United Kingdom would cease to correspond to a transatlantic State that included no colonies but that controlled colonies overseas, and would instead become a State that included colonies in its bosom. This would provide the legal framework for the reintroduction of trade restrictions in Brazil that had been lifted since the arrival of the Royal Family in Brazilian shores.
Notably, several Portuguese politicians wanted to re-introduce to Brazil restrictions in foreign trade that in the previous colonial era had been dubbed euphemistically as the colonial pact: a mercantilist system in which Brazilian products could only be exported to Portugal, and in which Brazilians could only import products from Portugal. This system, which enabled the economic exploitation of the Portuguese Colonies by Metropolitan Portugal, had been abolished in Brazil even before the creation of the United Kingdom. Indeed, the abolition of all the restrictions on foreign trade, and the exclusion of Brazil from the imperialist policy of the colonial pact, had taken place already in 1808, as soon as the Royal Family arrived in Brazil: the first act signed by the Prince Regent after his arrival in Brazil was the decree on the opening of the Brazilian ports to friendly Nations, that enabled Brazilians to import goods from Nations other than Portugal, and to export Brazilian products to the foreign Nations maintaining diplomatic ties with the Portuguese Empire. Now, with the measures being voted by the Cortes assembled in Lisbon, that economic freedom was under threat.
Faced with that scenario, Brazilian independentists managed to convince Prince Pedro to stay in Brazil against the orders of the Cortes, that demanded his immediate return. He thus continued leading a central Brazilian Government as Regent, and further established that no laws, decrees or instructions issued by the Portuguese Cortes or by the central government of the United Kingdom would be obeyed in Brazil without his fiat.
The Prince's decision not to obey the decrees of the Cortes that demanded this return, and instead to stay in Brazil as its Regent was solemnly announced on 9 January 1822, in reply to a formal petition from the city council of Rio de Janeiro. In February 1822 Prince Pedro decided to create an advisory council, composed of representatives elected to represent the several provinces of Brazil, summoning elections to that council. Its first meeting was held on 2 June 1822. Prince Regent Pedro's decree to the effect that laws, decrees and orders from Lisbon would only be carried out in Brazil with his fiat was published in May 1822.
By agreeing to defy the Cortes and stay in Brazil, Prince Pedro assumed the leadership of the Brazilian cause; as a recognition of his leading role, Brazilian independentists offered Pedro on 13 May 1822 the title of "Perpetual Protector and Defender of Brazil"; he rejected the title of Protector, arguing that Brazil did not need one, but assumed the title of "Perpetual Defender of Brazil". By defying explicit orders that demanded his return to Europe, Pedro escalated the events that would lead to the separation of Brazil from the United Kingdom, and hastened the crucial moment of the Proclamation of Independence. As the situation between Brazilians and Portuguese deteriorated, the United Kingdom was doomed to dissolution.
Brazilian independentists argued that Brazil's future should be decided by Brazilians and not by the Lisbon Cortes, and they accordingly demanded the summoning of a National Constituent Assembly for Brazil, separate from the Constituent Cortes assembled in Portugal. Prince Pedro, acting on the advice of his newly convened Council, embraced those demands, and issued a decree on 13 June 1822 summoning elections for a Brazilian Constituent Assembly. Due to the further escalation of tensions between Brazil and Portugal, the elections to that Constituent Assembly would only take place after the Prince himself had proclaimed the independence of Brazil (the Assembly would only convene in 1823, and the independence of Brazil was declared in September 1822, with the establishment of the Empire of Brazil in October 1822).
The Cortes sent troops to Brazil to compel the dissolution of the Prince's Government and to force his return to Portugal as ordered, but, on arrival those troops were commanded by the Prince to return to Portugal. The Portuguese troops in Rio de Janeiro obeyed the Prince Royal and returned to Europe, but in other Provinces fighting erupted between Brazilians and Portuguese.
Proclamation of Independence
News of further attempts of the Portuguese Cortes aimed at dissolving Prince Pedro's Regency led directly to the Brazilian Proclamation of Independence. Accordingly, in 1822, the Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil, Prince Pedro, the son of John VI, declared the independence of Brazil, as a reaction against the attempts of the Cortes to terminate Brazilian home rule, and became Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, which spelled the end of the United Kingdom.
The independence of Brazil was proclaimed by Prince Pedro on 7 September 1822. The Proclamation of Independence was made while the Prince was in the Province of São Paulo. He had travelled there to secure the Province's loyalty to the Brazilian cause. He departed the city of São Paulo, the Province's capital, on 5 September, and on 7 September, while on his way back to Rio de Janeiro, he received mail from his Minister José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva and from his wife, Princess Leopoldina (who remained in Rio de Janeiro presiding over the Ministry during Prince Pedro's absence), informing Pedro of further acts by the Cortes aimed at dissolving his Government by force, insisting on his return to Lisbon and attempting to void his later acts as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil. It was clear that independence was the only option left. Pedro turned to his companions that included his Guard of Honor and spoke: "Friends, the Portuguese Cortes want to enslave and pursue us. From today on our relations are broken. No ties can unite us anymore" and continued after he pulled out his blue-white armband that symbolized Portugal: "Armbands off, soldiers. Hail to the independence, to freedom and to the separation of Brazil from Portugal!" He unsheathed his sword affirming that "For my blood, my honor, my God, I swear to give Brazil freedom," and later cried out: "Independence or death!". This event is remembered as "Cry of Ipiranga", because it took place next to the riverbank of the Ipiranga brook. The Prince then decided to return urgently to the city of São Paulo, where he and his entourage arrived in the night of 7 September. There, they announced the news of the Prince's Proclamation, and of Brazil's separation from Portugal, and were met with great popular acclaim.
Less than a month later, on 23 September 1822, the Lisbon Cortes, still unaware of the Brazilian declaration of independence, approved the Constitution of the United Kingdom, that was then signed by the members of the Cortes and presented to the King. Between 23 September and 1 October, the members of the Cortes, including Brazilians that still took part in its deliberations, took oaths to uphold the Constitution. In a solemnity on 1 October 1822, King John VI appeared before the Cortes, made a speech from the Throne declaring his acceptance of the Constitution, swore an oath to uphold it, and signed an instrument of assent that was included in the text of the Constitution after the signatures of the members of the Cortes, declaring that the king had accepted the Constitution and sworn to abide by it. On 4 October, acting as the Cortes had directed, the Portuguese King signed at the Royal Palace of Queluz a Charter of Law promulgating the text of the Constitution and ordering its execution by all his subjects throughout the United Kingdom. This Charter of Law, containing the full text of the Constitution, including the signatures of the members of the Cortes and the King's instrument of assent, was published on the following day, 5 October 1822. Due to the Brazilian secession from the United Kingdom, that Constitution was never recognized in Brazil and was only effective in Portugal.
That the newly independent Brazilian Nation would adopt a constitutional monarchy as its form of Government and that Prince Pedro would be the new State's monarch were obvious facts to all the leaders involved in the process of Brazilian emancipation, but still, for a little more than one month after the 7 September 1822 Proclamation of Independence, Prince Pedro initially continued to use the title of Prince Regent, as he did not want to declare himself monarch, preferring instead to accept the new country's Crown as an offer. This led several local councils to adopt motions and addresses asking the Prince Regent to assume the title of King, or of Emperor (there were no legislatures in the provinces, and also no national legislature existed at that time; the municipal councils were the only existing legislatures, and since the colonial era they had substantial authority). The municipal council of the city of Rio de Janeiro and the other municipal councils of the province of Rio de Janeiro then organized a ceremony of acclamation, with the support of the Prince Regent's Government. The municipal council of Rio de Janeiro voted to instruct its president to offer Prince Pedro the title of Emperor. Then, the Prince's Advisory Council, a body that was not a legislative assembly, but was composed of councillors elected from all Provinces of Brazil to represent its peoples and advise the Prince Regent (the Conselho de Procuradores das Províncias do Brasil or Council of the Representatives of the Provinces of Brazil), advised the Prince Regent to accede to the several requests already presented and to assume the imperial title. On 12 October 1822, Prince Pedro accepted the offer of the new Brazilian Throne and was acclaimed the first Emperor of the independent Empire of Brazil.
Although Portuguese monarchs were not crowned since the 16th century, it was decided by the newly created imperial Government that the Brazilian monarchy, then recently instituted, should adopt different customs, both to differentiate itself from the Portuguese model and to highlight its status as a distinct institution, from a separate and independent country. Thus, it was decided that Emperors of Brazil should be consecrated, anointed and crowned with the full Catholic coronation ritual. Also, in the context of the struggle to sustain the newly declared independence of Brazil, and to seek recognition for the Empire, the religious act of coronation would establish Emperor Pedro I as an anointed monarch, crowned by the Catholic Church. It was regarded that this could improve his legitimacy in the eyes of other Christian monarchies, and it would also confirm the alliance between the newly declared State and the Church in Brazil. Accordingly, the coronation of Emperor Pedro I took place on 1 December 1822.
Recognition of independence
The Brazilian declaration of independence and foundation of the Empire of Brazil led to a War of Independence. The Portuguese initially refused to recognize Brazil as a sovereign state, treating the whole affair as a rebellion and attempting to preserve the United Kingdom. However, military action was never close to Rio de Janeiro, and the main battles of the independence war took place in the Northeastern region of Brazil. The independentist Brazilian forces overpowered the Portuguese forces as well as the few local forces that were still loyal to Portugal, and the last Portuguese troops surrendered in November 1823. Compared to the wars of independence waged by Spanish colonies during the decolonization of the Americas, the Brazilian Independence War did not result in significant bloodshed, although land and naval battles were fought.
The Portuguese military defeat, however, was not followed by swift recognition of the new country's independence. Instead, from 1822 to 1825 the Portuguese Government engaged in heavy diplomatic efforts to avoid the recognition of Brazil's independence by the European Powers, invoking the principles of the Congress of Vienna and subsequent European alliances. Those foreign Nations, however, were keen on establishing trade and diplomatic ties with Brazil. Under British pressure, Portugal eventually agreed to recognize Brazil's independence in 1825, thus allowing the new country to establish diplomatic ties with other European powers shortly thereafter.
In 1824, in the wake of the adoption of the Constitution of the Empire of Brazil on 25 March that year, the United States of America became the first nation to recognize the independence of Brazil and the consequential disbandment of the United Kingdom.
Portugal recognized the sovereignty of Brazil only in 1825. Since a coup d'etát on 3 June 1823 the Portuguese King John VI had already abolished the Constitution of 1822 and dissolved the Cortes, thus reversing the Liberal Revolution of 1820. On 4 January 1824 King John VI issued a Charter of Law confirming as in force the "traditional laws of the Portuguese Monarchy", thus ratifying the restoration of the absolutist régime in Portugal.
There were two Portuguese acts of recognition of Brazilian independence. The first was unilateral and purporting to be constitutive of such independence, the second was bilateral and declaratory.
The first act of recognition was materialized in Letters Patent issued on 13 May 1825, by which the Portuguese King "voluntarily ceded and transferred the sovereignty" over Brazil to his son, the Brazilian Emperor, and thus recognized, as a result of this concession, Brazil as an "Independent Empire, separate from the Kingdoms of Portugal and Algarves".
The second act of recognition was materialized in a Treaty of Peace signed in Rio de Janeiro on 29 August 1825, by means of which Portugal again recognized the independence of Brazil. This Treaty was ratified by the Emperor of Brazil on 30 August 1825, and by the King of Portugal on 15 November 1825, and entered into force in international Law also on 15 November 1825 upon the exchange of the instruments of ratification in Lisbon. On the same date of the signature of the Portuguese instrument of ratification and of the exchange of the ratification documents between the representatives of the two Nations, the Portuguese King also signed a Charter of Law, a statute, ordering the execution of the Treaty as part of the domestic Law of Portugal. The Treaty was incorporated as part of the domestic Law of Brazil by a Decree of Emperor Pedro I signed on 10 April 1826.
The reason why there were two separate acts of recognition of the independence of Brazil is this: in the wake of the Brazilian victory in the War of Independence, the Portuguese king initially attempted to recognize Brazilian independence unilaterally so as to ignore the fact of the Portuguese defeat and transmit the impression that Portugal was being magnanimous. By means of such unilateral concession, Portugal intended to avoid the humiliation of Peace negotiations with its former Colony. King John VI wanted to "save face" by giving the impression that Portugal was voluntarily conceding independence to Brazil, and not just recognizing a fait accompli. Thus the Letters Patent issued on 13 May 1825 ignored the proclamation of 1822 and "granted independence to Brazil" as if it were a concession, that was laced with conditions. Thus, Brazilian independence would result not from the events of 1822, but from the 1825 Letters Patent.
In the 13 May 1825 Letters Patent, King John recited the polity creating acts of his predecessors and of other sovereigns of Europe, recited his own desire to promote the happiness of all the peoples over which he ruled, and proceeded to declare and enact that from thenceforth the Kingdom of Brazil would be an Empire, and that the Empire of Brazil would be separate from the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves in both internal and foreign affairs; that he, John, therefore took for himself the title of Emperor of Brazil and King of Portugal and the Algarves, to which would follow the other titles of the Portuguese Crown; that the title of "Prince or Princess Imperial of Brazil, and Royal of Portugal and the Algarves" would be vested in the heir or heiress presumptive of the imperial and royal Crowns; that since the succession of both the imperial and royal Crowns belonged to his son, "Prince Dom Pedro", he, King John, at once, "by this same act and letters patent", ceded and transferred to Pedro, from thenceforth, of his "own free will", the full sovereignty of the Empire of Brazil, for Pedro to govern it, assuming at once the title Emperor of Brazil, keeping at the same time the title of Prince Royal of Portugal and the Algarves, while John reserved for himself the same title of Emperor, and the position of King of Portugal and the Algarves, with the full sovereignty of the said Kingdoms (of Portugal and the Algarves).
However, such unilateral, constitutive recognition was not accepted by Brazilians, who demanded a declarative recognition of the independence as proclaimed and existing since 1822. The new Brazilian Government therefore made the establishment of peaceful relations and diplomatic ties with Portugal conditional on the signature of a bilateral treaty between the two Nations. Portugal eventually agreed, and a treaty to that effect was signed with British mediation. The treaty between the Empire of Brazil and the Kingdom of Portugal on the recognition of Brazilian independence, signed in Rio de Janeiro on 29 August 1825, finally entered into force on 15 November 1825 upon the exchange of the instruments of ratification in Lisbon.
The Portuguese, however, only accepted to sign the Independence treaty on condition that Brazil agreed to pay reparations for the properties of the Portuguese State that were seized by the new Brazilian State. Brazil desperately needed to establish normal diplomatic relations with Portugal, because other European Monarchies had already made clear that they would only recognize the Empire of Brazil after the establishment of normal relations between Brazil and Portugal. Thus, by a separate convention that was signed on the same occasion as the Treaty on the Recognition of Independence, Brazil agreed to pay Portugal two million pounds in damages. The British, who had mediated the Peace negotiations, granted Brazil a loan of the same value, so that Brazil could pay the agreed sum. The new Nation, therefore, achieved international recognition at a heavy price. As a result of this agreement, Brazil became plunged in debt to Britain, but was able to achieve universal international recognition, both de facto and de jure as an independent State.
Upon recognizing the independence of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves, King John VI, by his charter of law of 15 November 1825 changed back the name of the Portuguese State and the Royal Titles to "Kingdom of Portugal" and "King of Portugal and the Algarves" respectively. The title of the Portuguese heir apparent was changed to "Prince Royal of Portugal and the Algarves" by the same edict.
The recognition of Brazilian independence completed the dissolution of the United Kingdom.
By a provision of the Letters Patent of 13 May 1825, confirmed by the Treaty on the Recognition of Independence in spite of the secession of Brazil from the Portuguese Monarchy, the Portuguese King, John VI, was allowed to use for the remainder of his life the honorary title of "Emperor of Brazil", with the caveat that this title was honorary and ceremonial only, and that Pedro I and his successors in the independent Brazilian Crown were the only actual Emperors of Brazil. This honorary title ceased to have effect upon the demise of King John VI on 10 March 1826.
News of the separate convention appended to the Independence Treaty, by which Brazil agreed to pay Portugal financial compensation, angered many Brazilians, who saw this payment as a result of a bad negotiation, especially in view of the Brazilian military victory in the independence war. The grant of the honorary imperial title to the Portuguese King was also not popular with Brazilians. Furthermore, the declaratory language of the Independence Treaty was sufficiently ambiguous, so that Brazilians could claim that the independence declared in 1822 was being recognized, but mention was also made of the 13 May 1825 Letters Patent, so that the Portuguese could claim that the recognition was based on the previous concession. The preamble of the treaty mentioned the concession made by means of the Letters Patent of 13 May 1825; it stated that, by that Letters Patent, the Portuguese King had "recognized Brazil as an independent Empire, and his son Dom Pedro as Emperor", but also stated that, in so doing, the Portuguese monarch was "ceding and transferring of his free will the sovereignty of the said Empire". In the treaty's second article, it was the Brazilian Emperor who agreed that his father, the Portuguese King, should take for himself the honorary life title of Emperor. In the first article of the treaty it was declared that the King of Portugal recognized Brazil as an independent Empire, and as a Nation separate from the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves, and also recognized his son Dom Pedro as Emperor of Brazil, ceding "of his own free will" to the Brazilian Emperor and his legitimate successors all claims of sovereignty over Brazil. Peace was established between the countries of Brazil and Portugal by the fourth Article.
In spite of the unpopular clauses, and especially of the harsh financial agreement, Brazilian Emperor Pedro I agreed to ratify the treaty negotiated with Portugal as he was keen on resolving the recognition of independence question before the opening of the first legislative session of the Brazilian Parliament (Assembléia Geral or General Assembly) elected under the Constitution adopted in 1824. The first meeting of the new Legislature was set to take place on 3 May 1826, and after a brief delay, that Parliament was indeed opened on 6 May 1826. By that time, the independence question was indeed resolved, as the Independence treaty had been ratified in November 1825 and as the Emperor, still yielding the fullness of legislative authority (that he was to lose upon the first meeting of the Parliament), ordered the execution of the agreement as part of the law of Brazil on 10 April 1826.
Aftermath: resolution of the dynastic entanglement
With the death of the Portuguese King John VI on 10 March 1826, his heir apparent, Brazilian Emperor Pedro I, inherited the Portuguese Crown, and reigned briefly as King Pedro IV. On 20 March 1826 the proclamation of the Brazilian Emperor's accession to the Portuguese Throne was made public by the Portuguese Council of Regency (that had been instituted by King John VI during his final illness, and that was led by the Infanta Isabel Maria, daughter of John VI and Pedro I & IV's sister). With this union of Crowns, the monarchies of Portugal and Brazil were once again briefly united, but there was no thought of a reunification of the two separate States. Accordingly, this brief union of Crowns in the person of Pedro I and IV remained always a personal union only, and not a real union or a rebirth of the United Kingdom.
News of the death of King John VI and of the proclamation of the Brazilian Emperor as King of Portugal reached the Brazilian province of Bahia on 18 April, and official news to that effect reached the Emperor of Brazil and new King of Portugal in Rio de Janeiro on 24 April 1826, shortly after the final settlement of the Brazilian independence question (the decree publishing the text of the Treaty on the Recognition of Independence and ordering its execution as part of the Law of Brazil had just been made public on 10 April 1826). The existence even of the personal union only was seen by Brazilian politicians as dangerous, since it could come to affect the effectiveness of the newly formed country's sovereignty.
Accordingly, steps were taken to put an end to the personal union: Pedro I & IV agreed to abdicate the Portuguese Throne in favour of his eldest daughter, but he also wanted to ensure that her rights would be respected, and he further wanted to restore constitutional monarchy to Portugal. In order to put an end to the Portuguese absolute monarchy, the King-Emperor commissioned the drafting of a new Constitution for Portugal, that was widely based on the Brazilian Constitution. This document was finalized in less than a week.
After issuing a new Constitution for Portugal on 29 April 1826, and as already announced in that Constitution, King-Emperor Pedro abdicated the Portuguese Crown in favour of his daughter, Princess Maria da Glória, on 2 May 1826. Princess Maria da Glória thus became Queen Maria II of Portugal. The document by which the Brazilian Emperor abdicated the Portuguese Crown was signed days before the first meeting of the Parliament established by the Brazilian Constitution of 1824, that assembled for the first time on 6 May 1826. Before his abdication, on 26 April, King Pedro confirmed the Regency of Portugal that had been established by his father during his final illness, and that was led by the Infanta Isabel Maria, his sister. As the new Queen Maria II was still a minor, Portugal would need to be led by Regents during her minority. On 30 April, King Pedro IV set the date for the first legislative elections under the new Portuguese Constitution and appointed Peers of the Realm.
On 12 May 1826, British envoy Charles Stuart left Rio de Janeiro for Portugal carrying with him the acts signed by the Brazilian Emperor as King of Portugal, including the new Portuguese Constitution and his deed of abdication of the Portuguese Crown. On that same date Carlos Matias Pereira left Rio de Janeiro for Lisbon in another ship carrying a second copy of the same documents. Charles Stuart arrived in Lisbon on 2 July 1826 and presented the acts signed by King Pedro IV to the Government of Portugal, including his original deed of abdication of the Portuguese Throne. On 12 July 1826 the Portuguese Government published the new Constitution decreed by Pedro IV; the Portuguese Regency swore on 31 July 1826 an oath to uphold the Constitution, marking its entry into force, and, on 1 August 1826 Queen Maria II was publicly proclaimed as Queen of Portugal, with the Infanta Isabel Maria as Regent. On 4 October the exiled infante Miguel (that had been exiled since attempting to depose his father, and that would later usurp the Portuguese Crown, leading to the Portuguese Civil War of 1828–1834, took in Vienna an oath of allegiance to Queen Maria II and the Constitution). The first Portuguese Cortes to meet under the Constitution were elected on 8 October, and the opening of Parliament took place on 30 October 1826.
Although Pedro's abdication of the Portuguese Crown to Maria II was provided for even in the Constitution issued on 29 April 1826, the original deed of abdication, signed on 2 May 1826 contained conditions; however, those conditions were subsequently waived, as the abdication was later declared final, irrevocable, accomplished and fully effective by a decree issued by Pedro on 3 March 1828, just a few months before Infante Miguel's usurpation of the Throne and the start of the Portuguese Civil War (in accordance with a decree issued on 3 September 1827, Infante Miguel replaced Infanta Isabel Maria as Regent of Portugal on 26 February 1828, and he initially agreed to govern in the name of the Queen, but on 7 July 1828 he had himself proclaimed King with retroactive effect, assuming the title of Miguel I; Maria II would only be restored to the Throne in 1834, at the conclusion of the Civil War). In any event, Pedro's unconditional confirmation of his abdication reinforced the impossibility of a new union between Portugal and Brazil.
Pedro's abdication of the Portuguese Throne led to the separation of the Brazilian and Portuguese monarchies, since the Portuguese Crown was inherited by Queen Maria II and her successors, and the Brazilian Crown came to be inherited by Pedro I's Brazilian heir apparent, Prince Pedro de Alcantara, who would become the future Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. Prince Pedro de Alcantara had no rights to the Portuguese Crown because, having been born in Brazil on 2 December 1825, after the Portuguese recognition of the independence of Brazil, he was not a Portuguese national and under the Portuguese Constitution and Laws a foreigner could not inherit the Portuguese Crown.
Still, with Princess Maria da Glória's accession to the Throne of Portugal as Queen Maria II in 1826, the question arose, about whether she should still be regarded as a Brazilian Princess with a place in the order of succession, or whether article 119 of Brazil's Constitution (that prohibited foreigners from succeeding to the Crown) applied to her, so that, as a foreigner, she should be considered excluded from the Brazilian line of succession. The Empire's Constitution limited the Crown of Brazil to Emperor Pedro I and his legitimate descendants, under a male-preference cognatic primogeniture system, but it rendered foreigners incapable of succeeding to the Crown, and it empowered the General Assembly, the Empire's Parliament, to settle any doubts regarding the rights of succession to the Crown. The issue of Queen Maria II's status in the Brazilian line of succession became more pressing once Emperor Pedro II acceded to the Brazilian Throne as a minor in 1831, since the question was no longer only about whether or not the Queen of Portugal had a place in the Brazilian line of succession, but it had now become a question about whether or not she was the heiress presumptive to the Brazilian Crown, that is, the first person in line to succeed to the Brazilian Throne, occupied by her brother Emperor Pedro II. Thus, the Brazilian Parliament had to settle the matter and decide who was the first person in line to the Brazilian Throne, with the corresponding title of Princess Imperial: Queen Maria II of Portugal or Princess Januária of Brazil. Both were minors under Brazilian Law, and since no one in the Brazilian Imperial Family was of age, the Regency of the Empire was discharged by politicians chosen by the General Assembly in accordance with the Constitution. However, the question was all important because, in the event that Emperor Pedro II died before producing descendants, the Crown of the independent Empire of Brazil could end up coming to the Queen of Portugal, thus recreating a personal union between the two monarchies. The question became even more pressing after the conclusion of the Portuguese Civil War (1828-1834), won by Maria II and her liberal supporters in 1834: Maria's uncle, the absolutist claimant Dom Miguel (who had deposed Maria in 1828), was defeated, surrendered his claim to the Portuguese Throne in the Concession of Evoramonte, Maria was restored to the Throne and her constitutional government, now recognized by all foreign Powers as the legitimate one, assumed control of the whole of Portugal. Although the doubt about which of the two Princesses was Emperor Pedro II's heiress presumptive had existed since the abdication of the Brazilian Crown by Pedro I in 1831, Maria II was at the time a deposed Queen, although actively pursuing her claim to the Throne of Portugal. With her victory in the Portuguese Civil War, however, she once again became an actually reigning monarch, and, for the whole Brazilian political establishment, the fact that a foreign Sovereign was heiress presumptive to the Brazilian Crown was highly worrying, as it was seen as detrimental to the independence of the recently established Brazilian Nation. The Regency and Parliament of Brazil wanted to avoid any possibility of a personal union with Portugal being recreated, so as to secure the independence of Brazil. In order to settle that question, the Brazilian General Assembly adopted a statute, signed into law by the Regent on behalf of Emperor Pedro II on 30 October 1835, declaring Queen Maria II of Portugal had lost her succession rights to the Crown of Brazil, due to her condition as a foreigner, so that she and her descendants were excluded from the Brazilian line of succession; ruling that Princess Januária and her descendants were therefore first in line to the Throne after Emperor Pedro II and his descendants, and decreeing that, accordingly, Princess Januária, as the then heiress presumptive of the Brazilian Crown, should be recognized as Princess Imperial.
Thus, the abdication of the Portuguese Crown by Brazilian Emperor Pedro I terminated the brief 1826 personal union and separated the monarchies of Portugal and Brazil, and that abdication, coupled with the exclusion of the new Portuguese Queen, Maria II, from the Brazilian line of succession, broke the last remaining ties of political union between the two Nations, securing the preservation of the independence of Brazil and putting to an end all hopes of the rebirth of a Luso-Brazilian United Kingdom.
Monarchs of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
See also
Kingdom of Portugal
Kingdom of Brazil
Kingdom of the Algarve
Portuguese Empire
History of Portugal (1777–1834)
Empire of Brazil
Realm
Empire
First reign
Bibliography
Monarchy in Brazil Ministry of External Relations, accessed on 8 June 2008.
Elevação do Brasil a Reino Unido a Portugal e Algarves Secretary of Education of Rio de Janeiro, accessed on 8 June 2008.
Reino Unido (1815–1822) Chamber of Deputies of Brazil, accessed on 8 June 2008.
[FERREIRA, Fábio. O general Lecor, os Voluntários Reais, e os conflitos pela independência do Brasil na Província Cisplatina: 1822–1824. Tese (Doutorado) – Programa de Pós-Graduação em História (PPGH) da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF): Niterói, 2012. Disponível em: http://www.historia.uff.br/stricto/td/1408.pdf]
References
External links
Brazil history
Colonial flags of Brazil
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
States and territories established in 1815
1820s disestablishments in the Portuguese Empire
1815 establishments in the Portuguese Empire
States and territories disestablished in the 1820s
Former kingdoms |
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A wide selection of study options in vocational education are offered from short courses, pre-apprenticeships, apprenticeships and traineeships through to certificates, diplomas, advanced diplomas, and onto higher education, tertiary degrees under the Australian Qualifications Framework. In 2013, there were 511 Full Time Equivalent (FTE) teaching staff and 348.5 (FTE) support staff employed by Melbourne Polytechnic delivering over 500 courses. There were 50,203 total enrollments as of November 2014 including 6,284 off-shore students at overseas partner institutions.
Melbourne Polytechnic is the largest provider of primary industry training in Victoria and one of the largest in Australia offering a diverse range of courses from practical short-courses to a Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology focusing on Viticulture, Agronomy and Agribusiness.
Management and organisation structure
Melbourne Polytechnic is managed by a board of eleven directors appointed by the Victorian State Government with the Chief Executive appointed by the board. Recent Chief Executives (CE) appointments have included Brian MacDonald (1988 – March 2012), Dr Andrew Giddy (March 2012 to March 2014), Ron Gauci (March 2014 – April 2015) and Rob Wood (from May 2015 – September 2017). On 20 October 2017, Frances Coppolillo was appointed as Chief Executive.
Currently, the CE has six direct reports comprising Academic Operations; Curriculum Innovation and Teaching Excellence; Student Engagement, International and Community Partnerships; Strategy, Performance and Governance; People and Corporate Services; and Infrastructure, Sustainability and Precincts.
Faculties
Melbourne Polytechnic is structured with four faculties each containing a number of Vocational education and training (VET) Teaching Departments and Higher Education (Master, Bachelor and associate degrees and higher education diploma) programs. During 2014, under the interim CEO leadership of Ron Gauci, the Institute undertook a major restructure reducing the teaching faculties from six to four. An International Office coordinates enrolment and services provided to international students studying at Melbourne Polytechnic. Many of the bachelor's degree courses have associate degrees embedded within them for an interim qualification and exit point after 2 years study.
Courses
Short courses
Short vocational courses are offered in a variety of areas including: Beauty, Drafting, Multimedia, Hospitality, HR, IT, massage, Office Administration, Welding, Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP) and Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer (MCSE), Computer Aided Drafting (CAD), and Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) and Cisco Certified Network Professional (CCNP). Courses in IELTS – International English Language Testing system – are run from Preston and Collingwood campuses to enhance the English skills of students from non-English speaking backgrounds, particularly international students.
Certificate and diploma courses
As a major vocational education provider in Melbourne Melbourne Polytechnic offers Certificate, Diploma and Advanced Diploma Courses across all Faculties and teaching departments with many of the courses open for international students to enrol.
Degree courses
In 2002 the Victorian Education Minister, Lynne Kosky, announced that TAFEs would be able to offer bachelor's degrees in specialised vocational areas not catered for by universities. Legislation was passed in 2003 and NMIT became the first Victorian TAFE to offer an undergraduate degree in 2004: The Bachelor of Applied Aquaculture course with the first students enrolling at the start of 2005.
Melbourne Polytechnic has since added undergraduate degree courses in Viticulture and Winemaking (2006), Equine Studies (2006), Australian Popular Music (2007), Hospitality Management (2008), Illustration (2008), Accounting (2011), and two in Early Years Education (2011). In 2012 new bachelor's degrees are being launched in Business, Information Technology, and Music Industry.
Associate Degrees are also offered in Accounting, Agriculture and Technology, Business, Early Years Studies, Equine Studies, Illustration, Information Technology, International Business, and International Business Management, Music, Music Industry, Writing and Publishing, and Tertiary Studies.
The 2014 Annual report states that two new master's degree courses have been accredited by the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) for delivery: in Creative Industries, and Practising and Professional Accounting.
Bachelor of Accounting
Bachelor and associate degree program in Accounting started in 2011, with a particular focus on a sustainability and environmental management.
Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology – Aquaculture
The Bachelor of Aquaculture at Melbourne Polytechnic was the first full-time course in applied aquaculture and aquatic environmental management at the bachelor's degree level to be offered by a Victorian TAFE institute. Aquaculture research has included captive breeding of Murray Cod and biodiesel from microalgae as part of this degree program. In 2014 this degree became the Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology, delivered by Melbourne Polytechnic, but accredited by La Trobe University.
Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology – Viticulture and Winemaking
Melbourne Polytechnic has been running wine training at its Epping campus since 1993 and in the Yarra Valley since 1994. The Bachelor of Viticulture and Winemaking degree commenced in February 2006 using the marketing label of Australian College of Wine, established by NMIT in 2001 to enable state-of-the-art training in viticulture, winemaking and hospitality. This label was discontinued in favour of the Northern Estates label, launched in 2010. In 2014 this degree became the Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology, delivered by Melbourne Polytechnic, but accredited by La Trobe University.
Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology – Agronomy, Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology – Agribusiness
The former Bachelor of Agriculture and Land Management degree was reformulated in 2014 as the Bachelor of Agriculture and Technology, delivered by Melbourne Polytechnic, but accredited by La Trobe University. It has majors in Agronomy and Agribusiness.
Bachelor of Built Environment
A new degree in architecture launched in the second semester of 2015.
Bachelor of Business
The Bachelor of Business commenced enrolments in 2012.
Bachelor of Education (Early Years), Bachelor of Early Years Studies
In 2011 the Institute offered 2 Bachelor's degrees in early childhood education: a 4-year Bachelor of Education (Early Years) degree, a 3-year Bachelor of Early Years Studies, and a 2-year associate degree in Early Years Studies. They are the first training courses run by a TAFE Institute in Victoria that has achieved registration with the Victorian Institute of Teaching.
Bachelor of Equine Studies
The degree in Equine studies has been hailed as the first course of its kind in Australia and a forerunner in higher education needed to professionalise the equine industry. Previous courses were only available at the Certificate or Diploma level at a variety of regional TAFEs. The course is based at Melbourne Polytechnic's thoroughbred stud, Northern Lodge, north of Melbourne, which has sold its yearlings for up to $125,000 as part of its commercial activities. Northern Lodge was established in 1993 comprising plus an adjoining property on a long term-lease for the stud farm, training track and a vineyard.
Bachelor of Engineering Technology (Civil)
Civil Engineering bachelor and associate degree course program delivered from 2014.
Bachelor of Hospitality Management
The Bachelor of Hospitality Management commenced in 2008. The course integrates hospitality management and business management, and utilises Melbourne Polytechnic's specialist hospitality industry facilities and resources in conjunction with Hospitality Certificate and Diploma level courses.
Bachelor of Information Technology
The Bachelor of Information Technology commenced enrolments in 2012.
Bachelor of Music
The 3-year bachelor's degree include studies in jazz, classical, pop/rock, and world music and is structured around four strands : music tools and language; music practice; applying music technology and music and culture; and creativity and the music business. The course is taught by musicians and music educators: Eugene Ball and Adrian Sherriff. It joins the other music industry courses at the Certificate, Diploma and Advanced Diploma levels that have been offered by Melbourne Polytechnic since 1986 in sound production, music business, and music performance. Melbourne Polytechnic has also introduced online courses in Songwriting, Arranging and Copyright for musicians which are units in its National Music Training Package.
Bachelor of Music Industry
The three-year Bachelor of Music Industry degree was launched in 2011, with ARIA award-winning musician Greg Arnold as the first academic program head. Students are able to select a major to specialise in including songwriting, sound production or music management.
Associate Degree of Veterinary Nursing
In 2015 Melbourne Polytechnic launched an associate degree of Veterinary Nursing based at the Epping campus, with new Veterinary training facilities. While Veterinary Nursing degrees have been offered for about 14 years in Great Britain, this is the first of its type to be presented in Australia.
Myerscough College in the UK advised upon and reviewed the degree program materials for the course. An agreement with the Lort Smith Animal Hospital in North Melbourne provides clinical placements and an end of course internship program for students.
Master of Creative Industries
The Master of Creative Industries curriculum model is based upon three thematic streams. These are (1) Entrepreneurship and Commercialisation (2), Applied Creative Research and (3) Creative Practice and Interdisciplinarity.
Official/authorised test centres
Melbourne Polytechnic has two official test centres.
IELTS (International English Language Testing System) for IELTS-General and IELTS-Academic English proficiency tests at the Preston campus, with offsite some offsite testing..
Pearson VUE – offering tests in PTE-Academic, CPA, CCNA, ICND1, ICND2, MSCE . Other tests are offered from time to time.
Graduation colours
At the yearly graduation ceremony graduates (Diploma and above) are presented their qualification in academic dress. The Melbourne Polytechnic board approved the following colours to represent the different fields of study (colour samples are approximate):
International partnerships
Melbourne Polytechnic is a global vocational education and training provider and offers qualifications in partnership with institutions in China, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, The Republic of Korea, India, Pakistan, Columbia and New Zealand. Students graduated in 2009 from NMIT programs at the following partner universities and colleges: Dalian Jiaotong University, Hangzhou Vocational and Technology College, Insurance Professional College, IEN-Start Institute Minjiang University, Jiyuan Vocational College, Luoyang University, Nanchang Hangkong University, Ocean University of China, Shandong Economic University, Sichuan College of Architectural Technology, Suzhou Vocational College, Taiyuan University of Technology, Xi'an Polytechnic University, Yunnan Institute of Information Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhongshan College, Huainan Normal University, Hong Kong Universal Education, Ansan College of Technology, Changshin College, Kunjang College, Suncheon Cheongam College, Saekyung College.
In 2014, 2,617 students graduated from offshore partner institutes in China, Hong Kong and Korea. In 2015, offshore graduates numbered 2,293.
History
The direct antecedents of Melbourne Polytechnic are Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE, and further back in time Preston College of TAFE and Collingwood College of TAFE which amalgamated in 1988. The new organisation was called Northern Metropolitan College of TAFE. Initial campuses were at Preston, Collingwood and Parkville with the Institute developing new campuses at Heidelberg, Greensborough and Epping. Other organisations have sometimes taken the NMIT acronym to mean Northern Metropolitan Institute of Technology, however this has never been an official title.
The Epping Campus was developed and built in 1992. At the time the Institute were planning delivery of part-time, night-time horticulture programs. The Victorian Government, as part of a policy direction, stipulated courses needed to be also delivered in agriculture. From that point NMIT developed the resources to become the pre-eminent agricultural training
organisation in Victoria by 2005.
Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE
A further name change to Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE occurred in 1996, with the NMIT acronym adopted in 1999. Training centres at Eden Park and Yan Yean were developed. In 2002 a campus was opened in Ararat on the site of the Aradale Mental Hospital, and a new training centre at Yarra Glen in the Yarra Valley region. In 2004 the Parkville campus closed and a new campus opened at Fairfield on the site of the Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital.
In 2005 NMIT upgraded its telephone system from a Fujitsu telephone branched exchange to a full internet telephony network at a cost of about A$5 million. To enhance its negotiating power and technical support base for implementing a Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) system, NMIT lead a consortium of regional TAFEs (Gordon Institute of TAFE from Geelong, Bendigo Regional Institute of TAFE, Goulburn Ovens Institute of TAFE and Wodonga Institute of TAFE) in migrating to the new telephony system.
The first Higher Education graduates from NMIT Bachelor's degree programs were awarded their bachelor's degrees in Applied Aquaculture, Viticulture and Winemaking and Equine Studies at the 2009 NMIT Graduation Ceremony.
In the wake of the shakeup in Government funding to TAFE Victoria in 2012, NMIT is negotiating sale of its Greensborough campus and purchase of Swinburne University's Prahran campus in 2013. In the agreement signed with Swinburne University on 2 August 2013, NMIT will develop the campus as a precinct for creative arts. NMIT plans an initial 60 courses to be run from the campus from 2014. The National Institute of Circus Arts and Gymnastics Australia will remain as tenants on the site.
With the continued delivery of a range of Associate and bachelor's degree programs to complement its vocational education courses, NMIT indicated in 2013 that it is moving toward Polytechnic University status. In August 2013 NMIT and La Trobe University announced the establishment of Melbourne Polytechnic based at Prahan Campus.
Collingwood Technical School
The antecedents of Melbourne Polytechnic date back to a trade skills crisis in Victoria in the initial years of the twentieth century resulting in the passing of the 1910 Education Act No 2301 in the Victorian Parliament. This act allowed the establishment of technical schools.
Collingwood Technical School was established in July 1912 at 35 Johnston street. The bluestone buildings were originally built during the gold rush period in 1853 as the Collingwood Town Hall and Court House. Initial subjects studied included preliminary carpentry and pattern-making, plumbing, engineering, sheet iron work and bricklaying with students studying 2 hours per night, 3 nights a week.
Juniors enrolled at the start of 1913, and the school was classified as a trades school by the Victorian Education Department, offering courses in carpentry, fitting and turning, plumbing, bricklaying and plastering. Two years later electrical wiring and electrical and mechanical engineering were introduced.
During the First World War the school was also used for retraining returning servicemen.
In 1935, the junior school was the largest technical school in Melbourne with 788 enrolments, and with a total enrolment of 1769, but the establishment of Preston Technical School in 1937 reduced subsequent demand.
The school was renamed Collingwood Technical College in 1968.
To address a shortage of skilled gardeners, the college started its horticultural studies program at Parkville in 1979, with an initial 96 apprentices enrolled. The following year, 1980, the new nine-story Otter Street Campus building was completed. The school had 8000 full-time and part-time students enrolled in TAFE courses at Collingwood.
The Minister of Education announced the closure of the school at the end of 1987 citing falling enrolments from 800 in 1963 to 200 in 1985, to 100 in 1987.
Preston Technical School
The Victorian Government opened the Preston Technical School in 1937 on land provided by Preston Council on St Georges Rd, and also supported by Northcote Council. After World War Two substantial expansion occurred with new workshop premises opened in 1947, followed by a Girls' Technical School in the mid 1950s. In 1951 Preston was the largest technical school in Victoria.
The 1950s also saw the introduction of the Preston Diploma School offering tertiary Diploma courses in engineering and science. By 1977 the combined school offered 100 courses. By 1987 the school was known as Preston College of TAFE and had 17,000 students enrolled prior to its amalgamation with Collingwood Technical College in 1988 to form the Northern Metropolitan College of TAFE.
Building B on Preston Campus, that fronts St Georges Road, has been listed on the Victorian Heritage Database for its local historic, aesthetic and social significance to Darebin City. The listing states:
Historically, the school provides evidence of the educational faciliies established to meet the educational needs of the growing municipalities of Northcote and Preston in the Inter-war years. It is also significant as a place that illustrates the development of technical colleges during the inter-war period. It is significant as an example of a school designed under the direction of notable Chief Architect, Percy Everett. Architecturally, the former Preston Technical College is a relatively intact and good example of a substantial Education Department secondary school building from the Inter-war years. The Stripped Classical composition of its east (St Georges Road) elevation is of note, which is layered with materials and embellishment that are found on Moderne and Mediterranean style buildings, creating an interesting hybrid of styles."
Campuses
The institute's main campus and administration is located at Preston on St Georges Road.
Preston
Set on the site of Preston Technical School, this campus offers a variety of courses and facilities, including a Gym and football oval. Courses include information technology, hospitality and tourism, business and office administration, massage and hairdressing. The Hospitality Department runs a Tourism and Hospitality Training Centre which provides training bars, commercial kitchens and a simulated hotel foyer, front desk, hotel suite and the St Georges Restaurant and bistro which is run as a successful commercial venture.
The Centre of Excellence for Students who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing is based at the Preston Campus. The centre was set up in 1993 by the Office of Training and Further Education (OTFE), later renamed Skills Victoria. The Centre's aim is to provide leadership, support and research to the Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector on the needs of Deaf and hard of hearing students in Victoria.
Collingwood
Located in an 8-storey tower in Otter Street, close to Smith Street, the Collingwood campus offers courses in information technology, multimedia, video production, hairdressing and contains the International Students office. A Cafeteria is located on the 3rd floor along with the Level 3 Bistro which hospitality students run during term times. IELTS testing was conducted at Collingwood until 2016, off-site testing is conducted on market demand. The campus also features an industry standard high definition television broadcast studio. The campus temporarily shares its space with the Academy of Design Australia, a privately owned design college belonging to LaSalle College, before its relocation to Oxford Street, Collingwood.
The campus was temporarily closed in October 2022 to be renovated, with an expected opening date in early 2024.
Fairfield
Fairfield Campus is located on the site of the former Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital, and many of the hospital's original buildings converted for student use. Facilities at the Fairfield Campus include photography studios and darkrooms, recording studios and fully equipped computer laboratories. Courses in illustration, visual arts, performing arts, Music Business and horticulture are based at Fairfield.
In 2008 and 2009 work was undertaken in redeveloping the old nurses quarters for student residential accommodation. Yarra House on Fairfield campus was officially opened for residential student accommodation in 2010. A common room is named after Vivian Bullwinkel, an Australian Army nurse and later the Director of Nursing at the Fairfield Hospital.
There is an AIDS Memorial Garden located in parklands adjacent to the campus where the ashes of at least 50 people are scattered. The garden was established on 22 April 1988 as a
place of tranquillity and respite for patients in the AIDS Ward at the former Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital and their families and friends.Fairfield Campus Parkland and AIDS Memorial Garden Management Plan, NMIT website. Retrieved 7 October 2009
Greensborough
The Greensborough Campus has gardens which are developed and maintained by students of the Landscape Gardening course.
The campus was closed in 2013 with management citing declining enrolments at the campus as the reason. Labor leader Daniel Andrews promised to re-open the campus during the 2014 Victorian state election, either by Melbourne Polytechnic or another training provider.
Heidelberg
The Heidelberg campus contains the Manufacturing, Engineering and Building Industry Training Centre which was custom built in 1994. The technologically advanced training facilities provides workshops for each trade area allowing students to learn in an environment similar to real work situations using equipment and fittings donated by industry. The plumbing training facilities are recognised as a national industry benchmark including a plumbing sandpit, simulated house stations and an advanced gas training laboratory.
Melbourne Polytechnic provides the only locksmithing apprenticeship course in Victoria at its Heidelberg campus which attracts students from as far afield as Tasmania, South Australia, the Northern Territory and New Zealand. The Heidelberg Technical Education Centre (TEC), one of four in Victoria, opened at NMIT Heidelberg campus in May 2010.
Epping
The campus was initially developed in 1992 with State Government funding. NMIT has become the largest provider in Victoria of training to the agriculture sector with courses delivered from the Epping Campus located on Melbourne's northern rural fringe. Epping Campus is home to award-winning courses in beef, goat, sheep and grain production. The campus also has welding workshops, a forklift training area, glass houses for herb production, a winery and hosts one of Victoria's few indoor recirculating aquaculture facilities. Students at courses at Epping also use the training facilities of a farm at Yan Yean and Northern Lodge, a 60 hectare horse stud and 8 hectare vineyard at Eden Park.
Green Skills Centre
The Epping campus has been home to Melbourne Polytechnic's centre for Renewable Energy and Sustainability with state-of-the-art facilities for courses in renewable energy. In 2009/2010 a Green Skills Centre of Excellence was constructed on the Campus with $9.5million of Federal Government funding.NMIT announces new $9.5 million training centre for ‘Green Collar’ workers. , Media Release, NMIT website. 1 July 2009. Retrieved 7 October 2009
The building was opened in November 2010 and features green building design; renewable energy sources including Geothermal heat pump for heating and cooling and solar panels (25 kW); Rainwater harvesting and recycling; green concrete with low cement content; and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) timber. Eighty per cent of the construction waste was recycled. The building has a Green Building Council of Australia GreenStar rating of 5 signifying 'Australian Excellence' in sustainable building design. The building is used for a range of courses teaching sustainable practices and technologies including in "carbon trading, solar power and solar water heating, wind power generation, geothermal exchange heating and cooling, blackwater and greywater treatment, rainwater harvesting, waste management and waste recycling, water resources management for horticulture, and agricultural and horticultural land conservation."
Prahran
In the wake of the reduction in Government funding support for the TAFE sector during 2012, Swinburne University of Technology indicated it wished to sell its Prahran and Lilydale campuses. After a period of due diligence, on 2 August 2013, NMIT signed an agreement to effect the transfer of the Prahran Campus from Swinburne University with in-principle state Government agreement, and to develop the site as a creative industries training precinct. As part of the agreement the National Institute of Circus Arts and Gymnastics Australia will remain as tenants on the site. According to NMIT CEO Andy Giddy, a teaching hotel offering student residential accommodation may be incorporated in the campus redevelopment.
Ararat
In November 2002 a new campus and 30 hectare vineyard and 10 hectare olive grove and olive processing facility was opened at the former Aradale Mental Hospital site near Ararat, near the Pyrenees wine region. The campus was established to provide in Victoria a world-class wine and hospitality training facility. The campus accommodates up to 120 students, focusing on practical aspects of Wine Making, Marketing, Vineyard management and Food Processing (wine) subjects for its Certificate, Diploma and bachelor's degree courses.
Rural training centers
Eden Park
Northern Lodge is Melbourne Polytechnic's 320 hectare farm and horse stud at Eden Park located 40 kilometres north of Melbourne in the foothills of Victoria's Great Dividing Range. The farm provides dedicated training for thoroughbred racing and viticulture. Northern Lodge was established in 1993 and includes irrigated pastures, stables, barn, a 1400 metres running track, and other facilities to enable a high standard of thoroughbred training. The first vineyard was planted by students in 1996 which has grown to 10 hectares including the varieties chardonnay, sauvignon blanc, semillon, riesling, pinot noir, shiraz, cabernet sauvignon and merlot.
During 2011 there have been community protests to stop the Eden Park Kangaroo Cull on the Melbourne Polytechnic Eden Park property.Cheryl Balfour, Eden Park roo activists still hopping mad , Whittlesea Leader, 13 September 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
Yan Yean
Melbourne Polytechnic operates a fully operational farming property at Yan Yean which is located 25 kilometres north of Melbourne. The 200 hectare property is dedicated to training students in cattle and deer farming, aquaculture and the production of medicinal herbs and essential oils.
Yarra Glen
Melbourne Polytechnic has 12 hectares of Vineyards located at the Yarra Valley Racing Centre, with a 100-tonne winery constructed there in 2003.
Northern Estates wine
In 2001 the Victorian Government provided $7.4 million to NMIT to establish the Australian College of Wine, announcing a new teaching facility with 12 hectares of vines in the Yarra Valley wine region and a new campus and vineyard and olive grove and olive processing facility at the former Aradale Mental Hospital site near Ararat, near the Pyrenees wine region. The College was established to provide in Victoria a world-class wine and hospitality training facility.
Some within the wine industry, such as the Yarra Valley Wine Growers Association, objected to the establishment of the Australian College of Wine, on the grounds that existing institutions: Charles Sturt University at Wagga Wagga in New South Wales, Adelaide University in South Australia and Swinburne University of Technology campus at Lilydale, produced enough graduates for the industry.
The NMIT Australian College of Wine campus at Aradale was officially opened by Education and Training Minister, Lynne Kosky in November 2002. The college accommodates up to 120 students, focusing on practical aspects of Wine Making, Marketing, Vineyard management and Food Processing (wine) subjects for its Certificate, Diploma and bachelor's degree courses.
Melbourne Polytechnic has taught various courses associated with winemaking and viticulture at its Epping campus since 1993 which has a 100 tonne winery a and a licence to market and sell wine. NMIT students planted vines in 1996 at the NMIT owned 470-hectare thoroughbred stud, Northern Lodge, at Eden Park 40 km north of Melbourne. The first vintage was bottled in 1998. The first Gold Medal, for a 2002 Shiraz, was awarded in 2003 at the prestigious Royal Adelaide Wine Show. Numerous wine show awards have since been won for wines produced by NMIT students with the Australian College of Wine.
In 2003 new wineries of 100-tonne at both Eden Park and Yarra Glen and 250-tonne at Aradale were constructed as part of the development of the Australian College of Wine. State and Regional Development Minister John Brumby announced that NMIT would run a $1 billion viticulture training project at Panzhihua University in China's south-west from 2004.
The college was a member of the Grampians Winemakers Association and also was a major sponsor of the annual Grampians Gourmet Food and Wine Festival.
Last mention of the Australian College of Wine was in the 2006 Annual report. The Institute has since stopped marketing under this wine label, instead adopting the Northern Estates wine Label in 2010 when the Institute won a silver medal for a staff/student processed Northern Estates Riesling entered into the 2010 Canberra International Riesling Challenge. The new Northern Estates label was publicly launched at the Cellar Door and Farm Gate event at Southbank Wharf Precinct at Melbourne Food Week during 2010.
Institute awards
2011 – A team of four NMIT cookery students won the Victorian Tafe Cookery Challenge 2010 – Australian Institute of Professional Photography Tertiary Institution of the Year Award
2008 – Australian Institute of Professional Photography Tertiary Institution of the Year Award
2007 Victorian Tourism Awards – Winner of Tourism Education and Training Award, Faculty of Hospitality, Tourism and Personal Services
2006 Best New Centre Award – IELTS Australia
2006 Australian Institute of Professional Photography (AIPP) Tertiary Institute Award
Wines produced by NMIT students have won medals in the Australian Small Winemakers Show, Royal Hobart Wine Show, Royal Melbourne Wine Show, Victorian Wines Show, Royal Adelaide Show.
Alumni
Some of the notable people who have attended NMIT or its antecedents:
Ron Barassi – Australian rules footballer and coach – student at Preston Technical School
Basic shape – folk/pop/indie band whose members attended NMIT music courses
John Englart – citizen journalist
Amy Findlay of Stonefield is a 2010 Music Degree graduate.
Jon Faine – ABC broadcaster
Chris Frangou – Bass player, composer and producer
Frank Gibson – Professor of Biochemistry, Melbourne University, ANU – student at Collingwood Technical College
Neil Harvey – vice-captained Australian cricket team – student at Collingwood Technical School
Bill Lawry – captained Australian cricket team – student at Preston Technical School
Chris Lewis – Circus Oz music director
Arthur Mather (born 1925) cartoonist and novelist – student at Collingwood Technical School
John O'Hagan – Circus Oz music director
Edmond Amendola, David Williams, Adam Donovan – founding members of band Augie March''
Michael Pratt recipient of the George Cross for bravery – student at Preston Technical School
Jasmine Rae – country singer and songwriter
Lou Richards – Australian rules footballer – student at Collingwood Technical School
Ron Richards – Australian rules footballer – student at Collingwood Technical School
Stan Rofe – influential rock'n'roll disc jockey – student at Collingwood Technical School
Tony Spizzica – Australian bass, piano accordion player and music teacher from Elmore in country Victoria
Paul Stoddart – airline magnate – studied at Preston Technical School
Frank Wilkes – politician and Victorian parliamentary Labor leader – student at Preston Technical School
Marcel Yammouni – musical director of Vanessa Amorosi
Deepak Vinayak- Indian Australian Community Leader, Melbourne
References
Australian vocational education and training providers
1912 establishments in Australia
Educational institutions established in 1912
Technical universities and colleges in Australia
TAFE Colleges in Melbourne
Heidelberg, Victoria |
4160656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20herpesvirus%206 | Human herpesvirus 6 | Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is the common collective name for human betaherpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) and human betaherpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B). These closely related viruses are two of the nine known herpesviruses that have humans as their primary host.
HHV-6A and HHV-6B are double-stranded DNA viruses within the Betaherpesvirinae subfamily and of the genus Roseolovirus. HHV-6A and HHV-6B infect almost all of the human populations that have been tested.
HHV-6A has been described as more neurovirulent, and as such is more frequently found in patients with neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis. HHV-6 (and HHV-7) levels in the brain are also elevated in people with Alzheimer's disease.
HHV-6B primary infection is the cause of the common childhood illness exanthema subitum (also known as roseola infantum or sixth disease). It is passed on from child to child. It is uncommon for adults to contract this disease as most people have had it by kindergarten, and once contracted, immunity arises and prevents future reinfection. Additionally, HHV-6B reactivation is common in transplant recipients, which can cause several clinical manifestations such as encephalitis, bone marrow suppression, and pneumonitis.
A variety of tests are used in the detection of HHV-6, some of which do not differentiate the two species.
History
During 1986, Syed Zaki Salahuddin, Dharam Ablashi, and Robert Gallo cultivated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with AIDS and lymphoproliferative illnesses.
Short-lived, large, refractile cells that frequently contained intranuclear and/or intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were documented. Electron microscopy revealed a novel virus that they named Human B-Lymphotropic Virus (HBLV).
Shortly after its discovery, Ablashi et al. described five cell lines that can be infected by the newly discovered HBLV. They published that HSB-2, a particular T-cell line, is highly susceptible to infection. Ablashi's pioneering research concluded by suggesting that the virus name be changed from HBLV to HHV-6, in accord with the published provisional classification of herpes viruses.
Years later, HHV-6 was divided into subtypes. Early research (1992) described two very similar, yet unique variants: HHV-6A and HHV-6B. The distinction was warranted due to unique restriction endonuclease cleavages, monoclonal antibody reactions, and growth patterns.
HHV-6A includes several adult-derived strains and its disease spectrum is not well defined, although it is thought by some to be more neurovirulent. HHV-6B is commonly detected in children with roseola infantum, as it is the etiologic agent for this condition. Within these two viruses is a sequence homology of 95%.
In 2012, HHV-6A and HHV-6B were officially recognized as distinct species.
Taxonomy
HHV-6A and HHV-6B were recognized by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) as distinct species in 2012. Human Roseoloviruses include HHV-6A, HHV-6B and HHV-7.
Herpesvirus was established as a genus in 1971 in the first report of the ICTV. This genus consisted of 23 viruses among 4 groups. In 1976, a second ICTV report was released in which this genus was elevated to the family level — the herpetoviridae. Because of possible confusion with viruses derived from reptiles, the family name was changed in the third report (1979) to herpesviridae. In this report, the family Herpesviridae was divided into 3 subfamilies (alphaherpesvirinae, betaherpesvirinae and gammaherpesvirinae) and 5 unnamed genera; 21 viruses were recognized as members of the family.
In 2009, the order Herpesvirales was created. This was necessitated by the discovery that the herpes viruses of fish and molluscs are only distantly related to those of birds and mammals. Order Herpesvirales contains three families, the Herpesviridae, which contains the long-recognized herpesviruses of mammals, birds, and reptiles, plus two new families — the family Alloherpesviridae which incorporates herpes viruses of bony fish and frogs, and the family Malacoherpesviridae which contains viruses of molluscs.
As of 2012, this order currently has 3 families, 4 subfamilies (1 unassigned), 18 genera (4 unassigned) and 97 species.
Structure
The diameter of an HHV-6 virion is about 2000 angstroms. The virion's outer portion consists of a lipid bilayer membrane that contains viral glycoproteins and is derived from that of the host. Below this membrane envelope is a tegument which surrounds an icosahedral capsid, composed of 162 capsomeres. The protective capsid of HHV-6 contains double stranded linear DNA.
During maturation of HHV-6 virions, human cell membranes are used to form viral lipid envelopes (as is characteristic of all enveloped viruses). During this process HHV-6 utilizes lipid rafts, which are membranous microdomains enriched by cholesterol, sphingolipids, and glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins. Early researchers suspected that HHV-6 virions mature in the nucleus; some even incorrectly published this, as they generalized and applied to HHV-6 what was known about other viruses. However, researched published in 2009 suggests that the HHV-6 virus utilizes trans-Golgi-network-derived vesicles for assembly.
Genome
The genetic material of HHV-6 is composed of linear (circular during an active infection), double stranded DNA which contains an origin of replication, two 8–10 kb left and right direct repeat termini, and a unique segment that is 143–145kb.
The origin of replication (often labeled as "oriLyt" in the literature) is where DNA replication begins. The direct repeat termini (DRL and DRR) possess a repeated TTAGGG sequence, identical to that of human telomeres. Variability in the number of telomeric repeats is observed in the range of 15–180. These termini also contain pac-1 and pac-2 cleavage and packing signals that are conserved among herpesviruses.
The unique segment contains seven major core gene blocks (U27–U37, U38–U40, U41–U46, U48–U53, U56–U57, U66EX2–U77, and U81–U82), which is also characteristic of herpesviruses. These conserved genes code for proteins that are involved in replication, cleavage, and packing of the viral genome into a mature virion. Additionally, they code for a number of immunomodulatory proteins. The unique segment also possesses a block of genes (U2–U19) that are conserved among HHV-6, HHV-7, and Cytomegaloviruses (the betaherpesviruses). A number of the unique segment genes are associated with, for instance, the HCMV US22 family (). The table below outlines some of their known properties.
Genes
Viral entry
HHV-6 receptor
When an extracellular HHV-6 virion comes across human cells, it encounters the human receptor protein cluster of differentiation 46 (CD46), which plays a role in regulating the complement system. The CD46 protein possesses a single variable region, as a result of alternative splicing. As such, at least fourteen isoforms of CD46 exist, all of which bind HHV-6a.
The extracellular region of CD46 contains four short consensus repeats of about 60 amino acids that fold into a compact beta-barrel domain surrounded by flexible loops. As has been demonstrated for CD46 with other ligands, the CD46 protein structure linearizes upon binding HHV-6. While their precise interaction has not yet been determined, the second and third SCR domains have been demonstrated as required for HHV-6 receptor binding and cellular entry.
HHV-6 receptor ligand
Mori et al. first identified the gene product gQ1, a glycoprotein unique to HHV-6, and found that it forms a complex with gH and gL glycoproteins. They believed that this heterotrimer complex served as the viral ligand for CD46. Soon thereafter, another glycoprotein named gQ2 was identified and found to be part of the gH/gL/gQ1 ligand complex, forming a heterotetramer that was positively identified as the viral CD46 ligand. The exact process of entry is not yet well understood.
Salivary glands
The salivary glands have been described as an in vivo reservoir for HHV-6 infection.
Leukocytes
Researchers conducted a study to show that T cells are highly infectable by HHV-6.
Nervous system
During the year 2011, researchers at the National Institutes of Health attempted to elucidate the then unknown method whereby HHV-6a gains entry into the nervous system. As such, they autopsied the brains of around 150 subjects. When various anatomical regions were assayed for their viral load, olfactory tissues were found to have the highest HHV-6 content. They concluded that these tissues are the entry point for HHV-6a.
The results above are consistent with those of previous studies that involved HSV-1 (and a number of other viruses), which also disseminates into the CNS through olfactory tissue.
Researchers also hypothesized that olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), a group of specialized glial cells found in the nasal cavity, may have a role in HHV-6 infectivity. They suspected this association as a result of OECs having properties similar to those of astrocytes, another type of glial cell that was previously identified as being susceptible to HHV-6 infection. Research continued by infecting OECs in vitro with both types of HHV-6. Ultimately, only OECs in which HHV-6a was used tested positive for signs of de novo viral synthesis, as is also characteristic of astrocytes.
Cellular activity
Once inside, two outcomes have been described: active and inactive infections.
Active infection
Active infections involve the linear dsDNA genome circularizing by end to end covalent linkages. This process was first reported for the herpes simplex virus. Once circularized, HHV-6 begins to express what are known as "immediate early" genes. These gene products are believed to be transcription activators and may be regulated by the expression of viral micro RNAs. Subsequent expression of "early genes" then occurs and activates, for instance, viral DNA polymerases. Early genes are also involved in the rolling circle replication that follows.
HHV-6's replication results in the formation of concatemers, which are long molecules that contain several repeats of a DNA sequence. These long concatemers are then cleaved between the pac-1 and pac-2 regions for packaging of the genome into individual virions.
Inactive infection
Not all newly infected cells begin rolling circle replication. Herpesviruses may enter a latent stage, inactively infecting their human host. Since its discovery in 1993, this phenomenon has been found among all of the betaherpesviruses.
Other betaherpesviruses establish latency as a nuclear episome, which is a circular DNA molecule (analogous to plasmids). For HHV-6, latency is believed to occur exclusively through the integration of viral telomeric repeats into human subtelomeric regions. Only one other virus, Marek's disease virus, is known to achieve latency in this fashion. This phenomenon is possible as a result of the telomeric repeats found within the direct repeat termini of HHV-6's genome.
The right direct repeat terminus integrates within 5 to 41 human telomere repeats, and preferentially does so into the proximal end of chromosomes 9, 17, 18, 19, and 22, but has also occasionally been found in chromosomes 10 and 11. Nearly 70 million individuals are suspected to carry chromosomally integrated HHV-6.
A number of genes expressed by HHV-6 are unique to its inactive latency stage. These genes involve maintaining the genome and avoiding destruction of the host cell. For instance, the U94 protein is believed to repress genes that are involved in cellular lysis (apoptosis) and also may aid in telomeric integration. Once stored in human telomeres, the virus is reactivated intermittently.
Reactivation
The specific triggers for reactivation are not well understood. Some researchers have suggested that injury, physical or emotional stress, and hormonal imbalances could be involved.
Researchers during 2011 discovered that reactivation can positively be triggered in vitro by histone deacetylase inhibitors. Once reactivation begins, the rolling circle process is initiated and concatemers are formed as described above.
Interactions
Human herpesvirus 6 lives primarily on humans and, while variants of the virus can cause mild to fatal illnesses, can live commensally on its host. It has been demonstrated that HHV-6 fosters the progression of HIV-1 upon coinfection in T cells. HHV-6 upregulates the expression of the primary HIV receptor CD4, thus expanding the range of HIV susceptible cells. Several studies also have shown that HHV-6 infection increases production of inflammatory cytokines that enhance in vitro expression of HIV-1, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, and IL-8. A more recent in vivo study shows HHV-6A coinfection to dramatically accelerate the progression from HIV to AIDS in pigtailed macaques.
HHV-6 has also been demonstrated to transactivate Epstein–Barr virus.
Epidemiology
Age
Humans acquire the virus at an early age, some as early as less than one month of age. HHV-6 primary infections account for up to 20% of infant emergency room visits for fever in the United States and are associated with several more severe complications, such as encephalitis, lymphadenopathy, myocarditis and myelosuppression. The prevalence of the virus in the body increases with age (rates of infection are highest among infant between 6 and 12 months old) and it is hypothesized that this is due to the loss of maternal antibodies in a child that protect him or her from infections.
There are inconsistencies with the correlations between age and seropositivity: According to some reports there is a decrease of seropositivity with the increase of age, while some indicate no significant decline, and others report an increased rate of seropositivity for individuals age 62 and older. After primary infection, latency is established in salivary glands, hematopoietic stem cells, and other cells, and exists for the lifetime of the host.
Geographical distribution
The virus is known to be widespread around the world. An HHV-6 infection rate of 64–83% by age 13 months has been reported for countries including the United States, United Kingdom, Japan and Taiwan. Studies have found seroprevalence varying "from approximately 39 to 80% among ethnically diverse adult populations from Tanzania, Malaysia, Thailand, and Brazil." There are no significant differences among ethnic groups living in the same geographical location or between sexes. While HHV-6B is present in almost all of the world's populations, HHV-6A appears to be less frequent in Japan, North America, and Europe.
Transmission
Transmission is believed to occur most frequently through the shedding of viral particles into saliva. Both HHV-6B and HHV-7 are found in human saliva, the former being at a lower frequency. Studies report varying rates of prevalence of HHV-6 in saliva (between 3–90%), and have also described the salivary glands as an in vivo reservoir for HHV-6. The virus infects the salivary glands, establishes latency, and periodically reactivates to spread infection to other hosts.
Vertical transmission has also been described, and occurs in approximately 1% of births in the United States. This form is easily identifiable as the viral genome is contained within every cell of an infected individual.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of HHV-6 infection is performed by both serologic and direct methods. The most prominent technique is the quantification of viral DNA in blood, other body fluids, and organs by means of real-time PCR.
Clinical significance
The classical presentation of primary HHV-6b infection is as exanthema subitum (ES) or "roseola", featuring a high temperature followed by a rash. However, one study (1997) indicated that a rash is not a distinguishing feature of HHV-6 infection, with rates similar to non-HHV-6 infections (10–20% of febrile children in both groups). HHV-6 infections more frequently present with high temperatures (over 40C), at a rate of around two thirds compared to less than half in the non-HHV-6 patients. Similarly significant differences were seen in malaise, irritability, and tympanic membrane inflammation.
Primary infection in adults tend to be more severe.
Diagnosis for the virus, particularly HHV-6B, is vital for the patient because of the infection's adverse effects. Symptoms that point to this infection, such as rashes, go unnoticed in patients that receive antibiotics because they can be misinterpreted as a side-effect of the medicine. HHV-6B is known to be associated with the childhood disease roseola infantum, as well as other illnesses caused by the infection. These include hepatitis, febrile convulsions, and encephalitis. Children who have exanthema subitum, caused by an HHV-6B infection, experience fevers lasting 3 to 5 days; rashes on the torso, neck, and face; and sometimes febrile convulsions, however, the symptoms are not always present together. Primary infections in adults are rare since most occurrences are in children. When the infection does occur for the first time in an adult the symptoms can be severe.
The virus periodically re-activates from its latent state, with HHV-6 DNA being detectable in 20–25% of healthy adults in the United States. In the immunocompetent setting, these re-activations are often asymptomatic, but in immunosuppressed individuals there can be serious complications. HHV-6 re-activation causes severe disease in transplant recipients and can lead to graft rejection, often in consort with other betaherpesviridae. Likewise in HIV/AIDS, HHV-6 re-activations cause disseminated infections leading to end organ disease and death. Although up to 100% of the population are exposed (seropositive) to HHV-6, most by 3 years of age, there are rare cases of primary infections in adults. In the United States, these have been linked more with HHV-6a, which is thought to be more pathogenic and more neurotropic and has been linked to several central nervous system-related disorders.
HHV-6 has been reported in multiple sclerosis patients and has been implicated as a co-factor in several other diseases, including chronic fatigue syndrome, AIDS, and temporal lobe epilepsy.
Multiple sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune and inflammatory disorder of the nervous system that results in demyelination of axons in the brain and spinal cord. The first study to specifically investigate HHV-6-related demyelination appeared in the literature during 1996, when a previously healthy 19-month-old child developed acute encephalopathy. Levels of myelin basic protein were elevated in his cerebrospinal fluid, suggesting that demyelination was occurring. This link was almost forgotten, until four years later when an MS-related study was published showing an HHV-6 prevalence of 90% among demyelinated brain tissues. In comparison, a mere 13% of disease-free brain tissues possessed the virus.
The molecular mimicry hypothesis, in which T cells are essentially confusing an HHV-6 viral protein with myelin basic protein, first appeared around this time. Early on in the development of this hypothesis (2002), Italian researchers used the HHV-6a variant along with bovine myelin basic protein to generate cross-reactive T cell lines. These were compared to the T cells of individuals with MS as well as those of controls, and no significant difference was found between the two. Their early research suggested that molecular mimicry may not be a mechanism that is involved in MS.
Several similar studies followed. A study from October 2014 supported the role of long-term HHV-6 infection with demyelination in progressive neurological diseases.
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a debilitating illness, the cause of which is unknown. Patients with CFS have abnormal neurological, immunological, and metabolic findings.
For many, but not all, patients who meet criteria for CFS, the illness begins with an acute, infectious-like syndrome. Cases of CFS can follow well-documented infections with several infectious agents. A study of 259 patients with a "CFS-like" illness published shortly after HHV-6 was discovered used primary lymphocyte cultures to identify people with active replication of HHV-6. Such active replication was found in 70% of the patients vs. 20% of the control subjects (). The question raised but not answered by this study was whether the illness caused subtle immune deficiency that led to reactivation of HHV-6, or whether reactivation of HHV-6 led to the symptoms of the illness.
Subsequent studies employing only serological techniques that do not distinguish active from latent infection have produced mixed results: most, but not all, have found an association between CFS and HHV-6 infection.
Other studies have employed assays that can detect active infection: primary cell culture, PCR of serum or plasma, or IgM early antigen antibody assays. The majority of these studies have shown an association between CFS and active HHV-6 infection, although a few have not.
In summary, active infection with HHV-6 is present in a substantial fraction of patients with CFS. Moreover, HHV-6 is known to infect cells of the nervous system and immune system, organ systems with demonstrable abnormalities in CFS. Despite this association, it remains unproven that reactivated HHV-6 infection is a cause of CFS.
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
Hashimoto's thyroiditis is the most common thyroid disease and is characterized by abundant lymphocyte infiltrate and thyroid impairment. Recent research suggests a potential role for HHV-6 (possibly variant A) in the development or triggering of Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
Pregnancy
The role of HHV-6 during pregnancy leading to inflammation in the amniotic cavity has been studied.
Infertility
HHV-6A DNA was found in the endometrium of almost half of a group of infertile women, but in none of the fertile control group. Natural killer cells specific for HHV-6A, and high uterine levels of certain cytokines, were also found in the endometrium of the infertile women positive for HHV-6A. The authors suggest that HHV-6A may prove to be an important factor in female infertility.
Cancer
Many human oncogenic viruses have been identified. For instance, HHV-8 is linked to Kaposi's sarcoma, the Epstein–Barr virus to Burkitt's lymphoma, and HPV to cervical cancer. In fact, the World Health Organization estimated (2002) that 17.8% of human cancers were caused by infection. The typical methods whereby viruses initiate oncogenesis involve suppressing the host's immune system, causing inflammation, or altering genes.
HHV-6 has been detected in lymphomas, leukemias, cervical cancers, and brain tumors. Various medulloblastoma cell lines as well as the cells of other brain tumors have been demonstrated to express the CD46 receptor. Viral DNA has also been identified in many other non-pathological brain tissues, but the levels are lower.
The human P53 protein functions as a tumor suppressor. Individuals who do not properly produce this protein experience a higher incidence of cancer, a phenomenon known as Li-Fraumeni syndrome. One of HHV-6's gene products, the U14 protein, binds P53 and incorporates it into virions. Another gene product, the ORF-1 protein, can also bind and inactivate P53. Cells expressing the ORF-1 gene have even been shown to produce fibrosarcomas when injected into mice.
Another product of HHV-6, the immediate early protein U95, has been shown to bind nuclear factor-kappa B. Deregulation of this factor is associated with cancer.
Optic neuritis
HHV-6 induced ocular inflammation has been reported three times. All three were reported in elderly individuals, two during 2007 and one during 2011. The first two were reported in Japan and France, the most recent one in Japan.
These were believed to have occurred as a result of a reactivation, as anti-HHV-6 IgM antibody levels were low.
Temporal lobe epilepsy
Epilepsy of the mesial temporal lobe is associated with HHV-6 infection. Within this region of the brain exists three structures: the amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) is the most common form of chronic epilepsy and its underlying mechanism is not fully understood.
Researchers consistently report having found HHV-6 DNA in tissues that were removed from patients with MTLE. Studies have demonstrated a tendency for HHV-6 to aggregate in the temporal lobe, with the highest concentrations in astrocytes of the hippocampus.
However, one group of researchers ultimately concluded that HHV-6 may not be involved in MTLE related to Mesial Temporal Sclerosis.
Liver failure
The virus is a common cause of liver dysfunction and acute liver failure in liver transplant recipients, and has recently been linked to periportal confluent necrosis. Furthermore, HHV-6 DNA is often detectable only in the biopsy tissues as DNA levels fall below the level of detection in blood in persistent cases.
Treatment
There are no pharmaceuticals approved specifically for treating HHV-6 infection, although the usage of Cytomegalovirus treatments (valganciclovir, ganciclovir, cidofovir, and foscarnet) have shown some success. These drugs are given with the intent of inhibiting proper DNA polymerization by competing with deoxy triphosphate nucleotides or specifically inactivating viral DNA polymerases.
Finding a treatment can be difficult when HHV-6 reactivation occurs following transplant surgery because transplant medications include immunosuppressants.
References
External links
Betaherpesvirinae
Viruses articles needing expert attention
Unaccepted virus taxa |
4160734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional%20IRA%20South%20Armagh%20Brigade | Provisional IRA South Armagh Brigade | The South Armagh Brigade of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) operated during the Troubles in south County Armagh. It was organised into two battalions, one around Jonesborough and another around Crossmaglen. By the 1990s, the South Armagh Brigade was thought to consist of about 40 members, roughly half of them living south of the border. It has allegedly been commanded since the 1970s by Thomas 'Slab' Murphy who is also alleged to be a member of the IRA's Army Council. Compared to other brigades, the South Armagh IRA was seen as an 'independent republic' within the republican movement, retaining a battalion organizational structure and not adopting the cell structure the rest of the IRA was forced to adopt after repeated intelligence failures.
As well as paramilitary activity, the South Armagh Brigade has also been widely accused of smuggling across the Irish border. Between 1970 and 1997 the brigade was responsible for the deaths of 165 members of British security forces (123 British soldiers and 42 Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) officers). A further 75 civilians were killed in the area during the conflict, as well as ten South Armagh Brigade members. The RUC recorded 1,255 bombings and 1,158 shootings around a radius of ten miles from the geographic centre of South Armagh in the same period.
1970s
South Armagh has a long Irish republican tradition. Many men in the area served in the Fourth Northern Division of the Irish Republican Army during the Irish War of Independence (1919–21) and, unlike most of the rest of the Northern Ireland IRA, on the republican side in the Irish Civil War (1922–23). Men from the area also took part in IRA campaigns in the 1940 and 1950s.
At the beginning of the Northern Ireland Troubles in August 1969, rioters, led by IRA men, attacked the RUC barracks in Crossmaglen, in retaliation for the attacks on Catholic/nationalist areas in Belfast in the Northern Ireland riots of August 1969. After the split in the IRA in that year, the South Armagh unit sided with the Provisional IRA rather than the Official IRA. The following August, two RUC constables were killed by a car bomb in Crossmaglen.
However, the IRA campaign in the area did not begin in earnest until 1971. On 7 August of that year, Harry Thornton, a 29-year-old sewage worker from South Armagh was shot and killed by the British Army while staying in a car outside Springfield Road base in Belfast, he and his coworker Arthur Murphy having been mistaken for gunmen. Murphy was lightly wounded and arrested by the RUC. The incident caused outrage among South Armagh residents, provided the IRA with many new recruits and created a hostile climate where local people were prepared to tolerate the killing of security force members.
During the early 1970s, the brigade was mostly engaged in ambushes of British Army patrols. In one such ambush in August 1972, a Ferret armoured car was destroyed by a 600 lb landmine, killing one soldier. There were also frequent gun attacks on foot patrols. Travelling overland in South Armagh eventually became so dangerous that the British Army began using helicopters to transport troops and supply its bases - a practice that had to be continued until the late 1990s. According to author Toby Harnden, the decision was taken shortly after a Saracen armoured vehicle was destroyed by a culvert bomb near Crossmaglen, on 9 October 1975. Subsequently, the British Army gave up the use of roads to the IRA in South Armagh. IRA volunteer Éamon McGuire, a former Aer Lingus senior engineer, and his team claim that they were responsible for getting the British Army "off the ground and into the air" in South Armagh. He was identified as the IRA's chief technical officer by the Central Intelligence Agency. Another noted IRA commander at that time was the commanding officer of the first battalion, Captain Michael McVerry. He was eventually killed during an attack on the RUC barracks in Keady in November 1973. Around this time IRA engineers in South Armagh pioneered the use of home-made mortars which were relatively inaccurate but highly destructive.
In 1975 and 1976, as sectarian violence increased in Northern Ireland, the South Armagh Republican Action Force, allegedly a cover-name for the South Armagh Brigade, carried out two attacks against Protestants. In September 1975 they attacked an Orange lodge in Newtownhamilton, killing five members of the lodge. Then, in January 1976, after a series of loyalist Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) attacks on Catholic civilians in the border areas (including the Reavey and O'Dowd killings the previous day), the group shot and killed ten Protestant workmen in the "Kingsmill massacre" near Bessbrook. The workers' bus was stopped and the one Catholic worker taken aside before the others were killed. In response, the British government stated that it was dispatching the Special Air Service (SAS) to South Armagh, although the SAS had been present in the area for many years. While loyalist attacks on Catholics temporarily declined afterwards and many Protestants became more reluctant to help the UVF, the massacre caused considerable controversy in the republican movement.
By the end of the 1970s, the IRA in most of Northern Ireland had been restructured into a cell system. South Armagh, however, where the close rural community and family connections of IRA men diminished the risk of infiltration, retained its larger "battalion" structure. On 17 February 1978 the commander of the 2nd Battalion Royal Green Jackets, Lieutenant Colonel Ian Corden-Lloyd, was killed and two other soldiers injured when the Gazelle helicopter he was travelling in was attacked by an IRA unit near Jonesborough. At that moment, a gun battle was taking place on the ground between British soldiers and members of the South Armagh Brigade. The helicopter crashed while taking evasive manoeuvres after being fired at from the east side of Edenappa road. Corden-Lloyd's subordinates had been accused of brutality against Catholic civilians in Belfast in 1971. In August 1979, a South Armagh unit killed 18 soldiers in the Warrenpoint ambush. This was the biggest single loss of life inflicted on the British Army in its deployment in Northern Ireland (Operation Banner).
A number of South Armagh IRA members were imprisoned by the end of the 1970s and took part in the blanket protest and dirty protest in pursuit of political status for IRA prisoners. Raymond McCreesh, a South Armagh man, was among the ten republican hunger strikers who died for this goal in the 1981 hunger strike. The South Armagh Brigade retaliated for the deaths of the hunger strikers by killing five British soldiers with a mine that destroyed their armoured vehicle near Bessbrook.
1980s
During the mid-1980s, the brigade focused its attacks on the RUC, killing 20 of its members between 1984 and 1986. Nine of these were killed in the February 1985 Newry mortar attack. Three months later, a further four RUC officers were killed by a 900 lb roadside bomb at Killean, County Armagh.
In 1986, the British Army erected ten hilltop observation posts in South Armagh. These bases acted as information-gathering centres and also allowed the British Army to patrol South Armagh more securely. Between 1971 and the erection of the hilltop sites in the mid-1980s (the first in 1986), 84 members of the security forces were killed in the Crossmaglen and Forkhill areas by the IRA. After this, 24 security force personnel and Lord Justice Gibson and his wife were killed in the same areas, roughly a third of the previous yearly rate.
In March 1989, two senior RUC officers were killed in an ambush near Jonesborough. Chief Superintendent Harry Breen and Superintendent Bob Buchanan were returning from a meeting with the Garda Síochána in the Republic of Ireland, where they had been discussing a range of issues including ways of combating IRA attacks on the cross-border rail link, when they were ambushed. This incident was investigated by the Smithwick Tribunal into alleged collusion between the IRA and the Gardaí. As the divisional commander for South Armagh, Breen was the most senior policeman to have been killed during the Troubles.
South Armagh became the most heavily militarised area in Northern Ireland. In an area with a population of 23,000, the British Army stationed around 3,000 troops in support of the RUC to contain an unknown number of paramilitaries.
1990s
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the IRA elsewhere in Northern Ireland found that nine out of ten planned operations were aborted. However, the South Armagh Brigade continued to carry out varied and high-profile attacks in the same period. By 1991, the RUC acknowledged that no mobile patrols had operated in South Armagh without Army support since 1975.
On 30 December 1990, Sinn Féin member and IRA volunteer, Fergal Caraher, was killed by Royal Marines near a checkpoint in Cullyhanna. His brother Michael Caraher, who was severely wounded in the shooting, later became the commander of one of the South Armagh sniper squads.
These squads were responsible for killing seven soldiers and two RUC members until the Caraher team was finally caught by the Special Air Service in April 1997. The South Armagh Brigade also built the bombs that were used to wreck economic targets in London during the 1990s, specially hitting the financial district. The truck bombs were sent to England by ferry. On 22 April 1993, the South Armagh IRA unit took control of the village of Cullaville near the border with the Republic, for two hours, making good use of dead ground. The fact that the IRA executed the action despite the presence of a British Army watchtower nearby, caused outrage among British and Irish parliamentary circles.
The South Armagh Brigade was by far the most effective IRA brigade in shooting down British helicopters during the conflict. They carried out 23 attacks on British Army helicopters during the Troubles, bringing five down on separate occasions: the Gazelle shot down in February 1978 near Jonesborough, a Lynx in June 1988, a second Lynx in February 1991,. while in 1994 another Lynx and an RAF Puma were shot down in March and July respectively. The shooting down of the Lynx in 1994 during a mortar attack on Crossmaglen barracks is regarded by Toby Harnden as the most successful IRA operation against a helicopter in the course of the Troubles. A sustained machine gun attack against a helicopter was filmed by a Dublin television crew in March 1991 outside Crossmaglen Health Center. There was no reaction from British security although the RUC/Army base was just 50 yards away. The only successful IRA attack against an Army helicopter outside South Armagh was carried out by the East Tyrone Brigade near Clogher, County Tyrone, on 11 February 1990. By 1994, the only way for the British army to travel safely across South Armagh and some border areas of Tyrone and Fermanagh was on board troop-carrying Chinook helicopters.
Timeline: South Armagh Sniper Operations
16 March 1990 - First use of the Barrett M82 sniper rifle in Northern Ireland by the South Armagh Brigade sniper teams. A British soldier suffered minor head injures when a bullet pierced his helmet on Castleblaney Road, County Armagh.
27 August 1992 - An unsuccessful attack was launched by a sniper on a British Army patrol at Carran Road, Crossmaglen, County Armagh.
28 August 1992 - British soldier Paul Turner was shot dead by a sniper in the main square of Crossmaglen, County Armagh. He was taking up position in the main square of the town when he was hit in the chest by a single bullet fired by an IRA sniper some 250 yards away. He was the first person killed by one of the South Armagh sniper teams.
25 February 1993 - RUC officer Jonathan Reid was shot dead by a sniper while on joint British Army and RUC foot patrol in Crossmaglen, County Armagh. He was taking cover at the side of a road. When he stood up he was hit by a single bullet which struck him in the chest.
17 March 1993 - British soldier Lawrence Dickson was shot dead by a sniper in Forkhill, County Armagh. The patrol were in pursuit of a man who had been acting suspiciously when a single high velocity shot was fired by a sniper who is believed to have been in a nearby vehicle. The bullet hit the soldier in the side and he died a short time later. Another British soldier unsuccessfully returned fire.
3 April 1993 - A British soldier was shot and injured by the IRA near Crossmaglen, South Armagh.
26 June 1993 - British soldier John Randall was shot dead by an IRA sniper near Newtownhamilton, County Armagh. He had been patrolling a field when the sniper fired a single high-velocity shot from the back of a stationary vehicle which hit Randall in the stomach.
17 July 1993 - British soldier Kevin Pullin was shot dead by a sniper while on foot patrol, Carran Road, Crossmaglen, County Armagh.
31 July 1993 - A British Army mobile checkpoint was fired at by an IRA sniper at Newtownhamilton, County Armagh. The British patrol manning the checkpoint returned fire. There were no injuries on either side.
2 November 1993 - RUC officer Brian Woods died two days after being shot by an IRA sniper while at an RUC Vehicle Check Point (VCP), Upper Edward Street, Newry, County Down. A single shot hit him in the neck
2 December 1993 - British soldier Paul Garrett was shot dead by a sniper while on foot-patrol, Victoria Street, Keady, County Armagh. He was hit in the stomach by a single bullet fired from a nearby hill.
30 December 1993 - British soldier Daniel Blinco (22) Grenadier Guards was shot dead by an IRA sniper while on foot-patrol while passing Murtaghs Pub, North Street, Crossmaglen, County Armagh.
25 July 1994 - A British soldier was shot and wounded by the IRA in Crossmaglen, County Armagh.
12 February 1997 - A British soldier was shot dead by a sniper near the British Army base in Bessbrook, County Armagh. Lance Bombardier Stephen Restorick was the last British soldier to be killed in Northern Ireland during Operation Banner.
29 March 1997 - An RUC officer was badly wounded when he was shot by a sniper outside Forkhill joint security base, County Armagh. This was the last action of the IRA Armagh Sniper teams.
16 April 1997 - A group of sixteen undercover SAS members restrained four IRA members, part of one of the two sniper teams which operated in South Armagh and gave them to the RUC, after tracking the IRA men to a farm complex. The owner of the farm was also arrested.
Dates in bold indicate a death by a sniper.
Ceasefires and the peace process
The IRA ceasefire of 1994 was a blow to the South Armagh Brigade, in that it allowed the security forces to operate openly in the area without fear of attack and to build intelligence on IRA members. When the IRA resumed its campaign in 1996-97, the South Armagh IRA was less active than previously, although one of the sniper teams killed one soldier and seriously wounded an RUC constable. But the snipers also lost a number of their most skilled members, such as Mícheál Caraher, who were arrested and imprisoned just weeks before the second ceasefire. The capture of the sniper team was the single major success for the security forces in South Armagh in more than a decade, and was arguably among the most important of the Troubles, but by then, the IRA and Sinn Féin had achieved huge political gains towards their long-term goals. The last major action of the brigade before the last IRA ceasefire was a mortar attack on Newtownhamilton RUC/Army barracks, on 12 July 1997. The single Mk-15 mortar bomb landed short of the perimeter fence.
In 1997, several members of the South Armagh Brigade, based in Jonesborough and Dromintee, following Michael McKevitt, left the Provisional IRA because of its acceptance of the Mitchell Principles of non-violence at a General Army Convention in October of that year and formed a dissident grouping, the Real IRA, which rejected the peace process. Their discontent was deepened by Sinn Féin's endorsement of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. Most of the South Armagh IRA stayed within the Provisional movement, but there were reports of the brigade aiding the dissidents in different actions before the signing of the agreement, among them the bombings of Moira and Portadown, and mortar attacks on a security base at Forkhill and a watchtower at Glassdrumman. The Omagh bombing of August 1998, a botched Real IRA operation which killed 29 civilians, was prepared by dissident republicans in South Armagh. Thomas Murphy and the leadership of the IRA in the area have allegedly since re-asserted their control, expelling dissidents from the district under threat of death. Michael McKevitt and his wife Bernadette were evicted from their home near Dundalk. IRA members in South Armagh ceased co-operating with the RIRA after the Omagh bombing.
After the Provisional IRA announced its intention to disarm and accept peaceful methods in July 2005, the British government announced a full demilitarisation plan which included the closing of all British Army bases in South Armagh by 2007. The normalisation process, negotiated under the provisions of the Good Friday Agreement in exchange for the complete decommissioning of IRA weaponry, was one of the main goals of the republican political strategy in the region.
Since the army wind-down in 2007, security in the area is the sole responsibility of the Police Service of Northern Ireland.
Smuggling activities
Senior IRA figures in South Armagh, notably Thomas Murphy, are alleged to have been involved in large-scale smuggling across the Irish border and money-laundering. Other alleged illegal activities involve fraud through embezzlement of agricultural subsidies and false claims of property loss. In 2006, the British and Irish authorities mounted joint operations to clamp down on smuggling in the area and to seize Thomas Murphy's assets. On 22 June 1998 a deadly incident involving fuel smuggling took place near Crossmaglen, when former Thomas Murphy employee Patrick Belton ran over and killed a British soldier attempting to stop him while driving his oil tanker through a military checkpoint. Belton was shot and injured by other members of the patrol, but managed to flee to the Republic. He was later acquitted of any charges, but he eventually agreed in 2006 to pay €500,000 for cross-border smuggling. Some sources claim that the smuggling activities not only made the South Armagh brigade self-sustained, but also provided financial support to most of the IRA operations around Northern Ireland. The IRA control over the roads across the border in South Armagh enabled them to impose 'taxes' on every cross-border illegal enterprise.
South Armagh Memorial Garden
A memorial garden was unveiled on 3 October 2010 in the village of Mullaghbawn, near Slieve Gullion mountain, with the names of 24 members of the South Armagh Brigade who died from different causes over the years inscribed upon a marble monument, along a bronze statue of Irish mythological hero Cú Chulainn. Martin McGuinness, then deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, gave the main oration, while Conor Murphy, then Minister for Regional Development, introduced the families of the dead IRA members. The unveiling involved a large republican parade which failed to comply with the procedures of the Parades Commission. A Police Service of Northern Ireland spokesman confirmed that an investigation was underway, but also stated that both Sinn Féin Ministers and everyone attending the parade were unaware that "the proper paperwork hadn't been submitted".
See also
Provisional IRA campaign 1969-1997
Provisional IRA East Tyrone Brigade
Provisional IRA Belfast Brigade
Provisional IRA Derry Brigade
References
The Troubles in County Armagh
Military history of County Armagh
Provisional Irish Republican Army Brigades
1969 establishments in Northern Ireland |
4160824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20union%20in%20Australia | Rugby union in Australia | Rugby union in Australia has a history of organised competition dating back to the late 1860s. Although traditionally most popular in Australia's rugby football strongholds of New South Wales, Queensland and the ACT, it is played throughout the nation.
The principal competition in Australian rugby is Super Rugby, which is a multi-national competition across the South Pacific. Australia enters five teams: the Reds of Queensland, the Waratahs of New South Wales, the Brumbies of the Australian Capital Territory, the Western Force of Western Australia and the Melbourne Rebels of Victoria.
Currently there is no nationwide domestic competition for rugby union in Australia following the disbandment of the National Rugby Championship in 2020. Competitions below the level of Super Rugby are traditional capital city competitions, such as the Shute Shield of Sydney, Queensland Premier Rugby of Brisbane, the ACTRU Premier Division in Canberra, and Perth's Fortescue Premier Grade. These city-based competitions have traditionally formed the highest level of domestic competition for the sport in Australia.
The national governing body of Rugby Australia launched a new top-level women's 15s competition known as Super W in 2018 featuring five clubs branded as state/territorial teams—the ACT, New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia.
The men's national team are the Wallabies, who have won the Rugby World Cup twice, in 1991 and in 1999. The women's national team are the Wallaroos achieving a best result of third place in 2010 during the Women's Rugby World Cup.
Rugby union holds the match attendance record of any football code in New South Wales (109,874), Western Australia (61,241) and the Australian Capital Territory (28,753).
Australia has also achieved success in numerous Rugby Sevens tournaments with the women's sevens team winning the Rugby World Cup Sevens once in 2009, winning gold at the 2016 Olympics, and winning the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series three times. While the men's sevens team has been runners-up twice in the Rugby World Cup Sevens.
History
19th century
Accounts of rugby being played in the Colony of New South Wales date back to the 1840s. Some settlers would have been familiar with earlier forms of the game even before it was formally codified at Rugby School in 1845.
Rugby arrived in the Colony of Victoria as early as the 1850s. Tom Wills founder of Australian rules was of the rugby school and attempted to introduce the code into Melbourne schools in 1858 before settling on a compromise of rules. Variations of rugby were played by clubs south of the Yarra, including possibly South Yarra as early as 1858. In 1860 J. B. Thompson published the Rugby Rules (along with the Victorian and Eton Rules) in the widely distributed The Victorian Cricketer's Guide.
The Rugby code was introduced to schools in Sydney from the early 1860s. Players familiar with the game from the Sydney schools, along with increased arrivals from England and elsewhere, soon led to organised club football commencing in Sydney. Rugby games were being played at Sydney University in the 1860s.
The first rugby union club to be established in Australia was Sydney University's in 1864. In 1869, Newington College was the first Australian school to play rugby in a match against the University of Sydney. A decade after the first club was formed, a body called the Southern Rugby Union was formed as a result of a meeting at the Oxford Hotel in Sydney, a Sydney competition was established, which was administered from the England Rugby headquarters at Twickenham. The first competition commenced in Sydney the following year in 1875 with 6 teams.
Prominent southern Melbourne football clubs including Albert Park and South Melbourne strongly advocated for rugby rules throughout the 1860s and 1870s, however this did not meet favour with the more powerful clubs in the colony.
The earliest record of rugby games being played in the Colony of Queensland was in 1876.
The 'Waratah' Rugby Club invited Australian rules football club, the Carlton Football Club to play two matches, one under rugby rules and one under Australian rules. On Saturday 23 June, 3,000 spectators watched Waratah beat Carlton at rugby at the Albert Cricket Ground in Redfern. In the return leg, Carlton defeated Waratah under Australian rules.
The first inter-colonial game occurred on 12 August 1882, when players from the four Queensland clubs (who played both rugby and Australian rules football) travelled to NSW. NSW won by 28 points to 4 at the Association Ground (later to be renamed the Sydney Cricket Ground) in front of 4,000 spectators. Later that same year, the Southern Rugby Union undertook its inaugural tour of New Zealand, winning four of its seven matches.
On 2 November, in 1883, the Northern Rugby Union was formed as the rugby body in Queensland after a meeting at the Exchange Hotel. As a result of the formation of the new body, several prominent grammar schools took up rugby as opposed to Melbourne Rules. The following year, a New Zealand party went to Australia and the first club competition was held in Queensland. In 1888 the Melbourne Rugby Union was formed in Victoria. In 1892, the rugby bodies in Australia dropped Southern and Northern from their titles, adopting New South Wales and Queensland respectively. That year the first British and Irish Lions tour was carried out. Although unsanctioned by official bodies in Europe, the 21-man squad went to both Australia and New Zealand.
In 1899, the national team of Australia played their first match, and the Hospital's Cup became an annual competition in Queensland.
1900s to 1940s
Australia played its first test against New Zealand in 1903 in front of a crowd of 30,000 at the Sydney Cricket Ground. In 1907, Australia again played New Zealand, at the same venue as the 1903 match, with crowd numbers reaching 50,000. This figure would not be surpassed again in Australian rugby union until after the game turned professional.
The British Isles team visited Australia in 1904 and 1908, and at the 1908 Summer Olympics, the Australian team defeated England to win the gold medal in rugby. That same year, the New South Wales Rugby League broke away from the NSWRU, with the Queensland Rugby League following suit from the QRU in 1909.
An event that was to greatly shape rugby union's future in Australia was the onset of World War I in 1914. Rugby competitions were suspended due to an overwhelmingly high percentage of rugby players enlisting to serve in the Australian Imperial Force.
The enlistment of rugby players was so quick and extensive that, by 1915, a Sydney newspaper reported: "According to figures prepared by Mr W. W. Hill, secretary of the New South Wales Rugby Union, 197 out of 220 regular first grade players are on active service, or 90 percent."
Weakened by the loss of its players to the war effort, the Queensland Rugby Union was dissolved in 1919. It was not until 1928 that the union was re-formed and the Brisbane clubs and Great Public Schools returned to playing the rugby union code.
In 1931, Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe, as Governor of New Zealand, donated a sporting trophy called the Bledisloe Cup for competition between Australia and New Zealand. The first game was held that year at Eden Park, though the official start of the competition is disputed between that game and the 1932 New Zealand tour to Australia.
Until the late 1940s, the administration of the Australian team, including all tours, was handled by New South Wales, being the senior union. A national body, the Australian Rugby Football Union was formed at a conference in Sydney in 1945, acting initially in an advisory capacity only, and in 1949 was formally constituted and joined the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB), representing Australia.
Apparently Australian rugby union then existed in a state of suspended animation until the 1980s.
1980s to present
In 1987, the first ever Rugby World Cup was held in both Australia and New Zealand, as a result of both the respective rugby bodies putting forth the idea to the IRB. Australia was defeated by France in the semifinal stage.
The 1991 Rugby World Cup took place in Europe, and saw Australia defeat England 12-6 in the Final, winning their first world cup after having triumphed over their fierce rivals New Zealand in the semifinal.
With rugby union becoming an openly professional sport in 1995, after more than a century of a professed amateur status, major changes were seen in both the club and international game. The Super 12 rugby competition was born that year. The tournament involved 12 provincial sides from three countries; New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. Australia entered three sides into the competition; ACT Brumbies, Queensland Reds and the New South Wales Waratahs. The year also saw the first Tri Nations Series, between the three Super 12 countries.
In 1999, the Bledisloe Cup match between Australia and New Zealand was staged at the Homebush Olympic Stadium, now known as ANZ Stadium. The game attracted a then world record crowd for a rugby union match of 107,042 to see Australia win with its greatest margin over New Zealand by 28–7. In 2000 this record was raised again when a crowd of 109,874 witnessed the 'Greatest ever Rugby Match'. New Zealand took an early lead of 24-nil after 11 minutes only to see Australia draw level at 24 all by half time, and the match was decided by a Jonah Lomu try to finish in favour of New Zealand by 39–35.
The Wallabies were champions of the 1999 Rugby World Cup in Wales, claiming their second Webb Ellis Cup trophy. In doing this, Australia became the first team to win multiple world cups.
The year 2003 saw the staging of the Rugby World Cup in Australia. The fifth Rugby World Cup was held in various Australian cities from October to November in 2003. Matches were played all across the country, in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Canberra, Adelaide, Perth, Townsville, Gosford, Wollongong and Launceston. The tournament was hailed as a huge success, an estimated 40,000 international spectators travelled to Australia for the event, some estimations said that a $100 million may have been injected into the Australian economy. The Australian Rugby Union said that revenues exceeded all expectations, the tournament surplus was estimated to be at $44.5 million. The hosting of the World Cup in Australia also saw an increase in Super 12 crowds and junior participation. In 2005, to celebrate a decade of professional rugby union in Australia, the Wallaby Team of the Decade was announced.
Organisation
Rugby union in Australia is governed by Rugby Australia, which is a member of World Rugby (WR). There are constituent state and territory unions with the New South Wales Rugby Union and Queensland Rugby Union traditionally being the dominant members, reflecting the games higher status in these states. However, every state and territory in Australia is represented by their respective union, and in recent years, the ACT and Southern NSW Rugby Union has elevated itself to competitive equality with NSW and Queensland—though not in governance, as NSW and Queensland have more representatives on the ARU board than the other state and territorial unions. Rugby Australia was formed in 1949 as the Australian Rugby Union; before this time the NSWRU was responsible for international fixtures for Australian teams.
Rugby Union Players Association
Past and present professional Australian rugby players are represented by the Rugby Union Players Association.
Participation
In 2000, figures from World Rugby (then the IRB) show there were just over 38,000 registered adult rugby union players in Australia, of which the states of New South Wales and Queensland accounted for 82.3% of all senior players. The highest participation rate was 0.8%, in the Australian Capital Territory.
The Rugby Au Annual Report 2019 records participation figures for club XV as 85,059 and club 7s as 32,119 resulting in a total club rugby participation figure of 117,178.
Rugby in Australia has enjoyed traditional support within inter-school competitions with the first school match being played by Newington College against Sydney University in 1869. Major rugby playing independent school sports associations include Great Public Schools Association of Queensland, Associated Southern Colleges, Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales, Combined Associated Schools and Independent Schools Association (Australia). The most renowned of these competitions in New South Wales being the GPS involving The King's School, St Ignatius' College, Riverview and St Joseph's College, Hunters Hill.
Whilst regularly positioned as an exclusively private school sport, 61% of schools delivering Rugby programs in 2018 were government schools. In a concerted effort to build game awareness and increase club participation opportunities, Rugby AU has engaged in a National Schools Strategy to grow school based XV participation (to link with local clubs) that saw five new XV competitions launched in 2019 alone for students attending 17 non-traditional Rugby schools. As at 2019, the total number of school students playing either XV or 7s rugby was almost 60,000.
Australian Schools representative sides have been selected since 1969 with that year's team having toured South Africa. The Australian Schools Rugby Union is an independent incorporated association run by volunteer members of the teaching profession and supporters who believe rugby has a unique ethos and benefits that contribute to the broader education of young people. The association first ran the Australian Schools Championship in 1975 and since then some 170 schools representatives have gone on to play for the Wallabies with countless more representing their State or playing professionally across the world.
The popularity of Rugby for women has been growing steadily in recent years following increased visibility of women's pathways and representative teams such as Buildcorp Wallaroos and national 7s teams. As at 2019, females account for approximately 27% of total playing participation.
National teams
Wallabies
The Wallabies is Australia's national rugby union team. Australia has won the World Cup on two occasions, in 1991 against England in England, and then again in 1999 in Wales against France. The team plays in green and gold, which have traditionally been Australia's sporting colours. Australia has been playing internationals since 1899, when they played a visiting British Isles team on 24 June, defeating them by 13 points to 3.
The Wallabies play in the Southern Hemisphere's principal international competition. From 1996 through 2011, this was the Tri Nations, also involving the New Zealand All Blacks and the South Africa Springboks. Since 2012, the tournament has been renamed The Rugby Championship and features the Argentina Pumas.
The rivalry with the New Zealand All Blacks is considered the marquee rivalry for the game of Rugby in Australia and the teams contest the Bledisloe Cup on an annual basis. The biggest crowd for a Bledisloe match was 109,874 in Sydney.
In addition to participating in The Rugby Championship, the Wallabies host Northern Hemisphere sides in the "July Window" such as France, England, Ireland etc., and tour to the Northern Hemisphere in the "November Window". Whilst the July Window will usually see a series of test matches played against one foreign team such as the 2021 French three-test-tour, the end of year tours will generally see a number of one-off games against different national sides. End of year tour games above the three required by World Rugby can generate as much as $1.5 million in revenue for Rugby AU.
Wallaroos
The women's team, the Wallaroos have been playing international rugby since 1994, and have competed at four Women's Rugby World Cups. Their best finish was third in 2010.
Other representative teams
Australia A
Australia A is a team of players who are being developed as future Wallaby players. They play matches against touring teams as well as compete in the Pacific Nations Cup.
Sevens
Australia also has a successful sevens team which competes in the World Rugby Sevens Series, Rugby World Cup Sevens and the Commonwealth Games. They have won the Hong Kong Sevens event on five occasions, and are also a "core team" that participates in all rounds of the Sevens World Series.
The country has hosted one leg of the Sevens World Series in each season since 2006–07. From 2007 through 2011, the Adelaide Sevens was held in that city in March or April. Starting with the 2011–12 season, the Australian leg moved to the Gold Coast and was renamed the Gold Coast Sevens. In addition, the event moved to November, becoming the first tournament of each season. The tournament moved to October beginning in the 2012–13 season, but remained the season opener through 2014–15. Since the 2015–16 series, the event has been held in Sydney, and is now fourth on the series schedule.
Women's Sevens
The women's sevens team were champions of the inaugural Women's World Cup Sevens in 2009. They have also been a core team in the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series since its inaugural 2012–13 season, and won the gold medal for inaugural Olympic sevens tournament at Rio de Janeiro in 2016.
Age-level representation
Australia also has an under 21 side, an under 20 side, an under 19 side and a schoolboys team.
Competitions, tournaments and tours
International tournaments
Rugby World Cup
Australia co-hosted the first Rugby World Cup, along with New Zealand in 1987. It acted as host for the second time in 2003. Australia has won twice, in 1991 and 1999.
Tri Nations and The Rugby Championship
The Tri Nations Series was an annual tournament held between Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa from 1996 through 2011. With Argentina's entry into the tournament in 2012, the competition has been renamed The Rugby Championship.
Bledisloe Cup
The Bledisloe Cup is a trophy introduced by the Governor General of New Zealand, Lord Bledisloe, in 1947 to honour the rivalry between New Zealand and Australia. The Cup is awarded to the winner of each annual series of test matches played. Matches played at Rugby World Cups do not count towards the competition.
End-of-year tests
The Australian rugby team annually plays a test series against other squads, either at home acting as host nation to visiting teams, or touring overseas.
Rugby's domestic presence in Australia
When Australia became one of the world's best sides in the 1980s, the team was largely drawn from the NSW Waratahs and Queensland Reds. The ACT Brumbies had become another strong province by the 1990s and joined the Super 12 competition with the Waratahs and Reds in 1996, playing against the top rugby provinces from New Zealand and South Africa. The Western Force, based in Perth, joined the competition in 2006 when it expanded to become the Super 14, and the Melbourne Rebels were added when it became Super Rugby in 2011.
The strongholds of the game are still in New South Wales and Queensland where rugby football, initially rugby union and later rugby league, has been the dominant code since the 1880s. Rugby was introduced to other cities and regions at around the same time but Melbourne rules (now Australian football) was preferred in the southern states. Rugby union had a diminished national profile for many decades after rugby league became the more popular football code in Sydney and Brisbane prior to the first world war. The game gradually expanded its reach again after the second world war, and rugby union was re-established in most areas of the country by the 1970s, however rugby league is by far the more dominant code in NSW, Victoria and Queensland.
Super Rugby
After many changes in format, Super Rugby now involves five Australian sides (Queensland Reds, New South Wales Waratahs, ACT Brumbies, Melbourne Rebels, and Western Force), along with 5 New Zealand sides and two Pacific Island teams. The reigning champions are a New Zealand side the Crusaders.
Prior to the creation of professional Super Rugby in 1996, there were a number of other Oceania-African competitions that featured representative teams from both Queensland and New South Wales, such as the Super 10 competition, which Queensland won twice. Before that there was the South Pacific Championship, also known as the Super 6. State teams have been playing each other since the late 1800s, when Queensland first took on New South Wales in Sydney. The Australian Provincial Championship (APC) was also played in 2006, featuring the Australian Super 14 teams.
National Rugby Championship
In late 2013, Rugby Australia (then known as the Australian Rugby Union) announced plans to launch a new domestic competition to be known as the National Rugby Championship (NRC) with the goal of bridging the gap between club rugby and Super Rugby. Originally expected to involve 10 teams, and ultimately unveiled in March 2014 with nine teams, the NRC began play in August 2014, with the season running through to November. The inaugural NRC teams included four in NSW, two in Queensland and one each in Canberra, Melbourne and Perth. After the 2016 season, one of the NSW teams was dropped from the competition and was replaced by the Fijian Drua, an effective developmental side for the Fiji national team. The competition was disbanded in 2020.
The country's previous attempt to launch a national domestic competition came in 2007 in the form of the Australian Rugby Championship (ARC). It included eight teams in all, with a geographic distribution almost identical to that of the first three seasons of the NRC, with the exception of one fewer NSW team. The aim of the competition, scheduled to run from August finishing in October with the final, was similar to that of the NRC. The ARU scrapped the competition for the 2008 season due to the union suffering an A$4.7 million loss.
Club competitions
Each major city and many country areas support club rugby competitions in Australia. The club competitions in NSW and Queensland are the oldest and most prestigious. The NSWRU runs the Shute Shield, the highest level in New South Wales along with also running the NSW Country Championships played by regional representative teams from country areas in NSW. Similarly the QRU runs the Queensland Premier Rugby competition, which is the top Brisbane club competition, as well as the Queensland Country Championships for representative teams in the major regions of greater Queensland. All other states also run their own club competitions of varying strength, but the NSW and Queensland competitions have historically been regarded as the major domestic competitions below Super Rugby and are now the major level below the NRC.
Television coverage
The Nine Network owns the broadcast rights to the majority of major Australian and Southern Hemisphere competitions and airs them on through streaming service Stan, as well as providing select coverage on its free-to-air television channels.
Within the first year of the new deal, Super Rugby games were regularly gathering more than 120 000 on 9Gem and Stan Sport had more than 250 000 subscribers. The Super Rugby AU Final between Queensland and the ACT pulled more than 1.3 million viewers across all platforms. Rugby Australia Chairman Hamish McLennan hailed it as a turning point for the sport. 2023 figures are 71,000 for Round 1 of Super Rugby 2023.
Free-to-air on Nine
The Rugby Championship (Wallabies home matches and Bledisloe cup matches)
Wallabies internationals
Super Rugby Pacific (select matches)
Shute Shield (select matches)
Queensland Premier Rugby (select matches)
Stan Sport
The Rugby Championship (all matches)
Six Nations
Wallabies internationals
New Zealand, South Africa and Argentina home internationals
Super Rugby Pacific
Super W
Super Rugby Aupiki
Mitre 10 Cup
Currie Cup
Shute Shield
Queensland Premier Rugby
WA Premier Grade
July and November Internationals
Premiership Rugby
Japan Rugby League One
Other content
BeIN Sports
Six Nations
England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy home internationals
European Rugby Champions Cup
RugbyPass
United Rugby Championship
See also
Sport in Australia
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Rugby.com.au
FOX Sports Australia rugby section |
4161057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objetivo%20Fama | Objetivo Fama | Objetivo Fama (sometimes abbreviated as OF, Spanish for Target: Fame) is a Puerto Rican singing talent contest that aired for over six years on WLII, the Univision outlet in Puerto Rico; and on Telefutura in the mainland United States. It is produced by Ender Vega and Soraya Sánchez ES Television.
The program was loosely inspired by the late Puerto Rican singing talent contest and variety show, Voces en Función, and the Spanish reality show, Operación Triunfo. Twenty or so contestants are "bunkered" in a studio/house where they will live together for several months while participating in a weekly show where one of them is eliminated, en route to find a "young star". The winner of the show gets a record deal from Univision Music Group. The show aired for six years, starting in 2004, and finishing in 2009.
Contestants were evaluated by a panel of judges, and viewers had the opportunity to vote on who they wanted to stay or leave the competition. Also, during the week they were assisted by singing and dancing teachers, stylists, costume designers, personal trainers, etc. in the studio/house to help them shape and improve their talent and image. The show was often said to be the Spanish version of American Idol, although technically speaking, the official Spanish version of that show is Latin American Idol.
History
The show ran for six season, from 2004 to 2009.
Judges and hosts
Judges
Roberto Sueiro (2004–2009) is a Puerto Rican artist and entertainment attorney. As a teenager, he sang with several rock bands and wrote songs while studying in the University of Florida. He finished law studies at the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico. He continued studies in intellectual property and music rights at New York University where he received a master's degree in law, in 1992. He then released four albums under the pseudonym of Byron. He reached the Billboard lists and won several awards. He also delved into producing and was one of the conceptual creators of Son By Four. He is currently practicing law in the field of entertainment and intellectual property, where he has represented several renowned artists. He was the only judge featured during all seasons of Objetivo Fama.
Hilda Ramos (2004-2007, 2009) is a Puerto Rican soprano that has become one of the most sought opera singers in the world since her debut in 1989 with the Puerto Rican Symphonic Orchestra. In 1993, she won the first prize at the Metropolitan Opera Auditions in Puerto Rico and was one of the finalists of the regional auditions in New Orleans. She has performed around the world in places like Israel, Rome, Geneva, and the United States among others. She has performed at numerous world-known operas to much acclaim. In 2002, she debuted in New York City, invited by Regina Resnik. In 2004 and 2005 she collaborated as a teacher in Objetivo Fama, and in 2006 debuted as one of the judges. She remained as part of the judge panel until 2008, where she declined to dedicate time to her singing career. Ramos returned in 2009, to be judge of the last edition of OF.
Fernando Allende (2006–2008) is a Mexican singer, actor, producer and director. He has acted in several soap operas in Spain, Mexico, and Latin America. Allende has traveled the world and lived in London for several years. In 2001 he moved to Puerto Rico where Allende has retaken his career as an actor and director. Allende also studied law at the Universidad La Salle in Mexico. He performs regularly as a mariachi and continues producing local films. In 2006 he was selected not only as one of the three judges but also as the President of the Jury.
Lissy Estrella (2005) is a Puerto Rican singer. She served as a judge only for the second season.
Jimena (2008) is a Mexican singer. She is serving as a judge on the fifth season.
Abraham Velásquez (2009) is a Puerto Rican Christian inspirational singer. He served as a judge in substitution of Fernando Allende who resigned to work as a TV producer and film director.
Guest judges are sometimes brought in. Some of the most common are singer/host Charytín, and some radio hosts from Univision Radio.
Hosts
The first season of Objetivo Fama was hosted by Nicaraguan singer Luis Enrique, while the second one was co-hosted by Mexican actor/singer Víctor Noriega and Puerto Rican model/host Yizette Cifredo.
For the third season, Mexican singer Yuri was chosen as host, and she quickly became a favorite of the audience. She remained with the show until the end of the fourth season, when she was fired. She was replaced by entertainer Charytín Goyco during the season finale. Goyco had already served as guest host and judge during several episodes of the show.
The sixth and final season was hosted by Puerto Rican singer and host Gisselle.
Auditions
Before the show season starts, auditions are held at several places in Puerto Rico and the United States to pick the finalists that will be featured in the show. These are evaluated by the show's producers which included music directors Gabriel Ferri and Angelo Torres. When the 20 contestants are selected, they are moved to Puerto Rico where the studio/house is located. For its last season, the producers reduced the number of contestants from 20 to 16. Also, like the first season, all contestants were from Puerto Rico.
Studio/House
The studio/house were the contestants live during the course of the show was located in the San Juan Metropolitan Area. It was administered, directed and managed by Puerto Rican singer, Lunna.
Weekly Shows
During the first two years, the weekly show was held at the Teatro del Parque in Santurce, its third year in Caguas Performing Arts Center in the city of Caguas, Puerto Rico. However, the fourth season moved to the Guaynabo Performing Arts Center in the city of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico. The show usually starts with a big performance involving all the contestants in one song-and-dance number. Then, each contestant performs the song they had received and rehearsed during the week. Performances can vary from duos, trios, to single performances. Between participations, each contestant is interviewed and clips of the weeks' happenings are shown.
After each presentation, each contestant is evaluated by the three judges. At the end of the show, the judges announce which contestants are "threatened" to leave the studio/house. Viewers then have one week to call and "save" their favorite contestant. The show closes with a performance by a guest artist.
Acceso Total
Literally translated as Total Access, this section follows every weekly show with interviews with contestants and judges. This special show began during the third season (2006) following the weekly show. It is hosted by José Figueroa and Liza Lugo.
Sin Editar
Loosely translated as Unedited, this is another weekly show where they follow the contestants lives at the studio/house and their rehearsals during the week. It also includes interviews and questions from the audience. In 2007, it was hosted by Daniela Droz. In the fifth season (2008), the show also included evaluations of each contestant past presentation from a former judge, Hilda Ramos, and was hosted by Yizette Cifredo.
Season synopses
2004: First season
See Objetivo Fama (season 1) for more information
This season was hosted by Nicaraguan singer Luis Enrique, and Puerto Rican singer, actress and host Daniela Droz. It featured only Puerto Rican contestants aged 18 and older.
The winner of the show was Janina Irizarry (also known as simply Janina), but several of the contestants have released their own albums having different levels of success. As of 2007, Janina has released two successful albums.
Early on the show, one of the contestants, Encarnita "Kany" García, suffered a car accident, which forced her to abandon the competition. She was in intensive care for some time and recovered. She has turned since into a much-sought composer-songwriter. She wrote a song for Janina's first album. García in 2007 released her first album Cualquier Día, which includes the number 1 hit "Hoy Ya Me Voy". With the success of the album, she received praise from music critics, and many awards including two Billboard Latin Music Awards and two Latin Grammy Awards for Best New Artist and Best Female Pop Vocal Album. The album has been a success in Puerto Rico, the United States, and Latin America.
Charlie Rodríguez was the first contestant of the show to release his own album and has also become a successful composer. He is currently working in his second album.
After the show, Luis Montes, Elliot Suro and Daniel Rodríguez joined Puerto Rican boy band MDO. They released an album titled Otra Vez which peaked some music charts in Latin America. Their follow-up, Sabe A Tí, was released in 2008.
Both finalists (Sheila and Ektor) have recorded albums. Ektor is currently working with producers Luny Tunes for his next album.
Zania Salas has turned into a producer of shows at Nickelodeon.
2005: Second Season
See Objetivo Fama (season 2) for more information
This season was hosted by Mexican actor/singer, Víctor Noriega and Puerto Rican celebrity, Yizette Cifredo, and expanded the format to include international contestants.
The winner of the show was Dominican singer, Anaís Martínez, but - like the first season - several of the contestants have already launched their own musical careers. Anaís is widely considered to be the most successful winner of the show.
Carlos Rubén Salazar was disqualified from the competition when he abandoned the house to see a girlfriend (one of the show dancers). He is the brother of the first finalist, Azucena. They have been working together on several musical projects, even playing at the White House in an activity in 2006. Azucena released her first album in 2008.
Two of the other finalists, Jayro Rosado and Esteban, have released albums in the island and Jayro Rosado is currently a backup singer for Romeo Santos and is currently on tour with him. Another of the finalists, Rodolfo Castera, has worked hosting several events on the island and is currently finishing acting classes. Rosangela Abreu recorded a duet with famous Salsa singer, Gilberto Santa Rosa. Both Esteban and Rosangela auditioned for the 2007 season of Latin American Idol but Rosangela was the only one chosen to finish in third place.
Wenceslao Navarro has continued to work with his band and has released an album after the competition finished. Tairon Aguilera has dedicated himself to songwriting. He has written several songs for some of his fellow competitors of the show from past and future seasons, in January 2011 Tairon released his first album cd called "Tatuaje" in which he is the producer along with DJ gus.
Emilio Acevedo is one of the singers of a merengue group called Zone D' Tambora, produced by Elvis Crespo.
In early 2007 the husband of Carmen Rivera was killed when he apparently intervened in a bar fight.
2006: Third Season
See Objetivo Fama (season 3) for more information
This season was hosted by Mexican singer Yuri and directed by Marcelo Gama.
The winner of the show was Cuban Marlon Fernández, but several of the contestants have started their own musical careers not only singing but also in theatre.
During the show, Soledad Sosa was disqualified when she left the studio/house with her husband. She alleged that she couldn't stand being away from her husband. Shortly after, she got pregnant but had a miscarriage.
Ediberto Carmenatty was also disqualified when a medical condition forced him to do so. He has since recovered and is currently living in Ponce, Puerto Rico.
Also, Gustavo and Jenilca started a relationship during the show. Gustavo is currently working on an album while also preparing for some acting projects. Jenilca is promoting her album, "Jenilca" and her first single "Enamorada de Ti".
Arquímides & Mary Ann Acevedo have released successful albums in the island. Acevedo also married merengue singer, Guillermo Torres, who is about 20 years older.
Helen Ochoa and Melanie Figueroa started working on a project called "Dos Destinos". However, Figueroa's complications with her condition of lupus forced her to abandon the project. Ochoa has continued with the project and plans to release an album in early 2007. Figueroa is currently recovering.
2007: Fourth Season
See Objetivo Fama (season 4) for more information.
This season was again hosted by Mexican singer, Yuri and directed by Marcelo Gama. The winner of the show was Puerto Rican Juan Vélez.
Unlike previous seasons, this one opened in Los Angeles, California on February 3, with a pre-show where they presented the 30 semi-finalists chosen on the auditions through the United States and Puerto Rico. The 20 winners were announced and given a chance to perform.
The season officially opened on February 10. The weekly shows were aired from the Centro de Bellas Artes of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, alongside the new building of the Univision station in Puerto Rico. So far, the judges agree that the competitors of this season are more consistent than in past ones.
Sin Editar, the weekly show where they follow the contestants lives at the studio/house and their rehearsals during the week, this year was broadcast every Friday, and hosted by Daniela Droz.
One of the highlights so far is the relationship started between Juan Vélez and Erica Gonzaba. On March 17, they had a chance to perform the song "Devuélveme la Vida" from Antonio Orozco together, which garnered them much praise and applause from both the judges and the audience. Vélez, winner of the show, had the chance to perform the song together with Orozco himself in the finale.
This season's finale emerged as the highest rated program in the history of Univision Puerto Rico, and USA Telefutura television broadcast stations.
After the show, finalists Juan, Iván, and Víctor have all released successful albums. Juan sold out several shows at the Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center in San Juan, and had a concert at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum.
2008: Fifth Season
See Objetivo Fama (season 5) for more information
This fifth season was hosted by Yuri and directed by Marcelo Gama. The winner of the show was Mexican Cristina Eustace. It featured returning judges Roberto Sueiro and Fernando Allende. Mexican singer Jimena will replace Hilda Ramos. Still, Ramos has been featured weekly in the show Sin Editar offering her critics to the contestants.
The 20 final contestants were officially announced on February 2, 2008, during a show at the Puerto Rico Convention Center and the show officially began on February 9, 2008. A few days before, contestant Lorenzo Mendez was disqualified from the show because he was already signed to a record label. Ronny Mercedes was selected to replace him.
The first show featured special presentations from Los Super Reyes and last year winner, Juan Vélez.
On May 14, 2008, four days before the final show of the season, host Yuri announced that she had been fired from the show. Charytín will replace her for the final show. At the same time, the credibility of the show was questioned after a video mentioning the four finalists with two weeks of anticipation surfaced on YouTube. The video was prepared by PepsiCo as a promotion for a contest. The producers of the show have denied giving them any information about votes and results.
2009: Sixth Season (The Farewell)
See Objetivo Fama (season 6) for more information.
In late 2008, it was announced that the sixth season would be the last. It was dubbed Objetivo Fama: La Despedida (Target Fame: The Farewell). The show featured Roberto Sueiro and Hilda Ramos as returning judges, while Christian singer Abraham would be the third judge, replacing Fernando Allende. This last season featured only 18 Puerto Rican contestants, like the first season, as opposed to the other seasons which had contestants from other countries.
This last season was hosted by singer Giselle. The winner was Fabián Torres, who ended up victorious with a 42.43 percent of the votes on the final show held on Sunday, May 17, 2009.
Television ratings
Since its first years, Objetivo Fama has had the acceptance of Puerto Rican audiences. In 2005, the season finale of the second season was the #1 show of the night, garnering ratings of above 35 during its run, with its nearest competition being at 11. Further ratings revealed that the finale was also the most watched show of April 2005.
The season finale for the third season of Objetivo Fama, held in May 2006, also ended up #1 with the audience. In April 2007, the show dominated the ratings in Puerto Rico with 34.6, with related shows like Acceso Total and Sin Editar also doing well.
In January 2008, two special editions of Objetivo Fama that served as a preamble of the fifth season ended up in the first two places of the television ratings of January 2008. The show remained at the top of the ratings as the season went on, ranking at #2 during February 2008 and #1 in March and April of the same year. The show Acceso Total also ended up at the top finishing at #7. The rankings for the month of May 2008 also revealed that 7 of the Top 10 shows were related to Objetivo Fama.
The show's final season also received good ratings, finishing #1 during April (with 24.3) and May 2009.
The ratings for each season finale have been:
Musical impact
Various contestants of Objetivo Fama have gone on to have successful musical careers, winning musical awards and having success on various record charts. Contestants like Anaís Martínez and Cristina Eustace have been nominated to Latin Grammy Awards, while Anaís, Marlon Fernández, and Juan Vélez have been nominated for Billboard Music Awards. Season 1 contestant Kany García has been perhaps the most successful artist from the show, despite being the first contestant eliminated. She has gone on to record three successful albums and has been nominated to 2 Grammy Awards and 6 Latin Grammy Awards, winning two of them.
See also
Similar shows
Operación Triunfo
American Idol
Pop Idol
Star Search
La Academia
Voces en Función
Past winners
2004: Janina (Puerto Rico)
2005: Anaís (Dominican Republic)
2006: Marlon (Cuba)
2007: Juan (Puerto Rico)
2008: Cristina (Mexico)
2009: Fabian (Puerto Rico)
References
External links
Univision Official Page
UniMás original programming |
4161092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga%20Veneta | Liga Veneta | Liga Veneta (; ; abbr. LV), whose complete name is (), is a regionalist political party active in Veneto.
The LV, whose ideology combines Venetian nationalism and support for fiscal federalism, was established in 1979 and was the first party of its kind in northern Italy, predating Umberto Bossi's Lega Lombarda by five years. The LV was one of the founding "national" sections of Lega Nord (LN) in 1991 and has been the regional section of Lega per Salvini Premier (LSP) in Veneto since 2020.
In the 2010 regional election the LV was by far the largest party in Veneto with 35.2% of the vote and LV's Luca Zaia, who was supported also by The People of Freedom, was elected President of Veneto with 60.2%. In the 2015 regional election the LV, which fielded also a "Zaia list" improved its tally to 40.9% and Zaia, who counted also on the support of some minor parties, was re-elected with 50.1%. In the 2020 regional election the LV's two lists improved again their tally to 61.5% and Zaia was re-elected by a landslide 76.8% of the vote.
The party's secretary is Alberto Stefani.
History
Early years (1978–1989)
Liga Veneta was promoted in 1978 by Franco Rocchetta, a Venetian philologist who had been speaking of a "Venetian league" since 1968. The party constitution, modelled on those of the Valdostan Union and the Radical Party, was officially signed by 14 founding members on 16 January 1980 in Padua and Achille Tramarin was elected national secretary. Shortly after, some hardliners, led by Luigi Faccia and Flavio Contin, left the party: in 1987 they would launch the Most Serene Venetian Government and in 1997 would organise the St Mark's Campanile's "assault" (see Venetian nationalism). Another split occurred in 1983: Giulio Pizzati's Liga Federativa Veneta.
In the 1983 general election the LV gained 4.3% in Veneto: Tramarin was elected to the Chamber of Deputies and Graziano Girardi to the Senate. In the Pedemontana, the area of the Padanian-Venetian Plain at the feet of the Venetian Prealps, the LV became the second largest party after then-dominant Christian Democracy (DC). This party would be mostly damaged from the rise of the LV as both parties concurred for the support of the middle class. DC regional leader Antonio Bisaglia had proposed a regional party modelled on the Christian Social Union in Bavaria, but opposition from Rome and his sudden death stopped the plan.
Soon after the election, a power struggle for the leadership of the party took place and the winner was Rocchetta, disappointed for his missed election, who had been behind the scenes up to that moment. Tramarin was replaced as national secretary by Marilena Marin, the future wife of Rocchetta.
In the 1984 European Parliament election the LV gained 3.3% in Veneto, but did not win seats.
In the 1985 regional election the party obtained 3.7% and two regional councillors: Ettore Beggiato and Rocchetta. Liga Veneta Serenissima of Tramarin, expelled from the party by Marin, won a mere 0.2% of the vote and, since then, Rocchetta and Marin have had the party in their hands. In the 1980s the party suffered also other two splits: that of the Union of the Venetian People (UPV), formed by Beggiato (who was joined by Tramarin and Girardi) and that of the Veneto Autonomous Region Movement (MVRA). The only counterweight to Rocchetta–Marin within the LV was thus represented by the Treviso wing, which then started to gain influence, under the leadership of Gian Paolo Gobbo and Mauro Michielon. In the next elections, the LV and the UPV had similar showings.
Foundation of Lega Nord (1989–1994)
In 1989 the party's charismatic leader, Rocchetta and his wife Marin, secretary of the party, managed to forge an alliance with Umberto Bossi's Lega Lombarda for that year's European Parliament election, Alleanza Nord. In 1989–1990 the LV took part in the process of federating the northern regionalist parties, ahead of the regional elections. In the 1990 regional election the LV and the UPV scored 5.9% and 1.9%, respectively. In the 1991 local elections, the UPV passed the LV. Some attempts to merge the two parties into one failed, but from that point, thanks to the alliance with Bossi, Liga Veneta's rise seemed unstoppable.
In February 1991 the LV joined Lega Lombarda and other regionalist parties from every northern region to form Lega Nord (LN) and, since then, the LV has been the regional section of the party in Veneto. Bossi was elected federal secretary and Rocchetta federal president. Thanks to the federal structure of Lega Nord and to its ideology (according to which Padania is a country formed of different nations: Veneto, Lombardy, Piedmont, etc.), the LV retained much of its autonomy.
In the 1992 general election the LN scored 8.7% throughout Italy and the LV won 17.8% of the vote in Veneto, returning into the Italian Parliament after five years. The UPV and the MVRA both won 1.5% of the vote, while Lega Autonomia Veneta (LAV), formed by the former Socialist mayor of Venice Mario Rigo, got 4.7%. The Venetist movement, divided as ever, together gained the support of about a quarter of Venetian voters.
Heyday and internal splits (1994–1998)
In the 1994 general election the LV won 21.6% of the vote in Veneto (the LAV took 3.2%) and three of its members joined Berlusconi I Cabinet: Rocchetta was undersecretary of Foreign Affairs, Mariella Mazzetto of Education and Giovanni Meo Zilio (a former Socialist partisan during Italian resistance), of University and Research. Between 1994 and 1995 the LV was also part of the regional government for the first time, with Gobbo as Vice President.
In July 1994 Marin was replaced by Fabrizio Comencini as national secretary of the party, while Gobbo was elected national president. Shortly after, in September, Rocchetta and Marin left the party in disagreement with Bossi and the new Venetian leadership, founding the Liga Nathion Veneta. Rocchetta was replaced by Stefano Stefani, a leading member of the LV, as federal president of Lega Nord in February 1995. The exit of Rocchetta and Marin made possible the comeback of Beggiato into the party. Thanks to this the LV did not suffer a major setback in the 1995 regional election: 17.4% and 9 regional councillors elected.
In the 1996 general election Bossi led Lega Nord to its strongest showing in a general election: with 10.1% of the vote, the party, present only in Northern Italy, became the fourth largest of the country. Comencini's Liga Veneta was the strongest national section of the League: it gained 29.3% of the vote in Veneto, 19 deputies and 9 senators, mostly elected in single-seat constituencies, in which the party, favoured by split-ticket voting, gained a total 32.8% of the vote.
In 1994 the party won the mayorship of Treviso with Giancarlo Gentilini, and a year later it gained control of three provinces: Padua with Renzo Sacco, Verona with Antonio Borghesi and Treviso with Giovanni Mazzonetto. In 1997 the party won also in the province of Vicenza with Manuela Dal Lago, while Luca Zaia was elected President of the province of Treviso, replacing Mazzonetto, in 1998. Also in 1998, Gentilini was re-elected mayor of Treviso.
In 1998 Comencini left the party over disagreements with Bossi and formed a brand-new Venetist party named Liga Veneta Repubblica (then Veneti d'Europa). Seven regional councillors out of nine followed Comencini into the new party, while Gobbo took over as national secretary of the LV, along with a new national president, Giuseppe Ceccato (who left the party in 1999). In the 1999 provincial elections the party lost the provinces of Padua and Verona.
Decline and resurgence (1998–2006)
By 2000 the party started to recover from the schism of 1998 and took 12.0% of the vote in the 2000 regional election (the combined score of Veneti d'Europa and Fronte Marco Polo, another split, was 3.7%), re-joining after five years the regional government.
In the 2001 general election the LV won a mere 10.2% in Veneto, with 9 deputies and 4 senators elected, all in single-seat constituencies, thanks to the alliance with Forza Italia within the House of Freedoms coalition. After the election, Dozzo and Stefani joined Berlusconi II Cabinet as undersecretaries of Agriculture and Industry, respectively.
In the 2002 provincial elections the party won for the second time in a row in Vicenza and Treviso. The province of Treviso confirmed itself as the most-leghista province of Italy and Zaia was re-elected Provincial President with more than 40% in the first round and with almost 70% in the run-off, although he had refused the support of Lega Nord's allies in Rome and Venice, Forza Italia and National Alliance. Also in 2002 LV's Luciano Gasperini was elected federal president of Lega Nord. In a party congress in Vicenza, Gobbo was re-elected national secretary and Dal Lago was elected national president. In 2003 Gobbo was also elected mayor of Treviso.
In the 2005 regional election the LV gained 14.7% of the vote, despite the presence of other two Venetist parties (North-East Project and Liga Fronte Veneto, 5.4% and 1.2% respectively), and was decisive for the third re-election of Giancarlo Galan as President of Veneto. After the election, the LV joined the third Galan government, with Zaia Vice President of the Region and minister of Agriculture and Tosi minister of Health.
In the 2006 general election however, the party scored 11.1% and got elected 5 deputies and 3 senators. It was the worst result in terms of elected members in the Italian Parliament since 1987, due to the narrow victory of the centre-left, which won the majority-premium for the Chamber of Deputies and to the presence of North-East Project (2.7%) and of Liga Fronte Veneto (0.7%). In a provincial election Leonardo Muraro was elected President of the province of Treviso and the LV scored 29.2% (combined result of party list, 15.6%, and Zaia's personal list, 13.6%), despite a good result by the rival North-East Project (11.6%).
Road to the leadership of Veneto (2006–2010)
In 2007 Tosi was elected mayor of Verona by a landslide (60.8% against the 33.9% of incumbent Paolo Zanotto), while in the provincial election of Vicenza Attilio Schneck succeeded to Dal Lago as President (60.0%, largely ahead of her main challenger, Pietro Collareda, who stopped at 17.2%). Both Tosi, who was the second leghista to become mayor of a big city after Marco Formentini in Milan between 1993 and 1997, and Schneck were supported by the House of Freedoms coalition, but the LV had an excellent result in both races: in Vicenza it garnered 19.0% of the vote, while in Verona it ranked first among the parties with 28.4% (combined score of party list, 12.0%, and Tosi's personal list, 16.4%). In June 2007, Tosi was replaced as regional minister of Health by Francesca Martini.
In the 2008 general election the LV won a surprising 27.1% in Veneto, its best result since the 1996 election, getting 16 deputies and 7 senators elected. Meanwhile, Gobbo was re-elected mayor of Treviso with 50.4% of the vote, twice the score of his main opponent. The combined result of the LV and Giancarlo Gentilini's personal list was 35.4%. Subsequently, Zaia became minister of Agriculture and Martini undersecretary of Health in Berlusconi IV Cabinet. Federico Bricolo became floor leader of Lega Nord in the Senate. Zaia and Martini were thus replaced in the regional government by Franco Manzato and Sandro Sandri, respectively.
In July 2008 the party held its national congress in Padua. Gobbo was re-elected for the fourth time national secretary, while Tosi replaced Dal Lago as national president. Tosi appeared to be also the standard-bearer of the party in view of the 2010 regional election, along with Zaia.
In the 2009 European Parliament election the LV confirmed its strength, by gaining 28.4% and three MEPs: Lorenzo Fontana, a rising star from Verona, Giancarlo Scottà and Mara Bizzotto. The party also won two more provinces, Venice, a stronghold of the left, with Francesca Zaccariotto, and Belluno with Gianpaolo Bottacin.
2010 regional election and aftermath (2010–2012)
In December 2009 The People of Freedom (PdL) determined that the coalition candidate in the 2010 regional election would be a leghista. Subsequently, the national council of Liga Veneta nominated Zaia for President. Tosi, who, as party president, presided the council, tried to be himself the candidate, and others proposed instead Manzato. However, Zaia had a broader support than Tosi and was unanimously chosen by the council.
In the election Zaia was elected President of Veneto by a landslide, with 60.2% of the vote against 29.1% of his foremost opponent, Giuseppe Bortolussi of the Democratic Party (PD). The election was a triumph for the LV, which was by far the largest party in the region with 35.2% of the vote, up from 14.7% of five years before, and got 20 seats in the Regional Council, up from 11. Zaia was also the most voted President of Veneto since direct elections were introduced in 1995. After the election, Zaia appointed a cabinet including six party members, a majority of whom were tosiani: Roberto Ciambetti (Budget and Local Government), Luca Coletto (Health), Maurizio Conte (Environment), Marino Finozzi (Tourism and International Trade), Franco Manzato (Agriculture) and Daniele Stival (Venetian Identity and Civil Protection).
In the 2011 provincial election of Treviso Muraro was easily re-elected president. The LV won 40.8% of the vote (combined result of party list, 29.6%, and Muraro's personal list, 11.4%), which was an 11.6% gain since the previous provincial election in 2006, but also a 7.7% loss from the 2010 regional election.
In late 2011, after the fall of Berlusconi's government, Lega Nord abandoned the alliance with the PdL. Perceiving that the party was entering a crisis, Giuseppe Covre (a former mayor of Oderzo and MP) and Marzio Favero (mayor of Montebelluna and philosopher) proposed a "Manifesto for the League which will be". In its call for a "cultural revolution" and for a bottom-up restructuring of the party, the document was interpreted as a call for a new leadership, both at national and federal level.
All throughout 2011 the faction around Tosi, close to Roberto Maroni at the federal level, won most provincial congresses in Veneto, including that of Treviso.
Party's renewal and reform (2012–2015)
In early April 2012 a corruption scandal hit the "magic circle" around Bossi, who resigned from federal secretary of Lega Nord after 21 years. This had consequences also in Veneto: a national congress was scheduled for 2–3 June 2012 and, after fourteen years on top, Gobbo decided to step down from secretary. Tosi, just re-elected mayor of Verona with 57.4% of the vote (three times his closest opponent Michele Bertucco, who got a mere 22.8%), started his bid for the party's national leadership. Massimo Bitonci, a darling of Venetists and long-time rival of Tosi, was chosen as joint candidate by Venetists and Gobbo's loyalists. On 3 June 2012 Tosi was elected secretary with 57% of the vote (236 delegates out of 414), while Bitonci had 43% (178 delegates). On 9 June the LV's national council elected Luca Baggio, an ally of Tosi, as national president. Zaia warned Tosi that if he were not to be a unifying leader a split might occur.
On 1 July 2012 Maroni was elected federal secretary during a federal congress presided by Zaia. The Venetian delegates elected also four members to the federal council: Finozzi (tosiano), Bitonci (Venetist, anti-Tosi), Stival (Venetist, tosiano) and Dal Lago (Venetist, independent). A few days later Maroni appointed Federico Caner, who was supported by both Tosi and Gobbo, as his vicar. As early as in May 2013 Caner was replaced by Tosi.
At the 2013 general election the LV stopped at 10.5%, almost a record low, resulting in just 5 deputies and 5 senators. Tosi considered this a consequence of the renewed alliance with the PdL (instrumental to Maroni's election as President of Lombardy), while many party bigwigs, including Zaia, criticised his leadership, management of the campaign and selection of candidates. Most provincial leaders resigned or were deposed by Tosi, who appointed loyalists. In April the national council of LV, led by Tosi, expelled 35 party members (mostly Venetists or old-guard bossiani), including two regional councillors and a former deputy. In August the dissidents, led by Corrado Callegari, a former deputy, formed Veneto First, which became a separate party in January 2014 and welcomed a third councillor in February 2015.
In the 2013 municipal elections the party lost the mayorship of Treviso after 19 years, as Giancarlo Gentilini surrendered to Democrat Giovanni Manildo 55.5% to 44.5%. However, one year later, in the 2014 municipal elections Bitonci was elected mayor of the much bigger city of Padua, a Democratic stronghold, by defeating the incumbent Ivo Rossi 53.5% to 46.5%. The party thus governed two of the three largest cities of Veneto, Verona and Padua. Finally, in the 2014 European Parliament election the LV gained 15.2% and two MEPs, Tosi (who showed his popular support once for all and was soon replaced by Fontana) and Bizzotto.
Road to the 2015 regional election
In the run-up of the 2015 regional election the party was quite divided on alliances and strategies. Zaia wanted to continue the alliance with Forza Italia and the New Centre-Right (the two parties emerged from the break-up of the PdL) and to reinforce it with the creation of a "Zaia List", Tosi wanted the party to run with the sole support of the "Zaia List" and a "Tosi List", while Matteo Salvini, who succeeded to Maroni as federal secretary in 2013, kept an open mind only on Forza Italia and opposed, along with Zaia, any notion of a "Tosi List". Furthermore, while Zaia, supported by Salvini, wanted to renovate the party's group in the Regional Council (in order to get rid of some of his ministers who happened to be tosiani) and have a final say on the compilation of the party's slates, Tosi, who defended the position of long-time regional councillors and ministers, claimed his authority and the autonomy of the LV in relation to the federal party.
In early March the struggle between Tosi and Zaia–Salvini led the former to threaten a run in competition with Zaia in the regional election and Lega Nord's federal council to appoint Dozzo as a mediator between Tosi and Zaia. The internal clashes led three regional councillors to quit the party in the Regional Council: Vittorino Cenci joined Veneto First, while LV's president Baggio and Matteo Toscani launched the pro-Tosi "Venetian Commitment". All three disagreed with a perceived party's rightward shift under Salvini, while Cenci contested also Tosi and the party's engagement in southern politics through Us with Salvini (NcS).
After a long struggle between Tosi and Salvini, the latter acknowledged the former's relinquishment from party member, on the grounds that Tosi had refused to ditch his think tank, named "Let's Rebuild the Country", and appointed Dozzo commissioner for the LV. Consequently, Tosi decided to run for President against Zaia. Besides Baggio and Toscani, four more regional councillors (Stival, regional minister of Venetian Identity, and Giuseppe Stoppato, who formed, along with former Democrat Diego Bottacin, a group named "Toward North–Venetian People", Conte, regional minister of the Environment, and Andrea Bassi), three deputies, three senators and Muraro (president of the province of Treviso), followed Tosi, while two factional leaders, Finozzi (regional minister of Tourism and International Trade) and Bizzotto MEP, chose not to. In the meantime, Venetian Agreement changed its name into "Tosi List for Veneto" (LTV).
2015 regional election and aftermath
The election was a triumph for Zaia, who was re-elected with 50.1% of the vote, and Liga Veneta, which obtained 40.9% of the vote (combined result of official party list, 17.8%, and Zaia's personal list, 23.1%). Tosi and the two lists connected to the LTV won 11.9% and 7.1%, respectively, while other regionalist parties (Independence We Veneto, Venetian Independence, North-East Union, Autonomous Veneto Project and Veneto Confederal State) gained another 6.3% in what was the best result ever for both Venetist parties, which controlled the majority of the Regional Council for the first time, and Liga Veneta itself, which obtained 24 seats out of 51 in it.
After the election, Zaia unveiled his second government, composed of ten ministers, including nine Lighisti: Gianluca Forcolin (Vice President, Budget and Local Government), Luca Coletto (Health and Social Programs), Roberto Marcato (Economic Development and Energy), Elisa De Berti (Publick Works, Infrastructures and Transports), Giuseppe Pan (Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing), Manuela Lanzarin (Social Affairs), Federico Caner (EU Programs, Tourism and International Trade), Gianpaolo Bottacin (Environment and Civil Protection) and Cristiano Corazzari (Culture, City Planning and Security); Elena Donazzan (Education and Labour) represented Forza Italia.
In February 2015, during a national congress, Gianantonio Da Re, a long-time lighista from the province of Treviso, affiliate of Gobbo and now close to Zaia, was elected national secretary. Da Re's election represented a return to normality after the traumatic leadership and ousting of Tosi. Subsequently, Bitonci was appointed national president by the party's national council and, contextually, Fontana was appointed deputy federal secretary by Salvini.
After Salvini's re-election as LN federal secretary in the 2017 leadership election (with overwhelming support from Venetians, still grateful for Tosi's ousting), at the party's federal congress on 21 May 2017 three LV members (Fontana, Marcato and Erik Pretto) were elected to the federal council.
In the 2018 general election the party obtained 32.2% of the vote, its best result ever in a general election, and, under a new electoral law that had re-introduced single-seat constituencies, had 23 deputies (including Bitonci, who had been defeated in the early 2017 municipal election in Padua) and 9 senators elected. After months of negotiations, the LN formed a coalition government with the Five Star Movement (M5S), under Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte. Two LV members were appointed ministers in the government: Erika Stefani at Regional Affairs and Autonomies, and Lorenzo Fontana at Family and Disability.
In the 2019 European Parliament election the party reached 49.9% of the vote.
2020 regional election and aftermath
The regional election was, even more, a triumph for Zaia, who was re-elected for a third conservative term with 76.8% of the vote. Liga Veneta fielded three lists, including the official one, Zaia's personal list and the "Venetian Autonomy List" (comprising also Liga Veneta Repubblica), which obtained 16.9%, 44.6% and 2.4%, respectively. The party, with 33 seats (plus one obtained by the third list), had thus far more than 50% of the seats in the Regional Council.
After the election, Zaia unveiled his third government, composed of eight ministers, including seven Lighisti: Elisa De Berti (Vice President, Legal Affairs, Public Works, Infrastructures and Transports), Francesco Calzavara (Planning, Budget, Patrimony and Local Government), Manuela Lanzarin (Health, Social Affairs and Social Programs), Roberto Marcato (Economic Development, Energy and Special Status for Venice), Federico Caner (EU Programs, Agriculture, Tourism and International Trade), Gianpaolo Bottacin (Environment, Climate and Civil Protection), Cristiano Corazzari (Culture, City Planning, Security, Hunting and Fishing); Elena Donazzan (Education, Formation, Labour and Equal Opportunities) represented Brothers of Italy. LV's Roberto Ciambetti was re-elected President of the Regional Council.
In the 2022 general election the party was reduced to 14.5% of the vote (–17.7pp from 2018), fueling internal conflicts.
In the run-up of the regional congress, to be held in June 2023, Roberto Marcato led the challenge of the party's traditional wing. However, Marcato retired from the race when Franco Manzato, a centrist figure representing mainly the party's old guard from the province of Treviso, emerged as an alternative opposition candidate. At the congress, outgoing federal commissioner Alberto Stefani, a loyalist of Salvini, was thus elected secretary with 64.3% of the vote against Manzato's 35.7%, possibly with Zaia's silent support. The congress' result did not silence internal critics, like regional minister Federico Caner and MEP Gianantonio Da Re, who opposed Salvini's focus on southern Italy and his perceived Euroscepticism. Additionally, Caner, along with his colleagues Gianpaolo Bottacin and Roberto Marcato, did not go on stage at the rally of Pontida. In the meantime, former leader Flavio Tosi, who had merged its Tosi List for Veneto into Forza Italia in June 2022 and had become that party's regional coordinator in March 2023, started wooing disgruntled LV members into Forza Italia: most notably, splinters have included former Vice President of Veneto Gianluca Forcolin and former senator Gianpaolo Vallardi.
Ideology
Liga Veneta was conceived by Franco Rocchetta and others in the late 1970s. During its first official meeting in Recoaro on 9 December 1979, Achille Tramarin, who was then elected secretary of the new party, gave a speech titled Venetian Autonomy and Europe: "Today for Venetians the moment has come, after 113 years of Italian unitary colonisation, to take their natural and human resources back, to fight against the wild exploitation that brought poverty, emigration, pollution and uprooting from their culture". European integration was seen as an opportunity to give Veneto its autonomy back.
Rocchetta, who left the party in 1994 after a power struggle and has since become a bitter critic of his former colleagues in the name of pure Venetism, conceived the LV as a libertarian, secular and Europeanist party. The promotion the re-discovery the Republic of Venice's heritage, traditions, culture, and especially Venetian language, and opposition to the displacement of Mafia inmates in Veneto were key goals of the party since its foundation.<ref>Liga Veneta, Calendario 2008, 2008 (a collection of 1980s' posters)</ref>
The LV is aimed to unite all Venetians who support autonomy for Veneto and federal reform. For this reason, it tends to be a multi-ideological catch-all party, following what Umberto Bossi stated in 1982 to his early followers of Lega Lombarda: "It does not matter how old are you, what your job is and what your political tendency: what matters is that you and we are all Lombard. [...] It is as Lombards that, indeed, that we have a fundamental common goal in that face of which our division in parties should fall behind". While the bulk of the original Lega Lombarda (including Umberto Bossi, Roberto Maroni and Marco Formentini) came from the left (Bossi and Maroni were previously active in the Italian Communist Party, Proletarian Democracy and the Greens) and conceived the party as a centre-left (and, to some extent, social-democratic) political force, the LV was characterized more as a liberal and centrist party and has always proposed a more libertarian political line.
This difference reflected also its position in Venetian politics: while, in the early 1990s, the League stole votes especially from the Communists and the Italian Socialist Party, in Veneto the LV basically replaced Christian Democracy as dominant political force.Ilvo Diamanti, Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro, Il Mulino, Bologna 2003, pp. 55-83 In fact, even though most of the early members of the party came from the centre-right (Christian Democracy and the Italian Liberal Party), there were also people coming from the left such as Giovanni Meo Zilio, Actionist and Socialist partisan in the Italian resistance movement, who was one of the founding fathers of the party, and Rocchetta himself, a former Republican and, later, Communist.
2010–2015 Program
In the run-up to the 2010 regional election, the party released its political platform for the 2010–2015 term.
Its keywords were "innovation" and "modernity". The challenges that Veneto should face in the next decades, said the party, were to enhance "internationalization" in the era of globalization, to overcome the traditional Venetian polycentrism and interpret Veneto as a united and cohesive region: a "European region in Italian land". The program stressed also concepts such as "Europe of the regions", "Europe of citizens", "global Veneto", "openeness toward the world", "green economy", "urban planning" in respect of the environment, "respect for diversity" and "integration" of immigrants, along with the more traditional "think globally, act locally". Along these, the core issues of the party, especially autonomism, low taxes, fight against red tape and promotion of Venetian language and culture, were also included in the program. According to the paper, a strong Veneto as that imagined by the party would be a protagonist of federal reform in Italy and Europe.
The LV has opposed nuclear power plants in Veneto, citing the high population density and the fact that the region is already energetically self-sufficient.
Manifesto for a new League
In April 2012 some key members from the province of Treviso, led by Giuseppe Covre and Marzio Favero, proposed a "Manifesto for the League which will be", which was soon endorsed by Roberto Maroni (see above). The text, divided into eighteen points, was aimed at preparing a new course for the party. The proponents wanted to re-launch the federalist structure of Lega Nord, in spite of the centralisation and leadership which had long characterized it. Thus, they highlighted the centrality of members, internal democracy, open debate and frequent congresses. They also wanted a more open party, especially to intellectuals, economic forces, and associations.
After many failures in Rome, the party should start building the way toward federalism "outside the Parliament", by forming alliances among regions, provinces and municipalities. The party should also adopt a different language: in fact, the proponents realized how some "xenophobic statements, calls for localistic isolation and invocations of a token traditionalism had damaged the cause and the growth of the League. [...] Local autonomy intended as autarchy is anachronistic, while it must be conceived as a value [...] toward international openness, as the glorious Venetian history tells us!".
The League should be able to talk to a larger portion of the electorate, by reclaiming "the Catholic, socialist, liberal, ecc. strains of ideas" and by "irrevocably leaving the rusty alternative between right and left behind": "For too long the League has been stuck in a contradiction. On one side it has presented itself as a movement for institutional reform and, as such, super parties. On the other, it has allowed itself to be absorbed in the right/left dialectic. The real battle today is between idolatry of the state and federalism, between an artificial institution and the real communities. Neither with the right nor with the left: the League is above."
2015–2020 Program
In the run-up of the 2015 regional election the party did not release a platform, leaving room for Luca Zaia's "government program" for the 2015–2020 term. Consistently with Zaia's social-democratic political instincts and his fascination for Tony Blair's New Labour, the document had a special focus on labour, welfare and the reform of public services. The platform notably included a commitment to bring forward two referendums, one on autonomy and another on independence.
Factions
Within the party, there are no formal factions, yet there are some unofficial groupings.
Gian Paolo Gobbo and Luca Zaia have long been the leaders of the wing from Treviso, which has its roots in the original Liga Veneta and is more Venetist in character, while the Verona wing, whose standard-bearers have been Flavio Tosi, Federico Bricolo and Lorenzo Fontana, is more conservative and has stronger links with Lega Lombarda. While Lighisti from Venice are usually closer to Gobbo and Zaia, those from Vicenza and Padua are set somewhere in the middle between Treviso and Verona.
An ideological strain worth of mention is embodied by pure Venetists who stress issues such as Venetian identity and language: they have notably included Massimo Bitonci, Roberto Ciambetti, Stival, Giovanni Furlanetto and Nicola Finco.
Gobbo was re-elected secretary in 2007 due to an agreement with Tosi, who was Gobbo's strongest rival for the leadership. At the 2012 congress Tosi defeated the Venetists' standard-bearer Bitonci, who was supported by 43% of delegates and most MPs.
In 2011 in the party were outraged when Tosi, as mayor of Verona, announced that he was going to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Italian unification and declared that Italian unity was a good thing. Gobbo promptly disavowed Tosi and confirmed that the party was opposed to any celebration. Tosi was criticised also by other party bigwigs, such as Francesca Martini, while Furlanetto proposed the ejection of Tosi from the party. In early 2012 another friction was caused by Tosi's decision to present a personal list, alongside the party's one, in the forthcoming Verona municipal election and his intention to drop its traditional ally, The People of Freedom. Not only Gobbo opposed the move by Tosi, but he also took the opportunity to describe Tosi's views on Italy and Padania as "heresy".
It is difficult to say who was more conservative or liberal between Tosi and Zaia, who have often exchanged their positions within the party. Tosi was a more traditional conservative-liberal, while Zaia, while being a centrist, has resembled a green-populist position on environmental issues, nuclear power, GMOs, etc. In occasion of the 2011 referendums, Zaia declared his support for three referendums aimed at blocking the return to nuclear energy and the privatisation of water services. Needless to say, Tosi declared himself a "keen nuclearist" and a supporter of the free market instead. At the federal level of the party, Tosi was a long-time ally of Roberto Maroni.
Popular support
The party has its strongholds in the provinces of the Pedemontana (40–60% of the vote), that is to say the area at the feet of the Venetian Prealps.
In the 2020 regional election the party ran with two lists (the official one and Luca Zaia's personal list, whose candidates were all members of the party), doing well in most of the region. The best combined result was in Zaia's province of Treviso (68.6%). Treviso was followed by Belluno (64.1%), Vicenza (62.2%), Venice (61.7%), Padua (59.8%), Rovigo (58.6%) and Verona (55.5%).
The electoral results of Liga Veneta in Veneto since 1983 are shown in the tables below.
Regional Council of Veneto
Chamber of Deputies
Senate of the Republic
European Parliament
Leadership
Secretary: Achille Tramarin (1980−1983), Marilena Marin (1983−1984), Franco Rocchetta (1984−1985), Marilena Marin (1985−1994), Fabrizio Comencini (1994−1998), Gian Paolo Gobbo (1998−2012), Flavio Tosi (2012−2015), Gianpaolo Dozzo (commissioner, 2015–2016), Gianantonio Da Re (2016–2019), Lorenzo Fontana (commissioner, 2019–2020), Alberto Stefani (2020–present, commissioner 2020–2023)
President: Franco Rocchetta (1991−1994), Gian Paolo Gobbo (1994−1998), Giuseppe Ceccato (1998–1999), Manuela Dal Lago (2001−2008), Flavio Tosi (2008−2012), Luca Baggio (2012–2015), Massimo Bitonci (2016–2020)
Party Leader in the Regional Council: Franco Rocchetta (1985–1994), Gian Paolo Gobbo (1994–2000), Flavio Tosi (2000–2002), Franco Manzato (2002–2008), Gianpaolo Bottacin (2008–2009), Roberto Ciambetti (2009–2010), Federico Caner (2010–2015), Nicola Finco and Silvia Rizzotto (2015–2020), Giuseppe Pan and Alberto Villanova (2020–present)
Notable members
One member of LV has served as President of Veneto:
Luca Zaia (2010–present)
One member of the LV has served as President of the Chamber of Deputies:
Lorenzo Fontana (2022–present)
Members of the LV have served as Ministers of the Italian Government:
Erika Stefani (2018–2019, 2021–2022)
Lorenzo Fontana (2018–2019)
Members of the LV have served as Vice President of Veneto:
Gian Paolo Gobbo (1994–1995)
Luca Zaia (2005–2008)
Franco Manzato (2008–2010)
Gianluca Forcolin (2015–2020)
Elisa De Berti (2020–present)
Members of the LV have served as President of the Regional Council of Veneto:
Enrico Cavaliere (2000–2005)
Marino Finozzi (2005–2010)
Roberto Ciambetti (2015–present)
Members of the LV have served as federal president of Lega Nord (LN):
Franco Rocchetta (1991−1994)
Stefano Stefani (1995−2002)
Luciano Gasperini (2002−2005)
A member of the LV has served as leader of the LN in the Chamber of Deputies:
Gianpaolo Dozzo (2012–2013)
Members of the LV have served as leader of the LN in the Senate:
Luciano Gasperini (1998−1999)
Federico Bricolo (2008−2013)
Massimo Bitonci (2013–2014)
Members of the LV have served as head of the delegation of LN at the European Parliament:
Lorenzo Fontana (2012–2014)
Mara Bizzotto (2018–2019)
Members of the LV have served as federal deputy secretary of the LN and Lega:
Gianpaolo Dozzo (1998–1999)
Federico Caner (2012–2013)
Flavio Tosi (2013–2014)
Lorenzo Fontana (2016–present)
A member of the LV has served as federal administrative secretary of the LN:
Stefano Stefani (2012–2014)
In April 2012 Manuela Dal Lago was appointed member of the triumvirate who replaced Umberto Bossi at the head of the LN and temporarily led the party.
Luciano Gasperini was LN's candidate for President of the Republic in the 1999 presidential election.
See also
Politics of Veneto
References
Sources
Francesco Jori, Dalla Łiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti, Marsilio, Venice 2009
Ezio Toffano, Short History of the Venetian Autonomism, Raixe Venete
Furio Gallina, Die venezianischen Lega – Bewegungen von den Anfängen bis zur Entstehung der Lega Nord, in Vv.Aa., Jeder für sich oder alle gemeinsam in Europa? Die Debatte über Identität, Wohlstand und die institutionellen Grundlagen der Union00, Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2013, pp. 35–50.
Veneto Region – Legislatures
Regional Council of Veneto – Elections
Cattaneo Institute – Archive of Election Data
Ministry of the Interior – Historical Archive of Elections
External links
Official website 1
Official website 2
Group in the Regional Council – official website
Political parties in Veneto
Political parties established in 1980
Federalist parties in Italy
Venetian nationalism
Lega Nord
1980 establishments in Italy |
4161311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota%20Fortuner | Toyota Fortuner | The Toyota Fortuner, also known as the Toyota SW4, is a mid-size SUV manufactured by the Japanese automaker Toyota since 2004. Built on the Hilux pickup truck platform, it features two/three rows of seats and is available in either rear-wheel drive or four-wheel drive configuration. It is a part of Toyota's IMV project for emerging markets, which also includes the Hilux and the Innova.
The name Fortuner is derived from the English word fortune.
Production
While the first-generation Fortuner was developed in Thailand by Thai and Japanese engineers, its facelifted version, as well as the Hilux and Innova, was designed in Australia by Toyota Australia, which is also responsible for developing the second-generation model.
For the medium body-on-frame SUV segment, Toyota offers the Hilux Surf/4Runner (Japan/North America) and the Land Cruiser Prado (Europe and Australasia). However, in some Central and South American countries and New Zealand, Toyota offers the Fortuner alongside the 4Runner and/or Prado, like in Peru, Panama, Ecuador, Colombia, El Salvador and Guatemala.
Specialised variants with a naturally-aspirated 5L-E diesel engine is offered to governments, organisations and the UN alongside other utility vehicles such as the Prado, Hilux, HiAce, and the 70 and 200 series Land Cruisers.
First generation (AN50/AN60; 2004)
The first generation Fortuner was unveiled in December 2004 at the Thailand International Motor Expo and was available for sale in early 2005. It is positioned below the Land Cruiser and above the RAV4.
At first, the Fortuner was sold with 4 different types of 2 petrol engines and 2 diesel engines. All variants were offered in 4×2 (RWD) or 4×4 configuration, with 5-speed manual transmission and a 4 or 5-speed automatic transmission. In August 2012, the 2.5-litre common-rail turbodiesel 2KD-FTV engine was upgraded to a variable nozzle turbocharger (VNT) which was already equipped in the 3.0-litre common-rail turbo diesel 1KD-FTV since its introduction in 2005 to increase power and torque about 60%, also reducing fuel consumption up to 30%. With this VNT equipment, the Fortuner could now accelerate from in about 11 seconds (less than 10 seconds for 3.0-litre engine). It was launched to commemorate Pertamina's successful expedition from Jakarta, Indonesia to Rome, Italy (a distance of roughly ) using a group of Fortuners.
Variants
A number of engine options are available depending on the country of sale, including a 2.7-litre 2TR-FE and 4.0-litre 1GR-FE V6 petrol with Variable Valve Timing and 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV and 3.0-litre 1KD-FTV common rail variable geometry turbocharger diesel models.
Grade levels are G and G Luxury for rear-wheel drive diesel and petrol, and V for 4×4 Diesel and petrol. The common rail turbo intercooled diesel has a functional scoop on its hood.
In 2007, Toyota Thailand dropped the 4×4 petrol model and replaced it with a two-wheel drive petrol version.
Markets
Argentina
In Argentina, it is assembled in Zárate and sold as the Toyota SW4 in petrol and diesel versions. It is the only D-segment SUV made in Argentina.
As of 2020, the Argentine version has over 40% locally and 60% regionally made parts.
Brazil
Like in Argentina, it is known as the SW4 in Brazil and sold since 2006. In this market, there were 3 engine options offered: 3.0-litre 1KD-FTV diesel, 4.0-litre 1GR-FE V6 petrol and 2.7-litre 2TR-FE flex fuel (petrol and ethanol).
Brunei
Launched in 2005, the Fortuner in Brunei is available in 2.5-litre manual G grade with and 3.0-litre automatic V grade. The 2.5 G was available in 4×2 while the 3.0 V had full-time 4×4.
Colombia
The Fortuner was unveiled in Colombia in 2005 and launched in 2007 as a replacement for the locally assembled Prado that had been under production for 9 years without any changes. The Prado continued in production until 2009. A new grade was added in 2010, the Fortuner Urbana, with a petrol 2.7 L engine in 4×4 and 4×2 models.
The Fortuner is available in the following grade levels:
Fortuner Urbana 4×2, with a 2.7-litre engine.
Fortuner Urbana 4×4 with a 2.7-litre engine.
Fortuner Plus Diesel, with a 3.0-litre turbo engine.
All of them come standard with a 5-speed manual transmission or an optional 4-speed automatic transmission.
Ecuador
The Fortuner was unveiled in South America – Ecuador in 2005 and launched in 2007. Versions of the Fortuner have come from Venezuela and Thailand. There are various grade levels available, originally only 4×4 and 4×2 options using a V6 4.0-litre petrol engine were sold. Since 2010, a 2.7-litre engine option was introduced. New facelift models were also introduced. All grades come standard with a 5-speed manual transmission or an optional 4-speed automatic transmission.
Egypt
The Fortuner was unveiled in Egypt in 2010 and launched in 2011. It is available in two grades with two petrol engines: the 4-litre V6 1GR-FE, and the 2.7-litre inline-four 2TR-FE. All have automatic transmission and 4×4. Starting from April 2012, the car was assembled in Egypt at Arab American Vehicles.
India
Toyota launched the Fortuner in India in 2009. It is assembled at the Bidadi, Karnataka plant of Toyota Kirloskar Motor from imported CKD kits. Fortuner production increased to more than 950 vehicles per month from the initial 500 units per month.
Originally there was only one grade model sold, which was the 3.0-litre 1KD-FTV engine 4×4 model, with leather upholstery, manual transmission and climatronic as standard. At the 2012 Indian Auto Expo, Toyota launched the 3.0-litre 4×2 option in both manual and automatic transmission. The top-of-the-range Fortuner 3.0 4×4 AT was introduced to the Indian market in January 2015 along with a 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV engine with 5-speed manual and 5-speed automatic transmission. This 2.5-litre variant was only available in 4×2 configuration.
Indonesia
The Fortuner was introduced on 8 July 2005 at the 13th Gaikindo Auto Expo in Jakarta. Initially, the Fortuner was imported from Thailand and sold in 2.7 G (4×2) and 2.7 V (4WD) grade levels. The rear wheel drive 2.7 G was offered in the base grade with fabric interior and the Luxury with leather interior and premium sound system. The 3.0-litre diesel engine option is not sold in Indonesia, due to the heavier tax regulations imposed on vehicles with diesel engines larger than 2.5-litre.
The 2.5 G model was later added to the market in 2007, powered by a 2.5-litre diesel engine rated at . It is mated to a 5-speed manual transmission. Since then, the Fortuner is assembled locally at the Karawang plant to fulfill the local market and exports to the Middle East (GCC) market.
In mid-2009, a newer variant was added to the lineup, which is the 2.5 G with a 4-speed automatic transmission. The 2.5 G grade can be ordered with "TRD Sportivo" body kits, which is also available as dealer installed options for other models. In August 2012, the 2.5-litre common-rail turbodiesel 2KD-FTV engine was upgraded with a variable nozzle turbocharger (VNT), rating the engine power output to . The 2.5 G 4×4 grade with automatic transmission was released in August 2014.
Kazakhstan
In June 2014, Toyota announced that complete knock-down (CKD) production of the Fortuner at a production facility of Saryarka AvtoProm LLP (SAP). Plans call for a production of approximately 3,000 units annually and the hiring of an additional 100 employees in SAP.
Malaysia
The Toyota Fortuner was launched in Malaysia in August 2005 with two grade models: the 2.5 G and the 2.7 V.
In August 2008, the first facelift for the Toyota Fortuner was made available in Malaysia with four grade models: 2.5 G, 2.5 G TRD Sportivo, 2.7 V and 2.7 V TRD Sportivo.
In October 2011, the second facelift for the Toyota Fortuner was made available in Malaysia again with four grade models: 2.5 G, 2.5 G TRD Sportivo, 2.7 V and 2.7 V TRD Sportivo.
In October 2013, the Fortuner underwent a minor update. Changes included different colour for the wheels and black upholstery. Grade levels remained the same as the previous model. ISOFIX became standard across the range.
In February 2015, another minor update occurred. Changes included smoked head and tail lamps, bumper-mounted LED DRLs, different TRD Sportivo decals.
The 2.7 V and 2.7 V TRD Sportivo carried a 2.7-litre petrol engine. It was available only in 4-speed automatic transmission with ECT. The 2.5 G and 2.5 G TRD Sportivo had a 2.5-litre diesel engine. At the outset, available with a 5-speed manual transmission only, but for the 2009 model year facelift it was replaced by a 4-speed automatic. In August 2012, together with the Hilux, the engine received a variable nozzle intercooled turbocharger.
Pakistan
The Fortuner was launched in Pakistan in February 2013. Initially offered in two variants, Fortuner 2.7 VVT-i and TRD Sportivo, all with the 2.7-litre 2TR-FE engine.
Philippines
The Fortuner was introduced in 2005. It fills in the gap between the smaller RAV4, and the more premium Land Cruiser Prado. It was sold in two grade levels: the entry-level G, and the top-spec V.
The G models had three drivetrain options available; the 2.7-litre 2TR-FE petrol engine with VVT-i, or the 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV engine with common rail diesel (D-4D) that either came with a 4-speed automatic transmission, or a 5-speed manual. As for the V models, engine options were limited to diesel engines with automatic transmissions only with a choice of the 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV or the 3.0-litre 1KD-FTV. The top-of-the-line 4x4 model was equipped with the 1KD-FTV engine with D-4D technology and came with a 4-speed automatic transmission and a low range transfer case.
In October 2011, the Fortuner received a new front fascia, headlights and tail lights alongside the facelifted Innova and Hilux. The drivetrains remain the same.
In September 2012, the 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV diesel engine was upgraded with Variable Nozzle Turbocharger (VNT) with intercooler. According to Toyota Motor Philippines, the engine would have improved fuel efficiency and produce additional power by 40% and increase torque by 30%. A new feature for the Fortuner 4×4 V diesel and 4×2 G diesel automatic variants was an audio system with GPS.
GCC
In Saudi Arabia and the UAE, the Fortuner was launched in 2005. There are two grades sold in Saudi Arabia, called the "GX" and the "VX" grades. The GX came with the 2.7-litre engine and 5-speed manual as standard (4-speed automatic is an option) and optional 4×4 whereas the VX came with the 4.0-litre V6 1GR-FE with standard 4×4 and all wheel drive with either a 5-speed automatic or 5-speed manual transmission. There is no diesel variant available. In the UAE, when the facelifted version was released the Fortuner was available in two variants, the 2.7-litre petrol engine and 4.0-litre petrol engine. In 2015 the Fortuner in the UAE came available with TRD body kits. As of 2015, the Fortuner is available in four variants: 2.7 EXR, 2.7 TRD Sportivo, 4.0 GXR, 4.0 VXR and 4.0 TRD Sportivo.
Singapore
The Fortuner was introduced in 2005 in Singapore by Borneo Motors (Toyota's authorised dealer in Singapore), with the 2.7 V grade being the only available model. It received two facelifts, with changes to the headlight and tail light clusters in its first facelift in 2006, and new bumpers and grill design, new headlamp and clear tail lamp clusters, and blackwood grain trim in its interior for the second facelift in 2011. Later models included a touchscreen telematics navigation system. Due to the car's height (1.85 m), the car cannot clear the height limit in some Singaporean car parks.
South Africa
The Fortuner was unveiled in South Africa in 2005 and launched in 2006 becoming the best-selling SUV since its launch. Toyota released an updated model in 2009. In 2011, the Fortuner benefited from another facelift, together with its sibling the Hilux. A 2.5-litre diesel engine was added to the newly facelifted range. Again in 2013, the Fortuner received some minor interior upgrades notably for the first time; the introduction of a black leather interior. The sound system was also upgraded together with the navigation system.
Venezuela
Two grades are available for 2011 – 4×4 and 4×2 – both with the 4.0-litre V6 engine. The assembly plant is located in Cumaná.
Vietnam
In February 2009, Toyota Motor Vietnam (TMV) started to produce Fortuner – SUV of IMV series. And the Fortuner has soon occupied the first position in medium high SUV segment in Vietnam with the accumulated sales of nearly 25,000 units with a steady SUV market share at 64% with 6,129 units sold in 2012.
Facelifts
2008
A minor redesign of the Fortuner was launched in July 2008. It was first unveiled in Thailand, and then at the 16th Indonesia International Motor Show. It features new projector headlamps and grille, new rear lights, Bluetooth connectivity, new light sand interior, electronic adjustable driver's seat in 4×4 V model, rear air conditioning from ceiling for second, and third row which was originally located on the sides. Electronic Brake Force Distribution, with Brake Assist replacing LSPV in some models only. Its newly redesigned front grille and front lamps are in the style of the Land Cruiser 200 Series.
2011
The second facelift Fortuner was introduced in July 2011. It was first unveiled in Bangkok, Thailand. The front fascia was completely revised with a new fender, hood, grille, headlamps, tail lamps, bumper and fog light housing, similar to the J200 Land Cruiser. The tail lamps were redesigned with clear housing similar to the first generation Lexus RX. The rear bumper, rear garnish plate were also revised. Changes in the sides includes a new sharper fender flares, LED integrated side view mirrors and the wheels was also redesigned similar to the 2012 Hilux. Minor changes were also made to the interior including the centre console, steering wheel and audio/video system were also upgraded. The Fortuner later also received a new VNT (Variable Nozzle Turbo) intercooled turbo engine.
Second generation (AN150/AN160; 2015)
The second generation Fortuner was unveiled simultaneously on 16 July 2015 in Australia and Thailand. Along with the Hilux, the Fortuner features the "Keen Look" design language. Both the Hilux and Fortuner share the chassis, transmission and engine lineup, with two new diesel engines from the GD series. The 2.7-litre and 4.0-litre petrol engines were updated with Dual VVT-i. The second-generation Fortuner features a part-time 4×4 system instead of the full-time 4×4 system used in the previous generation.
The development of the vehicle was led by executive chief engineer Hiroki Nakajima. Despite sharing the hood panels, front pillar area, windscreen glass and front doors as the Hilux, the exterior of the Fortuner has been described as more slim-looking, featuring slim headlights with bi-beam LED projector as an option and blacked-out D-pillars for a "floating roof" look. Toyota designers drew inspiration from their own Land Cruiser and Land Cruiser Prado heritage, as a means of differentiating the Fortuner from competing body-on-frame SUV rivals.
Since this generation, the Fortuner no longer shares the interior design with the Hilux to give a 'distinct character' between the two. As the result, the interior took an upwards step in perceived quality with an upright dashboard design with synthetic leather trims with stitching, a three-spoke steering wheel shared with the Hilux and a modern instrument cluster with a large colour TFT LCD multi-info display.
The Fortuner also features larger cross sections for its ladder frame, and sits on double wishbone front suspension and five-link rear suspension with coil springs. The rear differential lock also has its componentry placed within the differential housing for improved off-road protection.
All variants are equipped with ABS, EBD, dual airbags plus knee airbag, "follow me home" light function, all around sensor, glove box with chiller function, digital automatic climate control, all auto power windows along with tilt and telescopic steering wheel as standard. All variants also have Eco Mode and Power Mode features to adjust throttle responses. The front braking system consists of 17" disc brakes, whilst the rear braking system uses drum brakes, except in Australia and India where disc brakes are used all around. In 2017, the Fortuner was upgraded to disc brakes all around in all markets. In the third row, the 50:50 split seats continue to flips up onto the body side while being folded instead of folding flat into the floor like on most of its competitors.
Powertrain
The Fortuner is powered by a range of petrol and diesel engines. The two GD series engines are newly developed for this generation, which feature common-rail direct-injection and variable nozzle turbocharging; the 2.8-litre also gets auto start-stop in some markets. The 2.7-litre petrol engine is lighter and equipped with Dual VVT-i, improved combustion and less friction.
Markets
Australia
The Fortuner was unveiled in Australia in July 2015 and went on sale in October 2015. It is sold only with 4×4, 2.8-litre turbo-diesel with only a six-speed automatic transmission. Three model grades are available: GX, GXL and Crusade.
Starting from 2022, some grade levels of the Australian market Fortuner are imported from Indonesia.
India
The second generation Fortuner was launched in November 2016 with two engine options, 2.8-litre diesel and 2.7-litre petrol with either manual or automatic transmission, 4×2 or 4×4.
In early 2020, the Indian market Fortuner was upgraded to meet the Bharat Stage 6 emissions standards, which necessitate the addition of diesel particulate filter (DPF).
The facelifted Fortuner was launched in India in January 2021, which is offered in both standard and Legender grades. In May 2022, the GR Sport variant was released as the highest grade.
Indonesia
The second generation Fortuner was launched in January 2016. Initial grade models were G (diesel, available in 4×2 with manual and automatic transmission, and 4×4 with automatic unit), VRZ (diesel, available in either 4×2 or 4×4, only with automatic transmission), and SRZ (petrol 4×2 automatic). Initial engine options were the 2.7-litre petrol engine or the 2.4-litre diesel engine.
The TRD Sportivo body kits were also available for the SRZ and VRZ variants (4×2 only) from August 2017 up to August 2021. In August 2018, the Fortuner was updated to comply with the Euro 4 emission standards. The TRD Sportivo model received a minor update in July 2019.
The facelifted Fortuner was launched in Indonesia in October 2020. In August 2021, the TRD Sportivo variant was renamed to GR Sport while the standard SRZ grade was removed from the lineup, leaving only its GR Sport variant.
In January 2022, the 2.4-litre diesel engine option for VRZ grade and its GR Sport variant was replaced with the 2.8-litre diesel engine. The standard 4×4 VRZ grade was also replaced by its GR Sport variant with the 2.8-litre diesel engine, alongside the discontinuation of 4×4 G grade.
Laos
The second generation Fortuner was launched in March 2016 with one model grade, V 4×4 with 3.0-litre diesel engine and 5-speed automatic transmission. In August 2017, the Fortuner was updated with an introduction of the new 2.8-litre diesel engine that replaced the old 3.0-litre diesel engine used in the outgoing model along with other upgrades.
Malaysia
The second generation Fortuner was launched in May 2016 and was offered in 2.4 VRZ 4×4 turbodiesel and 2.7 SRZ 4×4 petrol variants with automatic transmissions. In January 2017, both variants obtained "Energy Efficient Vehicle" (EEV) status from the government, which reduced its price. In September 2017, the 2.4 VRZ was renamed as the 2.4 4×4 and two additional grade models were introduced: 2.4 VRZ 4×2 and 2.4 VRZ 4×4.
The facelifted Fortuner was launched in Malaysia in February 2021 alongside the facelifted Innova. It is offered in three variants: 2.4 4×4, 2.7 SRZ 4×4 and 2.8 VRZ 4×4. In November 2021, the Fortuner SRZ and VRZ models was updated with dual-zone automatic climate control as standard along with other upgrades.
Pakistan
The second-generation Fortuner was launched on 27 September 2016 with a petrol variant.
In late 2017, Toyota Indus introduced the Sigma 4 variant of the Fortuner, powered by the 2.8 litre diesel engine.
In January 2020, Toyota Indus introduced the G grade as the base petrol model of the Fortuner.
In early 2022, the Legender variant was added to the lineup.
Philippines
The second generation Fortuner was launched in the Philippines on 14 January 2016 with two new diesel engines (2.8-litre and 2.4-litre), and an updated 2.7-litre petrol engine. Initial grade levels were the entry-level G and top-spec V.
In August 2017, the Fortuner was refreshed for the 2018 model year. Rear disc brakes became standard on all grades along with other upgrades. The Fortuner became the best-selling car in the Philippines in 2017.
The facelifted Fortuner was launched in the Philippines on 17 October 2020. It is offered in 2.4 G, 2.4 V, 2.8 Q and 2.8 LTD grade levels with the 2.7 G petrol variant being discontinued. In September 2021, the Fortuner received another feature list upgrade.
Russia
The Fortuner went on sale in Russia in October 2017. The Fortuner sold in Russia is only available in 4×4 with 2.8-litre turbo-diesel and 2.7-litre petrol engines, with either five-speed manual or six-speed automatic gearbox. Four grade choices are offered: Standard, Comfort, Elegance and Prestige. Fortuners sold in the Russian market are imported from Thailand.
Thailand
In Thailand, initial grade levels were the G and V. In March 2016, the TRD Sportivo variant was added to the lineup.
In 2021, the Fortuner gained a new body kit by Modellista. The GR Sport variant also became available.
In February 2022, a special variant called the Commander was released. Only 1,000 units were produced.
In August 2022, the regular Fortuner was replaced with Leader G and Leader V grade levels, which share the styling with the upmarket Legender model.
Middle East
The Fortuner was launched in the GCC countries in March 2016. In the UAE market, it is available with 2.7-litre and 4.0-litre petrol engines, with either 6-speed automatic transmission. It is offered in four grades EXR, GXR, VXR, and the TRD Sportivo. In the Saudi Arabian market, it is available with 2.8-litre and 2.4-litre diesel engines, and 2.7-litre and 4.0-litre petrol engines, with either 6-speed automatic transmission. It is offered in five grades GX2, VX1, VX2, VX3 and the TRD Sportivo.
The facelifted Fortuner was launched in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and UAE in August 2021, the TRD Sportivo grade will not be offered in the GCC countries.
Facelift
The facelifted Fortuner debuted on 4 June 2020 for the Thai market alongside the facelifted Hilux. The Legender flagship sub-model (known as VRZ in Malaysia, LTD in the Philippines, Diamond in South America, and Black Onyx in Russia) was introduced to replace the Thai market TRD Sportivo model. The Legender grade is equipped with a different headlight units from the standard grades and different front and rear bumper designs which designed to be in-line with Toyota crossover SUVs. It is also equipped with 20-inch wheels, interior ambient lighting, two-tone leather seats, JBL sound system, and a set of Toyota Safety Sense active safety systems. The 2.8-litre 1GD-FTV diesel engine received an upgrade, producing and of torque.
The Legender-based GR Sport variant with different styling from the Indonesian market Fortuner GR Sport was launched in Thailand on 26 August 2021, in the Philippines on 23 October 2021, in Brazil on 8 December 2021, in India on 12 May 2022 and in Pakistan on 18 March 2023. It is only available in 2.8-litre diesel engine option with 4×4.
Sales
References
External links
(Philippines)
Fortuner
Cars introduced in 2005
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2020s cars
Mid-size sport utility vehicles
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4161701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20World%20Series | 2006 World Series | The 2006 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2006 season. The 102nd edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between the American League (AL) champion Detroit Tigers and the National League (NL) champion St. Louis Cardinals; the Cardinals won the series in five games to win their tenth World Series championship. This was the third World Series meeting between the Tigers and the Cardinals, the first in 38 years. The Cardinals won the first in , and the Tigers won the second in ; each went the full seven games.
It was only the fifth time in 40 years that the Series featured two teams that had both remained in the same city since the formation of the AL in 1901, the last time being the 2004 World Series between St. Louis and the Boston Red Sox. The last three prior to 2004 were in (Boston–Cincinnati), 1968 (Detroit–St. Louis) and (Boston–St. Louis).
The Cardinals, who moved into Busch Stadium III in April, became the fourth team to win the Series in their home stadium's debut season, joining the Pittsburgh Pirates (Forbes Field), Boston Red Sox (Fenway Park) and New York Yankees (Yankee Stadium I). In 2009, they would be joined by the New York Yankees (Yankee Stadium II). With this win, the Cardinals would join the Yankees on becoming only the 2nd team in MLB history to win 10 World Series Championships after defeating the Tigers. It also marked the franchise's first World Championship since . Cardinals manager Tony La Russa, who won the 1989 World Series title with the Athletics, became the second manager in history to lead teams in both leagues to championships, joining Sparky Anderson. Tigers manager Jim Leyland, who won the 1997 World Series title with the Marlins, also could have become the second manager in history to lead teams in both leagues to championships, had the Tigers won the series.
The Cardinals finished the regular season 83–78. This is the second-worst record ever for a league champion (the 1973 New York Mets finished 82–79) and the worst record ever for a World Series champion. Previously the 1987 Minnesota Twins finished 85–77 and defeated that year's Cardinals team in the 1987 World Series.
Background
A pair of battered ballclubs
Since Interleague Play began in 1997, this marked the third time a World Series would be a rematch of the regular season. The Tigers swept the Cardinals in three games at Comerica Park from June 23–25.
Neither team was given much chance to advance far into October by many baseball pundits. Both teams stumbled through the second halves of their seasons. The Tigers, only three years removed from having the most losses in a season by an AL team and enjoying their first successful season after 12 years of futility, surprised the baseball world by building a ten-game lead in the American League Central, but eventually the lead evaporated in the final months and they lost the division to the Minnesota Twins on the last day of the season after being swept by the last-place Kansas City Royals at home, settling for a playoff berth as the AL Wild Card. The Cardinals held a seven-game advantage in the National League Central over the Cincinnati Reds and an -game lead over the Houston Astros with just two weeks to play. However, the combination of a seven-game losing streak by St. Louis and an eight-game winning streak by the Astros (highlighted by a four-game sweep of the Cardinals in Houston) caused the Cardinals' lead to shrink to half a game with only a few games left. However, the Cardinals held on to clinch the division after an Astros' loss to the Atlanta Braves on the last day of the season.
Thus, both the Tigers and Cardinals were clear underdogs in their matches, against the New York Yankees and San Diego Padres, respectively. The Tigers' pitching took care of the vaunted Yankees lineup, and won their series 3–1. The Cardinals also won their series 3–1, including the first two games in San Diego. The Tigers then swept the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS, winning game four on a three-run walk-off home run by Magglio Ordóñez in the bottom of the ninth. The Cardinals won their series against the New York Mets with the help of a ninth-inning home run by Yadier Molina in a tense Game 7.
The Tigers had home-field advantage in the Series, due to the AL's 3–2 win over the NL in the 77th Major League Baseball All-Star Game on July 11 at PNC Park in Pittsburgh. These two teams had already played against each other in a three-game series in June 2006, where the Tigers swept the Cardinals 3–0 in Detroit, part of an eight-game Cardinals losing streak. This was the first time since 2000 that teams meeting during the regular season met again in the World Series.
The Series marked the third time in a row that both teams sought to win a championship after at least a 20-year drought. In 2004, the Boston Red Sox ended their 86-year hiatus by defeating the Cardinals; in 2005 the Chicago White Sox ended an 88-year drought by defeating the Houston Astros, who were competing in their first World Series after 43 seasons. The Tigers had not appeared in the World Series since winning it in 1984. The Cardinals last won in 1982, losing three times since then, in 1985, 1987 and 2004.
The Tigers were the eighth wild card team to compete in the World Series since MLB introduced the wild card in 1994. A wild-card team participated in the Series from 2002 to 2007.
Riding the momentum they built up during their surprisingly easy ALDS and ALCS victories, Detroit entered the Series as a prohibitive favorite. Bob Nightengale of USA Today expressed popular sentiment when he said "Tigers in three".
Two veteran managers return to postseason play
St. Louis' manager Tony La Russa joined his mentor, Sparky Anderson, as only the second manager to win the World Series with teams in both leagues. La Russa won in with the Athletics. Coincidentally, Anderson first accomplished the feat by managing Detroit to their previous championship in 1984. He was chosen to throw out the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2. If the Tigers had defeated the Cardinals, Jim Leyland would have joined Anderson for this feat instead of LaRussa as he had already won the 1997 World Series with the Florida Marlins. When he came to St. Louis, La Russa wore number 10 to symbolize the team's drive to their 10th championship and pay tribute to Anderson, who wore number 10 while manager of the Cincinnati Reds. After winning the championship, he chose to continue wearing number 10 to pay tribute to Anderson.
Jim Leyland is the seventh manager to win pennants in both leagues. The previous six are Joe McCarthy (1929 Cubs and the Yankees of 1932, 1936–39 and 1941–43), Yogi Berra (1964 Yankees, 1973 Mets), Alvin Dark (1962 Giants, 1974 A's), Sparky Anderson (1970, 1972, 1975–76 Reds, 1984 Tigers), Dick Williams (1967 Red Sox, 1972–73 A's, 1984 Padres), and Tony La Russa (1988–90 A's, 2004, 2006 Cardinals).
Additionally, the opposing managers are close friends. Leyland was La Russa's third base coach for the Chicago White Sox in the early 1980s. Leyland also served as a Pittsburgh-based advance scout for the Cardinals before he was hired by the Tigers.
This was the first World Series in 22 years to have two previous World Series-winning managers facing each other, but at the helms of new teams. As previously mentioned, Leyland previously won the 1997 World Series with the Florida Marlins, and La Russa won the 1989 World Series with the Oakland Athletics. Overall, it was the first World Series since to have two previous Series-winning managers facing each other.
Summary
†: Game 4 was postponed due to rain on October 25, forcing Game 5 to be subsequently pushed back a day as well.
Matchups
Game 1
Two rookies faced off in Game 1 for the first time in history: Anthony Reyes for St. Louis and Justin Verlander for Detroit. It looked like the Tigers were going to get to Reyes early in the bottom of the first, when Craig Monroe doubled and Magglio Ordóñez walked. Carlos Guillén singled Monroe in, giving the Tigers a 1–0 lead. However, in the top of the second, Scott Rolen hit a long home run to left field, tying the score at 1–1. Rolen was 0-for-15 in his career in the World Series before hitting the home run. The previous mark had been 0-for-13, set by Benny Kauff of the New York Giants in the 1917 World Series. In the third inning the Cards broke through, first when Chris Duncan's RBI double scored Yadier Molina to give the Cardinals the lead. On Verlander's next pitch, 2005 National League MVP Albert Pujols banged a two-run home run, punishing the rookie who elected to pitch to the dangerous Pujols, rather than walk him with first base open and two outs and pitch to Jim Edmonds.
Meanwhile, Anthony Reyes was the story. The pitcher who had the fewest regular season wins of a Game 1 World Series starter (5) at one point retired 17 in a row from the first inning to the sixth inning, a World Series record for a rookie. The previous record was thirteen (John Stuper, STL, 1982, and Dickey Kerr, CHW, 1919). Reyes' final line was eight-plus innings, four hits, two runs, and four strikeouts. The Cards took advantage of Detroit's mistakes again in the sixth, when Brandon Inge made two errors in one play. With runners on second and third, Inge threw to home wild to score a run and then obstructed Scott Rolen, who was running home, to score another run. Craig Monroe hit a home run off Reyes in the bottom of the ninth, which led to Reyes being pulled from the game, as Braden Looper came in to finish the game. The final score was 7–2 Cardinals, marking the first time since 2003 that the National League had won a World Series game, and the first World Series game won by St. Louis since Game 5 of the 1987 World Series.
Game 2
Before the game's start, John Mellencamp and Little Big Town performed "Our Country". With a starting temperature of , controversy surrounded the start of Game 2 when Tigers starting pitcher Kenny Rogers was found to have a substance on a patch of the palm of his pitching hand during the first inning. Although Cardinals hitters claimed that the ball was doing "weird things" in the first inning, Cardinals manager Tony La Russa did not request an inspection of Rogers' hand to determine what the substance was. Rogers claimed it was a combination of dirt and rosin (both legal), but complied with a request from the umpires to wash his hands before the second inning.
Unfazed, Rogers would go on to pitch eight shutout innings while surrendering only two hits, running his postseason streak to 23 straight shutout innings. Craig Monroe hit his second home run in the series, and Carlos Guillén, who was a home run away from the cycle, and Sean Casey each drove in runs to give the Tigers a 3–0 lead going into the ninth. Todd Jones then came into the game to close it out but got into a heavy jam (he had an error which contributed to the jam), with Scott Rolen being driven in by Jim Edmonds before a force-out at second with the bases loaded won the game for the Tigers. Craig Monroe became the fifth player to hit a home run in each of his first two World Series games. The others were Barry Bonds for the Giants in 2002, Ted Simmons for the Brewers in 1982, Dusty Rhodes for the New York Giants in 1954, and Jimmie Foxx for the Philadelphia Athletics in 1929.
St. Louis pitcher Jeff Weaver (the same Yankees pitcher who surrendered the walk-off home run in game 4 of the 2003 World Series) surrendered all three Detroit runs in his five innings of work and took the loss for the Cardinals.
Game 3
After the Cardinals were shut out by Detroit pitcher Kenny Rogers for eight innings in Game 2, St. Louis starter Chris Carpenter answered with eight innings of his own in a 5–0 Cardinals victory in Game 3. Carpenter, making his World Series debut (he missed the entire 2004 World Series due to injury) gave up only three hits, struck out six and did not issue a walk, while throwing only 82 pitches. Only one Tiger reached second base.
St. Louis began the scoring in the fourth inning on a bases-loaded two-run double by center fielder Jim Edmonds off of Nate Robertson. Two more runs would score in the bottom of the seventh on an error by Detroit pitcher Joel Zumaya, who overthrew third baseman Brandon Inge on what should have been a routine force out. St. Louis would add another run in the eighth on a wild pitch.
Reliever Braden Looper would pitch a perfect ninth to close out the game and give St. Louis a two-games-to-one advantage in the Series.
The Cardinals became the first team since the Cincinnati Reds in 1970 to host a World Series game in their first season in a new ballpark.
Game 4
Game 4 was pushed back a day because of rain, the first time a rainout had occurred in the World Series since Game 1 in 1996. The fans from the game were to attend Game 5. (Thus, fans who had tickets for Game 5 went to Game 4 instead.) The Cardinals won, taking a 3–1 series lead. The starters were Jeff Suppan for the Cardinals and Jeremy Bonderman for the Tigers. The Tigers took a 3–0 lead into the top of the third, after Sean Casey had two RBIs, including a home run. The other RBI came from Detroit's Iván Rodríguez, who singled in Carlos Guillén. Rodriguez, who had been hitless in the previous three games, also went 3-for-4. In the bottom of the third, the
Cardinals struck back with a run-scoring double by David Eckstein, scoring Aaron Miles who had the first stolen base of the series by either team. Yadier Molina doubled in Scott Rolen in the fourth to cut the Tiger lead to 3–2. The score remained that way, until the bottom of the seventh, when Eckstein led off with a double over the head of Curtis Granderson, who had slipped on the wet Busch Stadium outfield grass. Eckstein then scored on an attempted sacrifice bunt by So Taguchi that was thrown over the head of second baseman Plácido Polanco, who was covering first by Fernando Rodney, and that tied the score at three. Later that same inning, Preston Wilson hit a single to left with two outs that scored Taguchi from third and Rodney was charged with a blown save. The Tigers tied the game in the top of the eighth on a Brandon Inge double that scored Iván Rodríguez. Adam Wainwright, the winning pitcher, was charged with a blown save but held on to win. In the bottom of the eighth inning, the Cardinals would regain and keep the lead when Miles scored on a double by Eckstein just off the glove of outfielder Craig Monroe, who had been playing shallow and dove for a ball just out of his reach. This gave Joel Zumaya the loss.
Game 5
On a day in which it rained much of the day but stopped early enough so that the lack of a dome did not delay the game, the Cardinals won to clinch the championship four games to one, making this the first five-game series since the Yankees–Mets Series in . The starter for Detroit was game 1 loser Justin Verlander and the Cardinals starter was game 2 loser Jeff Weaver. Weaver got an extra day of rest to avoid pitching on three days rest.
Justin Verlander pitched a sloppy first inning for Detroit, walking three and tying a World Series record for a single inning by throwing two wild pitches. He avoided allowing any runs, however, thanks to a good play by shortstop Carlos Guillén to get the third out on what was almost an infield hit.
The Cardinals took the lead in the second inning on a lead-off single by Yadier Molina followed by two advancing groundouts, and then an infield single by David Eckstein. Detroit third baseman Brandon Inge made a good play to stop the ball off Eckstein's bat, but then made a poor throw to first which got by first baseman Sean Casey and allowed Eckstein to advance to second. The throwing error was the seventh error of the series by the Tigers, also giving them at least one error in every game to that point.
Cardinals pitcher Jeff Weaver (an ex-Tiger) was cruising into the fourth inning, and he appeared to be nowhere near trouble with a lead-off groundout by Guillen, followed by a routine popup by Magglio Ordóñez. This popup turned out to be much more troublesome than it first appeared: right fielder Chris Duncan dropped the ball, apparently distracted by center fielder Jim Edmonds who was also going after the ball. With Ordóñez on via the error, the very next pitch of the game was hit by the hot-hitting Sean Casey into the right-field seats just inside the foul pole for a two-run homer that gave Detroit the lead, 2–1. The Cardinals would threaten immediately in the bottom of the inning, however, with Yadier Molina and So Taguchi each singling to put runners at first and second with one out. Pitcher Jeff Weaver then came up and attempted to bunt the runners over to second and third. The bunt was fielded cleanly by the pitcher Justin Verlander, but he attempted to force out Molina at third. The throw missed third baseman Brandon Inge and the ball went into the left-field foul area. This allowed Molina to score to tie it up, with Taguchi and Weaver arriving safely at third and second. Later, Verlander said "I picked it up and said, Don't throw it away, instead of just throwing it. I got tentative." The throwing error by Verlander was the fifth error by Detroit pitchers in the World Series, having committed one per game, setting a new World Series record. (A placard held by a Cardinals fan in the stands read "HIT IT TO THE PITCHER"). The next batter, David Eckstein, grounded out to score the runner from third, and St. Louis secured their lead, 3–2. Verlander kept Weaver from scoring by retiring Chris Duncan, but the damage was already done.
Chris Duncan misplayed another ball in the top of the sixth for a Sean Casey two-out double, but this time Casey would be stranded as Iván Rodríguez then struck out to end the inning. A David Eckstein single followed by a Preston Wilson walk in the bottom of the seventh put runners at first and second with none out for the heart of the Cardinals order: Pujols, Edmonds, and Rolen. Pujols popped out and Edmonds flied out, so it appeared Detroit might hold the Cardinals to a one-run lead. Instead, Scott Rolen singled and scored Eckstein, doubling the Cardinals lead to 4–2. Fernando Rodney, who gave up the single to Rolen and was charged with the run, managed to retire Ronnie Belliard to end the inning.
Jeff Weaver retired the side in order, and the Cardinals went to the ninth, three outs away from their first World Series title in 24 years. The man called on to get those three outs would be Adam Wainwright, who had won the job of closer after the star free agent brought to St. Louis in 2002, Jason Isringhausen, had season-ending surgery. Detroit's clean-up hitter, Magglio Ordóñez, led off the inning. He proceeded to work a full count but then grounded out. The second batter, Sean Casey, worked a full count and then doubled to bring the tying run to the plate. The third batter, Iván Rodríguez, got ahead in the count 2–0 but grounded back to Wainwright on the next pitch, putting the Cardinals one out away. The fourth batter, Plácido Polanco (who was hitless during the entire series), fell behind 1–2, but then worked a walk to put the tying run on. The fifth batter, Brandon Inge, fell behind 0–2, again putting the Cardinals one strike from a World Series championship. He did not extend the drama any longer, as he swung and missed at the next pitch (making it the first World Series to end on a strikeout since the 1988 World Series), giving the World Series title to the Cardinals. The final play of the 2006 season was made at 10:26pm Central Standard time. After the game, Wainwright, who threw a curveball for strike three to win the pennant and a slider to Inge to win the Series, said "I'll probably never throw another curve or slider again without thinking of those two pitches."
Composite line score
2006 World Series (4–1): St. Louis Cardinals (N.L.) over Detroit Tigers (A.L.)
Broadcasting
The World Series was televised in the United States by Fox, with Joe Buck and Tim McCarver as the booth announcers. The starting time for each television broadcast was 8:00 pm EDT/7:00 pm CDT.
On radio, the Series was broadcast nationally by ESPN Radio, with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan announcing. Locally, Dan Dickerson and Jim Price called the Series for the Tigers on WXYT-AM in Detroit (with retired longtime Tiger announcer Ernie Harwell returning to call the second inning of Game 1), while Mike Shannon and John Rooney called it for the Cardinals on KTRS-AM in St. Louis. Per contractual obligation, the non-flagship stations on the teams' radio networks carried the ESPN Radio broadcasts.
John Rooney had broadcast the 2005 World Series for the Chicago White Sox, and thus became the first announcer to call back-to-back World Series championships as an employee of different teams.
Fox aired commercials supporting and opposing the Missouri Constitutional Amendment during the game.
Ratings
The ratings for the 2006 World Series were considered alarmingly poor at the time. The ratings for games 1, 3 and 4 were the lowest rated games 1, 3, and 4 in World Series history. Game 1, at 8.0, particularly set the record for lowest rated World-Series game of all-time (the 9.4 rating in Game 1 of the 2002 World Series was the prior lowest). The series overall averaged 10.1, sinking below the 11.1 of the 2005 World Series to become the lowest-rated World Series of all time.
However, those numbers look differently today, considering the performances of many of the World Series following 2006. The 10.1 overall rating is now the 8th lowest rated World Series (behind 2012, 2014, 2010, 2008, 2015, 2011, and 2013), and game 1's 8.0 is now the 15th lowest rated game all-time (behind, among others, five games from the 2014 Series). Since 2006, four series (2007, 2009, 2016, and 2017) have outdone the 2006 World Series' ratings.
Aftermath
Neither team made the playoffs the next season. The Tigers finished with 88 wins, eight behind the division champion Cleveland Indians in the AL Central, while the Cardinals finished with 78 wins, seven behind the division champion Chicago Cubs in the NL Central. The 2007 Cardinals were the last defending World Series champion to finish with a losing record and miss the playoffs the next season until the San Francisco Giants followed up their 2012 championship season with a 76–86 record in 2013. Cardinals owner Bill DeWitt Jr. became enamored of a data-driven analytics and fired long-time general manager Walt Jocketty a day after the 2007 season ended.
The Tigers would not make the playoffs again until 2011, when they won the AL Central title for the first time with their last division title being the 1987 AL East crown. The Tigers would win the AL Central in 2012 again and would return to the World Series in 2012 after winning the 2012 American League pennant where they would be swept by the San Francisco Giants in four games. The Cardinals would later make the playoffs in 2009, when the NL Central champions were swept by the NL West champion Los Angeles Dodgers in the 2009 NLDS. The Cardinals also made it to the playoffs as the Wild Card entry in 2011, winning the 2011 National League pennant and going on to beat the Texas Rangers in the 2011 World Series, but failing to defend that title in the 2012 NLCS, losing to the Giants in seven games.
Chris Carpenter, Yadier Molina and Albert Pujols were the only Cardinals to play in both the 2006 and 2011 World Series. Even though Skip Schumaker played a portion of the 2006 season with the Cardinals, he failed to make the postseason roster; however, he later won a World Series with the 2011 Cardinals. Adam Wainwright won a World Series with the 2006 Cardinals, but missed the entire 2011 championship season due to injury.
Of the Tigers who played in the 2006 World Series (excluding previous World Series winners such as Iván Rodríguez and Kenny Rogers), only Fernando Rodney and Justin Verlander later won a championship ring with other teams: Verlander as a member of both the and Houston Astros, and Rodney as a member of the Washington Nationals, whose team defeated Verlander's Astros.
In 2022, Adam Wainwright and Yadier Molina, who were the battery that closed out the World Series, broke the record for most games started by a starting pitcher and catcher.
See also
2006 Asia Series
2006 Japan Series
Notes
External links
"Fan Appreciation", by Thomas Boswell, Washington Post, October 28, 2006
"Redbirds were better than their numbers and "Last chance at the bandwagon", SI.com
"Cardinals are improbable champions", ESPN.com
"This win is for all Cardinals and their fans", Bernie Miklasz, and "It's OK to say it out loud now, Cardinals fans", Bryan Burwell, St. Louis Post-Dispatch
"Parity argument has two sides" and "Good-when-it-counted Cardinals capture biggest prize", USAToday
"We Have Sought Bliss, And We Have Found It", Deadspin.com
"They're the Best (So Deal With It), Tom Verducci, Sports Illustrated
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4161731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaja%20Wachuku | Jaja Wachuku | Jaja Anucha Ndubuisi Wachuku (1 January 1918 – 7 November 1996) was a Pan-Africanist and a Nigerian statesman, lawyer, politician, diplomat and humanitarian. He was the first Speaker of the Nigerian House of Representatives; as well as the first Nigerian Ambassador and Permanent Representative to the United Nations. Also, Wachuku was the first Nigerian Minister for Foreign Affairs. Notably, Wachuku was a Royal Prince of Ngwaland, "descendant of 20 generations of African chiefs in the Igbo country of Eastern Nigeria".
Wachuku, who was "widely respected" as Foreign Affairs Minister of Nigeria intervened with the South African government and helped save Nelson Mandela and others from the death penalty at the 1963–64 Rivonia Trial. In his 1962 diary, from Lagos: Nigeria, Nelson Mandela wrote: "Friday 18 May 1962: 1pm: We meet Mr Jaja Wachuku and his staff and have a profitable discussion. Saturday 19 May 1962: We have lunch with Jaja Wachuku."
On Thursday 30 September 2010, President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria conferred on Wachuku a posthumous special Golden Jubilee Independence Anniversary Award for his outstanding contributions towards the development of Nigeria. Also, for the 1 January 2014 100-year anniversary of Nigeria, having been nominated for exceptional recognition by the Presidential Committee on the Centenary Celebrations, Wachuku was, on Friday 28 February 2014, honoured as a Hero of the Struggle for Nigeria's Independence from Great Britain and a Pioneer Political Leader by President Goodluck Jonathan.
On Friday 6 March 2020, Ireland's Trinity College Dublin honoured Wachuku with a prominent portrait placed within the university's Historical Society; where Wachuku graduated in 1944 with first class honours degree in Legal Sciences; and was a member of College Historical Society.
Biography
Family
Jaja Anucha Wachuku's father, King Josaiah Ndubuisi Wachuku, was the Eze, Paramount Chief, Servant Leader and Head of all Ngwa of the then Aba Division of Eastern Nigeria. Jaja's mother, Queen Rebecca Ngwanchiwa Wachuku (née Nwaogwugwu), was a pioneer women's rights advocate and humane royal land-owner.
His apical ancestor Mgbawa had moved from Umulolo, Eziama Ntigha, in Nigeria's present-day Abia State, in about the last quarter of the 17th century to settle in their present Nbawsi homeland. His paternal grandfather Wachuku Ogbaraegbe, a distinguished statesman and Merchant Prince, was involved in the palm oil trade of that time with King Jaja of Opobo. It was in memory of the friendship, partnership and association of the Wachuku family with King Jaja of Opobo that he was named Jaja. His second name, Anucha, in full in the Igbo language, is Anucha mba agaa n'ama ha, meaning "after celebrating victory over a people, you parade through their town or village main square."
Early education
For his primary education, Wachuku attended Infant School at St. Georges NDP Umuomainta, Nbawsi, Abia State. He was school band leader and prefect at Government School Afikpo, Ebonyi State. He left there in 1930, having come first in the whole of Ogoja Province in the First School Leaving Certificate Examination. This first position got him an automatic scholarship for his secondary school education at Government College Umuahia, Abia State, from 1931 to 1936. Wachuku was a House Prefect. He played tennis and cricket, and was in the first eleven of the college's football team: Also, Wachuku acquired vocational skills in carpentry, farming and metal works at Government College Umuahia.
From 1936 to 1937, Wachuku was on scholarship to Yaba Higher College, Lagos. He was withdrawn from Yaba by his father Josaiah Ndubuisi Wachuku and sent to Gold Coast People's College, Adidome. From there, he went to New Africa University College, Anloga, in preparation for further studies abroad. While at New Africa University College, he won a Foundation Scholarship and also won the First National Prize for the Gold Coast (now Ghana) in the World Essay Competition offered by the New History Society of New York (led by Mirza Ahmad Sohrab), on the subject: "How Can the People of the World Achieve Universal Disarmament?" From New Africa University College, Wachuku left for the University of Dublin's Trinity College in Ireland.
Dublin years
Wachuku was the first African medallist, laureate in Oratory of Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. He matriculated at Trinity College in 1939, and was, in 1941, elected Executive Member of the College Historical Society. Wachuku represented University of Dublin during the 1943 Inter-University Debate held at University of Durham. He was called to the Irish bar association – Kings Inn – in November 1944. He was fully involved in Nigeria's constitutional conferences and struggle for independence from Great Britain. Wachuku practised law in Dublin for three years, before returning to Nigeria in 1947. He graduated first-class BA legal science and was LL.B Prizeman in Roman Law, Constitutional Law and Criminal Law. He was also a research fellow at the Department of International Law, Trinity College Dublin – with the topic: "The Juristic Status of Protectorates in International Law." From 1947 to 1996, Wachuku served as barrister and solicitor of The Supreme Court of Nigeria. He also practised at the West African Court of Appeal.
While in Dublin, Wachuku was an executive member of the Student Christian Movement (SCM). He lectured on various subjects at the SCM Summer Schools in Great Britain and Ireland; and delivered the last seven lectures at Swanwick, Hampshire, on the subject: "Africa in the Post-War World." From 1939 to 1943, Wachuku was secretary of the Association of Students of African Descent (ASAD) in Ireland. 1944 saw him elected president of the ASAD. In 1945, he represented ASAD at the fifth Pan-African Congress held in Manchester, UK; the event was partly organised by Kwame Nkrumah and attended by names such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Jomo Kenyatta and Hastings Banda to name just a few.
From 1943 to 1945, Wachuku was founder, organiser and secretary of the Dublin International Club. He was president of the club from 1945 to 1947 and resigned when he returned to Nigeria in 1947 to fight for an end to colonial rule and independence of Nigeria from Great Britain. In 1947 also, Wachuku was, for six weeks, Legal and Constitutional Adviser to the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) Pan-Nigeria Delegation that went to London to press for constitutional reforms in Nigeria. He was awarded LL.D (Honoris Causa) by Trinity College Dublin.
Return to Nigeria and politics
Wachuku returned to Nigeria in 1947, travelling in the same ship with Nnamdi Azikiwe; and was present at Takoradi, Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) when Azikiwe spoke to Joseph B. Danquah, leader of the United Gold Coast Convention – concerning the organizational ability of Kwame Nkrumah. Azikiwe then urged Joseph B. Danquah to invite Nkrumah back home from England. In the same year of his return to Nigeria, Wachuku joined the NCNC, and was elected the Party's Legal Adviser and Member of the National Executive Committee. He soon got involved in the nationalist agitation of that period and was a favoured lecturer at the Glover Memorial Hall, Lagos. There, in one of his lectures, Wachuku provoked national controversy when he declared Lagos a "no-man's land" – meaning that it was an all-Nigerian city – wherein all Nigerians were entitled to equal rights. Among other responsibilities, Wachuku was Principal Secretary of the Igbo State Union from 1948 to 1952. In 1949, he founded a radical youth movement, the New Africa Party, and affiliated it to the NCNC in 1950. NCNC was later called: National Council of Nigerian Citizens. Concerning Wachuku's New Africa Party, in a letter from London, dated 29 May 1951, sent to W. E. B. Du Bois, and later included in The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois, George Padmore said:
"Enclosed are a few clippings from West Africa. You will no doubt remember Jaja Wachuku who was a delegate to the Fifth Pan-African Congress. He has recently started a Pan-African Party in Nigeria to spread the ideas of which you are the worthy father...."
Wachuku was co-founder and original shareholder, with Nnamdi Azikiwe, of the African Continental Bank (ACB), and first regional director of the bank, from 1948 to 1952. As ACB Director, he facilitated the opening of branches in Aba, Calabar, Port Harcourt and Enugu. Wachuku started his political career from the grassroots. In 1948, he was first nominated village councillor and later to the Nsulu Group Council. From 1949 to 1952, he was a Member of the Ngwa Native Authority, Okpuala Ngwa. In 1951, he entered regional politics and was elected Second Member for Aba Division in the Eastern Nigeria House of Assembly. From 1952 to 1953, Wachuku was elected Deputy Leader of the NCNC and Chairman of the Parliamentary Party when there was crisis in Nigeria's Eastern Region – resulting in the dissolution of the Eastern House of Assembly. Also, from 1952 to 1953, he was Chairman of the Eastern Regional Scholarship Board and Member of the Finance Committee in the House of Representatives of Nigeria. Wachuku went to the 1953 Constitutional Conference in London as Alternate Delegate and Adviser to the Nigerian Independence Party (NIP) – a break-away faction that was formed following the NCNC crisis of 1953.
In 1954, Wachuku lost the Eastern Regional election and ceased to be a member of the House of Representatives. Later on in 1954, when the principle of direct election to the House of Representatives was introduced, he was re-elected first member for the Aba Division in the House of Representatives; as well as member of United Nigeria Independence Party – amalgamation of NIP and another party. In 1957, Wachuku became Deputy Leader of opposition when he joined the NCNC. From 1957 to 1959, he was a board member of the Electricity Corporation of Nigeria. Also, in 1957, for the following three years, he was appointed member of the Local Education Authority and chairman of the board of Education in the Eastern Region of Nigeria. During the same period, Wachuku was also Chairman of Aba Divisional Committee of the NCNC.
Accordingly, in 1957, Wachuku was the Leader of the Nigerian Federation Delegation to the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association Meeting held in India, Pakistan and Ceylon, now Sri Lanka. He also represented Nigeria in Liberia during the opening of the New Parliament Building in Monrovia. From 1958 to 1959, Wachuku was chairman of the Business Committee in the House of Representatives of Nigeria. He was also a member of the Parliamentary Committee on the Nigerianization of the Federal Civil Service. He wrote the committee's Report assisted by Michael O. Ani. In 1959, Wachuku was re-elected into the House of Representatives from Aba Division; and was, subsequently, elected the first indigenous Speaker of the Nigerian House of Representatives.
Marriage
In 1951, Wachuku married fellow Nigerian: Rhoda Idu Oona Onumonu (1920–1994). She fondly called her husband "Anucha." She attended primary school in Oguta, Imo State; and, later, went to Women Training College, Umuahia; as well as Achimota College, Gold Coast (Ghana). Also, she studied at Glasgow and West of Scotland College of Domestic Science.
Wachuku and Rhoda had five children, namely: Chinedum, Nwabueze (married to Professor Chuka Nwokolo and now Mrs. Nwabueze Nwokolo), Ndubuisi (married to Ukachi, née Offurum), Emenuwa (married to Ijeoma, née Ekwulugo) and Idu. Also, after the devastating Nigerian–Biafran civil war, Wachuku adopted numerous orphans, including: John Ochiabuto, James Ikechukwu, Nwaobilor, Ebere, Nkemdilim, Sylvia Amama, Efuru, etc.
First Speaker of the House
From 1959 to 1960, Wachuku was the first indigenous Speaker of the House of Representatives of Nigeria. Wachuku replaced Sir Frederic Metcalfe of Great Britain, who was Speaker of the House from 1955 to 1959; and during Wachuku's Speakership, "State Opening of Parliament" was "on October 3, 1960, by her Majesty’s Special Representative, Princess Alexandra of Kent." Notably, as First Speaker of the House, Wachuku received Nigeria's Instrument of Independence – also known as Freedom Charter, on Saturday 1 October 1960 from Princess Alexandra of Kent – Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain's representative at the Nigerian Independence ceremonies. On a 1960 United States tour as the House of Representatives Speaker, Wachuku was honoured and presented with the City of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Blue Seal and Key to the City of Atlanta, Georgia. As Speaker of the House; and subsequently, Wachuku, during the civil rights movement, unwaveringly supported African Americans plus all Americans and humankind of goodwill who saw the humane, enriching need for true and respectful racial equality.
Notably, It was during this period and during his years as First Nigerian Foreign Affairs Minister that Wachuku forged the reputed friendship that he had with three Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. He was also good friends with Sam Rayburn: 48th, 50th and 52nd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, Adlai Stevenson, Martin Luther King Jr., Marian Anderson, Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, Henry Ford II, Israel's Golda Meir, Nikita Khrushchev, plus numerous leaders and people around the world.
First Ambassador to the United Nations
Notably, Time magazine described him as "Nigeria's dynamic U.N. Ambassador" – stating that because of his worthy, very lively and enthusiastic diplomatic style with a lot of energy, wisdom and determination: "Nigeria, less than two months after winning its independence, is on its way to becoming one of the major forces in Africa."
From 1960 to 1961, Wachuku served as first Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Nigeria to the United Nations in New York, as well as Federal Minister for Economic Development. He hoisted Nigeria's flag as the 99th member of the United Nations on 7 October 1960. Accordingly, Wachuku was instrumental to Nigeria becoming the 58th Member State of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on Monday 14 November 1960. Also, as First Ambassador of Nigeria to the United Nations, Wachuku represented the country at the independence celebrations of Tanganyika – now known as United Republic of Tanzania. At the United Nations, with support from UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld, the member nations elected Wachuku the first African to chair a United Nations Conciliation Commission, making him Chairman of the Conciliation Commission for the Congo from January to March 1961. Initial proposal and nomination of Wachuku to be mediator in Congo came from Paul-Henri Spaak of Belgium, to which "Wachuku responded favorably on condition that U Thant, Cyrille Adoula and Moïse Tshombe agree."
Following a cabinet reshuffle at Nigeria's independence, Wachuku was appointed Minister of Economic Development and Member of the First Nigerian Delegation on the admission of Nigeria to the United Nations. On the eve of his departure from New York, the Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa invited Wachuku to his hotel suite and told him that he was leaving him behind as Leader of the Delegation and Ambassador plus Permanent Representative of Nigeria to the United Nations. Wachuku protested to Prime Minister Balewa – saying that he did not join the Delegation with the intention of staying in New York, and that he told his wife, Rhoda, that he would be away for only one week. Balewa replied: "Never mind, I will tell her when I arrive Lagos."
At the United Nations, he soon stood out in service to humankind, including a speech to the General Assembly which national and international media commended for his lambasting of the Eastern and Western Blocs for not ending their differences and quarrels when he stated: "I am losing confidence in the great powers. They are climbing from the pedestal of greatness to the pedestal of insanity. We expect leadership from them; they give us destruction. We expect wisdom from them; they give us lack of knowledge...."
Under Wachuku's leadership at the United Nations, both the Nigerian Army and the Nigerian Police Force made their début with the UN peacekeeping effort. During his time at the United Nations, Nigeria's Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi was appointed Commander of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in the Congo. Also, the first Nigerian Permanent Secretary, Mr. Francis Nwokedi, was retained by the United Nations to help in the reorganisation of the Civil Service in the Congo. Wachuku also secured the appointment of the first African Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations – Nigeria's Godfrey K. J. Amachree – who became UN Under Secretary-General for Trusteeship and Non-Self-Governing Territories.
Nigeria's first Minister for Foreign Affairs
In 1961, Wachuku was appointed as Nigeria's inaugural Minister of Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations. Wachuku served in the role until 1965. Prior to Wachuku's tenure, Prime Minister Balewa doubled as the country's foreign affairs advocate.
Concerning Wachuku becoming Minister for Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, the last colonial Governor-General of Nigeria, Sir James Wilson Robertson, sent a report to Iain Macleod, UK Secretary of State for the Colonies, stating:
On 14 July 1962, Wachuku was decorated with the insignia of the Commander of the Order of the Niger Republic, in recognition of "services to the People of the Republic of Niger" by President Hamani Diori. As Foreign Affairs Minister, Wachuku organised the Afro/Asian group of States and worked to get Liberia voted into the United Nations Security Council, and Ethiopia into the UN Economic and Social Council. He also worked towards the amendment of the United Nations Charter – increasing the Security Council from eleven to fifteen – taking into account African nations.
It was concerning this period in Nigeria's history that Ambassador Owen W. Roberts, United States' 1964 to 1965 Political Officer in Lagos, said:
"Nigerians, whatever their tribe, are a very strong, very assertive group. Foreign Minister Jaja Wachuku was a surprise for many American diplomats because he considered himself as having a status equivalent to the British, French, German, or Russian Ministers. Wachuku demanded that much attention and respect. The Nigerians were, and have been, very independent. Senior U.S. echelons weren't used to dealing with Africans as assertive and as strong minded as the Nigerians were. I found this nice because the Nigerians were absolutely always open with you, and would hit you over the head with whatever the problem was. They were entitled to respect and helped gain it for Africans. Ambassador Matthews was not the kind of person to go in and tell Prime Minister Balewa or Foreign Minister Jaja Wachuku how to do things...."
Wachuku as Foreign Affairs Minister of Nigeria preferred quiet diplomacy, especially with the two major Anglo-American powers: Great Britain and the United States – in search of solutions to continental and international problems. For example, there was a lot of hue and cry as a result of the Rivonia Trial in South Africa in 1963 following the arrest of Walter Sisulu, Ahmed Kathrada, Govan Mbeki, Denis Goldberg, Raymond Mhlaba, Andrew Mlangeni, Lionel Bernstein and others. They and Nelson Mandela, who was serving term on his 1962 conviction, were charged with "sabotage and ... conspiracy to overthrow the Government by revolution and by assisting an armed invasion of South Africa by foreign troops." These charges were treasonable and carried the death penalty. Wachuku quietly invited Lord Head, the British High Commissioner in Lagos and also United States' Ambassador Joseph Palmer II – and strongly urged them to intercede with their governments to prevail on the apartheid regime in South Africa – not to impose the death penalty on Nelson Mandela and others. Wachuku employed the same quiet consultation on the matter with US Secretary of State Dean Rusk and British Foreign Secretary Lord Home. Subsequently, Lionel Bernstein was acquitted and Mandela and the rest were given life imprisonment terms.
Humane and successful diplomatic efforts by Wachuku to save Mandela and others from death penalty at the Rivonia Trial were given more light by University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Henry Brandis Professor of Law Emeritus: Kenneth S. Broun, in his published book: Saving Nelson Mandela: The Rivonia Trial and the Fate of South Africa . Professor Broun points out that Sir Hugh Stephenson: United Kingdom's Ambassador to South Africa met with Foreign Minister Hilgard Muller of South Africa with regard to "the Wachuku request" that Mandela and others must not be sentenced to death. When Stephenson mentioned Wachuku's stand to Muller, Muller responded by saying that Wachuku's position was "very interesting." Muller went on to say that the South African government had utmost respect for Wachuku and that at the United Nations General Assembly, Wachuku had made a oneness-of-humankind, "helpful speech" wherein Wachuku stated that "white people were also Africans." Afterwards, Stephenson reported to the British government and Wachuku that his impression was that "death sentences would not be carried out" on Nelson Mandela and others based on the request by Wachuku.
Wachuku, like Hegel's historical individual, had the capacity to stand outside the confines of his time, place and intuiting history. He sought his vindication in historical reality. The Right Honourable Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa recognised and appreciated Wachuku's outstanding essence; and used to tell him that he was ten or more years ahead of his Government cabinet colleagues. Wachuku's uncanny historical intuition was evident from the start when, in 1947, he proclaimed Lagos an All-Nigerian city – long before that city became a federal territory. Wachuku also foresaw the danger of recognising military coup as a way to change government. In Ethiopia, he strongly refused to accord recognition to the Nicolas Grunitzky Government in Togo after 13 January 1963 first coup in that country. Wachuku believed that if that first African coup by the Togolese army was recognised as a way to change government, then, coup-making would spread in Africa.
In Addis Ababa, during the Inaugural Conference of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia sat Wachuku down in the presence of Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and begged Balewa to plead with Wachuku to accept that the Togolese government be admitted to take part in that first OAU Conference. Wachuku jokingly reminded Emperor Haile Selassie and Prime Minister Balewa that, as Foreign Minister, he was only number three in the Nigerian Government, and that coup plotters go for numbers one and two – President or Head of State and Prime Minister. Wachuku added that by the time coup makers got to number three, he would be resting in his village.
At the end, Wachuku refused to change his diplomatic position of not allowing Togo to participate because the Togolese Government came to power by coup. Therefore, Togo became the only independent African country that was not represented at the Inaugural Conference of the OAU. History has already told us whether Wachuku was right or wrong. Even Kwame Nkrumah who was one of the most vocal supporters of the Togolese government of coup makers, later fell victim of the coup contagion. As for Wachuku, he had resigned from the Nigerian parliament and government at midday of 14 January 1966 – twelve hours before the first Nigerian military coup of 15 January 1966 led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu.
In a public lecture titled "Nigeria: The Blackman's Burden", delivered on 24 February 2005 at the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs to mark the 28th Anniversary of the Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture and the 2005 Black History Month, it was also concerning Wachuku at the founding period in Nigeria's Foreign Policy that Professor Bolaji Akinyemi (1985 to 1987 Nigerian External Affairs Minister) said:
As Foreign Affairs Minister, Wachuku attended the third annual conference of the American Society of African Culture (AMSAC), held in Philadelphia in 1960. Concerning Wachuku's impact at that AMSAC conference, historian Michael Crowder later wrote:
Aviation minister and 1966 coup
Subsequently, from 1965 to midday 14 January 1966, Wachuku was Nigeria's Minister of Aviation. With most of the aviation laws in Nigeria bearing his signature, Wachuku initiated training programmes for Nigeria's first crop of Flight and Ground Officers. The Aviation Training Centre, Zaria was established during his tenure.
Notably, Wachuku's visionary and upright zeal, however, did not go well with his party, the NCNC – a party which saw Mr. A. K. Blankson, Nigeria Airways Board chairman and also the party's Central Working Committee chairman, as representing NCNC's interest in the spoils system. From the Chairmanship of the Nigeria Airways Board, Wachuku fired and removed Blankson who felt himself beyond ministerial control. His party, the NCNC demanded the reinstatement of Blankson – otherwise the party would withdraw its Ministers from the coalition government. Thus, Nigeria was faced with a potential crisis which would have compounded the already grave state of emergency in the country.
The Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, pleaded with Wachuku to reinstate the Nigeria Airways Board chairman and accept another ministry. Wachuku refused. Balewa even asked his wife Rhoda Idu Jaja Wachuku to plead with him, yet he refused and tendered his resignation from Parliament and as an Executive Member of Government midday 14 January 1966. Balewa was yet to accept Wachuku's resignation when the army struck by mid-night; barely 12 hours later – thus ushering in the era of military coups in Nigeria. Wachuku's official residence, at 7, Okotie-Eboh Street Ikoyi, Lagos, was surrounded by soldiers. His younger brother: Kennedy Madu Wachuku, father of Ugonna Wachuku was with him that day, Wachuku looked through the window in the early hours of the morning and asked the soldiers: "What are you boys doing here?" One of the soldiers replied: "Good morning, Sir. But haven't you heard what is happening in the country?" To which Wachuku replied: "Yes. I know you boys have taken over the Government." And the soldier said: "Do not be afraid, Sir. We have come to protect you for being an honest Government Minister." Wachuku survived the military coup.
Civil war in Nigeria
Wachuku retired to his home town, first to Aba and subsequently to Nbawsi, his village when Aba fell during the Nigerian – Biafran war that lasted from July 1967 to January 1970. During the Biafran war, he participated in the struggle of his Igbo people for freedom and justice against a country that had rejected them by not protecting them from genocide and brutality by its marauding soldiers and citizens. Later, during the war, Wachuku fell out with the Government of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu because he spoke out against the recruitment of child soldiers. He was arrested and detained by the Ojukwu Government. And was, at the end of the Biafran war released by a young Nigerian Army Officer called Theophilus Danjuma.
The Nigerian soldiers were shocked and dismayed that their first Speaker of the House of Representatives, first Ambassador to the United Nations and first Foreign Affairs Minister was in detention for exercising his freedom of speech and fundamental human rights. So, Theophilus Danjuma and his military battalion gave Wachuku adequate protection and security. Wachuku was escorted home by Nigerian soldiers. And he managed to prevent the looting and destruction of his amazing, vast library located at his country home in Nbawsi Abia State. Wachuku's library was described as the biggest one man library in West Africa by regional and national media. Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa used to call Wachuku the most "Bookish Minister".
After the Biafran war, Wachuku was involved in Community development affairs while practising his law profession. From 1970 to 1978, he served as Chairman of Nbawsi and Umuomainta Town Council, and also chairman Nsulu Community Council. He was also a Founding Member of the Movement for the creation of Imo State, and leader, until his death, of the Movement for the creation of Aba State.
Second Republic politics
During Nigeria's second republic (1979 to 1984), Wachuku was, on the platform of the Nigerian Peoples Party (NPP), twice (1978 and 1983) elected Senator representing Aba Senatorial Zone of Africa's most populous country. At the Senate of Nigeria, he became NPP Leader and chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. During this period, he made various dangerous secret trips to South Africa for meetings with President Pieter Willem Botha to put pressure on him for the dismantling of the obnoxious apartheid system; including the unconditional pardon and release of Nelson Mandela and other political prisoners.
It was during this period that, on the floor of the Nigerian Senate, Wachuku made his famous, prophetic statement that the defeat of apartheid in South Africa "shall flow from the barrels of dialogue and contact, not from the barrels of isolation and guns...". He was later removed from the Foreign Relations Committee because of officially calling for dialogue with South Africa. During the 1990 years, when Nigeria started diplomatic relations with South Africa, most prominent politicians and historians in the country called for an apology to Wachuku. In 1983, he was re-elected to the Nigerian Senate until the Muhammadu Buhari military coup of December 1983.
Honours and awards
Wachuku received many honours during his lifetime. In Nigeria, he was the holder of the chieftaincy title of Ugo Ngwa (meaning Eagle and Pride of Ngwa People). This title was first conferred on him by the entire Ngwa nation in 1949, but he was only able to be formally invested in 1971. Other honours included: City of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Blue Seal, Key to the City of Atlanta, Georgia, Time "Pride of Africa" Commendation, Commander of the Order of Niger Republic, CFR Nigeria: Commander of the Order of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, LL.D: Doctor of Laws Honoris Causa by Trinity College, University of Dublin, Ireland, KSC: Knight of Saint Christopher by the Anglican Church Nigeria, Enyi Abia (or Elephant of Abia, symbolizing wisdom, memory and strength) - an Abia State chieftaincy title; plus a Merit Award by the Government of Abia State. Posthumous special Golden Jubilee Independence Anniversary Award was conferred on Wachuku by President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria on 30 September 2010. Hero of the Struggle for Nigeria's Independence from Great Britain and a Pioneer Political Leader Honour for Wachuku by President Jonathan on 28 February 2014 during Nigeria's 100-year anniversary celebrations. Friday 6 March 2020 "Prominent Portrait" Honour from College Historical Society: Trinity College Dublin: University of Dublin: Ireland on Two Hundred and Fifty Years Anniversary of the college's Historical Society: 1770–2020.
Death
Born in 1918, Wachuku was 78 years on his death at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital in Enugu, during the late morning of Thursday, 7 November 1996. Wachuku's nephew, author Ugonna Wachuku, wrote a poetic dedication to his uncle titled: Some Memories Never Die. On 20 October 1961, Time wrote an article and news report on Wachuku and his diplomatic activities at the United Nations entitled "Pride of Africa."
See also
Nigerian First Republic
Nigerian Second Republic
Chuku Wachuku
Nwabueze Jaja Wachuku
History of Nigeria
References
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Office of the Historian: United States Department of State: Search results for Wachuku
Okochi, Ibe N. A. Nigeria's Africa Policy – A Study of Her Role in the African Unification Movement (1960–1973), Cross Continent Press Limited, Lagos, Nigeria, 1990.
Passin, H; Jones-Quartey, K. A. B. Africa: The Dynamic of Change, Ibadan University Press, 1963
Peters, Joel. Israel and Africa: The Problematic Friendship, I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1992
Rikhye, Indar Jit. Military Adviser to the Secretary-General: United Nations Peace Keeping and the Congo Crisis, International Peace Academy, 1993, page 180
Royal Institute of International Affairs. Chronology of International Events, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1956
Schlegel, John P. Deceptive Ash: Bilingualism and Canadian Policy in Africa: 1957 – 1971 University Press of America, 1978
Segal, Ronald; Hoskyns, Catherine; Ainslie, Rosalynde. Political Africa: A Who's Who of Personalities and Parties Frederick A. Praeger, 1961
Stolper, Wolfgang F.; Gray, Clive S. Inside Independent Nigeria: Diaries of Wolfgang Stolper, 1960–1962, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003
Tewary, Indra Narayan. The Peace-keeping Power of the United Nations General Assembly, S. Chand, 1974
The New York Times. 1851 to Present. Online Search of Wachuku
Theobald, Robert. The UN and Its Future, H.W. Wilson, 1963
UNESCO. UNESCO Chronicle, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1980
United Nations. Delegations to the General Assembly, United Nations, 1972
United States Congress: Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Supt. of Docs., 1976
United States Department of State. Department of State News Letter, Bureau of Administration, American Diplomatic and Consular Service, 1980
United States of America Department of State. Educational and Cultural Diplomacy, United States Department of State, 1962
Wachuku, Alozie N. Jaja Anucha Wachuku: A Profile. Programme and Order of Funeral Service, Saturday 15 February 1997
Wachuku, Jaja; Millar MacLure; Douglas George Anglin; et al. Africa: the political pattern [essays], University of Toronto Press, 1961
Wachuku, Ugonna Onuabuchi. Some Memories Never Die, Postpoems.org, 2001
Wachuku, Ugonna. The Great Place: A Soulful Celebration of the Beautiful South African People, Publish America Incorporated, 2004
Wachuku, Ugonna American Galaxy: Celebrating the People and the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave. 2012
Wallerstein, Immanuel. Africa: The Politics of Independence and Unity, University of Nebraska Press, 2005
Walraven, Klaas van. Dreams of Power: The Role of the Organization of African Unity in the Politics of Africa, 1963–1993, University of Michigan, Ashgate, 1999.
Waziri, Mahmud. Stewardship, My Vision for Nigeria: Collected Speeches of a Nigerian Senator, Sahel Publishers, 1987
West African Court of Appeal [WACA]. Selected Judgments of the West African Court of Appeal, Government Printing Department, 1960
Woodson, Carter Godwin; Whittingham, Rayford Logan. The Journal of Negro History, Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, United Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C. [1969]
Zartman, William. International Relations in the New Africa, Prentice-Hall, 1966
External links
Some Videos of Jaja Wachuku from United Nations Audiovisual Library
White House: State Department Documents on Jaja Wachuku
United Nations Security Council: Photo: 9 December 1964: Jaja Wachuku: Foreign Affairs Minister of Nigeria
Foreign Affairs Minister Wachuku and Prime Minister Balewa: 25 - 28 July 1961 Visit to USA at invitation of President Kennedy
Time Magazine's "Pride of Africa" article on Jaja Wachuku
University of Pennsylvania: Photo of Jaja Wachuku with Rockefeller and others
University of Pennsylvania: Picture of Jaja Wachuku and others
University of Pennsylvania: Photo of Jaja Wachuku and Marian Anderson
Some Memories Never Die: A Poetic Dedication to Jaja Wachuku
Album of Jaja Wachuku Pictures
Biographical Dictionary Entry on Jaja Wachuku
Nigeria at UNESCO
1918 births
1996 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Commanders of the Order of the Federal Republic
Commanders of the Order of the Niger
Federal ministers of Nigeria
Foreign ministers of Nigeria
History of Nigeria
Igbo lawyers
Igbo politicians
Igbo royalty
Igbo solicitors
Members of the Senate (Nigeria)
National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons politicians
Nigerian Anglicans
Nigerian Civil War prisoners of war
Nigerian diplomats
Nigerian pan-Africanists
Nigerian royalty
People from Abia State
Permanent Representatives of Nigeria to the United Nations
Speakers of the House of Representatives (Nigeria)
20th-century Nigerian lawyers
20th-century Nigerian politicians
Jaja
Igbo diplomats |
4161823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS501 | SS501 | SS501 is a South Korean boy band consisting of five members: Kim Hyun-joong, Heo Young-saeng, Kim Kyu-jong, Park Jung-min and Kim Hyung-jun. They debuted in 2005 with the EP Warning, which included their first number one song, "Never Again".
In 2007, SS501 entered the Japanese market with the maxi single Kokoro, which debuted at number five on the Oricon chart. The following year, in 2008, they became the first South Korean artists to win the award for Best New Artist at the Japan Gold Disc Awards.
SS501 has released one studio album and seven EPs in Korean, and two studio albums and three EPs in Japanese. The group has been inactive since 2010, however the sub-group Double S 301, composed of members Heo Young-saeng, Kim Kyu-jong and Kim Hyung-jun, continues to release music.
Etymology
The name of the band is a combination of letters and numbers that have special meaning. The first “S” stands for "superstar", the second “S” is an abbreviation for "singer", and the combination of 5, 0, and 1 symbolizes "five members united as one forever".
History
Pre-debut
Before debuting with SS501, most of the members had some experience in the entertainment world.
Kim Hyun-joong was initially about to debut in a five-member group which included Han Yeon of B2Y (now disbanded) who was to be the leader and Kim would be the youngest member. During 2001 and 2002, while working as a waiter in a family restaurant located at Jamsil-dong, Kim was introduced to a new set up management company CEO. While the group underwent training together, they were asked by their company to debut in China as a Hallyu project group but they rejected the offer and disbanded.
Heo Young-saeng started as a trainee at SM Entertainment for about 2.5 years. He then joined DSP Media (formerly known as DSP Entertainment) and trained for three months before debuting as a member of SS501. According to his father, if he had stayed with SM Entertainment as a trainee, he would probably have debuted with Super Junior.
Park Jung-min was once a commercial model for condoms. When he was 13, he was scouted by an agency and was accepted by both DSP Media and S.M. Entertainment. At that time, SM Entertainment told him that they were preparing a new group but the group consisted of many members. According to Park, this was probably Super Junior since he saw them rehearsing too.
Kim Hyung-jun appeared on Ock Joo-hyun's music video, "Catch" in 2004. He was also the first one to be included in SS501 which means he had the longest training period.
In addition, SS501 has had their first variety show before they officially debuted entitled SS501 M!Pick by MNET. It documented their pre-debut days and the three months after their debut.
2005–06: Debut
SS501 debuted on June 8, 2005 along with their first EP, Kyeonggo (, "Warning");. Their second mini album, Snow Prince was released in late 2005, five months after their debut. The group earned popularity right away as they won many rookie awards after their debut.
The group was inactive in Korea for most of 2006, although they had their first fan meeting in Japan in April of that year. The reason was due to Heo Young Saeng's throat condition, which required a surgery, thus resulting in a need for time to fully recover. In mid-2006, they held their first successful concert, "Step Up Concert" in Osaka, Japan. In late 2006, they returned to Korea in order to promote their first studio album, which was released on November 10 entitled S.T 01 Now. Singles from the album included "Unlock" and "Four Chance". Alongside promoting the album on various variety and music shows, they also filmed a show on MNet, which was called SS501 SOS. The group (excepting Heo Young Saeng, who was recovering from the surgery) also lent their voices for the 2006 animated movie Pi's Story.
2007–08: Breakthrough success, Japanese debut, Boys Over Flowers, and sub-unit
Later in 2007, the group debuted in the Japanese market to further spread their activities and challenge themselves outside Korea. The group at this time released their Japanese single Kokoro, alongside multiple versions, including one with all members and five featuring each member individually. The single debuted at the 5th spot on the Oricon chart, and moved to 3rd spot the next day. It was also chosen as an ending theme song for an anime entitled Blue Dragon.
SS501 appeared in the Japanese drama Hotelier as a cameo seen in episode seven. Later in September, SS501 released their second single in Japan entitled Distance. Finally in October 24, a month later, a full album was released with their self-titled album, SS501. SS501 also received the "Newcomer Award" by Japan Gold Disc Award in January 2008; this was the first time for Korean artists to receive this award.
SS501 returned to Korea with their single Deja Vu, which was released on March 13, 2008. The title track was the first song to be promoted, and they began their comeback on music channel M.Net's M Countdown. After their success with their single "Deja Vu", they began to promote their second single, "A Song Calling for You". They performed their Goodbye Stage on Music Bank in June 2008, to return to Japanese activities. Their third Japanese single was released on June 18, 2008 entitled Lucky Days. Then, for a short period of time, they return in Korea and released a mini album entitled, Find.
On October 4, the group represented Korea to perform at the Seoul World Cup Stadium, and received the Best Asian Artist Award at the 5th Asia Song Festival, organised by Korea Foundation for International Culture Exchange.
On October 2, 2008, Kim Hyun-joong was cast for his first lead-acting role as 'Yoon Ji-hoo' in the Korean version of Hana Yori Dango, named Boys Over Flowers, a role for which he won the "Most Popular Actor Award" at the Seoul International Drama Awards 2009 and the "Popularity Award" at the 45th Baeksang Arts Awards. The series was broadcast on KBS during the first half of 2009. During this time, around early 2009, Park Jung-min was also cast for his musical debut in Grease as "Danny Park", where he received the award "Best New Musical Talent" by the Golden Ticket Awards. While both Kim and Park were busy with their schedules, the remaining three members formed 'SS501 Project Group' with Heo Young-saeng as the leader. The 'Project Group' was initially to be named after their fan club 'Triple S', however before the sub-unit group debut it was decided to retain 'SS501' name out of respect to the absent members. They released a project album named U R Man in November 2008, with a high tempo dance track "U R Man", which the three remaining SS501 members promoted by themselves, with the exception of some special performances that included all five band members. The project group also performed "U R Man" in episode four of Boys Over Flowers, where they appeared for a cameo performance. Moreover, they contributed to the Boys Over Flowers soundtrack with "내 머리가 나빠서" (Because I'm Stupid) track, in which they received multiple awards such as "Song of the Month (February)", "Best OST Award", and "Best TV Drama Song of the Year" just to name a few.
2009–10: EPs, first Asian tour, leaving DSP Media
SS501 released their official second Japanese studio album, All My Love, on May 13, 2009. Although they were doing a cappella performances during their past years, it was their first time to record and include an a cappella title track to their album, "All My Love". A promotional tour was held in Japan in support of the album.
On July 21, 2009, they released their sixth EP, Solo Collection, which consisted of the individual members' songs. It also includes a mini-drama starring SS501, particularly Kim Hyun-joong and Park Jung-min. In August 2009, they embarked on their 1st Asia Tour Persona, with two concerts in Seoul. It was followed by fifteen concerts in Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, China, Malaysia, and Singapore.
The group's seventh EP Rebirth was released in two parts: in a limited and a full edition. The former was released on October 20, and the latter on October 22. SS501 promoted the album with the single "Love Like This", a track collaborated by Steven Lee, Sean Alexander, and Drew Ryan Scott. The single was also sung by Varsity Fanclub, Scott's group, in English lyrics with the same title single, which was released later in 2010.
In 2010, SS501 continued their 1st Asia Tour Persona concert in Thailand before holding their final encore concert, on February 27, in Seoul to conclude the tour. Although the release of a new EP was planned for May 1, 2010 (a nod towards "501" in the group's name, or as they call it "501" day), the date was pushed back in order to "add finishing touches". They performed at the 2010 Dream Concert later that month. Because Kim Hyun-joong was still recovering from a previous injury, they sang two ballads instead of the rumored comeback track.
Their last EP before the contract's expiration, entitled Destination, was released on May 24, 2010. The lead track, "Love Ya", composed by Steven Lee, is a song accompanied by an orchestra, and blended with a piano melody. Their first win for the lead track, "Love Ya", was on KBS' Music Bank, on June 11. On June 18, DSP announced that SS501 would end their "Love Ya" promotions due to the expiration of their contract on June 7, 2010, five years after their debut.
During the second half of 2010, upon the expiration of the group's contract with DSP Media, all the members signed with other management companies. Kim Hyun-joong signed with KeyEast, Park Jung-min joined CNR Media, Kim Hyung-jun with S-Plus Entertainment. Heo Young-saeng and Kim Kyu-jong both signed with B2M Entertainment.
Kim Hyun-joong explained in an interview that, at the time, there wasn't a company that would accept them as a whole, thus the group decided to take the chance to focus on their solo activities. In October 2010, Kim Hyung-jun announced that SS501 was planning release a new album in 2011 but was pushed back, probably because of their busy schedules.
2011–2015: Hiatus and SS501 Best Collection
With the group on hiatus, the members pursued solo activities.
Kim Hyun-joong joined KeyEast after leaving DSP Entertainment and started promoting both as an actor and singer. His first acting project was Korean drama Playful Kiss, that was broadcast on MBC in September 2010. He played the leading role of "Baek Seung Jo" in the drama. He then released his debut solo album Break Down on June 8, 2011 and it exceeded 70,000 pre-ordered copies in ten days. The album was certified gold in Korea and was certified platinum in Taiwan. The album also debuted at #1 in oricon weekly foreign album charts. In May 2015, Kim Hyun-joong officially enlisted for his mandatory military service.
Heo Young-saeng and Kim Kyu-jong held a joint fanmeeting, Kim Kyu-jong & Heo Young-saeng Story In Seoul on December 4, which continued in Hong Kong, Japan and countries across Asia. Heo Young-saeng was scheduled to launch his solo singing career on April 28, 2011, but had to postpone because he pulled the ligaments on his right hand during dance practice. His debut solo mini album, Let It Go was released on May 12, 2011, which features Kim Kyu-jong and Hyuna of girl group 4minute. The album peaked at number one on Gaon's album chart for the week starting on May 8, 2011. In November and December, Heo made his theatrical musical debut in The Three Musketeers. Afterwards on December 28, just before the end of the year, Heo released a soundtrack song entitled "The Words On My Lips" for Fermented Family, a Korean drama. Later in 2012, Heo joined the cast of KBS2 sitcom I Need a Fairy (or Sent From Heaven) in episode 23, playing the role "Heo Young Saeng/ Kaki". A month later, he released a soundtrack of the said drama entitled "Love Song". Heo Young Saeng enlisted in the army on October 31, 2013. After serving his mandatory military service as a police officer, he was discharged on July 30, 2015.
Kim Kyu-jong made his musical debut in Goong: Musical, playing the lead role of Crown Prince Lee Shin, in Kyoto, Japan from June 11 to July 1, and debuted as a solo artist in September 2011 with mini album Turn Me On. The album features rap by Heo Young-saeng in dance track "My Love", and Yang Jiwon of Spica in Yesterday music video. On July 23, Kim reported to the recruit training center of the 35th division in Jeonju, North Jeolla Province for four weeks of basic training. They further explained that he was originally exempted because he has a hepatitis B carrier. However, since there was a change in the conscription law, he was eligible to serve non-active duty as a public service worker. On July 18, Kim released a limited edition, and later on a normal edition, mini-album Meet Me Again dedicated to his fans before his enlistment.
Park Jung-min's comeback single, Not Alone, was originally planned to be released on November 25, 2010, but was pushed back to January 20, 2011. He, then, released his first mini-album The, Park Jung Min on April 1, 2011. Park was cast in a Japanese musical Bonds Of Boys as an exchange student from November 18 to 23, 2011. He also expanded his experience in acting by being cast in the Japanese drama, Love Song in August. He also contributed to KBS2's The Princess' Man OST in August, where he sang "Missing You" composed by Park Jung Wook.
Kim Hyung-jun signed with Avex Entertainment for his Japanese activities in January 2011. On March 8, 2011, Kim finally released his debut solo mini album My Girl with music videos for the two lead tracks "oH! aH!" and "Girl", in which Park Jung-min visited him during the music video shoot for the latter. A Japanese version was released on April 6, 2011 with two bonus tracks of Japanese versions of the two lead tracks. On July 27, Kim released his first Japanese single, Long Night. In October 2011, Kim made his theater debut in the romantic comedy musical Caffeine, where he played as a barista. After his acting debut on Black City, Kim starred on his first main lead role in KBS Drama's romantic comedy series, My Shining Girl in March, playing the role of "Kang-min".
During SS501's eight anniversary, SS501 members posted the same video on YouTube together to celebrate and greet their fans. Kim Hyun Joong was not able to be in the video at that time because he had a shooting on his variety show, Barefoot Friends. However, Kim Hyun Joong still talked about his debut on his Korea fanmeeting entitled 2013 KHJ Show - Party People, held at the same day of their anniversary.
On October 26, 2013, Heo had his first and farewell concert in Seoul entitled "2013 Heo Young Saeng Seoul Concert 0513 My Story", which marked the first time that all five members of SS501 appeared together on one stage and performed together as a group again after three years, as seen at the UNIQLO AX Hall.
In 2014, SS501 released "SS501 Best Collection" album in Japan on September. The compilation set features a total of two albums, one featuring their greatest Korean-language hits and the other featuring their Japanese-language hits. Volume One features 26 Korean-language songs. It comes with a bonus DVD containing 16 music videos while, Volume Two features 17 Japanese-language songs. It comes with a bonus DVD containing three music videos and additional bonus content. September 2, both "SS501 Best Collection" versions ranked on the Oricon Albums Chart at number eleven and thirteen respectively. Later that year, Kyujong was discharged from the military.
On January 17, 2015, SS501's special project group consisting of Young Saeng, Kyu Jong, and Hyung Jun performed on stage together at the Musical & Talk Concert, organized by the Seoul Police Promotional Team, which is where Heo Young Saeng had performed his military duties.
It was confirmed on September 2, 2015 that the trio sub-unit would return.
2016–2020: Double S 301 and Reunion
On January 20, 2016, CI Entertainment confirmed that SS501's special project group would debut as Double S 301. The group held its comeback showcase at Art Hall of Lotte Card Art Center on February 15 at 8pm KST, and released their official debut mini-album ETERNAL 5 on the following day.
In February 2017, Hyung-jun began his mandatory military enlistment and is expected to return in 2019. Kim Hyun Joong returned from his enlistment shortly after. On July 1, Jungmin completed his service.
On December 29, 2017, Youngsaeng announced that the group had reunited in Japan (minus Hyung jun, who was still serving military,) to discuss plans for a reunion album in 2018. Jungmin also announced that all 4 members had so far agreed, and planned to release it following Hyung jun's return.
On December 29, 2018, Hyungjun was discharged from the military, and announced he would join the group's discussions regarding a comeback.
On October 2, 2020, Youngsaeng and Kyujong held a performance under the SS501 name in celebration of Chuseok alongside U-Kiss, Narsha, Teen Top, and T-ara.
Artistry
Although most of their music is composed by various people, the members of SS501 have also contributed to their albums. Five of them wrote the lyrics for "Green Peas" from Rebirth Album dedicated especially to their fans. Kim Hyung-jun and his brother, Kim Ki-bum, formerly of U-KISS, composed, under the name "H&B", the songs: "Want It", "The One", "I AM" from U R Man Album and "Hey G" from Solo Collection Album. Kim Hyung-jun also wrote the lyrics of the song "Obsess" in their Rebirth album. Heo Young-saeng composed his solo song "Is It Love?" from Solo Collection Album and wrote the lyrics of "Until Forever", one of the tracks in SS501's album Destination. Park Jung-min composed the song "Kiss" which is sung by Rainbow from Gossip Girl Album, where he performed the song at their Persona concert. He also wrote the lyrics of Not Alone and contributed to all the other songs from his album. He wrote lyrics in Japanese and sang the song "Your Colour" himself for his new mobile drama for LISMO Channel in Japan entitled Love Song In August.
Discography
S.T 01 Now (2006)
SS501 (2007)
All My Love (2009)
Radio
2006–2007: SS501's Youngstreet –-- Kim Kyu-jong, Park Jung-min and Heo Young-saeng
2009–present: Music High –-- Kim Hyung-jun
Bibliography
2008: PHOTO501 --- photo book
2009: Endless Melody --- photo book
Concerts and showcase
Step Up in Seoul, South Korea (2006)
Step Up in Busan, South Korea (2006)
Step Up in Daegu, South Korea (2006)
Concert in Osaka, Japan (2006)
Concert in Seoul, South Korea (2006)
4th Annual Korean Music Festival in Los Angeles, California, USA (2006)
Concert in Tokyo, Japan (2007)
Concert in Shanghai, China (2008)
Concert in Tokyo, Japan (2008)
Concert in Osaka, Japan (2008)
SS501 Showcase with Triple S – Olympic Fencing Gymnasium, Seoul (15 November 2008)
Victory Concert in Los Angeles, California, USA (2009)
7th Annual Korean Music Festival in Los Angeles, California, USA (2009)
1st Asia Tour Persona in Seoul, South Korea – two concerts (July 2009)
1st Asia Tour Persona in Tokyo, Japan (2009)
1st Asia Tour Persona in Taipei, Taiwan (2009),
1st Asia Tour Persona in Shanghai, China (2009)
1st Asia Tour Persona in Hong Kong, China (2009)
1st Asia Tour Persona in Bangkok, Thailand (2010)
1st Asia Tour Persona Encore in Seoul, South Korea (27 February 2010 at Olympic Gymnastics Arena)
SS501 Special Concert in Saitama Super Arena (25 April 2010)
SS501 Newton X-Concert in Seoul, South Korea (13 June 2010)
Awards and nominations
References
External links
SS501 DSP Media official homepage (official Japanese homepage )
Musical groups established in 2005
South Korean dance music groups
K-pop music groups
Japanese-language singers
Pony Canyon artists
Musical groups from Seoul
DSP Media artists
MAMA Award winners
CI Entertainment artists |
4161878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%20Brown%20%28politician%29 | Scott Brown (politician) | Scott Philip Brown (born September 12, 1959) is an American diplomat, attorney, musician, and politician who served as the United States Ambassador to New Zealand and Samoa. He is a former United States Senator for Massachusetts (2010–2013), and also was the 2014 Republican nominee for the U.S. Senate in New Hampshire. Before his Senate tenure, Brown served as a member of the Massachusetts General Court, first in the State House of Representatives (1998–2004) and then in the State Senate (2004–2010).
In 2010, Brown faced Democratic candidate Massachusetts Attorney General Martha Coakley in a special election which occurred after the 2009 death of longtime Senator Ted Kennedy. While initially trailing Coakley by a large margin, Brown saw a sudden late surge and posted a come-from-behind win to become the first Republican elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts since Edward Brooke in 1972. Brown ran for a full Senate term in 2012, but lost to Democratic challenger Elizabeth Warren. After his defeat, Brown subsequently joined the board of directors of Kadant paper company, joined Fox News as a commentator, and joined Nixon Peabody where he provided legal services.
After re-establishing residence in New Hampshire, Brown then campaigned for the U.S. Senate from New Hampshire in the 2014 elections. Brown won the Republican nomination by a significant margin, but was defeated by incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen in the general election. On April 20, 2017, it was reported that Brown had been nominated by President Donald Trump to be the next United States Ambassador to New Zealand and Samoa. He was confirmed by the Senate as Ambassador to New Zealand on June 8, 2017 and arrived in New Zealand on June 25.
From January to August 2021, Brown served as dean of New England Law Boston, a private law school located in downtown Boston. In April 2022, Brown became head of The Competitiveness Coalition, a newly formed conservative coalition group.
Early life and education (1959–1978)
Brown is of English ancestry, from a family that has been in New Hampshire since the colonial era. His earliest American ancestor was 17th century immigrant Francis Matthews, who sailed from Devonshire, England. Brown is part of a 9th generation New Hampshire family and was born on September 12, 1959 at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard located on Seavey's Island in Kittery, Maine. Brown's father, Claude Bruce Brown, and mother, Judith Ann "Judi" (née Rugg), divorced when he was about a year old. When he was a young child, his mother moved with him to Wakefield, Massachusetts. He often spent his summers in Newburyport, Massachusetts, where his father served as a city councilor for 18 years. He also spent summers in Portsmouth, New Hampshire during his youth. His father and his grandfather were Republicans. His father has said that young Scott became interested in running for political office in the mid-1960s while accompanying him on a campaign for state office.
Brown had a difficult childhood; after her divorce, his working mother received welfare benefits. Brown experienced sexual abuse from a camp counselor who threatened to kill the 10-year-old boy if he told anyone – which he did not disclose, even to his family, until his autobiography Against All Odds (2011) – and physical abuse from his stepfathers. During various periods of his childhood, Brown lived with his grandparents and his aunt. He shoplifted many times, and was arrested for stealing record albums and brought before Judge Samuel Zoll in Salem, Massachusetts at the age of 13 or 14. Zoll asked Brown if his siblings would like seeing him play basketball in jail and required Brown to write a 1,500-word essay on that question as his punishment. Brown later said, "that was the last time I ever stole."
He graduated from Wakefield High School in 1977. He received a Bachelor of Arts in History, cum laude from Tufts University in 1981 and a Juris Doctor from Boston College Law School in 1985. During his undergraduate career at Tufts, Brown was a member of the Kappa chapter of Zeta Psi International Fraternity.
Early career (1978–1992)
Army National Guard service
Brown has said the rescue efforts of Army National Guard during the Northeastern United States blizzard of 1978 impressed him. When he was 19, he joined the Massachusetts Army National Guard, received his basic training at Fort Dix, New Jersey, and attended Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) classes at the campus of Northeastern University. He was trained in infantry, quartermaster, and airborne duties, and in 1994 he joined the Judge Advocate General's Corps (JAG). He was active in the Guard for 35 years rising to the rank of colonel. As the Army National Guard's head defense attorney in New England, Brown defended Guard members who had disciplinary difficulties such as positive drug tests, and provided estate planning and real estate advice to those who were about to deploy to war zones. He spent ten days to two weeks with the Guard in Kazakhstan and a week in Paraguay.
He was awarded the Army Commendation Medal for meritorious service in preparing for troops mobilization for Operation Noble Eagle (the mobilization of National Guard and U.S. Army Reserve personnel to provide security on military installations, airports, and other potential homeland targets) shortly after the September 11, 2001 attacks, and later for mobilization support for Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom of the Iraq War. He credits his military experience with causing him to focus on veteran's issues as well as issues of war and peace. He has served on the Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs, the Hidden Wounds of War Commission, and the Governor's Task Force on Returning Veterans during his career as a legislator.
On May 2, 2011, Brown announced that he would soon go to Afghanistan for training as part of his Army National Guard service. When deployed in August 2011 for a week of training, he spent most of his time in Kabul.
On August 1, 2012, Brown was promoted to colonel in a private ceremony presided over by fellow senator John McCain. He officially retired from the Army on May 13, 2014, after 35 years of service, and was awarded the Legion of Merit.
Modeling
In June 1982, Brown, then a 22-year-old law student at Boston College, won Cosmopolitan magazine's "America's Sexiest Man" contest. After two weeks on a crash diet of "three cans of tuna a day" and intensive workouts he was featured in the magazine's centerfold, posing nude but strategically positioned so that according to Brown, "You don't see anything". In the accompanying interview, he referred to himself as "a bit of a patriot" and stated that he had political ambitions. The Cosmopolitan appearance and its $1,000 fee helped pay for law school, and began for Brown a "long, lucrative" part-time catalog and print modeling career in New York and Boston during the 1980s. Brown took a leave of absence from Boston College and further pursued his modeling career in New York where he was represented by Wilhelmina Models while taking classes at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law. He returned to Boston, after nearly two years, to continue his studies at Boston College and continued to work as a model represented by Boston agent, Maggie Trichon of Maggie Inc.
State political career (1992–2010)
Brown "caught the political bug" in 1992 when he was elected property assessor of Wrentham, Massachusetts. In 1995, he was elected to the Wrentham Board of Selectmen.
He successfully ran for the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1998, representing the 9th Norfolk District for three terms. Brown again moved up the ladder of state politics to the state Senate in March 2004 when he won a special election to replace Democrat Cheryl Jacques. Brown was re-elected for a full term in November 2004, and again in November 2006, running without opposition the second time. He won re-election in November 2008, defeating Democratic candidate Sara Orozco by a 59–41 percent margin. Following his re-election, Brown was one of five Republicans in the 40-seat Massachusetts Senate. In the Massachusetts Senate, Brown served on committees dealing with consumer protection, professional licensing, education, election laws, public safety, and veterans' affairs.
In February 2007, a controversy arose after Brown's appearance at King Philip Regional High School in Wrentham, Massachusetts as part of a debate on gay marriage. The high school students had launched a Facebook group attack on Brown and had made a derogatory remark about his daughter, Ayla. During his presentation, Brown defended himself and his daughter by directly quoting several vulgar statements they had made and announcing the names of the students who had written the statements. Critics questioned whether Brown should have quoted the profane comments in front of a high school audience.
In January 2010, The Boston Globe reported that during six terms in the Legislature, three each in the House and Senate, Brown had a modest record of legislative initiatives, but he had carved out a niche as a leading advocate for veterans. Richard Tisei of Wakefield, Massachusetts, the leader of the Republican minority in the state Senate, called Brown "the acknowledged expert on veterans' issues". State Senator Jack Hart, a Democrat of South Boston, said: "He does his homework, he's comprehensive in his approach, and on veterans' issues, he's one of them and has done a very good job on their behalf."
Brown lists among his achievements as a legislator his authorship of a 2007 law that created a check-off box on state income tax forms for veterans to indicate whether they served in Iraq or Afghanistan. The state uses the information to notify veterans of available services and benefits, including the Welcome Home Bonus that provides $1,000 for those returning from active duty in Afghanistan or Iraq.
U.S. Senate (2010–2013)
2010 election
On September 12, 2009, Brown announced his run for the U.S. Senate seat that became vacant with the death of Ted Kennedy, saying the state "needs an independent thinker". Washington Post columnist Kathleen Parker said that Brown's political positions did not fall neatly into party lines, and called Brown "mainstream in a nation that defines itself as mostly conservative". Boris Shor, political scientist at the Harris School of Public Policy, described Brown as a liberal Republican by national standards, but well-suited for his Massachusetts constituency. Shor explained the support Brown was receiving from the conservative national Republican Party as due to their "decentralized decision" to support the candidate most likely to win.
Brown won a landslide victory in the Republican primary on December 8, 2009, defeating late entrant and perennial candidate Jack E. Robinson by a margin of 89 percent to 11 percent.
Brown's opponents in the general election were Democratic nominee, Attorney General Martha Coakley, and independent Joseph L. Kennedy (no relation to the Kennedy family). At the outset, he faced overwhelming odds because he was relatively unknown compared to Coakley, he was running as a Republican in a very Democratic state, and much of his campaigning had to be done during the Christmas and New Year's season when citizens do not generally pay much attention to politics. No Republican had been elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts since Edward Brooke in 1972. He polled far behind Coakley for several months, but closed the gap in the early weeks of January.
One week before the January special election, a controversy arose over a Coakley approved television ad. The ad referenced the conscientious objector amendment Brown had sponsored for inclusion in a 2005 proposed state measure on patients' rights. This amendment would have allowed individual healthcare workers and hospitals to refuse to provide emergency contraceptive care (the morning-after pill) to rape victims if they objected due to a religious belief. After the amendment failed, Brown did vote for the main bill which, along with other patient rights, requires healthcare workers and hospitals to provide such care. Coakley's ad featured a male voice that said, "Brown even favors letting hospitals deny emergency contraception to rape victims," over the ad's graphic which had the words, "Deny rape victims care". Brown's daughter Ayla called the Coakley ad "completely inaccurate and misleading", and stated that her father would never deny care to a rape victim. Brown criticized Coakley for running what he described as attack ads.
In the 2010 Senate race, although Brown was not endorsed by the Greater Boston Tea Party group, the group organized a fund-raising breakfast for him in Boston. The Tea Party Express also endorsed Brown and bought ads on the national cable networks supporting Brown.
When told that at various times he has been labeled a conservative, moderate and a liberal Republican, he responded "I'm a Scott Brown Republican." According to Politifact, while Brown was a Massachusetts legislator, he voted about 90 percent with the state Republican leadership; however, Republican Leadership in the Massachusetts legislature is generally considered far more moderate than the national Republican Party.
A week before the general election, Brown raised $1.3 million from over 16,000 donors in a 24-hour moneybomb. His campaign office stated it raised $5 million over the period from January 11–15. Charlie Cook of the Cook Political Report stated on January 17 that he would put his "finger on the scale" for Brown as the favorite. The Rothenberg Political Report released a statement that "the combination of public and private survey research and anecdotal information now strongly suggests that Republican Scott Brown will defeat Democrat Martha Coakley in tomorrow's race." Suffolk University's polling of three bellwether counties on January 18 had Brown leading Coakley by double-digit margins. Brown won the January 19 election, performing well in traditional Republican strongholds and holding rival Coakley's margins down in many Democratic precincts.
On election night, after Coakley conceded, Brown gave a victory speech that stated, "It all started with me, my truck, and a few dedicated volunteers. It ended with Air Force One making an emergency run to Logan. I didn't mind when President Obama came here and criticized me – that happens in campaigns. But when he criticized my truck, that's where I draw the line." Brown's upset win stunned the national Democratic party, and foreshadowed nationwide success for Republicans in 2010.
2012 election
October 2011 polling showed Brown's approvals had fallen and he faced a competitive re-election if matched against Democrat Elizabeth Warren. However, his numbers in early March 2012 showed he led Warren by 8 points in the polls. In March 2012, Brown's lead had narrowed to 2.3%, within the margin of error. As of September 2012, several polls showed Warren with a lead over Brown (with one still giving Brown an edge).
On November 6, 2012, Brown was defeated by Elizabeth Warren in the general election. Warren was able to garner 54% of the vote, while Brown won 46%.
2014 election
After much anticipation by the media, Brown announced that he would run for U.S. Senate seat in New Hampshire. Born at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, to parents who lived near downtown Portsmouth, Brown then spent his early childhood in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and later in Wakefield, Massachusetts following his parents' divorce. He has also been a taxpayer and owned a home in Rye, New Hampshire for more than two decades. In December 2013, he sold his primary home in Massachusetts and expressed to the Rye town clerk "his intention to establish residency and register to vote".
Polling done by various agencies in April and May 2014 showed incumbent Senator Jeanne Shaheen leading Brown by 3 to 5 points. A poll conducted in May by the Republican Governors Association showed Brown leading Jeanne Shaheen by 5 points. In late August, a WMUR/UNH poll showed Shaheen leading Brown by two points, 46 to 44. Polls were mixed in the final three weeks of the election, with most showing Shaheen ahead by 1–8 percentage points, and weekly polls by NH1 News, New England College, and Vox Populi showing Brown leading by 1–4 points.
There were five total debates during the election, three of which were televised. The televised U.S. Senate Debates were hosted by WMUR-TV, NECN, and NH1 News. The WMUR Debate was moderated by George Stephanopoulos of ABC and Josh McElveen of WMUR-TV and was held at Saint Anselm College in Goffstown. The NH1 News Debate was moderated by Wolf Blitzer of CNN and Paul Steinhauser of NH1 and was held at the NH1 Media Center in Concord. The NECN Debate was moderated by Chuck Todd of NBC and was held at the Capitol Center for the Arts in Concord.
Brown was defeated by Shaheen by a margin of 51.6% to 48.4%.
Tenure
Brown was sworn into office on February 4, 2010, by Vice President Joe Biden, in his capacity as President of the Senate, on the floor of the Senate. As a Class I Senator, his term lasted until January 3, 2013.
Brown was among the speakers at the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC) in Washington, D.C., introducing former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney. Despite his appearance at CPAC, where he alluded to his election as making "big government spenders ... [not] feel good at all", Brown refused to rule out a vote for a Democratic "jobs bill" proposal, and praised both Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid of Nevada and then-senior Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts for indicating their willingness to work with him across party lines. Brown was one of five Republican senators to vote for cloture on the jobs bill. The motion passed in the Senate 62–30 on February 22, 2010. In an up or down vote on the bill itself on February 24, 2010, Brown voted for final passage, helping to pass the bill 70–28.
According to The Washington Post, Brown voted with the majority of Republicans 80% of the time. In the same poll, "56% of Massachusetts voters believed he had kept his promise to be an independent voice in the U.S. Senate."
Brown's views on the 2011 budget cuts and his departures from Republican consensus placed him at odds with some of his fellow Republicans and prominent Tea Party conservatives, including Glenn Beck. He said he opposed these measures because he believed that they would have a negative impact on low income families and children.
In late June 2010, Brown was ranked as "the most popular officeholder in Massachusetts" according to a poll conducted by The Boston Globe. 55% of those polled had favorable opinions of Brown nearly five months after his January 19, 2010, special election victory to finish the term of the late Senator Edward Kennedy. 50% of respondents generally approved of how Brown had handled his new position.
On March 30, 2011, the Democratic Senate Campaign Committee released a poll showing that Brown remained the "most popular politician in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, with an approval rating of 73 percent." Brown's "'re-elect' score was comfortably above 50 percent, which is unusual for a Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic state."
Committee assignments
Brown's committee assignments were as follows.
Committee on Armed Services
Subcommittee on Airland (Ranking Member)
Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities
Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Subcommittee on Disaster Recovery
Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information and International Security (Ranking Member)
Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, the Federal Workforce, and the District of Columbia
Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
Committee on Veterans' Affairs
Caucus memberships
Senate Oceans Caucus
Private sector (2013–2017)
On February 13, 2013, Fox News Channel hired Brown as an on-air contributor. In February 2014, it was reported that Brown was no longer under contract with Fox News; however Brown's contract was renewed.
Following Brown's defeat in the 2012 U.S Senate race there was wide speculation that he would run again in 2013 due to John Kerry resigning from the other Massachusetts Senate seat to become Secretary of State. However, on February 1, 2013, he ruled out undertaking a third U.S. Senate campaign in less than four years.
In March 2013 Brown joined Nixon Peabody, a company which provides legal and lobbying services. Nixon Peabody reported that Brown would be working with the financial services and commercial real estate industries. In April 2014 Brown left the company. This work later received media attention when Lawrence Lessig with the Mayday PAC called Brown a lobbyist during the 2014 Senate election campaign. Brown's campaign denied the claim and said that Lessig had breached the honor code of Harvard University in making it.
While visiting the Iowa State Fair in August 2013, Brown stated he was considering a 2016 presidential run.
On August 21, 2013, Brown, during an interview on WBZ's NightSide With Dan Rea radio program, said he would not be a candidate for Massachusetts governor in 2014.
In September 2013, Brown joined the advisory board of Airtronic USA/Global Digital Solutions, a wireless communications and small arms manufacturer and exporter.
In early February 2014, Brown's email list was used to promote "a video from a doctor warning against flu vaccines, fluoridated water, and excessive exercising, among other questionable medical claims." The email generated news coverage. Brown subsequently cut ties with the vendor that sent the email.
On March 13, 2014, Brown began seeking campaign staff while aggressively courting New Hampshire's political elite, marking what local Republicans considered serious steps toward launching a Senate campaign against Democratic Senator Jeanne Shaheen.
On April 2, 2014, a local New Hampshire station reported that Brown "confirmed and announced on NH Today that he is running for the US Senate in NH" against Democratic Incumbent Jeanne Shaheen, and would announce the next week.
Post-2014 campaign
Brown had stated that win or lose in his 2014 New Hampshire Senatorial bid, he planned to remain a New Hampshire resident for the rest of his life. In January 2015, it was revealed that shortly after losing to Shaheen, Brown, age 55, filed an application to the Massachusetts State Retirement Board to claim a state pension. Brown did not rule out running for office again in the future. Brown is also working as a contributor for Fox News Channel and as an on-call host for Fox & Friends. Brown served as a featured speaker at the 2015 Republican Leadership Summit in Nashua, New Hampshire. Brown continues to play an active role in politics, campaigning and fundraising with senatorial and congressional candidates and meeting with Republican candidates for president in New Hampshire.
In 2015, Brown used his Facebook page to promote AdvoCare, a company that uses multi-level marketing to sell nutrition, weight-loss, energy, and sports performance products. He said that he had lost 30 pounds in 24 days on the regimen. He later added that neither he nor his wife were "paid spokesrepresentatives for Advocare," although he was confirmed as being an independent representative of the company. Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington has requested a Federal Trade Commission investigation of Brown's non-disclosure of financial interest in AdvoCare.
In February 2016, Brown became the first current or former U.S. Senator to endorse Donald Trump's presidential election bid. He introduced Trump to Anthony Scaramucci, who later briefly served as Trump's communications director.
In an August 2016 sexual harassment lawsuit against Fox News, Andrea Tantaros claimed that Brown made sexually suggestive comments to her and touched her without her consent. Brown denied the allegations.
Ambassador to New Zealand and Samoa (2017–2020)
On April 20, 2017, it was reported that Brown was nominated by President Donald Trump to be the next United States Ambassador to New Zealand and Samoa. He was confirmed by the Senate as Ambassador to New Zealand on June 8, 2017 and arrived in New Zealand on June 25. He was confirmed as Ambassador to Samoa a month later.
In October 2017, the U.S. State Department advised Brown to be more culturally sensitive after he called United States Peace Corps volunteers "beautiful" and told servers at an event that they could make good money in the food service industry. The State Department conducted a review and Brown was counseled on standards of conduct for government employees.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Brown used a private jet to dodge the mandatory New Zealand quarantine. During this time, 112 other international diplomats used the government run quarantine facilities, which were temporarily housed in New Zealand hotels, to spend 14 days in monitored quarantine, but Brown's group of 6 did not. Brown's flouting of the uniform quarantine – partly credited with keeping New Zealand mostly COVID-19 free – caused a furor as was made known after Brown had returned from a "working holiday" in the US.
Brown departed New Zealand on December 20, 2020, at the close of his term, leaving Kevin Covert as the chargé d'affaires.
Post-ambassadorship
In December 2020, Brown became the dean of New England Law Boston. He had been selected for this position in November 2019, with an initial agreement being made that he would assume the position in December 2020, at the end of his commitment with the State Department to serve as ambassador. He started his tenure as dean in January 2021. He resigned from this job in August 2021, with his resignation letter citing a difference of vision from that of the board of directors, and declaring that he would "re-engage in the political arena," by supporting,
"candidates and causes who share my vision of re-building the Republican Party and moving our country beyond partisan gridlock."
In April 2022, it was reported that Brown would lead "The Competitiveness Coalition", a coalition formed in opposition to the proposed American Innovation and Choice Online Act (AICO). Organizations included in the coalition include the National Taxpayers Union, Americans for Prosperity, and the R Street Institute.
Political positions
Scott Brown is a moderate Republican. Brown describes himself as socially moderate and fiscally conservative. He said he is a "pro-choice moderate Republican." He said that he voted 50–50 with Democrats and Republicans and said he is bipartisan. He identifies himself as a "Reagan Republican". He has said, "I'm going to be the only person down there who is going to be the independent voter and thinker ... I've always been the underdog in one shape or form."
The University of Chicago's Boris Schor completed an analysis of his tenure in the state legislature and concluded that his voting record was more liberal than two-thirds of Massachusetts Republican state legislators. "He has supported abortion rights and come out against a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage – an issue he has said should be up to states to decide.
As a state legislator, he also supported Massachusetts' legislation to provide universal healthcare." However, in 2010, Brown was endorsed by the conservative Tea Party Express. After being elected, Brown said that "[he's] not a Tea Party member." As a United States Senator, Congressional Quarterly found that Brown voted with President Obama's 2011 positions on legislation 69.6% of the time. According to GovTrack, Brown was the third most moderate Republican Senator during his tenure in the Senate. He has a lifetime 53% conservative rating from the American Conservative Union and a 50% liberal rating from the Americans for Democratic Action. In 2012, the non-partisan National Journal gave him a rating of 54% conservative and 46% liberal.
Fiscal policy
Brown is a signer of Americans for Tax Reform's Taxpayer Protection Pledge. In a letter to the editor of The Boston Globe written on January 8, 2012, Brown wrote, "With out-of-control government spending and rising debt and deficits, politicians in Washington have proven time and time again that they cannot manage hard-earned taxpayer money responsibly. So why should we give them even more?"
Brown opposed a proposed multibillion-dollar tax on banks to recoup bailout money and prescribing of bank executive compensation. Brown, discussing the proposal through a spokesperson, said that he is "opposed to higher taxes, especially in the midst of a severe recession". He also opposed it on the grounds that the tax would likely be passed onto consumers in the form of higher service and ATM fees. In September 2010, Brown opposed a Senate bill creating a $30 billion government fund aimed at encouraging lending to small businesses. The bill combined the fund with $12 billion in new tax breaks. Brown criticized the bill for including a provision much like the Troubled Asset Relief Program, stating: "Banks making lending decisions with government funds is not the way to get our economy moving again."
On December 12, 2010, The Boston Globe reported that "[c]ampaign contributions to [Brown] from the financial industry spiked sharply during a critical three-week period last summer as the fate of the Wall Street regulatory overhaul hung in the balance and Brown used the leverage of his swing vote to win key concessions sought by firms." Brown received more than ten times the amount of contributions from the financial services industry as House Financial Services Committee chairman (and author of the legislation) Barney Frank during the same period. According to the Globe:
In December 2011, with a temporary payroll tax cut set to expire at the end of the month, the Senate considered the Middle Class Tax Cut Act of 2011, which would extend the tax cut for 113 million workers or families and fund the plan by a 3.25 percent surtax on incomes over $1 million. Brown voted against proceeding to take up the bill (i.e., voted against cloture that would end the filibuster). He announced that his opposition was to the surtax on high incomes.
Foreign policy
Brown supported President Barack Obama's decision to send 30,000 more troops to fight in Afghanistan. He cited Stanley McChrystal's recommendations as a reason for his support. He also advocates that suspected terrorists be tried in military tribunals and not civilian courts. He also supported the limited use of "enhanced interrogation techniques", including waterboarding against non-citizen terrorist suspects. He supports a two-state solution for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in which Israel and a new, independent Palestinian state would co-exist side by side.
Veterans services
In 2007, Brown wrote a law establishing a check off box on State income tax forms to allow a filer to indicate if he or she is a veteran of the Iraq or Afghanistan wars. The measure's purpose is to locate and inform returning veterans of benefits they qualify for. Known as the "Welcome Home" bonus, it was passed with bipartisan support. Brown also amended the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, with Senator Jack Reed (RI), to create a dedicated military liaison office within the newly formed Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, which aside from defending against unscrupulous lenders, also ensures protection of military families against fraudulent life insurance policies. The measure passed the United States Senate 99 to 1.
Health care
Brown supported the 2006 Massachusetts health care reform, which requires all residents to have health insurance, with a state-subsidized plan created for those who cannot afford to insure themselves. Brown opposed President Obama's health care reform plan in the form approved. He stated that the plan was fiscally unsound, and during his campaign he pledged to be the 41st vote to filibuster the bill in the Senate.
Brown voted for a state measure on patients' rights that, among other provisions, requires emergency rooms to provide what is known as the morning-after pill to rape victims to prevent an unwanted pregnancy from developing. In consideration of health care workers who might have a religious objection to administering this medication, Brown attached what became known as the Conscientious Objector amendment which would have exempted these workers, as well as religious hospitals, from being required to provide this medication. However, Brown's amendment also required that all hospitals still had to provide a means for the patient to receive the medication, either by providing another healthcare worker willing to administer the medication, or, in the case of religious hospitals, to provide transportation to another facility, and in a timely manner. The amendment did not pass. Brown remains in favor of allowing religious hospitals to refuse to provide emergency contraception on moral or religious grounds, as he stated in the January 5, 2010 candidate debate.
Energy policy
Brown supports expanding solar, wind, and nuclear power, and offshore drilling exploration as a means to reduce the country's dependence on foreign oil. But, when faced with the controversial issue of whether an offshore wind farm should be allowed in the waters off the Cape Cod coast in Massachusetts, a major tourist destination and boating location, he expressed opposition, saying he believed it would hinder tourism and boating in the area.
Congressional ethics
Brown is an avid supporter of bipartisan cooperation among members of Congress. He has said that his goal in Congress is "to work in a bipartisan and bicameral manner." According to a Congressional Weekly study, in 2011 Brown was the second-most bipartisan U.S. Senator, voting with his own party only 54% of the time. By comparison, his partner in the Massachusetts Senate delegation, Senator John Kerry, voted with his own party 96% of the time, and the entire Massachusetts delegation to the House of Representatives voted with their party over 90% of the time. This centrism, though he was also sometimes described as libertarian in his ideology, had earned him criticism from the movement conservatives some of whom considered him a RINO or insufficiently conservative.
During the second half of 2011, Brown wrote the 2011 version of the STOCK Act, a move to ban insider trading in Congress. The act, which was co-written with Senator Kirsten Gillibrand (D-NY), would prohibit asset trading by members of Congress (and their staff) who have advance knowledge of their assets' behavior due to their involvement in Congress. The bill was verbally supported by President Barack Obama during his third State of the Union address, and passed a major procedural hurdle in the Senate by a vote of 93–2 on January 30, 2012.
Social issues
Abortion and reproductive issues
Brown has stated that Roe v. Wade is settled law and is self-described as "pro-choice" or pro-abortion rights. When the Republicans approved a stricter anti-abortion platform, Brown sent a letter to protest the decision calling it a "mistake". When he ran for the Senate in New Hampshire in 2014, his campaign said that "he is pro-choice and will protect a woman's right to choose." He is against intact dilation and evacuation abortions (known legally as "partial birth abortion") and has spoken in favor of parental consent for minors who seek an abortion. In 2005, Brown supported a 24-hour waiting requirement as well as one that women receive photographs of ultrasounds before an abortion. In 2002, he selected the statement "abortion should always be legally available" in a questionnaire. He said he would not use abortion as a litmus test in Supreme Court confirmations. He opposes federal funding for elective abortion in accordance with the Hyde Amendment. He supported funding for Planned Parenthood. In 2012, he supported the Shaheen Amendment to allow the military to provide abortions for servicewomen who were the victims of rape or incest.
As a state legislator and senator, Brown has mixed reviews from abortion rights and anti-abortion special interest groups. In 2000, he was given a 100% score from Planned Parenthood and a 0% score from Massachusetts Citizens for Life. In 2002, NARAL Pro-Choice Massachusetts gave him a 100% rating for supporting abortion rights positions. However, as a United States Senator, in 2011 he was rated 45% by NARAL Pro-Choice America and 75% by the anti-abortion group, National Right to Life.
Regarding other reproductive issues, Brown says that he supports a woman's ability to access contraception and use birth control, but he did vote against requiring businesses with religious objections to provide birth control. As a state legislator, he also supported stem-cell research voting for a bill that included embryonic stem-cell research in 2005. He authored legislation to fund research for stem cells from umbilical cords. In 2005, he broke with his party by voting with Democrats in support of a bill to allow embryonic stem cell research. However, he later opposed funding for embryonic stem-cell research.
Family law
Brown has supported a presumption of shared parenting after divorce and was a co-sponsor of Fathers and Families HB 1460. He also voted for reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act in 2012.
Immigration
Brown voted against the DREAM Act. He also opposed President Obama's executive order to decrease the deportation of undocumented immigrants. During his campaign for Senate, his platform included tighter regulation on immigration. Brown opposed bilingual education classes in Massachusetts schools; Brown did respond to a survey and said that most undocumented immigrants should be deported but that there should be some exceptions. In 2004, Brown voted to allow undocumented immigrants to receive in-state tuition, but later opposed it in 2014.
As a US Senator in 2011, Scott Brown was the lead sponsor for a bipartisan resolution in Congress to apologize to Chinese Americans and Chinese immigrants for decades of discrimination, sinophobia, and violence, during the period from the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 through 1943 . After the resolution passed unanimously, Brown noted to the LA Times that this "cannot undo the hurt caused by past discrimination against Chinese immigrants, but it is important that we acknowledge the wrongs that were committed many years ago".
In 2012, Brown introduced legislation to give 10,500 employee visas to Irish immigrants. He argued that the Irish had fallen behind in the US immigration system. The Federation for American Immigration Reform, which seeks to reduce legal as well as illegal immigration, gave Brown a 100% rating in 2010 and Numbers USA, another PAC which seeks to restrict legal immigration, gave Brown an overall 32% rating.
Gun policy
Following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in December 2012, Brown became the first Republican Senator to support a federal ban on assault weapons. During campaigning in September 2014, he said he would not propose new legislation if he returned to Congress and would listen to all viewpoints if others presented a bill.
In 2008, Brown had an A rating from the National Rifle Association (NRA), but received a 43% score in 2012. In 2014, Gun Owners of America gave him a 30% grade and New Hampshire Firearms Coalition gave him a 14% rating; both groups are supportive of gun rights and oppose gun control.
Drug policy
After the Massachusetts Sensible Marijuana Policy Initiative was passed in 2008 and subsequently implemented, he proposed in the State Senate to enact higher fines for "drugged driving". In 2012, he opposed a state initiative to legalize the use of medicinal marijuana in Massachusetts. He also said efforts should be made to end drug trade in Afghanistan.
Same-sex marriage and LGBT rights
Brown voted for a 2004 state constitutional amendment to define marriage as between "one man and one woman" and which would have established civil unions. In 2007, Brown explained that he was opposed to gay marriage but also pointed "out that he does support civil unions for same-sex couples." Brown refers to the currently legalized same-sex marriage in New Hampshire and Massachusetts as a settled issue, which he does not wish to change. Brown has said he personally believes marriage is between a man and a woman, but would still oppose a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage. He is in favor of civil unions. He opposes ending the Defense of Marriage Act, but otherwise favors leaving the issue to the states to decide. After initially claiming neutrality on "don't ask, don't tell", the ban on openly gay military personnel, he joined a handful of Republicans who broke with their party to repeal the ban in December 2010. In 2012, he voted in favor of the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act which included provisions to assist victims regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity and which prohibited its funds from being given to programs that discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. He was one of 15 Republicans in the Senate who voted in favor of the re-authorization.
When asked about same-sex marriage, he focused on the economy; "Brown said the economic challenges in regards to jobs, healthcare and college tuition affect both straight and gay couples and that is what he is working to address." In 2012, his campaign said "Senator Brown is a supporter of civil unions, but believes that marriage is between a man and a woman. He believes that individual states are best positioned to decide whether to allow gay marriage, and he does not support a 'one size fits all' approach from the federal government."
He was endorsed by Log Cabin Republicans which supports same-sex marriage and other gay rights. The Log Cabin Republicans gave him their top award after he voted to repeal DADT. The Human Rights Campaign (HRC), an advocacy group which measures support for LGBT rights, has given Brown mixed ratings. In 2010, the HRC gave him a 33% score and in 2012 he was given a 55% score. The American Civil Liberties Union, which supports gay rights among other civil rights causes, gave Brown a rating of 50% in 2012.
Crime and security
Brown supports strengthening New Hampshire sex offender penalties, the death penalty, the right to bear arms (with some restrictions such as licenses and background checks) and strengthening border enforcement and creating an employment verification system with penalties for companies that hire illegal immigrants.
Intellectual property law
Brown opposed the PROTECT IP Act and the Stop Online Piracy Act.
Organizational associations and honors
Brown was a 35-year member of the Army National Guard, retiring as a colonel in the Judge Advocate General's Corps. Brown was awarded the Army Commendation Medal for meritorious service in organizing the National Guard to quickly support homeland security following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. He has also completed Airborne School and been awarded the Meritorious Service Medal.
Brown has received the Public Servant of the Year Award from the United Chamber of Commerce for his leadership in reforming the state's sex offender laws and protecting victims' rights. Brown's family has helped raise funds for such non-profit organizations as Horace Mann Educational Associates (HMEA, Inc.), Wrentham Developmental Center, Charles River Arc, and the Arc of Northern Bristol County, all for the care and support of those with developmental disabilities. He has also been recognized by the National Federation of Independent Businesses (NFIB) for his work in creating an environment that encourages job growth and expansion in Massachusetts. The Boston Globe selected Brown as the 2010 Bostonian of the Year, citing his "profound impact on national politics in the last year".
Personal life
Brown is married to former NH1 News reporter Gail Huff, whom he met through modeling. They have two daughters, Ayla, an American Idol semi-finalist and 2010 graduate of Boston College, and Arianna, a competitive equestrian and 2012 graduate of Syracuse University. Arianna earned a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree from Cornell University in 2018 and is a practicing vet. Gail announced in September 2021 her candidacy in a run for New Hampshire's 1st congressional district in the 2022 election.
Besides their primary home in Rye, New Hampshire, the couple owns three rental condos in Boston, and a timeshare on the Caribbean island of Aruba.
Brown and his family are members of the Christian Reformed Church in North America. They also have a relationship with a Trappist community of Trappist nuns at Mount St. Mary's Abbey in Wrentham, Massachusetts. The Brown family has "assisted efforts to raise $5.5 million" to replace the abbey's candy factory with a new greener facility with solar panels and a wind turbine.
Brown plays guitar in his spare time, and as of February 2014 had appeared on stage multiple times with American power pop band Cheap Trick as a guest musician. Brown is currently playing guitar with his band "Scott Brown and the Diplomats."
Brown coached his local Rye, New Hampshire, junior high school boys basketball team in the 2015–16 and 2016–17 seasons before returning to the coaching in 2021.
References
External links
2010 Campaign Website, archived October 16, 2014
– Biographic profile of current activities in New Zealand
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1959 births
Living people
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American diplomats
Ambassadors of the United States to New Zealand
Ambassadors of the United States to Samoa
American military lawyers
American members of the Christian Reformed Church in North America
American people of English descent
Boston College Law School alumni
United States Army Judge Advocate General's Corps
Male models from Massachusetts
Massachusetts lawyers
Massachusetts National Guard personnel
Republican Party Massachusetts state senators
Republican Party members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
National Guard (United States) colonels
New Hampshire Republicans
People from Kittery, Maine
People from Portsmouth, New Hampshire
People from Rye, New Hampshire
People from Wakefield, Massachusetts
People from Wrentham, Massachusetts
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Republican Party United States senators from Massachusetts
Trump administration personnel
Tufts University School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Members of Congress who became lobbyists |
4161895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20National%20League%20Championship%20Series | 2006 National League Championship Series | The 2006 National League Championship Series (NLCS), the second round of the 2006 National League playoffs, began on October 12 and ended on October 19; it was scheduled to begin on October 11, but was postponed a day because of inclement weather. The St. Louis Cardinals defeated the heavily favored New York Mets in seven games to advance to the 2006 World Series against the Detroit Tigers.
The Cardinals and the Mets took the series to the limit, reaching the 9th inning of Game 7 tied at 1–1. The Cardinals took the lead with Yadier Molina's two-run home run off Mets reliever Aaron Heilman in the 9th to put his team ahead, 3–1. Adam Wainwright would then hold the Mets scoreless in the bottom of the 9th to give St. Louis their second pennant in three years and 17th in club history, placing them one behind the New York/San Francisco Giants and the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers for most in NL modern history (since 1903). The Cardinals were making their third consecutive appearance in the NLCS; manager Tony La Russa, who led St. Louis to the 2004 pennant and previously won AL titles with the Oakland Athletics from 1988–90, became the first manager in history to win multiple pennants in both leagues.
The Mets, handicapped after season-ending injuries to Pedro Martínez and Orlando Hernández, qualified for postseason play for the first time since 2000. They defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers three games to none in the NL Division Series, while the Cardinals defeated the San Diego Padres three games to one. The Mets had home-field advantage due to their better record in the regular season (the Mets were 97–65, the Cardinals 83–78). The Mets and Cardinals previously met in the 2000 NLCS, which the Mets won in five games.
The Cardinals would go on to defeat the Detroit Tigers in the World Series in five games.
Summary
New York Mets vs. St. Louis Cardinals
†: Game 1 was postponed due to rain on October 11. Game 2 was subsequently pushed back a day as well.
‡: Game 5 was postponed due to rain on October 16.
Game summaries
Game 1
On a game pushed back a day by rain, both pitchers pitched magnificently. Tom Glavine earned the win with seven innings of shutout baseball. The game's only runs came on a two-run homer by Carlos Beltrán off losing pitcher Jeff Weaver in the sixth following a two-out single by Paul Lo Duca. Glavine was aided by stellar defense, as the Mets turned two double plays. In the third inning, with runners on first and second, third baseman David Wright caught a line drive off the bat of David Eckstein and threw to second to double up Yadier Molina. In the following inning, Juan Encarnación flied out to shallow center to Beltrán, who threw to first on the run to double up Albert Pujols, who went 0-for-3 with a walk. Left fielder Endy Chávez also made an excellent diving play on a flare hit by Ronnie Belliard. He replaced Cliff Floyd, who left in the second inning when he reaggravated his injured Achilles tendon.
Following the game, Albert Pujols was controversially critical of Glavine's performance, saying that the Cards would have dominated him if they were on their "A" game. His exact words were:
"He wasn't good. He wasn't good at all ... I think we hit the ball hard, we didn't get some breaks. I say he wasn't good at all. We just didn't get some opportunities and that's it.... [He did the] same thing that he always does. Throw a changeup, fastball and that was it."
Pujols' comments drew criticism from fans, talk-show hosts, broadcasters, and even his own manager. Tony La Russa, while maintaining that Pujols made the remarks in the heat of the moment, said "It's not a good statement. Glavine deserves credit." Tom Glavine, when asked, merely said that everyone is entitled to their own opinion. His teammate Billy Wagner, on the other hand, said:
"I know if Albert would have said that about me, I wouldn't have been as veteraned, as seasoned about it ... I probably would have said something back. That's me. Tom is classy all the way ... Tom's done so much. Tom doesn't have to stoop to tell people how good he is ... His numbers speak for themselves. With 290 wins for somebody that has been in the league as long as he has is pretty self-explanatory ...Tommy's stature is much bigger than Pujols'. He's [got] a Hall of Fame induction coming. Albert doesn't. Albert's a great player, but you just don't know about tomorrow. In this clubhouse, Tommy is the epitome of class and great leadership. He leads by what he does in the field. He doesn't lead by what he says in the media."
Game 2
In Game 2, the Cardinals erased three deficits en route to a 9–6 victory. In the first inning, Carlos Delgado hit a three-run home run off the Cardinals' ace Chris Carpenter. Yadier Molina then drove in two runs with a bases-loaded double in the second inning off of John Maine. In the bottom of the second, Endy Chavez hit a leadoff double, moved to third on a groundout and scored on José Reyes's, but Jim Edmonds's home run after a walk tied the game in the third. Delgado's home run in the fifth put the Mets back on top 5–4. Next inning, Cardinals reliever Josh Hancock walked Reyes, who scored on Paul Lo Duca's double, but Scott Spiezio, who started the game at third base in place of an injured Scott Rolen, had two hits and three RBIs, including a two-run triple on an 0–2 pitch in the seventh inning to tie the game at six off of Guillermo Mota. Lefty closer Billy Wagner came into the game in the top of the ninth inning. Left fielder Chris Duncan, a lefty hitter, was due to lead off, so, Duncan was pulled in favor of So Taguchi, a right-hitting outfielder who was a better defensive option than Duncan. Taguchi homered on the ninth pitch of the at-bat to put the Cardinals ahead, 7–6. Albert Pujols doubled and moved to third on a groundout before Spiezio's RBI double and Juan Encarnación's single extended the Cardinals' lead to 9–6. Tyler Johnson and Adam Wainwright retired the Mets in order in the bottom of the ninth as the Cardinals' win tied the series 1–1.
Game 3
Back in St. Louis for the next three games, St. Louis starter Jeff Suppan pitched eight innings as the Cardinals defeated the Mets, 5–0. Scott Spiezio hit a two-run triple (his second two-run triple in as many games) in the bottom of the first inning to put the Cardinals ahead, 2–0. The Cardinals loaded the bases on two walks afterward, but Mets starter Steve Trachsel struck out Yadier Molina looking to end the inning. Next inning, Suppan's leadoff home run made it 3–0, who then loaded the bases on two walks and a line drive off the bat of Preston Wilson that hit Trachsel, who left with a bruised thigh. Mets reliever Darren Oliver threw a wild pitch to Jim Edmonds that let David Eckstein score before Edmonds's RBI groundout plated the last run of the game. Oliver then pitched six shutout innings. After the game, the Mets had not scored in 12 consecutive innings, making it 14 before scoring in the third inning of Game 4.
Game 4
Game 4 was a pivotal game for the Mets, who were faced with a two-games-to-one deficit. They sent Óliver Pérez, a young lefty picked up at the trade deadline from the Pittsburgh Pirates, to face the Cardinals' own young starter, Anthony Reyes. In a game that would see an NLCS-record-tying seven home runs, the Cardinals grabbed an early lead in the bottom of the second on a Yadier Molina single. It seemed to be a repeat of the night before, but in the top of the third the Mets hit two home runs, one being Carlos Beltrán's second of the series and sixth against the Cardinals in NLCS play, and another representing David Wright's first hit of the series and first homer of the playoffs. The lead was short-lived, as Scott Spiezio walked with one out, then scored on Juan Encarnación's two-out triple to tie the game. The game would stay tied until the top of the fifth inning, when Paul Lo Duca reached on an error by Cardinals second baseman Ronnie Belliard, Beltrán managed a walk, and Carlos Delgado scored an opposite-field three-run homer, his third of the series, to make it 5–2 Mets and knock starter Brad Thompson out of the game. David Eckstein pulled the Cards back in the bottom of the fifth with a leadoff homer, but, in the top of the sixth, the Mets extended the lead. José Reyes and Paul Lo Duca hit back-to-back singles off of Josh Hancock, and Beltrán walked to load the bases. Delgado then hit a ground-rule double to drive in two runs, and then Wright walked. Tyler Johnson relieved Hancock and Shawn Green singled to drive in one run and José Valentín, who, at that point, was only 3-for-20 in the playoffs, hit a bases-clearing double down the left field line to make it 11–3. The Cardinals got home runs from Edmonds and Molina to make it an 11–5 game, but Mets manager Willie Randolph then pulled starter Pérez and bought in submarine pitcher Chad Bradford to try and limit the damage. Beltrán would tie the NLCS record of seven home runs with another in the seventh off of Braden Looper en route to a final score of 12–5. Beltrán also tied Babe Ruth for the all-time postseason record of seven home runs against the Cardinals, having hit four against them in the 2004 National League Championship Series while playing for the Houston Astros.
Game 5
After Game 5 was pushed back a day by rain, giving their starter now four days' normal rest instead of three days' short rest, the Mets sought a 3–2 lead in the NLCS. However, pitcher Tom Glavine could not stifle the Cardinals' offense. After the Mets jumped out to a 2–0 lead on Jose Valentin's double off of Jeff Weaver, the next half-inning Albert Pujols struck for his first home run and RBI of the series to cut the Mets' lead in half. Glavine then walked Scott Rolen and allowed a single to Jim Edmonds before Ronnie Belliard tied the game with a single to left. David Eckstein singled to lead off the fifth and scored on Preston Wilson double to put the Cardinals up 3–2. St. Louis padded their lead in the sixth through a pinch-hit home run by rookie Chris Duncan off of Pedro Feliciano that made the final score 4–2, Cardinals. The win moved the Cardinals within one of their second National League pennant in three years.
Game 6
Facing elimination, the Mets sent John Maine to start Game 6. He allowed no runs in innings, earning the win for the Mets. José Reyes hit a leadoff home run in the bottom of the first, giving the Mets a lead that would never be relinquished. Reyes became the first Met to lead off with a home run in the first inning of a postseason game since former outfielder Lenny Dykstra in Game 3 of the 1986 World Series against the Boston Red Sox. The Cardinals stranded several runners against Maine. In the top of the first inning, with runners on second and third and one out, Maine struck out Jim Edmonds. After Maine hit Juan Encarnación with a pitch to load the bases, Scott Rolen flew out. In the top of the third, with a runner on second and nobody out, Maine struck out Scott Spiezio and intentionally walked Albert Pujols. Edmonds then flew out and Maine struck out Encarnación to finish the job. Shawn Green hit an RBI single in the fourth off of starter Chris Carpenter and Paul Lo Duca added two more with an RBI hit in the seventh off of Braden Looper. Billy Wagner came on in the ninth and allowed a leadoff single to Juan Encarnación and subsequent double to Scott Rolen. After retiring the next two batters, Wagner gave up a two-RBI double to So Taguchi before retiring David Eckstein to end the game.
Game 7
In the decisive Game 7, the Mets sent Game 4 winner Óliver Pérez to the mound against Jeff Suppan. The Mets jumped out to an early 1–0 lead when David Wright drove in Carlos Beltrán in the first with a bloop single into right field. The Cardinals tied the game in the second when Ronnie Belliard hit into a squeeze play that scored Jim Edmonds from third. In the fifth, with runners on first and second and two gone, Albert Pujols came up to the plate. Even with Chad Bradford warming up in the bullpen, Willie Randolph decided to stay with Pérez. He got Pujols to pop out. Pérez ran into some more trouble in the sixth with a runner on and one out when Scott Rolen hit a long fly ball to left field to create one of the greatest defensive plays in postseason history.
The ball cleared the fence, but Endy Chávez amazingly brought it back by snow-coning the ball, jumping from the edge of the warning track to snag what looked to be a certain home run. He then threw the ball to first base quickly to double off Jim Edmonds, who had rounded second on his way to third, to end the inning. He received two curtain calls from the Shea crowd. With the bases loaded and one out in the bottom of the sixth, José Valentín and Chávez failed to get the go-ahead run in.
With the score 1–1 in the top of the ninth, Yadier Molina, with a man on-base, hit a deep fly off Aaron Heilman in the same general direction as the one Rolen hit in the sixth. This ball was hit too high for Chávez to catch, and it gave the Cardinals a 3–1 lead, with only three outs in the bottom of the ninth separating them from a pennant.
However, the Mets would not go quietly. Rookie closer Adam Wainwright yielded singles to Valentín and Chávez to lead off the ninth. After getting a strikeout and a fly-out, Wainwright walked Paul Lo Duca to bring up Carlos Beltrán with the bases loaded. Down 0–2 to the rookie Wainwright, Beltrán looked at a curveball on the outside corner at the knees for a called strike three to end the series.
This was the last playoff game played in Shea Stadium and the last postseason appearance for the Mets until 2015, six years after Citi Field opened. It was the second and last time that a visiting team won a postseason series at Shea (the other being the Yankees' victory over the Mets in the 2000 World Series).
Composite box
2006 NLCS (4–3): St. Louis Cardinals over New York Mets
Aftermath
The Cardinals would win the World Series by defeating the heavily-favored Detroit Tigers in five games. With 83 wins, the Cardinals set a record for the worst regular season win–loss total for any championship team. They would win another World Series in 2011 and make another World Series appearance in 2013 (where they lost to the Boston Red Sox). Manager Tony La Russa retired after the 2011 season, going out a champion. LaRussa would unretire ten years later in 2021 when he became the manager of the White Sox, a team he managed from 1979-1986.
As for the Mets, many commentators and fans had predicted that 2006 would be the beginning of a dynasty. They had dominated the National League that season, winning 97 games when no one else won more than 88, and they had a deep and young core, with Beltran, Wright, and Reyes being under 30 (the latter two being under 25). Supporting those three were Hall of Fame caliber players such as Carlos Delgado, Tom Glavine, Pedro Martínez, and Billy Wagner.
Nonetheless, 2006 stands as the only major achievement for this group. They suffered a historic collapse at the end of the 2007 season, losing 12 of their final 17 games to blow a 7-game division lead and miss the postseason by one game. After a smaller late-season collapse the next season (-game division lead with 17 games left), they again missed the postseason by one game. 2008 also marked the Mets final year at Shea Stadium. Following this, they suffered through several losing seasons and ultimately would not return to the postseason until 2015 - in which they won their fifth NL Pennant in franchise history - when Wright was the only Met from 2006 still on the roster. Manager Willie Randolph was fired in the middle of the 2008 season, Delgado played his last game in 2009, General Manager Omar Minaya was fired after 2010 (In 2017, he was brought back as a Special Assistant to then-General Manager Sandy Alderson), Beltran was dealt away at the 2011 trade deadline, and Reyes left via free agency that offseason. Reyes would eventually return to the Mets in 2016; he, along with Wright, would leave the Mets after the 2018 season - Reyes's contract was not renewed, and Wright retired as a result of spinal stenosis.
Despite the loss, Endy Chavez became a cult hero for his game-saving catch in Game 7. Mets' radio broadcaster Gary Cohen called it “not just the play of the year, but the maybe the play of the franchise’s history."
In 2022, Adam Wainwright and Yadier Molina, who were the battery that closed out the 2006 NLCS, broke the record for most games started by a starting pitcher and catcher. For the rest of their careers following the 2006 NLCS, both men were booed in New York when playing the Mets for their roles in Game 7.
See also
2006 St. Louis Cardinals season
Notes
External links
2006 NLCS box scores and play-by-play at Retrosheet
2006 NLCS statistics at Baseball Reference
"Cardinals win unlikely pennant", ESPN.com
"Seventh Heaven", Sports Illustrated
National League Championship Series
National League Championship Series
St. Louis Cardinals postseason
New York Mets postseason
National League Championship Series
National League Championship Series
2000s in St. Louis
National League Championship Series
Baseball competitions in New York City
Baseball competitions in St. Louis
Sports in Queens, New York
2000s in Queens
Shea Stadium |
4161897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nico%20H%C3%BClkenberg | Nico Hülkenberg | Nicolas Hülkenberg (, born 19 August 1987) is a German racing driver who drives for the Haas F1 Team in Formula One. He was the 2009 GP2 Series champion, and is a previous champion of both the Formula 3 Euro Series and A1 Grand Prix, as part of A1 Team Germany. He is one of six drivers since 2005 to win the GP2 Series/Formula 2 championship in his debut season, the others being Lewis Hamilton, Nico Rosberg, Charles Leclerc, George Russell, and Oscar Piastri. Outside of Formula One, he won the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2015 on his first attempt and also contested two rounds of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship season for Porsche.
Hülkenberg graduated to Formula One in with the Williams team. Despite claiming the first pole position for Williams in more than five years, he was not retained for and joined Force India as a test and reserve driver, being promoted to a race seat with the team for the season. In he drove for the Sauber team, but returned to Force India for the season. In October 2016, it was confirmed that he would switch to Renault for . He was replaced by Esteban Ocon for the 2020 Formula One season and left without a seat, in turn joining Racing Point as a reserve driver. In 2020, he drove for Racing Point in three races, following positive COVID tests for both Lance Stroll and Sergio Perez. He then would drive again in place of Sebastian Vettel at Aston Martin at the first two races of the 2022 season, following Vettel's positive COVID test. He returned as a full-time driver for the 2023 season, driving for Haas F1 Team.
, Hülkenberg holds the record for the most Formula One career starts without a podium finish, a record he broke when he failed to finish in his 129th race (the 2017 Singapore Grand Prix) and in so doing passed Adrian Sutil's previous record of 128; the record currently stands at .
Early life
Hülkenberg was born in Emmerich am Rhein, North Rhine-Westphalia, West Germany to Klaus Dieter and Susanne Hülkenberg. Dieter Hülkenberg owns a shipping company, Hülkenberg Spedition e. K, based in Emmerich am Rhein. Hülkenberg trained as a freight forwarding agent at his father's company. He is fluent in German, Dutch, French and English.
Career
Early career
Hülkenberg made his karting debut in 1997, at the age of 10. In 2002 he was German Junior Karting Champion and the following year he won the German Kart Championship.
Hülkenberg was previously managed by Willi Weber, the long-time manager of Michael Schumacher. Weber predicted that Hülkenberg would be ready for Formula One by . He also praised Hülkenberg as an "unbelievable talent" and said he reminded him of Schumacher as a young driver. He also stated that he nicknamed him "The Hulk", after the fictional superhero, in reference to Hülkenberg changing his personality whilst at the wheel.
Formula BMW (2005)
Hülkenberg made his German Formula BMW debut in 2005, dominating the championship and winning the title comfortably. He finished first in the Formula BMW world final but was stripped of the win after it was claimed he had brake-tested his rivals during a safety car period.
A1 Grand Prix (2006–2007)
Hülkenberg also joined the German A1 Grand Prix team for the 2006–07 season. Nine wins in his rookie season made him the most successful driver in A1GP history. It meant he almost single-handedly won Germany the championship with 128 points, 35 more than Team New Zealand.
Formula Three (2006–2008)
Hülkenberg finished fifth in the German Formula Three Championship (ATS Formel 3 Cup) in 2006. For 2007 he switched to the Formula 3 Euro Series with the ASM team that had taken Lewis Hamilton and Paul di Resta to the last two championships. His first win came at the Norisring from 18th on the grid, he won again in the rain at Zandvoort and added a third at the Nürburgring. But he ran into trouble at Magny-Cours, being penalised in qualifying for passing the chequered flag twice, and crashing into Filip Salaquarda in the race. Hülkenberg finished his rookie season 3rd in the championship, with four wins and 72 points.
Hülkenberg won the non-championship Masters of Formula 3 race at Zolder from teammate (and F3 Euro Series championship leader) Romain Grosjean after Grosjean stalled at the start. Hülkenberg won the Formula 3 Euro Series championship in 2008. He amassed 76 of his total of 85 points during the feature races on Saturdays, taking seven wins in the progress.
GP2 Series (2009)
Hülkenberg made his GP2 Asia Series début for the ART Grand Prix team at the third round of the 2008–09 GP2 Asia Series in Bahrain, where he took pole position at his first attempt. He finished both races in fourth place and this left him in seventh place in the championship. His second race weekend in Qatar, saw him become the first night race pole-sitter, and promptly turned that into becoming the first race-winner under lights after a dominant performance. Such was his performance that he ended up over thirteen seconds clear of second-placed driver Sergio Pérez. He finished third in the sprint race, taking his championship points tally to 27 from just four races. Despite this, he finished sixth in the championship.
Hülkenberg continued with ART into the 2009 GP2 Series, partnering Pastor Maldonado, and took his first win in dominant fashion, during his home round of the series at the Nürburgring. With the series' top eight inverted grid, Hülkenberg started eighth for the sprint race. He won the sprint race as well, becoming the first driver to do the weekend double since Giorgio Pantano at Monza in the 2006 season. In doing so, he became only the second driver to complete the clean sweep, with pole position, two fastest laps and two wins; equalling the achievements of Nelson Piquet Jr., who achieved it at the Hungaroring, also in 2006. Hülkenberg clinched the title with two races to spare, after a third-place finish in the Monza sprint race, shadowing Brazilians Luiz Razia and Lucas di Grassi home. The result left him with an unassailable 22-point lead heading to the final round, and in the process becoming the first driver to clinch the championship without the need for a final round decider. He became the third rookie GP2 champion after Nico Rosberg and Lewis Hamilton, and the second behind Hamilton to win the GP3/F3 title, and the GP2/F2 title in consecutive years. A fifth win followed at the Autódromo Internacional do Algarve, allowing Hülkenberg to break the 100-point barrier, and eventually won the title by 25 points from Vitaly Petrov. Worthy of note is that Hülkenberg ended the season 64 points clear of his teammate Pastor Maldonado, who would later go on to get his Williams race seat for the 2011 Formula One season.
Sportscar racing
It was confirmed in November 2014 that Hülkenberg would compete in the 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in a third factory-backed Porsche 919 Hybrid. He also contested the Spa-Francorchamps round of the World Endurance Championship as preparation.
On 14 June 2015, he won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race, driving alongside Britain's Nick Tandy and Earl Bamber of New Zealand. They completed 395 laps, one lap ahead of the car of their Porsche teammates Mark Webber, Brendon Hartley and Timo Bernhard, who took second place. This win was Porsche's first overall victory in the event since the 1998 24 Hours of Le Mans. Hülkenberg's triumph made him the first active Formula One driver to win at Le Mans since Johnny Herbert and Bertrand Gachot, who performed the same feat in 1991.
Formula One
Hülkenberg first drove a Formula One car in a test for Williams in 2007. His manager, Willi Weber, had organised the test after failing to conclude a deal with Renault boss Flavio Briatore. The two-day test was held at the Circuito de Jerez in Spain, and Hülkenberg outpaced Williams's driver Kazuki Nakajima, and set laptimes 0.4 seconds slower than Nico Rosberg. Hülkenberg's performance at the test led to the Williams team signing him as a test driver, and he competed in several test sessions in addition to racing in lower formulae. His test contract with Williams was extended for 2009, despite in-season tests being banned from that season. Hülkenberg would also act as the team's reserve driver, in the event of the regular drivers being unable to compete.
Williams (2010)
On 2 November 2009, Hülkenberg was confirmed to race for Williams in . Hülkenberg's teammate for his first season would be the experienced driver Rubens Barrichello, who moved from Brawn GP which in turn was bought out by Mercedes-Benz.
Hülkenberg made his debut at the , recovering from an early spin to finish in fourteenth position. At the second round in Australia, he was involved in a first-lap incident with Kamui Kobayashi, after the Japanese driver's front wing failed and sent him into the barrier, rebounding into the path of Hülkenberg. At the third round in Malaysia, Hülkenberg made it to Q3 for the first time, qualifying in fifth place; out-qualifying teammate Barrichello for the first time. Hülkenberg looked set to finish eleventh in the race until Fernando Alonso blew his engine three laps from the end, thus promoting Hülkenberg to tenth place and with the new-for-2010 points system, Hülkenberg along with Jaime Alguersuari scored their first points in Formula One. He was tenth again at Silverstone, and at the he finished sixth, a career best. He also picked up points finishes in Italy, Singapore, and Korea. At the , Renault driver Vitaly Petrov misjudged a move at the start and cut across Hülkenberg's nose thus taking them both out of the race. Towards the end of the season there were reports that he could lose his seat at Williams to the GP2 Series champion Pastor Maldonado due to the money Maldonado could bring to the team. Force India's Adrian Sutil was also linked to replace Hülkenberg at Williams.
On 6 November Hülkenberg gained his first Formula One pole position, by 1.049 seconds over Sebastian Vettel at the in a rain-affected qualifying session. This was the Williams team's first pole position since the 2005 European Grand Prix. Hülkenberg completed a final lap after pole position was already secured, increasing his gap to the rest of the field. After losing the lead on the opening lap, he eventually finished the race in eighth place, having been passed by drivers in more competitive cars.
After the , team boss Frank Williams confirmed that Hülkenberg would not be driving for the team in .
Force India (2011–2012)
2011
On 26 January 2011, Hülkenberg was confirmed as Force India's reserve driver for the season, where he would drive for the team in the Friday practice sessions. He replaced Paul di Resta, who was promoted to a race position in the team. Hülkenberg competed in the first practice sessions of all the races apart from Monaco, Hungary, Korea, India and Abu Dhabi.
2012
On 16 December 2011, Force India announced di Resta and Hülkenberg would be their drivers for the 2012 season.
Hülkenberg qualified ninth for the , six places ahead of di Resta, but his race ended on the first lap after picking up damage in a first-corner incident before retiring further round the course. He picked up his first points for Force India the following weekend, at the ; he finished in ninth place, having started the race in sixteenth. He again qualified sixteenth, for the . He achieved his best Formula One finish with a fourth place at the . He had been running 2nd in the race, when he was jumped by Kimi Räikkönen during the pit stops, before the faster Red Bull of Sebastian Vettel passed them both. Hülkenberg did not score any points in Italy or Singapore, but collected points at all of the next five , except on the Yas Marina Circuit where he was involved in a collision on the first lap, and subsequently retired. This was the first time he scored points in more than two races in a row.
In the last race of the season, the 2012 Brazilian Grand Prix, Hülkenberg qualified 7th but was promoted to 6th after Pastor Maldonado received a 10 place grid penalty. By lap three he had moved forward two places and on lap five he passed Fernando Alonso for third place. He moved into second position when McLaren's Lewis Hamilton pitted on lap 11. Hülkenberg then passed Jenson Button at the start of lap 19 to take the lead. He and Button built up a 45-second lead before the safety car was deployed because of debris on the track. He still led until he was passed by Hamilton, after sliding at the entry of Turn 8 on lap 49. On lap 55 he collided with Hamilton when the rear of Hülkenberg's car slid out while trying to pass him at Turn 1. This ended Hamilton's last race for McLaren. After being given a drive-through penalty as a result of the incident, Hülkenberg finished fifth - letting his first race win and podium finish slip through his fingers. Nevertheless, this allowed him to take 11th place in the Drivers' Championship from Kamui Kobayashi.
Hülkenberg finished the year 17 points ahead of his teammate Paul di Resta and he out-qualified him 12 times, to di Resta's eight.
Sauber (2013)
On 31 October 2012 Sauber confirmed that they had signed Hülkenberg for the 2013 season.
Hülkenberg failed to start the due to a leak in the fuel system of his Sauber C32; he had qualified eleventh for the race, but was withdrawn for safety reasons. At the , Hülkenberg qualified in twelfth, but finished the race in eighth place. Hülkenberg put in his best qualifying performance of the season to date at the Italian Grand Prix to put himself 3rd on the grid. After losing two places to the Ferraris of Felipe Massa and Fernando Alonso, he managed to keep 5th place even though harried by the Mercedes of Nico Rosberg towards the end of the race. By finishing in fifth place, he overtook Toro Rosso driver Jean-Éric Vergne in the Drivers' Championship. His best finish was at the Korean Grand Prix where he finished 4th after close battle with Hamilton and Alonso, in which he showed impressive defending skills and made no mistakes, in a battle where he overtook Hamilton more than once.
Return to Force India (2014–2016)
2014
On 3 December 2013, Force India confirmed they had signed Hülkenberg for 2014 to race alongside Sergio Pérez. In the first round, Hülkenberg finished the in seventh place – his first finish in Melbourne – but was promoted to sixth after the disqualification of second-placed Daniel Ricciardo. He later finished fifth at the , spending a large amount of time in fourth place, holding off Ferrari's Fernando Alonso before being overtaken. Another fifth place at Bahrain put Hülkenberg in third place of the drivers' standings, behind the two Mercedes drivers, Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg.
At the Hülkenberg took sixth place, taking eight points. He fell to fourth place in the Drivers' Championship after Fernando Alonso finished in third place. Force India lost second in the Constructors' Championship to Red Bull Racing.
Consistent point scoring runs throughout the season meant that Hülkenberg finished the season in 9th place in the Drivers' Championship with 96 points, a career best, compared to his teammate's 59 points and helped Force India achieve sixth place in the Constructors' Championship, following the improvements of Williams and McLaren throughout the season. His best result of the season was fifth place, which he achieved four times.
In October 2014, Force India confirmed they had re-signed Hülkenberg for 2015.
2015
In the opening round in Australia, he finished seventh, a lap down. However, he would not score again, in an uncompetitive Force India, until Canada. In Hungary, mid-race, he suffered a big crash at turn one when his front wing detached and he drove over it, sending him slightly airborne and into the barriers, costing him a potential fourth place. He then failed to finish five of the next seven races. In Belgium, he had a power unit failure on the way to the grid, while in Singapore, he was tagged by Felipe Massa at turn three and spun into the barriers, and received a three place grid penalty after being deemed responsible. In Russia he spun at turn two at the start and collected Marcus Ericsson, potentially costing him a podium finish, and in the United States he slid into Daniel Ricciardo and broke his front right suspension.
He finished the season 10th with 58 points, 20 points behind his teammate, and helped Force India to secure fifth place in the Constructors' Championship and his best result of the season was sixth, which he achieved three times.
2016
Hülkenberg again raced for Force India in 2016 alongside Sergio Pérez.
In the opening round in Australia, he finished seventh. He would finish the next two races in 15th position with the Force India being uncompetitive. In Russia, he was hit by his former teammate Esteban Gutiérrez and retired from the race. He would also retire from the next race with an oil leak. A podium, once again, escaped Hülkenberg's grasp in Monaco. He qualified fifth and was set to finish on the podium, when he got stuck in traffic following his pit stop and his teammate jumped him for the final podium place. He eventually finished sixth, passing the eventual World Champion Nico Rosberg, who had struggled throughout the race, just before the finish line on the last lap. This was followed by points finishes at the next two races. He spun in qualifying during the 2016 European Grand Prix held at Baku, when the Force India was very competitive. This caused him to qualify 13th and finish 9th while Pérez qualified 2nd (demoted to seventh after a grid penalty) and finished third. At the following race in Austria, he put in another strong qualifying performance to qualify third, which became second when Nico Rosberg served his five-place grid penalty. However, he had a poor start, and was overtaken by quicker cars as the race went on, until his brakes failed and he had to retire. This was followed by five consecutive points finishes, including fourth at the 2016 Belgian Grand Prix, his best result of the season, when he was initially running second after the first lap but was eventually passed by the faster cars of Daniel Ricciardo and Lewis Hamilton. At the following race in Singapore, he was involved in a first lap collision, where he was squeezed between two drivers, and had to retire from the race. Hülkenberg finished eighth at the next two races. Having announced his decision to move to Renault for the 2017 season before the 2016 United States Grand Prix, Hülkenberg put on some rejuvenated performances. He qualified seventh in the US, before retiring after being squeezed in between Valtteri Bottas and Sebastian Vettel. He then qualified fifth in Mexico, ahead of the Ferraris and finished seventh. He outqualified his teammate again in Brazil and was running fourth, but he picked up a puncture from debris on the track, following Kimi Räikkönen's crash, costing him a podium finish, and fell outside the points before recovering to seventh, fending off Daniel Ricciardo towards the end of the race. He capped off his season in Abu Dhabi by outqualifying Pérez again to seventh place and finishing in the same position, having survived a collision with Max Verstappen on the first lap.
Hülkenberg scored 72 points in the season, finishing ninth in the Drivers' Championship and helping Force India finish the Constructors' Championship in fourth.
Renault (2017–2019)
2017
On 14 October 2016, Renault Sport announced that Hülkenberg had signed a multiyear agreement to race with the Renault Sport Formula One team.
He got his first points for the team at the third race of the season in Bahrain with 9th place, followed by 8th in Russia. Hülkenberg then finished in 6th place in Spain, Renault's best result in the sport since returning in 2016. His point scoring streak ended in Monaco when he retired, when running in the points, with gearbox issues. He finished 8th in Canada, which was followed by a retirement in Azerbaijan, when he clumsily clipped the wall while running in a promising 6th place. In Austria, he finished 13th, finishing behind his teammate Jolyon Palmer for the first time, following a bad start.
A new Renault upgrade brought massive improvement at the 2017 British Grand Prix as Hülkenberg qualified and finished 6th. The car also proved to be the 'best of the rest' (behind Mercedes, Ferrari and Red Bull) in Hungary as he qualified 7th, but a 5 place grid penalty for a new gearbox meant that he started 12th on the grid. He was set to score points in the race, before a slow pit stop dropped him down the field and he eventually retired from the race. There was an incident during the race, when Kevin Magnussen had pushed Hülkenberg off the track as they were battling for position. Magnussen received a time penalty for the incident. Hülkenberg rudely confronted Magnussen while he was interviewed by Danish TV in the media pen, labelling him 'nasty' and the 'most unsporting driver of the whole grid' and Magnussen calmly responded with 'suck my balls, honey'. Hülkenberg entered the summer break with 26 points and in 10th place in the championship.
Hülkenberg returned from the summer break in Belgium in good form as he qualified 7th and finished 6th in the race. At Singapore, it was announced that Carlos Sainz Jr. would replace Jolyon Palmer, who at that time had scored 0 points to Hülkenberg's 34 points, for the 2018 season. Hülkenberg qualified 'best of the rest' in 7th. After the first lap of the race, Hülkenberg found himself in 3rd place, following the first corner collision and subsequent retirements of Sebastian Vettel, Kimi Räikkönen, Max Verstappen and the fast-starting McLaren of Fernando Alonso. He looked set to take his long-awaited first podium finish in Formula 1, until Daniil Kvyat crashed and brought out the Safety Car and a blunder in strategy by Renault left him in 5th place. He eventually got up to 4th place, before an oil leak brought about his retirement from the race, in which he succeeded Adrian Sutil to become the record holder for the most starts in Formula 1 without a podium finish.
At the Japanese Grand Prix, it was announced that Carlos Sainz Jr. would replace Palmer for the rest of the season beginning at the next Grand Prix in Austin. In the race, he was running comfortably in the points for the majority of the race, when a failure in the DRS mechanism of his car, meant he had to retire from the race. In their time together as teammates Hülkenberg scored 34 points to Palmer's 8 points and outqualified Palmer in all 16 races.
In the USA, Hülkenberg retired on lap 4 with an engine issue. In Mexico, he once again retired, again from a net 4th place, with an engine issue. This was the third time in a row that he had failed to finish a race and the fourth time in five races. At the Brazilian Grand Prix, he led home teammate Sainz to 10th place, his first points in almost 3 months, with his previous points finish being his 6th-place finish at Belgium in August.
He qualified 'best of the rest' in Abu Dhabi with 7th place. He finished the race in 6th place, having received a contentious 5-second penalty for passing Sergio Pérez off the track at the start of the race, when many believed he should have given the position back. He ended up building enough of a gap to Pérez that the time penalty did not affect his position. With 6th place, Renault overtook Toro Rosso in the Constructors' Championship for 6th place.
This confirmed Renault's position as 6th in the Constructors' Championship and moved Hülkenberg up to 43 points for the season, the same as Massa, but courtesy of more 6th-place finishes, he ended the season 10th in the standings. He had outqualified his teammates over the course of the season 19-1 and outscored his teammates 43–14 over the course of the season.
2018
For the 2018 season, Hülkenberg remained at Renault, alongside Carlos Sainz, who was competing in his first full season for the Renault F1 team.
Hülkenberg and Renault started the season well with a 7th and two 6th places in the first 3 races. The first race in Australia with Sainz finishing in 10th, marked the first double points finish for Renault in F1 since the 2011 Turkish Grand Prix. At the fourth race of the season in Baku, Hülkenberg was handed a 5 place grid penalty for changing his damaged gearbox. He qualified 9th and would start 14th. This meant the end of his streak of starting the last 6 races 7th on the grid. He had made his way up to 5th place by lap 10, when he lost the rear of his car on lap 10, and clattered the wall with his left rear tyre and retired with suspension damage, ending his 5 race point-scoring streak. It was second time in two years that he had retired from a top 6 position in Baku from an unforced error.
Hülkenberg's misfortune continued at the next race in Spain. He went out in Q1 for the first time in 59 races due to a fuel pressure problem with his car. Then he was taken out by the spinning Romain Grosjean on the first lap of the race. Hülkenberg criticised Grosjean's driving following the crash, for which the Frenchman received a grid penalty for the next race. In Monaco, Hülkenberg was outqualified by a teammate by merit for the first time since the 2016 Japanese Grand Prix. Nevertheless, he finished the race in 8th, having started in 11th, with his teammate Sainz obeying team orders late in the race to let him past. He followed this up with another point-scoring finish in Canada after qualifying and finishing the race in 7th. The next three races made up Formula One's first ever triple header in France, Austria and Britain. Hülkenberg finished 9th in France, followed by a retirement from 9th in Austria with an engine failure. It was his 3rd retirement in 6 races and his 7th retirement in his last 16 races. However, he finished the triple header on a high, finishing 6th at the British Grand Prix. Hülkenberg achieved his best ever result for Renault at his home grand prix in Germany with 5th place, overtaking Kevin Magnussen late on when the rain started to fall. After a refuelling problem limited him to only 13th on the grid, he finished 12th at the Hungarian Grand Prix. Nevertheless, he entered the summer break with 52 points and 7th in the championship as the effective leader of the midfield, which many drivers had started to dub the B championship of Formula 1 or 'Formula 1.5', due to very large gap in performance to the top three teams of Mercedes, Ferrari and Red Bull.
In Belgium, Hülkenberg triggered a massive first corner collision after starting 18th due to engine penalties. Hülkenberg outbraked himself and hit Fernando Alonso, who was launched above the Sauber of Charles Leclerc, with one of Alonso's tyres hitting the new controversially introduced safety device, the halo. The collision also ultimately ended the races of both Kimi Räikkönen and Daniel Ricciardo. Hülkenberg was deemed to have 'completely misjudged the situation' by the race stewards and handed a 10 place grid penalty for the next race. The spectacular crash was likened to the crash at the 2012 Belgian Grand Prix initiated by Romain Grosjean. Following the incident, Hülkenberg who had been a vocal opposer to the halo, introduced in 2018, admitted that it was 'pretty useful'.
Hülkenberg suffered a tough period of results, coinciding with Renault's loss of competitiveness, by only scoring 1 point in the next 4 races. He bounced back with a 6th-place finish at the United States Grand Prix. With Sainz finishing in 7th, this was the best team result for Renault in a race since they rejoined the sport in 2016, beating the 7th and 8th place the two drivers had achieved in Canada earlier in the year. This was followed by another strong race in Mexico with another 6th place. His season ended with two successive retirements due to high engine temperatures in Brazil and after being rolled over into the barriers by Romain Grosjean in Abu Dhabi.
Nevertheless, he finished the season as the "champion of the rest" in 7th place with 69 points, 7 points ahead of Sergio Pérez, as Renault also secured 4th place in the Constructor's Championship.
2019
For the 2019 season, Hülkenberg was joined at Renault by multiple Grand Prix winner Daniel Ricciardo, who was signed from Red Bull. Hülkenberg, yet to score a podium in 158 races by the beginning of the 2019 season, said his "future in the sport depends on the outcome of the duel" as his ability could be measured "against a Grand Prix winner", for the first time since his rookie season in 2010, when he was teammate to Rubens Barrichello at Williams. Meanwhile, Renault managing director, Cyril Abiteboul, believed that the driver pairing was "one of the strongest - if not the strongest - driver line-up on the grid".
Hülkenberg started the season strongly, outqualifying new teammate Ricciardo at his home race, but an engine issue prevented him from reaching Q3, leaving him 11th. He made a very strong start and finished the race in 7th. However, he was hit by misfortune in the next race in Bahrain. An engine mapping issue restricted him to 17th in qualifying. However, he had a fantastic race, moving up 11 places and being on course to finish 6th, surviving contact with Ricciardo on the way, when the Australian slid into him as Hülkenberg overtook him. Then, on lap 53, 4 laps from the end, disaster struck as both Hülkenberg and Ricciardo, running 6th and 10th respectively, both retired with engine issues at the same corner. Abiteboul stated that Renault's engine problems were "unacceptable". These issues were compounded, when Hülkenberg again retired from a points-scoring position with engine issues at the next race in China, this time with a software issue. In Spain, Hülkenberg crashed in qualifying and damaged his front wing. He had to fit a different specification front wing, which broke parc fermé rules, ensuring he would have to start the race in the pit lane. He would finish the race in 13th. In the following race in Monaco, a chance of a points finish evaporated, when the Ferrari of Charles Leclerc hit Hülkenberg, while attempting an overtaking move, which the German labelled "too ambitious". Both drivers suffered punctures. Hülkenberg recovered to 13th, but Leclerc eventually retired from the race. He then finished the next two races in 7th and 8th place in Canada and France respectively. At the British Grand Prix, he recovered to a 10th-place finish, after he was hit by former teammate Sergio Pérez and his engine momentarily failing and going into 'limp mode', whilst also bemoaning the team's strategy. Hülkenberg then crashed out of his home race in precarious wet conditions. He was in 4th place, having run as high as 2nd at one point, when he crashed out at Turn 16, where fellow drivers Charles Leclerc, race leader Lewis Hamilton and former teammate Carlos Sainz also went off. The latter two managed to survive their incidents and continue, while both Leclerc and Hülkenberg retired. Both retirees criticised the run-off of the corner, which is a different tarmac used for dragster racing, which meant there was no grip in the wet conditions to help prevent the accident. At the following race in Hungary, Hülkenberg was in the running for points, but then he suffered yet another engine problem on his Renault, which meant he was only able to finish in 12th place. Going into the summer break, Hülkenberg was only 14th in the championship with 17 points, 5 points behind new teammate Daniel Ricciardo in 11th place. Renault's points total of 39 points was 43 points behind the position they were in the previous year, after they suffered a disappointing first half of the season.
Just before the Belgian GP it was announced by Renault that Hülkenberg would be replaced by Mercedes reserve driver and former Force India driver Esteban Ocon for the 2020 season. Hülkenberg said the decision was "not only about performance", alluding that the French Renault team desired a French driver in Ocon. Four-time World Champion Alain Prost, non-executive director for Renault Sport at the time, said that Renault offered Hülkenberg a new one-year contract with an option for another year, but the German refused the offer due to wanting a full two-year contract.
Hülkenberg started the second half of the season strongly by qualifying 7th in Belgium. A grid penalty meant he started 12th, and he fell even further back when he took evasive action to avoid collisions involving Verstappen, Räikkönen, Ricciardo and Stroll. However, he executed an alternate two-stop strategy and made up 3 places in the last lap to finish 8th. In Italy, both Renaults had a very strong weekend, with Ricciardo and Hülkenberg qualifying 5th and 6th respectively, with both drivers moving up a place to finish 4th and 5th, after Sebastian Vettel spun out of contention. This was Renault's best points haul since returning to the sport in 2016, and Hülkenberg's joint best result for the team.
In Singapore, Hülkenberg had initially qualified 9th but as teammate Daniel Ricciardo had been disqualified from qualifying as his car exceeded the MGU-K power limit, he started the race in 8th. In the race, Hülkenberg was involved in a first lap collision with former teammate Carlos Sainz Jr. Both drivers suffered punctures and had to pit on the first lap and fell to the back of the field. However, he managed to recover to 9th place for his 3rd points finish in a row. Hülkenberg started the next race in an impressive 6th place. However, his race was compromised by a bad start which left him outside the top 10. Having recovered to 9th place, the Renault pit crew dropped his car off the jack, which again dropped him out of the top 10. He eventually recovered to finish in 10th, overtaking Lance Stroll towards the end of the race. After the race, Hülkenberg said that "everything that could go wrong did go wrong". Further misfortune hit Hülkenberg in Japan. He was restricted to only 15th in qualifying, after a mechanical failure in Q2 meant he could not set a representative time to progress further. However, in the race he made a fantastic start and was up to 10th place by the end of the first lap and he would end up finishing the race in that position. However, following a protest by rival constructor Racing Point, both Renault cars were disqualified for having a pre-set automated brake bias system that was deemed to be a driver aid, and thus illegal. This was Hülkenberg's first disqualification in his entire F1 career.
He then managed to salvage a point at the following race with 10th after he was spun into the wall by Daniil Kvyat at the last corner of the last lap, when running in 9th. He crossed the line in 11th, without a rear wing, but was promoted to 10th after Kvyat was penalised for the incident. He followed this up with yet another points finish in the USA with 9th place. He suffered a difficult race in Brazil, where two safety car periods interfered in his strategy and left him 12th on the line. He was penalised for overtaking Kevin Magnussen before the safety car line during the safety car restart, and thus was classified 15th, his worst result of the year. He was voted Driver of the Day in the season finale in Abu Dhabi, taking the title for the first time, after finishing 12th in what was his possible final race in Formula One, having failed to secure a drive for the 2020 season.
He finished the season in 14th place, his lowest placing in the standings in the sport since his debut season in 2010, having scored 37 points across the season, 17 less than teammate Daniel Ricciardo.
Racing Point (2020)
Hülkenberg did not have a contract for the 2020 F1 season. He replaced Sergio Pérez at Racing Point for the British Grand Prix and 70th Anniversary Grand Prix after Pérez tested positive for SARS-2 coronavirus. For the British Grand Prix he qualified thirteenth but did not start the race due to an engine failure before the start of the race. At the 70th Anniversary Grand Prix, he surprisingly qualified in third behind the two Mercedes cars and was running in 4th in the race. However, due to unexpectedly high levels of tyre wear, he was forced to pit again. He then went on to finish seventh behind teammate Lance Stroll. Hülkenberg did not race at the Spanish Grand Prix as Sergio Pérez returned to racing after testing negative for COVID-19. He would replace the team's other driver, Lance Stroll, for the Eifel Grand Prix after the Canadian had sat out final practice due to feeling unwell. He finished the race in 8th after qualifying 20th, and last, on the grid, winning him the fans' vote of "Driver of the Day".
Aston Martin (2021–2022)
Aston Martin F1 Team (previously Racing Point) signed Hülkenberg as a reserve and development driver for the season.
After continuing as the reserve driver for the team in , he replaced Sebastian Vettel at the season opening Bahrain Grand Prix after Vettel tested positive for COVID-19. Hülkenberg started and finished the race in 17th place. Hülkenberg returned to Aston Martin in the following race, the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix starting in 17th and finishing in 12th place.
Hülkenberg got back into the Aston Martin in the post-Hungarian GP Pirelli tests, alongside Lance Stroll to develop the 2023 tyres.
Haas (2023–)
In November 2022, it was confirmed Hülkenberg would drive full time with Haas F1 Team during 2023, partnering Kevin Magnussen and replacing fellow German compatriot Mick Schumacher. The first race at the saw Hülkenberg qualify tenth and finish fifteenth, behind his teammate Magnussen. He had also picked up a fifteen-second penalty for exceeding track limits, which ultimately did not affect his final position in the race. In the 2023 Australian Grand Prix, Hülkenberg benefitted from the turn one incident in lap 57, running in fourth when the third of three red flags during the race was shown; however, he was demoted back to seventh after it was determined that the drivers would return to their previous positions before the final red flag. Haas lodged an unsuccessful protest after the race. At the Canadian Grand Prix, Hülkenberg qualified in second in a wet qualifying session in which he benefited when McLaren's Oscar Piastri crashed at the early part of the qualifying session which brought out the red flag. The rest of the grid were not able to improve on their qualifying as the rain got heavier when the session restarted. However, Hulkenberg was handed a three-place grid penalty for a red flag infraction and started the race in fifth position.
In the race, excessive tyre wear and the unfortunate timing of a safety car meant he eventually finished 15th. At the Austrian Grand Prix, Hülkenberg qualified an impressive 4th for the Sprint in wet conditions. The Sprint, also run in wet conditions, saw him take 2nd place on the first lap, but he eventually finished 6th, securing 3 crucial points for the struggling Haas team, to take them into 7th in the Constructor's standings. For the main grand prix, Hülkenberg qualified an impressive 8th, but had to retire early in the race with an engine issue. By the summer break, Hülkenberg had qualified in the top 10 an impressive 6 times, compared to his teammate's singular appearance. However, the Haas team's season-long struggle with tyre wear meant that neither he nor Haas had managed to add to their points tally since Austria as Haas slipped to 8th in the championship.
In August 2023, Haas announced that Hülkenberg and Magnussen had been retained for the 2024 season.
IndyCar test
On 25 October 2021, Hülkenberg took part in a private IndyCar test at Barber Motorsports Park, driving the No. 7 Arrow McLaren SP (AMSP) car, with AMSP team principal Taylor Kiel stating in a report that Hülkenberg was in consideration for a third part-time entry in 2022. After completing over 100 laps, he set a best time of 77.454 seconds in his first test, roughly a second off of the fastest time, which was set by 2021 Indy Lights runner-up David Malukas. Hülkenberg ultimately declined an opportunity to pursue a career in IndyCar with McLaren, stating that he was unwilling to race on ovals and that he found the Dallara DW12 to be significantly harder to drive physically than the Formula One cars he was used to.
Although refusing to race Indycars on ovals Hülkenberg does actually have race experience on a Superspeedway. As part of his 2006 German Formula Three Championship campaign for team Josef Kaufmann Racing, he raced in the ADAC East Side 100, an oval race on the Eurospeedway Lausitz.
Other activities
Hülkenberg has entered his own team in the eSkootr Championship, named "27X by Nico Hülkenberg".
Personal life
Hülkenberg lives in Monaco. He is married to Lithuanian fashion designer Eglė Ruškytė, having been in a relationship with her since 2015. Together they have one daughter born in 2021.
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4161993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andranik | Andranik | Andranik Ozanian, commonly known as General Andranik or simply Andranik; 25 February 186531 August 1927), was an Armenian military commander and statesman, the best known fedayi and a key figure of the Armenian national liberation movement. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, he was one of the main Armenian leaders of military efforts for the independence of Armenia.
He became active in an armed struggle against the Ottoman government and Kurdish irregulars in the late 1880s. Andranik joined the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktustyun) party and, along with other fedayi (militias), sought to defend the Armenian peasantry living in their ancestral homeland, an area known as Western (or Turkish) Armeniaat the time part of the Ottoman Empire. His revolutionary activities ceased and he left the Ottoman Empire after the unsuccessful uprising in Sasun in 1904. In 1907, Andranik left Dashnaktustyun because he disapproved of its cooperation with the Young Turks, a party which years later perpetrated the Armenian genocide. Between 1912 and 1913, together with Garegin Nzhdeh, Andranik led a few hundred Armenian volunteers within the Bulgarian army against the Ottomans during the First Balkan War.
From the early stages of World War I, Andranik commanded the first Armenian volunteer battalion within the Russian Imperial army against the Ottoman Empire, capturing and later governing much of the traditional Armenian homeland. After the Revolution of 1917, the Russian army retreated and left the Armenian irregulars outnumbered against the Turks. Andranik led the defense of Erzurum in early 1918, but was forced to retreat eastward due to an threat of encirclement and a lack of food. By May 1918, Turkish forces stood near Yerevanthe future Armenian capitaland were halted at the Battle of Sardarabad in which Andranik played a significant role. The Dashnak-dominated Armenian National Council declared the independence of Armenia and signed the Treaty of Batum with the Ottoman Empire, by which Armenia gave up its rights to Western Armenia. Andranik never accepted the existence of the First Republic of Armenia because it included only a small part of the area many Armenians hoped to make independent. Andranik, independently from the Republic of Armenia, fought in Zangezur against the Azerbaijani and Turkish armies, and helped to keep it within Armenia.
Andranik left Armenia in 1919 due to disagreements with the Armenian government and spent his last years of life in Europe and the United States seeking relief for Armenian refugees. He settled in Fresno, California in 1922 and died five years later in 1927. Andranik is greatly admired as a national hero by Armenians; numerous statues of him have been erected in several countries. Streets and squares were named after Andranik, and songs, poems and novels have been written about him, making him a legendary figure in Armenian culture.
Early life
Andranik Ozanian was born on 25 February 1865, in the town of Shabin-Karahisar (Şebinkarahisar), Sivas Vilayet, Ottoman Empire, to Mariam and Toros Ozanian. Andranik means "firstborn" in Armenian. His paternal ancestors came from the nearby village of Ozan (now Ozanlı) in the early 18th century and settled in Shabin-Karahisar to avoid persecution from the Turks. His ancestors took the surname Ozanian in honor of their hometown. Andranik's mother died when he was one year old and his elder sister Nazeli took care of him. Andranik went to the local Musheghian School from 1875 to 1882 and thereafter worked in his father's carpentry shop. He married at the age of 17, but his wife died a year later while giving birth to their sonwho also died days after the birth.
The situation of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire had worsened under the reign of Abdul Hamid II, who sought to unify all Muslims under his rule. In 1882, Andranik was arrested for assaulting a Turkish gendarme for mistreating Armenians. With the help of his friends, he escaped from prison. He settled in the Ottoman capital Constantinople in 1884 and stayed there until 1886, working as a carpenter. He began his revolutionary activities in 1888 in the province of Sivas. Andranik joined the Hunchak party in 1891. He was arrested in 1892 for taking part in the assassination of Constantinople's police chief, Yusuf Mehmed Beyknown for his anti-Armenianismon 9 February. Andranik once again escaped from prison. In 1892, he joined the newly created Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun). During the Hamidian massacres, Andranik with other fedayi defended the Armenian villages of Mush and Sasun from attacks of the Turks and the Kurdish Hamidiye units. The massacres, which occurred between 1894 and 1896 and are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, killed between 80,000 and 300,000 people.
In 1897, Andranik went to Tiflisthe largest city of the Caucasus and a major center of Armenian culture at the timewhere the ARF headquarters was located. Andranik returned to Turkish Armenia "entrusted with extensive powers, and with a large supply of arms" for the fedayi. Several dozen Russian Armenians joined him, with whom he went to the Mush-Sasun area where Aghbiur Serob was operating. Serob's forces had already established semi-independent Armenian areas by expelling the Ottoman government representatives.
Leader of the fedayi
Aghbiur Serob, the main leader of the fedayi in the 1890s, was killed in 1899 by a Kurdish chieftain, Bushare Khalil Bey. Months later, Bey committed further atrocities against the Armenians by killing a priest, two young men and 25 women and children in Talvorik, a village in the Sasun region. Andranik replaced Serob as the head of the Armenian irregular forces "with 38 villages under his command" in the Mush-Sasun region of Western Armenia, where a "warlike semi-independent Armenian peasantry" lived. Andranik sought to kill Bey; he captured and reportedly decapitated the chieftain, and took the medal given to Bey by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Andranik thus earned an undisputed authority among his fedayi.
Although small groups of Armenian fedayi conducted an armed struggle against the Ottoman state and the Kurdish tribes, the situation in Western Armenia deteriorated as the European powers stood indifferent to the Armenian Question. Article 61 of the 1878 Treaty of Berlin intended the Ottoman government to "carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds" remained unimplemented. According to Christopher J. Walker, the attention of the European powers was on Macedonia, while Russia was "in no mood for reactivating the Armenian question."
Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery
In November 1901 the fedayi clashed with the Ottoman troops in what later became known as the Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery. One of the best-known episodes of Andranik's revolutionary activities, it was an attempt by the Ottoman government to suppress his activities. Since Andranik had gained more influence over the region, more than 5,000 Turkish soldiers were sent after him and his band. The Turks chased and eventually circled him and his men, numbering around 50, at the Arakelots (Holy Apostles) Monastery in early November. A regiment under the command of Ferikh Pasha and Ali Pasha besieged the fort-like monastery. The Turkish generals leading the army of twelve hundred men asked the fedayi to negotiate their surrender.
After weeks of resistance and negotiationsin which Armenian clergy and the headman of Mush and foreign consuls took partAndranik and his companions left the monastery and fled in small groups. According to Leon Trotsky, Andranikdressed in the uniform of a Turkish officer"went the rounds of the entire guard, talking to them in excellent Turkish," and "at the same time showing the way out to his own men." After breaking through the siege of the monastery, Andranik gained legendary stature among provincial Armenians. He became so popular that the men he led came to refer to him always by his first name. Andranik intended to attract the attention of the foreign consuls at Mush to the plight of the Armenian peasants and to provide hope for the oppressed Armenians of the eastern provinces. According to Trotsky, Andranik's "political thinking took shape in a setting of Carbonarist activity and diplomatic intrigue."
1904 Sasun uprising and exodus
In 1903, Andranik demanded the Ottoman government stop the harassment of Armenians and implement reforms in the Armenian provinces. Most fedayi were concentrated in the mountainous region of Sasun, an area of about with an overwhelming Armenian majority1,769 Armenian and 155 Kurdish householdswhich was traditionally considered their main operational area. The region was in "a state of revolutionary turmoil" because the local Armenians had refused to pay taxes for the past seven years. Andranik and tens of other fedayiincluding Hrayr and Sebouhheld a meeting at Gelieguzan village in the third quarter of 1903 to manage the future defense of the Armenian villages from possible Turkish and Kurdish attacks. Andranik suggested a widespread uprising of the Armenians of Taron and Vaspurakan; Hrayr opposed his view and suggested a small, local uprising in Sasun, because the Armenian irregulars lacked resources. Hrayr's suggestion was eventually approved by the fedayi meeting. Andranik was chosen as the main commander of the uprising.
The first clashes took place in January 1904 between the fedayi and Kurdish irregulars supported by the Ottoman government. The Turkish offensive started in early April with an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers and 7,000 Kurdish irregulars put against 100 to 200 Armenian fedayi and 700 to 1,000 local Armenian men. Hrayr was killed during the intense fighting; Andranik survived and resumed the fight. Between 7,000 and 10,000 Armenian civilians were killed during the two months of the uprising, while about 9,000 were left homeless. Around 4,000 Sasun villagers were forced into exile after the uprising.
After weeks of fighting and cannon bombardment of the Armenian villages, the Ottoman forces and Kurdish irregulars suppressed the uprising by May 1904; they outnumbered the Armenian forces several times. Minor clashes occurred thereafter. According to Christopher J. Walker, the fedayi came "near to organising an uprising and shaking Ottoman power in Armenia," but "even then it was unthinkable that the empire would lose any of her territory, since the idea of intervention was far from Russia." Trotsky wrote that international attention was on the Russo-Japanese War and the uprising went largely unnoticed by the European powers and Russia.
In July–August 1904, Andranik and his fedayi reached Lake Van and got to Aghtamar Island with sailing ships. They escaped to Persia via Van in September 1904, "leaving little more than a heroic memory." Trotsky states that they were forced to leave Turkish Armenia to avoid further killings of Armenians and to lower the tensions, while Tsatur Aghayan wrote that Andranik left the Ottoman Empire because he sought to "gather new resources and find practical programs" for the Armenian struggle.
Immigration and conflict with the ARF
From Persia, Andranik moved to the Caucasus, where he met the Armenian leaders in Baku and Tiflis. He then left Russia and traveled to Europe, where he was engaged in advocacy in support of the Armenians' national liberation struggle. In 1906 in Geneva, he published a book on military tactics. Most of the work was about his activities and the strategies he used during the 1904 Sasun uprising.
In February–March 1907, Andranik went to Vienna to participate in the fourth ARF Congress. The ARF, which had been collaborating with Turkish émigré political groups in Europe since 1902, discussed and approved the negotiations with the Young Turkswho later perpetrated the Armenian genocideto overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Andranik strongly denounced this cooperation and left the party. In 1908, the ARF asked Andranik to move to Constantinople and nominate his candidacy in the Ottoman parliament election, but he declined the offer, saying "I don't want to sit there and do nothing." Andranik distanced himself from active political and military affairs for several years.
First Balkan War
In 1907 Andranik settled in Sofia, where he met the leaders of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organizationincluding revolutionary Boris Sarafovand the two pledged to work jointly for the oppressed peoples of Armenia and Macedonia. During the First Balkan War (1912–13), Andranik led a company of 230 Armenian volunteers part of the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps of Aleksandar Protogerov within the Bulgarian armyagainst the Ottoman Empire. He shared the command with Garegin Nzhdeh. On the opposite side, approximately 8,000 Armenians fought for the Ottoman Empire. Andranik was given the rank of a first lieutenant by the Bulgarian government. He distinguished himself in several battles, including in the Battle of Merhamli, when he helped the Bulgarians to capture Turkish commander Yaver Pasha. Andranik was honored with the Order of Bravery by General Protogerov in 1913. However, Andranik disbanded his men in May 1913, and foreseeing the war between Bulgaria and Serbia he "retired to a village near Varna, and lived as a farmer until August 1914."
World War I
With the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 between Russia, France and Britain on one side and Germany, the Ottoman Empire and Austria on the other, Andranik left Bulgaria for Russia. He was appointed the commander of the first Armenian volunteer battalion by the Russian government. From November 1914 to August 1915, Andranik took part in the Caucasus Campaign as the head commander of the first Armenian battalion of about 1,200 volunteers within the Imperial Russian Army. Andranik's battalion particularly stood out at the Battle of Dilman in April 1915. By the victory at Dilman, the Russian and Armenian forces under the command of General Nazarbekian, effectively stopped the Turks from invading the Caucasus via Iranian Azerbaijan.
Through 1915, the Armenian genocide was underway in the Ottoman Empire. By the end of the war, virtually all Armenians living in their ancestral homeland were either dead or forced into exile by the Ottoman government. An estimated 1.5 million Armenians died in the process, ending the Armenian presence in Western Armenia. The only major resistance to the Turkish atrocities took place in Van. The Turkish army besieged the city but the local Armenians, under the leadership of Aram Manukian, kept them out until the Armenian volunteers reached Van, forcing the Turks to retreat. Andranik with his unit entered Van on 19 May 1915. Andranik subsequently helped the Russian army to take control of Shatakh, Moks and Tatvan on the southern shore of Lake Van. During the summer of 1915, the Armenian volunteer units disintegrated and Andranik went to Tiflis to recruit more volunteers and continued the combat from November 1915 until March 1916. With Andranik's support, the city of Mush was captured by Russians in February 1916. In recognition of lieutenant general Theodore G. Chernozubov, the successes of Russian army in numerous locations were significantly associated with the fighting of the first Armenian battalion, headed by Andranik. Chernozubov praised Andranik as a brave and experienced chief, who well understood the combat situation; Chernozubov described him as always at the head of militia, enjoying great prestige among the volunteers.
The situation drastically changed in 1916 when the Russian government ordered the Armenian volunteer units to be demobilized and prohibited any Armenian civic activity. Andranik resigned as the commander of the first Armenian battalion. Despite the earlier Russian promises, their plan for the region was to make Western Armenia an integral part of Russia and "possibly repopulate by Russian peasants and Cossacks." Richard Hovannisian wrote that because the "Russian armies were in firm control of most of the Armenian plateau by the summer of 1916, there was no longer any need to expend niceties upon the Armenians." According to Tsatur Aghayan, Russia used the Armenian volunteers for its own interests. Andranik and other Armenian volunteers, disappointed by the Russian policy, left the front in July 1916.
Russian Revolution and Turkish reoccupation
The February Revolution was positively accepted by the Armenians because it ended the autocratic rule of Nicholas II. The Special Transcaucasian Committee (known as OZAKOM) was set up in the South Caucasus by the Russian Provisional Government. In April 1917, Andranik initiated the publication of the newspaper Hayastan (Armenia) in Tiflis. Vahan Totovents became the editor of this non-partisan, Ottoman Armenian-orientated newspaper. Until December 1917, Andranik remained in the South Caucasus where he sought to help the Armenian refugees from the Ottoman Empire in their search for basic needs. The provisional government decree of 9 May 1917 put Turkish Armenia under civil administration, with Armenians holding key positions. About 150,000 local Armenians began to rebuild devastated Turkish Armenia; however the Russian army units gradually disintegrated and many soldiers deserted and returned to Russia.
After the 1917 October Revolution, the chaotic retreat of Russian troops from Western Armenia escalated. Bolshevik Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Erzincan on 5 December 1917, ending the hostilities. The Soviet Russian government formally acknowledged the right of self-determination of the Ottoman Armenians in January 1918, but on 3 March 1918, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, ceding Western Armenia and large areas in Eastern Europe to concentrate its forces against the Whites in the Russian Civil War.
In December 1917, because the Russian divisions were deserting the region en masse, the Russian command authorized the formation of the Armenian Army Corps under the Transcaucasian Commissariat. Under the command of General Nazarbekian, the Corps was positioned in the front line from Van to Erzincana city of around about 20,000 people. Two of the Corps' three divisions were made up of Russian Armenians, while Andranik commanded the Turkish (Western) Armenian division. The Georgian forces patrolled the area between Erzincan and the Black Sea. Hovannisian states that the only "several thousand men now defended a 300-mile front formerly secured by a half million Russian regulars." Since December 1917, Andranik commanded the Armenian forces in Erzurum. In January 1918, he was appointed commander of the Western Armenian division of the Armenian Army Corps and given the rank of major-general by the Caucasus Front command. Andranik was unable to defend Erzurum for long and the outnumbering Turks captured the city on 12 March 1918, forcing the Armenians to evacuate.
While the Transcaucasian delegation and the Turks were holding a conference in Trebizond, through March and April the Turkish forces, according to Walker, "overran the temporary establishment of Armenian rule in Turkish Armenia, extinguishing the hope so recently raised." Hovannisian wrote, "the battle for Turkish Armenia had been quickly decided; the struggle for Russian Armenia was now at hand." After the Turks captured Erzurum, the largest city in Turkish Armenia, Andranik retreated through Kars, passed through Alexandropol and Jalaloghly, and arrived in Dsegh by 18 May. By early April 1918, the Turkish forces had reached the pre-war international borders. Andranik and his unit in Dsegh were not able to take part in the battles of Sardarabad, Abaran and Karakilisa.
First Republic of Armenia
After the Ottoman forces were effectively stopped at Sardarabad, the Armenian National Council declared the independence of the Russian Armenian lands on 28 May 1918. Andranik condemned this move and denounced the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Angry with the Dashnaks, he favored good relations with Bolshevik Russia instead. Andranik refused to acknowledge the Republic of Armenia, which he regarded as little more than "a pawn in the grip of [Ottoman] Turkey․" He condemned the singing of the Treaty of Batum (by which the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of a greatly reduced Armenia and imposed a number of humiliating conditions) as an act of treason. As Christopher Walker notes, many Turkish Armenians saw the new republic as "only a dusty province without Turkish Armenia whose salvation Armenians had been seeking for 40 years." In early June, Andranik departed from Dilijan with thousands of refugees; they traveled through Sevan, Nor Bayazet and Vayots Dzor, and arrived in Nakhichevan on 17 June. He subsequently tried to help the Armenian refugees from Van at Khoy, Iran. He sought to join the British forces in northern Iran, but after encountering a large number of Turkish soldiers he retreated to Nakhichevan. On 14 July 1918, he proclaimed Nakhichevan an integral part of (Soviet) Russia. His move was welcomed by Armenian Bolshevik leader Stepan Shahumyan and Vladimir Lenin.
Zangezur
As the Turkish forces moved towards Nakhichevan, Andranik with his Armenian Special Striking Division moved to the mountainous region of Zangezur to set up a defense. By mid-1918, the relations between the Armenians and Azerbaijanis in Zangezur had deteriorated. Andranik arrived in Zangezur at a critical moment with around 30,000 refugees and an estimated force of between 3,000 and 5,000 men. He established effective control of the region by September. The role of Zangezur was crucial because it was a connection point between Turkey and Azerbaijan. Under Andranik, the region became one of the last centers of Armenian resistance after the Treaty of Batum.
Andranik's irregulars remained in Zangezur surrounded by Muslim villages that controlled the key routes connecting the different parts of Zangezur. According to Donald Bloxham, Andranik initiated the change of Zangezur into a solidly Armenian land by destroying Muslim villages and trying to ethnically homogenize key areas of the Armenian state. In late 1918, Azerbaijan accused Andranik of killing innocent Azerbaijani peasants in Zangezur and demanded that he withdraw Armenian units from the area. Antranig Chalabian wrote that, "Without the presence of General Andranik and his Special Striking Division, what is now the Zangezur district of Armenia would be part of Azerbaijan today. Without General Andranik and his men, only a miracle could have saved the sixty thousand Armenian inhabitants of the Zangezur district from complete annihilation by the Turko-Tatar forces in the fall of 1918"; he further stated that Andranik "did not massacre peaceful Tatars." Andranik's activities in Zangezur were protested by Ottoman general Halil Pasha, who threatened the Dashnak government with retaliation for Andranik's actions. Armenia's Prime Minister Hovhannes Katchaznouni said he had no control over Andranik and his forces.
Karabakh
The Ottoman Empire was officially defeated in the First World War and the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918. The Ottoman forces evacuated Karabakh in November 1918 and by the end of October of that year, Andranik's forces were concentrated between Zangezur and Karabakh. Before moving towards Karabakh, Andranik made sure that the local Armenians would support him in fighting the Azerbaijanis. In mid-November 1918, he received letters from Karabakh Armenian officials asking him to postpone the offensive for 10 days to allow negotiations with the Muslims of the region. According to Hovannisian, "the time lost proved crucial." In late November, Andranik's forces headed towards Shushithe main city of Karabakh and a major Armenian cultural center. After an intense fight against the local Kurds, his forces broke through Abdallyar (Lachin) and the surrounding villages.
By early December, Andranik was away from Shushi when he received a message from British General W. M. Thomson in Baku, suggesting that he retreat from Karabakh because the World War was over and any further Armenian military activity would adversely affect the solution of the Armenian question, which was soon to be considered by the 1919 peace conference in Paris. Trusting the British, Andranik returned to Zangezur.
The region was left under limited control of the Armenian Karabakh Council. The British mission under command of Thomson arrived in Karabakh in December 1918. Thomson insisted the council "act only in local, nonpolitical matters," which sparked discontent among the Armenians. An "ardent pan-Turkist" Khosrov bey Sultanov was soon appointed the governor of Karabakh and Zangezur by Thomson to "squash any unrest in the region." Christopher J. Walker wrote that "[Karabakh] with its large Armenian majority remained Azerbaijani throughout the pre-Soviet and Soviet period" because of "Andranik's trust of the word of a British officer."
Departure
During the winter of 1918–19, Zangezur was isolated from Karabakh and Yerevan by snow. The refugees intensified the famine and epidemic conditions and gave way to inflation. In December 1918, Andranik withdrew from Karabakh to Goris. On his way, he met with British officers who suggested the Armenian units stay in Zangezur for the winter. Andranik agreed to such a proposal and on 23 December 1918, a group of Armenian leaders met in a conference and concluded that Zangezur could not cope with the influx of refugees until spring. They agreed that the first logical step in relieving the tension was the reparation of more than 15,000 refugees from Nakhichevanthe adjoining district that had been evacuated by the Ottoman armies. Andranik and the conference called upon the British to provide for the refugees in the interim. Major W. D. Gibbon arrived with limited supplies and money donated by the Armenians of Baku, but this was not enough to support the refugees.
At the end of February 1919, Andranik was ready to leave Zangezur. Gibbon suggested Andranik and his soldiers leave by Baku-Tiflis railway at Yevlakh station. Andranik rejected this plan and on 22 March 1919, he left Goris and traveled across Sisian through deep snowdrifts to Daralagyaz, then moved to the Ararat plain with his few thousand irregulars. After a three-week march, his men and horses reached the railway station of Davalu. He was met by Dro, the Assistant Minister of Military Affairs and Sargis Manasian, the Assistant Minister of Internal Affairs, who offered to take him to visit Yerevan, but he rejected their invitation as he believed the Dashnak government had betrayed the Armenians and was responsible for the loss of his homeland and the annihilation of his people. Zangezur became more vulnerable to Azerbaijani threats after Andranik left the district. Earlier, before Andranik's and his soldiers' dismissal, the local Armenian forces had requested support from Yerevan.
On 13 April 1919, Andranik reached Etchmiadzin, the seat of Catholicos of All Armenians and the religious center of the Armenians, who helped the troops prepare for disbanding. His 5,000-strong division had dwindled to 1,350 soldiers. As a result of Andranik's disagreements with the Dashnak government and the diplomatic machinations of the British in the Caucasus, Andranik disbanded his division and handed his belongings and weapons to the Catholicos George V. On 27 April 1919, he left Etchmiadzin accompanied by 15 officers, and went to Tiflis on a special train; according to Blackwood, "news of his journey traveled before him. At every station crowds were waiting to get a glimpse of their national hero." He left Armenia for the last time; in Tiflis he met with Georgia's Foreign Minister Evgeni Gegechkori and discussed the Georgian–Armenian War. The Tbilisi-based writer Hovhannes Tumanyan served as their interpreter.
Last years
From 1919 to 1922, Andranik traveled around Europe and the United States seeking support for the Armenian refugees. He visited Paris and London, where he tried to persuade the Allied powers to occupy Turkish Armenia. In 1919, during his visit to France, Andranik was bestowed the title of Legion of Honor Officier by President Raymond Poincaré. In late 1919, Andranik led a delegation to the United States to lobby its support for a mandate for Armenia and fund-raising for the Armenian army. He was accompanied by General Jaques Bagratuni and Hovhannes Katchaznouni. In Fresno, he directed a campaign which raised for the relief of Armenian war refugees.
When he returned to Europe, Andranik married Nevarte Kurkjian in Paris on 15 May 1922; Boghos Nubar was their best man. Andranik and Nevarte moved to the United States and settled in Fresno, California in 1922. In his 1936 short story, Antranik of Armenia, Armenian-American writer William Saroyan described Andranik's arrival. He wrote, "It looked as if all Armenians of California were at the Southern Pacific depot at the day he arrived." He said Andranik "was a man of about fifty in a neat Armenians suit of clothes. He was a little under six feet tall, very solid and very strong. He had an old-style Armenian mustache that was white. The expression of his face was both ferocious and kind." Andranik lived with the family of Armen Alchian, who later became a prominent economist, in Fresno for several months.
In his novel Call of the Plowmen («Ռանչպարների կանչը», 1979), where Andranik is called Shapinand, Khachik Dashtents describes his life in Fresno:
Death
In February 1926, Andranik left Fresno to reside in San Francisco in an unsuccessful attempt to regain his health. According to his death certificate found in the Butte County, California records, Andranik died from angina on 31 August 1927 at Richardson Springs, California. On 7 September 1927, citywide public attention was accorded to him for his funeral in the Ararat Cemetery, Fresno. On October 9 more than 2,500 members of the Armenian community attended memorial services at Carnegie Hall in New York.
He was initially buried at Ararat Cemetery in Fresno. After his first funeral, it was planned to take Andranik's remains to Armenia for final burial; however, when they arrived in France, the Soviet authorities refused permission to allow his remains to enter Soviet Armenia. Instead they remained in France and, after a second funeral service held in the Armenian Church of Paris, were buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris on 29 January 1928. In early 2000, the Armenian and French governments arranged the transfer of Andranik's body from Paris to Yerevan. Asbarez wrote that the transfer was initiated by Armenia's Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan. Andranik's body was moved to Armenia on 17 February 2000. It was placed in the Sport & Concert Complex in Yerevan for two days and was then taken to Etchmiadzin Cathedral, where Karekin II officiated the funeral service. Andranik was re-interred at Yerablur military cemetery in Yerevan on 20 February 2000, next to Vazgen Sargsyan. In his speech during the reburial ceremony, Armenia's President Robert Kocharyan described Andranik as "one of the greatest sons of the Armenian nation." Prime Minister Aram Sargsyan, Foreign Minister Vartan Oskanian, and one of Andranik's soldiers, 102-year-old Grigor Ghazarian, were also in attendance. A memorial was built on his grave with the phrase Zoravar Hayots"General of the Armenians"engraved on it.
Legacy and recognition
Public image
Andranik was considered a hero during his lifetime. The Literary Digest described Andranik in 1920 as "the Armenian's Robin Hood, Garibaldi, and Washington, all in one." The Independent wrote that he is "worshiped by his countrymen for his heroic fighting in their defense against the Turks." Andranik was praised by the noted Armenian writer Hovhannes Tumanyan, while Armenian Bolshevik Anastas Mikoyan wrote in his memoirs that "the name Andranik was surrounded by halo of glory." Gerard Libaridian described Andranik as the "most famous of the Armenian guerrilla fighters, although not necessarily the most important. He represented the emerging new image of the Armenian who could fight."
Andranik is considered a national hero by Armenians worldwide. He is also seen as a legendary figure in Armenian culture. In a series of polls in 2006–08, Andranik consistently placed second after Vazgen Sargsyan in the list of Armenian national heroes and leaders.
During the Soviet period, his legacy and those of other Armenian national heroes were diminished and "any reference to them would be dangerous since they represented the strive for independence," especially prior to the Khrushchev Thaw. Paruyr Sevak, a prominent Soviet Armenian author, wrote an essay about Andranik in 1963 after reading one of his soldier's notes. Sevak wrote that his generation knew "little about Andranik, almost nothing." He continued, "knowing nothing about Andranik means to know nothing about modern Armenian history." In 1965, Andranik's 100th anniversary was celebrated in Soviet Armenia.
Criticism
Andranik's activities have also attracted occasional criticism. Andranik, generally seen as a pro-Russian (and pro-Soviet) figure, was criticized by the scholar-turned-political activist Rafael Ishkhanyan for his constant reliance on Russia. Ishkhanyan characterized Andranik and Hakob Zavriev as leaders of the stream within Armenian political thought unconditionally reliant on Russia. He contrasted them with Aram Manukian and his self-reliant stance. The poet spoke out against the erection of Andranik's statue in Yerevan. He opined that Andranik "doesn't have the right" to have a statue in the capital, because he did not do "anything real" for the First Republic and left Armenia. He called Andranik a popular hero and finds calling him a national hero unacceptable.
Memorials
Statues and memorials of Andranik have been erected around the world, including in Bucharest, Romania (1936), Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris (1945), Melkonian Educational Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus (1990), Le Plessis-Robinson, Paris (2005), Varna, Bulgaria (2011), and Armavir, Russia. A memorial exists in Richardson Springs, California, where Andranik died. In May 2011, a statue of Andranik was erected in Volonka village near Sochi, Russia; however, it was removed the same day, apparently under pressure from Turkey, which earlier announced that they would boycott the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics if the statue remained standing.
The first statue of Andranik in Armenia was erected in 1967 in the village of Ujan. Another early statue in Armenia was erected in Voskehask, near Gyumri, in 1969. More statues have been erected after Armenia's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991; three of which can be found in the Armenian capital of Yerevan—in Malatia-Sebastia district (2000); near the St. Gregory Cathedral (by Ara Shiraz, 2002); and outside the Fedayi Movement Museum (2006) in the Armenian capital Yerevan. Elsewhere in Armenia, Andranik's statues stand in Voskevan and Navur villages of Tavush, in Gyumri's Victory Park (1994), Arteni, and Angeghakot, among other places.
Numerous streets and squares both inside and outside Armenia, including in Córdoba, Argentina, Plovdiv and Varna in Bulgaria, Meudon, Paris and a section of Connecticut Route 314 state highway running entirely within Wethersfield, Connecticut are named after Andranik. General Andranik Station of the Yerevan Metro was opened in 1989 as Hoktemberyan Station and was renamed for Andranik in 1992. In 1995, General Andranik's Museum was founded in Komitas Park of Yerevan, but was soon closed because the building was privatized. It was reopened on 16 September 2006, by Ilyich Beglarian as the Museum of Armenian Fedayi Movement, named after Andranik.
According to Patrick Wilson, during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War Andranik "inspired a new generation of Armenians." A volunteer regiment from Masis named "General Andranik" operated in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh during the conflict.
Many organizations and groups in the Armenian diaspora are named after Andranik. On 11 September 2012, during the Bulgaria vs. Armenia football match in Sofia's Levski National Stadium, Armenian fans brought a giant poster with pictures of General Andranik and Armenian officer Gurgen Margaryan, who was murdered in 2004 by Azerbaijani lieutenant Ramil Safarov. The text on the poster read, "Andranik's children are also heroes ... The work will be done." In the Armenian Youth Federation Eastern Region, the Granite City chapter is named "Antranig" in Andranik's honor.
The 65 page manuscripts of General Andranik, the only known memoir written by him, were returned to Armenia in May 2014 and sent to the History Museum of Armenia through Culture Minister Hasmik Poghosyan, almost a century after Andranik had parted with them.
In culture
Andranik has been figured prominently in the Armenian literature, sometimes as a fictional character. The Western Armenian writer Siamanto wrote a poem entitled "Andranik", which was published in Geneva in 1905. The first book about Andranik was published during his lifetime. In 1920, Vahan Totovents, under the pen name Arsen Marmarian, published the book Gen. Andranik and His Wars (Զոր. Անդրանիկ և իր պատերազմները) in Entente-occupied Constantinople. The famed Armenian-American writer William Saroyan wrote a short story titled Antranik of Armenia, which was included in his collection of short stories Inhale and Exhale (1936). Another US-based Armenian writer Hamastegh's novel The White Horseman (Սպիտակ Ձիավորը, 1952) was based on Andranik and other fedayi. Hovhannes Shiraz, one of the most prominent Armenian poets of the 20th century, wrote at least two poems about Andranik; one in 1963 and another in 1967. The latter one, titled Statue to Andranik (Արձան Անդրանիկին), was published in 1991 after Shiraz's death. Sero Khanzadyan's novel Andranik was suppressed for years and was published in 1989 when the tight Soviet control over publications was relaxed. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, author Suren Sahakyan collected folk stories and completed a novel, "Story about Andranik" (Ասք Անդրանիկի մասին). It was first published in Yerevan in 2008.
Andranik's name has been memorialized in numerous songs. In 1913, Leon Trotsky described Andranik as "a hero of song and legend." Italian diplomat and historian Luigi Villari wrote in 1906 that he met a priest from Turkish Armenia in Erivan who "sang the war-song of Antranik, the leader of Armenian revolutionary bands in Turkey." Andranik is one of the main figures featured in Armenian patriotic songs, performed by Nersik Ispiryan, Harout Pamboukjian and others. There are dozens of songs dedicated to him, including Like an Eagle by gusan Sheram, 1904 and Andranik pasha by gusan Hayrik. Andranik also features in the popular song The Bravehearts of the Caucasus (Կովկասի քաջեր) and other pieces of Armenian patriotic folklore.
Several documentaries about Andranik have been produced; these include Andranik (1929) by Armena-Film in France, directed by Asho Shakhatuni, who also played the main role; General Andranik (1990) directed by Levon Mkrtchyan, narrated by Khoren Abrahamyan; and Andranik Ozanian, a 53-minute-long documentary by the Public Television of Armenia.
Awards
Through his military career, Andranik was awarded with a number of medals and orders by governments of four countries. Andranik's medals and sword were moved to Armenia and given to the History Museum of Armenia in 2006.
Published works
Memoirs of Andranik written down by Levon K. Lyulejian.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Articles
(archived link)
Books
1865 births
1927 deaths
Armenian fedayi
Armenian generals
Armenian expatriates in Bulgaria
Armenian nationalists
Armenian people of World War I
Bulgarian military personnel of the Balkan Wars
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Burials at Yerablur
Imperial Russian Army generals
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Armenians from the Ottoman Empire
Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the United States
People from Şebinkarahisar
Recipients of the Order of Bravery
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Second Degree
Recipients of the Cross of St. George
Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 4th class
Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 2nd class
Russian military personnel of World War I
Recipients of the War Cross (Greece)
Armenian Revolutionary Federation politicians
Deaths from coronary artery disease |
4162073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus%20Germans | Caucasus Germans | Caucasus Germans () are part of the German minority in Russia and the Soviet Union. They migrated to the Caucasus largely in the first half of the 19th century and settled in the North Caucasus, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia and the region of Kars (present-day northeastern Turkey). In 1941, the majority of them were subject to deportation to Central Asia and Siberia during Joseph Stalin's population transfer in the Soviet Union. After Stalin's death in 1953 and the beginning of the Khrushchev Thaw, the Caucasus Germans were allowed to return, though only few did. Many assimilated and, after 1991, emigrated to Germany. Although the community today is a fraction of what it once was, many German buildings and churches are still extant, with some turned into museums.
History
Origins
The victory of the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 ensured its expansion into the Caucasus. It also created a need in populating these lands with Russian subjects in order to hasten their exploration. In the late 18th century, the government permitted families of Volga Germans to settle in the Kuban. However, poor infrastructure, lack of organization of the officials responsible for the settlement and the refusal of the military personnel to have these lands populated by non-Russians were an obstacle to the steady and constant migration of the Germans. In 1815, while participating in the Congress of Vienna, Russian Tsar Alexander I visited Stuttgart, a city in his mother's native Kingdom of Württemberg. Upon witnessing the oppression that local peasants were undergoing either due to belonging to different non-Lutheran Protestant sects or to their participation in separatist movements, he arranged for their settlement in Russian Transcaucasia in order to form agricultural colonies.
Early 19th century
On September 21, 1818, the first German settlement in Transcaucasia, Marienfeld, was established by a group of Swabian Germans near the Georgian capital Tiflis (Tbilisi), along the Kakheti highway, now part of Sartichala. Two months later, another group of colonists founded another settlement in Georgia on the bank of the Asureti River and named it Elisabethtal, after the Emperor's wife Elizabeth Alexeievna (now Asureti in the Georgian province of Kvemo Kartli). Within the next year, five more colonies were established in eastern Georgia: New Tiflis (later Mikhailovsky Avenue, now part of David Agmashenebeli Avenue in Tbilisi), Alexandersdorf on the left bank of the Kura (now the vicinity of Akaki Tsereteli Avenue in Tbilisi), Petersdorf (near Marienfeld, now part of Sartichala) and Katharinenfeld (now Bolnisi). Three more colonies were founded in Abkhazia: Neudorf, Gnadenberg and Lindau.
By the late 1840s, there were five German colonies in the North Caucasus. The migration waves (especially to the Don Host Oblast) grew beginning in the second half of the 19th century with the capitalist influence on farming in Russia. Germans would immigrate not only from the regions adjacent to the Volga River but also from the Black Sea region and Germany. The majority of these Germans adhered to various branches of Protestantism: most were Lutherans, Mennonites, or Baptists. Roman Catholics formed a minority and lived in six colonies.
In the winter of 1818–1819, 194 Swabian families primarily from Reutlingen arrived in Elisabethpol (Ganja) in eastern Transcaucasia from Tiflis. They were granted land 6 kilometres to the west of the city and founded the town of Helenendorf (Goygol) in the summer of 1819. Another German settlement, the town of Annenfeld (later merged with the city of Shamkir) was founded almost simultaneously 40 kilometres away from Helenendorf.
Germans became an active and well-integrated community in Russian Transcaucasia. Unlike the settlement of Russian religious minorities, German colonies were located in "places that were more economically advantageous, close to cities or important transportation routes." It became "typical for Caucasian administrative centers to have a satellite agrarian German colony." According to Charles King, "rows of trees lined the main streets" of the German colonies near Tiflis. "Schools and churches, conducting their business in German, offered education and spiritual edification. Beer gardens provided the main entertainment." In eastern Transcaucasia, German colonists were overwhelmingly bilingual in Azeri, while Russian was formally taught in schools starting in the late 19th century. Dolma, a traditional dish in the Caucasus and the Middle East popular among all Caucasus nationalities, became as common with the Caucasus Germans as traditional German dishes.
The Baltic German naturalist and explorer Friedrich Parrot encountered Swabian settlers near Tiflis on his expedition to Mount Ararat in 1829. He listed their settlements and personally visited Katharinenfeld and Elisabethtal, describing them:
These colonies may be known to be German at first sight from their style of building, their tillage, their carts and wagons, their furniture and utensils, mode of living, costume, and language. They contrast, therefore, strongly with the villages of the natives, and very much to their advantage, particularly in the eyes of one who has lived for some time, as was the case with us, wholly among the latter. [...] At last, after riding for five hours, I espied, high on the left bank of the river [i.e. the Khrami], symptoms not to be mistaken of the German colony: these were, regularly-built white houses, with good windows, doors, and ridge stone on the roof. I joyfully rode up, and found that this was Katharinenfeld.
The colonies suffered during the Russo-Persian War of 1826–28. Many of the settlements had been raided by marauding Kurds in 1826 who, according to Parrot, killed 30 people of Katharinenfeld's 85 families and captured 130 more. Half of those had not yet returned at the time of the naturalist's visit in 1829. While visiting the great bazaar in Erivan (Yerevan) with Khachatur Abovian (the Armenian writer and national public figure), Parrot encountered "two Württemberg women, with five children" who "talked to one another in true Swabian dialect." They were from Katharinenfeld and Parrot resolved to tell their relatives back home about their location. When Parrot visited the village and told the colonists the news, he was very well received. The two women who he met in Erivan returned from comparably benign captivity with a "wealthy Tatar chief" where they had been pressured to convert to Islam. Parrot surmised that others might have been sold into slavery deeper into Turkish territory. Furthermore, he told of a case where a man received a letter from his wife who had married a Persian cleric in captivity and therefore allowed him to remarry.
Some Germans moved voluntarily further south to Russian Armenia. Those who came from Württemberg were inspired by the concept of meeting the end of the world at the foot of Mount Ararat. On the invitation of Parrot, the Armenian writer Abovian attended the German-speaking University of Dorpat (Tartu) in present-day Estonia. He became a Germanophile and, after his return to the Caucasus, married a German woman, Emilia Looze, in Tiflis. They moved to Abovian's native Armenia and "established a complete German household."
During his travels to the Caucasus during the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, the celebrated Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin visited one of the German colonies near Tiflis and recorded his experience in his Journey to Arzrum. He ate dinner there, but was unimpressed by the food and the beer. "We drank beer which is made there, with a very unpleasant taste, and paid very much for a very bad dinner," he wrote.
In 1843, during his visit to Russian Transcaucasia, German Baron August von Haxthausen also visited the German colonies of Georgia and the Tiflis region and extensively described their agricultural practices. He related an account from Moritz von Kotzebue about an unsuccessful religious pilgrimage of German colonists to Jerusalem, led by a woman who "knew the whole Bible by heart, from beginning to end" and who "exercised a kind of magical influence on all around her." During his travels in the Caucasus, Haxthausen was accompanied by Peter Neu, a Swabian colonist from the Tiflis area who had "a remarkable genius for languages and knew a dozen European and Asiatic tongues,—German, French, Russian, Circassian, Tatar, Turkish, Armenian, Georgian, Persian, Kurdish, etc." In addition, he "possessed a rich gift of poetical imagination and had an inexhaustible treasury of märchen, legends and popular songs, gleaned from all the countries he had visited." Neu accompanied Haxthausen, Khachatur Abovian and Abovian's uncle Harutiun on a visit to the Yazidi community of Armenia. Haxthausen, Abovian and Neu also visited the center of the Armenian Apostolic Church at Etchmiadzin and Neu accompanied Haxthausen on an excursion to the area of present-day South Ossetia.
Late imperial era
Additional German colonies were established in eastern Transcaucasia during the latter half of the 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th century. In the Tiflis Governorate as of 1926, a total of 9,000 Germans lived in the colonies of Alexandersdorf (now part of Didube, Tbilisi), Alexandershilf (now Trialeti), Blümenthal (later Chapaevka, now Kavta), Elisabetthal (now Asureti), Freudenthal (now part of Sartichala), Georgsthal (now Dzveli Kanda), Gnadenberg (now Dziguta), Grünthal (later Akhali Ulianovka, now Ruisbolo), Hoffnungsthal (now Akhalsheni), Katharinenfeld, Lindau (now Lindava), Marienfeld (now part of Sartichala), Marnaul (now part of Marneuli), Neudorf (now Akhalsopeli), Neu Tiflis (now part of Kukia and Chughureti, Tbilisi), Petersdorf (now part of Sartichala), Steinfeld (now Kotishi), Traubenberg (now Tamarisi), Waldheim (now Ipnari), and Wiesendorf (now Akhali Marabda).
Beginning in the 1880s, in addition to Helenendorf and Annenfeld, six more German colonies were formed the Elisabethpol Governorate: Georgsfeld in 1888, Alexejewka in 1902, Grünfeld and Eichenfeld in 1906, Traubenfeld in 1912 and Jelisawetinka in 1914. They became populated mostly by the descendants of the Germans from the two older colonies of Helenendorf and Annenfeld. By 1918 according to the German consul in Constantinople, there were 6,000 Germans living in these colonies overall. Helenendorf became the primary spiritual center for the Germans of the eight colonies. The oldest Lutheran church in present-day Azerbaijan, St. John's Church, was built in this town in 1857. Other Lutheran churches were built in Gadabay, Shamakhi, Elisabethpol, Baku and Annenfeld in 1868, 1869, 1885, 1897 and 1911 respectively. The ceremony of laying the first stone of Baku's German Church of the Saviour was attended by Emanuel Nobel, brother of Alfred Nobel, and other members of the city's elite.
Baku's booming oil industry attracted many people from all over the Caucasus. By 1903, the German population of the city had grown to 3,749 (2.4% of the city's entire population at the time) and consisted mostly of natives of the original German colonies. Nikolaus von der Nonne, an ethnic German who had been working in Baku since 1883, was the mayor of Baku from 1898 to 1902. Notably, Richard Sorge, the famous ethnic German-Soviet spy, was born in a suburb of Baku in 1895. His father was a German mining engineer who worked for the Caucasus Oil Company. Sorge is considered to have been one of the best Soviet spies in Japan before and during World War II and he was posthumously declared a Hero of the Soviet Union. The city of Baku dedicated a monument and park to him.
Commonly referred to as nemsə or lemsə (from the Russian немец – "German") by the local Azerbaijani population, Germans in the Elisabethpol Governorate were traditionally engaged in farming. However, starting from 1860, viticulture was becoming more and more important in the life of the German agricultural communities. By the end of the 19th century, 58% of the region's wine production was manufactured by the Vohrer Brothers and the Hummel Brothers of Helenendorf.
In 1865 and 1883, Siemens built two copper smelteries in Gadabay and a hydroelectric station in Galakand. In the 1860s, it initiated cobalt extraction in Dashkasan and built two power stations in Baku. The Siemens smelteries were officially closed down in 1914 when the Russian Empire entered World War I fighting against Germany and the tsarist government banned all German businesses in Russia.
Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Imperial Russia annexed the Kars region from the Ottoman Empire. The tsarist government launched a campaign to populate the newly established Kars Oblast with perceived "reliable" populations, including Germans. In 1891, a number of German families were resettled in Kars from the colony of Alexandershilf near Tiflis and established the village of Petrovka. Its population remained relatively low and consisted of about 200 people by 1911. Another two colonies in the province, Vladikars and Estonka, were founded between 1911 and 1914. These settlements were short-lived. Due to the Russian-Ottoman military confrontation at the start of World War I, most of the remaining German settlers from the Kars Oblast were evacuated to Eichenfeld. The Kars region itself was eventually annexed by Turkey in the treaties of Moscow and Kars.
From 1906 to 1922, Baron Kurt von Kutschenbach published the German-language newspaper Kaukasische Post in Tiflis. It called itself the "only German newspaper in the Caucasus." The editor-in-chief was the writer, journalist and Caucasus scholar Arthur Leist.
After the outbreak of World War I, Russian government attempts to Russify the German colonies in the Caucasus created a local backlash. Following Russian Revolutions of 1917 and the formation of the Transcaucasian Federation, German colonists formed the Transcaucasian German National Council (Transkaukasischer Deutscher Nationalrat), with its seat in Tiflis. In May 1918, the Transcaucasian Federation dissolved and the short-lived republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia were established. The German colonists strove to maintain their communities amid the upheaval of the Russian Civil War in the Caucasus. In the short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the centenary of Helenendorf was marked by a public celebration within the community. The German community was also represented in the parliament of the republic by Lorenz Kuhn, a Helenendorf-born oil industry businessman.
Soviet era
Following the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War and the Sovietization of the Caucasus, the new Soviet government initially demonstrated a favorable attitude toward multiculturalism in the era of the New Economic Policy (NEP). The cultural and linguistic rights of ethnic groups were promoted by Soviet authorities in accordance with the korenizatsiya (nativization) policy of Soviet nationalities. In 1926, there were seven public primary schools in Soviet Azerbaijan with German as the language of instruction. The First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union in 1926 showed that 93,915 Caucasus Germans lived in the North Caucasus region of the Russian SFSR. Within the Transcaucasian SFSR, 13,149 lived in the Azerbaijan SSR, 12,047 in the Georgian SSR and 104 in the Armenian SSR. The situation changed with the rise of Joseph Stalin. The Soviet government gradually ordered all German-sounding place-names to be changed by the mid-1930s. The forced collectivization of agriculture under the first five-year plan and the resulting famine of 1932-33 hit the North Caucasus and the local German community very hard.
After the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany in June 1941, the Caucasus Germans were internally deported by Soviet authorities to Central Asia and Siberia on the pretext that their loyalties were with Germany, even though this was not the case. According to scholar Pavel Polian, most of the Caucasus Germans (approximately 190,000 people) were deported from the North and South Caucasus to Kazakhstan and Siberia from September 1941 to June 1942.
The deportees were allowed to take very little luggage, hardly any food and then had to undergo a voyage across the Caspian Sea to the camps of Central Asia. They were told the voyage would only be for several days but many ships went back and forth for months, resulting in mass death from starvation and the climate, especially among children, the elderly and the sick. On one ship carrying deportees, about 775 Germans froze to death. Evidently, maritime officials had no clear instructions to land the deportees at a particular destination and were prohibited from landing them anywhere else. They eventually arrived by rail in the Lake Balkhash area, in Kazakhstan. This torment can be ascribed, in part, to the confusion caused by the war, but also, more importantly, to the typical callous treatment of political prisoners by the Stalin regime, which did not care if prisoners lived or died. The following eye-witness report relates a harrowing story of evacuation by ship:
For two months ethnic Germans from the Caucasus were pointlessly dragged back and forth on the Caspian Sea, and more people, especially children, were dying of starvation. They were just thrown overboard. My four-year-old son was thrown there as well. My other son, seven years of age, saw that. He grabbed my skirt and begged me with tears in his eyes: 'Mummy, don't let them throw me in the water. I beg you, leave me alive, and I will always be with you and take care of you when I grow up'... I always cry when I remember that he also died of starvation and was thrown overboard, which he feared so much.
The only ones not subject to deportation were German women (and their descendants) who were married to non-Germans. Soon after Stalin's death in 1953 and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev to the Soviet leadership, the ban for the majority of the deported peoples to return to their homes was lifted. However, relatively few Germans returned to the Caucasus region. By 1979, there were only 46,979 Germans living in both North and South Caucasus.
History since 1991
There has been renewed interest in the Caucasus German community in the post-Soviet states since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Bolnisi, Georgia
The 2014 census recorded only two Germans living in the Bolnisi municipality. The German town cemetery was leveled under Stalin and is marked today by a memorial honouring the memory of the German colonists. Recently, there has been increasing interest in Georgia on the part of local youth to find out more about their German heritage. Often this desire is closely related to Protestant beliefs, so as a result the New Apostolic Church works intensively with these young people as part of its regular youth programs.
Azerbaijan
In Azerbaijan, the remaining Germans are concentrated in the capital city of Baku, and many belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Community restored and officially registered in the early 1990s. The last German resident of Goygol (Helenendorf), Viktor Klein, died in 2007. The city has nowadays over 400 buildings whose construction dates back to the German period. In 2015, according to Klein's will, his familial house, built by his grandfather in 1886, was turned into the Museum of Caucasus German History. The former Lutheran church of Ganja has housed the Ganja State Puppet Theatre since 1986. In 2009, the non-functioning Lutheran church in Shamkir (and into which Annenfeld was absorbed), which had been used as a community centre in the Soviet era, was renovated and turned into a museum. Yunis Hajiyev, born in 1928 to an Azeri father and a German mother, and his descendants are said to be the last family of German origin still residing in Shamkir as of 2018. Gadabay's German population left by 1922 after the exhaustion of the copper industry. The Lutheran Church of the town was razed by the Soviet government in the 1920s.
Armenia
Already small compared to the historical German communities of the neighboring Georgia and Azerbaijan, Armenia's remaining German population declined following the country's independence in 1991 due to economic factors. Many of the country's Germans emigrated to Germany. In recent years, the German community has been working closely with the German Educational and Cultural Center of Armenia to help organize German-language schools and cultural events.
Turkey
The last German resident of the Estonka colony (the present-day village of Karacaören in the Kars Province of Turkey), Frederik Albuk, died in 1999 in his native village, survived by his wife Olga Albuk of Russian-Estonian ancestry, who died there in August 2011. The 150-grave Lutheran cemetery where they were buried is the only remnant of the German community's presence in northeastern Turkey.
See also
History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union
Crimea Germans
Volga Germans
Lenins Weg
References
Further reading
M. Friedrich Schrenk: Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien. In: Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien in Transkaukasien. Tiflis 1869
Paul Hoffmann: Die deutschen Kolonien in Transkaukasien. Berlin 1905
Werner Krämer: Grünfeld, ein deutsches Dorf im Südkaukasus. o. O., o. J.
Max Baumann, Peter Belart: Die Familie Horlacher von Umiken in Katharinenfeld (Georgien)
Andreas Groß: Missionare und Kolonisten: Die Basler und die Hermannsburger Mission in Georgien am Beispiel der Kolonie Katharinenfeld; 1818–1870. Lit, Hamburg 1998,
U. Hammel: Die Deutschen von Tiflis. In: Georgica. Bd. 20 (1997), pp 35–43
Immanuel Walker: Fatma. Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russland, Stuttgart, 1966 3. Edition
Mammad Jafarli: Politischer Terror und Schicksale der aserbaidschanischen Deutschen. Baku 1999
External links
Germans From Russia Heritage Society
American Historical Society of Germans from Russia
Germans from Russia Settlement Locations Google Map
RFE/RL report on the German heritage of Asureti, Georgia
Euronews report on the German heritage of Goygol, Azerbaijan
Russian and Soviet-German people
Ethnic groups in Georgia (country)
Ethnic groups in Azerbaijan
Ethnic groups in Armenia
Ethnic groups in Russia
History of Kars Province
German minorities |
4162109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Florida | List of birds of Florida | This list of birds of Florida includes species documented in the U.S. state of Florida and accepted by the Florida Ornithological Society Records Committee (FOSRC). As of November 2022, there were 539 species included in the official list. Of them, 168 species and eight identifiable subspecies are classed as accidental, 18 have been introduced to North America, four are extinct, and one has been extirpated. More than 100 "verifiable...exotic species [are] found free-flying in the wild" according to the FOSRC. Additional accidental, extirpated and recently extinct species have been added from other sources. A hypothetical species has also been added from another source.
This list is presented in the taxonomic sequence of the Check-list of North and Middle American Birds, 7th edition through the 62nd Supplement, published by the American Ornithological Society (AOS). Common and scientific names are also those of the Check-list, except that the common names of families are from the Clements taxonomy because the AOS list does not include them.
The following status codes have been used to annotate some species:
(A) Accidental - a species that occurs rarely or accidentally in Florida, and for which the FOSRC requests a full report for verification
(I) Introduced - a species that has been introduced to North America by the actions of humans, either directly or indirectly, and has become established in Florida
(E) Extinct - a recent bird that no longer exists
(e) Extirpated - a species that is no longer in Florida, but exists elsewhere
Tinamous
Order: TinamiformesFamily: Tinamidae
The tinamous are one of the most ancient groups of bird. Although they look similar to other ground-dwelling birds like quail and grouse, they have no close relatives and are classified as a single family, Tinamidae, within their own order, the Tinamiformes. They are distantly related to the ratites (order Struthioniformes), that includes the rheas, emus, and kiwis.
Great tinamou, Tinamus major (A?)
Screamers
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anhimidae
The screamers are a small family of birds related to the ducks. They are large, bulky birds, with a small downy head, long legs and large feet which are only partially webbed. They have large spurs on their wings which are used in fights over mates and in territorial disputes.
Horned screamer, Anhima cornuta (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to special oils.
West Indian whistling duck, Dendrocygna arborea (A)
Black-bellied whistling-duck, Dendrocygna autumnalis
Fulvous whistling-duck, Dendrocygna bicolor
White-faced whistling duck, Dendrocygna viduata (A)
Emperor goose, Anser canagicus (A)
Snow goose, Anser caerulescens
Ross's goose, Anser rossii
Greater white-fronted goose, Anser albifrons
Lesser white-fronted goose, Anser erythropus (A)
Taiga bean-goose, Anser fabalis (A)
Brant, Branta bernicla (A)
Cackling goose, Branta hutchinsonii (A)
Canada goose, Branta canadensis
Tundra swan, Cygnus columbianus (A)
Trumpeter swan, Cygnus buccinator (A)
Egyptian goose, Alopochen aegyptiaca (I)
Muscovy duck, Cairina moschata (I)
Wood duck, Aix sponsa
Blue-winged teal, Spatula discors
Cinnamon teal, Spatula cyanoptera
Northern shoveler, Spatula clypeata
Gadwall, Mareca strepera
Eurasian wigeon, Mareca penelope
American wigeon, Mareca americana
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos
Eastern spot-billed duck, Anas zonorhyncha (A)
American black duck, Anas rubripes
Mottled duck, Anas fulvigula
White-cheeked pintail, Anas bahamensis (A)
Northern pintail, Anas acuta
Green-winged teal, Anas crecca
Common teal, A. c. crecca (A)
Southern pochard, Netta erythrophthalma (A)
Canvasback, Aythya valisineria
Redhead, Aythya americana
Ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris
Greater scaup, Aythya marila
Lesser scaup, Aythya affinis
King eider, Somateria spectabilis (A)
Common eider, Somateria mollissima
Harlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus (A)
Surf scoter, Melanitta perspicillata
White-winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi
Black scoter, Melanitta americana
Long-tailed duck, Clangula hyemalis
Bufflehead, Bucephala albeola
Common goldeneye, Bucephala clangula
Labrador duck, Camptorhynchus labradorius (E)
Hooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus
Common merganser, Mergus merganser (A)
Red-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator
Masked duck, Nomonyx dominicus (A)
Ruddy duck, Oxyura jamaicensis
Guans, chachalacas, and curassows
Order: GalliformesFamily: Cracidae
The chachalacas, guans, and curassows are birds in the family Cracidae. These are large birds, similar in general appearance to turkeys. The guans and curassows live in trees, but the smaller chachalacas are found in more open scrubby habitats. They are generally dull-plumaged, but the curassows and some guans have colorful facial ornaments.
Crested guan, Penelope purpurascens (A)
New World quail
Order: GalliformesFamily: Odontophoridae
The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits.
Northern bobwhite, Colinus virginianus
Marbled wood-quail, Odontophorus gujanensis (A)
Scaled quail, Callipepla squamata (A)
Montezuma quail, Cyrtonyx montezumae (A)
Pheasants, grouse, and allies
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
The Phasianidae is the family containing the pheasants and their allies. These are terrestrial birds, variable in size but generally plump, with broad, relatively short wings. Many are gamebirds or have been domesticated as a food source for humans.
Wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo
Ruffed grouse, Bonasa umbellus (A?)
Flamingoes
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingoes are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.
American flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber
Grebes
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Least grebe, Tachybaptus dominicus (A)
Pied-billed grebe, Podilymbus podiceps
Horned grebe, Podiceps auritus
Red-necked grebe, Podiceps grisegena (A)
Eared grebe, Podiceps nigricollis
Western grebe, Aechmorphorus occidentalis (A)
Pigeons and doves
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Rock pigeon, Columba livia (I)
Common wood-pigeon, Columba palumbus (A)
Scaled pigeon, Patagioenas speciosa (A)
Scaly-naped pigeon, Patagioenas squamosa (A)
Pale-vented pigeon, Patagioenas cayennensis (A)
White-crowned pigeon, Patagioenas leucocephala
Band-tailed pigeon, Patagioenas fasciata (A)
Eurasian collared-dove, Streptopelia decaocto (I)
European turtle-dove, Streptopelia turtur (A)
Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius (E)
Inca dove, Columbina inca (A)
Common ground dove, Columbina passerina
Plain-breasted ground dove, Columbina minuta (A)
Ruddy ground dove, Columbina talpacoti (A)
Blue ground dove, Claravis pretiosa (A)
Blue-headed quail-dove, Starnoenas cyanocephala (A)
Ruddy quail-dove, Geotrygon montana (A)
Violaceous quail-dove, Geotrygon violacea (A)
Key West quail-dove, Geotrygon chrysia (A)
White-tipped dove, Leptotila verreauxi (A)
Lined quail-dove, Zentrygon linearis (A)
White-winged dove, Zenaida asiatica
Eared dove, Zenaida auriculata (A)
Zenaida dove, Zenaida aurita (A)
Mourning dove, Zenaida macroura
Cuckoos
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs.
Smooth-billed ani, Crotophaga ani
Groove-billed ani, Crotophaga sulcirostris
Greater ani, Crotophaga major (A)
Little cuckoo, Coccycua minuta (A)
Squirrel cuckoo, Piaya cayana (A)
Pheasant cuckoo, Dromococcyx phasianellus (A)
Rufous-vented ground-cuckoo, Neomorphus geoffroyi(A)
Dark-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus melacoryphus (A)
Yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus
Mangrove cuckoo, Coccyzus minor
Black-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus erythropthalmus
Nightjars and allies
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically colored to resemble bark or leaves.
Lesser nighthawk, Chordeiles acutipennis
Common nighthawk, Chordeiles minor
Short-tailed nighthawk, Lurocalis semitorquatus (A)
Common pauraque, Nyctidromus albicollis (A)
Common poorwill, Phalaenoptilus nuttallii (A)
Antillean nighthawk, Chordeiles gundlachii
Chuck-will's-widow, Antrostomus carolinensis
Eastern whip-poor-will, Antrostomus vociferus
Potoos
Order: NyctibiiformesFamily: Nyctibiidae
The potoos (sometimes called poor-me-ones) are large near passerine birds related to the nightjars and frogmouths. They are nocturnal insectivores which lack the bristles around the mouth found in the true nightjars.
Common potoo, Nyctibius griseus (hypothetical)
Swifts
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae
The swifts are small birds, spending most of their lives flying. They have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have very long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
White-collared swift, Streptoprocne zonaris (A)
Band-rumped swift, Chaetura spinicaudus (A)
Gray-rumped swift, Chaetura cinereiventris (A)
Chimney swift, Chaetura pelagica
Vaux's swift, Chaetura vauxi (A)
White-throated swift, Aeronautes saxatalis (A)
Antillean palm-swift, Tachornis phoenicobia (A)
Lesser swallow-tailed swift, Panyptila cayennensis (A)
Hummingbirds
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Trochilidae
Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards.
White-necked jacobin, Florisuga mellivora (A)
Bahama woodstar, Calliphlox evelynae (A)
Green-breasted mango, Anthracothorax prevostii (A)
Ruby-topaz hummingbird, Chrysolampis mosquitus (A)
Green-throated mango, Anthracothorax viridigula (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Long-billed starthroat, Heliomaster longirostris (A)
Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilochus colubris
Black-chinned hummingbird, Archilochus alexandri
Anna's hummingbird, Calypte anna (A)
Costa's hummingbird, Calypte costae (A)
Calliope hummingbird, Selasphorus calliope (A)
Rufous hummingbird, Selasphorus rufus
Allen's hummingbird, Selasphorus sasin (A)
Broad-tailed hummingbird, Selasphorus platycercus (A)
Broad-billed hummingbird, Cynanthus latirostris (A)
Cuban emerald, Riccordia ricordii (A)
White-eared hummingbird, Basilinna leucotis (A)
Antillean crested hummingbird, Orthorhyncus cristatus (A)
Buff-bellied hummingbird, Amazila yucatanensis
Copper-rumped hummingbird, Saucerottia tobaci (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Rails, gallinules, and coots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
The Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive, making them difficult to observe. Most have strong legs with long toes, short rounded wings, and are weak fliers.
Clapper rail, Rallus crepitans
King rail, Rallus elegans
Virginia rail, Rallus limicola
Sora, Porzana carolina
Common gallinule, Gallinula galeata
American coot, Fulica americana
Purple gallinule, Porphyrio martinicus
Yellow-breasted crake, Hapalocrex flaviventer (A)
White-throated crake, Laterallus albigularis (A)
Purple swamphen, Porphyrio poliocephalus (I)
Yellow rail, Coturnicops noveboracensis (A)
Black rail, Laterallus jamaicensis
Finfoots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Heliornithidae
Heliornithidae is a small family of tropical birds with webbed lobes on their feet similar to those of grebes and coots.
Sungrebe, Heliornis fulica (A)
Limpkin
Order: GruiformesFamily: Aramidae
The limpkin is an odd bird that looks like a large rail, but is skeletally closer to the cranes. It is found in marshes with some trees or scrub in the Caribbean, South America, and southern Florida.
Limpkin, Aramus guarauna
Thick-knees
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes, and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Double-striped thick-knee, Burhinus bistriatus (A)
Eurasian thick-knee, Burhinus oedicnemus (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Cranes
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, tall birds with long legs and long necks. Unlike the similar-looking but un-related herons, cranes fly with necks extended. Most have elaborate and noisy courtship displays or "dances". When in a group, they may also "dance" for no particular reason, jumping up and down in an elegant manner, seemingly just for pleasure or to attract a mate.
Demoiselle crane, Anthropoides virgo (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Sandhill crane, Antigone canadensis
Common crane, Grus grus (A)
Whooping crane, Grus americana (reintroduced)
Stilts and avocets
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Black-necked stilt, Himantopus mexicanus
American avocet, Recurvirostra americana
Oystercatchers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large, conspicuous, and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
American oystercatcher, Haematopus palliatus
Lapwings and plovers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are generally found in open country, mostly in habitats near water.
Southern lapwing, Vanellus chilensis (A)
Northern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus (A)
Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola
American golden-plover, Pluviali dominicas
Pacific golden-plover, Pluvialis fulva (A)
Killdeer, Charadrius vociferus
Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus
Piping plover, Charadrius melodus
Lesser sand-plover, Charadrius mongolus (A)
Greater sand-plover, Charadrius leschenaultii (A)
Wilson's plover, Charadrius wilsonia
Collared plover, Charadrius collaris (A)
Snowy plover, Charadrius nivosus
Mountain plover, Charadrius montanus (A)
Jacanas
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a family of waders found worldwide within the tropical zone. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.
Northern jacana, Jacana spinosa (A)
Wattled jacana, Jacana jacana (A)
Sandpipers and allies
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large and diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds which includes the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. Most eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or sand. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Upland sandpiper, Bartramia longicauda
Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus
Long-billed curlew, Numenius americanus
Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica (A)
Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa (A)
Hudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica
Marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa
Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres
Red knot, Calidris canutus
Surfbird, Calidris virgata (A)
Ruff, Calidris pugnax
Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata (A)
Stilt sandpiper, Calidris himantopus
Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea (A)
Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis (A)
Sanderling, Calidris alba
Dunlin, Calidris alpina
Purple sandpiper, Calidris maritima
Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii
Least sandpiper, Calidris minutilla
White-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis
Buff-breasted sandpiper, Calidris subruficollis
Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos
Semipalmated sandpiper, Calidris pusilla
Western sandpiper, Calidris mauri
Short-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus
Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus
American woodcock, Scolopax minor
Wilson's snipe, Gallinago delicata
Spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularius
Solitary sandpiper, Tringa solitaria
Gray-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes (A)
Lesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes
Willet, Tringa semipalmata
Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia (A)
Greater yellowlegs, Tringa melanoleuca
Wilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor
Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus
Red phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius
Pratincoles and coursers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards.
Collared pratincole, Glareola pratincola (A)
Skuas and jaegers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
Skuas are medium to large seabirds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They have longish bills with hooked tips and webbed feet with sharp claws. They look like large dark gulls, but have a fleshy cere above the upper mandible. They are strong, acrobatic fliers.
South polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki (A)
Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus
Parasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus
Long-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicaudus
Auks, murres, and puffins
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Alcidae
Alcids are superficially similar to penguins due to their black-and-white colors, their upright posture, and some of their habits; however they are not closely related to penguins and are (with one extinct exception) able to fly. Auks live on the open sea, only deliberately coming ashore to breed.
Dovekie, Alle alle (A)
Common murre, Uria aalge (A)
Thick-billed murre, Uria lomvia (A)
Razorbill, Alca torda (A)
Great auk, Pinguinus impennis (E)
Black guillemot, Cepphus grylle (A?)
Long-billed murrelet, Brachyrampus perdix (A)
Ancient murrelet, Synthliboramphus antiquus (A)
Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica (A)
Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata (A)
Gulls, terns, and skimmers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
The Laridae are a family of medium to large seabirds and containing the gulls, terns, kittiwakes, and skimmers. They are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet.
Black-legged kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla (A)
Sabine's gull, Xema sabini
Bonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia
Gray-hooded gull, Chroicocephalus cirrocephhalus (A)
Black-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus (A)
Little gull, Hydrocoleus minutus (A)
Laughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla
Gray gull, Leucophaeus modestus (A)
Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan
Audouin's gull, Ichthyaetus audouinii (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Belcher's gull, Larus belcheri (A)
Black-tailed gull, Larus crassirostris (A)
Heermann's gull, Larus heermanni (A)
Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis
California gull, Larus californicus (A)
Herring gull, Larus argentatus
"Vega gull", L. a. vega (A)
Yellow-legged gull, Larus michahellis (A)
Iceland gull, Larus glaucoides
"Nominate Iceland gull", L. g. glaucoides (A)
Thayer's gull, L. g. thayeri (A)
Lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus
Slaty-backed gull, Larus schistisagus (A)
Glaucous gull, Larus hyperboreus
Great black-backed gull, Larus marinus
Kelp gull, Larus dominicanus (A)
Brown noddy, Anous stolidus
Black noddy, Anous minutus
Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscata
Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus
Least tern, Sternula antillarum
Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica
Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia
White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus (A)
Black tern, Chlidonias niger
Large-billed tern, Phaetusa simplex (A)
Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii
Common tern, Sterna hirundo
Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea
Forster's tern, Sterna forsteri
Royal tern, Thalasseus maxima
Sandwich tern, Thalasseus sandvicensis
"Cayenne tern", T. s. eurygnathus (A)
Elegant tern, Thalasseus elegans (A)
Black skimmer, Rynchops niger
Sunbittern
Order: EurypygiformesFamily: Eurypygidae
The sunbittern is a bittern-like bird of tropical regions of the Americas and the sole member of the family Eurypygidae (sometimes spelled Eurypigidae) and genus Eurypyga.
Sunbittern, Eurypyga helias (A)
Tropicbirds
Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae
Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their long wings have black markings, as does the head.
White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus
Red-billed tropicbird, Phaeton aethereus (A)
Loons
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Loons are aquatic birds the size of a large duck, to which they are unrelated. Their plumage is largely gray or black and they have spear-shaped bills. Loons swim well and fly adequately but, because their legs are placed towards the rear of the body, are clumsy on land.
Red-throated loon, Gavia stellata
Arctic loon, Gavia arctica (A)
Pacific loon, Gavia pacifica (A)
Common loon, Gavia immer
Albatrosses
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae
Albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses from the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds.
Yellow-nosed albatross, Thalassarche chlororhynchos (A)
Southern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae
The storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Until 2018, this family's three species were included with the other storm-petrels in family Hydrobatidae.
Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus
Northern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family.
European storm-petrel, Hydrobates pelagicus (A)
Leach's storm-petrel, Hydrobates leucorhous
Band-rumped storm-petrel, Hydrobates castro
Shearwaters and petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterized by united tubular nostrils with a median septum.
Northern fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis (A)
Bermuda petrel, Pterodroma cahow (A)
Black-capped petrel, Pterodoma hasitata
Fea's petrel, Pterodroma feae (A)
Bulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii (A)
Cory's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea
Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacifica (A)
Short-tailed shearwater, Ardenna tenuirostris (A)
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna griseus
Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis
Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus (A)
Audubon's shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri
Storks
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, heavy, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills and wide wingspans. They lack the powder down that other wading birds such as herons, spoonbills and ibises use to clean off fish slime. Storks lack a pharynx and are mute.
Jabiru, Jabiru mycteria (A)
White stork, Ciconia ciconia (A?) (not on the AOS checklist)
Wood stork, Mycteria americana
Frigatebirds
Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black, or black-and-white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.
Magnificent frigatebird, Fregata magnificens
Great frigatebird, Fregata minor (A)
Boobies and gannets
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.
Masked booby, Sula dactylatra
Blue-footed booby, Sula nebouxii (A)
Brown booby, Sula leucogaster
Red-footed booby, Sula sula (A)
Northern gannet, Morus bassanus
Anhingas
Order: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae
Anhingas, also known as darters or snakebirds, are cormorant-like water birds with long necks and long, straight beaks. They are fish eaters, diving for long periods, and often swim with only their neck above the water, looking rather like a water snake.
Anhinga, Anhinga anhinga
Cormorants and shags
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Cormorants are medium-to-large aquatic birds, usually with mainly dark plumage and areas of colored skin on the face. The bill is long, thin, and sharply hooked. Their feet are four-toed and webbed.
Great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo (A)
Double-crested cormorant, Nannopterum auritum
Neotropic cormorant, Nannopterum brasilianum
Guanay cormorant, Leucocarbo bougainvillii (A)
Pelicans
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are very large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. Like other birds in the order Pelecaniformes, they have four webbed toes.
Dalmatian pelican, Pelecanus crispus (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
American white pelican, Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
Brown pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis
Great white pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Herons, egrets, and bitterns
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the herons, egrets, and bitterns. Herons and egrets are wading birds with long necks and legs. Herons are large and egrets are smaller. The cattle egret or "cow bird" is seen amongst flocks of cattle, for instance in ranches north of the Everglades. A bird will often attach itself to a particular bull, cow or calf, even being tolerated perching on the back or even the head of the animal. The birds are more shy than the animals, and will fly away if approached. The birds feed on various items turned over by the cattle as they graze and tramp the ground. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive. Unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills, members of the Ardeidae fly with their necks pulled back into a curve.
American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus
Least bittern, Ixobrychus exilis
Great blue heron, Ardea herodias
Gray heron, Ardea cinerea (A)
Cocoi heron, Ardea cocoi (A)
Goliath heron, Ardea goliath (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Purple heron, Ardea purpurea (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Great egret, Ardea alba
Intermediate egret, Ardea intermedia (A)
Whistling heron, Syrigma sibilatrix (A)
Capped heron, Pilherodius pileatus (A)
Little egret, Egretta garzetta (A)
Pacific reef-heron, Egretta sacra (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Snowy egret, Egretta thula
Little blue heron, Egretta caerulea
Tricolored heron, Egretta tricolor
Reddish egret, Egretta rufescens
Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis
Green heron, Butorides virescens
Striated heron, Butorides striata (A)
Black-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax
Yellow-crowned night-heron, Nyctanassa violacea
Boat-billed heron, Cochlearius cochlearius (A)
Ibises and spoonbills
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
The family Threskiornithidae includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings. Their bodies are elongated, the neck more so, with long legs. The bill is also long, curved downward in the ibises, straight and markedly flattened in the spoonbills.
White ibis, Eudocimus albus
Scarlet ibis, Eudocimus ruber (A)
Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus
White-faced ibis, Plegadis chihi
Bare-faced ibis, Phimosus infuscatus (A)
Green ibis, Mesembrinibis cayennensis (A)
Roseate spoonbill, Platalea ajaja
New World vultures
Order: CathartiformesFamily: Cathartidae
New World vultures are not closely related to Old World vultures, but superficially resemble them because of convergent evolution. Like the Old World vultures, they are scavengers. Unlike Old World vultures, which find carcasses by sight, New World vultures have a good sense of smell with which they locate carcasses. The turkey vulture has a red head. The black vulture has a grey head. Although not a water bird, a flock of black vultures at the Myakka River State Park, southeast of Sarasota, has been seen bathing at the edge of the lake and then drying out their wings in the same way as cormorants like the Florida anhinga. This habit may help free them of parasites.
King vulture, Sarcoramphus papa (e)
Black vulture, Coragyps atratus
Turkey vulture, Cathartes aura
Osprey
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
Pandionidae is a family of fish-eating birds of prey possessing a very large, powerful hooked beak for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight. The family is monotypic.
Osprey, Pandion haliaetus
Hawks, eagles, and kites
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey that includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. They have very large, hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
White-tailed kite, Elanus leucurus
Hook-billed kite, Chondrohierax uncinatus (A)
Gray-headed kite, Leptodon cayanensis (A)
Swallow-tailed kite, Elanoides forficatus
Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos (A)
Double-toothed kite, Harpagus bidentatus (A)
Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius
Harpy eagle, Harpia harpyja (A)
Ornate hawk-eagle, Spizaetus ornatus (A)
Tiny hawk, Microspizias superciliosus (A)
Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter striatus
Cooper's hawk, Accipiter cooperii
American goshawk, Accipiter atricapillus (A)
Gundlach's hawk, Accipiter gundlachi (A)
Red kite, Milvus milvus (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Black kite, Milvus migrans (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Steller's sea-eagle, Haliaeetus pelagicus (A)
White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla (A)
Mississippi kite, Ictinia mississippiensis
Black-collared hawk, Busarellus nigricollis (A)
Crane hawk, Geranospiza caerulescens (A)
Snail kite, Rostrhamus sociabilis
Slender-billed kite, Helicolestes hamatus (A)
Plumbeous hawk, Cryptoleucopteryx plumbea (A)
Rufous crab hawk, Buteogallus aequinoctialis (A)
Savanna hawk, Buteogallus meridionalis (A)
Great black hawk, Buteogallus urubitinga (A)
Roadside hawk, Rupornis magnirostris (A)
Harris's hawk, Parabuteo unicinctus (A)
White hawk, Pseudastur albicollis (A)
Red-shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus
Gray-lined hawk, Buteo nitidus (A)
Broad-winged hawk, Buteo platypterus
Short-tailed hawk, Buteo brachyurus
Swainson's hawk, Buteo swainsoni
Zone-tailed hawk, Buteo albonotatus (A)
Red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicensis
Harlan's hawk, B. j. harlani
Rough-legged hawk, Buteo lagopus (A)
Ferruginous hawk, Buteo regalis (A)
Barn-owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Barn owl, Tyto alba
Owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
Typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Flammulated owl, Psiloscops flammeolus (A)
Eastern screech-owl, Megascops asio
Crested owl, Lophostrix cristata (A)
Spectacled owl, Pulsatrix perspicillata (A)
Great horned owl, Bubo virginianus
Snowy owl, Bubo scandiacus (A)
Northern pygmy-owl, Glaucidium gnoma (A)
Ferruginous pygmy-owl, Glaucidium brasilianum (A)
Burrowing owl, Athene cunicularia
Mottled owl, Strix virgata (A)
Spotted owl, Strix occidentalis (A)
Great gray owl, Strix nebulosa (A)
Black-and-white owl, Strix nigrolineata (A)
Barred owl, Strix varia
Long-eared owl, Asio otus (A)
Stygian owl, Asio stygius (A)
Short-eared owl, Asio flammeus
Striped owl, Asio clamator (A)
Boreal owl, Aegolius funereus (A)
Northern saw-whet owl, Aegolius acadicus (A)
Hoopoes
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white, and orangey-pink coloring with a large erectile crest on their head.
Eurasian hoopoe, Upupa epops (A)
Trogons
Order: TrogoniformesFamily: Trogonidae
The family Trogonidae includes trogons and quetzals. Found in tropical woodlands worldwide, they feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons have soft, often colorful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumages.
Pharomachrus species, Pharomachrus sp. (A)
Slaty-tailed trogon, Trogon massena (A)
Black-tailed trogon, Trogon melanurus (A)
White-tailed trogon, Trogon viridis (A)
Collared trogon, Trogon collaris (A)
Motmots
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Momotidae
The motmots have colorful plumage and long, graduated tails which they display by waggling back and forth. In most of the species, the barbs near the ends of the two longest (central) tail feathers are weak and fall off, leaving a length of bare shaft and creating a racket-shaped tail.
Amazonian motmot, Momotus momota (A)
Lesson's motmot, Momotus lessonii (A)
Rufous motmot, Baryphthengus martii (A)
Kingfishers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.
Ringed kingfisher, Megaceryle torquata (A)
Belted kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon
Amazon kingfisher, Chloroceryle amazona (A)
American pygmy kingfisher, Chloroceryle aenea (A)
Green kingfisher, Chloroceryle americana (A)
Green-and-rufous kingfisher, Chloroceryle inda (A)
Puffbirds
Order: PiciformesFamily: Bucconidae
The puffbirds are related to the jacamars and have the same range, but lack the iridescent colors of that family. They are mainly brown, rufous, or gray, with large heads and flattened bills with hooked tips. The loose abundant plumage and short tails makes them look stout and puffy, giving rise to the English common name of the family.
White-necked puffbird, Notharchus hyperrhynchus (A)
Black-breasted puffbird, Notharchus pectoralis (A)
Jacamars
Order: PiciformesFamily: Galbulidae
The jacamars are near passerine birds from tropical South America, with a range that extends up to Mexico. They feed on insects caught on the wing and are glossy, elegant birds with long bills and tails. They resemble the Old World bee-eaters, although they are more closely related to puffbirds.
Rufous-tailed jacamar, Galbula ruficauda (A)
New World barbets
Order: PiciformesFamily: Capitonidae
The barbets are plump birds, with short necks and large heads. They get their name from the bristles which fringe their heavy bills. Most species are brightly colored.
Red-headed barbet, Eubucco bourcierii (A)
Toucan-barbets
Order: PiciformesFamily: Semnornithidae
The toucan-barbets are birds of montane forests in the Neotropics. They are highly social and non-migratory.
Toucan barbet, Semnornis ramphastinus (A)
Toucans
Order: PiciformesFamily: Ramphastidae
Toucans are near passerine birds from the Neotropics. They are brightly marked and have enormous, colorful bills which in some species amount to half their body length.
Northern emerald-toucanet, Aulacorhynchus prasinus (A)
Collared aracari, Pteroglossus torquatus (A)
Keel-billed toucan, Ramphastos sulfuratus (A)
Woodpeckers
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Acorn woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus (A)
Golden-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes aurifrons (A)
Red-bellied woodpecker, Melanerpes carolinus
Williamson's sapsucker, Sphyrapicus thyroideus (A)
Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius
Downy woodpecker, Dryobates pubescens
Red-cockaded woodpecker, Dryobates borealis
Hairy woodpecker, Dryobates villosus
Black-backed woodpecker, Picoides arcticus (A)
Golden-olive woodpecker, Piculus rubiginosus (A)
Northern flicker, Colaptes auratus
Red-naped sapsucker, Sphyrapicus nuchalis (A)
Pileated woodpecker, Dryocopus pileatus
Ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus principalis (considered (E) by FOSRC)
Falcons and caracaras
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
The Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey containing the falcons and caracaras. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Laughing falcon, Herpetotheres cachinnans (A)
Barred forest-falcon, Micrastur ruficollis (A)
Slaty-backed forest-falcon, Micrastur mirandollei (A)
Collared forest-falcon, Micrastur semitorquatus (A)
Red-throated caracara, Ibycter americanus (A)
Crested caracara, Caracara plancus
Yellow-headed caracara, Milvago chimachima (A)
Eurasian kestrel, Falco tinnunculus (A)
American kestrel, Falco sparverius
"Cuban American kestrel", F. s. sparveroides (A)
Prairie falcon, Falco mexicanus (A)
Aplomado falcon, Falco femoralis (A)
Bat falcon, Falco rufigularis (A)
Merlin, Falco columbarius
Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus
New World and African parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Most of the more than 150 species in this family are found in the New World.
Monk parakeet, Myiopsitta monachus (I)
Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis (E)
Green parakeet, Psittacara holochlorus (A)
Red-bellied macaw, Orthopsittaca manilatus (A)
Blue-headed parrot, Pionus menstruus (A)
Green-rumped parrotlet, Forpus passerinus (A)
Nanday parakeet, Aratinga nenday (I)
Mitred parakeet, Psittacara mitratus (I)
White-winged parakeet, Brotogeris versicolurus (I)
Old World parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand.
Budgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus (I) (e) ("Disestablished" per the FOSRC)
Ovenbirds
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Furnariidae
Ovenbirds comprise a large family of small sub-oscine passerine bird species found in Central and South America. They are a diverse group of insectivores which gets its name from the elaborate "oven-like" clay nests built by some species, although others build stick nests or nest in tunnels or clefts in rock. The woodcreepers are brownish birds which maintain an upright vertical posture, supported by their stiff tail vanes. They feed mainly on insects taken from tree trunks.
Olivaceous woodcreeper, Sittasomus griseicapillus (A)
Manakins
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pipridae
The manakins are a family of subtropical and tropical mainland Central and South America, and Trinidad and Tobago. They are compact forest birds, the males typically being brightly colored, although the females of most species are duller and usually green-plumaged. Manakins feed on small fruits, berries, and insects.
Blue-backed manakin, Chiroxiphia pareola (A)
White-collared manakin, Manacus candei (A)
White-bearded manakin, Manacus manacus (A)
Tityras and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tityridae
Tityridae is family of suboscine passerine birds found in forest and woodland in the Neotropics. The approximately 30 species in this family were formerly lumped with the families Pipridae and Cotingidae. They are small to medium-sized birds.
Masked tityra, Tityra semifasciata (A)
Rose-throated becard, Pachyramphus aglaiae (A)
Tyrant flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae
Tyrant flycatchers are passerines which occur throughout North and South America. They superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers, but are more robust and have stronger bills. They do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the songbirds. Most, but not all, are rather plain. As the name implies, most are insectivorous.
Elaenia species, Elaenia sp. (A)
Ash-throated flycatcher, Myiarchus cinerascens
Great crested flycatcher, Myiarchus crinitus
Dusky-capped flycatcher, Myiarchus tuberculifer (A)
Brown-crested flycatcher, Myiarchus tyrannulus
Great kiskadee, Pitangus sulphuratus (A)
La Sagra's flycatcher, Myiarchus sagrae (A)
Sulphur-bellied flycatcher, Myiodynastes luteiventris (A)
Piratic flycatcher, Empidonomus leucophaius (A)
Variegated flycatcher, Empidonomus varius (A)
Tropical kingbird, Tyrannus melancholicus
Cassin's kingbird, Tyrannus vociferans (A)
Western kingbird, Tyrannus verticalis
Eastern kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus
Gray kingbird, Tyrannus dominicensis
Loggerhead kingbird, Tyrannus caudifasciatus (A)
Giant kingbird, Tyrannus cubensis (A?)
Scissor-tailed flycatcher, Tyrannus forficatus
Fork-tailed flycatcher, Tyrannus savana (A)
Olive-sided flycatcher, Contopus cooperi
Western wood-pewee, Contopus sordidulus (A)
Eastern wood-pewee, Contopus virens
Cuban pewee, Contopus cariibaeus (A)
Yellow-bellied flycatcher, Empidonax flaviventris (A)
Acadian flycatcher, Empidonax virescens
Alder flycatcher, Empidonax alnorum
Willow flycatcher, Empidonax traillii (A)
Least flycatcher, Empidonax minimus
Hammond's flycatcher, Empidonax hammondii (A)
Western flycatcher, Empidonax difficilis (A)
Black phoebe, Sayornis nigricans (A)
Eastern phoebe, Sayornis phoebe
Say's phoebe, Sayornis saya (A)
Vermilion flycatcher, Pyrocephalus rubinus
Antbirds
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Thamnophilidae
The antbirds are a large family of small passerine birds of subtropical and tropical Central and South America. They are forest birds which tend to feed on insects at or near the ground.
Great antshrike, Taraba major (A)
Barred antshrike, Thamnophilus doliatus (A)
Vireos, shrike-babblers, and erpornis
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae
The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerines. They are typically greenish in color and resemble wood warblers apart from their heavier bills.
White-eyed vireo, Vireo griseus
Thick-billed vireo, Vireo crassirostris
Cuban vireo, Vireo gundlachii (A)
Black-capped vireo, Vireo atricapilla (A)
Bell's vireo, Vireo bellii
Yellow-throated vireo, Vireo flavifrons
Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius
Philadelphia vireo, Vireo philadelphicus
Warbling vireo, Vireo gilvus
Red-eyed vireo, Vireo olivaceus
Yellow-green vireo, Vireo flavoviridis (A)
Black-whiskered vireo, Vireo altiloquus
Old World orioles
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colorful passerine birds that are not related to the New World orioles.
Eurasian golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Shrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerines known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A shrike's beak is hooked, like that of a typical bird of prey.
Loggerhead shrike, Lanius ludovicianus
Northern shrike, Lanius borealis (A?)
Crows, jays, and magpies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Black-throated magpie-jay, Calocitta colliei (A)
Green jay, Cyanocorax yncas (A)
Blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata
Florida scrub-jay, Aphelocoma coerulescens
American crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos
Carrion crow, Corvus corone (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Tamaulipas crow, Corvus imparatus (A)
Fish crow, Corvus ossifragus
Chihuahuan raven, Corvus cryptoleucus (A)
Common raven, Corvus corax (A)
Black-billed magpie, Pica hudsonia (A)
Tits, chickadees, and titmice
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Carolina chickadee, Poecile carolinensis
Black-capped chickadee, Poecile atricapillus (A)
Tufted titmouse, Baeolophus bicolor
Larks
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Horned lark, Eremophila alpestris
Swallows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partly joined at the base.
Bank swallow, Riparia riparia
Tree swallow, Tachycineta bicolor
Bahama swallow, Tachycineta cyaneovirdis (A)
Violet-green swallow, Tachycineta thalassina (A)
Mangrove swallow, Tachycineta albilinea (A)
Southern rough-winged swallow, Stelgidopteryx ruficollis (A)
Northern rough-winged swallow, Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Brown-chested martin, Progne tapera (A)
Purple martin, Progne subis
Gray-breasted martin, Progne chalybea (A)
Southern martin, Progne elegans (A)
Cuban martin, Progne cryptoleuca (A)
Caribbean martin, Progne dominicensis (A)
Barn swallow, Hirundo rustica
Cliff swallow, Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Cave swallow, Petrochelidon fulva
Bulbuls
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae
The bulbuls are a family of medium-sized songbirds native to Africa and tropical Asia. They are noisy and gregarious and often have beautiful songs.
Red-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (I)
Kinglets
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets are a small family of birds which resemble the titmice. They are very small insectivorous birds. The adults have colored crowns, giving rise to their name.
Ruby-crowned kinglet, Corthylio calendula
Golden-crowned kinglet, Regulus satrapa
Waxwings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Bohemian waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus (A)
Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorum
Silky-flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ptiliogonatidae
The silky-flycatchers are a small family of passerine birds which occur mainly in Central America, although the range of one species extends to central California. They are related to waxwings and like that group, have soft silky plumage, usually gray or pale-yellow. They have small crests.
Phainopepla, Phainopepla nitens (A)
Nuthatches
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike most other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet.
Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis
White-breasted nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis
Brown-headed nuthatch, Sitta pusilla
Pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea (A)
Treecreepers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Brown creeper, Certhia americana
Gnatcatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Polioptilidae
The family Polioptilidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds containing the gnatcatchers and gnatwrens.
Blue-gray gnatcatcher, Polioptila caerulea
Wrens
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
Wrens are small and inconspicuous birds, except for their loud songs. They have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Rock wren, Salpinctes obsoletus (A)
House wren, Troglodytes aedon
Winter wren, Troglodytes hyemalis
Sedge wren, Cistothorus platensis
Marsh wren, Cistothorus palustris
Carolina wren, Thryothorus ludovicianus
Bewick's wren, Thryomanes bewickii (A)
Mockingbirds and thrashers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae
The mimids are a family of passerine birds which includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. They are notable for their vocalization, especially their remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. The species tend towards dull grays and browns in their appearance.
Gray catbird, Dumetella carolinensis
Curve-billed thrasher, Toxostoma curvirostre (A)
Brown thrasher, Toxostoma rufum
Sage thrasher, Oreoscoptes montanus (A)
Bahama mockingbird, Mimus gundlachii
Northern mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos
White-banded mockingbird, Mimus triurus (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Starlings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerines with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Their plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
European starling, Sturnus vulgaris (I)
Common myna, Acridotheres tristis (I)
Thrushes and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly but not exclusively in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Eastern bluebird, Sialia sialis
Mountain bluebird, Sialia currucoides (A)
Townsend's solitaire, Myadestes townsendi (A)
Veery, Catharus fuscescens
Gray-cheeked thrush, Catharus minimus
Bicknell's thrush, Catharus bicknelli (A)
Swainson's thrush, Catharus ustulatus
Hermit thrush, Catharus guttatus
Wood thrush, Hylocichla mustelina
Clay-colored thrush, Turdus grayi (A)
American robin, Turdus migratorius
Red-legged thrush, Turdus plumbeus (A)
Varied thrush, Ixoreus naevius (A)
Old World flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
The Old World flycatchers are a large family of small passerine birds. These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing.
European robin, Erithacus rubecula (A)
Blue rock thrush, Monticola solitarius (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Common rock thrush, Monticola saxatilis (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Northern wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe (A)
Waxbills and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds native to the Old World tropics. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colors and patterns.
Scaly-breasted munia, Lonchura punctulata (I)
Tricolored munia, Lonchura malacca (I)
Old World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small plump brownish or grayish birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
House sparrow, Passer domesticus (I)
Wagtails and pipits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. They are slender, ground-feeding insectivores of open country.
Eastern yellow wagtail, Motacilla tschutschensis (A)
White wagtail, Motacilla alba (A)
American pipit, Anthus rubescens
Sprague's pipit, Anthus spragueii (A)
Finches, euphonias, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerines. They are small to moderately large and have strong, usually conical and sometimes very large, beaks. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. They have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Evening grosbeak, Coccothraustes vespertinus (A)
Eurasian bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula (A)
House finch, Haemorhous mexicanus (I) (native to the southwestern U.S; introduced in the east)
Purple finch, Haemorhous purpureus
Common redpoll, Acanthis flammea (A)
Red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra (A)
White-winged crossbill, Loxia leucoptera (A)
Common chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs (A)
Pine siskin, Spinus pinus
Lesser goldfinch, Spinus psaltria (A)
American goldfinch, Spinus tristis
Thick-billed euphonia, Euphonia laniirostris (A)
Orange-bellied euphonia, Euphonia xanthogaster (A)
Violaceous euphonia, Euphonia violacea (A)
Longspurs and snow buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae
The Calcariidae are a group of passerine birds that had traditionally been grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.
Lapland longspur, Calcarius lapponicus (A)
Chestnut-collared longspur, Calcarius ornatus (A)
Smith's longspur, Calcarius pictus (A)
Snow bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis (A)
Old World buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
Emberizidae is a family of passerine birds containing a single genus. Until 2017, the New World sparrows (Passerellidae) were also considered part of this family.
Little bunting, Emberiza pusilla (A)
New World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae
Until 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns.
Bachman's sparrow, Peucaea aestivalis
Grasshopper sparrow, Ammodramus savannarum
Florida grasshopper sparrow, A. s. floridanus
Black-throated sparrow, Amphispiza bilineata (A)
Lark sparrow, Chondestes grammacus
Lark bunting, Calamospiza melanocorys (A)
Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina
Clay-colored sparrow, Spizella pallida
Field sparrow, Spizella pusilla
Fox sparrow, Passerella iliaca
American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea (A)
Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis
"Oregon junco", J. h. oreganus group (A)
White-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys
Golden-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia atricapilla (A)
Harris's sparrow, Zonotrichia querula (A)
White-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis
Vesper sparrow, Pooecetes gramineus
LeConte's sparrow, Ammospiza leconteii
Seaside sparrow, Ammospiza maritima
Dusky seaside sparrow, A. m. nigrescens (E)
Nelson's sparrow, Ammospiza nelsoni
Saltmarsh sparrow, Ammospiza caudacta
Henslow's sparrow, Centronyx henslowii
Savannah sparrow, Passerculus sandwichensis
Song sparrow, Melospiza melodia
Lincoln's sparrow, Melospiza lincolnii
Swamp sparrow, Melospiza georgiana
Green-tailed towhee, Pipilo chlorurus (A)
Spotted towhee, Pipilo maculatus (A)
Eastern towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Spindalises
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Spindalidae
The members of this small family, newly recognized in 2017, are native to the Greater Antilles. One species occurs fairly frequently in Florida.
Western spindalis, Spindalis zena
Yellow-breasted chat
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteriidae
This species was historically placed in the wood-warblers (Parulidae) but nonetheless most authorities were unsure if it belonged there. It was placed in its own family in 2017.
Yellow-breasted chat, Icteria virens
Troupials and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae
The icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colorful, passerines restricted to the New World, including the grackles, New World blackbirds and New World orioles. Most have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange or red.
Yellow-headed blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Crested oropendola, Psarocolius decumanus (A)
Yellow-rumped cacique, Cacicus cela (A)
Red-rumped cacique, Cacicus haemorrhous (A)
Eastern meadowlark, Sturnella magna
Western meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta (A)
Orchard oriole, Icterus spurius
Hooded oriole, Icterus cucullatus (A)
Bullock's oriole, Icterus bullockii
Spot-breasted oriole, Icterus pectoralis (I)
Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula
Scott's oriole, Icterus parisorum (A)
Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus
Tawny-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius umeralis (A)
Shiny cowbird, Molothrus bonariensis
Bronzed cowbird, Molothrus aeneus
Brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater
Rusty blackbird, Euphagus carolinus
Brewer's blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus
Common grackle, Quiscalus quiscula
Boat-tailed grackle, Quiscalus major
Great-tailed grackle, Quiscalus mexicanus (A)
Yellow-hooded blackbird, Chrysomus icterocephalus (A)
New World warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae
The wood warblers are a group of small, often colorful, passerines restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores.
Ovenbird, Seiurus aurocapilla
Worm-eating warbler, Helmitheros vermivorum
Louisiana waterthrush, Parkesia motacilla
Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis
Bachman's warbler, Vermivora bachmanii (E)
Golden-winged warbler, Vermivora chrysoptera
Blue-winged warbler, Vermivora cyanoptera
Black-and-white warbler, Mniotilta varia
Prothonotary warbler, Protonotaria citrea
Swainson's warbler, Limnothlypis swainsonii
Tennessee warbler, Leiothlypis peregrina
Orange-crowned warbler, Leiothlypis celata
Nashville warbler, Leiothlypis ruficapilla
Connecticut warbler, Oporornis agilis
MacGillivray's warbler, Geothlypis tolmiei (A)
Mourning warbler, Geothlypis philadelphia (A)
Kentucky warbler, Geothlypis formosa
Common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas
Hooded warbler, Setophaga citrina
American redstart, Setophaga ruticilla
Kirtland's warbler, Setophaga kirtlandii (A)
Cape May warbler, Setophaga tigrina
Cerulean warbler, Setophaga cerulea
Northern parula, Setophaga americana
Tropical parula, Setophaga pitiayumi (A?)
Magnolia warbler, Setophaga magnolia
Bay-breasted warbler, Setophaga castanea
Blackburnian warbler, Setophaga fusca
Yellow warbler, Setophaga petechia
Chestnut-sided warbler, Setophaga pensylvanica
Blackpoll warbler, Setophaga striata
Black-throated blue warbler, Setophaga caerulescens
Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum
Pine warbler, Setophaga pinus
Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata
"Audubon's warbler", S. c. auduboni (A)
Yellow-throated warbler, Setophaga dominica
Prairie warbler, Setophaga discolor
Black-throated gray warbler, Setophaga nigrescens (A)
Townsend's warbler, Setophaga townsendi (A)
Hermit warbler, Setophaga occidentalis (A)
Golden-cheeked warbler, Setophaga chrysoparia (A)
Black-throated green warbler, Setophaga virens
Canada warbler, Cardellina canadensis
Wilson's warbler, Cardellina pusilla
Cardinals and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
The cardinals are a family of robust, seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages.
Summer tanager, Piranga rubra
Scarlet tanager, Piranga olivacea
Western tanager, Piranga ludoviciana
Northern cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis
Rose-breasted grosbeak, Pheucticus ludovicianus
Black-headed grosbeak, Pheucticus melanocephalus (A)
Blue grosbeak, Passerina caerulea
Lazuli bunting, Passerina amoena (A)
Red-crowned ant-tanager, Habia rubica (A)
Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea
Varied bunting, Passerina versicolor (A)
Painted bunting, Passerina ciris
Dickcissel, Spiza americana
Tanagers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Thraupidae
The tanagers are a large group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, mainly in the tropics. Many species are brightly colored. As a family they are omnivorous, but individual species specialize in eating fruits, seeds, insects, or other types of food. Most have short, rounded wings.
Green honeycreeper, Chlorophanes spiza (A)
Bananaquit, Coereba flaveola (A)
Red-legged honeycreeper, Cyanerpes cyaneus (A)
Black-faced dacnis, Dacnis lineata (A)
Blue dacnis, Dacnis cayana (A)
Yellow-faced grassquit, Tiaris olivacea (A)
Black-faced grassquit, Tiaris bicolor (A)
Swallow tanager, Tersina viridis (A)
Blue-black grassquit, Volatinia jacarina (A)
Speckled tanager, Ixothraupis guttata (A)
Yellow-bellied seedeater, Sporophila nigricollis (A)
Wing-barred seedeater, Sporophila americana (A)
Ruddy-breasted seedeater, Sporophila minuta (A)
Grassland yellow-finch, Sicalis luteola (A)
Golden-hooded tanager, Stilpnia larvata (A)
Scarlet-rumped tanager, Ramphocelus passerinii (A)
Bay-headed tanager, Tangara gyrola (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Turquoise tanager, Tangara mexicana (A) (not on the AOS checklist)
Cuban grassquit, Phonipara canora (A)
Black-headed saltator, Saltator atriceps (A)
Buff-throated saltator, Saltator maximus (A)
Cuban bullfinch, Melopyrrha nigra (A)
Greater Antillean bullfinch, Melopyrrha violacea (e)
Notable exotics
The following introduced species, while not considered officially established by the FOSRC, have self-sustaining populations and, within range and proper habitat, are likely to be encountered.
Mandarin duck, Aix galericulata (I)
Red junglefowl, Gallus gallus (I - Key West)
Common peafowl, Pavo cristatus (I)
Blue-and-yellow macaw, Ara araruana (I)
Notes
References
See also
List of North American birds
List of birds of Everglades National Park
List of birds of Dry Tortugas National Park
List of invasive species in the Everglades
List of amphibians of Florida
Reptiles of Florida
External links
Florida Ornithological Society
Non-native birds according to Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
Pictures of birds of Florida
Birds
Florida |
4162372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20in%20Europe | Islam in Europe | Islam is the second-largest religion in Europe after Christianity. Although the majority of Muslim communities in Western Europe formed recently, there are centuries-old Muslim communities in the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Volga region. The term "Muslim Europe" is used to refer to the Muslim-majority countries in the Balkans (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo) and parts of countries in Eastern Europe with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and some republics of Russia) that constitute large populations of indigenous European Muslims, although the majority are secular.
Islam expanded into the Caucasus through the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century and entered Southern Europe after the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th–10th centuries; Muslim political entities existed firmly in what is today Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Malta during the Middle Ages. The Muslim populations in these territories were either converted to Christianity or expelled by the end of the 15th century by the indigenous Christian rulers (see Reconquista). The Ottoman Empire further expanded into Southeastern Europe and consolidated its political power by invading and conquering huge portions of the Serbian Empire, Bulgarian Empire, and the remaining territories of the Byzantine Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. Over the centuries, the Ottoman Empire gradually lost almost all of its European territories, until it was defeated and eventually collapsed in 1922. Islam spread in Eastern Europe via the conversion of the Volga Bulgars, Cuman-Kipchaks, and later the Golden Horde and its successor khanates, with its various Muslim populations called "Tatars" by the Russians. Historically significant Muslim populations in Europe include the Gorani, Torbeshi, Pomaks, Bosniaks, Muslim Albanians, Cham Albanians, Greek Muslims, Vallahades, Muslim Romani people, Balkan Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Cretan Turks, Yörüks, Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Kazakhs, Gajals, and Megleno-Romanians.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, large numbers of Muslims immigrated to Western Europe. By 2010, an estimated 44 million Muslims were living in Europe (6%), including an estimated 19 million in the EU (3.8%). They are projected to compose 8% or 58 million by 2030. Islam in Europe is often the subject of intense discussion and political controversies sparked by events such as Islamic terrorist attacks in European countries, The Satanic Verses controversy, the cartoons affair in Denmark, debates over Islamic dress, and growing support for right-wing populist movements and parties that view Muslims as a threat to indigenous European culture and liberal values. Such events have also fueled ongoing debates regarding the topics of globalization, multiculturalism, nativism Islamophobia, relations between Muslims and other religious groups, and populist politics.
History
The Muslim population in Europe is extremely diverse with varied histories and origins. Today, the Muslim-majority regions of Europe are the Balkans (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and the European part of Turkey), some Russian republics in the North Caucasus and the Idel-Ural region, and the European part of Kazakhstan. These communities consist predominantly of indigenous Europeans of the Muslim faith, whose religious tradition dates back several hundred years to the Middle Ages. The transcontinental countries of Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan are also majority Muslim.
Western Europe and the Mediterranean Region
Arab Muslim forays into Europe began shortly after the foundation of Islam in the 7th century CE. Soon after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, his community needed to appoint a new leader, giving rise to the title of caliph (), which was claimed by some of Muhammad's closest companions (ṣaḥāba) and their descendants over the succession for the role of caliph throughout the centuries. The four "rightly-guided" (rāshidūn) caliphs who succeeded him oversaw the initial phase of the early Muslim conquests, advancing through Persia, the Levant, Egypt, and North Africa.
The early Muslim conquests expanded westwards, and within less than a century encompassed parts of the European continent. Arab Muslim forces easily prevailed over the Byzantine army in the crucial battles of Ajnâdayn (634 CE) and Yarmûk (636 CE), and incorporated the former Byzantine province of Syria, pushing to the north and west. At the same time, consolidation of the hold of Islam by the Arab empires in North Africa and the Middle East was soon to be followed by incursions into what is now Europe, as Arab and Berber Muslim armies raided and eventually conquered territories leading to the establishment of Muslim-ruled states on the European continent.
A short-lived invasion of Byzantine Sicily by a small Arab and Berber contingent that landed in 652 was the prelude of a series of incursions; from the 8th to the 15th centuries, Muslim states ruled parts of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, southern France, and several Mediterranean islands, while in the East, incursions into a much reduced in territory and weakened Byzantine Empire continued. In the 720s and 730s, Arab and Berber Muslim forces fought and raided north of the Pyrenees, well into what is now France, reaching as north as Tours, where they were eventually defeated and repelled by the Christian Franks in 732 to their Iberian and North African territories.
Islam gained its first genuine foothold in continental Europe from 711 onward, with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Arabs renamed the land al-Andalus, which expanded to include the larger parts of what is now Portugal and Spain, excluding the northern highlands. Arab and Berber Muslim forces established various emirates in Europe after the invasion of southern Iberia and the foundation of al-Andalus. One notable emirate was the Emirate of Crete, a Muslim-ruled state and center of Muslim piratical activity that existed on the Mediterranean island of Crete from the late 820s until the Byzantine reconquest of the island in 961, when the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas defeated and expelled the Muslim Arabs and Berbers from Crete for the Byzantine Empire, and made the island into a theme. The other was the Emirate of Sicily, which existed on the eponymous island from 831 to 1091; Muslim Arabs and Berbers held onto Sicily and other regions of southern Italy until they were eventually defeated and expelled by the Christian Normans in 1072 to their Iberian and North African territories.
The presence of a Muslim majority in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula by the foundation of al-Andalus and other Muslim-ruled states in the Mediterranean Region between the 7th and 10th centuries CE is debated among scholars and historians; one author claims that al-Andalus had a Muslim majority after most of the local population allegedly converted to Islam on their own will, whereas other historians remark how the Umayyad Caliphate persecuted many Berber Christians in the 7th and 8th centuries CE, who slowly converted to Islam. Modern historians further recognize that the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries CE suffered religious persecution, religious violence, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers; many were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs. The martyrdom of forty-eight Iberian Christians that took place under the rule of Abd al-Rahman II and Muhammad I in the Emirate of Córdoba (between 850 and 859 CE) has been recorded in historical documents and treatises of the time.
This coincided with the La Convivencia period of the Iberian Peninsula as well as the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. In Francia, the Arab and Berber Muslim forces invaded the region of Septimania in 719 and deposed the local Visigothic Kingdom in 720; after the Frankish conquest of Narbonne in 759, the Muslim Arabs and Berbers were defeated by the Christian Franks and retreated to their Andalusian heartland after 40 years of occupation, and the Carolingian king Pepin the Short came up reinforced. The Iberian Christian counter-offensive known as the Reconquista began in the early 8th century, when Muslim forces managed to temporarily push into Aquitaine. Slowly, the Christian forces began a re-conquest of the fractured Taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus. There was still a Muslim presence north of Spain, especially in Fraxinet all the way into Switzerland until the 10th century. Muslim forces under the Aghlabids conquered Sicily after a series of expeditions spanning 827–902, and had notably raided Rome in 846. By 1236, practically all that remained of Muslim-ruled Iberia was the southern province of Granada.
Since they are considered "People of the Book" in the Islamic religion, Christians and Jews under Muslim rule were subjected to the status of dhimmi (along with Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians in the Middle East), which was inferior to the status of Muslims. Arab Muslims imposed the Islamic law (sharīʿa) in these Muslim-ruled countries; thus, the Latin- and Greek-speaking European Christian populations, as well as the Jewish communities of Europe, faced religious discrimination and persecution due to being considered religious minorities; they were further banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. Under the Islamic law (sharīʿa), Non-Muslims were obligated to pay the jizya and kharaj taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam. Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam.
Cultural impact and interaction
Overthrown by the Abbasids, the deposed Umayyad caliph Abd al-Rahman I fled the city of Damascus in 756 and established an independent Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus. His dynasty consolidated the presence of Islam in al-Andalus. By the time of the reign of Abd al-Rahman II (822–852), Córdoba was becoming one of the biggest and most important cities in Europe. Umayyad Spain had become a centre of the Muslim world that rivaled the Muslim cities of Damascus and Baghdad. "The emirs of Córdoba built palaces reflecting the confidence and vitality of Andalusi Islam, minted coins, brought to Spain luxury items from the East, initiated ambitious projects of irrigation and transformed agriculture, reproduced the style and ceremony of the Abbasid court ruling in the East and welcomed famous scholars, poets and musicians from the rest of the Muslim world". But, the most significant impact of the Emirate was its cultural influence over the Non-Muslim local populations. An "elegant Arabic" became the preferred language of the educated—Muslim, Christian, and Jewish, the readership of Arabic books increased rapidly, and Arabic romance and poetry became extremely popular. The popularity of literary Arabic was just one aspect of the Arabization of the Christian and Jewish populations of the Iberian Peninsula, which led contemporaries to refer to the affected populations as "Mozarabs" (mozárabes in Spanish; moçárabes in Portuguese; derived from the Arabic musta’rib, translated as "like Arabs" or "Arabicized")."
Arabic-speaking Iberian Christian scholars preserved and studied influential pre-Christian and pre-Islamic Greco-Roman texts, and introduced aspects of medieval Islamic culture, including the arts, economics, science, and technology. (See also: Latin translations of the 12th century and Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe). Muslim rule endured in the Emirate of Granada, from 1238 as a vassal state of the Christian Kingdom of Castile until the completion of La Reconquista in 1492. The Moriscos (Moorish in Spanish) were finally expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Iberia), by Philip III during the Spanish Inquisition.
Throughout the 16th to 19th centuries, the Barbary States sent pirates to raid nearby parts of Europe in order to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in the Muslim world, primarily in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, throughout the Renaissance and early modern period. According to historian Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, Barbary pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves, although these numbers are disputed. These slaves were captured mainly from the crews of captured vessels, from coastal villages in Spain and Portugal, and from farther places like the Italian Peninsula, France, or England, the Netherlands, Ireland, the Azores Islands, and even Iceland.
For a long time, until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. The Crimean Tatars frequently mounted raids into the Danubian principalities, Poland–Lithuania, and Russia to enslave people whom they could capture.
Eastern Europe
Hungary
The Böszörmény Muslims formed an early community of Muslims in Hungary. Their biggest settlement was near the town of present-day Orosháza in the central part of the Hungarian Kingdom. At that time this settlement entirely populated by Muslims was probably one of the biggest settlements of the Kingdom. This and several other Muslim settlements were all destroyed and their inhabitants massacred during the 1241 Mongol invasion of Hungary.
Russia and Ukraine
In the mid-7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam spread into areas that would later become part of Russia. There are accounts of the trade connections between Muslims and the Rus', apparently people from the Baltic region who made their way towards the Black Sea through Central Russia. During his journey to Volga Bulgaria in 921–922, Ibn Fadlan observed the Rus', claiming that some had converted to Islam. "They are very fond of pork and many of them who have assumed the path of Islam miss it very much." The Rus' also relished their nabidh, a fermented drink which Ibn Fadlan often mentioned as part of their daily fare.
The Mongols began their conquest of Rus', of Volga Bulgaria, and of the Cuman-Kipchak Confederation (parts of present-day Russia and Ukraine) in the 13th century. After the Mongol empire split, the eastern European section became known as the Golden Horde. Although not originally Muslim, the western Mongols adopted Islam as their religion in the early-14th century under Berke Khan, and later Uzbeg Khan established it as the official religion of the state. Much of the mostly Turkic-speaking population of the Horde, as well as the small Mongol aristocracy, became Islamized (if they were not already Muslim, like the Volga Bulgars) and became known to Russians and Europeans as the Tatars. More than half
of the European portion of what is now Russia and Ukraine came under the suzerainty of Muslim Tatars and Turks from the 13th to the 15th centuries. The Crimean Khanate became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire in 1475 and subjugated what remained of the Great Horde by 1502. The Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered the Muslim Khanate of Kazan in 1552.
Belarus and Poland–Lithuania
Lipka Tatar Muslims of Belarus and Poland–Lithuania. The material of their Mosques is wood.
Balkans
Seljuks
As a result of Babai revolt, in 1261, one of the Turkoman dervish Sari Saltuk was forced to take refuge in the Byzantine Empire, alongside 40 Turkoman clans. He was settled in Dobruja, whence he entered the service of the powerful Muslim Mongol emir, Nogai Khan. Sari Saltuk became the hero of an epic, as a dervish and ghazi spreading Islam into Europe.
Ottomans
The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into Europe by taking the European portions of the Byzantine Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries up until the 1453 capture of Constantinople, establishing Islam as the state religion in the region. The Ottoman Empire continued to stretch northwards, taking Hungary in the 16th century, and reaching as far north as the Podolia in the mid-17th century (Peace of Buczacz), by which time most of the Balkans was under Ottoman control. Ottoman expansion in Europe ended with their defeat in the Great Turkish War. In the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), the Ottoman Empire lost most of its conquests in Central Europe. The Crimean Khanate was later annexed by Russia in 1783. Over the centuries, the Ottoman Empire gradually lost almost all of its European territories, until its collapse in 1922, when the former empire was transformed into the nation of Turkey.
Between 1354 (when the Ottomans crossed into Europe at Gallipoli) and 1526, the Empire had conquered the territory of present-day Greece, Bulgaria, Romania]], Albania, Kosovo, Serbia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Bosnia, and Hungary. The Empire laid siege to Vienna in 1683. The intervention of the Polish King broke the siege, and from then afterwards the Ottomans battled the Habsburg Emperors until 1699, when the Treaty of Karlowitz forced them to surrender Hungary and portions of present-day Croatia, Slovenia, and Serbia. From 1699 to 1913, wars and insurrections pushed the Ottoman Empire further back until it reached the current European border of present-day Turkey.
For most of this period, the Ottoman retreats were accompanied by Muslim refugees from these provinces (in almost all cases converts from the previous subject populations), leaving few Muslim inhabitants in Hungary and Croatia. Bulgaria remained under Ottoman rule until around 1878, and currently its population includes about 131,000 Muslims (2001 Census) (see Pomaks).
Bosnia was conquered by the Ottomans in 1463, and a large portion of the population converted to Islam in the first 200 years of Ottoman domination. By the time Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia in 1878, the Habsburgs had shed the desire to re-Christianize new provinces. As a result, a sizable Muslim population in Bosnia survived into the 20th century. Albania and the Kosovo area remained under Ottoman rule until 1913. Prior to the Ottoman conquest, the northern Albanians were Roman Catholic and the southern Albanians were Christian Orthodox, but by 1913 the majority were Muslim.
Conversion to Islam
Apart from the effect of a lengthy period under Ottoman domination, many of the subject population were periodically and forcefully converted to Islam as a result of a deliberate move by the Ottomans as part of a policy of ensuring the loyalty of the population against a potential Venetian invasion. However, Islam was spread by force in the areas under the control of the Ottoman Sultan through devşirme and jizya. Rather Arnold explains Islam's spread by quoting 17th-century author Johannes Scheffler who stated:
Cultural influences
Islam piqued interest among European scholars, setting off the movement of Orientalism. The founder of modern Islamic studies in Europe was Ignác Goldziher, who began studying Islam in the late 19th century. For instance, Sir Richard Francis Burton, 19th-century English explorer, scholar, and orientalist, and translator of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, disguised himself as a Pashtun and visited both Medina and Mecca during the Hajj, as described in his book A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah.
Islamic architecture influenced European architecture in various ways (for example, the Türkischer Tempel synagogue in Vienna). During the 12th-century Renaissance in Europe, Latin translations of Arabic texts were introduced.
Twentieth century
Muslim emigration to metropolitan France surged during the Algerian War of Independence. In 1961, the West German Government invited first Gastarbeiters and similar contracts were offered by Switzerland; some of these migrant workers came from majority-Muslim countries such as Turkey. Migrants came to Britain from its majority-Muslim former colonies Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Current demographics
The exact number of Muslims in Europe is unknown but according to estimates by the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe (excluding Turkey) in 2010 was about 44 million (6% of the total population), including 19 million (3.8% of the population) in the European Union. A 2010 Pew Research Center study reported that 2.7% of the world's Muslim population live in Europe.
Turkish people form the largest ethnic group in the European part of Turkey (as well as the Republic of Turkey as a whole) and Northern Cyprus. They also form centuries-old minority groups in other post-Ottoman nation states within the Balkans (i.e. the Balkan Turks), where they form the largest ethnic minority in Bulgaria and the second-largest minority in North Macedonia. Meanwhile, in the diaspora, the Turks form the largest ethnic minority group in Austria, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. In 1997, there was approximately 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (i.e. excluding Northern Cyprus and Turkey). By 2010, up to 15 million Turks were living in the European Union (i.e. excluding Turkey and several Balkan and Eastern European countries which are not in the EU). According to sociologist Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium in 2012. In addition, substantial Turkish communities have been formed in the United Kingdom, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Italy, Liechtenstein, Finland, and Spain. Meanwhile, there are over one million Turks still living in the Balkans (especially in Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Dobruja), and approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks in the Eastern European regions of the Post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine).
Estimates of the percentage of Muslims in Russia (the biggest group of Muslims in Europe) vary from 5 to 11.7%, depending on sources. It also depends on if only observant Muslims or all people of Muslim descent are counted. The city of Moscow is home to an estimated 1.5 million Muslims.
58.8% of the population in Albania adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. The majority of Albanian Muslims are secular Sunnīs with a significant Bektashi Shīʿa minority. The percentage of Muslims is 93.5% in Kosovo, 39.3% in North Macedonia (according to the 2002 Census, 46.5% of the children aged 0–4 were Muslim in Macedonia) and 50.7% in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In transcontinental countries such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, 99% and 93% of the populations from the respective countries are initially registered by the state as Muslims. According to the 2011 census, 20% of the total population in Montenegro are Muslims.
"Non-denominational Muslims" is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to a specific Islamic denomination, do not self-identify with any specific Islamic denomination, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches. A quarter of the world's Muslim population are non-denominational Muslims. Non-denominational Muslims constitute the majority of the Muslim population in eight countries, and a plurality in three others: Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), and Nigeria (42%). They are found primarily in Central Asia. Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population. Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.
In 2015, Darren E. Sherkat questioned in Foreign Affairs whether some of the Muslim growth projections are accurate as they don't take into account the increasing number of non-religious Muslims. Quantitative research is lacking, but he believes the European trend mirrors that from North America: statistical data from the General Social Survey in the United States show that 32% of those raised Muslim no longer embrace Islam in adulthood, and 18% hold no religious identification (see also: Ex-Muslims).
A survey conducted by Pew Research Center in 2016 found that Muslims make up 4.9% of all Europe's population. According to the same study, conversion does not add significantly to the growth of the Muslim population in Europe, with roughly 160,000 more people leaving Islam than converting into Islam between 2010 and 2016.
Projections
A Pew Research Center study, published in January 2011, forecast an increase of Muslims in European population from 6% in 2010 to 8% in 2030. The study also predicted that Muslim fertility rate in Europe would drop from 2.2 in 2010 to 2.0 in 2030. On the other hand, the non-Muslim fertility rate in Europe would increase from 1.5 in 2010 to 1.6 in 2030. Another Pew study published in 2017 projected that in 2050 Muslims will make 7.4% (if all migration into Europe were to immediately and permanently stop - a "zero migration" scenario) up to 14% (under a "high" migration scenario) of Europe's population. Data from the 2000s for the rates of growth of Islam in Europe showed that the growing number of Muslims was due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.
In 2017, Pew projected that the Muslim population of Europe would reach a level between 7% and 14% by 2050. The projections depend on the level of migration. With no net migration, the projected level was 7%; with high migration, it was 14%. The projections varied greatly by country. Under the high migration scenario, the highest projected level of any historically non-Muslim country was 30% in Sweden. By contrast, Poland was projected to remain below 1%.
In 2006, the conservative Christian historian Philip Jenkins, in an article for the Foreign Policy Research Institute thinktank, wrote that by 2100, a Muslim population of about 25% of Europe's population was "probable"; Jenkins stated this figure did not take account of growing birthrates amongst Europe's immigrant Christians, but did not give details of his methodology. in 2010, Eric Kaufmann, professor of politics at Birkbeck, University of London said that "In our projections for Western Europe by 2050 we are looking at a range of 10-15 per cent Muslim population for most of the high immigration countries – Germany, France, the UK"; he argued that Islam was expanding, not because of conversion to Islam, but primarily due to the religion's "pro-natal" orientation, where Muslims tend to have more children. Other analysts are skeptical about the accuracy of the claimed Muslim population growth, stating that because many European countries do not ask a person's religion on official forms or in censuses, it has been difficult to obtain accurate estimates, and arguing that there has been a decrease in Muslim fertility rates in Morocco, the Netherlands, and Turkey.
Religiosity
According to an article published on the German public broadcaster Deutsche Welle, communities of Muslim immigrants remain strongly religious in some Western-European countries, in a trend which continues across generations. In the United Kingdom, 64% identify as "highly religious", followed by 42% in Austria, 33% in France, and 26% in Switzerland.
A 2005 survey published by the Université Libre de Bruxelles estimated that only 10% of the Muslim population in Belgium are "practicing Muslims". In 2009, only 24% of Muslims in the Netherlands attended mosque once a week according to another survey.
According to the same 2004 survey, they found that the importance of Islam in the lives of Dutch Muslims, particularly of second-generation immigrants was decreasing. According to a survey, only 33% of French Muslims who were interviewed said they were religious believers. That figure is the same as that obtained by the INED/INSEE survey in October 2010.
Society
Islamic organizations
In Europe, a variety of Islamic organizations serve to represent the diverse interests of Muslim communities and promote Islamic teachings, encourage Interfaith harmony and cultural contributions.
The Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe (FIOE) an umbrella organization that represents more than 30 Muslim organizations in Europe. Its mission is to represent the interests of Muslims, and to foster dialogue and cooperation between Muslims and non-Muslims in Europe. FIOE subsequently created the European Council for Fatwa and Research, a pan European Muslim Brotherhood organisation which provides guidance to Muslims in Europe. The Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe (MCCE) is a representative body of European citizens of Muslim faith before the EU administration for advice, representation and intra-European collaboration. In 1997, the MCCE has joined the initiative "A Soul for Europe" in the framework of "Dialogue with religions, churches and humanism" as part of the Group of Policy Advisors in the European Commission.
Mosques
Islamic dress
In the context of Islamic dress in Europe, there are diverse perspectives regarding the wearing of face-covering veils and other traditional clothing among Muslim communities. Various European countries have implemented laws and regulations that pertain to religious clothing, including face-covering veils such as the burka or the hijab. These laws have generated considerable debate and criticism within and outside Muslim communities. Those who argue for the restrictions say they are in favor of security, or secularism. However, critics of such laws express concerns about infringements on individual freedom and religious expression, arguing that these restrictions have unintended consequences, including isolating and stigmatizing Muslim communities. Additionally, it has been noted by some observers that these dress bans have raised concerns about fueling Islamophobia across Europe.
The prevailing perspective supports the right of Muslim women to wear religious clothing that does not cover their face, with a smaller proportion advocating for restrictions on all forms of religious clothing. On a regional average, around 25% hold a more permissive view, asserting that Muslim women should be allowed to wear the religious clothing of their choice according to Pew Research Center.
The stance on clothing restrictions is not the same in every country. For example, about six-in-ten Portuguese adults who hold positive feelings toward Muslims support no restrictions on religious clothing. Overall, most people in Western Europe say they accept religious minorities – Muslims included. For example, a median of 66% of non-Muslim adults in the region say they would accept a Muslim as a member of their family, according to a separate question in a survey.
Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism
A 2013 study conducted by Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB) found that Islamic fundamentalism was widespread among Muslims in Europe. The study conducted a poll among Turkish immigrants to six European countries: Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, and Sweden. In the first four countries also Moroccan immigrants were interviewed. Fundamentalism was defined as: the belief that believers should return to the eternal and unchangeable rules laid down in the past; that these rules allow only one interpretation and are binding for all believers; and that religious rules have priority over secular laws. Two thirds of Muslims the majority responded that religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam. Of the respondents, 44% agreed to all three statements. Almost 60% responded that Muslims should return to the roots of Islam, 75% thought there was only one possible interpretation of the Quran.
The conclusion was that religious fundamentalism is much more prevalent among European Muslims than among Christian natives. Perceived discrimination is a marginal predictor of religious fundamentalism. The perception that Western governments are inherently hostile towards Islam as a source of identity is prevailing among some European Muslims. However, a recent study shows that this perception significantly declined after the emergence of ISIS, particularly among the youth, and highly educated European Muslims. The difference between countries defies a "reactive religious fundamentalism", where fundamentalism is viewed as a reaction against lacking rights and privileges for Muslims. Instead, it was found that Belgium which has comparatively generous policies towards Muslims and immigrants in general also had a relatively high level of fundamentalism. France and Germany which have restrictive policies had lower levels of fundamentalism.
In 2017, the EU Counter-terrorism Coordinator Gilles de Kerchove stated in an interview that there were more than radicals and jihadists in Europe. In 2016, French authorities stated that of the individuals on the list of security threats belong to Islamist movements. In the United Kingdom, authorities estimate that jihadists reside in the country, of which about 3000 are actively monitored. In 2017, German authorities estimated that there were more than militant salafists in the country. European Muslims have also been criticized for new antisemitism.
Attitudes towards Muslims
The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe.
The European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia reports that the Muslim population tends to suffer Islamophobia all over Europe, although the perceptions and views of Muslims may vary.
In 2005 according to the Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau annual report, half the Dutch population and half the Moroccan and Turkish minorities stated that the Western lifestyle cannot be reconciled with that of Muslims.
A 2015 poll by the Polish Centre for Public Opinion Research found that 44% of Poles have a negative attitude towards Muslims, with only 23% having a positive attitude towards them. Furthermore, a majority agreed with statements like "Muslims are intolerant of customs and values other than their own." (64% agreed, 12% disagreed), "Muslims living in Western European countries generally do not acquire customs and values that are characteristic for the majority of the population of that country." (63% agreed, 14% disagreed), "Islam encourages violence more than other religions." (51% agreed, 24% disagreed).
A February 2017 poll of 10,000 people in 10 European countries by Chatham House found on average a majority were opposed to further Muslim immigration, with opposition especially pronounced in Austria, Poland, Hungary, France and Belgium. Of the respondents, 55% were opposed, 20% offered no opinion and 25% were in favour of further immigration from Muslim-majority countries. The authors of the study add that these countries, except Poland, had in the preceding years suffered jihadist terror attacks or been at the centre of a refugee crisis. They also mention that in most of the polled countries the radical right has political influence.
According to a study in 2018 by Leipzig University, 56% of Germans sometimes thought the many Muslims made them feel like strangers in their own country, up from 43% in 2014. In 2018, 44% thought immigration by Muslims should be banned, up from 37% in 2014.
Based off U.S. State Department records in 2013, there were about 226 Anti-Muslim attacks in France, which was more than an 11% increase from the year previous. Examples of the attacks included a bomb in an Arab restaurant, and grenades thrown at mosques. In more recent years, the aftermath of terrorist attacks in France have led to huge amounts of anti-Islamic rhetoric and increasing amounts of hate crimes. The French government has also acted upon the Muslim population of France in recent years, with the lower house passing an anti-radicalism bill and increasing checks in places of worship.
As of October 2023, Slovakia is the only EU member state that does not have a mosque due legislation that has barred Islam from gaining state recognition.
Employment
According to a WZB report investigating Muslims in Germany, France, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Belgium and Switzerland, Muslims in Europe generally have higher levels of unemployment which is to a great part caused by the lack of language skills, the lack of inter-ethnic social ties and a traditional view of gender roles where women are not to work outside the home. Discrimination from employers caused a small part of the unemployment.
See also
A Common Word Between Us and You
Antemurale Christianitatis
Early Muslim conquests
History of Islam
Islam and other religions
Islam by country
Islamic culture
Islamic dress in Europe
Islamic extremism
Islamic feminism
Islamic fundamentalism
Islamic terrorism
Islamic terrorism in Europe
Islamism
Islamophobia
Islamophobic incidents
List of cities in the European Union by Muslim population
List of mosques in Europe
Ottoman wars in Europe
Persecution of Muslims
Turks in Europe
Catholic–Muslim Forum
European Council for Fatwa and Research
Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe
References
Bibliography
Franke, Patrick, Islam: State and Religion in Modern Europe, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2016, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf).
Further reading
König, Daniel G., Arabic-Islamic Views of the Latin West. Tracing the Emergence of Medieval Europe, Oxford, OUP, 2015.
Hamza, Gabor, Zur Rolle des Islam in der Geschichte des ungarischen Rechts. Revista Europea de Historia de las Ideas Políticas y de las Instituciones Públicas (REHIPIP) Número 3 - Junio 2012 1-11.pp. http://www.eumed.net/rev/rehipip/03/gh.pdf
External links
For Muslim Minorities, it is Possible to Endorse Political Liberalism, But This is not Enough
BBC News: Muslims in Europe
Euro-Islam Website Coordinator Jocelyne Cesari, Harvard University and CNRS-GSRL, Paris
Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies
Why Europe has to offer a better deal towards its Muslim communities. A quantitative analysis of open international data
Köchler, Hans, Muslim-Christian Ties in Europe: Past, Present and Future, 1996
Religion in Europe |
4162621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MyNetworkTV | MyNetworkTV | MyNetworkTV (unofficially abbreviated MyTV, MyNet, MNT or MNTV, and sometimes referred to as My Network) is an American commercial broadcast television syndication service and former television network owned by Fox Corporation, operated by its Fox Television Stations division, and distributed through the syndication structure of Fox First Run. MyNetworkTV began its operations on September 5, 2006, with an initial affiliate lineup covering about 96% of the country, most of which consisted of stations that were former affiliates of The WB and UPN that did not join the successor of those two networks, The CW. Under the ownership structure of Fox Corporation, the service is incorporated as a subsidiary company known as MyNetworkTV, Inc.
On September 28, 2009, following disappointment with the network's results, MyNetworkTV dropped its status as a television network and transitioned into a programming service, similar to Ion Television and The CW Plus, relying mainly on repeats of recent broadcast and cable series.
Fox Corporation retained MyNetworkTV after the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by The Walt Disney Company was completed on March 20, 2019.
Origins
MyNetworkTV arose from the January 2006 announcement of the launch of The CW, a television network formed by CBS Corporation and Time Warner which essentially combined programming from The WB and UPN onto the scheduling model of the former of the two predecessors. As a result of several deals earlier in the decade, Fox Television Stations owned several UPN affiliates, including the network's three largest stations: WWOR-TV in Secaucus, New Jersey (part of the New York City market), KCOP-TV in Los Angeles and WPWR-TV in Chicago. Fox had acquired WWOR and KCOP after purchasing most of the television holdings of UPN's founding partner Chris-Craft Industries, while WPWR was purchased by the company in 2003 from Newsweb Corporation. Despite concerns about UPN's future that came up after Fox purchased the Chris-Craft stations, UPN signed three-year affiliation renewals with the network's Fox-owned affiliates in 2003. That agreement's pending expiration, along with those involving other broadcasting companies, in 2006 as well as persistent financial losses for both it and The WB gave CBS Corporation (the parent company of UPN) and Time Warner (parent of The WB) the rare opportunity to merge their respective struggling networks into The CW.
The CW's initial affiliation agreements did not include any of the UPN stations (nor a lone independent station) owned by Fox Television Stations. In fact, as part of a ten-year affiliation deal with The WB's part-owner, Tribune Broadcasting, the coveted New York City, Los Angeles and Chicago affiliations all went to Tribune-owned stations (WPIX, KTLA and WGN-TV, respectively). In response to the announcement, Fox promptly removed all network references from logos and promotional materials on its UPN affiliates and ceased on-air promotion of UPN's programs altogether. However, in all three cases (especially in the cases of Los Angeles and Chicago), the WB affiliate was the higher-rated station; CW executives were on record as preferring the "strongest" WB and UPN affiliates.
Media reports speculated that the Fox-owned UPN affiliates would all revert to being independent stations, or else form another network by uniting with other UPN and WB affiliated stations that were left out of The CW's affiliation deals. Fox chose the latter route and announced the launch of MyNetworkTV on February 22, 2006, less than a month after CBS and Time Warner announced the formation of The CW on January 24. It was reported by The Guardian that Fox would utilize MySpace, the social networking website; its parent company, News Corporation, had acquired in 2005, to help promote MyNetworkTV. Fox would also utilize MySpace's content-sharing model when it launched MyNetworkTV's website. There were also rumors that MyNetworkTV's branding was inspired by that of MySpace's.
Programming
MyNetworkTV began operations on Tuesday, September 5, 2006, with the premieres of its two initial series. Some affiliates unofficially began branding their stations well beforehand in July into August to allow viewers to grow accustomed to their new brandings, though most fulfilled their existing WB and UPN network commitments and did not start branding in earnest until September 1 (the Friday before), when the majority of those affiliate agreements expired. The network provided a block of preview programming that aired the day before on September 4, though it did not launch officially that day due to the low audience figures traditionally associated with the Labor Day holiday.
Initially, programming aired Monday through Saturdays from 8:00 to 10:00 p.m. (Eastern and Pacific Time). As of April 2013, MyNetworkTV broadcasts ten hours of primetime programming each week, airing on Monday through Friday evenings from 8:00 to 10:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific. MyNetworkTV does not air programming on weekends, the only broadcast service not to in the United States.
Heavy local sports preemptions were previously a problem for MyNetworkTV at its launch, as they were for all of the U.S. broadcast networks that have debuted since the January 1995 launches of The WB and UPN. However, these have become less of an issue with the end of the network's telenovela strategy, where an airing of the pre-empted telenovela episode rescheduled as soon as possible on the same day as required by default rather than the flexibility that affiliates of UPN, The WB or The CW had to push a show off to a weekend slot. With the service's switch to an all-rerun schedule in 2009, this effectively allows stations to pre-empt repeat programming at will to fit in sporting events (mainly those provided by syndication services such as ESPN Regional Television and the ACC Network, as some local events that had aired on its affiliates have moved to regional sports networks in the time since MyNetworkTV launched) without much consequence. During the telenovela era, affiliates often scheduled contractual "make goods" of the network's daily schedule between 3:00 and 6:00 a.m. local time. Not only are these light viewing hours, but they air after Nielsen processes its preliminary morning network ratings.
Telenovelas
The network's original format focused on the 18-to-49-year-old, English-speaking population with programming consisting exclusively of telenovelas (a version of the soap opera format rarely attempted on American television outside of Spanish language broadcast networks, much less in primetime), starting with Desire and Fashion House. Originally, each series aired Monday through Friday in continuous cycles of 13-week seasons, with a one-hour recap of the week's episodes airing on Saturdays; when one series ended, another unrelated series would begin the following week. The fifth and sixth series, American Heiress and Saints and Sinners, appeared one hour per week on Wednesdays before abruptly vanishing from the schedule. The MyNetworkTV serial lineup was broadcast in Australia on the W. Channel under the block name FOXTELENOVELA. In Canada, the first Desire/Fashion House cycle aired weekday afternoons on Toronto independent station CKXT-TV, which decided not to air subsequent cycles for unknown reasons.
Proposed programming
The announcement of the network also stated that additional unscripted reality-based and current-affairs programming were in development. These included:
Catwalk, a series similar to America's Next Top Model
On Scene, a crime-based news magazine produced by Fox News
An American version of the quiz show Britain's Brainiest
An American version of the ITV series Love Island, which would later be picked up by CBS
MyNetworkTV abandoned the development of these programs in mid-2006, choosing to focus solely on telenovelas.
Later announcements by Fox regarding additional programming to air on MyNetworkTV owned-and-operated stations – such as Desperate Housewives repeats in traditional weekend syndication, a trial run of the sitcom Tyler Perry's House of Payne (which later moved to TBS), and the daytime viewer-participation game show My GamesFever – never applied to the network as a whole.
Other programming
To satisfy E/I requirements, some affiliates carry the Litton Go Time block while others carry Xploration Station.
Revamping the schedule
In response to the telenovela lineup's poor ratings performance, highlighted by an average household rating of 0.7%, reports surfaced that Fox executives were planning a major revamp of MyNetworkTV's programming, decreasing its reliance on telenovelas and adding new unscripted programs to the schedule such as reality shows, game shows (such as My GamesFever), movies and sports, and a possible revisit to a deal with the Ultimate Fighting Championship. However, MyNetworkTV instead signed a deal with another mixed martial arts organization, the International Fight League, in conjunction with Fox Sports Net.
On February 1, 2007, Greg Meidel, who was named to the newly created position of network president just ten days earlier, confirmed the rumors and unveiled a dramatically revamped lineup. The intent of the shakeup was to increase viewer awareness of the network (and boost viewership, in turn), as well as to satisfy local affiliates who were disappointed over the poor ratings performance of the network under its initial format. After March 7 (when Wicked Wicked Games and Watch Over Me finished their runs), telenovelas were reduced to occupying only two nights of its programming schedule, airing in two-hour movie-style blocks rather than each of the serials airing in a one-hour, five-night-a-week format. The remainder of the schedule included theatrical movies and the new IFL Battleground (originally titled Total Impact). In addition, the Saturday night telenovela recaps ended immediately, with movies running on that night until March. The 1986 film Something Wild aired on February 3, becoming the network's first non-telenovela presentation.
Specials (ranging from the World Music Awards to the Hawaiian Tropic International Beauty Pageant) and reality programming were also a part of the network's reformatting, with the first two specials airing on March 7. MyNetworkTV also reduced its telenovela programming to a single night each week, with American Heiress and Saints & Sinners airing for one hour each on Wednesdays until their unexpected termination, due to incompatible flow with IFC Battleground from Monday to Tuesday as far as promotions. The new Thursday night movie block featured mostly action/adventure films, with Friday night featuring a mix of contemporary classic films, beginning on June 5.
A side effect of the new programming schedule was the loss of the network's claim that it was the only U.S. broadcast network at the time to have its entire programming schedule available in high definition, due to the IFL, some of the network's movies and additional programs being produced exclusively in 480i standard definition. In the fall of 2007, MyNetworkTV dropped telenovelas altogether, and began to air reality series and sports programs.
On September 1, 2007, the network aired its first live program, the men's final of the AVP Croc Tour's Cincinnati Open. The network debuted its first sitcom, the Flavor Flav vehicle Under One Roof, on April 16, 2008; because the series used Canadian writers, it was unaffected by the 2007–08 Writers Guild strike.
On February 26, 2008, the network announced it had picked up the rights to air WWE SmackDown, which left The CW at the end of September 2008. The first SmackDown episode on MyNetworkTV aired on October 3, 2008. The first episode of WWE SmackDown pulled in the largest audience in MyNetworkTV history with 3.2 million viewers, and for the first time, put the network in fifth place for the night – ahead of The CW – and was the top-rated program that night in the male 18-34 and 18-49 demographics.
Viewership
Original format
MyNetworkTV's debut was far from successful. Desire scored a 1.1 household rating/2 share; Fashion House went up to 1.3/2. Fox had sold about half of its projections of $50 million in advance commercial sales. On March 7, 2007, MyNetworkTV began to be included in Nielsen's daily "Television Index" reports, alongside the other major broadcast networks, although it was still not part of the "fast nationals" that incorporate the other networks. Last-minute changes to MyNetworkTV's 2007-08 fall schedule included the retitling of the reality series Divorce Wars to Decision House, and the addition of Celebrity Exposé and Control Room Presents to the network's Monday lineup as well as a one-hour IFL Battleground, followed by NFL Total Access on Saturdays.
The network's shift from telenovelas to reality shows and movies produced only a small bump in the ratings. It averaged only a .7 household rating during September 2007. MyNetworkTV continues to be the second lowest-rated English-language broadcast network in the United States, ahead of only Ion Television. The night MyNetworkTV debuted WWE SmackDown, the network took fifth place in household ratings ahead of The CW, but went back to sixth place shortly afterward. Of the six broadcast networks, Nielsen Media Research said that only MyNetworkTV had increased viewership, with 1.76 million viewers per night, up 750,000 from the previous season.
On January 5, 2009, MyNetworkTV aired episodes of the 2002 revival of The Twilight Zone (which originally aired on UPN, one of the networks MyNetworkTV had replaced). The series helped the network's ratings rise, along with WWE SmackDown, becoming the second highest-rated program on the network. The highest-rated program to have ever aired on MyNetworkTV is a December 10, 2008 broadcast of the 1990 comedy film Home Alone, which brought in 3.70 million viewers (although not a record), but earned a 1.4 rating among the 18-49 adult demographic.
Current format
On February 9, 2009, Fox Entertainment Group announced that MyNetworkTV would convert from a television network to a programming service, similar to that of Ion Television, with a focus on repeats of acquired programs originally aired on broadcast and cable networks and in first-run syndication. Litton Entertainment had reportedly expressed interest in leasing MyNetworkTV's Saturday evening time slots, which MyNetworkTV chose to instead turn back over to its affiliates. MyNetworkTV began airing more syndicated programming in the fall, which included game shows and dramas, five nights a week. This required the network's affiliates to re-negotiate a new affiliate agreement with the new corporation within Fox operating MyNetworkTV, Master Distribution Service, Inc., though it also gave a full and unencumbered "out" to stations which chose to end their association with MyNetworkTV under this guise, which Ion Television did with their three affiliates.
On April 12, 2010, WWE announced that WWE SmackDown would move to the Syfy cable channel that October; the move left MyNetworkTV with no first-run programming other than that it shared with its syndicators. Despite the lack of first-run programming, MyNetworkTV renewed its affiliation contracts for three more years on February 14, 2011. The programming service has seen significant viewership growth since its 2006 startup as a television network. Although ratings on MyNetworkTV do not match those of the other broadcast networks, Nexstar CEO Perry Sook noted his approval of its business model at the time, saying that Nexstar's MyNetworkTV stations get 'more (local ad) inventory per hour' than they would be associated with a traditional network such as Fox or ABC. Nexstar has since become the owner of, and the largest affiliate base for, The CW, through several acquisitions and since converted three MyNetworkTV affiliations into CW affiliations including WPHL-TV which was the largest MyNetworkTV affiliate by market size that is not owned and operated by the Fox Television Stations subsidiary of Fox Corporation, which owns the programming service.
In announcing its fall schedule for the 2012-13 schedule, MyNetworkTV executives revealed that the programming service increased ratings over the previous year, and rated as the #6 most-watched network during the 2011–12 season with around 2.5 million viewers.
Affiliates
MyNetworkTV has 186 owned-and-operated or affiliate stations in the United States, reaching 84.39% of all U.S. households with at least one television set (totaling approximately 263,699,742 homes). This number includes six stations owned at the time of its launch by companies involved in the founding of competitor The CW: three were owned by Tribune Broadcasting, and three owned by CBS Corporation.
On March 6, 2006, the Sinclair Broadcast Group announced an agreement to affiliate 17 of its stations with MyNetworkTV (consisting mostly of stations that were set to lose their WB affiliations when The CW launched, as well as a few that were affiliated with UPN or operated as independent stations). This occurred despite the widespread presumption that affiliations with The CW, which at that point was in the process of signing affiliates in most markets, would be more valuable; however, Sinclair implied that MyNetworkTV was more financially attractive for the company (of the Sinclair stations that initially affiliated with MyNetworkTV, San Antonio affiliate KMYS has since disaffiliated from the service; its August 30, 2010 affiliation swap with Fredericksburg-based CW affiliate KCWX was the first and so far only known affiliation switch between same-market affiliates of the two outlets since their formation in 2006). One day later on March 7, Raycom Media announced that its WB and UPN stations (including WUAB/Cleveland, Ohio, KFVE/Honolulu, Hawaii and WBXH-CA/Baton Rouge, Louisiana) would also become charter affiliates of MyNetworkTV.
One of the stations named in a list of newly signed MyNetworkTV affiliates that Fox Entertainment Group released on April 26, 2006, was KNVA in Austin, Texas, which The CW had also added to its own list of confirmed affiliates one week prior. On May 1, 2006, another previously confirmed CW affiliate, KWKB in Iowa City, Iowa, signed on as a MyNetworkTV charter affiliate. Until October 2009, these two stations were the only ones to be aligned with both new networks (KNVA has since become an exclusive CW affiliate as parent station KXAN-TV converted its semi-satellite KBVO into a standalone MyNetworkTV affiliate); KNVA branded its MyNetworkTV lineup under the banner "MyNetworkTV on The CW Austin," while KWKB's website features station logos labeled as both "KWKB The CW" and "My KWKB". In May, WAWB in Huntsville, Alabama officially announced that it would become a MyNetworkTV affiliate, and subsequently changed its call letters to WAMY.
On July 12, 2006, the network announced affiliation agreements with seven additional stations (including WBFS-TV/Miami, KTVD/Denver, WUPL/New Orleans and WAWS/Jacksonville, Florida (WAWS, along with WSYX/Columbus, Ohio and WHP-TV/Harrisburg, Pennsylvania carry MyNetworkTV on digital subchannels). The deal with CBS Television Stations to have MyNetworkTV affiliate with stations that were left out of The CW's affiliation deals with the group came as a surprise in the broadcasting industry, especially after the icy reception between CBS and News Corporation (which became 21st Century Fox through the July 2013 spin-off of the company's publishing unit and Australian television properties) that began after both it and The CW came into the picture, as they refused to allow WBFS, WUPL and Boston's WSBK-TV to affiliate with MyNetworkTV as a response to pulling UPN branding from that network's Fox-owned stations.
In August 2006, MyNetworkTV filled in its remaining gaps within the top 100 television markets. On August 11, the network announced affiliations with WNAC-TV in Providence, Rhode Island (as a secondary affiliate) and WNGT-LP in Toledo, Ohio. Additionally, on August 22, MyNetworkTV added KAUT-TV in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and WRGT-TV in Dayton, Ohio (the latter of which would carry the network on a digital subchannel) to the affiliate list on its website; also that month, WZMY in Derry, New Hampshire was announced as the network's Boston area affiliate (WBIN – the former WZMY – disaffiliated with MyNetworkTV in September 2011, at which time WSBK (which had shunned MyNetworkTV at its formation in 2006) took over the MyNetworkTV affiliation in Boston; KAUT became an independent station in September 2012, with MyNetworkTV moving to former independent KSBI).
From its inception as a network until July 2010, Mobile, Alabama was the largest city where MyNetworkTV did not have an affiliate, although Fort Walton Beach, Florida-based WFGX serves as the affiliate for the Mobile–Pensacola–Fort Walton Beach market. This was due to WFGX's weak analog signal, which was not receivable west of Pensacola, and the lack of a must-carry agreement with Comcast's Mobile system, most likely a remnant of the station's former status as a low-rated Jewelry Television affiliate prior to MyNetworkTV's launch); WFGX has since relocated its digital transmitter to Robertsdale, Alabama (where the Mobile-Pensacola market's other television stations maintain transmitters), providing an over-the-air MyNetworkTV affiliate in the Mobile area proper for the first time. On September 28, 2009, three stations owned by Ion Media Networks (WPXX-TV in Memphis, Tennessee and WEPX-TV, along with satellite station WPXU-TV, in the Greenville-New Bern-Washington, North Carolina market), due to an affiliation agreement made by their previous owners, dropped their MyNetworkTV affiliations to become full-time Ion Television owned-and-operated stations as they had been prior to September 2006 (the affiliation in the Greenville-New Bern market was taken over by NBC affiliate WITN-TV, which carries the network on a digital subchannel).
Memphis CW affiliate WLMT – which picked up MyNetworkTV for the sole purpose of carrying SmackDown, and due to the conversion into a programming service – elected to not carry the remainder of the network's schedule; eventually, after SmackDown moved to Syfy, WLMT began carrying the remainder of the MyNetworkTV lineup as a secondary affiliation (to the Retro Television Network) on its second digital subchannel.
Also in September 2009, Des Moines, Iowa affiliate KDMI disaffiliated from MyNetworkTV, replacing it with programming from the station's existing This TV affiliation. CW affiliate KCWI-TV picked up the local rights to SmackDown, and for nearly a year afterward, aired it in a manner very similar to its scheduling on WLMT. Until October 3, 2011, when KDMI rejoined the service, Des Moines was the largest television market without a MyNetworkTV affiliate – either over-the-air or on cable (CBS affiliate KCCI took over the MyNetworkTV affiliation from KDMI in December 2014, carrying it as a primary affiliation on its third digital subchannel). On September 19, 2011, Cedar Rapids, Iowa affiliate KWKB dropped the service, while retaining its existing CW affiliation; ABC affiliate KCRG-TV later picked up MyNetworkTV for its second digital subchannel.
On February 10, 2014, St. Louis affiliate WRBU disaffiliated from MyNetworkTV, and converted into an Ion Television O&O, as a result of its sale to Ion Media Networks (now E.W. Scripps Company) through Roberts Broadcasting's gradual sale of its television stations in order to raise money to pay off creditors in its Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings; this resulted in St. Louis temporarily displacing Spokane, Washington as the largest market without a MyNetworkTV affiliate until November 17, 2014, when CBS affiliate KMOV began carrying it on a digital subchannel.
Due to the availability of "instant duopoly" digital subchannels that are likely easily available on cable and satellite, and the overall lack of a need to settle for a secondary affiliation with shows aired in problematic time slots, both The CW and MyNetworkTV launched with far greater national coverage than that enjoyed by UPN and The WB when those networks started in January 1995. For several years, UPN had affiliation gaps in several of the top 30 markets, and by 2005 managed to reach only 86% of the population. This resulted in that network having to settle for secondary affiliations with stations that were already affiliated with other networks. In those markets, programs (such as Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Enterprise) were either shown out of their intended timeslots or not at all, leading to many viewer complaints. There are a handful of smaller markets, however, where MyNetworkTV holds a secondary affiliation – even on digital subchannels – because those markets are home to only a very small number of stations, and want to place more emphasis on programming from ABC, CBS, NBC and Fox – which may have previously lacked affiliations in those markets – on those subchannels.
Nevertheless, because MyNetworkTV was announced after the formation of The CW and therefore got most of the "leftover" stations shut out by The CW, there are still availability issues in some markets. Also, the network is mostly relegated to low-powered stations in some smaller markets, which do not have must-carry status. The arrival of WWE SmackDown to the network has made this issue the most visible, as wrestling fans complained about the lack of availability for MyNetworkTV in several markets that have CW affiliations. This was most evident in Lexington, Kentucky, where local SmackDown viewers actually protested that they could not watch the program because low-powered MyNetworkTV/Retro Television Network affiliate WBLU-LP lacked carriage on cable providers in the market, and as an Equity Media Holdings station with no local presence outside of engineering staff, had no communication with the station to speak of. That was solved shortly afterward when ABC affiliate WTVQ agreed to move its weather forecast service to digital subchannel 36.3 and convert the 36.2 subchannel into a MyNetworkTV affiliate, stripping WBLU of its affiliation in the process.
On September 19, 2022, WSBK-TV in Boston, Massachusetts and WBFS-TV in Miami, Florida both dropped MyNetworkTV and returned as full-time independent stations, leaving Boston and Miami as the largest markets without a MyNetworkTV affiliate.
Branding
In the months leading up to MyNetworkTV's launch, several of its charter stations changed their on-air identities in preparation for joining the network, including all of the network's owned-and-operated stations under sister company Fox Television Stations. Affiliates also began to air network promotions featuring the theme, "Entertainment you can call your own." At first, many Fox-owned charter stations branded their soon-to-be MyNetworkTV O&Os with the "My" moniker (for example, WWOR-TV was branded as "My 9"). However, by the third week of October 2006, at least one station, Los Angeles O&O KCOP-TV, went to a two-column brand – verbally identifying as "MyNetworkTV Channel 13," and using a logo combining that used by the network (on the left side) and the station's channel number, 13 (on the right); KCOP switched to the simpler "My 13" branding in May 2007.
While "My [channel #]" is the conventional branding style for MyNetworkTV's stations, some stations use the network's logo style with different names, such as WSTR-TV (which formerly branded as "My 64", but revived its former brand "Star 64" in 2009). Especially after its shift in business model, some affiliates began to drop the "My" branding and logo in favor of local brands, such as KZJO (which re-branded from "myQ²", in reference to its sister station KCPQ "Q13 Fox", to "JoeTV", following similar moves by Tribune Media-owned The CW stations to adopt local brands), WTTA (which switched its branding from "My TV Tampa Bay" to "Great 38" in September 2013), WPMY (which switched from "My Pittsburgh TV" to "22 the Point" in August 2015 and even changed their call sign to WPNT to fit the new branding), former affiliate KAUT-TV (initially "OK43", but later "Freedom 43" as part of its efforts to appeal to Oklahoma's military community), and various Nexstar Media Group-owned affiliates (which use similar brands derived from their call letters and channel numbers, such as KARZ-TV "Z42").
In 2017, Fox began to re-brand some of its MyNetworkTV O&Os to closer associate them with their parent Fox stations, such as WDCA, which became "Fox 5 Plus". Meredith emulated this approach on KPDX and WNEM-DT2, which similarly re-branded as "Fox 12 Plus" and "WNEM-TV 5 Plus". Fox's KCOP rebranded from "My 13" to "KCOP 13" after moving MyNetworkTV to an overnight schedule in 2021, but eventually adopted the "Fox 11 Plus" branding in 2023.
At the time plans for MyNetworkTV were announced, there was at least one station that was using a similar moniker. WZMY-TV in Derry, New Hampshire filed a trademark for the "MyTV" name on July 6, 2005, and for a short time there was speculation that the station would file a lawsuit against Fox for the use of "MyTV". The concerns were rendered moot in July 2006, when WZMY announced that it would be Boston's affiliate for the new network.
See also
2006 United States broadcast TV realignment
The CW
References
External links
Television networks in the United States
Fox Corporation subsidiaries
Television channels and stations established in 2006 |
4162651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom%2C%201979 | List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 1979 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom in 1979.
1–100
The Motor Fuel (Lead Content of Petrol) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1
The Local Government Superannuation (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/2
The Petrol Prices (Display) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/4
The Civil Aviation (Air Travel Organisers' Licensing) (Third Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/5
The Social Security (Contributions, Re-rating) Consequential Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/9
The Industrial Training Levy (Footwear, Leather and Fur Skin) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/11
The Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1968 (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/25
The Cereals Marketing Act 1965 (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/26
The Food Hygiene (Ships) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/27
The General Medical Council (Review Board for Overseas Qualified Practitioners Rules) Order of Council 1979 S.I. 1979/29
The Protection of Wrecks (Designation No. 1) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/31
The Butter Prices (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/34
The Rules of the Supreme Court (Amendment) 1979 S.I. 1979/35
The Medicines (Prescription Only) Amendment Order 1979 S.I. 1979/36
The Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/37
The Measuring Instruments (Intoxicating Liquor) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/41
The Goods Vehicles (Authorisation of International Journeys) (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/42
The Balloon-Making Compounds (Safety) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/44
The Medicines (Exemptions from Restrictions on the Retail Sale or Supply of Veterinary Drugs) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/45
The Teachers' Superannuation (Policy Schemes) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/47
The Nurses and Enrolled Nurses (Amendment) Rules Approval Instrument 1979 S.I. 1979/49
The National Health Service (Preservation of Boards of Governors) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/51
The Protection of Wrecks (Designation No. 1 and No. 4 Orders 1978) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/56
The Wild Birds (Special Protection in Severe Weather) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/70
The Haddock (West of Scotland and Rockall) Licensing Order 1979 S.I. 1979/71
The Isles of Scilly (Functions) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/72
The Police Cadets (Pensions) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/75
The Special Constables (Pensions) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/76
The Measuring Instruments (EEC Requirements) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/80
The Tweeddale District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/84
The Road Traffic Act 1974 (Commencement No. 1) (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/85 (C.2) (S.3)
The Firearms (Variation of Fees) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/86
The Harford and Ivybridge (Areas) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/90
The Firearms (Variation of Fees) (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/91 (S.4)
The Pensions Appeal Tribunals (Scotland) (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/94 (S.7)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Legal Aid Fees Amendment) 1979 S.I. 1979/95 (S.8)
The Liverpool—Leeds Trunk Road (Micklethorn to Broughton Bridge Access Road Improvement) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/96
The Merchant Shipping (Repatriation) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/97
The Wild Birds (Special Protection in Severe Weather) (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/99 (S.10)
The Housing Support Grant (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/100 (S.11)
101–200
The Anti-Dumping Duty (Revocation) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/104
The County Court Funds (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/105
Supreme Court Funds (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/106 (L.3)
The Colouring Matter in Food (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/107 (S.12)
The Foreign Compensation (Financial Provisions) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/109
The Merchant Shipping (Confirmation of Legislation) (South Australia) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/110
The Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1976 (Colonies) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/111
General Medical Council (Constitution) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/112
The Naval, Military and Air Forces etc. (Disablement and Death) Service Pensions Amendment Order 1979 S.I. 1979/113
The Independent Broadcasting Authority Act 1973 (Channel Islands) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/114
The Reciprocal Enforcement of Maintenance Orders (Designation of Reciprocating Countries) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/115
The Maintenance Orders (Facilities for Enforcement) (Revocation) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/116
The Double Taxation Relief (Taxes on Income) (Austria) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/117
The Double Taxation Relief (Taxes on Income) (Norway) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/118
Control of Off-Street Parking (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/119
The Merchant Shipping (Foreign Deserters) (Disapplication) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/120
The Agricultural Levy Reliefs (Frozen Beef and Veal) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/121
The Judicature (Northern Ireland) Act 1978 (Commencement No. 3) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/124 (C.3)
The Children and Young Persons Act 1969 (Transitional Modifications of Part I) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/125
The Distribution of Footwear (Prices) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/129
The Alcohol Tables Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/132
The Seeds (National Lists of Varieties) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/133
The Rabies Virus Order 1979 S.I. 1979/135
The Export of Goods (Control) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/136
The Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/138
The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 14) (Isle of Wight) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/139
The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 42) (Isle of Wight) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/140 (C.4)
The Wild Birds (Special Protection in Severe Weather) (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/141 (S.13)
The Ancillary Dental Workers (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/142
The Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/143 (S.14)
The Marriage Fees (Scotland) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/144 (S.15)
The Aviation Security Fund (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/145
The General Betting Duty (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1979 S.I. 1979/146
The New Forest (Parishes) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/148
The Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Fees) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/149
The Customs Duties (ECSC) (Quota and Other Reliefs) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/153
The Civil Aviation (Route Charges for Navigation Services) (Second Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/154
The Customs Duties (ECSC) Anti-Dumping (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/155
The Legal Advice and Assistance (Scotland) (Financial Conditions) (No. 1) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/156 (S.16)
The North East Fife District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/158
The Caithness District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/159
The Family Income Supplements (General) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/160
The Export of Goods (Control) (Amendment No. 2) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/164
The British Aerospace (Design, Development and Production of Civil Aircraft) (Payments) Order 1978 S.I. 1979/165
The Legal Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/166
The Prevention of Terrorism (Supplemental Temporary Provisions) (Northern Ireland) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/168
The Prevention of Terrorism (Supplemental Temporary Provisions) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/169
The Magistrates' Courts (Reciprocal Enforcement of Maintenance Orders) (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/170 (L.4)
The Social Security Pensions Act 1975 (Commencement No. 13) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/171 (C.5)
The Mobility Allowance Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/172
The Prices and Charges (Notification of Increases) (Amendment No. 2) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/178
The Export Guarantees (Extension of Period) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/180
The Customs Duties (ECSC) Provisional Anti-Dumping Order 1979 S.I. 1979/181
The Industrial Training Levy (Knitting, Lace and Net) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/184
The Industrial Training Levy (Petroleum) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/185
The Public Trustee (Fees) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/189
Act of Sederunt (Sessions of Court and Sederunt Days) 1979 S.I. 1979/190 (S.19)
The Customs Duties (ECSC) Provisional Anti Dumping (No. 2) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/191
The Royal Navy Terms of Service (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/192
The Paraffin (Maximum Retail Prices) (Third Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/193
The Parochial Fees Order 1979 S.I. 1979/194
Payments to Redundant Churches Fund Order 1979 S.I. 1979/195
The Immigration (Registration with Police) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/196
201–300
The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 43) (West Berkshire) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/200 (C.6)
The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 44) (Oxfordshire) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/201 (C.7)
The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 15) (West Berkshire) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/202
The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 16) (Oxfordshire) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/203
The New Towns (Limit on Borrowing) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/204
The Customs Warehousing Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/207
The Excise Warehousing Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/208
The Companies (Winding-up) (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/209
The Judicial Pensions (Widows' and Children's Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/210
The Ironstone Restoration Fund (Standard Rate) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/211
The Local Authorities' Traffic Orders (Procedure) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/213 (S.21)
The Secretary of State's Traffic Orders (Procedure) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/214 (S.22)
The Royal Air Force Terms of Service (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/215
The Misuse of Drugs (Licence Fees) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/218
The European Assembly Elections (Day of Election) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/219
The European Assembly Elections (Returning Officers) (England and Wales) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/220
The Agricultural or Forestry Tractors and Tractor Components (Type Approval) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/221
The Sugar Beet (Research and Education) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/222
The Social Security (Hospital In-Patients) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/223
The Value Added Tax (Supplies by Retailers) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/224
Act of Sederunt (Suspension of Business) 1979 S.I. 1979/226 (S.24)
The Local Government (Rate Product) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/227 (S.25)
The Water Authorities (Collection of Charges) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/228
The Prices and Charges (Safeguard for Basic Profits) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/229
The Customs Duties (ECSC) Provisional Anti-Dumping (No. 3) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/231
Act of Adjournal (Suspension of Sittings etc.) 1979 S.I. 1979/232
The Cycle Racing on Highways (Special Authorisation) (England and Wales) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/233
The Housing Finance (Rent Allowance Subsidy) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/234
The Domestic Water Rate Product (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/235 (S.26)
The Control of Off-Street Parking outside Greater London (Appeals Procedure) (England and Wales) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/236
The Civil Aviation (Canadian Navigation Services) (Second Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/237
The Stock Exchange (Designation of Nominees) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/238
The British Nationality (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/240
The Alcoholic Liquors (Amendment of Enactments Relating to Strength and to Units of Measurement) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/241
The Value Added Tax (Donated Medical Equipment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/242
The Value Added Tax (Finance) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/243
The Value Added Tax (International Services) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/244
The Value Added Tax (Aids for the Disabled) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/245
The Value Added Tax (Medical Goods and Services) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/246
The Milk Marketing Scheme (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/249
The Industrial Training Levy (Wool, Jute and Flax) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/251
The Housing (Improvement of Amenities of Residential Areas) (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/253 (S.28)
The Fishing Boats (Faroe Islands) Designation Order 1979 S.I. 1979/256
The Eggs Authority (Rates of Levy) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/257
The Savings Banks (Registrar's Fees) (Amendment) Warrant 1979 S.I. 1979/258
The Trustee Savings Banks (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/259
The Scholarships and Other Benefits (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/260
The Legal Aid (General) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/263
The Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Prescribed Diseases) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/264
The Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Prescribed Diseases) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/265
The Civil Aviation (Navigation Services Charges) (Second Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/267
The Cod and Whiting (Licensing) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/268
The Special Development Area (Falmouth) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/269
The Personal Injuries (Civilians) Amendment Scheme 1979 S.I. 1979/270
The Export of Goods (Control) (Amendment No. 3) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/276
The Stock Transfer (Addition of Forms) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/277
The Daily Telegraph Limited (Prices) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/278
The Legal Aid (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/280
The Legal Advice and Assistance (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/281
The Irish Republic (Termination of 1927 Agreement) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/289
The Social Security (Reciprocal Agreements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/290
The Reserve and Auxiliary Forces (Protection of Civil Interests) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/291
The European Communities (Definition of Treaties) (ECSC Decision on Supplementary Revenues) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/292
The Merchant Shipping (Foreign Deserters) (Revocation) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/293
Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/294 (N.I. 1)
Judgments Enforcement and Debts Recovery (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/296 (N.I. 3)
Rates Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/297 (N.I. 4)
The Judgments Enforcement (Consequential Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/298
The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Modification) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/299
The Double Taxation Relief (Shipping and Air Transport Profits) (Jordan) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/300
301–400
The Double Taxation Relief (Shipping and Air Transport Profits) (Venezuela) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/301
The Double Taxation Relief (Taxes on Income) (Malawi) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/302
The Double Taxation Relief (Taxes on Income) (Norway) (No. 2) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/303
The Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/304
The Hovercraft (Civil Liability) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/305
The Monegasque Tonnage Order 1979 S.I. 1979/306
The Building Standards (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/310 (S.29)
The Skye and Lochalsh District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/312
The Industrial Training Levy (Iron and Steel) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/313
The Customs Duties (ECSC) Provisional Anti-Dumping (No. 4) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/314
The Medicines (General Sale List) Amendment Order 1979 S.I. 1979/315
The Mines (Precautions Against Inrushes) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/318
The Scottish Milk Marketing Schemes (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/319 (S.30)
Residential Establishments (Payments by Local Authorities) (Scotland) Amendment Order 1979 S.I. 1979/320 (S.30)
The Exchange Control (Authorised Dealers and Depositaries) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/321
The European Assembly Elections (Northern Ireland) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/322
Grants for Guarantees of Bank Loans (Extension of Period) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/323
The Legal Aid (Scotland) (Assessment of Resources) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/324 (S.32)
The Legal Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/325 (S.33)
The Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/326
The Princess Parkway, Princess Road (A5103) Manchester Section, Altrincham Road to Riverside Avenue, Northbank Walk (Trunking) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/327
The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 17) (Humberside) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/328
The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 45) (Humberside) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/329 (C.8)
St Helens–Ormskirk–Southport Trunk Road (Prohibition of Waiting) (Clearways) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/332
The State Awards (State Bursaries for Adult Education) (Wales) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/333
The House-Building Standards (Approved Scheme etc.) Order 1970 S.I. 1979/381
The Medicines (Chloroform Prohibition) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/382
The Coffee and Coffee Products (Scotland) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/383 (S.41)
The Bread Prices (No. 2) Order 1976 (Revocation) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/384
The Redundant Mineworkers and Concessionary Coal (Payments Schemes) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/385
The Industrial Training Levy (Air Transport and Travel) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/386
The Industrial Training Levy (Food, Drink and Tobacco) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/387
The Llandeilo-Carmarthen Trunk road (Penrock Bends Diversion) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/388
The Meat and Livestock Commission Levy Scheme (Confirmation) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/393
The Social Security Pensions Act 1975 (Commencement No. 15) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/394 (C.11)
The Cinematograph Films (Limits of Levy) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/395
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/396 (N.I. 5)
The Herring By-Catch (Restrictions on Landing) (No. 2) (Variation) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/398
The Matrimonial Causes (Costs) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/399
The Matrimonial Causes (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/400
401–500
The "Pelican" Pedestrian Crossings (Amendment) Regulations and General Directions 1979 S.I. 1979/401
The Rules of the Supreme Court (Amendment No. 2) 1979 S.I. 1979/402 (L.5)
Police Pensions (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/406
The Firemen's Pension Scheme (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/407
The Insurance Brokers Registration Council (Indemnity Insurance and Grants Scheme) Rules Approval Order 1979 S.I. 1979/408
The Legal Aid (Scotland) (Financial Conditions) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/409 (S.42)
The Legal Advice and Assistance (Scotland) (Financial Conditions) (No. 2) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/410 (S.43)
The Firearms (Variation of Fees) (Scotland) Order 1979 Revocation Order 1979 S.I. 1979/411 (S.44)
The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board (Compensation for Smelter Deficits) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/412 (S.45)
Vaccine Damage Payments Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/432
Extradition (Internationally Protected Persons) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/453
501–600
Customs Duties (Standard Exchange Relief) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/554
Outward Processing Relief Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/555
Social Security (Contributions) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/591
Social Security (Overlapping Benefits) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/597
601–700
Social Security (Claims and Payments) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/628
Superannuation (Judicial Offices) (Amendment) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/668
The Strathclyde Region (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/673
Social Security (Earnings Factor) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/676
The Inverness District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/698
The Nairn District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/699
701–800
National Health Service (Dental and Optical Charges) (Scotland) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/705
The Borough of Great Yarmouth (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/710
Forestry (Felling of Trees) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/791
Industrial Training (Transfer of the Activities of Establishments) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/793
801–900
The Clackmannan District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/821
The Stirling District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/822
901–1000
Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/924 (N.I. 8)
Pneumoconiosis, etc., (Workers' Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/925 (N.I. 9)
Tattooing of Minors (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/926 (N.I. 10)
Industrial and Provident Societies (Credit Unions) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/937
The Badenoch and Strathspey District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/943
Scottish Land Court Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/979
1001–1100
The District of North Wiltshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1015
The District of Waverley (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1016
The Borough of Doncaster (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1027
The Borough of Trafford (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1028
Pensions Increase (Review) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1047
The District of Wealden (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1071
Motor Vehicles (Designation of Approval Marks) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1088
The Sutherland District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1096
The Midlothian District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1097
1101–1200
The District of Newbury (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1107
The District of West Wiltshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1108
The District of Teesdale (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1109
The District of Ryedale (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1110
The District of Lewes (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1111
The District of Harborough (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1112
The City of Kingston upon Hull (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1113
The City of Carlisle (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1131
1201–1300
The Berwickshire District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1201
The Nithsdale District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1202
Police Pensions (War Service) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1259
The District of Sedgefield (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1264
The District of Wear Valley (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1265
The Borough of Worthing (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1266
Police Pensions (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1287
The City of Edinburgh District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1291
The District of West Norfolk (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1295
1301–1400
Reciprocal Enforcement of Maintenance Orders (Hague Convention Countries) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1317
The Borough of Calderdale (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1320
The Borough of Bolton (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1321
The City of Coventry (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1322
The Borough of Rotherham (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1323
The Borough of Stockport (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1324
The Borough of Harrogate (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1327
The District of Warwick (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1328
The Borough of Rochdale (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1341
The Dunfermline District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1345
The Borough of Reading (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1346
The Borough of Poole (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1347
The Borough of St. Helens (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1348
The District of East Devon (Electoral Arrangements) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1349
The Borough of Tameside (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1368
Explosives Act 1875 (Exemptions) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1378
Taximeters (EEC Requirements) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1379
1401–1500
The Perth and Kinross District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1401
The East Lothian District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1402
The City of Liverpool (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1411
The District of East Lindsey (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1415
Weights and Measures Local Standards: Periods of Validity) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1436
The Falkirk District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1462
The Borough of Walsall (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1472
The City of Exeter (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1473
The City of Leicester (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1474
The City of Portsmouth (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1494
The District of Stroud (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1495
The Borough of Torbay (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1496
1501–1600
The Borough of Wirral (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1523
The Borough of Wigan (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1524
The Borough of Cheltenham (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1525
Statutory Rules (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1573 (N.I. 12)
Industrial Assurance (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1574 (N.I. 13)
Administration of Estates (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1575 (N.I. 14)
Brucellosis (Scotland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1596
1601–1700
The City of Sheffield (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1615
The City of Leeds (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1616
Supreme Court Funds (Amendment No. 2) Rules 1979 S.I. 1979/1620
The City of Bradford (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1634
Immigration (Ports of Entry) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1635
The Cunninghame District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1640
The District of North Bedfordshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1663
The Borough of Restormel (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1670
The Borough of Wellingborough (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1695
The Annandale and Eskdale District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1696
1701–1800
Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1709 (N.I. 16)
Mineral Exploration (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1713 (N.I. 18)
Perjury (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1714 (N.I. 19)
The Copyright (International Conventions) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1715
Working Standards and Testing Equipment (Testing and Adjustment) (Amendment) Regulations 1979 S.I. 1979/1719
The Strathclyde Region (Electoral Arrangements) (Amendment) Order 1979 S.I. 1979/1757
See also
List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom
References
External links
Legislation.gov.uk delivered by the UK National Archive
UK SI's on legislation.gov.uk
UK Draft SI's on legislation.gov.uk
Lists of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom
Statutory Instruments |
4162662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom%2C%201980 | List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 1980 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom in 1980.
1–100
SI 1980/1 The Industrial Training Levy (Rubber and Plastics Processing) Order 1980
SI 1980/2 The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 54) (South Yorkshire) Order 1980 [C. 1]
SI 1980/3 The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 26) (South Yorkshire) Order 1980
SI 1980/4 The Butter and Concentrated Butter Prices (Amendment) Order 1980
SI 1980/5 The Insurance Companies (Valuation of Assets) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/6 The Insurance Companies (Accounts and Statements) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/7 The Medicines (General Sale List) Amendment Order 1980
SI 1980/8 The Weights and Measures (Marking of Goods and Abbreviations of Units) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/9
SI 1980/10
SI 1980/11
SI 1980/12 The Importation of Embryos, Ova and Semen Order 1980
SI 1980/13 The Social Security (Contributions, Re-rating) Consequential Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/14 The Importation of Animal Products and Poultry Products Order 1980
SI 1980/15 The Child Benefit (Determination of Claims and Questions) Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/16 The Medicines (Fees) Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/17
SI 1980/18
SI 1980/19 The Bingo Duty (Exemptions) Order 1980
SI 1980/20
SI 1980/21
SI 1980/22
SI 1980/23
SI 1980/24 The Medicines (Prescription Only) Amendment Order 1980
SI 1980/25 The Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) Amendment Order 1980
SI 1980/26 The Protection from Execution (Prescribed Value) Order 1980
SI 1980/27 The Gaming Clubs (Hours and Charges) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/28 The Gaming Act (Variation of Monetary Limits) Order 1980
SI 1980/29 The Amusements with Prizes (Variation of Monetary Limits) Order 1980
SI 1980/30 The National Health Service (Vocational Training) (Scotland) Regulations 1980 [S. 1]
SI 1980/31 The Housing Finance (Rent allowance Subsidy) Order 1980
SI 1980/32 The Parish of Penzance Order 1980
SI 1980/33
SI 1980/34
SI 1980/35 The Anti-Dumping Duty (Temporary Suspension) Order 1980
SI 1980/36 The Chloroform in Food Regulations 1980
SI 1980/37 The Rate Support Grant (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/38
SI 1980/39
SI 1980/40 The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 27) (Bedfordshire) Order 1980
SI 1980/41 The Town and Country Planning (Commencement No. 55) (Bedfordshire) Order 1980 [C. 2]
SI 1980/42 The Kincardine and Deeside District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/43 The District of Forest of Dean (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/44 The Opencast Coal (Rate of Interest on Compensation) Order 1980
SI 1980/45 The Savings Certificates (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/46
SI 1980/47
SI 1980/48 The Milk (Great Britain) Order 1980
SI 1980/49 The Milk (Northern Ireland) Order 1980
SI 1980/50 The Consumer Credit Act 1974 (Commencement No. 6) Order 1980 [C. 3]
SI 1980/51 The Consumer Credit (Total Charge for Credit) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/52 The Consumer Credit (Exempt Agreements) Order 1980
SI 1980/53 The Consumer Credit (Exempt Advertisements) Order 1980
SI 1980/54 The Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/55 The Consumer Credit (Quotations) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/56
SI 1980/57 The Rate Support Grant Order 1979
SI 1980/58 The Rate Support Grant (Increase) Order 1979
SI 1980/59 The Rate Support Grant (Increase) (No. 2) Order 1979
SI 1980/60
SI 1980/61 The Royal Navy Terms of Service (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/62 The Insurance Brokers Registration Council Election Scheme Approval Order 1980
SI 1980/63 The City of Salford (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/64 The Rate Support Grant (Scotland) Order 1979 [S. 2]
SI 1980/65 The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 56) (South Glamorgan) Order 1980 [C. 4]
SI 1980/66 The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 28) (South Glamorgan) Order 1980
SI 1980/67 The Customs Duties (ECSC) Order 1980
SI 1980/68
SI 1980/69
SI 1980/70 The Commissioners for Oaths (Fees) Order 1980
SI 1980/71 The Pensioners' Lump Sum Payments (Claims) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/72
SI 1980/73 The Housing Support Grant (Scotland) Order 1980 [S. 5]
SI 1980/74
SI 1980/75 The Housing Support Grant (Scotland) Variation Order 1980 [S. 4]
SI 1980/76 The Public Service Vehicles and Trolley Vehicles (Carrying Capacity) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/77
SI 1980/78
SI 1980/79 The Enzootic Bovine Leukosis Order 1980
SI 1980/80 The Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (Compensation) Order 1980
SI 1980/81 The Appointment of Ports (Forth, Tay and Arbroath) Order 1980
SI 1980/82 The Police Pensions (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/83 The Public Lending Right Act 1979 (Commencement) Order 1980 [C. 5]
SI 1980/84 The Act of Sederunt (Sessions of Court and Sederunt Days) 1980 [S. 6]
SI 1980/85 The Borough of Wolverhampton (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/86
SI 1980/87
SI 1980/88 The Aviation Security Fund (Second Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/89
SI 1980/90
SI 1980/91
SI 1980/92
SI 1980/93
SI 1980/94
SI 1980/95
SI 1980/96 The Designs (Amendment) Rules 1980
SI 1980/97 The Farm and Horticulture Development (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/98 The Local Authorities (Allowances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980 [S. 7]
SI 1980/99 The West Lothian District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/100
101–200
SI 1980/101 The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 57) (Northamptonshire) Order 1980 [C. 6]
SI 1980/102 The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 29) (Northamptonshire) Order 1980
SI 1980/103 The Farm Capital Grant (Variation) Scheme 1980
SI 1980/104 The Horticulture Capital Grant (Variation) Scheme 1980
SI 1980/105
SI 1980/106
SI 1980/107 The National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980 [S. 8]
SI 1980/108 The Magistrates' Courts (Reciprocal Enforcement of Maintenance Orders) (Hague Convention Countries) Rules 1980 [L. 1]
SI 1980/109 The Financial Assistance for Industry (Increase of Limit) Order 1979
SI 1980/110 The Child Benefit and Social Security (Fixing and Adjustment of Rates) Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/111 The Road Traffic Accidents (Payments for Treatment) (England and Wales) Order 1980
SI 1980/112
SI 1980/113
SI 1980/114 The Income Tax (Excess Interest as Distributions) Order 1980
SI 1980/115
SI 1980/116 The Road Vehicles Lighting (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/117
SI 1980/118
SI 1980/119
SI 1980/120
SI 1980/121
SI 1980/122
SI 1980/123
SI 1980/124 The Non-marketing of Milk and Milk Products and the Dairy Herd Conversion Premiums (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/125 The Poisons List Order 1980
SI 1980/126
SI 1980/127 The Poisons (Amendment) Rules 1980
SI 1980/128
SI 1980/129
SI 1980/130
SI 1980/131
SI 1980/132
SI 1980/133
SI 1980/134
SI 1980/135
SI 1980/136 The Dangerous Substances and Preparations (Safety) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/137 The Patents (Amendment) Rules 1980
SI 1980/138 The Borough of Hinckley and Bosworth (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/139 The Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/140 The Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/141 The Public Service Vehicles (Conditions of Fitness, Equipment and Use (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/142 The Minibus (Conditions of Fitness, Equipment and Use (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/143 The Gaming Clubs (Hours and Charges) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/144 The Community Bus (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/145 The African Swine Fever Order 1980
SI 1980/146 The African Swine Fever (Compensation) Order 1980
SI 1980/147
SI 1980/148 The Gaming Act (Variation of Monetary Limits) (Scotland) Order 1980 [S. 11]
SI 1980/149 The Amusements with Prizes (Variation of Monetary Limits) (Scotland) Order 1980 [S. 12]
SI 1980/150 The Industrial Training Levy (Petroleum) Order 1980
SI 1980/151
SI 1980/152
SI 1980/153 The Heathrow Airport–London Noise Insulation Grants Scheme 1980
SI 1980/154 The Gatwick Airport—London Noise Insulation Grants Scheme 1980(
SI 1980/155
SI 1980/156
SI 1980/157
SI 1980/158
SI 1980/159
SI 1980/160 The Misuse of Drugs (Licence Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/161
SI 1980/162
SI 1980/163
SI 1980/164
SI 1980/165
SI 1980/166
SI 1980/167
SI 1980/168 The Measuring Instruments (EEC Requirements) (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/169 The Removal and Disposal of Vehicles (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/170 The Water Authorities and National Water Council (Limit for Borrowing) Order 1980
SI 1980/171
SI 1980/172
SI 1980/173
SI 1980/174 The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 58) (South East Dorset) Order 1980 [C. 7]
SI 1980/175 The Town and Country Planning (Repeal of Provisions No. 30) (South East Dorset) Order 1980
SI 1980/176
SI 1980/177
SI 1980/178 The Church Representation Rules (Amendment) Resolution 1980
SI 1980/179 The Industrial Training Levy (Rubber and Plastics Processing Industry) Order 1980
SI 1980/180 The Motor Vehicles (Driving Licences) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/181 The District of North Devon (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/182 The Car Tax (Isle of Man) Order 1980
SI 1980/183 The Value Added Tax (Isle of Man) Order 1980
SI 1980/184 The Continental Shelf (Jurisdiction) Order 1980
SI 1980/185 The Argentine Republic (Extradition) (Amendment) Order 1980
SI 1980/186 The Foreign Compensation (Financial Provisions) Order 1980
SI 1980/187 The INMARSAT (Immunities and Privileges) Order 1980
SI 1980/188 The Civil Aviation Act 1971 (Isle of Man) (Amendment) Order 1980
SI 1980/189 The Independent Broadcasting Authority Act 1979 (Channel Islands) Order 1980
SI 1980/190 The Theatres (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 [N.I. 1]
SI 1980/191 The European Communities (Definition of Treaties) (Multilateral Trade Negotiations) Order 1980
SI 1980/192 The Fiduciary Note Issue (Extension of Period) Order 1980
SI 1980/193 The Local Government (Allowances) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/194
SI 1980/195
SI 1980/196 The Borough of Brighton (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/197 The British Nationality (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/198 The Local Government Superannuation (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980 [S. 16]
SI 1980/199
SI 1980/200
201–300
SI 1980/201
SI 1980/202
SI 1980/203
SI 1980/204
SI 1980/205
SI 1980/206
SI 1980/207
SI 1980/208 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (Commencement No. 5) Order 1980 [C. 8]
SI 1980/209 The City of Aberdeen District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/210 The Kirkcaldy District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/211 The Agricultural Levy Reliefs (Frozen Beef and Veal) Order 1980
SI 1980/212
SI 1980/213
SI 1980/214 The Industrial Training Levy (Wool, Jute and Flax) Order 1980
SI 1980/215
SI 1980/216 The Local Government Superannuation (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/217
SI 1980/218
SI 1980/219
SI 1980/220
SI 1980/221 The Trade Marks (Amendment) Rules 1980
SI 1980/222 The Motor Vehicles (Type Approval) (Great Britain) (Fees) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/223 The Motor Vehicles (Type Approval and Approval Marks) (Fees) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/224
SI 1980/225 The Cycle Racing on Highways (Special Authorisation) (England and Wales) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/226
SI 1980/227
SI 1980/228
SI 1980/229 The Water Authorities (Collection of Charges) Order 1980
SI 1980/230 The Industrial Training Levy (Air Transport and Travel) Order 1980
SI 1980/231 The District of Redditch (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/232 The Banff and Buchan District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/233 The Local Government Superannuation (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/234 The Local Government Superannuation (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/235 The Development Board for Rural Wales (Financial Limit) Order 1980
SI 1980/236
SI 1980/237
SI 1980/238
SI 1980/239
SI 1980/240
SI 1980/241 The Marriage Fees (Scotland) Regulations 1980 [S. 17]
SI 1980/242 The Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Fees) (Scotland) Order 1980 [S. 18]
SI 1980/243 The Southern Rhodesia (Constitution of Zimbabwe) (Elections and Appointments) (Amendment) Order 1980
SI 1980/244 The Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 1980 [S. 19]
SI 1980/245 The Customs Duties (Quota Relief) Order 1980
SI 1980/246 The Weights and Measures (Milk and Solid Fuel Vending Machines) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/247 The Remuneration of Teachers (Further Education) Order 1980
SI 1980/248
SI 1980/249 The Ironstone Restoration Fund (Rates of Contribution) Order 1980
SI 1980/250 The Ironstone Restoration Fund (Standard Rate) Order 1980
SI 1980/251 The Continental Shelf (Protection of Installations) Order 1980
SI 1980/252
SI 1980/253
SI 1980/254 The Industrial Training Levy (Iron and Steel) Order 1980
SI 1980/255 The Industrial Training Levy (Distributive Board) Order 1980
SI 1980/256
SI 1980/257 The Sugar Beet (Research and Education) Order 1980
SI 1980/258 The Roxburgh District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/259
SI 1980/260
SI 1980/261
SI 1980/262
SI 1980/263 The Medicines (Chloroform Prohibition) Amendment Order 1980
SI 1980/264 The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/265 The Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Fees) Order 1980
SI 1980/266 The Community Road Transport Rules (Exemptions) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/267 The Valuation Timetable (Scotland) Amendment Order 1980 [S. 21]
SI 1980/268 The Community Service by Offenders (Scotland) Act 1978 (Commencement No. 2) Order 1980 [C. 9] [S. 22]
SI 1980/269 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (Commencement No. 6) Order 1980 [C. 10] [S. 23]
SI 1980/270 The Merchant Shipping (Fees) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/271 The Gedling (Parishes) Order 1980
SI 1980/272 The Police Pensions (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/273 The Firemen's Pension Scheme (Amendment) Order 1980
SI 1980/274
SI 1980/275
SI 1980/276
SI 1980/277
SI 1980/278
SI 1980/279 The Anti-Dumping Duty (Revocation) Order 1980
SI 1980/280 The Merchant Shipping (Sterling Equivalents) (Various Enactments) Order 1980
SI 1980/281 The Carriage by Air (Sterling Equivalents) Order 1980
SI 1980/282 The Merchant Shipping (Tonnage) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/283 The Medicines (Exemptions from Restrictions on the Retail Sale or Supply of Veterinary Drugs) (Amendment) Order 1980
SI 1980/284
SI 1980/285
SI 1980/286 The Building (Prescribed Fees) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/287 The Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/288 The Occupational Pension Schemes (Public Service Pension Schemes) (Amendment) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/289 The Chloroform in Food (Scotland) Regulations 1980
SI 1980/290 Act of Sederunt (Rules of Court Amendment No. 1) (Adoption Proceedings) 1980 [S. 26]
SI 1980/291 Act of Sederunt (Reciprocal Enforcement of Maintenance Orders) (Hague Convention Countries) 1980 [S. 27]
SI 1980/292 The Industrial Training Levy (Knitting, Lace and Net) Order 1980
SI 1980/293
SI 1980/294
SI 1980/295 The Road Traffic Accidents (Payments for Treatment) (Scotland) Order 1980
SI 1980/296 The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980
SI 1980/297 The City of Bristol (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980
SI 1980/298 The Amusements with Prizes (Variation of Fees) Order 1980
SI 1980/299 The Gaming Act (Variation of Fees) Order 1980
SI 1980/300 The Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (Commencement No. 59) (Salop) Order 1980 [C. 11]
301–400
The Parish of Newark Order 1980 S.I. 1980/302
Seeds (National Lists of Varieties) (Fees) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/330
The Borough of North Tyneside (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/339
The West Derbyshire (Parishes) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/363
The Lichfield (Parishes) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/387
County Courts (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/397 (N.I. 3)
401–500
The City of Wakefield (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/408
The Lancaster (Parishes) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/415
Import and Export (Plant Health) (Great Britain) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/420
The District of South Bucks (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/428
The Borough of Slough (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/429
The Borough of South Tyneside (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/430
The Borough of Dudley (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/447
501–600
The Borough of Tewkesbury (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/516
Merchant Shipping (Radio Installations) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/529
Merchant Shipping (Navigational Equipment) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/530
Merchant Shipping (Passenger Ship Construction) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/535
Merchant Shipping (Life-Saving Appliances) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/538
Merchant Shipping (Closing of Openings in Hulls and Watertight Bulkheads) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/540
Merchant Shipping (Musters) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/542
Merchant Shipping (Pilot Ladders and Hoists) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/543
Merchant Shipping (Fire Appliances) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/544
Bankruptcy Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/561 (N.I. 4)
Domestic Proceedings (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/563 (N.I. 5)
The District of Rother (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/581
Industrial Training (Transfer of the Activities of Establishments) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/586
The City of Birmingham (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/594
The Moray District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/599
601–700
The District of West Dorset (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/643
The District of Arun (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/652
The District of Mid Sussex (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/653
Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings (General) (Amendment) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/661
Merchant Shipping (Code of Safe Working Practices) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/686
701–800
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/704 (N.I. 9)
The London Borough of Enfield (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/732
The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/733
The County of Northumberland (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/738
The District of Suffolk Coastal (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/739
The Borough of Sunderland (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/756
The District of Caradon (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/757
Customs and Excise (Community Transit) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/762
Motorcycles (Sound Level Measurement Certificates) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/765
The Borough of Charnwood (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/777
The District of North West Leicestershire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/778
The District of Waveney (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/795
801–900
The District of Wycombe (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/842
Bees (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/869 (N.I. 7)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/870 (N.I. 8)
901–1000
Education (Areas to which Pupils belong) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/917
Customs and Excise (Community Transit) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/980
1001–1100
The City of Newcastle upon Tyne (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1054
Measuring Instruments (EEC Requirements) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1058
The Borough of Gateshead (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1069
Treatment of Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1084 (N.I. 10)
Roads (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1085 (N.I. 11)
Private Streets (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1086 (N.I. 12)
Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by Sea (Interim Provisions) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1092
1101–1200
Price Marking (Petrol) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1121
The District of Wimborne (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1128
The Eastwood District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1132
Motor Vehicles (Type Approval) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1182
The City of Dundee District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1196
1201–1300
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1220
Control of Lead at Work Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1248
The Parish of Congleton Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1285
The County of Shropshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1297
Agriculture and Horticulture Development Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1298
1301–1400
Pensions Increase (Review) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1302
The Ross and Cromarty District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1318
Secure Tenancies (Notices) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1339
The District of East Cambridgeshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1340
The District of Blaby (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1341
The District of South Oxfordshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1343
The County of Nottinghamshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1344
1401–1500
The Borough of Knowsley (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1402
Family Income Supplements (General) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1437
Family Income Supplements (Claims and Payments) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1438
The Borough of Kirklees (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1463
The District of North Dorset (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1487
1501–1600
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1503
The North Wiltshire and Thamesdown (Areas) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1558
The County of Isle of Wight (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1572
Supplementary Benefit (Duplication and Overpayment) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1580
1601–1700
Police Pensions (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1616
Legal Aid (Assessment of Resources) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1630
Supplementary Benefit (Trade Disputes and Recovery from Earnings) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1641
Supplementary Benefit (Determination of Questions) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1643
Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings (General) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1651
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1674
The Angus District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1680
The Monklands District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1681
Rent Act 1977 (Forms etc.) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1697
1701–1800
The County of Staffordshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1702
Control of Pollution (Special Waste) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1709
The County of Somerset (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1725
Industrial Training (Transfer of the Activities of Establishments) (No. 2) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1753
The County of Hertfordshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1769
Legal Aid (Scotland) (General) Amendment Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1791
Legal Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1792
Legal Aid (Scotland) (Assessment of Resources) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1793
1801–1900
The County of Cheshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1805
The Lochaber District (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1827
The County of Lincolnshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1829
The County of Surrey (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1830
Wireless Telegraphy (Exemption) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1848
Food Labelling Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1849
Supreme Court Funds (Amendment) Rules 1980 S.I. 1980/1858
The North Wolds (Parishes) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1876
Legal Aid (General) Regulations 1980 S.I. 1980/1894
Legal Advice and Assistance Regulations (No. 2) 1980 S.I. 1980/1898
1901–2000
The Oxfordshire and Wiltshire (Areas) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1919
The Manchester and Trafford (Areas) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1920
The Great Gaddesden (Areas) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1939
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1959 (N.I. 17)
The County of Derbyshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/1985
2000–
Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977 (Commencement No. 3) Order 1980 S.I. 1980/2024
See also
List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom
External links
Legislation.gov.uk delivered by the UK National Archive
UK SI's on legislation.gov.uk
UK Draft SI's on legislation.gov.uk
Lists of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom
Statutory Instruments |
4162918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-flight%20entertainment | In-flight entertainment | In-flight entertainment (IFE) refers to the entertainment available to aircraft passengers during a flight. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg offered passengers a piano, lounge, dining room, smoking room, and bar during the -day flight between Europe and America. After World War II, IFE was delivered in the form of food and drink services, along with an occasional projector movie during lengthy flights. In 1985 the first personal audio player was offered to passengers, along with noise cancelling headphones in 1989. During the 1990s, the demand for better IFE was a major factor in the design of aircraft cabins. Before then, the most a passenger could expect was a movie projected on a screen at the front of a cabin, which could be heard via a headphone socket at their seat. Now, in most aircraft, private IFE TV screens are offered.
Design issues for IFE include system safety, cost efficiency, software reliability, hardware maintenance, and user compatibility.
The in-flight entertainment on board airlines is frequently managed by content service providers.
History
The first in-flight movie was in 1921 on Aeromarine Airways, showing a film called Howdy Chicago to its passengers as the flying boat flew around Chicago.
The film The Lost World was shown to passengers of an Imperial Airways flight in April 1925 between London (Croydon Airport) and Paris.
Eleven years later, in 1932, the first in-flight television called 'media event' was shown on a Western Air Express Fokker F.10 aircraft.
The post-WWII British Bristol Brabazon airliner was initially specified with a 37-seat cinema within its huge fuselage; this was later reduced to a 23-seat cinema sharing the rear of the aircraft with a lounge and cocktail bar. The aircraft never entered service.
However, it was not until the 1960s that in-flight entertainment (other than reading, sitting in a lounge and talking, or looking out the window) was becoming mainstream and popular. In 1961, David Flexer of Inflight Motion Pictures developed the 16mm film system using a 25-inch reel for a wide variety of commercial aircraft. Capable of holding the entire film, and mounted horizontally to maximize space, this replaced the previous 30-inch-diameter film reels. In 1961, TWA committed to Flexer's technology and was the first to debut a feature film in flight. Interviewed by the New Yorker in 1962, Mr Flexner said, "an awful lot of ingenuity has gone into this thing, which started from my simply thinking one day, in flight, that air travel is both the most advanced form of transportation and the most boring.” Amerlon Productions, a subsidiary of Inflight, produced at least one film, Deadlier Than the Male, specifically for use on airplanes. Pakistan International Airlines was the first international airline to introduce this entertainment system, showing regularly scheduled films from 1962.
In 1963, Avid Airline Products developed and manufactured the first pneumatic headset used on board the airlines and provided these early headsets to TWA. These early systems consisted of in-seat audio that could be heard with hollow tube headphones. In 1979, pneumatic headsets were replaced by electronic headsets. The electronic headsets were initially available only on selected flights and premium cabins, whereas economy class still had to make do with the old pneumatic headsets. In the United States, the last airline to offer pneumatic headphones was Delta Air Lines, which switched to electronic headphones in 2003, despite the fact that all Delta aircraft since 1982, when the Boeing 767-200 was adopted, have included jacks for electronic headphones.
Throughout the early to mid-1960s, some in-flight movies were played back from videotape, using early compact transistorized videotape recorders made by Sony (such as the SV-201 and PV-201) and Ampex (such as the VR-660 and VR-1500), and played back on CRT monitors mounted on the upper sides in the cabin above the passenger seats with several monitors placed a few seats apart from each other. The audio was played back through the headsets.
In 1971, TRANSCOM developed the 8mm film cassette. Flight attendants could now change movies in-flight and add short subject programming.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, CRT-based projectors began to appear on newer widebody aircraft, such as the Boeing 767. These used LaserDiscs or video cassettes for playback. Some airlines upgraded the old film IFE systems to the CRT-based systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s on some of their older widebodies. In 1985, Avicom introduced the first audio player system, based on the Philips Tape Cassette technology. In 1988, the Airvision company introduced the first in-seat audio/video on-demand systems using LCD technology for Northwest Airlines. The trials, which were run by Northwest Airlines on its Boeing 747 fleet, received overwhelmingly positive passenger reaction. As a result, this completely replaced the CRT technology.
Today, in-flight entertainment is offered as an option on almost all wide body aircraft, while some narrow body aircraft are not equipped with any form of in-flight entertainment at all. This is mainly due to the aircraft storage and weight limits. The Boeing 757 was the first narrow body aircraft to widely feature both audio and video in-flight entertainment and today it is rare to find a Boeing 757 without an in-flight entertainment system. Most Boeing 757s feature ceiling-mounted CRT screens, although some newer 757s may feature drop-down LCDs or audio-video on demand systems in the back of each seat. Many Airbus A320 series and Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft are also equipped with drop-down LCD screens. Some airlines, such as WestJet, United Airlines, and Delta Air Lines, have equipped some narrow body aircraft with personal video screens at every seat. Others, such as Air Canada and JetBlue, have even equipped some regional jets with VOD.
For the introduction of personal TVs on board jetBlue, company management tracked that lavatory queuing went far down. They originally had two planes, one with functioning IFE and one with none; the functioning one later was called "the happy plane".
System safety and regulation
One major obstacle in creating an in-flight entertainment system is system safety. With the sometimes miles of wiring involved, voltage leaks and arcing become a problem. This is more than a theoretical concern. The IFE system was implicated in the crash of Swissair Flight 111 in 1998. To contain any possible issues, the in-flight entertainment system is typically isolated from the main systems of the aircraft. In the United States, for an aviation product to be considered safe and reliable, it must be certified by the FAA and pass all of the applicable requirements found in the Federal Aviation Regulations. The concerning section, or title, dealing with the aviation industry and the electronic systems embedded in the aircraft, is CFR title 14 part 25. Contained inside Part 25 are rules relating to the aircraft's electronic system.
There are two major sections of the FAA's airworthiness regulations that regulate flight entertainment systems and their safety in transport category aircraft: 14 CFR 25.1301 which approves the electronic equipment for installation and use, by assuring that the system in question is properly labeled, and that its design is appropriate to its intended function. 14 CFR 25.1309 states that the electrical equipment must not alter the safety or functionality of the aircraft upon the result of a failure. One way for the intended IFE system to meet this regulatory requirement is for it to be independent from the aircraft's main power source and processor. By separating the power supplies and data links from that of the aircraft's performance processor, in the event of a failure the system is self-contained, and can not alter the functionality of the aircraft. Upon a showing of compliance to all of the applicable U.S. regulations the in-flight entertainment system is capable of being approved in the United States. Certain U.S. design approvals for IFE may be directly accepted in other countries, or may be capable of being validated, under existing bilateral airworthiness safety agreements.
Cost efficiency
The companies involved are in a constant battle to cut costs of production, without cutting the system's quality and compatibility. Cutting production costs may be achieved by anything from altering the housing for personal televisions, to reducing the amount of embedded software in the in-flight entertainment processor. Difficulties with cost are also present with the customers, or airlines, looking to purchase in-flight entertainment systems. Most in-flight entertainment systems are purchased by existing airlines as an upgrade package to an existing fleet of aircraft. This cost can be anywhere from $2million to $5million for a plane to be equipped with a set of seat back LCD monitors and an embedded IFE system. Some of the IFE systems are being purchased already installed in a new aircraft, such as the Airbus A320, which eliminates the possibility of having upgrade difficulties. Some airlines are passing the cost directly into the customers ticket price, while some are charging a user fee based on an individual customers use. Some are also attempting to get a majority of the cost paid for by advertisements on, around, and in their IFE.
The largest international airlines sometimes pay more than $90,000 for a license to show one movie over a period of two or three months. These airlines usually feature up to 100 movies at once, whereas 20 years ago they would have only 10 or 12. In the United States, airlines pay a flat fee every time the movie is watched by a passenger. Some airlines spend up to $20million per year on content.
Software reliability
Software for in-flight entertainment systems should be aesthetically pleasing, reliable, compatible, and also must be user friendly. These restrictions account for expensive engineering of individually specific software. In-flight entertainment equipment is often touch screen sensitive, and can be controlled with a handset, allowing interaction between each seat in the aircraft and the flight attendants, which is wireless in some systems. Along with a complete aircraft intranet to deal with, the software of the in-flight entertainment system must be reliable when communicating to and from the main in-flight entertainment processor. These additional requirements not only place an additional strain on the software engineers, but also on the price. Programming errors can slip through the testing phases of the software and cause problems.
Varieties of in-flight entertainment
Moving-map systems
A moving-map system is a real-time flight information video channel broadcast through to cabin project/video screens and personal televisions (PTVs). In addition to displaying a map that illustrates the position and direction of the plane, the system gives (utilizing both the imperial and metric systems) the altitude, airspeed, outside air temperature, distance to the destination, distance from the origination point, and origin/destination/local time (using both the 12-hour and 24-hour clocks). The moving-map system information is derived in real time from the aircraft's flight computer systems.
The first moving-map system designed for passengers was named Airshow and introduced in 1982. It was invented by Airshow Inc (ASINC), a small southern California corporation, which later became part of Rockwell Collins. KLM and Swissair were the first airlines to offer the moving map systems to their passengers.
The latest versions of moving-maps offered by IFE manufacturers include AdonisOne IFE, ICARUS Moving Map Systems, Airshow 4200 by Rockwell Collins, iXlor2 by Panasonic Avionics and JetMap HD by Honeywell Aerospace. In 2013, Betria Interactive unveiled FlightPath3D, a fully interactive moving-map that enables passengers to zoom and pan around a 3D world map using touch gestures, similar to Google Earth. FlightPath3D was chosen by Norwegian as the moving-map on their new fleet of Boeing 787 Dreamliners, running on Panasonic's Android based touch-screen IFE system.
After the attempted Christmas Day bombing of 2009, the United States Transportation Security Administration (TSA) briefly ordered the live-map shut-off on international flights landing in the United States. Some airlines complained that doing so may compel the entire IFE system to remain shut. After complaints from airlines and passengers alike, these restrictions were eased.
Audio entertainment
Audio entertainment covers music, as well as news, information, and comedy. Most music channels are pre-recorded and feature their own DJs to provide chatter, song introductions, and interviews with artists. In addition, there is sometimes a channel devoted to the plane's radio communications, allowing passengers to listen in on the pilot's in-flight conversations with other planes and ground stations.
In audio-video on demand (AVOD) systems, software such as MusicMatch is used to select music off the music server. Phillips Music Server is one of the most widely used servers running under Windows Media Center used to control AVOD systems.
This form of in-flight entertainment is experienced through headphones that are distributed to the passengers. The headphone plugs are usually only compatible with the audio socket on the passenger's armrest (and vice versa), and some airlines may charge a small fee to obtain a pair. The headphones provided can also be used for the viewing of personal televisions.
In-flight entertainment systems have been made compatible with XM Satellite Radio and with iPods, allowing passengers to access their accounts or bring their own music, along with offering libraries of full audio CDs from an assortment of artists.
Video entertainment
Video entertainment is provided via a large video screen at the front of a cabin section, as well as smaller monitors situated every few rows above the aisles. Sound is supplied via the same headphones as those distributed for audio entertainment.
However, personal televisions (PTVs) for every passenger provide passengers with channels broadcasting new and classic films, as well as comedies, news, sports programming, documentaries, children's shows, and drama series. Some airlines also present news and current affairs programming, which are often pre-recorded and delivered in the early morning before flights commence. On some US domestic airlines, live TV is offered, which includes many national news channels.
PTVs are operated via an in-flight Management System which stores pre-recorded channels on a central server and streams them to PTV equipped seats during flight. AVOD systems store individual programs separately, allowing a passenger to have a specific program streamed to them privately, and be able to control the playback.
Some airlines also provide video games as part of the video entertainment system. For example, Singapore Airlines passengers on some flights have access to a number of Super Nintendo games as part of its KrisWorld entertainment system. Also Virgin America's and Virgin Australia's Entertainment System offer passengers internet gaming over a Linux-based operating system.
Personal televisions
Most airlines have now installed personal televisions (otherwise known as PTVs) for every passenger on most long-haul routes. These televisions are usually located in the seat-backs or tucked away in the armrests for front row seats and first class. Some show direct broadcast satellite television which enables passengers to view live TV broadcasts. Some airlines also offer video games using PTV equipment. Many are now providing closed captioning for deaf and hard-of-hearing passengers.
Audio-video on demand (AVOD) entertainment has also been introduced. This enables passengers to pause, rewind, fast-forward, or stop a program that they have been watching. This is in contrast to older entertainment systems where no interactivity is provided for. AVOD also allows the passengers to choose among movies stored in the aircraft computer system.
In addition to the personal televisions that are installed in the seatbacks, a new portable media player (PMP) revolution is under way. There are two types available: commercial off the shelf (COTS) based players and proprietary players. PMPs can be handed out and collected by the cabin crew, or can be "semi-embedded" into the seatback or seat arm. In both of these scenarios, the PMP can pop in and out of an enclosure built into the seat, or an arm enclosure. An advantage of PMPs is that, unlike seatback PTVs, equipment boxes for the inflight entertainment system do not need to be installed under the seats, since those boxes increase the weight of the aircraft and impede legroom.
In-flight movies
Personal on-demand videos are stored in an aircraft's main in-flight entertainment system, whence they can be viewed on demand by a passenger over the aircraft's built in media server and wireless broadcast system. Along with the on-demand concept comes the ability for the user to pause, rewind, fast forward, or jump to any point in the movie. There are also movies that are shown throughout the aircraft at one time, often on shared overhead screens or a screen in the front of the cabin. More modern aircraft are now allowing Personal Electronic Devices (PEDs) to be used to connect to the on board in-flight entertainment systems.
Regularly scheduled in flight movies began to premiere in 1961 on flights from New York to Los Angeles. The first movie shown was By Love Possessed (1961), starring Lana Turner; it was first shown on July 19, 1961, when TWA showed it to its first-class passengers.
Closed-captioning
Closed captioning technology for deaf and hard-of-hearing passengers started in 2008 with Emirates Airlines. The captions are text streamed along with video and spoken audio and enables passengers to either enable or disable the subtitle/caption language. Closed captioning is capable of streaming various text languages, including Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Hindi, Spanish, and Russian. The technology is currently based on Scenarist file multiplexing so far; however, portable media players tend to use alternative technologies. A WAEA technical committee is trying to standardize the closed caption specification. In 2009, the US Department of Transportation ruled a compulsory use of captions of all videos, DVDs, and other audio-visual displays played for safety and/or informational purposes in aircraft should be high-contrast captioned (e.g., white letters on a consistent black background [14 CFR Part 382/ RIN 2105–AD41 /OST Docket No. 2006–23999]). As of 2013, several airlines, including
United Airlines,
Qantas
Southwest
and Emirates,
have closed-captioning provided on their AVOD systems.
In-flight games
Video games are another emerging facet of in-flight entertainment. Some game systems are networked to allow interactive playing by multiple passengers. Later generations of IFE games began to shift focus from pure entertainment to learning. The best examples of this changing trend are the popular trivia game series and the Berlitz Word Traveler that allows passengers to learn a new language in their own language. Appearing as a mixture of lessons and mini games, passengers can learn the basics of a new language while being entertained. Many more learning applications continue to appear in the IFE market.
Islamic prayers and directions to Mecca
In several airlines from the Muslim world, the AVOD systems provide Qibla directions to allow Muslims to pray toward Mecca (e.g. Emirates, Turkish Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Etihad Airways, Malaysia Airlines, IranAir, Qatar Airways, Mahan Air, Royal Jordanian and Saudia); Saudia and Malaysia Airlines have built-in Qur'an e-books and Garuda Indonesia has a unique Qur'an channel. Saudia and Emirates also have built-in complete audio Qur'ans.
In-flight connectivity
IFE has been expanded to include in-flight connectivity—services such as Internet browsing, text messaging, cell phone usage (where permitted), and emailing. In fact, some in the airline industry have begun referring to the entire in-flight-entertainment category as "IFEC" (In-Flight Entertainment and Connectivity or In-Flight Entertainment and Communication).
The aircraft manufacturer Boeing entered into the in-flight-connectivity industry in 2000 and 2001 with an offshoot called Connexion by Boeing. The service was designed to provide in-flight broadband service to commercial airlines; Boeing built partnerships with United Airlines, Delta, and American. By 2006, however, the company announced it was closing down its Connexion operation. Industry analysts cited technology, weight, and cost issues as making the service unfeasible at the time. The Connexion hardware that needed to be installed on an aircraft, for example, weighed nearly , which added more "drag" (a force working against the forward movement of the plane) and weight than was tolerable for the airlines.
Since the shuttering of Connexion by Boeing, several new providers have emerged to deliver in-flight broadband to airlines—notably Row 44, OnAir and AeroMobile (who offer satellite-based solutions), and Aircell (which offers air-to-ground connectivity via a cellular signal).
In the past few years, many US commercial airlines have begun testing and deploying in-flight connectivity for their passengers, such as Alaska Airlines, American, Delta, and United. Industry expectations were that by the end of 2011, thousands of planes flying in the US will offer some form of in-flight broadband to passengers. Airlines around the world are also beginning to test in-flight-broadband offerings as well.
Satellite and internal telephony
Now, airlines provide satellite telephones integrated into their system. These are either found at strategic locations in the aircraft or integrated into the passenger remote control used for the individual in-flight entertainment. Passengers can use their credit card to make phone calls anywhere on the ground. A rate close to US$10.00/minute is usually charged regardless of where the recipient is located and a connection fee may be applied even if the recipient does not answer. These systems are usually not capable of receiving incoming calls. There are also some aircraft that allow faxes to be sent and the rate is usually the same as the call rate, but at a per page rate. Some systems also allow the transmission of SMS.
More modern systems allow passengers to call fellow passengers located in another seat by simply keying in the recipient's seat number.
Data communication
IFE producers have begun to introduce Intranet type systems. Virgin Atlantic's and Virgin Australia's Entertainment Systems allow for passengers to chat amongst one another, compete against each other in the provided games, talk to the flight attendants and request, and pay for in advance, food or drinks, and have full access to the internet and email. Other full service airlines such as China Airlines have launched IFEs with similar functionalities on board their Boeing 777 and Airbus A350 aircraft.
Wi-Fi
Several airlines are testing in-cabin wi-fi systems. In-flight internet service is provided either through a satellite network or an air-to-ground network. In the Airbus A380 aircraft, data communication via satellite system allows passengers to connect to live Internet from the individual IFE units or their laptops via the in-flight Wi-Fi access.
Boeing's cancellation of the Connexion by Boeing system in 2006 caused concerns that inflight internet would not be available on next-generation aircraft such as Qantas's fleet of Airbus A380s and Boeing Dreamliner 787s. However, Qantas announced in July 2007 that all service classes in its fleet of A380s would have wireless internet access as well as seat-back access to email and cached web browsing when the Airbuses started operations in October 2008. Certain elements were also retrofitted into existing Boeing 747-400s.
Sixteen major U.S. airlines now offer Wi-Fi connectivity service on their aircraft. The majority of these airlines use the service provided by Gogo Wi-Fi service. The service allows for Wi-Fi enabled devices to connect to the Internet. Delta currently has the most Wi-Fi equipped fleet with 500 aircraft that now offer in-flight Wi-Fi.
In 2019, some airlines removed seatback screens, saving money by streaming video to passenger personal mobile devices.
Mobile phone
As a general rule, mobile phone use while airborne is usually not just prohibited by the carrier, but also by regulatory agencies in the relevant jurisdiction (e.g. FAA and FCC in the US). However, with added technology, some carriers nonetheless allow the use of mobile phones on selected routes.
Emirates became the first airline to allow mobile phones to be used during flight. Using the systems supplied by telecom company AeroMobile, Emirates launched the service commercially on 20 March 2008.
Installed first on an Airbus A340-300, AeroMobile is presently operating across the entire Emirates fleet of Boeing 777s and Airbus A380s.
Ryanair had previously aimed to become the first airline to enable mobile phone usage in the air, but instead ended up launching its system commercially in February 2009. The system is set up on 22 737-800 jets based at Dublin Airport and was fitted on Ryanair's 200+ fleet off 737-800 jets by 2010.
OnAir offers inflight mobile connectivity to a range of airlines through its GSM network. The GSM network connects to the ground infrastructure via an Inmarsat SwiftBroadband satellite which provides consistent global coverage.
Virgin Australia also has an onboard Wi-Fi service, free on all domestic flights but paid based on time usage aboard international flights (as of 2020 this is no longer available), however since their takeover by Bain capital Virgin Australia has reverted to In-flight streaming without live internet access. It is said to be "reviewed" as a part of their overall goal to pull Virgin Australia from bankruptcy.
China Airlines and Singapore Airlines also have similar Wi-Fi services, paid in a similar way to Virgin Australia's service.
Backbone connectivity
While SpaceX and OneWeb are testing low Earth orbit satellites, with Amazon seeking approval for more, and companies like are working on HAPS prototypes, aircraft-based connectivity upstarts like Simi Valley, AWN or Aeronet Global Communications Services are dwindling down.
References
External links
Airline Passenger Experience Association (was previously WAEA)
Code of Federal Regulations Title 14(Aeronautics and Space)
In-flight passenger facilities
Travel technology
Aircraft cabin components
Aviation mass media |
4162994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Syrian%20Revolt | Great Syrian Revolt | The Great Syrian Revolt () or Revolt of 1925 was a general uprising across the State of Syria and Greater Lebanon during the period of 1925 to 1927. The leading rebel forces initially comprised fighters of the Jabal Druze State in southern Syria, and were later joined by Sunni, Druze, Alawite, Shiite and Christian factions all over Syria. The common goal was to end perceived French occupation in the newly mandated regions, which passed from Turkish to French administration following World War I.
This revolution came in response to the repressive policies pursued by the French authorities under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, in dividing Syria into several occupied territories. The new French administration was perceived as being prejudiced against the dominant Arab culture and of intending to change the existing character of the country. In addition resentment was caused by the refusal of the French authorities to set a timetable for the independence of Syria.
This revolution was an extension of the Syrian uprisings that had begun when French colonial forces occupied the coastal regions in early 1920, and continued until late June 1927. While the French army and local collaborators were able to achieve military victory, extensive Syrian resistance obliged the occupying authorities to establish a national government of Syria, under which the divided territories were reunited. In addition parliamentary elections were held as a preliminary step towards the final departure of the French from Syria in 1946.
The Arab region after the First World War
The First World War led to the collapse or dissolution of the Russian, the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Ottoman empires, the later of which Syria had been part of for centuries. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire encouraged the United Kingdom and France to share its legacy by creating a new colonial concept known as the mandate.
The main idea is that the former geographic possessions of the collapsed states that disappeared at the end of the First World War would be placed under the supervision of the League of Nations; in practice this applied to Germany's colonies in Africa and those regions of Ottoman Empire not retained by Turkey.
Based on this, France took over Syria and Lebanon, while the United Kingdom took Iraq and Mandatory Palestine, and these countries are placed under the direct guardianship of these two countries with an official mandate from the League of Nations, with the task of insuring to these new countries the necessary means to enable them to reach a sufficient degree of political awareness and economic development qualifies them for independence and sovereignty. In the implementation of these plans, negotiations were held between France and the United Kingdom in October 1915 on the determination of the spheres of influence of both countries in the event of the partition of the Ottoman Empire. The secret agreement on the subject was called the Sykes–Picot Agreement after the names of the two negotiators, Britain's Mark Sykes and Frenchman, François Georges-Picot.
Meanwhile, correspondence had been ongoing since 1915 between Sir Henry McMahon and Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca in the Hejaz, and as a result of the negotiations between the two parties, The British Empire presented a written commitment, includes the recognition of the independence of the Arabs and support them, and in exchange for this initial promise, Hussein bin Ali is committed to launching a call for the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans.
The Great Arab revolution
On 6 May 1916, Djemal Pasha executed fourteen Syrian notables in Beirut and Damascus and this was the catalyst for Hussein bin Ali to start the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. The aim of the revolution, as stated in the Damascus Charter and in the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, which was based on the Charter, was removing the Ottoman Empire and establishment of an Arab state or union of Arab states including the Arabian Peninsula, Najd, Hejaz in particular and Greater Syria, except Adana, which was considered within Syria in the Damascus Charter. With respect for Britain's interests in southern Iraq, a geographical area that begins in Baghdad and ends in the Persian Gulf.
On 10 June 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Mecca and in November 1916, Hussein bin Ali declared himself "King of the Arabs," while the superpowers only recognized him as king of the Hejaz. He had 1,500 soldiers and some of armed tribesmen, Hussein bin Ali's army had no guns and Britain provided him with two cannons that accelerated the fall of Jeddah and Taif.
Then he went to Aqaba, where the second phase of the revolution officially began in late 1917 supported by the British Army that occupied Jerusalem on 9 September 1917 and before the end of the year all of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was under British rule.
In the meantime, the army of Hussein bin Ali was increasing, they were joined by two thousand armed soldiers, led by Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni from Jerusalem. Most of the tribesmen from the surrounding areas joined the revolution.
The Sharifian Army, was formed under the leadership of Hussein bin Ali and his son Faisal and indirectly commanded by the British officer T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia). It headed to Syria and clashed with the Ottoman forces in a decisive battle near Ma'an. The war resulted in almost destruction of the seventh army and the second Ottoman army, Ma'an was liberated on 23 September 1918, followed by Amman on 25 September and the day before 26 September, the Ottoman governor and his soldiers had left Damascus to announcing the end of Ottoman Syria.
The Sharifian Army entered Damascus on 30 September 1918 and on 8 October the British Army entered Beirut and General Edmund Allenby entered Syria and met with the Sharifian Army in Damascus.
On 18 October, the Ottomans left Tripoli, Lebanon and Homs and on 26 October 1918, the British and Sharifian Army headed north until they met the last Ottoman forces under the command of Turkish commander Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and a fierce battle happened near to Aleppo in an area later renamed "the English Tomb". On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was concluded and Ottoman forces surrendered and the Ottoman Empire abandoned the Levant, Iraq, Hejaz, 'Asir and Yemen.
Arab Kingdom of Syria
After the demise of Ottoman rule, Prince Faisal announced the establishment of an Arab government in Damascus and assigned the former Ottoman officer in Damascus, Ali Rikabi (Ali Rida Pasha Rikabi) to form and preside it as a military governor.
It included three ministers from the former Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, one from Beirut, one from Damascus and Sati' al-Husri from Aleppo and the defence minister from Iraq. Trying to imply that this government represents Greater Syria and was not just a government of local Syria, Prince Faisal appointed Major General Shukri al-Ayyubi military governor of Beirut, Jameel Al-Madfaai governor of Amman, Abdulhamid al-Shalaji as commander of Damascus, and Ali Jawdat al-Ayyubi as governor of Aleppo.
Prince Faisal sought to build a Syrian Army capable of establishing security and stability and preserving the state entity to be declared. He asked the British to arm this army, but they refused. In late 1918 Prince Faisal was invited to participate in the Paris Peace Conference that was held after the First World War in Versailles. He made calls on both the French and British governments who, while collaborating behind his back in amending the Sykes–Picot Agreement, assured the prince of their good intentions towards Syria.
Faisal proposed at the conference to establish three Arab governments; respectively in Hejaz, Syria and Iraq. However, the United States proposed the mandate system, and sent a referendum committee, the King–Crane Commission, to gauge the political wishes of the people and the French and the British reluctantly agreed.
Prince Faisal returned to Syria on 23 April 1919 in preparation for the visit of the King–Crane Commission, and he appointed Awni Abd al-Hadi to membership of the peace conference. A sizeable meeting was held under Mohammad Fawzi Al-Azm at the Arab Club Hall in Damascus.
Prince Faisal gave the opening speech in which he explained the purpose and nature of the King–Crane Commission. The King–Crane Commission, which lasted for 42 days, visited 36 Arab cities and listened to 1,520 delegations from different villages all of them demanded independence and unity. On 3 July 1919, the delegation of the Syrian Conference met with the King–Crane Commission. It informed them of their request for the independence of Greater Syria and the establishment of a monarchy.
After the King–Crane Commission concluded its work, its recommendations stated that "the Levant rejects foreign control, and it is proposed to impose the mandate system under the tutelage of the League of Nations, as the Arabs are unanimously agreed that Prince Faisal should be a king on the Arab lands without fragmentation."
The King–Crane Commission delivered its report to the United States President, Woodrow Wilson on 28 August 1919, who was ill. The report was ignored after Wilson changed his position because of opposition from senior United States politicians in the Senate (Congress), for violating the isolationist policy followed by the United States since 1833, which requires non-intervention in the affairs of Europe and the non-interference of Europe with the affairs of the United States.
Under pressure, Prince Faisal accepted an agreement with France represented by its prime minister Georges Clemenceau, known as the Faisal Clemenceau Agreement. Among the most prominent of its items:
The French Mandate for Syria, while the country retains its internal independence, and Syria's cooperation with France about foreign and financial relations, and that Syrian ambassadors abroad reside within the French embassies.
Recognition of Lebanon's independence under full French tutelage, and the borders to be set by allies without Beirut.
Organization of the Druze of Hauran and Golan in a federation within the Syrian state.
In late June 1919, Prince Faisal convened the Syrian National Congress, That was considered as a parliament of the Levant and was composed of 85 members, but France prevented some deputies from coming to Damascus. The conference opened with the presence of 69 deputies and among the most prominent of its member:
Taj al-Din al-Hasani and Fawzi al-Azm representing Damascus
Ibrahim Hananu representing the Harem District
Saadallah al-Jabiri, Reza Al-Rifai, Mar'i Pasha al-Mallah and Dr. Abdul Rahman Kayali representing Aleppo
Fadel Al-Aboud representing Deir ez-Zor and the Euphrates valley area
Hikmat al-Hiraki representing Maarat al-Numan
Abdul Qader Kilani and Khalid Barazi representing Hama
Amin Husseini and Aref al-Dajani representing Jerusalem
Salim Ali Salam, Aref Al Nomani, and Jamil Beyhoum representing Beirut
Rashid Rida and Tawfiq El Bissar representing Tripoli
Said Taliea and Ibrahim Khatib representing Mount Lebanon
Hashim al-Atassi was elected president of the Syrian National Congress, and Mar'i Pasha al-Mallah and Yusuf al-Hakim were vice-presidents. The Syrian National Congress decided to reject the Faisal Clemenceau agreement, demanding the unity and independence of Syria, accepting the mandate of the United States and Britain and rejecting the French mandate, but that the concept of the mandate is limited on technical assistance only.
The relationship between Faisal and French General Henri Gouraud was strained, following Faisal's retreat from his agreement with the French and his bias to the people. The Syrian government has requested 30,000 military uniforms to organize the army. On the other hand, the Clemenceau government fell in France and was replaced by the extreme right-wing government of Alexandre Millerand. Later, France disputed the agreement, and In mid-November 1919, British Armed Forces began withdrawing from Syria after a one-year presence.
On 8 March 1920, the Syrian National Congress was held in Damascus under the leadership of Hashim al-Atassi and in the presence of Prince Faisal and members of the government. It lasted for two days with the participation of 120 members and came up with the following decisions:
The independence of Syria as a country with its natural borders.
His Royal Highness Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein was unanimously elected constitutional monarch over the country.
The political system of the state is a civil, parliamentary, royal.
Appointment of a civil property government, where Ali Reza Al-Rikabi was appointed as the commander-in-Chief of the Government and Yusuf al-Azma as the Syrian Minister of Defence The official language becoming Arabic instead of Turkish in all government institutions, civil and military official departments, and schools. Replacing the Ottoman lira with the Egyptian pound and later the Syrian pound.
Rejecting the Zionist, Balfour Declaration to make Palestine a national home for Jews.
Reject British and French tutelage over Arabs.
The Allies refused to recognize the new state and decided in April 1920 at the San Remo conference in Italy to divide the country into four areas under which Syria and Lebanon would be subject to the French mandate, the Emirate of Transjordan and Palestine to the British Mandate for Palestine. Although the Lebanon and Syrian coasts, as well as Palestine, were not under the military rule of the Arab Kingdom of Syria, as the Allied armies had been there since the end of the First World War.
The government and the Syrian National Congress rejected the decisions of the San Remo conference and informed the Allied States of its decision between 13 and 21 May 1920. The voices were rising in Syria for an alliance with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the Turkish War of Independence or the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and meetings were held.
However, these meetings did not lead to a result because Atatürk was using the Syrians to improve the terms of his negotiations with the French and he turned his back to the Syrians. He concluded an agreement with France known as the Treaty of Ankara (Franklin-Bouillon Agreement) in 1921, which included a waiver of the French occupation authority from the northern Syrian territories and withdrawal of the French Army, and hand them over to Turkey.
Syria under the French Mandate
The proclamation of the establishment of the Arab Kingdom of Syria had internal implications, reflecting tensions within both Syria and Lebanon. Muslims had attacked Christian villages in the Beqaa Valley in response to statements by the Maronite Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek and the Board of Directors of Mount Lebanon, opposing the independence of Lebanon.
On 5 July 1920, Faisal dispatched his advisor Nuri al-Said to meet with the French General, Henri Gouraud, in Beirut. Nuri al-Said returned to Damascus on 14 July 1920 with a document known as the Gouraud ultimatum and Faisal was given four days to accept it. The ultimatum included five points:
Acceptance of the French Mandate.
Adoption of paper money issued by the Bank of Syria and Lebanon in Paris.
Approval of the French occupation of railway stations in Riyaq, Homs, Aleppo and Hama.
Dissolution of the Syrian Army plus the cessation of forced recruitment and attempts to arm.
Punish of those involved in hostilities against France.
King Faisal gathered his ministers to discuss the matter, and many of them agreed with Gouraud's terms and accepted the ultimatum. However, the position of the Minister of Defence, Yusuf al-Azma, was strongly opposed to accepting the ultimatum, and tried, by all means, to discourage King Faisal from responding to the French threat to dissolve the Syrian Army.
The Syrian government's acceptance of General Gouraud's ultimatum and abandoning the idea of resistance, and demobilizing of the Syrian Army and withdrawing soldiers from the village of Majdal Anjar was seen to be in violation of the decision of the Syrian National Congress. The general opinion of the people was voiced by loud demonstrations condemning the ultimatum, those who accepted it, and sending King Faisal a letter to Gouraud to accept the terms and dissolve the army.
The French Armed Forces began to march led by General Goabiah (by order of General Gouraud) towards Damascus on 24 July 1920, while the Syrian Army stationed on the border was retreating and dissolving, and when General Gouraud was asked about this, replied that Faisal's letter for approving the ultimatum terms reached him after the deadline.
There was only one choice and that was resistance until death, and this opinion was headed by Minister of Defence, Yusuf al-Azma, who worked to bring together the rest of the army with hundreds of volunteers who chose this resolution and headed to resist the invading French forces that marching towards Damascus.
Yusuf al-Azma wanted to preserve the prestige and dignity of Syria's military history, was afraid to record in the history books that the Syrian Army stayed away from fighting and that the military occupation of his capital had happened without resistance. He also wanted to inform the Syrian people that their army carried the banner of resistance against the French occupation from the first moment, and that they would be a beacon for them in their resistance against the military occupation.
General Goabiah's forces consisted of the following:
an infantry brigade (415)
2nd Regiment of Algerian Tirailleurs
a brigade of Senegalese Tirailleurs
Moroccan Spahis Regiment
The French forces totalled nine thousand soldiers, supported by many aircraft, tanks and machine guns, while the Syrian Army did not exceeded 3,000 soldiers most of them volunteers.
On 24 July 1920, the Battle of Maysalun began, when the French artillery began to overcome the Syrian artillery, French tanks began advancing towards the front line of the defending forces, and then French Senegalese soldiers began attacking the left side of the Syrian Army, which was composed mainly of volunteers, and some traitors attacked the Syrian Army from behind and killed many soldiers and robbed their weapons. Despite all, Yusuf al-Azma was unconcerned and remained steadfast and determined.
Yusuf al-Azma had planted land mines on the heads of the valley of Alqarn, a corridor used by the French Army, in the hope that when the tanks attack into, the land mines explode. However, the traitors had already cut off the mines wires, and some of them were caught during the operation, but it was too late. When the tanks approached, Yusuf al-Azma gave the order to detonate the land mines but they did not explode. He examined them and saw that most of them had been disabled. Then he heard an uproar from behind and when he turned, saw many of his armies and volunteers had fled after a bomb fell from one of the aircraft. So he grabbed his rifle and fired at the enemy until he was killed on Wednesday, 24 July 1920.
Policy of the French Mandate in Syria
After France obtained control over the entire Syrian territories they resorted to the fragmentation of Syria into several independent states or entities:
State of Damascus (1920).
State of Aleppo (1920).
Alawite State (1920).
The State of Greater Lebanon (1920).
Jabal Druze State (1921).
Sanjak of Alexandretta (1921).
The northern Syrian territory was given to Turkey during the Treaty of Ankara on 20 October 1921, and the boundary of the border between the colonial power and Turkey.
To tear the national unity of the country and weaken national resistance to the French mandate, General Gouraud resorted to the policy pursued by General Hubert Lyautey in Morocco. It is a policy of isolating cohesive religious and ethnic minorities from the mainstream in the country, under the pretext of defending their rights and equity, and incite the rural and Bedouin against urban.
The causes of the revolution
The outbreak of the revolution had many reasons, the most important of which are:
The Syrians rejected the French occupation of their country, and sought full independence.
Tearing Syria into several small states (Aleppo, Druze, Alawites, Damascus).
The great economic damage caused to the Syrian merchants as a result of the policy adopted by the French in Syria, where the French dominated the economic aspects and linked the Syrian and Lebanese pounds to the French franc.
The military dictatorship practiced by the French generals during their mandate. Fighting the Arab culture of the country and trying to replace it with the French culture and appointing the French to top positions.
The abolition of freedoms in Syria and the pursuit of nationalists and provoke sectarianism, which led to the discontent of the Syrians. The meeting between the leaders of the Jabal Druze State and the French high commissioner in Syria failed, where the Druze leaders expressed their displeasure with the policy of French General, Gabriel Carbillet, and demanded that another governor replace him. However, the high commissioner insulted them and threatened them with harsh punishment if they stuck to their position. As a result, Sultan al-Atrash declared that a revolution was necessary to achieve independence.
In the opinion of Dr. Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, the above reasons are the distant causes of the revolution. The primary reasons are General Carbillet's antagonism to the Al-Atrash family and attempts to crush their influence and jailed everyone who dealt with them, prompting Sultan al-Atrash to declare a revolution.
The demands of the revolution
The most prominent demands of the revolution were:
unification of the coastal and internal territories of Syria, and the recognition of one fully independent Syrian Arab state;
The establishment of a Syrian National Congress to draw up a fundamental law on the principle of absolute sovereignty for the nation;
withdrawal of the occupying forces from Syria and the formation of a national army to maintain security;
upholding the principles of the French Revolution and human rights in freedom, equality and fraternity.
The course and events of the revolution
Colonel Catro, who was dispatched by General Gouraud to Jabal al-Druze, sought to isolate the Druze from the Syrian national movement, he signed on 4 March 1921 a treaty with the Druze tribes, which stipulated that Jabal al-Druze would form a particular administrative unit independent of the State of Damascus with a local governor and an elected representative council. In exchange for the Druze's recognition of the French mandate, the result of the treaty appointed Salim al-Atrash as the first ruler of the Jabal Druze State.
The Jabal Druze inhabitants were not comfortable with the new French administration and the first clash with it occurred in July 1922 with the arrest of Adham Khanjar, who was coming to Sultan al-Atrash carrying a letter to him. The French arrested him for his involvement in the attack on General Gouraud in Hauran. Sultan al-Atrash asked the French commander in As-Suwayda to hand over Adham Khanjar but was told that Khanjar was on his way to Damascus. So Sultan al-Atrash commissioned a group of his supporters to attack the armed convoy accompanying the detainee, but the French managed to transfer him to Lebanon and on 30 May 1923, executed him in Beirut.
The French destroyed the house of Sultan al-Atrash in Al-Qurayya in late August 1922 in response to his attack on their forces, then Sultan al-Atrash led the Druze rebels for a year in a guerrilla war against the French forces. France brought a large force to crush the rebels, that forced Sultan al-Atrash to seek refuge in Transjordan in the late summer of 1922. Under British pressure, Sultan al-Atrash gave himself up to the French in April 1923 after agreeing to a truce.
Salim Al-Atrash died poisoned in Damascus in 1924; the French appointed captain Carbillet as governor of the Jabal Druze State, contrary to the agreement with the Druze, Where he abused the people and exposed them to forced labour and persecution and sent them to prison. He also worked on the implementation of a policy of divide and conquer by inciting farmers against their feudal lords, especially the Al-Atrash family. This led the people of As-Suwayda to go out in a mass protest against the practices of the French authorities, which accelerated the outbreak of the revolution.
The Druze were fed up with the practices of captain Carbillet, which led them to send a delegation to Beirut on 6 June 1925 to submit a document requesting the High Commissioner of the Levant, Maurice Sarrail, to appoint a Druze governor of the Jabal Druze instead of captain Carbillet because of his practices against the people of the Jabal Druze State. Some of these practices, according to memoirs of Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, are:
Allocate several gendarmes to beat and humiliate people in fulfillment of the wishes of captain Carpier and his entourage.
Hamed Karkout (from the village of Thebeen) was detained for five months without cause or trial; he was insulted and beaten in the morning and evening.
Husayn Kabul (from the village of Kafr al-Lehaf) was whipped until his skin was torn because he neglected to greet General Diocheil when he passed the highway.
Wahba al-Ashmoush was arrested in As-Suwayda and severely beaten because he refused to rent his house.
General Diocheil fired several shots from his pistol at Mohammed Bey al-Halabi, the director of the Justice Department, and he was not punished for his criminal work.
Hussein Saddiq was arrested and imprisoned for 15 days, for not receiving captain Carbillet, and fined 25 golden pounds for the village because it did not receive him luxuriously. This fine was imposed on the village of Arman for the same reason.
Fahd Bey Al-Atrash was arrested and severely beaten without investigation, based on a simple tale from a spy.
Imposing ten golden pounds as a fine on As-Suwayda people for the loss of a cat of the wife of a French garrison officer.
High commissioner Sarrail expelled the Jabal Druze State delegation and refused to meet them and notified them that they must leave Beirut quickly and return to their country or he will exile them to Palmyra, and this was the direct cause of the outbreak of the Syrian revolution, where Sultan al-Atrash called for a meeting in As-Suwayda. Demonstrations occurred throughout the Jabal Druze State.
Contacts were made with some political leaders in Damascus, headed by Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, president of the People's Party, to consult and coordinate positions, although the People's Party had declared that it sought to achieve its principles and program by lawful means. However, some of its members personally have pledged with a Jabal Druze delegation to ignite the revolution in Syria, and cooperate in expelling the French from Syria and achieve independence and unity.
At that time, it was clear to Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar that Syria is in the throes of the revolution and that the Syrian people would gain their freedom and independence. He started communicating with the leaders and notables of the Syrian cities to urge them to revolt against French colonialism and motivated their national feelings and asked them to start an armed struggle for independence. Shahbandar's goal was to disperse the French forces geographically to weaken their strength and to relieve pressure from the capital Damascus and Jabal al-Druze.
To achieve this goal, Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar communicated with the leader Ibrahim Hananu in the northern region. Who was one of the first stragglers against the French colonial forces since 1920, where rebel operations in the northern region lasted until 15 April 1926, one of the most important battles that took place during this period was the battle of Tel Ammar, which was the last battles of the revolution in that region.
Shahbandar also met with leader Mohammed Al-Ayyash in Damascus and agreed with him to extend the revolution to the eastern region. Mohammed Al-Ayyash was able to form revolutionary groups to strike the French forces in Deir ez-Zor, and the rebels succeeded in carrying out strikes against the French forces. One of these was killing of French officers in the Ain Albu Gomaa area on the road between Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa.
As a result of the operation, French planes bombed the villages of the city; it was a horrific and devastating bombardment where the houses were destroyed on the heads of children and women and killed the livestock and burned farms and crops, some civilians were killed. Many were wounded by bullets and shrapnel from the bombing.
Revolutionaries were tried in Aleppo and in August 1925, the French high commissioner in Beirut, Maurice Sarrail, issued Decision No. 49S / 5, which ordered the exile of all members of the Ayyash Al-Haj family to the city of Jableh, Mahmoud Al-Ayyash (Abu Stita) and 12 of his companions were sentenced to death. The execution was carried out by firing squad on 15 September 1925 in the city of Aleppo. Mohammed Al-Ayyash was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment in the city of Tartus on the island of Arwad.
Shortly after, while the Ayyash Al-Haj family were living in Jableh, the French authorities assassinated Ayyash Al-Haj in a café outside the city by poisoning his coffee, and prevented the transfer of his body to Deir ez-Zor for reasons of public security, He was buried in Jableh in the cemetery of Sultan Ibrahim ibn Adham Mosque where the absent prayers held for the spirit of this martyr mujahid in all the Syrian cities.
Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar was in contact with Commander Fawzi al-Qawuqji, who was preparing to set up the revolution in the city of Hama. However, he was known for his intense loyalty to the French. Despite this, he received In their army a high rank and a position (the National Army Command in Hama) rarely held by other Syrians. However, according to Shahbandar's memoirs, Al-Qawuqji was upset with the humiliation of the elders and scholars of Hama, division of the country, improper appointments to high positions, raising of taxes on people, and stirring sectarian strife among the Syrian people.
On 4 October 1925, Al-Qawuqji declared a revolution in Hama and its environs. It would have almost taken over the city had it not been for the heavy bombing of popular neighbourhoods. He went to the desert to provoke the tribes against the French and relieve pressure on the rebels in other regions, and achieved significant victories over the French troops, garrisons and barracks and inflicted heavy losses on them; even the National Revolutionary Council entrusted him with leading the revolution in the Ghouta region and granting him broad powers.
On 11 July 1925, French high commissioner Maurice Sarrail sent a secret letter to his delegate in Damascus asking him to summon some of the leaders of the Jabal al-Druze under the pretext of discussing with them their demands, to arrest them and exile them to Palmyra and Al-Hasakah. This was done and Uqlat al-Qatami, Prince Hamad al-Atrash, Abdul Ghaffar al-Atrash, and Naseeb al-Atrash were exiled to Palmyra, while Barjas al-Homoud, Hosni Abbas, Ali al-Atrash, Yusuf al-Atrash, and Ali Obaid were exiled to Al-Hasakah.
As a result of French policies and practices, Sultan al-Atrash declared the revolution on 21 July 1925 by broadcasting a political and military statement calling on the Syrian people to revolt against the French mandate.
Al-Atrash started military attacks on French forces and burned the French Commission's house in Salkhad, the second-largest city in the mountain after As-Suwayda and occupied it. In early September 1925, Atrash attacked a French force in the town of Al-Kafr under the command of Captain Norman and killed most of the soldiers, where the number of rebels did not exceed two hundred while the number of soldiers exceeded two hundred and sixty, including a large number of French officers, and killed 40 rebels, including Mustafa Atrash brother of Sultan al-Atrash.
Sarail was determined to defeat his troops and ordered an extensive campaign to discipline rebels, including more than 5,000 soldiers, led by General Michaud, equipped with the best and latest tanks and military aircraft. On the first day of August 1925, the campaign clashed with rebel forces in the town of Izra; the number of revolutionaries was about three thousand. The rebels were defeated in the battle, as soon as evening came, the rebels attacked the rear of the French forces, where ammunition and supplies were seized and killed many French soldiers.
The following morning, 117 came from As-Suwayda and joined by 400 rebels from Majdal Shams, Najran, Salim and other nearby villages. They clashed with the French forces in the village of Al-Mazraa, where the French forces were annihilated. Only about 1,200 soldiers fled to the railway in the village of Izra to board the train going to Damascus. Hamad al-Barbour, Sultan al-Atrash`s right hand man was killed in the battle.
On 20 August 1925, the People's Party sent a delegation to meet with Sultan al-Atrash and discuss the accession of Damascus to the revolution; the delegation included Tawfiq al-Halabi, Asaad al-Bakri, and Zaki al-Droubi. The presence of the delegation coincided with the presence of Captain Reno, who was negotiating with the rebels on behalf of the French authorities to conclude a peace treaty, and the People's Party delegation managed to convince the rebels not to sign the treaty. In late August 1925, the leaders of the People's Party, including Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, met with Sultan al-Atrash in the village of Kafr al-Lehaf and agreed to mobilize five hundred rebels to attack Damascus from three axis, but Al-Atrash could not mobilize this number. The military forces that General Ghamlan began to mobilize along the railway in Horan led the rebel leaders to abandon the plan to attack Damascus and devote themselves to the French campaign.
The rebels agreed to march towards the village of Al-Musayfirah to confront the new French campaign. On 17 September 1925, they launched a night attack on the French troops quartered there, and victory would have been theirs if it had not been for the intervention of French aircraft that forced them to withdraw. The French casualties were more than 900 soldiers, In addition to destroying many equipment and vehicles, while the rebels lost less than 200 fighters. Then there were battles between the rebels and the creeping French forces towards As-Suwayda, and the French were forced after a temporary occupation of the city to withdraw after the revolutionary command decided to extend its scope to the north to relieve the pressure on Jabal al-Druze.
On 4 October 1925, Fawzi al-Qawuqji led the rebels and Bedouins of the Mawali tribe in and around Maarat al-Numan. He would have taken Hama, if it had not been for the intervention of French planes and the commitment of the leaders of the city to neutrality. They waited in their homes to see the result of the revolution. If it was successful they will be its founders, and if it fails they will be far from its consequences. This does not mean that the Hama revolution did not bear fruit, on the contrary, it led to the withdrawal of French forces from the city of As-Suwayda at the request of the French high commissioner Sarail to support the French garrison in the city of Hama.
The revolution spread to the Ghouta of Damascus and there were fierce battles between the rebels led by Hasan al-Kharrat and the French. The first battles were in the village of Al-Malihah, or what the rebels called the first battle of Al-Zour, in which several French soldiers were killed On 18 October 1925, the rebels entered Damascus, headed by Nasib al-Bakri, they were joined by the rebels from Al-Shaghur rebels and Bab al-Salam led by Hasan al-Kharrat, The rebels remained for four days, crushing all the soldiers in the barricades of Al-Shaghur neighbourhood and Al-Midan, and the French soldiers were forced to take refuge in the Citadel of Damascus with their families.
Sarail ordered his troops to bomb Damascus with artillery from the Citadel of Damascus, which destroyed more than 600 homes, and French soldiers looted warehouses and shops. The rebels decided to kidnap General Sarail after they learned that he came to Damascus to visit the Azm Palace in Bazouriyeh, so they entered the city from the side of the Al-Shaghur and arrived at the palace, but Sarail had left him quickly. The rebels clashed with the French soldiers and caught fire in the palace for the ferocity of the battle. Fighting continued between the Ghouta rebels and the French forces, the Second Battle of Al-Zour took place on 17 November 1925, the battle of Yalda and Babbila on 19 November 1925, the battle of Hamura on 17 December 1925, and the battle of Al-Nabek on 14 and 15 March 1926.
In late October 1925, the rebels of the Jabal al-Druze gathered in the northern Almeqren and then marched west, occupying the region of Alblan and then the town of Hasbaya without any resistance from the French garrison, whose leader preferred to withdraw when he learned the arrival of the rebels. The rebels then went to the town of Rashaya after learning that a decisive battle had taken place between the town's Druze and its French garrison, and after heavy fighting, they managed to enter its castle and occupy it.
The Syrian rebels entered the stage of attrition as the revolution extended and suffered from a lack of ammunition and supplies, which helped the French forces to besiege and tighten the screws on them by bringing more supporting troops, Al-Atrash refused to surrender to the French and was sentenced to death. He was forced, with a group of rebels to flee to Azraq in the emirate of eastern Jordan, but the English did not allow them to stay for long, so they fled to Wadi al-Sarhan and al-Nabek in northern Saudi Arabia, then to Al-Karak in Jordan.
Sultan al-Atrash and his comrades returned home after France issued a comprehensive amnesty for all the rebels following the signing of the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in 1936, where Al-Atrash and his comrades were received in Damascus on 18 May 1937 with grand public celebrations.
Syrian cities participating in the revolution
Jabal al-Arab and Horan (Sultan al-Atrash)
Sultan al-Atrash was a prominent Syrian nationalist leader and commander general of the Syrian Revolution (1925–27), He fought against the Ottomans, the French, and even against the Syrian government during its dictatorship, One of the most influential figures in Syrian and Druze history, he played a major role in deciding the destiny of Jabal al-Druze and of Syria in general.
Al-Atrash was born in Al-Qurayya, a village south of As Suwayda known for the famous Druze family of , which had nominally governed the region since 1879, his father Zuqan led the Hauran Druze Rebellion against the Ottomans near Al-Kafr in 1910, where he faced the forces of Sami Pasha al-Farouqi. He was captured and later executed in 1911. His son, Mansur al-Atrash was an active member in the Syrian Regional Branch of the Ba'ath Party until the 1966 Syrian coup d'état led to the downfall of Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, Munif Razzaz and the classical Ba'athists in general. His granddaughter, Naila Al Atrash, is a dramatist and activist against the Assad regime.
In 1925 Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt which broke out in the Jabal al-Druze and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon, this is considered one of the most important revolutions against the French mandate, as it encompassed the whole of Syria and witnessed fierce battles between rebel and French forces.
The rebel forces led by Sultan al-Atrash were supported by the Communist Party of Syria and Lebanon (CPSL). The CPSL broadcast in French, Arabic and Armenian languages that the rebellion was in support of "the great Syrian Revolution" and coordinated with "the international communist movement".
On 23 August 1925 Sultan al-Atrash officially declared revolution against France, and soon fighting erupted in Damascus, Homs and Hama. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French at the beginning of the revolution, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and As-Suwayda. The Druze were defeated in the last two battles. After rebel victories against France, it sent thousands of troops to Syria and Lebanon from Morocco and Senegal, equipped with modern weapons, compared to the few supplies of the rebels. This dramatically altered the results and allowed the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned, He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Franco-Syrian Treaty the year before.
Al-Atrash participated actively in the Levant Crisis, that led to Syrian independence. In 1948 he called for the establishment of a unified Arab Liberation Army of Palestine, for which hundreds of young people had already volunteered and sent to participate in during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
During the reign of Adib Shishakli, Al-Atrash was often harassed because of his opposition to government policy, he left the Jabal al-Druze for Jordan in December 1954 and came back when Adib Shishakl's regime fell, Al-Atrash supported the United Arab Republic of Egypt and Syria in 1958, and firmly opposed the process of separation in 1961. He is also known for his contributions to social life and development in the Jabal al-Druze.
Al-Atrash died on 26 March 1982 from a heart attack, His funeral was attended by more than a million people, and the president of Syrian Arab Republic, Hafez al-Assad issued an individual letter mourning Al-Atrash as the General Commander of the Great Syrian Revolt.
Damascus (Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar)
Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar was a prominent Syrian nationalist during the French mandate and a leading opponent of compromise with French authority. His devotion to Arab nationalism dated to the days of the Committee of Union and Progress and its Turkification policies. He supported the Arab Revolt during the First World War and briefly headed the foreign ministry under Emir Faisal.
When France occupied Syria in July 1920, he fled the country. Shahbandar returned in 1921 and organized the Iron Hand Society to agitate against French rule. This was the first Syrian nationalist group to emerge in Damascus during the Mandate and Shahbandar organized its spread to Homs and Hama. In April 1922, the French arrested him and other Iron Hand leaders for incitement against their rule. The arrests triggered several demonstrations and bloody confrontations between protesters and French forces in Damascus. Nonetheless, the French tried Shahbandar for subversive activities and sentenced him to 20 years of imprisonment.
After serving 18 months of his sentence, the French sent him into exile, where he joined the activities of the Syrian-Palestine Congress based in Cairo. The French allowed him to return to Syria in 1924. The following year Shahbandar guided the formation of Syria's first nationalist party, the People's Party. He then helped organize the spread of the Syrian Revolution from Jabal Druze State to the rest of Syria. He eluded the French authorities and moved to Jabal al-Druze for the duration of the revolt. There he and Sultan al-Atrash formed a provisional government. When the revolution collapsed in 1927, Shahbandar fled to Transjordan and from there to Egypt.
In 1937 a French amnesty allowed him to return from exile, and he directed his supporters to oppose the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence because it granted France privileges that detracted from Syrian sovereignty. He was joined by powerful Syrian politicians such as Munir al-Ajlani. He also directed a political campaign to discredit the National Bloc government of Prime Minister Jamil Mardam Bey. During the Second World War, the French considered cooperating with Shahbandar because of his opposition to the National Bloc and because of support for him from Britain and the Hashemites. In June 1940, he was assassinated in Damascus. The French accused several prominent National Bloc figures, including Jamil Mardam and Saadallah al-Jabiri, of plotting the murder, and they fled to Iraq. While Shahbandar was one of Syria's most popular leaders, he never built up an organization that would perpetuate his political legacy.
Ghouta of Damascus (Hasan al-Kharrat)
Hasan al-Kharrat was one of the principal Syrian rebel commanders of the Great Syrian Revolt against the French mandate. His main area of operations was in Damascus and its Ghouta countryside. He was killed in the struggle and is considered a hero by Syrians.
As the qabaday (local youths boss) of the Al-Shaghur quarter of Damascus, al-Kharrat was connected with Nasib al-Bakri, a nationalist from the quarter's most influential family. At al-Bakri's invitation, al-Kharrat joined the revolt in August 1925 and formed a group of fighters from Al-Shaghur and other neighbourhoods in the vicinity. He led the rebel assault against Damascus, briefly capturing the residence of French High Commissioner of the Levant, Maurice Sarrail before withdrawing amid heavy French bombardment.
Towards the end of 1925, relations grew tense between al-Kharrat and other rebel leaders, particularly Sa'id al-As and Ramadan al-Shallash, as they traded accusations of plundering villages or extorting local inhabitants. Al-Kharrat continued to lead operations in the Ghouta, ultimately killed in a French ambush. The revolt dissipated by 1927, but he gained a lasting reputation as a martyr of the Syrian resistance to French rule.
Deir ez-Zor (Ayash Al-Haj family)
The Ayyash Al-Haj family was subjected to the brutality of the French military authorities after accusing them of preparing for the revolution of the Euphrates valley in conjunction with the outbreak of the Great Syrian Revolution. The struggle of the family began with the meeting of Mohammed Al-Ayyash, the eldest son of leader Ayyash Al-Haj, with Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, leader of the People's Party in Damascus and they agreed to extend the revolution to the Euphrates region and open a new front against the French to disperse their forces and ease the pressure on the rebels of Ghouta and Jabal al-Druze.
After Mohammed Al-Ayyash returned from Damascus he started to rouse the enthusiasm of the people of Deir ez-Zor and encourage them to fight. He agreed with his brother Mahmoud Al-Ayyash (Abu Stita) to go to the villages of the Albu Saraya clan that were living west of Deir ez-Zor, and which had a strong friendship with his father Ayyash Al-Haj, to form revolutionary groups with them to strike the French forces.
Mohammed Al-Ayyash managed to form a revolutionary group of thirteen armed men who were ready to take military action against the French forces. Some people were working with the French at translation centres and other places but they were at the service of the revolutionaries. They were reporting to Mohammed Al-Ayyash about the situation and movements of the French, and their activities, along the timing of their military operations. Mohammed Al-Ayyash led the revolutionaries against the French forces.
The revolutionaries managed to carry out strikes against the French, and the last attack was on a car carrying officers and their driver in the Ain Albu Gomaa area, on the road between Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa. The revolutionaries attacked and arrested the officers and took them with their car, first taking their weapons, to a desert called Al-Aksiyya, and threw them, with their driver, in one of the abandoned wells where they died.
The French, concerned over losing their officers, began a search campaign, including planes. When they found their bodies and inquired from the informants about the names of the revolutionaries, the sent a large military force equipped with heavy guns and planes to attack Albu Saraya clan and blockade it.
French planes began bombing the villages of the clan. Some civilians were killed and among them were Hanash Al-Mousa Al-Ani, Ali Al-Najras, and a woman who was pregnant, many were wounded by bullets and shrapnel., All of this was to pressure on the people to surrender the revolutionaries.
Eventually the French became convinced that the bombing would not work. They then threatened to arrest the women of the revolutionaries, their mothers and sisters until the revolutionaries surrendered themselves, When the revolutionaries heard the news , they emerged from their hideouts and surrendered.
The revolutionaries were tried in Aleppo, where the family of Ayyash Al-Haj appointed the lawyer, Fathallah Al-Saqqal to defend her, The court heard the head of the French intelligence in Deir ez-Zor, who said: If each of the criminals, who committed this terrible offence deserve dying once, the gang leader Mohammed Al-Ayyash deserves hanging twice.
Idlib (Ibrahim Hanano)
Ibrahim Hananu was born to a wealthy family in Kafr Takharim and raised in Aleppo. There is dispute on his birth date: one source mentions he was born in 1879, while another mentions he was born in 1869. He studied at the Imperial High School in Aleppo, and continued his studies at the Ottoman Law Academy of the prestigious Mülkiye school in Constantinople. As a student, he joined the Committee of Union and Progress, the political organ that later took stage following the Young Turk Revolution of 1908.
Breaking out in the autumn of 1919 in the countryside surrounding Aleppo, when the French army had landed on the Syrian coast and was preparing to occupy all of Syria, Hananu launched his revolt, bringing Aleppo, Idlib and Antioch into a coordinated campaign against French forces. Hananu was responsible for the disarmament of many French troops, the destruction of railroads and telegraph lines, the sabotage of tanks, and the foiling of French attacks on Aleppo. On 23 July 1920, when the French army successfully attacked Aleppo, Hananu was forced to retreat to his village of Kafr Takharim Nahiyah and began to reorganize the revolt with Najeeb Oweid. The rebels decided to form a civilian government based in Armanaz Nahiyah, and sent Hananu to Turkey as a representative of the new civilian government to request for aid in fighting against the French. He received aid from the Turkish nationalist movement of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, which was battling the French Army of the Levant for control of Cilicia and southern Anatolia. With the withdrawal of Turkish military assistance following the signing of the Franklin-Bouillon Agreement in October 1921, Hananu and his men could no longer sustain a revolt, and their struggle collapsed. However, the revolt's failure, the organization of the northern areas of Syria with Turkish help, has been interpreted as a prototype for self-government that Hananu and other Syrians built upon in later years.
In 1922 Ibrahim Hananu was arrested and presented to the French military criminal court on criminal acts. The first session of the court was on 15 March 1922. One of the best lawyers at that time, Fathallah Saqqal defended Hananu, advocated for Hananu's innocence, and argued that Hananu was a political opponent, not a criminal.
On 25 March 1922, the French Attorney General requested the execution of Hananu, and he said, "if Hananu has seven heads, I will cut them all," the French judge ultimately released Hananu following an agreement between Hananu and the French government.
Hama (Fawzi al-Qawuqji)
Fawzi al-Qawuqji was an officer in the Syrian army and the leader of the Salvation Army during the 1948 war, was born in the city of Tripoli in the Ottoman Empire, studied at the Military School in Astana, and graduated as an officer in the Ottoman Cavalry Corps in 1912, worked in the service of King Faisal in Damascus.
Fawzi al-Qawuqji lived in Damascus and was distinguished by his rare courage and Arabism that prompted him to fight battles against European colonialism in all Arab regions.
During the French Mandate, he became commander of a cavalry company in Hama, later defected from the Syrian Legion set up by the French in Syria to participate in the Great Syrian Revolution against the French, and on October 4, 1925, he led a revolution in Hama against the French occupation, which he planned jointly with Saeed Al-Termanini and Munir Al-Rayes. The Syrian revolutionaries took control of the city, the third-largest city in Syria, with about 80,000. The revolutionaries cut the telephone lines and attacked and burned the Government House, where they captured some French officers and then besieged the French military positions.
The next day, France bombarded the city with aircraft and artillery for three days. After negotiations, some of the city's notables persuaded al-Qawuqji to withdraw to save the population's blood, and the battles continued in its vicinity. The bombing of Hama resulted in 344 deaths, the vast majority of them civilians, although France claimed that the death toll did not exceed 76, all of whom were revolutionaries. Some sources estimate the number of civilian casualties at about 500, the losses of the French as 400 dead and wounded, and the losses of the rebels 35; the material losses were also great, as 115 shops were destroyed. He was later assigned to lead the revolution in the Ghouta area of Damascus.
The results of the revolution
The revolution achieved some progress in the national struggle for independence from France. Ultimately though, the Syrians had failed in their primary goal of independence and the removal of French forces from Syria.
The revolution led to the resurrection of the movement calling for the establishment of a royal government in Syria, as supporters of this project see it as the only guarantee for the establishment of sincere and continuous cooperation to implement the Mandate. Ali bin Al Hussein was the candidate for this throne, but the project failed due to the Syrians’ rejection.
The revolution forced France to reunify Syria after dividing it into four states (Damascus, Aleppo, Jabal Alawites, and Jabal al-Druze).
France agreed to hold elections in which the national opposition, led by Ibrahim Hananu and Hashim al-Atassi, won.
France carried out administrative reforms by removing its high commissioner and some its military officers in Syria and appointing replacements for them.
Syrian nationalists began to look for an alternative method to achieve independence and were forced to change its tactics political form.
Damascus was bombed by air for 24 continuous hours, and some villages in Jabal al-Druze were emptied of their residents as a result of their destruction and burning.
The revolution led to an increase in Syrian nationalism and unity after previous sectarian divisions.
Martyrs of the Great Syrian Revolution
The death toll of the Great Syrian Revolution reached 4,213 people, distributed in the following Syrian governorates:
315 dead in Aleppo and Idlib
331 dead in Latakia, Tartus and the coast
731 dead in Damascus and Ghouta
150 dead in Hama
250 dead in Homs, Al-Nabek and An-Nabek District (Rif Dimashq Governorate)
71 dead in Deir ez-Zor and Al Jazira
34 dead in Daraa
2,064 dead in Jabal al-Druze
267 dead in the Al-Balan region, Rashaya, Majdal Shams and the surrounding villages
Memorial of the Great Syrian Revolution
The edifice of the Great Syrian Revolution is located in the town of Al-Qurayya, south of the city of As-Suwayda which is the birthplace of the leader of the revolution, Sultan al-Atrash. The edifice's construction began in 1987, and was opened in 2010 with an area of , and includes the construction of the edifice and its annexes on a site of . The building of the edifice consists of in its ground section the General Museum of the Great Syrian Revolution edifice, which is considered a living witness to the revolutionaries’ exploits and heroism in the face of French colonialism.
Next to the museum is located in the centre of the edifice a central hall that houses the remains of the commander in chief of the Great Syrian Revolution, the Mujahid Sultan al-Atrash, in addition to a mosaic panorama embodying the battles of the revolution and paintings documenting the names of the battles and the martyrs who were killed in them, in addition to an administration room, a library, and a special museum for the commander in chief containing the Arab dress. His complete cloak, dress, waistcoat, jacket, hat, weapons and military equipment, including a military rifle, a machine gun that he used, a hunting rifle, four machine guns, a French rifle, a leather belt to store bullets, a wooden stick in the form of a pin and some bullets, in addition to National Order of the Cedar that he was awarded, as well as two French swords, one of which belongs to a campaign leader. Blasphemy General Norman, a third sword sheath, two field phones, a signal pistol, three bullets, a detonator, a machine gun, and aircraft counters.
See also
Saleh al-Ali
References
Further reading
Daniel Neep, Occupying Syria under the French mandate: insurgency, space and state formation (Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp 101–130.
Michael Provence, The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism (University of Texas Press, 2005). online
Anne-Marie Bianquis et Elizabeth Picard, Damas, miroir brisé d'un orient arabe, édition Autrement, Paris 1993.
Lenka Bokova, La confrontation franco-syrienne à l'époque du mandat – 1925–1927, éditions l'Harmattan, Paris, 1990
Général Andréa, La Révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925–1926, éditions Payot, 1937
Le Livre d'or des troupes du Levant : 1918–1936. <Avant-propos du général Huntziger.>, Préfacier Huntziger, Charles Léon Clément, Gal. (S. l.), Imprimerie du Bureau typographique des troupes du Levant, 1937.
Great Syrian Revolt
1925 in Mandatory Syria
1926 in Mandatory Syria
1927 in Mandatory Syria
Conflicts in 1925
Conflicts in 1926
Conflicts in 1927
Mandatory Syria
Military history of Syria
Military history of France
1920s in France
France–Syria relations
France–Lebanon relations
French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon
League of Nations mandates
20th century in Lebanon
20th century in Syria
History of the Levant
Mandate for Syria
Mandate for Syria
Sykes–Picot Agreement |
4163014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Europe | Religion in Europe | Religion has been a major influence on the societies, cultures, traditions, philosophies, artistic expressions and laws within present-day Europe. The largest religion in Europe is Christianity. However, irreligion and practical secularisation are also prominent in some countries. In Southeastern Europe, three countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Albania) have Muslim majorities, with Christianity being the second-largest religion in those countries. Ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as Zeus. Modern revival movements of these religions include Heathenism, Rodnovery, Romuva, Druidry, Wicca, and others. Smaller religions include Indian religions, Judaism, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and Kalmykia.
Little is known about the prehistoric religion of Neolithic Europe. Bronze and Iron Age religion in Europe as elsewhere was predominantly polytheistic (Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Basque mythology, Finnish paganism, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, etc.).
The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. During the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent Christianization, a process essentially complete with the Christianization of Scandinavia in the High Middle Ages. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christendom", and many even consider Christianity as the unifying belief that created a European identity, especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise of Islam from the 8th century. This confrontation led to the Crusades, which ultimately failed militarily, but were an important step in the emergence of a European identity based on religion. Despite this, traditions of folk religion continued at all times, largely independent from institutional religion or dogmatic theology.
The Great Schism of the 11th century and Reformation of the 16th century tore apart Christendom into hostile factions, and following the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, atheism and agnosticism have spread across Europe. Nineteenth-century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Hinduism and Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age, and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. Recent times have seen increased secularisation and religious pluralism.
Religiosity
Some European countries have experienced a decline in church membership and church attendance. A relevant example of this trend is Sweden where the Church of Sweden, previously the state-church until 2000, claimed to have 82.9% of the Swedish population as its flock in 2000. Surveys showed this had dropped to 72.9% by 2008 and to 56.4% by 2019. Moreover, in the 2005 Eurobarometer survey 23% of the Swedish population said that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force and in the 2010 Eurobarometer survey 34% said the same.
Gallup survey 2008–2009
During 2008–2009, a Gallup survey asked in several countries the question "Is religion important in your daily life?" The table and map below shows percentage of people who answered "Yes" to the question.
During 2007–2008, a Gallup poll asked in several countries the question "Does religion occupy an important place in your life?" The table on right shows percentage of people who answered "No".
Eurobarometer survey 2010
The 2010 Eurobarometer survey found that, on average, 51% of the citizens of the EU member states state that they "believe there is a God", 26% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" while 20% "don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force". 3% declined to answer.
According to a recent study (Dogan, Mattei, Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline), 47% of French people declared themselves as agnostics in 2003. This situation is often called "Post-Christian Europe". A decrease in religiousness and church attendance in Denmark, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden has been noted, despite a concurrent increase in some countries like Greece (2% in 1 year). The Eurobarometer survey must be taken with caution, however, as there are discrepancies between it and national census results. For example, in the United Kingdom, the 2001 census revealed over 70% of the population regarded themselves as "Christian" with only 15% professing to have "no religion", though the wording of the question has been criticized as "leading" by the British Humanist Association. Romania, one of the most religious countries in Europe, witnessed a threefold increase in the number of atheists between 2002 and 2011, as revealed by the most recent national census.
The following is a list of European countries ranked by religiosity, based on the rate of belief, according to the Eurobarometer survey 2010. The 2010 Eurobarometer survey asked whether the person "believes there is a God", "believes there is some sort of spirit or life force", or "doesn't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force".
The decrease in theism is illustrated in the 1981 and 1999 according to the World Values Survey, both for traditionally strongly theist countries (Spain: 86.8%:81.1%; Ireland 94.8%:93.7%) and for traditionally secular countries (Sweden: 51.9%:46.6%; France 61.8%:56.1%; Netherlands 65.3%:58.0%). Some countries nevertheless show increase of theism over the period, Italy 84.1%:87.8%, Denmark 57.8%:62.1%. For a comprehensive study on Europe, see Mattei Dogan's "Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline" in Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion.
Eurobarometer survey 2019
According to the 2019 Eurobarometer survey about Religiosity in the European Union Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union accounting 64% of the EU population, down from 72% in 2012. Catholics are the largest Christian group in EU, accounting for 41% of EU population, while Eastern Orthodox make up 10%, and Protestants make up 9%, and other Christians account for 4% of the EU population. Non believer/Agnostic account 17%, Atheist 10%, and Muslim 2% of the EU population. 3% refuse to answer or didn't know.
Maps
Pew Research Poll
According to the 2012 Global Religious Landscape survey by the Pew Research Center, 75.2% of the Europe residents are Christians, 18.2% are irreligious, atheist or agnostic, 5.9% are Muslims and 0.2% are Jews, 0.2% are Hindus, 0.2% are Buddhist, and 0.1% adhere to other religions. According to the 2015 Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe survey by the Pew Research Center, 57.9% of the Central and Eastern Europeians identified as Orthodox Christians, and according to a 2018 study by the Pew Research Center, 71.0% of Western Europeans identified as Christians, 24.0% identified as religiously unaffiliated and 5% identified as adhere to other religions. According to the same study a large majority (83%) of those who were raised as Christians in Western Europe still identify as such, and the remainder mostly self-identify as religiously unaffiliated.
Pew Research Poll
(*) 13% of respondents in Hungary identify as Presbyterian. In Estonia and Latvia, 20%
and 19%, respectively, identify as Lutherans. And in Lithuania, 14% say they are "just a
Christian" and do not specify a particular denomination. They are included in the "other"
category.
(**) Identified as "don't know/refused" from the "other/idk/ref" column are excluded from this statistic.
(***) Figures may not add to subtotals due to rounding.
(**) Identified with answers "don't know/refused" are not shown.
Abrahamic religions
Bahá'í Faith
The first newspaper reference to the religious movement began with coverage of the Báb, whom Bahá'ís consider the forerunner of the Bahá'í Faith, which occurred in The Times on 1 November 1845, only a little over a year after the Báb first started his mission. British, Russian, and other diplomats, businessmen, scholars, and world travelers also took note of the precursor Bábí religion most notably in 1865 by Frenchman Arthur de Gobineau who wrote the first and most influential account. In April 1890 Edward G. Browne of Cambridge University met Bahá'u'lláh, the prophet-founder of the Bahá'í Faith, and left the only detailed description by a Westerner.
Starting in the 1890s Europeans began to convert to the religion. In 1910 Bahá'u'lláh's son and appointed successor, 'Abdu'l-Bahá embarked on a three-year journey to including Europe and North America and then wrote a series of letters that were compiled together in the book titled Tablets of the Divine Plan which included mention of the need to spread the religion in Europe following the war.
A 1925 list of "leading local Bahá'í Centres" of Europe listed organized communities of many countries – the largest being in Germany. However the religion was soon banned in a couple of countries: in 1937 Heinrich Himmler disbanded the Bahá'í Faith's institutions in Germany because of its 'international and pacifist tendencies' and in Russia in 1938 "monstrous accusations" against Bahá'ís and a Soviet government policy of oppression of religion resulted in Bahá'í communities in 38 cities across Soviet territories ceasing to exist. However the religion recovered in both countries. The religion has generally spread such that in recent years the Association of Religion Data Archives estimated the Bahá'ís in European countries to number in hundreds to tens of thousands.
Christianity
The majority of Europeans describe themselves as Christians, divided into a large number of denominations. Christian denominations are usually classed in three categories: Catholicism (consider only two groups, the Roman-Latin Catholic and the Eastern Greek and Armenian Catholics), Orthodoxy (consider only two groups, the Eastern Byzantine Orthodox and the Armenian Apostolic which is within the Oriental Orthodox Church) and Protestantism (a diverse group including Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism as well as numerous minor denominations, including Baptists, Methodism, Evangelicalism, Pentecostalism, etc.).
Christianity, more specifically the Catholic Church, which played an important part in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century. Historically, Europe has been the center and "cradle of Christian civilization".
European culture, throughout most of its recent history, has been heavily influenced by Christian belief and has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture. The Christian culture was one of the more dominant forces to influence Western civilization, concerning the course of philosophy, art, music, science, social structure and architecture. The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), politics, architecture, literature and family life.
Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe. According to a survey about Religiosity in the European Union in 2019 by Eurobarometer, Christianity was the largest religion in the European Union accounting 64% of EU population, down from 72% in 2012. Catholics were the largest Christian group in EU, and accounted for 41% of the EU population, while Eastern Orthodox made up 10%, Protestants made up 9%, and other Christians 4%. According to a 2010 study by the Pew Research Center, 76.2% of the European population identified themselves as Christians, constitute in absolute terms the world's largest Christian population.
According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970), these changes were largely result of the collapse of Communism and switching to Christianity in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries.
Christian denominations
Catholicism (majorly followed to the Roman–Latin Catholic Church with various minorities of the few Greek Catholic Churches in the Eastern European regions, and the Armenian Catholic Church in Armenia and its diaspora) is the largest denomination with adherents mostly existing in Latin Europe (which includes France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Malta, San Marino, Monaco, Vatican City,); southern [Wallon] Belgium, Czech Republic, Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, western Ukraine, parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Mostly in predominantly Croat areas), but also the southern parts of Germanic Europe (which includes Austria, Luxembourg, northern Flemish Belgium, southern and western Germany, parts of the Netherlands, parts of Switzerland, and Liechtenstein).
Orthodox Christianity (the churches are in full communion, i.e. the national churches are united in theological concept and part of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Orthodox Church)
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
Russian Orthodox Church
Serbian Orthodox Church
Romanian Orthodox Church
Church of Greece
Bulgarian Orthodox Church
Georgian Orthodox Church
Finnish Orthodox Church
Cypriot Orthodox Church
Albanian Orthodox Church
Polish Orthodox Church
Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia
Ukrainian Orthodox Church
Turkish Orthodox Church
Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric
Montenegrin Orthodox Church
Oriental Orthodoxy
Armenian Apostolic Church
Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople
Protestantism
Lutheranism
Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church
Danish National Church
Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland
United Protestant Church of France
Protestant Church in Germany
Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Hungary
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia
Church of Norway
Church of Sweden
Anglicanism
Church of England
Church of Ireland
Scottish Episcopal Church
Church in Wales
Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church
Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church
Calvinism
United Reformed Church
Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales
Reformed Church in Hungary
Church of Scotland
Presbyterian Church in Ireland
Methodist Church of Great Britain
Protestant Church in the Netherlands (Neo-Calvinism)
United Protestant Church of France
Swiss Reformed Church
Restorationism
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Jehovah’s Witnesses
Other
Baptist Union of Great Britain
Baptist Union of Sweden
Bruderhof Communities
Seventh-day Adventist Church
There are numerous minor Protestant movements, including various Evangelical congregations.
Islam
Islam came to parts of European islands and coasts on the Mediterranean Sea during the 8th-century Muslim conquests. In the Iberian Peninsula and parts of southern France, various Muslim states existed before the Reconquista; Islam spread in southern Italy briefly through the Emirate of Sicily and Emirate of Bari. During the Ottoman expansion, Islam was spread from into the Balkans and even part of Central Europe. Muslims have also been historically present in Ukraine (Crimea and vicinity, with the Crimean Tatars), as well as modern-day Russia, beginning with Volga Bulgaria in the 10th century and the conversion of the Golden Horde to Islam. In recent years, Muslims have migrated to Europe as residents and temporary workers.
According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%). While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%). Data from the 2000s for the rates of growth of Islam in Europe showed that the growing number of Muslims was due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.
Muslims make up 99% of the population in Turkey, Northern Cyprus, 96% in Kosovo, 56% in Albania, 51% in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 32.17% in North Macedonia, 20% in Montenegro, between 10 and 15% in Russia, 7–9% in France, 8% in Bulgaria, 6% in the Netherlands, 5% in Denmark, United Kingdom and Germany, just over 4% in Switzerland and Austria, and between 3 and 4% in Greece.
A survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2016 found that Muslims make up 4.9% of all of Europe's population. According to a same study conversion does not add significantly to the growth of the Muslim population in Europe, with roughly 160,000 more people leaving Islam than converting into Islam between 2010 and 2016.
Judaism
The Jews were dispersed within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century. At one time Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent; throughout the Middle Ages, Jews were accused of ritual murder and faced pogroms and legal discrimination. The Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany decimated the Jewish population, and today, France is home to the largest Jewish community in Europe with 1% of the total population (between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews). Other European countries with notable Jewish populations include the United Kingdom (291,000 Jews), Germany (119,000), and Russia (194,000) which is home to Eastern Europe's largest Jewish community. The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world’s Jewish population.
Deism
During the Enlightenment, Deism became influential especially in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Biblical concepts were challenged by concepts such as a heliocentric universe and other scientific challenges to the Bible. Notable early deists include Voltaire, Kant, and Mendeleev.
Irreligion
The trend towards secularism during the 20th and 21st centuries has a number of reasons, depending on the individual country:
France has been traditionally laicist since the French Revolution. Today the country is 25% to 32% irreligious. The remaining population is made up evenly of both Christians and people who believe in a god or some form of spiritual life force, but are not involved in organized religion. French society is still secular overall.
Some parts of Eastern Europe were secularized as a matter of state doctrine under communist rule in the countries of the former Eastern Bloc. Albania was an officially (and constitutionally binding) atheist state from 1967 to 1991. The countries where the most people reported no religious belief were France (33%), the Czech Republic (30%), Belgium (27%), Netherlands (27%), Estonia (26%), Germany (25%), Sweden (23%) and Luxembourg (22%). The region of Eastern Germany, which was also under communist rule, is believed to be the least religious region in Europe. Other post-communist countries, however, have seen the opposite effect, with religion being very important in countries such as Romania, Lithuania and Poland.
The trend towards secularism has been less pronounced in the traditionally Catholic countries of Mediterranean Europe. Greece as the only traditionally Eastern Orthodox country in Europe which has not been part of the communist Eastern Bloc also retains a very high religiosity, with in excess of 95% of Greeks adhering to the Greek Orthodox Church.
According to a Pew Research Center Survey in 2012 the religiously unaffiliated (atheists and agnostics) make up about 18.2% of the European population in 2010. According to the same survey the religiously unaffiliated make up the majority of the population in only two European countries: Czech Republic (76%) and Estonia (60%). A newer study (released in 2015) found that in the Netherlands there is also an irreligious majority of 68%.
Atheism and agnosticism
During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, atheism and agnosticism have increased, with falling church attendance and membership in various European countries. The 2010 Eurobarometer survey found that on total average, of the EU28 population, 51% "believe there is a God", 26% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force", and 20% "don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force".
Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with a strict upbringing, those with the lowest level of formal education and those leaning towards right-wing politics. Results were varied widely between different countries.
According to a survey measuring religious identification in the European Union in 2019 by Eurobarometer, 10% of EU citizens identify themselves as atheists. , the top seven European countries with the most people who viewed themselves as atheists were Czech Republic (22%), France (21%), Sweden (16%), Estonia (15%), Slovenia (14%), Spain (12%) and Netherlands (11%). 17% of EU citizens called themselves non-believers or agnostics and this percentage was the highest in Netherlands (41%), Czech Republic (34%), Sweden (34%), United Kingdom (28%), Estonia (23%), Germany (21%) and Spain (20%).
Modern Paganism
Germanic
Heathenism or Esetroth (Icelandic: Ásatrú), and the organised form Odinism, are names for the modern folk religion of the Germanic nations.
In the United Kingdom Census 2001, 300 people registered as Heathen in England and Wales. However, many Heathens followed the advice of the Pagan Federation (PF) and simply described themselves as "Pagan", while other Heathens did not specify their religious beliefs. In the 2011 census, 1,958 people self-identified as Heathen in England and Wales. A further 251 described themselves as Reconstructionist and may include some people reconstructing Germanic paganism.
Ásatrúarfélagið (Esetroth Fellowship) was recognized as an official religion by the Icelandic government in 1973. For its first 20 years it was led by farmer and poet Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson. By 2003, it had 777 members, and by 2014, it had 2,382 members, corresponding to 0.8% of Iceland's population. In Iceland, Germanic religion has an impact larger than the number of its adherents.
In Sweden, the Swedish Forn Sed Assembly (Forn Sed, or the archaic Forn Siðr, means "Old Custom") was formed in 1994 and is since 2007 recognized as a religious organization by the Swedish government. In Denmark Forn Siðr was formed in 1999, and was officially recognized in 2003 The Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost (Esetroth Fellowship Bifrost) was formed in 1996; as of 2011, the fellowship has some 300 members. Foreningen Forn Sed was formed in 1999, and has been recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious organization. In Spain there is the Odinist Community of Spain – Ásatrú.
Roman
The Roman polytheism also known as Religio Romana (Roman religion) in Latin or the Roman Way to the Gods (in Italian 'Via romana agli Déi') is alive in small communities and loosely related organizations, mainly in Italy.
Druidry
The religious development of Druidry was largely influenced by Iolo Morganwg. Modern practises aim to imitate the practises of the Celtic peoples of the Iron Age.
Official religions
A number of countries in Europe have official religions, including Greece (Orthodox), Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, the Vatican City (Catholic); Armenia (Apostolic Orthodoxy) ; Denmark, Iceland and the United Kingdom (England alone) (Anglican). In Switzerland, some cantons are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Some Swiss villages even have their religion as well as the village name written on the signs at their entrances.
Georgia, while technically has no official church per se, has special constitutional agreement with Georgian Orthodox Church, which enjoys de facto privileged status. Much the same applies in Germany with the Evangelical Church and the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jewish community. In Finland, both the Finnish Orthodox Church and the Lutheran Church are official. England, a part of the United Kingdom, has Anglicanism as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as its national church, but it is no longer "official". In Sweden, the national church used to be Lutheranism, but it is no longer "official" since 2000. Azerbaijan, Czech Republic, Germany, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Spain and Turkey are officially secular.
Indian religions
Buddhism
Buddhism is thinly spread throughout Europe, and the fastest growing religion in recent years with about 3 million adherents. In Kalmykia, Tibetan Buddhism is prevalent.
Hinduism
Hinduism is mainly practised among Indian immigrants. It has been growing rapidly in recent years, notably in the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands and Italy. In 2010, there were an estimated 1.4 million Hindu adherents in Europe.
Jainism
Jainism, small membership rolls, mainly among Indian immigrants in Belgium and the United Kingdom, as well as several converts from western and northern Europe.
Sikhism
Sikhism has nearly 700,000 adherents in Europe. Most of the community live in United Kingdom (450,000) and Italy (100,000). Around 10,000 Sikhs live in Belgium and France. Netherlands and Germany have a Sikh population of 22,000. All other countries, such as Greece, have 5,000 or fewer Sikhs.
Other religions
Other religions represented in Europe include:
Animism
Confucianism
Eckankar
Ietsism
Raëlism
Beliefs of the Romani people
Romuva
Satanism
Shinto
Spiritualism
Taoism
Thelema
Unitarian Universalism
Yazidism
Zoroastrianism
Rastafari communities in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere.
Traditional African Religions (including Muti), mainly in the United Kingdom and France, including
West African Vodun and Haitian Vodou (Voodoo), mainly among West African and black Caribbean immigrants in the UK and France.
See also
Buddhism by country
Christianity in Europe
Europeanism
Hinduism by country
Irreligion (no faith) by country
Islam by country
Judaism by country
List of religious populations
Major world religions
Protestantism by country
Post Christianity
Religion in the European Union
Roman Catholicism by country
References
External links
Eurel: sociological and legal data on religions in Europe and beyond |
4163064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20machine%20vision | Glossary of machine vision | The following are common definitions related to the machine vision field.
General related fields
Machine vision
Computer vision
Image processing
Signal processing
0-9
1394. FireWire is Apple Inc.'s brand name for the IEEE 1394 interface. It is also known as i.Link (Sony's name) or IEEE 1394 (although the 1394 standard also defines a backplane interface). It is a personal computer (and digital audio/digital video) serial bus interface standard, offering high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data services.
1D. One-dimensional.
2D computer graphics. The computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images) and by techniques specific to them.
3D computer graphics. 3D computer graphics are different from 2D computer graphics in that a three-dimensional representation of geometric data is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time viewing. Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as 2D computer vector graphics in the wire frame model and 2D computer raster graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D rendering techniques.
3D scanner. This is a device that analyzes a real-world object or environment to collect data on its shape and possibly color. The collected data can then be used to construct digital, three dimensional models useful for a wide variety of applications.
A
Aberration. Optically, defocus refers to a translation along the optical axis away from the plane or surface of best focus. In general, defocus reduces the sharpness and contrast of the image. What should be sharp, high-contrast edges in a scene become gradual transitions.
or algebraic error. The algebraic distance from a point to a curve or surface defined by is the value of , i.e. the residual in the least squares problem with data point and model function . This term is mainly used in computer vision.
Aperture. In context of photography or machine vision, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop of a photographic lens. The aperture stop can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor.
aspect ratio (image). The aspect ratio of an image is its displayed width divided by its height (usually expressed as "x:y").
Angular resolution. Describes the resolving power of any image forming device such as an optical or radio telescope, a microscope, a camera, or an eye.
Automated optical inspection.
B
Barcode. A barcode (also bar code) is a machine-readable representation of information in a visual format on a surface.
Blob discovery. Inspecting an image for discrete blobs of connected pixels (e.g. a black hole in a grey object) as image landmarks. These blobs frequently represent optical targets for machining, robotic capture, or manufacturing failure.
Bitmap. A raster graphics image, digital image, or bitmap, is a data file or structure representing a generally rectangular grid of pixels, or points of color, on a computer monitor, paper, or other display device.
C
Camera. A camera is a device used to take pictures, either singly or in sequence. A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a photo camera to distinguish it from a video camera.
Camera Link. Camera Link is a serial communication protocol designed for computer vision applications based on the National Semiconductor interface Channel-link. It was designed for the purpose of standardizing scientific and industrial video products including cameras, cables and frame grabbers. The standard is maintained and administered by the Automated Imaging Association, or AIA, the global machine vision industry's trade group.
Charge-coupled device. A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a sensor for recording images, consisting of an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors. CCD sensors and cameras tend to be more sensitive, less noisy, and more expensive than CMOS sensors and cameras.
CIE 1931 Color Space. In the study of the perception of color, one of the first mathematically defined color spaces was the CIE XYZ color space (also known as CIE 1931 color space), created by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) in 1931.
CMOS. CMOS ("see-moss")stands for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor, is a major class of integrated circuits. CMOS imaging sensors for machine vision are cheaper than CCD sensors but more noisy.
CoaXPress. CoaXPress (CXP) is an asymmetric high speed serial communication standard over coaxial cable. CoaXPress combines high speed image data, low speed camera control and power over a single coaxial cable. The standard is maintained by JIIA, the Japan Industrial Imaging Association.
Color. The perception of the frequency (or wavelength) of light, and can be compared to how pitch (or a musical note) is the perception of the frequency or wavelength of sound.
Color blindness. Also known as color vision deficiency, in humans is the inability to perceive differences between some or all colors that other people can distinguish
Color temperature. "White light" is commonly described by its color temperature. A traditional incandescent light source's color temperature is determined by comparing its hue with a theoretical, heated black-body radiator. The lamp's color temperature is the temperature in kelvins at which the heated black-body radiator matches the hue of the lamp.
Color vision. CV is the capacity of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light they reflect or emit.
computer vision. The study and application of methods which allow computers to "understand" image content.
Contrast. In visual perception, contrast is the difference in visual properties that makes an object (or its representation in an image) distinguishable from other objects and the background.
C-Mount. Standardized adapter for optical lenses on CCD - cameras. C-Mount lenses have a back focal distance 17.5 mm vs. 12.5 mm for "CS-mount" lenses. A C-Mount lens can be used on a CS-Mount camera through the use of a 5 mm extension adapter. C-mount is a 1" diameter, 32 threads per inch mounting thread (1"-32UN-2A.)
CS-Mount. Same as C-Mount but the focal point is 5 mm shorter. A CS-Mount lens will not work on a C-Mount camera. CS-mount is a 1" diameter, 32 threads per inch mounting thread.
D
Data matrix. A two dimensional Barcode.
Depth of field. In optics, particularly photography and machine vision, the depth of field (DOF) is the distance in front of and behind the subject which appears to be in focus.
Depth perception. DP is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions. It is a trait common to many higher animals. Depth perception allows the beholder to accurately gauge the distance to an object.
Diaphragm. In optics, a diaphragm is a thin opaque structure with an opening (aperture) at its centre. The role of the diaphragm is to stop the passage of light, except for the light passing through the aperture.
E
Edge detection. ED marks the points in a digital image at which the luminous intensity changes sharply. It also marks the points of luminous intensity changes of an object or spatial-taxon silhouette.
Electromagnetic interference. Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is electromagnetic radiation which is emitted by electrical circuits carrying rapidly changing signals, as a by-product of their normal operation, and which causes unwanted signals (interference or noise) to be induced in other circuits.
F
FireWire. FireWire (also known as i. Link or IEEE 1394) is a personal computer (and digital audio/video) serial bus interface standard, offering high-speed communications. It is often used as an interface for industrial cameras.
Fixed-pattern noise.
Flat-field correction.
Frame grabber. An electronic device that captures individual, digital still frames from an analog video signal or a digital video stream.
Fringe Projection Technique. 3D data acquisition technique employing projector displaying fringe pattern on a surface of measured piece, and one or more cameras recording image(s).
Field of view. The field of view (FOV) is the part which can be seen by the machine vision system at one moment. The field of view depends from the lens of the system and from the working distance between object and camera.
Focus. An image, or image point or region, is said to be in focus if light from object points is converged about as well as possible in the image; conversely, it is out of focus if light is not well converged. The border between these conditions is sometimes defined via a circle of confusion criterion.
G
Gamut. In color reproduction, including computer graphics and photography, the gamut, or color gamut , is a certain complete subset of colors.
Grayscale. A grayscale digital image is an image in which the value of each pixel is a single sample. Displayed images of this sort are typically composed of shades of gray, varying from black at the weakest intensity to white at the strongest, though in principle the samples could be displayed as shades of any color, or even coded with various colors for different intensities.
GUI. A graphical user interface (or GUI, sometimes pronounced "gooey") is a method of interacting with a computer through a metaphor of direct manipulation of graphical images and widgets in addition to text.
H
Histogram. In statistics, a histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies. A histogram is the graphical version of a table which shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several or many specified categories. The histogram differs from a bar chart in that it is the area of the bar that denotes the value, not the height, a crucial distinction when the categories are not of uniform width (Lancaster, 1974). The categories are usually specified as non-overlapping intervals of some variable. The categories (bars) must be adjacent.
Histogram (Color). In computer graphics and photography, a color histogram is a representation of the distribution of colors in an image, derived by counting the number of pixels of each of given set of color ranges in a typically two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) color space. A histogram is a standard statistical description of a distribution in terms of occurrence frequencies of different event classes; for color, the event classes are regions in color space.
HSV color space. The HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) model, also called HSB (Hue, Saturation, Brightness), defines a color space in terms of three constituent components:
Hue, the color type (such as red, blue, or yellow)
Saturation, the "vibrancy" of the color and colorimetric purity
Value, the brightness of the color
I
Image file formats. Image file formats provide a standardized method of organizing and storing image data. This article deals with digital image formats used to store photographic and other image information. Image files are made up of either pixel or vector (geometric) data, which is rasterized to pixels in the display process, with a few exceptions in vector graphic display. The pixels that make up an image are in the form of a grid of columns and rows. Each of the pixels in an image stores digital numbers representing brightness and color.
Image segmentation.
Infrared imaging. See Thermographic camera.
Incandescent light bulb. An incandescent light bulb generates light using a glowing filament heated to white-hot by an electric current.
J
JPEG. JPEG (pronounced jay-peg) is a most commonly used standard method of lossy compression for photographic images.
K
Kell factor. It is a parameter used to determine the effective resolution of a discrete display device.
L
Laser. In physics, a laser is a device that emits light through a specific mechanism for which the term laser is an acronym: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Lens. A lens is a device that causes light to either converge and concentrate or to diverge, usually formed from a piece of shaped glass. Lenses may be combined to form more complex optical systems as a Normal lens or a Telephoto lens.
Lens Controller. A lens controller is a device used to control a motorized (ZFI) lens. Lens controllers may be internal to a camera, a set of switches used manually, or a sophisticated device that allows control of a lens with a computer.
Lighting. Lighting refers to either artificial light sources such as lamps or to natural illumination.
M
Metrology. Metrology is the science of measurement. There are many applications for machine vision in metrology.
machine vision. MV is the application of computer vision to industry and manufacturing.
Motion perception. MP is the process of inferring the speed and direction of objects and surfaces that move in a visual scene given some visual input.
N
Neural network. A NN is an interconnected group of artificial neurons that uses a mathematical or computational model for information processing based on a connectionist approach to computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network.
Normal lens. In machine vision a normal or entrocentric lens is a lens that generates images that are generally held to have a "natural" perspective compared with lenses with longer or shorter focal lengths. Lenses of shorter focal length are called wide-angle lenses, while longer focal length lenses are called telephoto lenses.
O
Optical character recognition. Usually abbreviated to OCR, involves computer software designed to translate images of typewritten text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable text, or to translate pictures of characters into a standard encoding scheme representing them in (ASCII or Unicode).
Optical resolution. Describes the ability of a system to distinguish, detect, and/or record physical details by electromagnetic means. The system may be imaging (e.g., a camera) or non-imaging (e.g., a quad-cell laser detector).
Optical transfer function.
P
Pattern recognition. This is a field within the area of machine learning. Alternatively, it can be defined as the act of taking in raw data and taking an action based on the category of the data. It is a collection of methods for supervised learning.
Pixel. A pixel is one of the many tiny dots that make up the representation of a picture in a computer's memory or screen.
Pixelation. In computer graphics, pixelation is an effect caused by displaying a bitmap or a section of a bitmap at such a large size that individual pixels, small single-colored square display elements that comprise the bitmap, are visible.
Prime lens. Mechanical assembly of lenses whose focal length is fixed, as opposed to a zoom lens, which has a variable focal length.
Q
Q-Factor (Optics). In optics, the Q factor of a resonant cavity is given by
,
where is the resonant frequency, is the stored energy in the cavity, and is the power dissipated. The optical Q is equal to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth of the cavity resonance. The average lifetime of a resonant photon in the cavity is proportional to the cavity's Q. If the Q factor of a laser's cavity is abruptly changed from a low value to a high one, the laser will emit a pulse of light that is much more intense than the laser's normal continuous output. This technique is known as Q-switching.
R
Region of interest. A Region of Interest, often abbreviated ROI, is a selected subset of samples within a dataset identified for a particular purpose.
RGB. The RGB color model utilizes the additive model in which red, green, and blue light are combined in various ways to create other colors.
ROI. See Region of Interest.
Foreground, figure and objects. See also spatial-taxon.
S
S-video. Separate video, abbreviated S-Video and also known as Y/C (or erroneously, S-VHS and "super video") is an analog video signal that carries the video data as two separate signals (brightness and color), unlike composite video which carries the entire set of signals in one signal line. S-Video, as most commonly implemented, carries high-bandwidth 480i or 576i resolution video, i.e. standard-definition video. It does not carry audio on the same cable.
Scheimpflug principle.
Shutter. A shutter is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time, for the purpose of exposing the image sensor to the right amount of light to create a permanent image of a view.
Shutter speed. In machine vision the shutter speed is the time for which the shutter is held open during the taking an image to allow light to reach the imaging sensor. In combination with variation of the lens aperture, this regulates how much light the imaging sensor in a digital camera will receive.
Smart camera. A smart camera is an integrated machine vision system which, in addition to image capture circuitry, includes a processor, which can extract information from images without need for an external processing unit, and interface devices used to make results available to other devices.
Spatial-Taxon. Spatial-taxons are information granules, composed of non-mutually exclusive pixel regions, within scene architecture. They are similar to the Gestalt psychological designation of figure-ground, but are extended to include foreground, object groups, objects and salient object parts.
Structured-light 3D scanner. The process of projecting a known pattern of illumination (often grids or horizontal bars) on to a scene. The way that these patterns appear to deform when striking surfaces allows vision systems to calculate the depth and surface information of the objects in the scene.
SVGA. Super Video Graphics Array, almost always abbreviated to Super VGA or just SVGA is a broad term that covers a wide range of computer display standards.
T
Telecentric lens. Compound lens with an unusual property concerning its geometry of image-forming rays. In machine vision systems telecentric lenses are usually employed in order to achieve dimensional and geometric invariance of images within a range of different distances from the lens and across the whole field of view.
Telephoto lens. Lens whose focal length is significantly longer than the focal length of a normal lens.
Thermography. Thermal imaging, a type of Infrared imaging.
TIFF. Tagged Image File Format (abbreviated TIFF) is a file format for mainly storing images, including photographs and line art.
U
USB. Universal Serial Bus (USB) provides a serial bus standard for connecting devices, usually to computers such as PCs, but is also becoming commonplace on cameras.
V
VESA. The Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) is an international body, founded in the late 1980s by NEC Home Electronics and eight other video display adapter manufacturers. The initial goal was to produce a standard for 800×600 SVGA resolution video displays. Since then VESA has issued a number of standards, mostly relating to the function of video peripherals in IBM PC compatible computers.
VGA. Video Graphics Array (VGA) is a computer display standard first marketed in 1987 by IBM.
Vision processing unit. A class of microprocessors aimed at accelerating machine vision tasks.
W
Wide-angle lens. In photography and cinematography, a wide-angle lens is a lens whose focal length is shorter than the focal length of a normal lens.
X
X-rays. A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range of 10 to 0.01 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 to 3000 PHz (1015 hertz). X-rays are primarily used for diagnostic medical and industrial imaging as well as crystallography. X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation and as such can be dangerous.
Y
Y-cable. A Y-cable or Y cable is an electrical cable containing three ends of which one is a common end that in turn leads to a split into the remaining two ends, resembling the letter "Y". Y-cables are typically, but not necessarily, short (less than 12 inches), and often the ends connect to other cables. Uses may be as simple as splitting one audio or video channel into two, to more complex uses such as splicing signals from a high density computer connector to its appropriate peripheral .
Z
Zoom lens. A mechanical assembly of lenses whose focal length can be changed, as opposed to a prime lens, which has a fixed focal length. See an animation of the zoom principle below.
See also
Glossary of artificial intelligence
Frame grabber
Google Goggles
Machine vision glossary
Morphological image processing
OpenCV
Smart camera
References
Computer vision
Machine vision
Wikipedia glossaries using unordered lists |
4163345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20House%2C%20Sydney | Government House, Sydney | The Government House is the heritage-listed vice-regal residence of the governor of New South Wales, Australia, located on Conservatorium Road in the Sydney central business district adjacent to the Royal Botanic Garden, overlooking Sydney Harbour, just south of the Sydney Opera House. Constructed between 1837 and 1843, the property has been the vice-regal residence of the Governor since Sir George Gipps, except for two brief periods; the first between 1901 and 1914, when the property was leased to the Commonwealth of Australia as the residence of the Governor-General of Australia, and the second from 1996 to 2011.
The property was returned as the Governor's residence in October 2011 and was managed by the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales from March 1996 to December 2013. Completed in 1847 and constructed in the Gothic revival style, the building is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register.
History
1845–1901
In 1835 the British Government agreed that a new Government House in Sydney had become a necessity, and the royal architect, Edward Blore, was instructed to draw up plans. Construction commenced in 1837 and was supervised by colonial architect Mortimer Lewis and Colonel Barney of the Royal Engineers. Stone, cedar, and marble for the construction were obtained from various areas of New South Wales. A ball in honour of the birthday of Queen Victoria was held in the new building in 1843, although construction was not complete. The first resident, Governor George Gipps, did not move in until 1845.
Government House, with its setting on Sydney Harbour, has a garden area of and is located south of the Sydney Opera House, overlooking Farm Cove. It was designed in a romantic Gothic revival stylecastellated, crenellated, turreted and is decorated with oil portraits and the coats of arms of its successive occupants. Additions have included a front portico in 1873, an eastern verandah in 1879 and extensions to the ballroom and governor's study in 1900–1901. From 1845 until 1901, the building served as the Governor's residence, office and official reception space.
1901–1914
Between 1901 and 1914, the building was used to house the new role of Governor-General, created by the Federation of Australia. During this period, three Governors of New South Wales occupied Cranbrook, namely Harry Rawson, Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford and Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland.
In 1913, the decision was taken to establish a residence for the Governor-General at Admiralty House.
1914–1996
From 1914 to 1996, the building again served as the residence, office and official reception space for the Governor of New South Wales.
1996–2011
However, in 1996, at the direction of the then Premier of New South Wales, Bob Carr, the property ceased to be used as a residence; the Governor's day office was relocated to the historic Chief Secretary's building nearby, at 121 Macquarie Street. On 16 January 1996 Carr announced that the next Governor, Gordon Samuels, would not live or work at Government House. On these changes, Carr said "The Office of the Governor should be less associated with pomp and ceremony, less encumbered by anachronistic protocol, more in tune with the character of the people". Carr later quipped that his decision had been "for Jack Lang", referring to the Premier of a former state Labor Government that was dismissed by a Governor, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Game, in 1932 during a constitutional crisis.
The state's longest-serving governor, Sir Roden Cutler, was also reported as saying:
This move generated further controversy, as the proclaimed cost savings of over $2 million never materialised. The Auditor-General found it cost $600,000 more to maintain the building without a resident Governor; and public attendance decreased (resident Governors had maintained public access during their tenures). This led the group Australians for Constitutional Monarchy to organise a protest, resulting in one of the largest marches in Sydney history: a crowd of 15,000 protested outside Parliament House, blocking Macquarie Street. On the day before Gordon Samuels' swearing-in, a petition bearing 55,000 signatures was handed in, calling on the Premier to reconsider. During the hiatus of resident governor, Government House was consistently used for vice-regal purposes and remained the official reception space of the state, including as a key meeting venue of APEC Australia 2007 in September 2007, at which time the political leaders of the 21 member states of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation met.
2011–present
In October 2011, the then Premier Barry O'Farrell announced that the then Governor, Marie Bashir, had agreed with O'Farrell's offer to move back into Government House: "A lot of people believe the Governor should live at Government House. That's what it was built for ... [A]t some stage a rural or regional governor will be appointed and we will need to provide accommodation at Government House so it makes sense to provide appropriate living areas". However, because Government House had not been a residence for fifteen years, O'Farrell also announced that the Governor would initially move into a smaller adjacent building, called the chalet, while refurbishments of the main wing occurred, with a proposed move into the main house "before Christmas". From December 2013, management of Government House was returned to the Office of the Governor from the managers since 1996, the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales.
Description
Grounds
Much of the 19th-century character of the grounds remains. The grounds include private gardens as well as formal open areas. Near the house (on its south-east side) is a giant Moreton Bay fig (Ficus macrophylla), planted soon after the house's construction was completed. This tree is the surviving one of a former pair which stood either side of the terrace. The formal grounds of sweeping annual displays, manicured lawns, exotic trees and shrubs as well as the carriageways, paths and terraces provide a strong link with Sydney's colonial and Victorian heritage.
The garden maintains a distinctly 19th-century character, drawing on Regency and Italianate styles, and featuring a collection of native and exotic species. Most changes to the garden were at the initiative of past governors and their wives, including Denison's five acre vegetable garden and Lady Game's much-loved project, the "Spring Walk". Some areas of the garden are true to their 19th-century design, while others are more modern. Thousands of visitors enjoy the garden every year, both as public visitors and guests at functions ranging from garden parties for Royal visits, open days, award ceremonies and charity events. The garden is a crucial part of Government House – chef Christine Ware regularly sources honey (the current governor keeps bees), herbs and flowers for food served at functions. Florist Marjan Medhat has also been known to use flowers and natural ephemera from the grounds in her floral displays, alongside potted plants grown in the greenhouse.
The first private garden – the Western Terrace – sits around a rocky outcrop and knoll and features an extensive sandstone wall and plantings of olive trees.
Western terrace, 1836-1845
Lies inside the entrance gates to the left of the drive. This is the oldest part of the garden, established when the house was being built (1836–45) to provide screening and privacy for the house. The evergreen trees planted here – many of them native species – were chosen to block out "disagreeable scenery", but the large two-level terrace also functioned as a pleasure garden. The original sandstone walls, some of the gravel paths and plantings of olive trees and hedges survive. An evergreen or southern magnolia or bull bay (M. grandiflora) dating from the 1859s is at the northern end of the terrace. The terrace was restored in 2000 by Sydney Living Museums (fmr. Historic Houses Trust of NSW).
Eastern terrace, 1869
The eastern terrace's design was laid out in 1869 and remains the main feature of the garden. From the house's arcade (colonnade) you can view across bisecting pathways lined with flowerbeds to a view of Sydney Harbour. Through Cook's pines (Araucaria columnaris) and other trees you can see Fort Denison, Mrs Macquarie's Chair, Garden Island and beyond. Originally the view was wider to the east including towards the heads of the harbour). The Eastern Terrace has a central sandstone pond with its original stone fountain. Various garden schemes have been installed in the eastern terrace's formal garden borders flanking the central path.
Palm Grove, 1870s
North of the Eastern Terrace is the palm grove, established in the 1870s for the Countess of Belmore, wife of the 13th governor. Here native and exotic palms including the Lord Howe Island's Kentia (Howea fosteriana) and curly (H.belmoreana)(named for the governor) can be found.
Spring Walk, 1930s
Governor and Lady Game were both keen gardeners and Lady Game "set out to produce an outstanding array of trees, shrubs and planters". She established the Spring Walk on the southern end of the Eastern Terrace, where she supplemented surviving 19th century Camellia japonica cv's with new plantings of modern varieties. Surviving very old camellias include C.j.'Cleopatra Rosea' (pink) and "Wellbankiana" (white), some of which are over 100 years old. Wife of Governor Game's private secretary, writer Ethel Anderson, had this to say about Lady Game's garden:
'under the grey green olives, late daffodils still star the grass. Watsonias, double cherries, magnolias, spireas, purple eupatoriums and primulas, set in a spring border among standard white wisterias form, like a sea... Lady Game's border - so lovely with pomegranates, bougainvilleas, cistus and Madonna lilies - keeps its date with beauty.' The entrance stones to the Spring Walk are said to be convict-made blocks from the first Government House built for Arthur Philip, now the site of the Museum of Sydney. Like many houses of the time, Government House was self sufficient with kitchen gardens, orchards and farm animals. The kitchen garden is now part of the Royal Botanic Gardens.
Official plantings
To the west of the driveway is a large paperbark (Melaleuca leucadendra) and peppermint (Eucalyptus nicholli) planted by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in 1954 during the first visit of a reigning monarch to Australia. Many of the garden's trees are ceremonial plantings. Among the roses on the Eastern Terrace the "Dame Marie Bashir Rose" can be found (bred in that Governor's honour), as well as the "Governor Macquarie" rose Dame Bashir planted in 2009 as patron of the Rose Society of New South Wales. Dame Marie Bashir was just one of the many governors past and present with a passion for plants and their pollinators.
The Lodge
One of two Gothic style buildings to have survived around Government House. It is a copy of a guardhouse at Windsor Castle.
Gatehouse
Brick gatehouse replacing an earlier timber one.
The Chalet
Designed by Colonial Architect W. L. Vernon, the chalet breaks with the Gothic style of Government House. However, it has Tudor Gothic elements such as half timbered gables and broad brick chimneys.
House
Government House is a Gothic Revival two-storey building with crenellated battlements, turrets, detailed interiors, extensive cellars and a porte-cochère at the entrance. An open cloister on the east elevation forms a verandah room which is supported by Gothic arches and forms an open balcony above. The ground floor contains twelve rooms and the first floor contains thirteen bedrooms. It is built of stone with a slate roof, timber floors, unpainted cedar joinery and a stone-flagged verandah. There are extensive staff offices and quarters.
Moveable Collection
A collection of moveable heritage noted in the Historic Houses Collection inventory as being of high and exceptional significance are also included in the State Heritage Listing. Items of exceptional significance are those deemed to be rare or outstanding and of major cultural or historic significance to NSW and Australia. Such items have a documented provenance to NSW Governors, their families and entourages from 1845 to the early 20th Century or with the first five Governors-General of Australia between 1901 and 1915. Items of high significance are objects considered to be rare or unusual and to have a cultural or historic significance to NSW. These objects date from 1845 through to the present and may contribute to the understanding of the house occupants and use or through their connection to artists, architects, craftsmen or suppliers associated with the construction and decoration of Government House.
Condition
As at 27 August 2014, the physical condition is excellent; and the archaeological potential is good. The whole assembly is relatively intact within its 1915–17 boundaries – including house, garden, gatehouse, Chalet, courtyards, garages, greenhouses etc. – and can show the development of the site and the management and workings of Government House.
Modifications and dates
1846-47 - Guardhouse built at entrance to the domain at the intersection of Bridge and Macquarie Streets
1854 - First coats of arms mounted on building
1863 - Deer House, Cow House and Conservatory constructed.
1873 - A porte cochere added
1879-80 - Construction of Colonnade and eastern arcade
1890-91 - Chalet commissioned and built
1899 - Ballroom extended.
1902-03 - Alterations and additions to accommodate Governor-General
-21 - Summer House in formal garden removed.
Mid 20th c. - Eastern Terrace's main axial path paved with lage rectangular stones, side paths with crazy paving (and also widened in proportion, destroying the original path hierarchy) and stylish grass borders removed.
1948-54 - Additions and Renovations for Royal Visit by Queen Elizabeth II & Prince Philip.
1979-80 - Demolition of earlier outbuildings and construction of a new group of buildings.
1990-96 - Reconstruction of Vestibule interiors, restoration of East Terrace and various other construction and restoration works.
2004 - reinstatement of the c.1840 garden layout and treatment of the Western Terrace.
2010 - replacement of Eastern Terrace side paths, new drainage, irrigation and planting of central beds.
Heritage listing
As at 28 March 2013, Government House built in the early 1840s as the home of the monarch's representative and as the seat of power, symbolised British authority in the colony. Like the Governors themselves, the house is a powerful symbol of state.
From the time of its completion, the house and its occupants were seen as the "pinnacle" of society, and the Governor and family as social exemplars, ideas that continued well into the twentieth century. Home to twenty four governors of New South Wales and their families, and the first five Governors-General, all chosen for their various pre-eminent positions, it reflects the many changes that have taken place in public and private life. Guests and visitors ranged from citizens paying their respects or receiving awards, to the reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, other members of the Royal family and other heads of states.
The finest example of a castellated Gothic house in Australia, the house with its landscaped gardens reflected its English ties and was the model that inspired others. It is a grand ensemble of buildings, gardens and contents whose history and use are richly documented. Developments to the place over 150 years demonstrate changing tastes and social attitudes, and showcase the talents of leading architects, artists and craftsmen.
Located in Governor Phillip's domain, it provides a tangible link with the earliest years of the colony, and is associated with the development of significant public places such as the Conservatorium (formerly its stables), Royal Botanic Gardens (formerly its grounds), and the Opera House.
Government House in Sydney is significant as one of the two original official residences selected for the Governor-General following the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901. Rivalry between New South Wales and Victoria led the Commonwealth Government to designate Government House in Sydney and Melbourne Government House as official residences of equal status for the Governor-General. The Sydney Government House served as the Governor-General's Sydney Residence until 1912 when the NSW government sparked a major controversy by effectively evicting the governor-general. The place is significant for its association with the first five occupants of the high office of Governor-General from the time of federation until 1912.
A rare example of a great harbourside landscape estate virtually intact. A typical 19th century 3-part estate landscape of park, parterre and pleasure grounds. The formal grounds of sweeping annual displays, manicured lawns, exotic trees and shrubs as well as the carriageways, paths and terraces provide a strong link with Sydney's colonial and Victorian heritage
It is perhaps the last of the great harbourside estates to have survived relatively intact and to still be carrying on its original function; a combination of private residence, office complex and official function venue. The garden is one of the oldest continually maintained gardens in Australia. Whilst it has been altered to some extent over the years, it nevertheless provides an appropriately grand setting for the house.
The heritage significance of Government House at a State level is enhanced by the extraordinarily rich and diverse collection of moveable heritage ranging from furniture, paintings, ceramics, glassware textiles and sculpture to garden ornaments and kitchenalia dating back to the 1820s. It is a rare and intact collection of items with an ongoing and continuous association with the vice regal function and clearly demonstrates 150 years of changing style and taste. The collection is inherently linked to the house (and specific locations in the house). The comprehensive collection of portraits of NSW governors contains one of the earliest official portraits to be commissioned in NSW and Australia, that of Governor Thomas Brisbane by Augustus Earle. The collection of colonial furniture is significant and contains the most extensive collection of furniture by noted craftsman Andrew Lenham between 1845 and 1860 as well as furniture and other objects associated with colonial and international exhibitions and demonstrate excellence in local design, manufacturing and materials.
Government House, Sydney was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 13 December 2011 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
This site replaced the original government house in 1845 as the seat of power and the symbol of the Crown and British authority in the colonial period. It was the seat of executive power under the constitution of New South Wales from 1856 to 1901 and 1915 to 1996. It can demonstrate its changing role as the seat of executive power, the residence of the Governors of New South Wales, and as an important place of State ceremony.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
The site has close associations with the many Governors and Governors-General who have resided there as well as the many international heads of state who have visited and stayed there. As the seat of British authority in NSW and Australia, Government House is significant for its important association with the British royalty, especially those who have been accommodated at the house including Prince Albert (who after being shot was treated and nursed back to health in the Drawing Room of Government House), the Queen Mother, King Charles III (then Prince of Wales), Princess Diana, Princess Anne and Captain Mark Phillips and significantly Queen Elizabeth II and her husband the Duke of Edinburgh on a number of occasions. The historic significance of Government House is also enhanced through its association with those involved in its design and construction: Edward Blore, an eminent British architect who completed the original design of the house; Colonial Architect Mortimer Lewis who adapted these plans to suit Australian conditions; James Barney who designed and supervised significant repairs and alterations to the house; and Walter Liberty Vernon who was also responsible for significant additions and repairs.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
The quality of Edward Blore's design and detailing, and the degree to which his intent was realised in the finished house, resulted in a unique building for the colony. It remains the finest example of a castellated Gothic House in Australia. The Gothic style of the house and the character of its landscaped gardens were perceived to be quintessentially English and calculated to maintain the emotional ties between a distant colony and the motherland. It served as an inspiration for other Gothic buildings in Sydney including harbourside villas, and was also a model for the unrealised Government House in Hobart. Furthermore, it was an impetus for the Gothic revival in Australia. The construction of such a large and sophisticated building was a major technical achievement for the time. It had a seminal influence in raising the standards of building and craftsmanship in the colony. The additions to the house by James Barnet and Walter. L. Vernon between 1870 and 1902, were notable examples of the later Victorian Gothic revival style. The Chalet is a fine example of an Arts and Crafts inspired style of domestic architecture and a forerunner of the Australian Federation style of the early 20th century.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The house was seen as a pinnacle of society and the roll of Governor as social "exemplar", ideas that continued well into the 20th century. The place can demonstrate the changing emphasis in the selection of Governor; from military, to career administrators, to aristocrats. By the end of the 19th century the role was perceived to be more social than political, and post-war Australian Governors were installed into this esteemed position. At each stage in its history, Government House was a place of work for personnel involved in the business of the Governor, in domestic service, in securing the site, or in the keeping of the grounds, most being resident on the site. The role of domestic servants, and later domestic staff, continued until the mid 1990s, well after such service had become anachronistic in most other great houses in Australia.
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
Government House demonstrates at a high level the design, layout, construction techniques and finishes of a colonial grand house in the Gothic style as well as that of an early colonial harbour-side estate charged with the carriage of viceregal functions including symbolic functions of authority in polity and society. The ensemble of House, outbuildings and gardens can demonstrate the development of the site and its functions from the colonial period to today. The Government house interiors as they have evolved from the 1840s reflect the development of taste and style over 170 years. The Government House garden has the archaeological potential to provide information on early roads and drives and terrace arrangements. The important interiors (such as the Lyon and Cottier wall Drawing Room ceilings and hand painted cloth panels) and the extensive moveable heritage collection (including the collection of Colonial Australian furniture, portraits of Governors, and some of the more recent furnishings and fittings) demonstrate 150 years of changing style and taste.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
It is a rare surviving example where the original and early planning remains relatively intact and demonstrates the prevailing social order and domestic arrangements of the "place".
Gallery
See also
First Government House, Sydney, residence of the Governor from 1788 to 1845
Old Government House, Parramatta, the country retreat for the early Governors
Government Houses of Australia
Government Houses in the Commonwealth
Government House Sydney 360° Virtual Tour
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
Government House Sydney 360° Virtual Tour
Government House section of Governor's Website
Official Government House website (Historic Houses Trust)
Old Government House Website
Old Government House (NSW National Trust)
School excursion information – Old Government House
Australian National Heritage listing for Old Government House and Government Domain
Pictures of Old Government House, Parramatta
[CC-By-SA]
Houses completed in 1845
Houses in Sydney
Museums in Sydney
Government buildings in Sydney
Gothic Revival architecture in Sydney
Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales
Government of New South Wales
Victorian architecture in Sydney
Historic house museums in New South Wales
Official residences in Australia
1845 establishments in Australia
Sydney
Edward Blore buildings
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Sandstone buildings in Australia
Governors' mansions
Event venues in New South Wales
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
Bridge Street, Sydney |
4163542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bianca%20Jackson | Bianca Jackson | Bianca Jackson (also Butcher) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders played by Patsy Palmer. The character was introduced by executive producer Leonard Lewis and appeared initially from 1993 to 1999, when Palmer opted to leave. In 2002 executive producer John Yorke brought the character back for a special spin-off show. She returned to EastEnders as a full-time character in April 2008, reintroduced by executive producer Diederick Santer. Palmer took maternity leave in 2010 and Bianca left the series in January 2011. The character returned in December 2011 after Palmer signed a "working mums" contract, which granted her leave from the soap between April and November 2012. The actress quit EastEnders in 2014 and Bianca departed in September that year. Palmer reprised the role on 2 September 2019 for a guest stint and a second guest stint was scheduled for 2020, but later cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
During her first run on the show during the 1990s, she was known for her bizarre sense of style, her sharp tongue, fiery temper and for screaming "Rickaaaaaaay!" at her husband. Bianca has been featured in storylines including affairs, feuds, bereavements, family problems, spina bifida and abortion; two problematic marriages to Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) – the first of which ended after it transpired that she had a previous affair with her mother's boyfriend Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass); her troubled and dysfunctional reconciliation with her estranged biological father David Wicks (Michael French); her friendship with Tiffany Mitchell (Martine McCutcheon); feuding against Tiffany's volatile husband Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp); embarking on tug-of-love for Ricky's affections against his first wife and Grant's younger sister Sam (Danniella Westbrook); discovering her 15-year-old stepdaughter, Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty), is being sexually abused by her fiancé, Tony King (Chris Coghill), and his subsequent arrest for paedophilia; and forming a relationship with Terry Spraggan (Terry Alderton).
Storylines
1993–1999
Bianca Jackson first arrived with her family; including mother Carol Jackson (Lindsey Coulson), her love interest Alan Jackson (Howard Antony), and Bianca's three half-siblings Robbie Jackson (Dean Gaffney), Sonia Jackson (Natalie Cassidy) and Billie Jackson (Devon Anderson). She initially works at her uncle Ian Beale's (Adam Woodyatt) fish and chip shop before becoming the market assistant of Sanjay Kapoor (Deepak Verma). Later she runs her own clothing stall on Bridge Street market. Bianca has a short relationship with an older man, Richard Cole (Ian Reddington), but he swiftly dumps her when he grows bored and Bianca gets revenge by harassing him with pranks and stealing his credit card. David Wicks (Michael French) then enjoys mutual flirtation with Bianca until Carol informs David that Bianca is his daughter. Horrified, David promptly keeps his distance, and Bianca remains unaware of their biological relationship. Bianca enters into a relationship with Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) and they move into a bedsit together. Bianca spends much time clubbing with her childhood friend Tiffany Raymond (Martine McCutcheon) and Ricky starts an affair with Bianca's other childhood friend Natalie Price (Lucy Speed). When Bianca discovers the affair, she breaks up with Ricky and drives Natalie from Walford. One night an intoxicated Bianca is nearly assaulted. She is rescued by David and when she tries to kiss him, he confesses that he is her father. Bianca is left stunned and humiliated. Initially she feels hostile and resentful over David's absence for the majority of her life. Eventually, Bianca has a change of heart and comes to accept David as her father, becoming keen to bond with him. The relationship is further complicated, when during July 1995 David confides in the Samaritans charity (unbeknownst to any of his family) that he still feels sexually attracted to Bianca despite the knowledge that he is her biological father. A case of GSA, this was one of EastEnders most controversial and daring storylines at this point in the show's history. There is further tension when Bianca makes David uncomfortable by reconciling with and dating his stepbrother Ricky again. Bianca is confused by David's unexplained strange and occasionally hostile behaviour. David never admits to Bianca the truth behind his initial feelings towards her, but she and David eventually bond naturally as a father and daughter.
Ricky and Bianca reunite and get engaged but she has sex with Lenny Wallace (Des Coleman), but soon regrets it when she fears she is pregnant by him. It's a false alarm, but she realises how much Ricky means to her, so she marries him. She becomes pregnant, but a prenatal scan shows her unborn child has spina bifida and hydrocephalus. Distraught, Bianca has an abortion, which strains her marriage. Ricky learns of her infidelity with Lenny after a STD scare. Ricky considers ending their marriage, but Bianca convinces him to give her another chance and she becomes pregnant again. She gives birth to baby Liam on Christmas Day in The Queen Victoria public house, helped by her enemy Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp), her best friend Tiffany's volatile husband. Carol returns to Albert Square with her new fiancé Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass), unaware that Bianca had a past relationship with him when she was underage (although Dan was unaware of this fact). Bianca and Dan rekindle their affair behind Carol and Ricky's backs, until Carol discovers she is pregnant by Dan. Bianca and Ricky plan to move to Manchester so Bianca can attend fashion college there. After finding an old photo of Bianca and Dan together, Carol demands to know their history. Dan tells Carol they had a romance years ago and swears on his unborn child's life that it's all over, but Bianca confesses when questioned and is disowned by Carol. Bianca leaves for Manchester after confessing to Ricky that she no longer loves him.
"Ricky & Bianca"
In the two-part special episode, "Ricky & Bianca", Ricky visits Bianca in Manchester in 2002, to discuss Liam. Bianca has been expelled from university and is working in a nightclub. Struggling to support Liam, Bianca gets caught up in a plan to steal £50,000 from her drug-dealing boss, Vince (Craig Charles). Ricky persuades her to return the money but Vince catches them and forces them to become his drug couriers. He sets them up, the dealers turn violent, and Bianca and Ricky narrowly escape when armed police raid the establishment. Fleeing, Ricky and Bianca spend the night together in a hotel room and decide to reunite. Ricky breaks the news to his fiancée Cassie (Sally Ann Triplet), who refuses to let him go, and tries to convince Bianca that she will be bored with Ricky, and to give Ricky custody of Liam. Bianca decides that this is right, and Ricky looks on heartbroken as she hitches a ride in a car and departs for a destination unknown.
Off-screen events (2002–2008)
Off-screen, unbeknownst to Ricky, Bianca is pregnant. She starts a relationship with trucker Nathan Dean, who believes her unborn child is his. Bianca acts as stepmother to Nathan's daughter Whitney (Shona McGarty), but Nathan is killed in a traffic accident. Bianca becomes Whitney's guardian and gives birth to a daughter, Tiffany (Maisie Smith), named after her deceased best friend, but struggles financially. She becomes pregnant again during a brief relationship with Ray Dixon (Chucky Venn). Bianca meets Tony King (Chris Coghill), who supports her through her pregnancy and adopts Ray's son, Morgan Jackson-King (Devon Higgs), when he is born. Tony appears to be a good father figure to her children; however, he is a paedophile. Tony grooms a 12-year-old Whitney and they begin a sexual relationship. After Morgan is born, Liam returns to live with Bianca when Ricky begins dating a woman named Melinda (Siobhan Hayes), who does not like children. Tony and Whitney's relationship continues secretly until Tony is imprisoned for assaulting a boy who propositions Whitney.
2008–2014
Bianca is evicted from her home and her children are taken into care. Bianca moves in with her grandmother Pat Evans (Pam St Clement) in Walford and with Ricky's help, she gets her children back and a waitress job. She rebuffs Ricky's declaration of love, deciding to stand by imprisoned lover Tony. When he is released, Tony resumes his abuse of Whitney while Bianca wants to set a date for their wedding. He eventually agrees after winding down his abuse of Whitney, to whom he is no longer attracted now that she is not a child. Whitney tells Bianca about their relationship, just as she thinks that she and Tony will run away together. There is a massive row and Tony leaves but he is arrested by the police on suspicion of rape of a minor. Bianca and Whitney's relationship is tested while they deal with what has happened but they eventually bond again and Bianca supports Whitney through Tony's trial.
A DNA paternity test confirms that Ricky is Tiffany's father. Bianca slowly realises she is in love with him, but her attempt to rekindle their romance is ruined when Ricky announces his engagement to Sam Mitchell (Danniella Westbrook). Knowing Sam is evading a prison sentence, Bianca reports her whereabouts and Sam is arrested. A rift forms between Bianca and Ricky when the truth is revealed. However, Bianca's discovery that Sam is cheating on Ricky ends the engagement and Bianca and Ricky reunite, when Ricky accepts her marriage proposal. The couple remarry. During the ceremony, Carol arrives and brawls with Bianca but they settle their differences and begin to rebuild their relationship. When Bianca's younger brother, Billie, dies from alcohol poisoning, Carol is distraught. She is comforted by Billie's friend, Connor Stanley (Arinze Kene), and they begin an affair, while Connor is also dating Whitney. Bianca vows to remove Connor from her family's life and attacks Connor, leaving him hospitalised and eventually turns herself in to the police, refusing bail. She is sentenced to six months imprisonment. Bianca is released for Christmas and is devastated when Pat dies from pancreatic cancer. When Bianca discovers Ricky had sex with Mandy Salter (Nicola Stapleton) in her absence, they separate, and he leaves Walford. Bianca struggles as a single parent and gets into debt. Owing money, Bianca steals from a market trader in desperation, but she is caught and sent back to prison. In prison, she passes a hair and beauty course and on her release, is offered a trial at Tanya Cross' (Jo Joyner) salon. However, Bianca struggles to cope and breaks down when she is alone.
Bianca and Kat Moon (Jessie Wallace) form a friendship and set up a market stall together. Liam plays truant from school and Bianca worries when the police tell her she may face prison again if Liam does not return. Bianca discovers that Liam is involved in a mugging and that he has some dubious new friends. When Liam does not come home, she goes to an estate to confront the gang and collect Liam but he decides to stay with the gang and when he does come home, Bianca locks him in his room to stop him seeing the gang. She seeks advice from Ava Hartman (Clare Perkins), whose son Dexter (Khali Best) used to be in a gang. Liam returns to the gang and eventually they are arrested and released on police bail. They blame Liam and he is stabbed but is not seriously injured. When Bianca lets Liam stay at home alone, Kane sneaks in and invites Liam back to the gang. Bianca finds them as Kane is attacking Liam and attacks Kane; he is arrested. Bianca allows Liam to stay with his father. When Bianca, Shirley Carter (Linda Henry) and Jean Slater (Gillian Wright) break into Ian's restaurant, Shirley accidentally starts a fire. Bianca worries that she could go back to prison, and tells Whitney, who has been blamed for it. Jean tells Ian what happened and Ian agrees not to involve the police on the condition that Tiffany and Bobby are no longer friends.
When Carol sees that Bianca is still interested in fashion, she arranges for her to attend a course in Manchester. During this time Bianca's father, David, returns and moves in. When Bianca returns, she surprises her family by announcing that her new boyfriend, Terry Spraggan (Terry Alderton), and his children, TJ Spraggan (George Sargeant) and Rosie Spraggan (Jerzey Swingler), are moving in. Bianca is devastated when Carol learns that she has breast cancer. Carol and David get engaged and Bianca learns that she has not inherited Carol's faulty cancer gene and supports her mother throughout her cancer. She ends her relationship with Terry due to the jealousy of his former wife, Nikki Spraggan (Rachel Wilde), and David leaves before marrying Carol. Bianca and Terry continue their relationship in secret and she learns that he is planning to move out of London. Terry and Bianca reunite, and at the last minute, Bianca gives Liam and Whitney her blessing to stay with Carol before taking Tiffany and Morgan to live in Milton Keynes.
The following year, Robbie moves with his son Sami Jackson (Shiven Shankar) to Milton Keynes near Bianca. Bianca is invited to Whitney's wedding to Lee Carter (Danny-Boy Hatchard) the following year, however, she cannot attend and Tiffany and Morgan attend instead. Whitney later visits Bianca after her engagement to Woody Woodward (Lee Ryan) ends. Months later, Bianca is informed that Abi has died, but cannot attend. When Tiffany returns to Walford, she reveals that Bianca has tried to kill herself, but later confesses that she is lying and actually feels neglected by Bianca and Terry; Bianca consequently agrees to Tiffany living with Whitney. When Tiffany becomes involved in a drug ring, Sonia informs Bianca, who is unable to return to help.
2019
Bianca returns to Walford for Whitney's wedding to Callum "Halfway" Highway (Tony Clay) and wakes up in a police cell with Kat after a night out. Bianca mentions she has recently been released from prison. When Ben Mitchell (Max Bowden) arrives at the venue and reveals the truth about his affair with Callum, Bianca threatens him. She then tries to discourage Whitney from marrying Callum but Whitney, albeit doubtful, is determined. Whilst at the wedding reception, Bianca witnesses a man giving Tiffany a kiss on the cheek and threatens him to stay away. She attempts to make amends with Tiffany, who is upset with her because of her absence and ignoring her for Terry's children. Bianca later reveals to Tiffany that she was arrested and released with an electronic tag which prevented her from returning. When Bianca sees Whitney getting drunk at The Queen Vic, she suggests that she attends her honeymoon alone to take her mind off Callum. Bianca then arranges a spa day with Tiffany, and when she sees the man from the wedding again, she threatens him to stay away, revealing him to be Tony's son, Leo King (Tom Wells). Leo reveals that Bianca inherited his grandmother's money and threatens to hurt Whitney and Tiffany if Bianca does not give him the money. After spending time with Sonia and Robbie, Bianca leaves Walford for a holiday with Tiffany. Bianca later returns off-screen to console Whitney after she learns Leo, who she has been dating, is Tony's son. Bianca and Carol both visit Tiffany in Germany in December 2022, leaving them unable to attend her step-grandmother, Dot Branning's (June Brown) funeral.
Creation
Background
In his book EastEnders: The First 10 Years: A Celebration, EastEnders scriptwriter Colin Brake describes 1994 as a "historic" year for EastEnders, as in April, a third weekly episode was introduced. Due to the programme's increased frequency, a number of new characters were introduced to the regular cast in the latter part of 1993 and early 1994. Among them were the Jackson family, created by Tony McHale: mother Carol (Lindsey Coulson), her four children, Bianca (Patsy Palmer), Robbie (Dean Gaffney), Sonia (Natalie Cassidy), and Billie (Devon Anderson), as well as Carol's partner Alan Jackson (Howard Antony). Though Carol and Alan were not initially married in the serial, and though Alan was only the biological father of Billie, the whole family took on Alan's surname. It later transpired that David Wicks (Michael French) was Bianca's father.
Various members of the family began to appear sporadically from November 1993 onwards, but in episodes that aired early in 1994, the Jacksons moved from Walford Towers, a block of flats, to the soap's focal setting of Albert Square. Their slow introduction was a deliberate attempt by the programme makers to introduce the whole family over a long period. The Jacksons have been described by Brake as a "classic problem family".
Casting
Future Spice Girl Emma Bunton auditioned for the role of Bianca; however, it was actress Patsy Palmer who was eventually cast. Hester Lacey of The Independent has described Palmer's casting as an "accident", as she did not formally audition for the role. EastEnders casting director Jane Deitch and writer–director McHale visited her drama class at the Anna Scher Theatre looking for a girl aged 16 or under. Palmer was not on the list of people they wanted to see as she was older, but she caught the attention of Deitch when she was messing around and giggling with friends. At the end of the class, Palmer was asked by McHale to do something, so Anna Scher asked her to improvise a monologue based on the line "I can't believe you just said that." The next day, Scher contacted Palmer to say she had been offered an audition. When she arrived at the audition, McHale told producers Palmer was 16 as she would have been refused the part. She was offered a three-month contract the same day. In 1996, Palmer commented to Lacey: "I've been a lucky girl. I always used to say I'd love to get in EastEnders, because I used to think 'God, I'll never get a part where I have to speak really posh', – I'm not very good at accents." Palmer was 21 when she first appeared on-screen as 16-year-old Bianca.
Personality
Bianca has been classified by Rupert Smith, author of EastEnders: 20 years in Albert Square, as a drama queen, a "strong passionate [woman]" and "Walford's trouble-maker-in-chief". She has also been described by Reuters as "feisty" and someone "who never minced her words". In 1996, Palmer described Bianca as someone who deserves "a good slap". She added, "I probably wouldn't like Bianca if I knew her in real-life. But I do love playing the character. She is so cheeky and gets to say outrageous things".
Deemed "a woman you would not want to cross" by James Rampton of The Independent, Bianca is a tenacious foe, but a loyal friend. The way the character is portrayed, as a "person who wouldn't take nonsense from anyone", has led Rampton to comment that she embodies "girl power", a cultural phenomenon of the mid-late 1990s. He added, "Bianca could sulk for Britain – and we adored her for it." However, Rampton also noted that underneath Bianca's bravado, the character is capable of showing "the most affecting vulnerability".
Development
In her first six years in the soap, Bianca's storylines included affairs, feuds, bereavements, abortion, and a problematic marriage to Ricky Butcher.
Marriage to Ricky Butcher
Bianca's relationship with mechanic Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) has been central to her narrative; their affiliation began in 1994. Palmer and Owen already knew each other before working together on the soap, as both attended the Anna Scher theatre school. Owen has said, "We practically grew up together. We'd known each other for years. It was weird when she started on the show and we began playing the 'Ricky & Bianca Get To Know Each Other' bit. I had already spent a lot of time with Patsy. I think we were both seven when we met."
The dynamics of their relationship were clear from the start, with Bianca portrayed as the dominant, bossy and authoritative partner, while Ricky was shown as the hen-pecked, dim-witted "loser" or "soft touch", comically under the thumb of his female counterpart. James Rampton from The Independent has commented, "to her eternally put-upon husband, Ricky, Bianca was a ferocious reincarnation of H Rider Haggard's 'She Who Must Be Obeyed'." Bianca was notorious for shouting the catchphrase "Rickaaaaaaay!" (a cockney pronunciation of Ricky) at her lover, and Palmer admitted in 2008 that "not a day has gone by in nine years when someone hasn't shouted that from cars and even up at my bedroom window at night." Rampton has suggested that Bianca's catchphrase – "Rickaaaaaaay!" – transitioned, becoming "shorthand for any sort of heinous henpecking." On Friday Night with Jonathan Ross on 18 April 2008, Palmer explained that it was actually Ross, as a DJ, who had originally inspired the catchphrase.
One of the first notable storylines featuring the couple occurred in 1995, when Ricky embarked on an affair with Bianca's "put-upon sidekick", Natalie Price (Lucy Speed). On-screen Natalie and Ricky found themselves sidelined and bullied by Bianca, forcing them together and leading to their eventual affair, which continued for several weeks on-screen, with Ricky seeing both Natalie and Bianca. The storyline reached its climax on 21 February 1995; 17.0 million viewers tuned in to witness Bianca discovering that her boyfriend was sleeping with her best friend. The characters separated but reconciled later in the year when Ricky supported Bianca through a personal crisis: the revelation that she had unknowingly tried to seduce her estranged father David Wicks (Michael French).
Various crises between the characters were featured over the following years, causing them to break up and reconcile numerous times. In the book Seeing Things: Television in the Age of Uncertainty, author John Ellis uses the couple's combustible relationship as an example of emotional intensity and pathos: "A couple like Ricky and Bianca [...] can have constantly sniped at each other for several episodes, for no apparent dramatic purpose except that it is the nature of their relationship. Then they will suddenly be confronted by a life-changing decision [...] There is suddenly a shift in emotional intensity for the audience. Every word now counts, and all the previous audience attitudes of irritation or even condescension to this 'not very bright couple' [...] become a feeling of utter absorption in their dilemma." The BBC has reported that Bianca and Ricky's on-off romance "captivated millions of fans", and in April 1997 attracted "one of the biggest soap audiences ever", with 22 million viewers tuning in to see them marry. In 2000, Owen stated that the storyline he most enjoyed in EastEnders was the build up and marriage to Bianca, because "the public's enthusiasm for the event was a great motivation".
Spina bifida
In 1997, the character was featured in a storyline about hydrocephalus ("water on the brain") and spina bifida, a developmental birth defect resulting in an incompletely formed spinal cord of the baby. After becoming pregnant with Ricky's baby, a pre-natal scan revealed that her unborn foetus had the conditions. In the storyline, Bianca agonised about whether or not to have an abortion, but eventually decided to terminate her pregnancy at 20 weeks. In scenes shown after the abortion, Bianca and Ricky were given the chance to see and hold their dead daughter, named Natasha, after the birth (Ricky was unable to do this, though Bianca later said her baby had been "perfect"), and a period of heavy grief followed as the characters came to terms with what they had done. The Peterborough-based Association for Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus (ASBAH) helped and provided information to the programme makers during the storyline.
Bianca's decision to abort reportedly angered a proportion of viewers, including parents with disabled children, who rang the BBC to complain that they showed the abortion of a disabled baby. However, many were "moved" by the storyline, and Patsy Palmer received critical acclaim for her acting throughout. Palmer was nominated in the 'Best Actress' category at the Royal Television Society Awards – the first soap actress to ever be nominated.
The storyline was later used to spread a public message. When Bianca became pregnant once again in 1998, the scriptwriters included scenes of a practitioner advising the character to take folic acid, which protects against spina bifida. The ASBAH issued a public plea to EastEnders, urging them to allow Bianca's second baby to be born with spina bifida, in order to show parents that having a baby with spina bifida is "not the end of the world". This did not occur, however, and Bianca was shown to give birth to a premature but healthy baby, Liam, in an episode that aired on Christmas Day 1998.
Departure (1999)
The character was featured in various other storylines, including a close friendship with her childhood friend Tiffany Raymond (Martine McCutcheon); a feud with Tiffany's volatile husband Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp); a tug-of-love for Ricky's affections with his first wife and Grant's younger sister Sam (Danniella Westbrook); a one-night stand with Lenny Wallace (Des Coleman), causing a sexually transmitted disease scare; and coping with Tiffany's death. In November 1998, the BBC announced that Patsy Palmer had decided to leave EastEnders to spend more time with her family. The BBC said that Bianca would not be killed off, and a spokesman commented: "Bianca has always been an amazingly powerful character and the door is open to her if she wants to return in the future. She has been fantastic in the years she has been in EastEnders and we will miss her." Palmer was one of several high-profile EastEnders stars to announce their departures that year; McCutcheon and Kemp also decided to leave, and Gillian Taylforth left the serial in 1998 after 13 years playing Kathy Beale. The BBC said, "no-one is bigger than the show, which is doing extremely well at the moment. We will send her off with all our very best wishes." Richard Stokes, EastEnders''' series editor and producer of Palmer's exit storyline commented, "you don't expect people to stay here for ever. But it's a double-edged sword. Yes, it's a shame when a well-loved character announces they're going, but the flipside is that it provides us with the space to do the best possible story. If someone is going, you can up the stakes. The whole of Bianca's story was developed once we knew she was going to go."
Bianca's exit storyline revolved on an extramarital affair with her mother's new boyfriend Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass). Lindsey Coulson, who played Bianca's mother Carol, returned to the serial especially to facilitate Palmer's exit. Carol had last been seen on-screen in 1997. When the affair was uncovered, Bianca was disowned by Carol, and her marriage to Ricky ended after Carol forced her to confess the affair to him too. Bianca's exit week was spread out over five episodes, beginning with an hour-long special on Sunday 5 September 1999 (at the time the typical weekly broadcast was 3 episodes a week). Mal Young, BBC's Controller of Continuing Drama Series, described the revelatory hour-long Bianca special as a Play For Today, and Kathryn Flett of The Guardian described the week's episodes as a "bravura, edge-of-the-sofa, five-night performance". Commenting on her exit in 1999, Palmer said, "It was really sad. We were all crying our eyes out – the crew as well as the cast. The tears you see on screen are real."
Nicola Methven of the Daily Mirror has described the discovery of Bianca's affair as "one of the truly great emotion-charged scenes in soap history". Bianca left Walford on a train for Manchester with her son Liam, in an episode that aired in September 1999. In 2005, Bianca's exit storyline was voted as one of "Top 20 greatest soap moments of all time". Chosen by thousands of TV viewers, the televised countdown was presented by Dale Winton and aired on ITV in 2001.
Spin-off (2002)
In 2001, the BBC announced that Patsy Palmer and Sid Owen would reprise their roles as Bianca and Ricky, for a special spin-off, entitled EastEnders: Ricky & Bianca. Filmed in Manchester in January 2002, the two part, hour-long special reunited the characters for the first time in over two years. The spin-off or "soap bubble" was part of plans by Mal Young, the BBC controller of drama serials, to expand the EastEnders brand. He created a "bubbles unit" to make, at most, six one-off specials a year. EastEnders: Ricky & Bianca aired in May 2002, and proved a ratings winner, with more than 10 million viewers tuning in.
In the spin-off, Bianca had fallen upon hard times, and accidentally got a visiting Ricky embroiled in a drugs heist. Despite talk of reconciling, Bianca opted to leave Ricky behind once again, leaving Liam in his care. The spin-off brought in various characters unrelated to the main serial, including Vince, Bianca's drug dealing boss played by Craig Charles, and Ricky's fiancée Cassie, played by Sally Ann Triplett. Both Ricky and Liam returned to the main serial as regular characters later that year, without Bianca. In an interview, Palmer discussed the spin-off and the reasons why she did not want to return to EastEnders: "I have absolutely no desire to return to EastEnders. Not at all. In fact, I think that brief spin-off of a storyline for Ricky and Bianca was a double-edged sword. On one hand, I don't think we should ever have done it, it was a mistake on my behalf. But on the other, it convinced me that Bianca was someone that I did not want to see again. She was past history as far as I was concerned, I certainly learned that. Don't get me wrong, I had the time of my life when I was in EastEnders in the middle and late nineties and I worked with some terrific people both in front of and behind the camera. But that was then and this is now – the cast has nearly all changed and going back would be worse than foolish." In August 2005, Palmer reiterated that she had no desire to return to EastEnders and branded the show "rubbish".
Reintroduction (2008)
Despite Palmer's earlier reservations, it was announced on 29 October 2007 that she would be reprising the role of Bianca. EastEnders executive producer Diederick Santer said he was "delighted" that Bianca was returning, commenting: "Millions grew up with her and, like the audience, I can't wait to see her back in the show. I'm really looking forward to the next chapter in her story."
On 30 October 2007, a day after the announcement of Bianca's return, it was announced that Sid Owen would also be returning to the show as Ricky. Owen commented: "It will be interesting to see what has been happening to Ricky and Bianca over the last few years. Although I must admit I'm not looking forward to her nagging me by shouting his name." Santer commented: "First Patsy comes home, now Sid! Ricky and Bianca were a hugely popular and well-loved partnership on the show, spawning one of the best (and perhaps most irritating) of TV catchphrases – Rickaaaaay!"
On 18 March 2008, Mark Jefferies of the Daily Mirror announced that Bianca would return with four children: Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty), the fifteen-year-old daughter of Bianca's deceased partner Nathan; Liam Butcher (James Forde), Bianca and Ricky's son who previously appeared in the serial; Tiffany Dean (Maisie Smith), Bianca's five-year-old daughter with Nathan; and Morgan Jackson-King (Devon Higgs), Bianca's three-year-old son who "gets spoilt the most out of all of the kids".
To promote the characters' return, the BBC began airing trailers across the BBC network in March 2008. One trailer utilised Bianca's "trademark holler" of Ricky's name, which is so loud that it smashes the windows of The Queen Victoria public house. The trailer features The Righteous Brothers's "Hung on You". Another trailer sees Bianca singing The Jackson 5 hit "I Want You Back" and performing a dance routine with her four children. The advertisement uses the tag line "Introducing The Jackson 5". Within three days of being posted on the video sharing website YouTube, the trailer had been viewed 52,000 times.
The character returned on-screen on 1 April 2008, but made her first appearance back in the soap's setting of Albert Square the following week, drawing 10.4 million viewers and 42.6% of the total TV viewing audience. In the storyline, Bianca had fallen on hard times, and after being evicted from her flat her children were taken into custody, so Bianca returned to Walford to seek help from her grandmother Pat Butcher (Pam St. Clement). In the documentary EastEnders: Ricky and Bianca, which aired to celebrate the character's return, the changes in Bianca's character were noted: "The carefree, wild child of yesterday, has been replaced by the wore-torn and downtrodden single mum of four. Bianca has done what she always wanted to avoid, repeating the mistakes that her mother Carol had made." EastEnders' series consultant Simon Ashdown has commented, "Bianca's still the same Bianca in a way, she still speaks before she thinks, comes out fists flying. She's got that family of misfit kids with different fathers [...] She's like Carol." The BBC described the character's comeback as a "big hit". However, James Walton from The Telegraph accused the Jackson family of being melodramatic and "boring", adding "Perhaps the storyline is meant to be an updated version of [1966 BBC drama] Cathy Come Home – yet if so, the writers have forgotten one important thing. We're supposed to be rooting for the mother rather than for Social Services."
Tony King and pedophilia
Bianca's most notable initial storyline upon her return was a pedophilia plot revolving around her new boyfriend Tony King (Chris Coghill), and her 15-year-old step daughter, Whitney. The idea for the storyline was conceptualized by writer Simon Ashdown and other scriptwriters, when they were brainstorming ideas for Bianca's return to EastEnders. They had seen a documentary about homelessness and had been struck by an image of a woman and child at a bus stop with nowhere to go, a scene that was used to similar effect in Bianca and her family's return episode. They considered the homeless family's predicament and were left pondering "What might happen to them? They would be easy prey... What if a pedophile noticed the child, who might be, say, 12, and pretended to be the woman's saviour? She would be too grateful to notice that this was unusual behaviour, that he seemed to have few friends or family". They pitched the idea to John Yorke, controller of BBC drama production, who said that "It drew a sharp intake of breath. Most EastEnders stories that have been good and successful have been the ones that caused the sharp intake of breath, so they're always the kind of stories you look for." However, pedophilia as a storyline had been pitched before, but the idea had been vetoed because they could not find the right storyline and characters to proceed and, as the topic was so controversial, producers had been unwilling to take the risk. Diederick Santer commented, "We knew that something like 16% of under-16s have been sexually abused at some point, but if you can't find a story, it's an issue that sits there, dead, on the show." It has been noted in the media that pedophilia is a subject rarely shown on pre-watershed terrestrial television, and although EastEnders had broached it in 2001 with Kat Slater (Jessie Wallace) and her abusive uncle Harry (Michael Elphick), this was scripted to have happened in the past and focused on the effect it had on the victim as an adult.
Yorke was initially unconvinced at the Jackson pedophilia storyline proposal. He commented to The Guardian in 2008, "My standpoint has always been that there has to be a good editorial justification. If it's just entertainment, or just sensation, or just the bogeyman in this case, then I don't think that's a good enough reason." However, Yorke was convinced by Santer, who opined that "it would be a talking point that could truly educate and inform". It was decided that Bianca's stepdaughter Whitney would be the character that Bianca's boyfriend Tony groomed for sex. According to Bianca's backstory, Tony was "a Mancunian who [...] had one day given Bianca a lift home, three years before her return to Walford, and noticed, standing in the hallway, 12-year-old Whitney in her pyjamas." EastEnders worked closely with NSPCC when devising the storyline. The NSPCC's statistics suggested that 11% of children under 16 experienced "sexual abuse by a person known but unrelated to them, often a boyfriend or girlfriend, while only 5% have been interfered with by someone unknown or whom they had just met; 1% by a parent or carer; and fewer than 1% by a professional in a position of trust". Thus it was decided that Whitney, unrelated to Tony in any biological sense, would be his victim and that Tony deliberately targeted the Jackson family, wooing Bianca, in order to groom Whitney. This idea, according to a BBC researcher, was based on real life cases. The truth was revealed to Bianca in an episode that aired in December 2008, when Whitney confessed to her stepmother, professing to love Tony. There followed Tony's imprisonment and a court case in 2009. Palmer was widely praised by critics for her performance during the reveal episodes. The storyline prompted an increase in calls to the children's help-line, ChildLine. A ChildLine director, Julie Crossan, said, "Child sex abuse storylines on programmes such as EastEnders also encourage children to speak out. As a result, more children now understand what sexual abuse is and are increasingly willing to turn to ChildLine for help."
When asked how she felt about the storyline, Palmer commented: "It would be brilliant if it helped somebody. If one person out there who's been abused saw that [the legal system] go out of their way to make it easier on the victim – Whitney's evidence is given by video link – it will be worth it."
Reunion with Ricky Butcher
In November 2009 it was announced that coinciding with the return of her on-screen family and the 25th anniversary of EastEnders, Bianca and Ricky would remarry in February 2010. Entertainment website Digital Spy reported that: "Show producers have confirmed that the divorced pair's latest love twist will begin at Christmas when Ricky [...] decides to pop the question to his childhood sweetheart. Their wedding will take place in February to coincide with the Walford soap's 25th anniversary celebrations." A spin-off DVD focusing on preparations for the wedding, EastEnders: Last Tango in Walford, was released in February 2010. It features Tiffany arranging a comeback for Bianca's family, plus archive footage and interviews. Palmer told What's on TV magazine: "I prefer it when Ricky and Bianca are not together but it's great too when they are. I'm looking forward to the return of her family. Bianca hasn't spoken to her mum since the whole Dan thing so it'll be good stuff." The wedding scenes were filmed at St. Peter's Church in the St. Albans city centre.
Talking about the 25th anniversary week, Santer explained that he wanted great stories to get people talking, saying "That's [...] why we're doing the soap wedding of the year – and perhaps the soap wedding of the decade – with Ricky and Bianca. The romance played against the thriller story is a great balance, which I hope the audience will be both gripped by and satisfied with. The wedding is the perfect opportunity for us to bring back the much-loved Jackson characters – Carol, Sonia, Robbie and Billie."
Temporary departures (2011–2012)
On 1 August 2010, it was reported that Palmer was pregnant with her fourth child and that she would take maternity leave from EastEnders. To facilitate the departure, Bianca will feature in a major storyline, which executive producer Bryan Kirkwood said was the only possible reason Bianca would have for leaving her family. In December 2010, it was announced that Natalie Cassidy would return as part of Bianca's departure storyline which started in January 2011. Bianca's departure was broadcast on 21 January 2011. Palmer gave birth earlier than expected, meaning that she started leave three weeks before she planned to. Key moments were therefore not filmed, and changes had to be made to the storyline to accommodate her absence. Bianca reappeared from December 2011, though Palmer stated in February 2011 that she was in no hurry to return, did not miss it and did not know when she would be back. On 19 July 2011, Palmer revealed that she had signed a new 'working mums' contract and would be returning before the end of the year.
It was confirmed in April 2012 that Bianca, Carol and Bianca's children would depart Albert Square later that month for six months. Explaining her temporary departure, Palmer said, "I'm only taking time off now because this is when the kids' holidays are. When I re-signed my contract I said, 'I love EastEnders, but I love my kids more'. Listen, I can imagine staying in the show till I'm in my 60s, but it's a full-on job. If they hadn't been prepared to give me time off, I'd have had to choose the kids." Bianca left the show on 27 April 2012, when she was sent back to prison for attempting to steal from the market, before returning on 27 November of that year.
Relationship with Terry Spraggan and departure (2014)
It was announced on 23 August 2013, that Bianca's latest boyfriend, Terry Spraggan (Terry Alderton) would arrive on the square, a short time after meeting him off-screen in Manchester.Tweets from Terry Alderton:
It was confirmed in April 2014 that Palmer would be leaving EastEnders and her final scenes will air in the Autumn. A spokesman for Palmer said: "Patsy is really sad to be leaving the show as she loves playing Bianca and working with executive producer Dominic Treadwell-Collins but she knows it's the right decision at this time in her life." The soap's executive producer Dominic Treadwell-Collins, who has decided not to kill off Bianca, said: "We are so sad that Patsy has decided to leave us but completely understand it's the right time for her. Bianca won't be leaving Albert Square until the Autumn so there's still a lot more to come from her on screen this year – and the door will be left wide open for her return. We won't be getting rid of Bianca's puffa jacket just yet". It was revealed months later that an upcoming storyline would involve Bianca and Terry departing alongside their children, minus Liam and Whitney. A teaser for the storyline was released on 29 August 2014.
Returns (2019–2020)
On 22 May 2019, it was announced that Palmer would reprise her role as Bianca for a guest stint, five years after her departure. The decision to reintroduce the character was made by Jon Sen, the show's new executive producer, who revealed that this was "high on [his] wish list" when he joined the soap. He revealed that Bianca would feature in "a blistering storyline that will grip fans" and expressed his delight at her return. Palmer appeared on This Morning during the following month to discuss her return, confirming that she would be filming for three weeks. On the character's return, Palmer commented, "I've always said it's odd when major characters don't return when something [major is happening]." The actress also explained that as she lives in the US, she would not be able to commit to a longer contract so the shorter one worked better for her. A trailer promoting Bianca's return was released on 23 August 2019, and the character returns in episode 5982, originally broadcast on 2 September 2019.
Palmer's return marks the first time she has been invited back to EastEnders. Her agent informed her that the story team had planned a story for Bianca, so she agreed to a return. The show's senior executive producer, Kate Oates, revealed that she planned for the character to return for the show's autumn launch, since she wanted to reintroduce "some classic names in the show". Bianca returns for Whitney's wedding to Callum Highway (Tony Clay), although Callum is struggling with his sexuality and having an affair with Ben Mitchell (Max Bowden). Palmer thought that Bianca would be angry with Callum's deceit but would "just love him" after realising how much he cares for Whitney as he is "such a sweet guy". On the wedding drama, Palmer commented, "like any Walford wedding, things don't quite go to plan... at all." On the night before the wedding, Bianca meets with Kat Slater (Jessie Wallace) for a night out, but they are arrested and have to race to the wedding. Palmer expressed how Bianca is proud to see Whitney getting married.
Bianca also becomes involved in the plots featuring Tiffany. Palmer pointed out that Bianca understands that her absence in Tiffany's life has repercussions. The actress also confirmed that Bianca has been involved in trouble during her off-screen absence, which explains her silence. Palmer explained that both Bianca and Tiffany have things they should tell each other, but they are avoiding it as they want to "protect" each other. She hoped that they would be able to rebuild their relationship.
Palmer enjoyed filming with the soap, but found the experience exhausting. The costume department purchased a new wardrobe for Bianca, which Palmer liked and thought reflected more modern clothing. She also liked reuniting with the cast and crew and revealed that she had maintained contact with Cassidy and McGarty, in particular, since leaving in 2014. The actress also commented on returning to the show's set, describing it as a "second home".
The character's return sparks a long-term storyline for the show which would last "12 to 18 months". Oates wanted to reintroduce Bianca as part of a bigger story and wanted to create a story that "propels after she's gone". Sen added that the show's "diligence to the audience and the drama meant that we had to make sure it kicked off a story". He also confirmed that Bianca's surrounding characters would be featured in the new story as he believed that is how the "soap works best". The story was revealed during the final episode of Bianca's return stint with actor Tom Wells introduced as Leo King, the son of Tony. It emerges that Bianca spent time in prison during her absence after attacking Leo and after seeing him in Walford, Bianca threatens Leo to stay away from her family. Sen confirmed the new plot, describing it as "a gripping new story".
On 21 February 2020, it was reported that Palmer had reprised the role again for a second guest stint. A show spokesperson confirmed that producers had invited Palmer to return again for Whitney's story involving Leo after she kills him in self defence. They also hinted that Bianca may not be "helpful" for Whitney. Palmer began filming the guest return in early 2020, but was unable to complete filming due to EastEnders pausing production following the COVID-19 pandemic. The actress confirmed during an October 2020 appearance on Loose Women that plans for Bianca to appear were then scrapped.
Reception
Awards and nominations
Palmer's portrayal of Bianca earned her a nomination for "Best Actress" at the 1997 Royal Television Society Awards – being the first soap actress to ever be nominated – and in 2000 she was awarded "Best Actress" at The British Soap Awards, a prize voted for by viewers. She commented on her role in her acceptance speech: "It's completely changed my life. It just turned it around. I have had my ups and downs as you all know. I just want to warn all the young people. Be careful because it really does change your life." The role has also garnered Palmer nominations as "Most Popular Actress" at the 1996 National Television Awards, "Best Actress" at the 1999 British Soap Awards, "TV Soap Personality" at the 2009 Television and Radio Industries Club Awards, "Best On-Screen Partnership" (with Sid Owen) in the 2001 British Soap Awards, and "I'm a Survivor" at the 2009 All About Soap Bubble Awards.
Critical response
The character of Bianca Jackson has received critical acclaim from critics and fans alike. EastEnders executive producers Diederick Santer and Jon Sen have described Bianca as "one of the most popular characters EastEnders has ever had", and an "iconic creation", respectively. James Rampton, journalist for The Independent, has commented that she is "adored". Palmer has suggested that viewers "rooted" for Bianca because "people love a stroppy girl". In 2000, she commented, "[Bianca] makes them laugh. A character like that is about living out your fantasies. Everybody would love to be like Bianca and really say what they think." Following her exit from the serial in September 1999, Palmer said that members of the public would approach her to plead with her to return to EastEnders, as they missed her character and relationship with Ricky. She commented in 2000, "It makes me feel bad. I sometimes think I should go back [to EastEnders] for everyone else's sake." When the character departed the serial in 1999, Molly Blake of the Birmingham Evening Post said "Good riddance!" She described Bianca as a "king-sized pain in the backside [...] A screeching and screaming virago with a big mouth and pea-sized brain" and a "prize slapper [who] tormented all those whose paths [she] crossed."
In 1995, Chris Barker carried out television research on post-transmission perspectives of British Asian teenage viewers of EastEnders, using the character Bianca as one of the focus points. He discovered that the participants were both active and implicit in the reproduction of ideology about family relationships and gender. The males regarded Bianca as a "saucy cow", with implications of unacceptable assertiveness in women. They disliked that Ricky was pushed around by Bianca and treated as a subordinate by her friends. The author comments that "such a relationship appears to these boys as the world turned upside down." Girls also viewed Bianca unfavourably in 1995, and the author noted that tensions in "girl-culture" – attraction to the traditional private world of interpersonal relationships and the desire to take up more assertive characteristics in public – manifested themselves in discussions about Bianca and her friend Natalie Price. Natalie was constructed as a "nice person" in contrast to Bianca, "she can relate to Ricky [...] cares for other people and doesn't just think about herself [like Bianca does]", qualities that were said to be constitutive of the traditional identity of women.
In 2008, when it was announced that both Ricky and Bianca were being reintroduced, Santer described them as "a hugely popular and well-loved partnership on the show", and Reuters branded them two of "the most popular characters on the soap". However, Hazel Davis of The Guardian was critical about their reintroduction. She commented, "It's a no-brainer on the show's part. Last year, ratings for EastEnders were at an all-time low. But, just for once, wouldn't it be nice if a soap opera actually introduced new characters with verve and staying power rather than digging up the oldies?" Conversely, Mark Wright from The Stage said that the decision to bring these much-loved character back "is very welcome". Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture praised Bianca stating: "Bianca and Ricky's return has been one of the best things about [EastEnders] in the past year [...] and even when Bianca and co don't have storylines as big as the Whitney/Tony one, they still give good telly."
In March 2010, Bianca was voted the 'Most Popular TV Mum' in an online poll conducted by Yahoo!, gaining 26% of votes. Yahoo!'s TV editor Paul Johnston commented "As loud and garish as Bianca can be, she also has a huge heart when it comes to her children and would do anything to protect them. You certainly wouldn't want her turning up on your doorstep if your kids had been fighting with hers!"
In 2020, Sara Wallis and Ian Hyland from The Daily Mirror placed Bianca 29th on their ranked list of the best EastEnders characters of all time, calling her a "Flame-haired, fiery-tempered market stall holder" who was most famous for "having affairs", moving to Manchester and Milton Keynes and shouting Ricky's name. In 2021, Angie Quinn from MyLondon called Bianca one of the "icons who are no longer on the square".
In popular culture and other media
In 1999, BBC Books published a book about the character, entitled Bianca's Secret Diary. The paperback details the affair between Bianca and her mother Carol's lover, Dan. A BBC source reportedly told the Sunday Mirror: "We've recently dethroned Coronation Street at the top of the viewing charts, and this book has the potential to make No.1 in the best-sellers list." It was released on 10 September 1999, just as the TV storyline reached its conclusion.
The character was spoofed in the BBC comedy sketch show The Real McCoy. One of the show's recurring sketches featured a spoof version of EastEnders, with black comedians taking over roles of well known EastEnders characters, who frequent a pub called Rub-a-Dub. Actress and comedian Judith Jacob played the role of Bianca in the sketches. Jacob had previously appeared as a regular character in EastEnders'' between 1986 and 1989, as health visitor Carmel Jackson (unrelated to Bianca's family).
References
External links
EastEnders characters
Fictional market stallholders
Fictional criminals in soap operas
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional hairdressers
Fictional beauticians
Fictional waiting staff
British female characters in television
Beale family (EastEnders)
Fictional homeless people
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Teenage characters in television
Branning family
Butcher family (EastEnders) |
4164089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Launch%20Alliance | United Launch Alliance | United Launch Alliance, LLC (ULA), commonly referred to as ULA, is an American aerospace manufacturer, defense contractor and launch service provider that manufactures and operates a number of rocket vehicles that launch spacecraft into orbits around Earth and other bodies in the Solar System.
The company is a joint venture between Lockheed Martin Space and Boeing Defense, Space & Security that was formed in December 2006. The primary customers of ULA are the Department of Defense (DoD) and NASA.
ULA provides launch services using expendable launch systems Delta IV Heavy and Atlas V, and until 2018 the medium-lift Delta II. The Atlas, Delta IV Heavy and the retired Delta IV launch systems have launched payloads including weather, telecommunications, and national security satellites, scientific probes and orbiters. ULA also launches commercial satellites. ULA has announced the retirement of its two remaining launch vehicles, which will be replaced by Vulcan Centaur.
, the company is developing the Vulcan Centaur, a successor to the Atlas V and Delta IV. The maiden flight is planned to take place on 24 December 2023, launching Astrobotic Technology's Peregrine lunar lander.
Company history
Formation
Boeing and Lockheed Martin announced their intent to form a 50-50 joint venture on 2 May 2005 aiming to consolidate the manufacture and deployment of US government expendable launch vehicles and launch services. The United Launch Alliance name was announced at the same time. Prior to the creation of the United Launch Alliance and contrary to expectations of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, a strong, competitive commercial launch market did not materialize within the United States. Estimated prices for future contracts and program costs increased, resulting in a Nunn-McCurdy cost breach. There was also considerable turmoil within the United States Air Force (USAF) space community and between the two EELV launch service providers due to competition in the shrinking space launch market, cost increases, and the growing need for reliable access to space. This turmoil culminated in civil and criminal fraud accusations being brought against Boeing relating to the improper use of competitors' information and racketeering.
As a result, the United States Department of Defense changed its acquisition strategy to one which would maintain assured access to space. Under the "Buy III" program, all fixed costs were covered by the US government, which brought about a deal between the two major EELV contractors to combine their efforts into a single company. Annual savings were estimated to be US$100-150 million. SpaceX challenged the legality of the launch services monopoly on 23 October 2005 on anti-trust grounds, creating competition with reusable launch systems. The Federal Trade Commission gave ULA anti-trust clearance on 3 October 2006.
It was the FTC's opinion that due to the challenge of entering the government medium-to-heavy launch services market, the entry of SpaceX was unlikely to reverse the anti-competitive effects resulting from the formation of ULA, but, it approved the joint venture on the basis that the benefits of assured access to space for national security outweighed anti-competitive harm.
The commission required ULA to "cooperate on equivalent terms with all providers of government space vehicles ... provide equal consideration and support to all launch service providers when seeking any U.S. government delivery in orbit contract ... and to safeguard competitively sensitive information obtained from other providers of space vehicles and launch services".
Michael Gass era (2005-2014)
ULA merged the production and operation of the two companies' government space launch services into one central plant in Decatur, Alabama, and merged all engineering into another central facility in Littleton, Colorado. The parent companies retained responsibility for marketing and sales of the Delta and Atlas rockets.
ULA had a peak of seven space launch facilities between 2005 and 2011, including three Delta II launchpads, which were decommissioned starting in 2011. Two years after its formation, in late 2008, ULA announced it would lay off 350 of its 4200 workers in early 2009. In the event, ULA had approximately 3900 employees by August 2009. ULA joined the Commercial Spaceflight Federation (CSF) in June 2010 as an executive member. ULA's CEO Michael Gass described the company's membership as a "natural fit for us, and we are proud to do so". By May 2014, ULA's membership of the CSF had lapsed.
With the introduction of competition from lower-cost launch providers and the annually increasing costs of ULA launches, increased attention has been paid to the amounts ULA has received for U.S. government launch contracts and for its annual government funding of $1 billion for launch capability and readiness. This readiness requirement included the maintenance of five launch pads and a number of variants of the Delta II, Delta IV, Delta IV Heavy, and Atlas V rockets. As a result of increasing costs by ULA, in April 2012, the EELV program triggered a critical Nunn-McCurdy cost breach and a reassessment of the program, of which ULA was the sole participant.
An uncontested USAF block-purchase of 36 rocket cores for up to 28 launches, which was valued at US$11 billion, was awarded in December 2013 and drew protest from SpaceX, which said the cost of ULA's launches were approximately US$460 million each and proposed a price of US$90 million to provide similar launches. In response, ULA's CEO Michael Gass said its average launch price was US$225 million, with future launches as low as US$100 million.
Tory Bruno era (2014 onward)
Michael Gass stepped down as ULA's CEO in August 2014 and was replaced by Tory Bruno, former vice president and general manager of Lockheed Martin Strategic and Missile Defense Systems. ULA entered into a partnership with Blue Origin in September 2014 to develop the BE-4 LOX / methane engine to replace the RD-180 on a new, lower cost first-stage booster rocket. At the time, the engine was in its third year of development by Blue Origin. ULA said it expected the new stage and engine to start flying no earlier than 2019 on a successor to the Atlas V. A month later, ULA announced a major restructuring of processes and workforce to halve launch costs, partly due to competition from SpaceX. The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) calculated the average cost of each ULA rocket launch for the U.S. government had risen to approximately US$420 million in 2014.
ULA had less success securing deals for Earth observation, commercial communication, and privately owned satellites than it had with launching U.S. military payloads. In November 2014, Tory Bruno stated the structuring was intended to "lead to improvements in how ULA interacts with its customers, both governmental and commercial", shorten launch cycles, and halve launch costs again. Part of that program involved the development of a new rocket, the Vulcan, initially with private funds, to tackle "skyrocketing launch costs". Bruno believed the new, lower-cost launcher could be competitive in the commercial satellite sector. ULA intended to have preliminary design ideas in place for a blending of the Atlas V and Delta IV technology by the end of 2014 but the high-level design was not announced until April 2015.
In February 2016, it was announced the development of the Vulcan rocket would be funded via a public–private partnership with the U.S. government. By early 2016, the USAF had committed $201 million of funding for Vulcan development. ULA had not "put a firm price on the cost of Vulcan development" but according to Mike Gross of SpaceNews, Bruno "said new rockets typically cost US$2 billion, including US$1 billion for the main engine". In 2016, ULA had asked the U.S. government to provide a minimum of $1.2 billion by 2020 to assist the development of the new U.S. launch vehicle. It was unclear how the change in development funding mechanisms would change ULA plans for pricing market-driven launch services. Since Vulcan development began in October 2014, the privately generated funding for Vulcan development has been approved only on a short-term basis. The ULA board of directors, which was composed of executives from Boeing and Lockheed Martin, would approve development funding on a quarterly basis. ULA planned to reduce its number of launchpads from five in 2015 to two.
ULA released contract values to the public and new CEO Tory Bruno testified before Congress in March 2015 that while ULA receives government subsidies "to conduct national security launches", the same is true of SpaceX, which received funding "to develop new capabilities and the use of low-cost or no-cost leases of previously developed launch infrastructure". It is difficult to directly compare launch costs because they are not necessarily calculated using the same cost-model assumptions.
ULA announced in February 2015 it was considering undertaking domestic production of the Russian RD-180 rocket engine at the Decatur, Alabama, rocket stage manufacturing facility. The U.S.-manufactured engines would be used for government civil (NASA) or commercial launches, and would not be used for U.S. military launches. This idea was abandoned following the passage of legislation permitting the continued purchase of the RD-180 from Russia.
In May 2015, ULA stated it would go out of business unless it won commercial and civil satellite launch orders to offset an expected slump in U.S. military and spy launches. The same month, ULA announced it would lay off 12 of its executives, a reduction of 30%, in December 2015. The management layoffs were the "beginning of a major reorganization and redesign" as ULA endeavors to "slash costs and hunt out new customers to ensure continued growth despite the rise of SpaceX".
A controversy arose in March 2016 following public remarks by ULA VP of Engineering, Brett Tobey, whose comments were, according to Peter de Selding of SpaceNews, "resentful of SpaceX" and dismissive of one of the two competitors (Aerojet Rocketdyne) for the new engine that will power the Vulcan launch vehicle, which was under development. Tobey resigned on 16 March 2016 and Bruno disavowed the remarks. Senator John McCain asked the DoD to investigate the comments that implied it may have shown "favoritism to a major defense contractor or that efforts have been made to silence members of Congress". The Secretary of Defense asked the DoD's Inspector General to investigate.
In 2016, ULA released the Cislunar 1000 Vision with an aim of creating an economy on the Moon and in Earth orbit with 1,000 people living and working in space. Core to this aim was that the production of fuel in space would allow for dramatically cheaper space travel. ULA made clear it was willing to become a customer for in-space refueling. It previously announced a willingness to pay US$3,000 per kilogram for fuel delivered in low Earth orbit, US$500 per kilogram on the lunar surface, and US$1,000 per kilogram at L1. ULA believes it will need off-Earth propellant supplies sometime in the 2020s. In December 2016, ULA created an online pricing tool called "Rocket Builder", which allowed potential customers and the public to estimate launch costs of the Atlas V rocket with configurable orbits, payloads and launch services. Purchase-price estimates were removed from the tool in 2018 because it potentially provided commercially sensitive information to ULA's competitors. Despite ULA's cost-cutting and restructuring, the cheapest ULA space launch in early 2018, the Atlas V 401, was priced at approximately US$109 million.
Following the failure of a SpaceX Falcon 9 carrying AMOS-6, incorrect reports about potential corporate espionage by ULA circulated. These reports were proved to be false and on 2 January 2017 SpaceX released an official statement saying the cause of the failure was a buckled liner in several of the COPV tanks.
In July 2017 the company was awarded US$191 million single-launch contract to launch the STP-3 mission aboard the heavy-lift Atlas V 551.
In January 2018, ULA took over marketing and sales responsibilities for Atlas V launches. Dan Collins, ULA's inaugural Chief operating officer, retired in April 2018 and was replaced by John Elbon, former vice president and program manager at Boeing Defense, Space & Security.
During the 2019–2020 COVID-19 pandemic, some aspects of ULA's launch related outreach were scaled back but the company said it would maintain its launch schedule.
On 7 August 2020, the U.S. Space Force awarded contracts for the second phase of its long-term launch services program for national security launches through 2020. United Launch Alliance, along with SpaceX, was chosen over Blue Origin and Northrop Grumman. The decision was driven primarily by past launch performance. As ULA has had 100% success record in about two decades of operation, it was awarded 60% of the contract.
In late 2020, ULA won a contract to launch and provide in-flight refueling for the Dynetics lunar lander. Initially, refueling would be provided by launching additional rockets to carry fuel. Each lunar mission would include two other Vulcan Centaur launches. The propellant from the upper stages of these rockets would be transferred to the Dynetics lander. ULA would significantly increase its launch pace of refueling rockets to minimize the boil-off of cryogenic fuel. The in-space refueling capability would have been tested in low Earth orbit before any lunar missions take place. However, in April 2021, NASA announced that SpaceX would instead be the prime contractor for the crewed lunar lander, having ranked the Dynetics bid low in readiness by 2024.
In September 2020, Tory Bruno announced that it had found a vendor in its supply chain that has partial Chinese ownership. The vendor designed software tools for use in development of the Vulcan Centaur rocket. Bruno said the vendor did not acquire any sensitive information. The company in question is KUKA Robotics. The Chinese interest in the vendor was discovered by a private investigator hired by ULA to monitor the security of its supply chain. The case was referred to the FBI. Bruno called on the federal government to cooperate more closely with the private sector to deal with Chinese corporate espionage.
In August 2021, ULA announced the pending retirement of Atlas V. Following the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014, the U.S. Congress had mandated that the Department of Defense would stop using Russian-built space hardware, including the RD-180 engine used on Atlas V. ULA planned an orderly retirement and had procured and had in hand 100 of the engines to continue building Atlas V as it developed a replacement rocket. At the time of the announcement they could fly 29 more missions and all of them had been sold, so no new orders would be accepted.
By authority of Tory Bruno, ULA implemented a vaccination requirement for its employees on 1 September 2021. ULA employees were required to receive a first dose by 30 September and any required second dose by 31 October 2021.
Launch vehicles and stages
As of 2023, ULA still operates the Atlas V and Delta IV Heavy rockets, both of which are retiring. Both were developed under the National Security Space Launch (NSSL) program by Lockheed Martin and Boeing respectively, both launching in 2002. The Delta IV Medium was retired on 22 August 2019, but the last remaining Delta IV Heavy rocket will be used to launch a Reconnaissance satellite, in 2024. ULA is developing Vulcan, a heavy-lift launch vehicle that will replace its existing fleet. The first Vulcan certification flight was originally expected to launch in 2019. it is scheduled to launch 24 December 2023.
Current fleet
Atlas V
Atlas V is ULA's main active launch vehicle, but is scheduled for retirement. All remaining Atlas V flights have been sold and no more orders will be accepted. Atlas V has flown 98 times since its first flight in 2002. 19 flights remain.
Atlas V is the fifth major version in the Atlas rocket family. It is an expendable launch system that was originally designed by Lockheed Martin. Each Atlas V rocket consists of two main stages. The first stage is powered by a Russian RD-180 engine, which is manufactured by RD Amross, and burns kerosene and liquid oxygen. Each RD-180 engine costs about US$10 million which is considerably cheaper than any competing rocket with the ability to launch a satellite to geostationary orbit. It has a flawless record of launching American satellites over many years of service.
The Atlas V has been modified for human spaceflight to support flights of the Boeing Starliner. Human-rating required new computers to monitor performance and trigger an abort when necessary, data links between the rocket and spacecraft, and other changes. Crewed flights will include a mechanism to allow astronauts to manually abort. For Starliner flights, Atlas V is configured with two SRBs from Aerojet Rocketdyne. This is the only Atlas V configuration ever to fly without a payload fairing and the only configuration with two engines on the upper stage. With the Starliner on top, the rocket is 172 feet tall. ULA has contracted to support nine Starliner missions with Atlas V. The first Starliner mission was the Boeing Orbital Flight Test in December 2019.
In 2017, Sierra Nevada selected the Atlas V to launch the first two missions of the Dream Chaser cargo capsule to the International Space Station. These launches are part of NASA's Cargo Resupply Services 2 contract. At the time of signing its agreement with ULA, Sierra Nevada expected the missions to take place in 2020 and 2021. After schedule delays for Dream chaser and the pending retirement of Atlas V, as of 2023 Dream Chaser is planned to launch on Vulcan Centaur instead.
An Atlas V rocket was selected for the NROL-101 mission for the National Reconnaissance Office. The rocket was launched successfully on 13 November 2020. The variant of the Atlas V selected for this mission used of three new GEM-63 solid rocket booster made by Northrop Grumman. A larger version of this booster, the GEM 63XL, is being developed for the Vulcan Centaur.
Amazon has selected the Atlas V to launch satellites for Project Kuiper. Project Kuiper will offer a high-speed satellite internet service. The contract signed with Amazon is for nine launches. Project Kuiper aims to put thousands of satellites into orbit. ULA is Amazon's first launch provider.
As of November 10, 2022, there are no more 400 variants of Atlas scheduled to launch.
Centaur
The Centaur is a family of rocket-propelled upper stages currently with one main active version and one version under development. The 3.05-meter diameter Common Centaur/Centaur III flies as the upper stage of the Atlas V launch vehicle, while the 5.4-meter diameter Centaur V is being developed as the upper stage of ULA's new Vulcan rocket. A lengthened version of the Centaur V will be used on the Vulcan Centaur Heavy.
The Centaur upper stage is powered by one or two RL10 engines, which are manufactured by Aerojet Rocketdyne, and burn liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Centaur is the first rocket stage to use these fuels. On the Atlas V ULA typically only uses the one RL10 version of the Centaur upper stage. However, Aerojet Rocketdyne supplies two RL10A-4-2 engines for each Starliner mission flown by the Atlas V. The dual-engine Centaur configuration is used on human-rated launches for safety reasons. This configuration allows the rocket to fly on a shallower path to orbit, meaning horizontal velocity is emphasized over vertical velocity. This in turn reduces the maximum G-forces endured by the crew and allows for a safe abort at any time during the launch. The standard payload fairings are 4 or 5 meters (13 or 16 ft) in diameter with varying lengths. The dual-engine variant of the Centaur has flown more than 100 times on Atlas variant rockets. 166 of the Centaur's flights have used dual-engine variants. As of late 2019, Centaurs of all kinds had flown 251 times.
The Centaur upper stage for the Atlas V also has an Aft Bulkhead Carrier capacity. The capacity was developed initially for the National Reconnaissance Office to take advantage of the extra capacity Atlas V has.
Delta IV
Delta IV is a group of five expendable launch systems in the Delta rocket family, which was introduced in the early 2000s. The Delta IV was originally designed by Boeing's Defense, Space & Security division for the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program, and became a ULA product in 2006. The Delta IV is mostly used for launching United States Air Force military payloads but has also been used to launch a number of U.S. government non-military payloads and one commercial satellite.
The Delta IV originally had two main versions, which allowed the family to accommodate a range of payload sizes and masses; models include the retired Medium, which had four configurations, and the Heavy. As of 2019, only the Heavy remains active; payloads that would previously fly on Medium moved to either the existing Atlas V or the forthcoming Vulcan Centaur. Retirement of the Delta IV family as a whole is anticipated in 2024.
ICPS
ULA designed and builds the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage for the Space Launch System (SLS) in Decatur, Alabama and by Boeing in Huntsville, Alabama. It is a variant of a stage used for the Delta rocket family. The ICPS was the first component of the SLS to arrive at Kennedy Space Center in Florida. ICPS will be located high on the SLS stack, just below the Orion capsule.
Delta IV Heavy variant
The Delta IV Heavy combines a diameter DCSS and payload fairing with two additional CBCs. These are strap-on boosters which are separated earlier in the flight than the center CBC. As of 2007, a longer 5 meter diameter composite fairing was standard on the Delta IV Heavy, with an aluminum isogrid fairing also available. The aluminum trisector (three-part) fairing was built by Boeing and derived from a Titan IV fairing. The trisector fairing was first used on the DSP-23 flight.
Delta Cryogenic Second Stage
The Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS) is a family of cryogenic rocket stages used on the Delta III and Delta IV rockets, and which is planned to be used on the Space Launch System Block 1. DCSS consists of a cylindrical liquid hydrogen tank structurally separated from an oblate spheroid liquid oxygen tank. The liquid hydrogen tank cylinder carries payload launch loads, while the liquid oxygen tank and engine are suspended below within the rocket's interstage. The stage is powered by a single Pratt & Whitney RL10B-2 engine, which features an extendable carbon-carbon nozzle to improve specific impulse.
In development
Vulcan Centaur
Vulcan is a heavy-lift launch vehicle that ULA is developing to meet the demands of the NSSL competition and launch program. The rocket is ULA's first launch vehicle design, which is adapting and evolving technologies that were developed for the Atlas V and Delta IV rockets. Vulcan is intended to undergo the human-rating certification process to allow the launch of crew in a vehicle such as the Boeing Starliner or a crewed version of the Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser. Vulcan will have a maximum liftoff thrust of and carry to low Earth orbit, to a geo-transfer orbit, and to geostationary orbit with a heavier payload than any currently available single-core rocket.
The first-stage propellant tanks share the diameter of the Delta IV Common Booster Core but will contain liquid methane and liquid oxygen propellants rather than the Delta IV's liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Blue Origin's BE-4 engine was selected to power Vulcan's first stage in September 2018 after a competition with the Aerojet Rocketdyne's AR1. ULA may use the Sensible Modular Autonomous Return Technology (SMART) which seeks to capture and re-use the BE-4 engines. ULA is working on the 'Sensible Modular Autonomous Return Technology' (SMART) reuse concept. The booster engines, avionics, and thrust structure would be detached as a module from the propellant tanks after booster engine cutoff, with the module descending through the atmosphere under an inflatable heat shield. After parachute deployment, the module would be captured by a helicopter in mid-air. ULA estimated that this would reduce the cost of the first stage propulsion by 90%, and 65% of the total first stage cost. The BE-4 burns liquified natural gas.
Vulcan's upper stage will be the Centaur V, an upgraded variant of the Common Centaur/Centaur III that is currently used on the Atlas V. A lengthened version of the Centaur V will be used on the Vulcan Centaur Heavy. ULA planned to eventually upgrade the Centaur V with Integrated Vehicle Fluids technology to become the Advanced Cryogenic Evolved Stage (ACES). Those plans were dropped in 2020 with efforts focusing on improving the capabilities of the existing Centaur V upper stage. ULA had plans for tanker called XEUS, developed in partnership with Masten Space Systems, that would have been able to land on the moon to be stocked with fuel and then fly to a gravitationally stable libration point in the Earth-Moon system known as L1. XEUS planned to utilize the now abandoned ACES upper stage but this concept has been paused until there a clear commercial need.
During the first several years of its development, the ULA board of directors made quarterly funding commitments to Vulcan Centaur development. , the U.S. government had committed approximately US$1.2 billion in a public–private partnership to Vulcan Centaur development, with future funding being dependent on ULA securing an NSSL contract. By March 2016, the U.S. Air Force had committed up to US$202 million of funding for Vulcan development. At that time, ULA had not yet estimated the total cost of Vulcan development, but CEO Tory Bruno noted that "new rockets typically cost US$2 billion, including US$1 billion for the main engine". In April 2016, ULA Board of Directors member and President of Boeing's Network and Space Systems (N&SS) division Craig Cooning expressed confidence in the possibility of further USAF funding of Vulcan development.
In March 2018, ULA CEO Tory Bruno said that Vulcan Centaur had been "75% privately funded" up to that time. In October 2018 and following a request for proposals and technical evaluation, ULA was awarded US$967 million to develop a prototype Vulcan launch system as a part of the National Security Space Launch program. Two other providers, Blue Origin and Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems, were awarded US$500 million and US$792 million in development funding, with detailed proposals and a competitive selection process to follow in 2019. The USAF's goal with the next generation of Launch Service Agreements is to get out of the business of "buying rockets" and move to acquiring launch services from launch service providers, but U.S. government funding of launch vehicle development continues. The Vulcan rocket, directly and indirectly, provides about 22,000 jobs spread over 46 states.
In August 2020, the U.S. Space Force awarded ULA a firm, fixed-price indefinite-delivery contract to launch 60% of National Security Space Launch (NSSL) Phase 2 missions over a 5-year procurement with the next-generation Vulcan Centaur rocket, the other 40% were won by SpaceX. In September 2020, ULA announced that they are carefully studying a "Vulcan Heavy" variant with three booster cores. Speculation about a new variant had been rampant for months after an image of a model of that version popped on social media. Tory Bruno later tweeted a clearer image of the model and said it was the subject of ongoing study.
ULA has been using the Atlas V to test systems for the Vulcan Centaur.
In early 2021, NASA added the Vulcan Centaur to the Launch Services II contract (NLS II). This makes the Vulcan Centaur part of the Launch Services Program and subjects it the "on-ramp" provisions in NLS II. The on-ramp provisions allow existing launch providers to introduce new vehicles that NASA has not yet requested.
On 24 October 2023, after completing a successful static fire 4 months ago, ULA announced they were targeting 24 December 2023 for the inaugural launch of Vulcan Centaur.
Retired
Delta II
Delta II was an expendable launch system that was originally designed and built by McDonnell Douglas, and was later built by Boeing prior to the formation of ULA. Delta II was part of the Delta rocket family and entered service in 1989. Delta II vehicles included the Delta 6000 and the two later Delta 7000 variants ("Light" and "Heavy"). The rocket flew its final mission ICESat-2 on 15 September 2018. A nearly-complete Delta II, made from flight-qualified spare parts, is displayed in its 7320-10 configuration in the rocket garden at Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex.
Launch history
2006–2009
The first launch conducted by ULA was a Delta II from Vandenberg Air Force Base on 14 December 2006, carrying the satellite USA-193 for the National Reconnaissance Office. The satellite failed shortly after launch and was intentionally destroyed on 21 February 2008, by an SM-3 missile that was fired from the . ULA's first Atlas V launch was in March 2007; it was an Atlas V variant 401 launching six military research satellites for Space Test Program (STP) 1. This mission also performed three burns of the Centaur upper stage; it was the first three-burn mission for Atlas V.
ULA's first commercial mission COSMO-SkyMed was launched on behalf of Italy's Ministry of Defense three months later using a Delta II rocket. On June 15, 2007, the engine in the Centaur upper stage of a ULA-launched Atlas V shut down early, leaving its payload – a pair of NROL-30 ocean surveillance satellites – in a lower than intended orbit. The NRO declared the launch a success.
2007 also saw ULA's first two interplanetary spacecraft launches using the Delta II; the Phoenix probe was launched to Mars in August 2007 and the Dawn satellite to was launched to the asteroids Vesta and Ceres in September 2007. Using a Delta II, the WorldView-1 satellite was also launched into a low Earth orbit on behalf of DigitalGlobe. The company's first launch to geostationary transfer orbit using an Atlas V 421 variant carrying the USA-195 (or WGS-1) communications satellite also occurred that year. ULA's tenth mission was launching satellite GPS IIR-17 into medium Earth orbit on a Delta II. The company completed its first Delta IV launch using the Delta IV Heavy rocket to place a payload into geosynchronous orbit in November 2007, which was followed by three more launches in December 2007.
2008 saw seven launches, including Atlas V's from Vandenberg's Space Launch Complex 3E and five others using the Delta II. The Atlas launch carried NROL-28 in March 2008 and in September 2008 the GeoEye-1 satellite was orbited by a Delta II rocket. ULA completed eight Delta II, five Atlas V, and three Delta IV launches in 2009. The Delta II launches carried three Space Tracking and Surveillance System satellites over two launches, two Global Positioning System satellites, and the NOAA-19 and WorldView-2 satellites, as well as the Kepler and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer space telescopes.
The Atlas launches carried the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter and LCROSS mission as part of the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program, which was later intentionally crashed into the Moon and found the existence of water; other 2009 Atlas V launches in included Intelsat 14, WGS-2, PAN, and a weather satellite as part of the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). The Delta IV rockets carried the NROL-26, GOES 14, and WGS-3 satellites.
2010–2014
In 2010, Atlas V launches deployed the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the first Boeing X-37B, the first Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) satellite, and the NROL-41. The Delta II system placed the last COSMO-SkyMed and Delta IV launches deployed the GOES 15, GPS Block IIF, and USA-223 satellites. ULA completed eleven launches in 2011, including five by Atlas, three by Delta II, and three by Delta IV. The Atlas system orbited another Boeing X-37, two NROL-34 signals intelligence satellites, a Space-Based Infrared System (SBIS) satellite, the Juno spacecraft and Curiosity rover. The Delta II launches placed the SAC-D and Suomi NPP satellites into orbit, as well as two spacecraft associated with NASA's GRAIL lunar mission. Delta IV launches carried the NROL-49, NROL-27, and another GPS satellite.
ULA's 2012 launches included six Atlas Vs and four Delta IVs. The Atlas system carried Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) and AEHF satellites, another Boeing X-37, the Intruder and Quasar satellites, and the Van Allen Probes. Delta IVs deployed GPS and WGS satellites USA-233, as well as NROL-25 and NROL-15 on behalf of the National Reconnaissance Office.
In 2013, the Atlas flew eight times. The system launched the TDRS-11, Landsat 8, AEHF-3, and NROL-39 satellites, as well as SBIS, GPS, and MUOS satellites, as well as NASA's MAVEN space probe to Mars. Delta IV launches orbited the fifth and sixth Wideband Global SATCOM satellites WGS-5 and WGS-6, as well as NROL-65.
In 2014, ULA's Atlas V orbited the TDRS-12 communications satellite in January, the WorldView-3 commercial satellite in August 2014, and the CLIO communications satellite during September and October 2014. Atlas rockets also carried the satellites DMSP-5D-3/F19, NROL-67, NROL-33, and NROL-35. Delta IV rockets orbited GPS satellites and two Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program satellites, and in July 2014, NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 was carried by a Delta II. Orion's first test flight was launched by a Delta IV Heavy rocket in December 2014, as part of Exploration Flight Test-1.
2015–2019
A Delta II rocket orbited a Soil Moisture Active Passive satellite in January 2015. In March 2015, an Atlas V rocket carried NASA's Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission spacecraft, and a Delta IV rocket orbited the GPS IIF-9 satellite on behalf of the U.S. Air Force. The U.S. Air Force's X-37B spaceplane was carried by an Atlas V rocket in May 2015, and a Delta IV orbited the WGS-7 satellite in July 2015. The fourth MUOS satellite was orbited by an Atlas V in September 2015. ULA's 100th consecutive successful liftoff was completed on 2 October 2015, when an Atlas V rocket orbited a Mexican Satellite System communications satellite on behalf of the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation. The classified NROL-55 satellite was launched by an Atlas V rocket several days later. Atlas V rockets launched GPS Block IIF satellites and the Cygnus cargo spacecraft in November 2015 and December 2015, respectively.
In 2016, Delta IV rockets carried the NROL-45 satellite and Air Force Space Command 6 mission in February 2016 and August 2016, respectively. During a launch of the Atlas V rocket on 22 March 2016, a minor first-stage anomaly led to shutdown of the first-stage engine approximately five seconds before anticipated. The Centaur upper stage was able to compensate by firing for approximately one minute longer than planned using its reserved fuel margin. Atlas V rockets carried MUOS-5 in June 2016, NROL-61 satellites in July 2016, and the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft in September 2016.
ULA launched multiple satellites in late 2016. The weather satellite Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES-R) was carried in November 2016, as was the WorldView-4 imaging satellite. In December 2016, the Wideband Global SATCOM's eighth satellite WGS-8 was launched on a Delta IV Medium rocket, and an Atlas V carried the EchoStar XIX communications satellite on behalf of Hughes Communications. In March 2017, WGS-9 was orbited by a Delta IV. Atlas V rockets carried NRO satellites, TDRS-M, and a Cygnus cargo capsule in 2017. The weather satellite NOAA-20 (JPSS-1) was launched by a Delta II rocket in November 2017.
An Atlas V carried the SBIRS-GEO 4 military satellite in January 2018. The Atlas V's launch of NASA's InSight to Mars in 2018 was the first interplanetary probe to depart from the U.S. West Coast. In August 2018, a Delta IV Heavy launched Parker Solar Probe, NASA's solar space probe that will visit and study the sun's outer corona in August 2018. It was also the Delta IV Heavy with a Star-48BV kick stage, and the highest-ever spacecraft velocity. The company launched the final Delta II rocket, carrying ICESat-2 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-2 on 15 September 2018. This marks the last launch of a Delta family rocket based on the original Thor IRBM. On 22 August 2019, ULA launched its last Delta IV Medium rocket for the GPS III Magellan project. An Atlas V carried Boeing's Starliner Orbital Flight Test (OFT) mission for NASA in December 2019.
2020
In 2020, an Atlas V carried the Solar Orbiter spacecraft, an international collaboration between the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA to provide a new global view of the Sun. In March 2020, an Atlas V also launched Advanced Extremely High Frequency 6 (AEHF-6), the first U.S. Space Force National Security Mission. In May 2020, ULA launched an Atlas V rocket carrying the USSF-7 mission with the X-37B spaceplane for the U.S Space Force and the mission honored victims of the COVID-19 pandemic as well as first responders, health professionals, military personnel, and other essential workers. On 30 July 2020, Atlas V in the 541 configuration successfully launched Perseverance and Ingenuity as part of Mars 2020 towards Mars. In November 2020, ULA launched NROL-101, a top secret spy satellite for the National Reconnaissance Office, on board their Atlas V in a 531 configuration. This launch was notable because it was the first flight of the GEM-63 solid rocket boosters, a version of which will be used on their Vulcan Centaur launch vehicle.
2021
On 18 May 2021, the SBIRS GEO 5 missile-warning satellite was launched on an Atlas V 421 rocket.
The Lucy spaceflight began on 16 October 2021 upon launch aboard a United Launch Alliance Atlas V 401 rocket into a stable parking orbit. During the next hour, the second stage reignited to place Lucy on an interplanetary trajectory in a heliocentric orbit on a twelve-year mission to two groups of Sun-Jupiter Lagrange point Trojan asteroids as well as a close flyby of a mainbelt asteroid during one of three planned passes through the asteroid belt. If the spacecraft remains operational during the 12-year planned duration, it is likely the controlled flight will be continued and directed at additional asteroid targets.
Infrastructure
Launch facilities
ULA operates orbital launch sites at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Cape Canaveral, Florida, and Vandenberg Space Force Base near Lompoc, California. In Florida, ULA has used Space Launch Complex 41 for Atlas V launches since its maiden flight in August 2002, and Launch Complex 37 for Delta IV launches since the rocket's maiden flight in November 2002. Aging infrastructure and low flight cadence from LC-37 contributed to a number of delays in the launch of NROL-44. ULA is looking to mitigate this with improvement to their operations readiness process. The company has one launch pad at Vandenberg as of 2023: Space Launch Complex 3 for Atlas and Vulcan launches. Space Launch Complex 6 is no longer in use since the last Delta IV Heavy launch from there in 2022. Space Launch Complex 2 is no longer in active use by ULA since the retirement of the Delta II in September 2018.
Launches from Cape Canaveral typically head east to give satellites extra momentum from the rotation of the Earth as they head to other planets or into an equatorial orbit. Vandenberg Space Force Base is the primary U.S. launch site from which satellites are sent into polar orbits. Commercial and military spacecraft like imaging and weather satellites need to be launched southward on a path to reach a polar orbit to cover the entire globe. ULA's Atlas V rocket launched NASA's InSight mission to Mars from the West Coast in 2018, the first interplanetary mission to do so.
In 2015, as part of the company's transition from the Atlas V and Delta IV launch vehicles to the Vulcan Centaur, ULA announced plans to reduce the number of launch pads in use from five to two by the early 2020s.
ULA works closely with the 45th Weather Squadron on its launches from Florida.
Headquarters and manufacturing
ULA's headquarters in Centennial, Colorado is responsible for program management, rocket engineering, testing, and launch support functions. ULA's largest factory is and located in Decatur, Alabama. A factory in Harlingen, Texas, fabricates and assembles components for the Atlas V rocket. In 2015, the company announced the opening of an engineering and propulsion test center in Pueblo, Colorado.
Spaceflight Processing Operations Center
The Spaceflight Processing Operations Center (SPOC), located near SLC-40 and SLC-41, is used to construct the mobile launcher platform for the Vulcan Centaur launch vehicle. It also serve as a storage room for the Atlas Mobile launcher platform (MLP). On 6 August 2019, the first two parts of Vulcan's MLP were transported to the SPOC. SPOC was formerly known as the Solid Motor Assembly and Readiness Facility (SMARF) during its support of the Titan IVB launch vehicle; it was renamed during Vulcan Centaur's topping ceremony in October 2019.
See also
Aerojet Rocketdyne (RS-68 and RL10)
Blue Origin (BE-4)
National Security Space Launch
Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems (Graphite-Epoxy Motor)
RUAG Space (payload fairings, composite structures)
Jordan Hall (Chief Engineer)
Past launch vehicles
Delta II
Delta IV Medium
Other launch vehicle providers
SpaceX
United Space Alliance
Deep Space Transport LLC
Arianespace
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Roscosmos
References
External links
2006 establishments in Colorado
Boeing
Commercial launch service providers
American companies established in 2006
Companies based in Centennial, Colorado
Joint ventures
Lockheed Martin
Space Act Agreement companies
Space organizations
Technology companies established in 2006 |
4164147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income%20tax%20in%20Canada | Income tax in Canada | 'Income taxes in Canada
constitute the majority of the annual revenues of the Government of Canada, and of the governments of the Provinces of Canada. In the fiscal year ending 31 March 2018, the federal government collected just over three times more revenue from personal income taxes than it did from corporate income taxes.
Tax collection agreements enable different governments to levy taxes through a single administration and collection agency. The federal government collects personal income taxes on behalf of all provinces and territories. It also collects corporate income taxes on behalf of all provinces and territories except Alberta. Canada's federal income tax system is administered by the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA).
Canadian federal income taxes, both personal and corporate are levied under the provisions of the Income Tax Act. Provincial and territorial income taxes are levied under various provincial statutes.
The Canadian income tax system is a self-assessment regime. Taxpayers assess their tax liability by filing a return with the CRA by the required filing deadline. CRA will then assess the return based on the return filed and on information it has obtained from employers and financial companies, correcting it for obvious errors. A taxpayer who disagrees with CRA's assessment of a particular return may appeal the assessment. The appeal process starts when a taxpayer formally objects to the CRA assessment. The objection must explain, in writing, the reasons for the appeal along with all the related facts. The objection is then reviewed by the appeals branch of CRA. An appealed assessment may either be confirmed, vacated or varied by the CRA. If the assessment is confirmed or varied, the taxpayer may appeal the decision to the Tax Court of Canada and then to the Federal Court of Appeal.
History
Unlike the United Kingdom and the United States, Canada had avoided charging an income tax prior to the First World War. The lack of income tax was seen as a key component in Canada's efforts to attract immigrants as Canada offered a lower tax regime compared to almost every other country. Prior to the war, Canadian federal governments relied on tariffs and customs income under the auspices of the National Policy for most of their revenue, and the provincial governments sustained themselves primarily through their management of natural resources (the Prairie Provinces were paid subsidies by the federal government as Ottawa retained control of their natural resources. The Liberal Party considered the probable need to introduce an income tax if their negotiation of a free trade agreement with the United States in the early 20th century succeeded, but the Conservatives defeated the Liberals in 1911 by opposing free trade. The Conservative Party opposed income tax as it wanted to attract immigrants primarily from the United Kingdom and the United States, and it wanted to give immigrants an incentive to come to Canada.
Then Canadian Finance Minister Sir Thomas White's new "Income War Tax Act" bill went into Committee of the Whole on July 25, 1917 but faced resistance. Wartime expenses forced the Tories to re-consider their options and in 1918, the wartime government under Sir Robert Borden, imposed an income tax to cover expenses. Despite the new tax the Canadian government ran up considerable debts during the war and were unable to forgo income tax revenue after the war ended. With the election of the Liberal government of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, much of the National Policy was dismantled and income tax has remained in place ever since.
Constitutional authority
The constitutional authority for the federal income tax is found in section 91 paragraph 3 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which assigns to the federal Parliament power over "The raising of Money by any Mode or System of Taxation".
The constitutional authority for the various provincial income taxes is found in section 92 paragraph 2 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which assigns to the legislature of each province the power of "Direct Taxation within the Province in order to the raising of a Revenue for Provincial Purposes". The courts have held that "an income tax is the most typical form of direct taxation".
Personal income taxes
Canada levies personal income tax on the worldwide income of individual residents in Canada and on certain types of Canadian-source income earned by non-resident individuals. The Income Tax Act, Part I, subparagraph 2(1), states: "An income tax shall be paid, as required by this Act, on the taxable income for each taxation year of every person resident in Canada at any time in the year."
After the calendar year, Canadian residents file a T1 Tax and Benefit Return for individuals. It is due April 30, or June 15 for self-employed individuals and their spouses, or common-law partners. It is important to note, however, that any balance owing is due on or before April 30. Outstanding balances remitted after April 30 may be subject to interest charges, regardless of whether the taxpayer's filing due date is April 30 or June 15.
The amount of income tax that an individual must pay is based on the amount of their taxable income (income earned less allowed expenses) for the tax year. Personal income tax may be collected through various means:
deduction at source - where income tax is deducted directly from an individual's pay and sent to the CRA.
instalment payments - where an individual must pay his or her estimated taxes during the year instead of waiting to settle up at the end of the year.
payment on filing - payments made with the income tax return
arrears payments - payments made after the return is filed
Employers may also deduct Canada Pension Plan/Quebec Pension Plan (CPP/QPP) contributions, Employment Insurance (EI) and Provincial Parental Insurance (PPIP) premiums from their employees' gross pay. Employers then send these deductions to the taxing authority.
Individuals who have overpaid taxes or had excess tax deducted at source will receive a refund from the CRA upon filing their annual tax return.
Generally, personal income tax returns for a particular year must be filed with CRA on or before April 30 of the following year.
Basic calculation
An individual taxpayer must report his or her total income for the year. Certain deductions are allowed in determining "net income", such as deductions for contributions to Registered Retirement Savings Plans, union and professional dues, child care expenses, and business investment losses. Net income is used for determining several income-tested social benefits provided by the federal and provincial/territorial governments. Further deductions are allowed in determining "taxable income", such as capital losses, half of capital gains included in income, and a special deduction for residents of northern Canada. Deductions permit certain amounts to be excluded from taxation altogether.
"Tax payable before credits" is determined using five tax brackets and tax rates. Non-refundable tax credits are then deducted from tax payable before credits for various items such as a basic personal amount, dependents, Canada/Quebec Pension Plan contributions, Employment Insurance premiums, disabilities, tuition and education and medical expenses. These credits are calculated by multiplying the credit amount (e.g., the basic personal amount of $11,038 in 2013) by the lowest tax rate. This mechanism is designed to provide equal benefit to taxpayers regardless of the rate at which they pay tax.
A non-refundable tax credit for charitable donations is calculated at the lowest tax rate for the first $200 in a year, and at the highest tax rate for the portion in excess of $200. Donations can result in a reduction in taxes of between 40 and 60% of the donation depending on the province of the taxpayer and type of property donated. This tax credit is designed to encourage more generous charitable giving.
Certain other tax credits are provided to recognize tax already paid so that the income is not taxed twice:
the dividend tax credit provides recognition of tax paid at the corporate level on income distributed from a Canadian corporation to individual shareholders; and
the foreign tax credit recognizes tax paid to a foreign government on income earned in a foreign country.
Provincial and territorial personal income taxes
Provinces and territories that have entered into tax collection agreements with the federal government for collection of personal income taxes ("agreeing provinces", i.e., all provinces and territories except Quebec) must use the federal definition of "taxable income" as the basis for their taxation. This means that they are not allowed to provide or ignore federal deductions in calculating the income on which provincial tax is based.
Provincial and territorial governments provide both non-refundable tax credits and refundable tax credits to taxpayers for certain expenses. They may also apply surtaxes and offer low-income tax reductions.
Canada Revenue Agency collects personal income taxes for agreeing provinces/territories and remits the revenues to the respective governments. The provincial/territorial tax forms are distributed with the federal tax forms, and the taxpayer need make only one payment—to CRA—for both types of tax. Similarly, if a taxpayer is to receive a refund, he or she receives one cheque or bank transfer for the combined federal and provincial/territorial tax refund. Information on provincial rates can be found on the Canada Revenue Agency's website.
Individuals in Canada generally pay income taxes on employment and investment income to the province in which they reside on December 31 of the tax year. This ensures that taxpayers who live in one province and work in another, or who move from one province to another in most cases only have to file a tax return for one province. Individuals with business income have to pay tax on the business income to the province in which it was earned. If it was earned in more than one province, it is allocated based on a formula in the Income Tax Regulations.
In addition to the income tax levied as a percentage of taxable income, two provinces, Prince Edward Island and Ontario, levy surtaxes as a percentage of tax over a certain threshold.
Quebec
Quebec administers its own personal income tax system, and therefore is free to determine its own definition of taxable income. To maintain simplicity for taxpayers, however, Quebec parallels many aspects of and uses many definitions found in the federal tax system.
Quebec chooses to receive part of its health and social transfers in tax points instead of cash. To compensate for this, federal personal income taxes on income earned in Quebec are reduced by 16.5% of federal tax. This is referred to as the Quebec Abatement.
Federal marginal tax rates
The following historical personal federal marginal tax rates of the Government of Canada come from the website of the Canada Revenue Agency. They do not include applicable provincial income taxes. Data on marginal tax rates from 1998 to 2018 are publicly available. Data on basic personal amounts (personal exemption taxed at 0%) can be found on a year by year basis is also available. Their values are contained on line 300 of either the document "Schedule 1 - Federal Tax", or "General Income Tax and Benefit Guide", of each year by year General Income Tax and Benefit Package listed. The personal exemption is listed as it always applies. Additional deductions may be applied depending on eligibility, see. The most common additional deductions are Canada Pension Plan (CPP), Employment Insurance (EI) and employment credit. Exempt amounts are calculated, multiplied by the lowest tax rate and the result is tax credits that reduce the total amount of tax owed.
The rates above do not account for federal surtax nor surtax reduction prior to 2001.
Income not taxed
The following types of income are not taxed in Canada (this list is not exhaustive):
gifts and inheritances;
death benefits paid from a life insurance policy;
lottery winnings;
winnings from betting or gambling for simple recreation or enjoyment;
strike pay;
income earned within a Tax-Free Savings Account;
compensation paid by a province or territory to a victim of a criminal act or a motor vehicle accident;
certain civil and military service pensions;
income from certain international organizations of which Canada is a member, such as the United Nations and its agencies;
war disability pensions;
RCMP pensions or compensation paid in respect of injury, disability, or death;
income of First Nations, if situated on a reserve;
capital gain on the sale of a taxpayer's principal residence;
provincial child tax credits or benefits and Québec family allowances;
Working income tax benefit;
the Goods and Services Tax or Harmonized Sales Tax credit (GST/HST credit), Quebec Sales Tax credit or Saskatchewan Sales Tax Credit;
the Canada Child Tax Benefit.
Note that, the method by which these forms of income are not taxed can vary significantly, which may have tax and other implications; some forms of income are not declared, while others are declared and then immediately deducted in full. Some of the tax exemptions are based on statutory enactments, others (like the non-taxability of lottery winnings) are based on the non-statutory common law concept of "income". In certain cases, the deduction may require off-setting income, while in other cases, the deduction may be used without corresponding income. Income which is declared and then deducted, for example, may create room for future Registered Retirement Savings Plan (RRSP) deductions. But then the RRSP contribution room may be reduced with a pension adjustment if you are part of another plan, reducing the ability to use RRSP contributions as a deduction.
Deductions which are not directly linked to non-taxable income exist, which reduce overall taxable income. A key example is RRSP contributions, which is a form of tax-deferred savings account (income tax is paid only at withdrawal, and no interim tax is payable on account earnings).
Corporate income taxes
Corporate taxes include taxes on corporate income in Canada and other taxes and levies paid by corporations to the various levels of government in Canada. These include capital and insurance premium taxes; payroll levies (e.g., employment insurance, Canada Pension Plan, Quebec Pension Plan and Workers' Compensation); property taxes; and indirect taxes, such as goods and services tax (GST), and sales and excise taxes, levied on business inputs.
Corporations are subject to tax in Canada on their worldwide income if they are resident in Canada for Canadian tax purposes. Corporations not resident in Canada are subject to Canadian tax on certain types of Canadian source income (Section 115 of the Canadian Income Tax Act'').
Effective January 1, 2012, the net federal corporate income tax rate in Canada was 15%, or 11% for corporations able to claim the small business deduction; in addition, corporations are subject to provincial income tax that may range from zero to 16%, depending on the province and the size of the business.
Corporation types
The taxes payable by a Canadian resident corporation depend on the type of corporation that it is:
A Canadian-controlled private corporation, which is defined as a corporation that is:
resident in Canada and either incorporated in Canada or resident in Canada from June 18, 1971, to the end of the taxation year;
not controlled directly or indirectly by one or more non-resident persons;
not controlled directly or indirectly by one or more public corporations (other than a prescribed venture capital corporation, as defined in Regulation 6700);
not controlled by a Canadian resident corporation that lists its shares on a prescribed stock exchange outside of Canada;
not controlled directly or indirectly by any combination of persons described in the three preceding conditions; if all of its shares that are owned by a non-resident person, by a public corporation (other than a prescribed venture capital corporation), or by a corporation with a class of shares listed on a prescribed stock exchange, were owned by one person, that person would not own sufficient shares to control the corporation; and
no class of its shares of capital stock is listed on a prescribed stock exchange.
A private corporation, which is defined as a corporation that is:
resident in Canada;
not a public corporation;
not controlled by one or more public corporations (other than a prescribed venture capital corporation, as defined in Regulation 6700);
not controlled by one or more prescribed federal Crown corporations (as defined in Regulation 7100); and
not controlled by any combination of corporations described in the two preceding conditions.
A public corporation, defined as a corporation that is resident in Canada and meets either of the following requirements at the end of the taxation year:
it has a class of shares listed on a prescribed Canadian stock exchange; or
it has elected, or the Minister of National Revenue has designated it, to be a public corporation and the corporation has complied with prescribed conditions under Regulation 4800(1) on the number of its shareholders, the dispersing of the ownership of its shares, the public trading of its shares, and the size of the corporation.
If a public corporation has complied with certain prescribed conditions under Regulation 4800(2), it can elect, or the Minister of National Revenue can designate it, not to be a public corporation. Other types of Canadian resident corporations include Canadian subsidiaries of public corporations (which do not qualify as public corporations), general insurers and Crown corporations.
Provincial/territorial corporate income taxes
Corporate income taxes are collected by the CRA for all provinces and territories except Quebec and Alberta. Provinces and territories subject to a tax collection agreement must use the federal definition of "taxable income", i.e., they are not allowed to provide deductions in calculating taxable income. These provinces and territories may provide tax credits to companies, often in order to provide incentives for certain activities such as mining exploration, film production, and job creation.
Quebec and Alberta collect their own corporate income taxes, and therefore may develop their own definitions of taxable income. In practice, these provinces rarely deviate from the federal tax base in order to maintain simplicity for taxpayers.
Ontario negotiated a tax collection agreement with the federal government under which its corporate income taxes would be collected on its behalf by the CRA starting in 2009.
Integration of corporate and personal income taxes
In Canada, corporate income is subject to corporate income tax and, on distribution as dividends to individuals, personal income tax. To avoid this "double taxation" of the same income, the personal income tax system, through the gross-up and dividend tax credit (DTC) mechanisms, provides recognition for corporate taxes, based notional federal-provincial corporate tax rates, to taxable individuals resident in Canada who receive dividends from Canadian corporations.
A dividend from a small business ("Canadian-controlled private corporation") is grossed-up by 17 per cent, meaning that the shareholder includes 117 per cent of the dividend amount in income, to reflect the pre-tax income of the small business out of which it has paid the dividend. This income is taxed at the shareholder's personal income tax rate, but a part of the tax is offset by a 10.5217% dividend tax credit (for 2017) to reflect the federal tax paid at the corporate level. There are also provincial dividend tax credits at different rates in different provinces.
For dividends from other Canadian corporations, i.e., "eligible dividends", the gross-up is 38% and the dividend tax credit is 15.0198% (for 2017), reflecting the higher corporate income tax rate paid by larger corporations. Provincial and territorial governments also provide dividend tax credits to reflect provincial/territorial corporate income tax.
International comparison (personal income tax)
See also
Taxation in Canada
Canadian federal budget
Harmonized sales tax
Notes
References
External links
Income Tax Act
The Canadian Tax Foundation
The Department of Finance, Canada - responsible for Canadian tax policy
Canada Revenue Agency - collects income other certain other taxes for the federal, provincial and territorial governments (except Quebec)
Revenu Quebec Income tax rates
Taxation in Canada
Canada |
4164194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Justice%20Mission | International Justice Mission | International Justice Mission is an international, non-governmental 501(c)(3) organization focused on human rights, law and law enforcement. Founded in 1997 by lawyer Gary Haugen of the United States, it is based in Washington, D.C. All IJM employees are required to be practicing Christians; 94% are nationals of the countries they work in.
IJM works to combat sex trafficking, child sexual exploitation , cybersex trafficking, forced labor slavery, property grabbing, and police abuse of power, and addresses citizenship rights of minorities. The bulk of IJM's work focuses on sex trafficking. IJM's close coordination with third-world police agencies and the resulting arrests and deportations of sex workers have generated criticism from human rights and sex worker organizations over its mission and tactics.
History
Founding
The International Justice Mission was founded in 1997 as a faith-based non-profit by American lawyer Gary Haugen of the United States. In its first case, the organization aided the arrest of a rape suspect in Manila, Philippines. In 1998, IJM claimed to have helped rescue more than 700 people. In addition to helping clients with legal representation, Haugen decided his organization could have more influence by partnering with governments of developing countries to help improve their legal systems.
As of November, 2022, IJM has two country programs (out of 30 total) that focus on sex trafficking: Kenya-Mombasa, Romania, and the Dominican Republic.
The other 26 program offices work on forced labor (Romania; Ghana; Malaysia; Thailand; Cambodia; Indonesia; Myanmar; India; Philippines); domestic violence and sexual assault (Uganda; Kenya; Colombia; Guatemala; El Salvador; Bolivia; and Peru) and police violence (Kenya.)
Work in Thailand
IJM has worked in northern Thailand through IJM’s Chiang Mai field office (FO) since 2000, partnering with government authorities on hill tribe Thai citizenship cases and cases of sexual violence against children. Over the early 2000s IJM was involved in work to target the sex worker industry. These included a number of brothel raids in Northern Thailand which were the subject of criticisms at the time due to their impact on non-coerced adults. In 2017, IJM started a new field office in Bangkok and in 2018 IJM Foundation was established to provide support to Thai authorities to eliminate labor trafficking and forced labor from the Thai fishing and seafood industries after a 2017 study found 38% of fisherman on Thai fishing vessels identified as trafficking victims.
Work in Cambodia
ICJ has worked with Cambodian authorities to combat child sex trafficking for over 25 years. An external Evaluation of the International Justice Mission’s Program to Combat Sex Trafficking of Children in Cambodia, reports that between 2003 and 2013, IJM trained a total of 504 persons, including 481 police officials and 23 other trainees, including DoSVY, NGO partners, and Deputy Governors of Districts in Siem Reap Province.
IJM director Gary Haugen invited the American television show Dateline (NBC) to film a March 29, 2003 raid which it planned to conduct at a large Cambodian brothel in the village of Svay Pak. The brothel contained approximately 40 girls, many under the age of 10, who were detained by Thai police along with 12 accused pimps and madams. A noodle vendor, who had no involvement with the brothel, was among those who were arrested in the raid; the noodle vendor subsequently died in jail of a stroke. IJM later contracted with a Cambodian human rights organization, LICADHO, to review its actions in organizing the raid. Peter Sainsbury, the consultant who reviewed the raid, said that he had told IJM about his medical concerns about the noodle vendor, but that his concerns were ignored.
At least twelve of the victims "rescued" from the 2003 Svay Pak raid ran away from the safe house to which they were taken. In a brothel raid a year later there, a number of girls rescued from the 2003 raid were found to be involved again in sex work.
While IJM considered these "rescues" to be successes, critics questioned the organization's tactics, saying raids on brothels do not focus on the root causes of child prostitution, have led to the arrests of people not in the sex trade, and hindered HIV-prevention initiatives.
Work in Ghana
In Ghana IJM has been engaged in identifying instances of child labour and trafficking since 2014. Children as young as age 4 have been subjected to forced labor in fishing in the areas around Lake Volta, sometimes as a result of human trafficking.
In 2017 IJM Ghana team and local authorities rescued 31 children believed to be engaged in forced labor from fishing communities within the area of Lake Volta and placed them into custody. The authorities who placed the children into custody included representatives from Ghanaian social welfare agencies within the government.
Expansion
International Justice Mission expanded its work beyond prevention of sex trafficking. By 2009 its lawyers, social workers and advocates also helped victims whose land had been seized, who were bonded laborers, or who were falsely imprisoned. In 2010 U.S. News & World Report named International Justice Mission as one of '10 Service Groups That Are Making a Difference' list. Under President Barack Obama's administration, the United States Department of State honored Haugen, International Justice Mission's founder and CEO, as a Trafficking in Persons Report Hero Acting to End Modern Slavery in 2012. The State Department said IJM helped nearly 4,000 victims and assisted in the prosecution of 220 offenders between 2006 and 2012.
In December 2011, Google awarded a total of US$11.5 million in grants to organizations to combat modern-day slavery. Google donated $9.8 million to International Justice Mission to lead a coalition focusing on fighting slavery in India, in addition to running advocacy and education programs in the country, and mobilizing Americans.
IJM CEO Gary Haugen and Victor Boutros co-wrote The Locust Effect: Why the End of Poverty Requires the End of Violence in 2014. They won the 2016 University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order for this book. Haugen gave a 19-minute TED talk on this material in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, in 2015.
Within 20 years of its founding, International Justice Mission had grown into an organization with a $51.6 million budget comprising more than 750 employees in 17 countries in Africa, Latin America, South Asia and Southeast Asia, and five partner offices in Canada, UK, Netherlands, Germany and Australia.>
In July 2016, Willie Kimani, a Kenyan IJM lawyer, and two persons, including an IJM client, were found murdered and dumped in a river outside Nairobi in Kenya. They were last seen alive at a police station. Four members of the Kenyan Administrative Police were charged with murder on July 18, 2016; they pleaded not guilty. Haugen denounced the killings as "an intolerable outrage and should serve as an abrupt wake-up call to the blatant injustices committed daily and incessantly against the poor and vulnerable around the world".
Programs
International Justice Mission represents victims in cases of sex trafficking, forced labor, slavery, abuse of police power, theft of property and citizenship rights. It also works with the governments of developing countries to improve justice systems.
IJM hires only practicing Christians; its job listings include "Mature orthodox Christian faith as defined by the Apostles' Creed" among stated requirements. Workdays at all offices begin with a half-hour of stillness and a half-hour of corporate prayer later in the day as part of their spiritual formation practices. IJM cites the Bible verse Isaiah 1:17 as one of their core commitments:
Learn to do right; seek justice.
Defend the oppressed.
Take up the cause of the fatherless;
plead the case of the widow. - New International Version (NIV)
Through Project Lantern, International Justice Mission worked to develop a model for combatting sex slavery and human trafficking that other organizations and agencies could use. In 2010, IJM reported the project documented a 79 percent decrease in the number of minors sold for sex in Cebu, Philippines. Project Lantern was funded by a $5 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in 2006.
In addition to its aforementioned work, International Justice Mission runs programs to train criminal justice departments and governments and provides legal aid. The organization runs programs to help victims recover from their time in forced labor. Additionally, IJM has endorsed proposed legislation in Washington, D.C., to enhance anti-trafficking efforts, including the End Modern Slavery Initiative.
Investigations from third-party sources have presented some negative outcomes of IJM's work. A United States Agency for International Development-funded census of sex workers in Cambodia in 2003 found that underage prostitution increased in the area in the months following a series of brothel rescue missions organized by IJM. A researcher said that's because the girls have debt contracts and families are pressured to pay back those debts after the girls are rescued. The Nation reported that under Thai law at the time of specific raids in Thailand, voluntary sex workers faced deportation after raids. In the Philippines, The Nation reported, "a number of the women and girls" housed in a government-run facility following rescue missions escaped. In 2016, Holly Burkhalter, IJM's senior advisor for Justice System Transformation, said that within 10 years of working with the government in Cambodia, less than 1 percent of victims of sex trafficking were minors.
Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama have both commended IJM for its work. During International Women's Day on 12 March 2004, Bush extolled the work of an IJM official in charge of anti-trafficking operations. Bush went on to state that the U.S. government would stand by IJM's mission to end sex slavery. In 2012, Obama said International Justice Mission was "truly doing the Lord's work" during the annual meeting of the Clinton Global Initiative.
In 2014, a group of students at the University of Wisconsin Madison started a nonprofit coffee pop-up shop, called A Just Brew. This organization donates any profit from sales to help end slavery through the work of International Justice Mission.
Governance and financials
International Justice Mission's global headquarters is located in Washington, D.C. It is governed by a 13-member international board of directors, which includes founder and CEO Gary Haugen. As of 2016, Nicole Bibbins Sedaca chairs the board.
On June 1, 2016, the independent charity watchdog Charity Navigator gave International Justice Mission four stars with an overall score of 92.15 out of 100. The organization scored 88.91 for its finances, and 100 for accountability and transparency.
According to a 2015 independent auditor's report by RSM US, International Justice Mission generated $51.56 million in total support and revenue in 2015. The organization's expenses totaled $52.25 million. Year-end net assets were $20.03 million.
International Justice Mission's 2015 funding came primarily from individuals (71%), in addition to foundations and businesses (12%), IJM partner offices (6%), churches (4%), gifts-in-kind (4%), government grants (1%) and other sources (2%). Programs accounted for 75% of expenses, general and administrative costs for 12%, and expenditures for fundraising for 13%.
Among its grants, the United States Department of Labor awarded International Justice Mission a three-year cooperative agreement on September 30, 2002. The nearly $703,000 grant helped implement the Thailand Sex Trafficking Task Force: Prevention and Placement program. Then-U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell provided the organization with a $1 million grant to combat sex trafficking in Southeast Asia in 2004. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation awarded a $5 million grant in 2006. On December 14, 2011, the Google Foundation awarded $11.5 million to organizations fighting modern slavery. Among the groups to receive those funds were International Justice Mission, BBC World Service Trust, ActionAid India and Aide et Action.
Criticism
IJM has aroused criticism over its tactics and mission. Much of the criticism stems from IJM's role in organizing brothel raids and subsequent arrests or deportations of sex workers. Others have criticized IJM for hindering HIV prevention efforts and for maligning local organizations which have questioned its tactics. Still others have questioned IJM's focus on law enforcement tactics and close coordination with police agencies to carry out a human rights mission. In July 2023 a BBC News investigation alleged that Ghanaian children had been wrongly taken in raids backed by the IJM. In a secretly filmed conversation with a senior IJM staff member, a reporter was told that IJM staff needed to rescue a set number of victims and secure a set number of prosecutions every year. Another staff member said that IJM staff were denied pay rises or were at risk of being sacked if they did not reach these targets.
Brothel Raids in Thailand
In the year 2000, and again in 2003, IJM instigated a raid on a karaoke restaurant in Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. Thai police later twice raided the establishment, arresting and subsequently deporting the women who worked there. IJM characterized the operations as successful "rescues". In another raid in 2001, IJM sent men undercover to a brothel, used hidden cameras and produced a 25-page document alleging specific violations of Thai law. Police raided the brothel and detained 43 female sex workers. Some of the women detained by police said that they were working voluntarily and had not wished to leave the brothel. About half the group subsequently escaped; some apparently feared deportation to Burma.
After the 2000 and 2003 raids on the Chiang Mai restaurant, IJM requested other local non-governmental organizations to provide translation assistance when its employees realized that the sex workers were not Thai citizens. After providing translation assistance, the Shan Women's Action Network said that the raids had grossly violated the women's human rights. The group pointed out that although IJM had twice conducted a raid on the same establishment, it failed to protect the women from prosecution and further victimization. In later years IJM moderated its initial assertion that the Thailand brothel raids were successful. In a 2012 article, Holly Burkhalter, IJM's vice president for Government Relations, characterized the 2003 raid as "one of the few IJM cases in which law enforcement treatment of non-coerced adults did not meet IJM standards."
Maligning local organizations
IJM organized brothel raids have been accused of interfering with public health and HIV-prevention efforts, some of which took place at the brothels themselves. In response, IJM has stated that sex workers can instead go to clinics for such information.
When Thai organization EMPOWER raised questions about the televised brothel raid, Empower staff say IJM accused their organization of supporting pimps.
The International Union of Sex Workers criticizes IJM's work as being focused on Christianity, and for presenting anyone involved in sex work, coerced or not, in the role of a victim awaiting salvation. It states that crackdowns drive prostitution further underground. Others have criticized brothel raids more generally as an ineffective way to fight human trafficking, likely to cause harm to those allegedly rescued, and disruptive of public health efforts.
IJM response to criticism
After The Nation published a series of critical articles about IJM in 2009, IJM published a document to clarify and explain its mission and tactics. Its piece says that IJM operations with local police are focused solely on securing for children and trafficked women the right to be free from commercial sexual exploitation and that IJM supports HIV-prevention efforts. It says that it has introduced protocols to local law enforcement that address the appropriate treatment of non-trafficked adults who work in the brothel with minors. IJM has refused to share these protocols with reporters.
IJM states that it supports "placing child trafficking victims in secure environments from which they cannot leave".
IJM's Holly Burkhalter, Vice President of Government Relations and Advocacy, formerly with Human Rights Watch and Physicians for Human Rights, wrote an article, "Sex Trafficking, Law Enforcement and Perpetrator Accountability", presenting IJM positions on these issues. It was published in the first issue of the new journal, Anti-Trafficking Review, published in June 2012.
References
External links
Global Website of International Justice Mission
The Freedom Common by IJM Government Relations & Advocacy Team
Official Website of IJM Institute for Biblical Justice
Tackling slavery with the International Justice Mission at The Cavalier Daily
India: the bond of freedom - Interview with Saju Mathew at the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
200th Anniversary of the Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade at United States Department of State
International human rights organizations
International non-profit organizations
Anti–child pornography organizations
Charities based in Washington, D.C.
Child-related organizations in the Philippines
Foreign charities operating in the Philippines
Organizations that combat human trafficking
Christian organizations established in 1997
Christian charities based in the United States |
4164310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Andrew%20Davis%20Jr. | George Andrew Davis Jr. | George Andrew Davis Jr. (December 1, 1920 – February 10, 1952) was a highly decorated fighter pilot and flying ace of the United States Army Air Forces in World War II, and later of the United States Air Force during the Korean War. He was killed in action during a combat mission in northwestern Korea, in an area nicknamed "MiG Alley". For his actions during the Korean War, Davis was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor and promoted from major to lieutenant colonel.
Born in Dublin, Texas, Davis joined the United States Army Air Corps in early 1942. He was sent to the Pacific Theater after pilot training and flew in the New Guinea and Philippine campaigns, scoring seven victories over Japanese aircraft. He quickly gained a reputation as a skilled pilot and accurate gunner whose "daredevil" flying style contrasted with his reserved personality.
Davis did not see action in Korea until late 1951. Despite this, he achieved considerable success flying the F-86 Sabre fighter jet, quickly rising to become the war's ace of aces and downing fourteen North Korean, Chinese, and Soviet aircraft before his death in February 1952. During his final combat mission in northwestern Korea, Davis surprised and attacked twelve Chinese MiG-15 fighter jets, downing two of the MiG-15s before he was shot down and killed. Davis was the only flying ace of the United States to be killed in action in Korea. Controversies remain surrounding the circumstances of his death.
Davis is the fourth-highest US scoring ace of the Korean War, with a total of 14 victories added to the 7 he scored in World War II. He is one of seven US military pilots to become an ace in two wars, and one of 31 US pilots to be credited with more than 20 victories.
Early life
Davis was born in Dublin, Texas, on December 1, 1920. He was the seventh of nine children born to George Davis Sr. and Pearl Love Davis. During his childhood, Davis also briefly lived in Maple, Texas. Davis attended Morton High School in Morton, Texas. Davis then attended Harding College in Searcy, Arkansas. After obtaining a degree, he returned to Texas. He took up farming for a time with his family before eventually deciding to join the military.
Friends and colleagues would later describe Davis as quiet, calm, and reserved as well as a natural leader. When flying, he would become "cool and calculating" in combat. He did not drink alcohol or smoke tobacco, unlike many other pilots, and he had a subdued personality despite his "daredevil" flying style.
Davis married Doris Lynn Forgason, and was survived by three children, Mary Margaret Davis (born 1944) and George Davis III (born 1950). His wife was six months pregnant with their third child, Charles Lynn Davis, at the time of his death in 1952.
Military career
World War II
On March 21, 1942, Davis enlisted in the United States Army in Lubbock, Texas, just after the US entry into World War II. On June 3, he was appointed an aviation cadet in the Army Air Corps. He was moved to Kelly Field in San Antonio, Texas, for pre-flight training, which he completed in August. He was then moved to Jones Field in Bonham, Texas, for primary flight training. During this training, he got his first 60 hours of flight time aboard a Fairchild PT-19 trainer aircraft. Then he flew for another 74 hours during Basic Flight Training in Waco, Texas, and underwent a final stint of training aboard the T-6 Texan at Aloe Field in Victoria, Texas. On February 16, 1943, Davis completed his training, was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the US Army Reserve, and was immediately ordered into active duty with the Army Air Forces. By this time he had accrued 314 hours of flight time.
Davis's first assignment was to join the 312th Bombardment Group based at Bowman Field in Louisville, Kentucky, where he became qualified to fly the P-40 Warhawk fighter plane. He continued training there until August 1943, when the group was ordered to the Pacific Theater of Operations.
New Guinea
Davis was flown to Port Moresby, New Guinea, where he was quickly reassigned to the 342nd Fighter Squadron, 348th Fighter Group of the Fifth United States Air Force. The group flew the P-47 Thunderbolt fighter plane. By December, his unit moved to Finschhafen, where it was able to operate over the Solomon Sea against the air forces of the Empire of Japan, and he quickly earned the ironic nickname "Curly" because of his straight black hair. Davis was known among the pilots to be particularly confident. Davis served under the command of Colonel Neel E. Kearby, who himself would later receive the Medal of Honor. Many of the other pilots in the unit would quickly become aces as they participated in the conflict.
Davis's first combat experience came when his unit was sent on a patrol to Cape Gloucester on December 31, 1943, in support of the New Britain campaign as the Battle of Cape Gloucester began. However, the 15 aircraft were diverted to Arawe to the southwest to counterattack Japanese aircraft that were targeting Allied convoys during the Battle of Arawe. En route, they encountered 11 Japanese D3A Val and A6M Zero aircraft attacking an Allied convoy from to . They immediately ambushed the Japanese planes. Davis quickly attacked a disorganized formation of the aircraft, downing a D3A Val as it completed a bombing run. By the end of the short battle, eight Japanese aircraft had been shot down and only one American plane had been damaged.
The next combat mission was on February 3, 1944. Sixteen P-47s were escorting a flight of B-24 Liberators on a bombing mission over Wewak. When they were west of the target area, they were ambushed by a flight of Nakajima Ki-43 Oscars and Kawasaki Ki-61 Tony aircraft at . As the American aircraft rushed to the defense of the bombers, Davis managed to attack and shoot down a Ki-61 that had been attacking another P-47. In all, seven Japanese aircraft were destroyed in the attack. The next day, Davis was promoted to first lieutenant.
For the next several months, Davis's unit undertook patrol and escort missions in the Cape Gloucester area and around the islands of Saidor, Manus, and Momote. Through May, these actions were relatively uneventful, except for one fighter sweep mission from Wewak. From May to August, Davis flew 69 missions, including several dive-bombing attacks on Japanese positions on Hansa Bay. From September to November, Davis flew another 40 missions, including six patrols between Wakde Island and Hollandia. On November 14, Davis was promoted to the temporary rank of captain.
Philippines
Around December 1944, the unit began supporting missions in the Philippines and was moved to Tacloban Airport on Leyte Island. On December 10, after five uneventful weather-probing missions, Davis and the unit were assigned an escort mission. The aircraft were instructed to cover a flotilla of troop transports that were moving from Baybay to Oromoc Bay. En route, they were attacked by four Ki-61 Tony aircraft at . After a series of quick maneuvers, Davis climbed to and took advantage of the sun's glare to ambush two aircraft below him. He pursued them as far as Cebu Island. He closed to within of the pair before destroying the first with his machine guns, and then the second near Negros Island as it attempted to dive for cover in a cloud.
The unit undertook eight more patrol missions over Mindoro, covering Allied convoys.
On December 20, Davis was in one of twelve Thunderbolts patrolling Mindoro when eight A6M Zeroes were spotted attempting to ambush the flight from behind. Davis managed to rake the cockpit of one Zero and kill the pilot, earning him his fifth victory and the status of flying ace. Immediately after this, however, Davis's P-47 was struck by machine-gun fire from another aircraft, damaging the propeller and left wing components. On December 24, on a mission to escort several B-24s on a bombing mission of the Japanese-held Clark Field at Luzon, Davis shot down two more Zeroes that were part of a group of Japanese aircraft attempting to harass the bombers. Davis was awarded a Silver Star for this action.
Between the date of this action and February 19, 1945, Davis flew another 47 missions, most of them entailing the escorting of bombers or ships, and a few of them consisting of ground-attacks, but he saw little or no aerial combat during that time. On February 19, he was withdrawn from the front to begin certification on the P-51 Mustang, logging 45 hours of training time on the aircraft through the end of March. He returned to combat duty only briefly in April, flying in three combat missions as a copilot aboard a B-25 Mitchell bomber. On May 3, 1945, he was reassigned to Goodfellow Field at San Angelo, Texas, helping to train new pilots and serving as an operations officer for the base until the end of the war.
During his World War II service, Davis flew 266 missions, accruing a total of 705 combat hours and destroying seven Japanese aircraft. For these exploits, he was awarded the Silver Star, two Distinguished Flying Crosses and nine Air Medals. By the end of this war, Davis had over 2,200 hours of flight time.
Postwar
After the war's end, Davis served in several administrative positions in the United States. On August 10, 1945, he was assigned to the 556th Air Base Unit at Long Beach, California. On August 24, 1946, he was offered a commission as a first lieutenant in the active duty Army Air Corps, demoting him from his temporary rank but effectively allowing him to stay in the military despite the demobilization and downsizing of the US military. Several weeks later, on September 7, Davis was ordered to the 554th Air Base Unit in Memphis, Tennessee, where he served on one of the Army Air Corps aerobatic demonstration teams, the predecessors to the United States Air Force Thunderbirds.
Davis returned to front-line units on January 6, 1947, when he was moved to the 71st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 1st Fighter Group. He remained with this formation for most of the year. On September 18, 1947, the United States Air Force was created as a separate branch of the US Military. Davis was commissioned as a captain in the new branch. During his time with the 71st Squadron, Davis attended Air Tactical School and Tyndall Air Force Base. He was also a flight commander and air inspector while with the unit.
Korean War
Upon the outbreak of the Korean War, Davis continued to serve in the 71st Squadron and did not see combat in the initial phase of the war. As it progressed, however, Davis began training on the F-86 Sabre (Sabrejet), the latest jet engine-powered fighter. On February 15, 1951, he was promoted to major and in October 1951 he was assigned to the headquarters of the 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, which was based in Japan and operating aircraft throughout Korea. Davis was thus sent to the conflict as a fighter pilot.
Command and success
During a patrol on November 4, 1951, Davis was credited with a "probable" victory over a Russian-made MiG-15 fighter jet of the Soviet Air Force or Chinese Air Force, giving him his first victory of the Korean War. On November 10, Davis was given command of the 334th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, a unit of the 4th Wing. Davis and his squadron were relocated to Kimpo Airfield to allow them the best access to "MiG Alley" in North Korea, where much of the air-to-air combat took place. Of his leadership, subordinates often praised the quality of his training; Davis spent a great deal of time training new and younger pilots in tactics during his command. Commanders noted he often led by example, and Davis was known to be greatly respected, even among his rival ace pilots. He gained the nickname "One Burst Davis" for his extremely accurate shooting.
From November 1 to 26, he flew 17 missions in the Sinanju and Uiju areas, most resulting in no combat. On November 27, Davis was leading a formation of eight F-86s on a patrol near Sinanju, when they spotted and attacked six MiG-15s. He immediately downed one of the MiGs, striking its fuselage and forcing the pilot to bail out. He pursued a second MiG-15 to Koch'ong-ni and damaged it, forcing its pilot to bail out, as well. In all, four of the MiG-15s were destroyed by Davis's patrol.
For several more days, Davis led relatively quiet patrols, until November 30, Davis's 22nd combat mission in Korea. Around 16:00, Davis's flight of eight F-86s spotted a large group of nine Tupolev Tu-2 bombers from the Chinese 8th Bomber Division, escorted by 16 Lavochkin La-11 fighters from the Chinese 2nd Fighter Division near Sahol along the Yalu River. The force was en route to a bombing mission on Taehwado Island in the Pansong archipelago. Davis maneuvered the patrol into position for a firing pass on the bombers. He completed four attack runs on the formation, being continuously attacked by the La-11 fighters, which were unable to hit his aircraft. In spite of being separated from his wingmen, he managed to destroy two of the bombers and cause the crew of a third to bail out. By this time, another group of F-86s arrived to continue the fight, as Davis's aircraft were low on ammunition and fuel. As the flight attempted to withdraw, one of Davis's pilots, Raymond O. Barton, called for help. Davis flew to Barton's aid and found Barton's damaged aircraft under attack from 24 MiG-15s of the Chinese 3rd Fighter Division arriving as reinforcement. As two MiG-15s prepared a final attack on Barton, Davis swooped through their pass and scored direct hits on one, killing the Chinese flight leader who commanded the MiG pack. The second broke off its attack. Davis then escorted Barton's damaged aircraft back to base, landing with only of fuel left in his tanks. For the day's actions, Davis was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. The Taehwado bombing mission forced the Chinese Air Force to end all bombing missions for the rest of the war, while the "hat trick"-plus-one of downing four Chinese aircraft in the fight resulted in raising Davis's confirmed victory count in Korea to six, making him the fifth jet ace of the war and the first man in the history of the US military to become an ace in two wars. At this point, Davis wrote to his family that he expected to be home by Christmas, but then the Air Force extended his tour of duty.
On December 5, Davis flew his next combat mission, his 23rd of the war. While on a search-and-destroy patrol over Rinko-do, Davis spotted two MiG-15s, shooting one down and forcing the other to withdraw. Ten minutes later, he spotted another MiG-15 preparing to attack near Haech'ang and destroyed it as well.
On December 13, another group of MiG-15s attacked Davis during a morning patrol near Yongwon. Davis destroyed one MiG, and as a second MiG attempted to target his wingman, Davis outmaneuvered it and shot it down. At the end of the patrol, Davis had amassed 10 victories, making him the first double ace of the war. During an afternoon patrol commanding twenty-two F-86's, Davis spotted fifty MiGs in the Sunchun, South Korea area heading further south towards the Taechon area. He surprised and destroyed one MiG, and then turned on another in an aggressive attack that forced the MiG pilot to bail out. After 30 combat missions in Korea, Davis had 12 victories.
After this successful series of patrols, Davis was ordered to conduct only one patrol a day to minimize the risk to him. The order had previously been sent on December 1, but Davis had apparently ignored it. Both the Air Force and Davis's family had growing concerns that Chinese and Soviet pilots would be gunning for Davis, given his success and fame. By this point, Davis had 12 victories, and the second-highest scoring aces each had sixDavis was averaging one victory for three missions.
In January, Davis wrote home, expressing frustration at the slow logistics of replacement aircraft parts, claiming this was slowing down missions. He also began to express contempt for the F-86, feeling at times it was being outperformed by the MiG and that "something will have to be done" to give the UN pilots more of an advantage in combat. He also said that he had begun to grow tired of the constant publicity about him. "They're trying to make a hero of me and I find it rather embarrassing", he wrote in a letter. At other times, Davis indicated he preferred to stay in combat.
In late January 1951, the Air Force told Davis it wanted to rotate him back to the United States. By this point, Davis held every record for a jet pilot, including most victories in all types of aircraft, most MiGs destroyed and most victories over propeller-driven aircraft. However, the Air Force determined it had no capable replacement who could command Davis's squadron, and other pilots indicated they wanted him to stay, considering him to be an able and effective leader.
Death and controversy
On February 10, 1952, Davis flew his 59th and last combat mission of the war in an F-86E Sabre (tail number 51-2752); the circumstances of Davis's death and the identity of the person who killed him remain controversial. That day, he led a flight of four F-86s on a patrol near the Yalu River, near the Manchurian border. Davis's group was part of a larger UN force of 18 F-86s operating in the area. As Davis's patrol reached the border, one of his F-86 pilots reported he was out of oxygen, prompting Davis to order him to return to base with his wingman. As Davis continued patrolling with one wingman, Second Lieutenant William W. Littlefield, and cruising at an altitude of , they spotted a flight of 12 MiG-15s of the Chinese 4th Fighter Division heading in the direction of a group of US F-84 Thunderjets conducting a low-level bombing mission on North Korean communication lines.
The MiGs were below Davis and Littlefield and had not noticed them. Without hesitating, Davis immediately flew behind the MiG-15 formation and attacked them from the rear. His surprise attack destroyed one of the MiG-15s, and he quickly turned to the next closest MiG and destroyed it before it could outmaneuver him. By this time, Davis and Littlefield had overtaken many of the MiGs, and some that were behind them began firing. Davis then moved to target a third MiG at the front of the formation, but as he was lining up his shot a MiG scored a direct hit on Davis's fuselage, causing his aircraft to spin out of control. Littlefield said later that he had spotted Davis's landing gear open, indicating hydraulic failure, and that he had attempted to defend Davis's aircraft as it lost altitude until Davis crashed and died. Littlefield reported that he had not seen Davis bail out of his aircraft. Davis was declared missing in action and presumed killed. Intense aerial searches of the area later revealed no evidence that Davis had survived the crash. Indeed, a week after the incident, the Chinese military searched the region and recovered Davis's body, which was found in the crashed aircraft. The Chinese never returned Davis's body to the United States.
In his four months in Korea, Davis had scored 14 confirmed victories, one probable victory and two aircraft damaged, bringing his career-total victory count to 21. By the end of the war, he was ranked fourth among pilots, surpassed by Joseph C. McConnell, James Jabara, and Manuel J. Fernandez, after his death. Immediately after receiving a report of Davis’ mission, his fellow ace Colonel Harrison Thyng, commander of the 4th Wing, recommended Davis for the Medal of Honor. On April 15, 1953, Davis was posthumously promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Davis's cenotaph is located in the City of Lubbock Cemetery in Lubbock, Texas. Also buried at this cemetery is musician Buddy Holly and Medal of Honor recipient Herman C. Wallace. In April 1953, Davis's wife and family received his Medal of Honor from Air Force Chief of Staff, General Nathan F. Twining, at Reese Air Force Base in Lubbock.
Length of tour
After Davis's death, US Representative George H. Mahon (D-19) ordered an investigation into why Davis had remained in Korea after becoming a fighter ace. US military policy was to rotate pilots to stateside duty once they became aces, both so that they could train other pilots and so that they would not be killed in action. Mahon had been requesting that Davis be rotated back to the US up until a month before his death.
Davis's wife, Doris Davis, expressed anger toward the Air Force after his death, claiming that he had wanted to return to the United States after he became an ace, but had not been allowed to. She also claimed that he had been forced against his will into combat duty in Korea. Her complaints caused media attention to become focused on the Far East Air Force and its policies regarding the rotation of troops and pilots into and out of duty in Korea. Davis's wife had been a vocal opponent of the war since its beginning; she publicly denounced it after Davis's death, which widows of American soldiers rarely did during the war.
Necessity of action
Subsequent to Davis's death, some historians have questioned whether his actions had been necessary under the circumstances. Barrett Tillman (author, military aviation) contended that Davis's Medal of Honor had merely been a public-relations move by the US military to quell questions surrounding his death and to draw attention away from his wife's vocal opposition to the war. The Medal of Honor citation credited Davis with saving the F-84 formation, but the formation of F-86s that Davis was leading actually outnumbered the MiG-15s, so arguably Davis could easily have drawn them into the battle. Still, fellow pilots attested to Davis's bravery. Fellow ace William T. Whisner said, "George Davis was the best fighter pilot I ever knew. The only thing he didn't have was concern of his own life."
As the Korean War progressed, other pilots began to describe Davis as "more brazen, more aggressive, and more willing to take risks in Korea than he was during World War II." He became increasingly contemptuous of the Soviet and Chinese MiG pilots he faced as time went on, leading to other pilots thinking that he may have underestimated the skills of his opponents, and that this may have been a contributing factor in causing his death.
Identity of the shooter
Forty years after Davis's death, the identity of the person who shot Davis down, long assumed to be Chinese pilot Zhang Jihui, became a matter of dispute. Although Zhang had been credited by the Chinese with having shooting down Davis's F-86, after Russia declassified its involvement in the war Russian sources claimed that the pilot responsible had actually been Mikhail A. Averin (). Davis was the highest-ranking American Korean War ace at the time and the only American ace killed in action during the war. His death would have been a huge propaganda victory for the nation whose pilot was responsible for shooting him down. Davis's death at the hands of a Chinese pilot would also have been seen as avenging the losses inflicted by him over Taehwado Island on November 30, 1951. About 36 MiG-15s from the Chinese 4th Fighter Division were involved in the February 10 engagement in which Davis was killed, and Zhang was among the group. According to Zhang's own report after the battle, while the MiGs were en route to intercept Davis's group, he and his wingman became separated from the main element. As Zhang was trying to rejoin his formation, he spotted a group of eight F-86s in the area between Taechon and Chongye at 07:40. Zhang and his wingman then swung down onto the tails of two Sabres and opened fire. Zhang claimed that he had shot down both Sabres, but that reinforcements had soon thereafter destroyed his MiG and killed his wingman.
The publicity surrounding Davis's death soon caught Chinese attention. To determine whether Davis was killed by Zhang, given the absence of gun camera footage, the 4th Fighter Division sent out two search teams, on February 16 and 18. They recovered the wreckage of an F-86E, along with Davis' body and his belongings. His dog tag is currently on display at the Dandong Korean War Museum. The search team also discovered that the crash site was within of where Zhang had ejected from his own aircraft, and that Zhang's 12th Regiment was the only unit that had operated near the area at the time. In light of these findings and the testimonies from ground troops that had witnessed the battle, Zhang was credited by the Chinese military with having shot down Davis's F-86.
However, according to the recollections of the pilots of the Soviet 64th Aviation Corps, both Zhang and his wingman were probably shot down by Davis, who was, in turn, surprised and shot down by Averin, who had been scrambling to save the Chinese MiGs. Lieutenant General Georgy Lobov (), commander of the 64th Aviation Corps, also states in his memoirs that Davis was killed by a Soviet pilot.
Both China and Russia took credit for Davis's death, and there has been no conclusive evidence either way. Regardless of the uncertainty surrounding Davis's death, Zhang became a household name in China. The Chinese military later awarded Zhang the title of Combat Hero, 1st Class for this action.
Aerial victories
Throughout his career, Davis was credited with 21 confirmed victories, one probable victory and two aircraft damaged. This made him one of only 30 US pilots to gain more than 20 confirmed victories over their careers. He had been known to be an extremely talented pilot and was especially accurate at deflection shooting, even from long distances against moving targets. Davis was one of 1,297 World War II aces from the United States, with seven confirmed kills during that war. He later became one of 41 Korean War aces from the United States, with 14 confirmed victories during that war. At the time of his death, he was the top-scoring ace from the US, making him the ace of aces. By the end of the war, he was the fourth-highest-scoring ace.
During the Korean War, Davis's accomplishments were particularly noteworthy. He was the only F-86 pilot to be awarded the Medal of Honor, and he was one of very few pilots who were able to score multiple kills on a single patrol. This was an extremely rare feat, which Davis accomplished on four occasions and which was rivaled only by fellow ace James Jabara who also scored a notable number of double victories. In shooting down four Chinese aircraft on November 30, 1951, Davis scored the most kills in a single day of any pilot in the war. Davis also took the shortest time to become a double ace; just 17 days in Korea. The next best pilot achieved the feat in 51 days.
Davis is one of six US Air Force pilots and seven US pilots overall who achieved ace status as both a piston-engined pilot in World War II and as a jet pilot in a later conflict. The others are Francis S. Gabreski, James P. Hagerstrom, William T. Whisner, Vermont Garrison and Harrison Thyng, as well as John F. Bolt of the US Marine Corps.
Military awards
Davis's military decorations and awards include:
Medal of Honor citation
Davis was the third of four members of the US Air Force to be awarded the Medal of Honor in the Korean War, after Louis J. Sebille, John S. Walmsley Jr. and before Charles J. Loring Jr. All four Air Force recipients of the MOH were pilots who were killed in action and the only USAF members to be awarded the Army version of the medal.
Distinguished Service Cross citation
See also
List of Korean War air aces
List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients
List of World War II aces from the United States
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Medal of Honor Society homepage
1920 births
1952 deaths
United States Air Force Medal of Honor recipients
American Korean War flying aces
American military personnel killed in the Korean War
American World War II flying aces
Aviators from Texas
Aviators killed by being shot down
People from Cochran County, Texas
People from Dublin, Texas
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Silver Star
United States Air Force officers
Korean War recipients of the Medal of Honor
American aviation record holders
Military personnel missing in action
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
Military personnel from Texas |
4164817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad%20Michael%20Murray | Chad Michael Murray | Chad Michael Murray (born August 24, 1981) is an American actor, writer and former model. He is best known for his roles in drama series and romantic comedy films. He played the lead role of Lucas Scott in The WB/CW teen drama series One Tree Hill (2003–09, 2012), and recurring roles as Tristin DuGray on Gilmore Girls (2000–01), Charlie Todd on Dawson's Creek (2001–02), and Edgar Evernever on Riverdale (2019), all on the same network.
He starred in the film A Cinderella Story (2004) and had supporting roles in Freaky Friday (2003) and Fruitvale Station (2013). He went on to star in Chosen (2013–14), Sun Records (2017) and Sullivan's Crossing (2023–present), and appeared in a supporting role in Marvel-ABC series Agent Carter (2015–16) and a recurring role in Fox's Star (2018–19). Murray has written a graphic novel with lead illustrator Danijel Žeželj titled Everlast (2011), and a novel co-authored with Heather Graham titled American Drifter (2017).
Early life
Chad Michael Murray was born in Buffalo, Western New York and was raised by a single father, Rex Murray, who worked as an air traffic controller. His mother left the family when Chad was 10-years-old. He has five siblings, consisting of an older sister, three younger full brothers, and a younger half-brother from his father's second marriage, and has two step-siblings, consisting of a step-sister and a step-brother. Murray is of Scottish, English, German, Swiss-German and Polish descent.
Murray attended Clarence High School in Clarence, New York. He became a fan of literature and played football. As a teenager, he worked at the Dipson Theatres in Eastern Hills Mall. In his late teens, he broke his nose. This led to reports during his career that he had received a nose job. Murray clarified in a 2004 interview, "I got jumped in a Burger King when I was 18 and had my nose put on the other side of my face. It was three guys [...] The doctors didn't even bother running X-rays. They just reset it. But it wasn't a nose job—I hate the fact that people say it was a nose job!"
Career
1999–2002: Modeling, Gilmore Girls and Dawson's Creek
Murray won a scholarship to attend a modeling convention in Orlando, Florida, where he met an agent who encouraged him to go to Los Angeles for a week and see what happens. He subsequently got a manager and moved to Hollywood in 1999. Murray began modeling for brands such as Skechers, Tommy Hilfiger and Gucci.
In 2000, he guest starred as Dan on the MTV drama anthology series Undressed on the episode "Scared Stiffy" which aired on March 8 as part of its second season. Later that year, Murray was cast in the role of rich kid Tristin DuGray on The WB television series Gilmore Girls as a recurring character in the first season which debuted on October 5 and in an episode of the second season the next year. The series became a hit and Murray would go onto become a staple actor on the network for the rest of the decade. He ended his debut year on screen appearing on the November 16 episode of the CBS crime drama Diagnosis: Murder during its eighth season.
In 2001, he was cast in a television pilot for The WB, the family drama Murphy's Dozen, which revolved around 12 children and their parents in an Irish American family in New Jersey. The lead actress Kathy Baker signed on in March and the pilot was screened for the network in May but was not picked up for the fall season. Murray portrayed the role of teenage David Alexander in science fiction film Megiddo: The Omega Code 2 which released on September 7. Murray was cast in the role of womanizer Charlie Todd on The WB's hit television series Dawson's Creek as a recurring character in the fifth season which premiered on October 10. He next appeared on an episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation which aired on CBS on October 3, 2002, during its third season.
2003–2010: Freaky Friday, One Tree Hill and A Cinderella Story
In 2003, Murray began the year appearing in the family drama television film A Long Way Home, also known as Aftermath, playing the role of Sean in a family trying to reconcile following domestic sexual abuse. He next played the lead role of Luke Hartman on The WB's western television film The Lone Ranger which aired on February 26 and served as a backdoor pilot for a potential series run. Murray was cast in the role of love-interest Jake in the Walt Disney Pictures comedy film Freaky Friday, starring Lindsay Lohan and Jamie Lee Curtis, which released in theaters on August 6. It was Disney's third adaptation of the 1972 children's novel of the same name authored by Mary Rodgers. The film was a critical and a major box office success, earning roughly $161 million worldwide.
Later that year, he was cast in the lead role of Lucas Scott on The WB series One Tree Hill which debuted on September 23, 2003. The first-season finale garnered 4.50 million viewers. The series was one of The WB's most successful programs the year it began and continued with impressive ratings after the network merged with rival UPN to become The CW in 2006. The series earned Murray six Teen Choice Award nominations over the years, including winning Choice TV – Breakout Actor in August 2004 and Choice TV Actor – Drama in August 2008. Stemming from the series' popularity, he and his One Tree Hill co-stars became official endorsers for MasterCard, K-Mart, Cingular Wireless and the Chevy Cobalt.
In 2004, Murray starred as Austin Ames in the romantic comedy film A Cinderella Story alongside Hilary Duff which released in July 16. The film was a box office success, earning $70.1 million worldwide, but was panned by critics. The film earned Murray the award for Choice Movie – Breakout Actor in August 2004 and several more nominations at the 2005 Teen Choice Awards. He is the first person to win their awards for Breakout Actor in both the TV and Movie categories in the same year. Murray was listed as one of "TV's Sexiest Guys" by People magazine in November 2004.
He next co-starred as Nick Jones in the horror film House of Wax which released theatrically on May 6, 2005. The film earned Murray two more Teen Choice Award nominations, including winning Choice Movie Actor – Action/Thriller in August 2005. Murray was listed as one of "Fall TV's Sexiest Guys" by People magazine in September 2005, and was the cover model for Teen People magazine that same month. He played the role of Private Jordan Owens in the Iraq War drama film Home of the Brave, alongside Samuel L. Jackson, Jessica Biel and 50 Cent, which test released in theaters on December 6, 2006, before a limited theatrical release on April 17, 2007.
Murray was listed at #12 on AOL Television's list of "TV's 50 Hottest Hunks Ever" on November 4, 2008. In May 2009, it was reported that Murray would not be returning to One Tree Hill for its seventh season. A video of Murray was recorded in which he was telling fans that they did not want him back because they wanted to save money. However, creator Mark Schwahn said in an interview that Murray had been offered "great things" to return to the show.
In 2010, Murray played the love-interest of Alicia Keys in her music video for "Un-Thinkable (I'm Ready)" which premiered on BET's 106 & Park on May 12. The video depicts the burgeoning romance of a young interracial couple reimagined across different eras, from the 1950s through the 2000s. It won Outstanding Music Video at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards in March 2011. Murray played the role of Ethan McAllister in the drama television film Lies in Plain Sight which aired on Lifetime on October 3, 2010. He played the love-interest Patrick Kerns in the television film Christmas Cupid, alongside Christina Milan and Ashley Benson, which premiered on ABC Family on December 12.
2011–2015: Chosen, Agent Carter and independent films
On August 29, 2011, The CW announced that Murray would return for a guest appearance as Lucas Scott in the final season of One Tree Hill. The episode aired on February 22, 2012, as part of the concluding ninth season. He then played the male lead Jamie Tworkowski in the biographical drama film To Write Love on Her Arms which premiered on March 11, 2012, at the Omaha Film Festival where it won the Encore Award. The film is based on the true story of Tworkowski's founding of the Florida-based non-profit organization of the same name helping those struggling with addiction, mental illness and self-injury, and received a limited theatrical release on March 3, 2015.
He next played the role of Thatcher in the short film The Carrier which premiered on April 27, 2012, at the USA Film Festival. On March 12, it was reported that he was cast to play the male lead Spider Elliot in a television pilot for ABC, Scruples, with Claire Forlani playing the female lead Billy Orsini and with Natalie Portman serving as an executive producer. The potential series, adapted from Judith Krantz's pioneering 1979 debut bonkbuster novel of the same name, was not picked up by the network. Murray next starred as Dylan in the Funny or Die short First Kiss alongside Rachael Leigh Cook which released on September 11.
In 2013, Murray played the role of Officer Ingram in the biographical drama film Fruitvale Station, which chronicles the last day of Oscar Grant, portrayed by Michael B. Jordan, who was shot and killed by a BART police officer in Oakland, California. The film premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival on January 19 before releasing theatrically on July 12, becoming a critical and box office success, earning $17.4 million from a budget of under a million. Murray next played male lead Andy Wyrick in the horror film The Haunting in Connecticut 2: Ghosts of Georgia which released on February 1. The film, inspired by the true events surrounding the Wyrick family, is Murray's first role playing a father. He guest starred as Officer Dave Mendoza in the crime drama series Southland on two episodes during its concluding fifth season which premiered on TNT on February 13. It marked his on-screen union with its co-star Ben McKenzie (Officer Ben Sherman), who had played Ryan Atwood on popular teen drama The O.C. that debuted the same year as OTH.
On October 9, 2013, it was reported that Murray was cast to join action-thriller series Chosen on Crackle. He played the lead role of Jacob Orr in the second season which premiered on December 12 that year and in the third season which released on April 15, 2014. Murray played the role of Jay in comedy film Cavemen which premiered on October 26 at the 2013 Austin Film Festival before a limited theatrical release on February 7, 2014. He played the role of Tanner McCoy in comedy film A Madea Christmas which released theatrically on December 13, 2013. Murray next co-starred in the apocalyptic thriller film Left Behind, playing the role of Cameron "Buck" Williams, alongside Nicolas Cage and Jordin Sparks. The film, based on the novel series of the same name authored by Jerry B. Jenkins and Tim LaHaye, was released on October 3, 2014.
On August 29, 2014, it was announced that Murray was cast in the role of Agent Jack Thompson in the ABC spy thriller series Agent Carter, part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The first season premiered on January 6, 2015, and the second season premiered on January 19, 2016.
Later in 2015, he guest starred on the Fox black comedy series Scream Queens on a November 24 episode during its first season, playing Chad Radwell's older brother Brad. Murray starred as the male lead "P.K." in the romantic drama film Other People's Children which premiered on August 15 at the Columbia Gorge International Film Festival where it won the Best of Festival award. It received a limited theatrical release on December 25. In order to portray a homeless heroin addict, Murray lost 25 lbs (11.34 kg) of weight, stating that he exercised for three-and-a-half weeks, burning 3,000 calories a day while eating only 1,400 to 1,600 calories a day from a diet consisting of "oatmeal, egg whites, salads, chicken [and] tuna."
2016–2022: Sun Records, Star and Fortress
Murray starred as Henry in the western film Outlaws and Angels which premiered on January 25 at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival, before a limited theatrical release on July 15. On March 14, 2016, it was reported that Murray was cast to star as Sam Phillips in the CMT biographical drama series Million Dollar Quartet. On December 14, the eight-episode miniseries was retitled Sun Records, before premiering on February 23, 2017.
In 2018, he played the male lead Brett Beauchamps in the drama television film The Beach House, alongside Minka Kelly and Andie MacDowell, which premiered on the Hallmark Channel on April 28. He next played the male lead Jack in horror film Camp Cold Brook which premiered on August 25 at the HorrorHound Film Festival, before a limited theatrical release on February 14, 2020. On August 27, 2018, it was reported that Murray was cast in a recurring role as Xander McPherson, the toxic love-interest of Cassie Brown as played by Brandy Norwood, in the third season of the musical drama Star which premiered on Fox on September 26.
On February 8, 2019, it was reported that Murray was cast in a recurring role as Edgar Evernever in the third season of The CW drama Riverdale. He starred as Luke Miller on television film Write Before Christmas alongside Torrey DeVitto on Hallmark Channel on November 17.
In 2020, Murray starred as Brett Hollister in the television film Love in Winterland which premiered on the Hallmark Channel on January 11. He next starred as Paul Barnett in the film Too Close for Christmas which received a limited theatrical release on November 13, before premiering on Lifetime on December 4. The film marks the first in a series of on-screen collaborations with Jessica Lowndes.
In 2021, he starred as Joel Sheehan in the film Colors of Love which received a limited theatrical release on February 4, before premiering on GAC Family on October 23 under the title An Autumn Romance as its first original movie. The film, based on the 2014 novel Tycoon's Kiss authored by Jane Porter, is the second with Murray and Lowndes together. He starred as Brody Bradshaw in the television film Sand Dollar Cove which premiered on the Hallmark Channel on June 26. He starred as Gabe on the television film Angel Falls Christmas which premiered on GAC Family on November 26, marking the third film between Murray and Lowndes. He starred as Kevin Vaughn on the television film Toying with the Holidays which premiered on Lifetime on December 18. He played Steve in hotel booking website Hotels.com's commercial.
2023–present: Sullivan's Crossing
On June 1, 2022, it was announced that Murray was cast as the male lead Cal Jones on the drama series Sullivan's Crossing alongside Morgan Kohan as the female lead Maggie Sullivan and Scott Patterson as her father Sully Sullivan. The Canadian series, based on the American novel series of the same name authored by Robyn Carr, premiered on CTV on March 19, 2023.
Writing career
Murray authored a graphic novel, Everlast, which released in November 2011. In November 2017, he released American Drifter: An Exhilarating Tale of Love and Murder, which he co-authored with novelist Heather Graham. The romantic thriller was inspired by a dream.
Personal life
In May 2004, Murray became engaged to his One Tree Hill co-star Sophia Bush, and they married on April 16, 2005, in Santa Monica, California. They announced their separation in September 2005. In February 2006, Bush filed for an annulment citing fraud. Bush's petition was denied, and instead the pair were granted a divorce in December 2006.
On April 6, 2006, it was reported that Murray was engaged to Kenzie Dalton, an actress and Miss North Carolina Teen USA 2006 runner-up. The day before, Murray escorted Dalton to the North Carolina Azalea Festival Queen's Welcoming Ceremony, where Dalton served as part of the "Princess' court" and wore her engagement ring. The two first met in August 2005 when Dalton appeared as an extra on One Tree Hill on the sixth episode during its third season. On September 20, 2013, it was reported that they had ended their engagement of nearly seven-and-a-half years, with Murray's representative telling media that they had "quietly parted ways earlier in the year." The couple were pictured together as late as August 1.
In September 2013, Murray began dating his Left Behind co-star, Australian actress Nicky Whelan. The two were first pictured together leaving the Chateau Marmont on September 19. The next month, Murray joined Whelan on the second season of Chosen. The couple separated in April 2014 after roughly eight months of dating.
In 2014, Murray began dating his Chosen co-star Sarah Roemer. In January 2015, it was announced that he and Roemer had married, and were expecting their first child. They have three children: a son, born in 2015, and two daughters, born in 2017 and 2023.
Filmography
Film
Television
Music videos
Commercials
Bibliography
Everlast (2011)
American Drifter: An Exhilarating Tale of Love and Murder (2017), co-authored with Heather Graham
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Official website
Bio at TVGuide.com
Bio at Starpulse.com
1981 births
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male models
American male television actors
Living people
Male actors from Buffalo, New York
Male actors from New York (state)
Male models from New York (state)
Actors from Buffalo, New York
People from Clarence, New York
21st-century American male writers
American male novelists
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Polish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Swiss-German descent |
4165077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1.%20FC%20Schweinfurt%2005 | 1. FC Schweinfurt 05 | 1. Fussball-Club Schweinfurt 1905, Verein für Leibesübungen e.V., called 1. FC Schweinfurt 05, Schweinfurt 05, or simply FC 05, is a German association football club established in Schweinfurt (Bavaria) in 1905. It has sections for netball, fistball, field hockey, badminton, gymnastics, rugby, American football, futsal, and athletics.
The club is well known due to successful years in top and second-tier football leagues from the 1930s to the 1970s, and thanks to outstanding individuals. During the late 1930s, Schweinfurt's midfielders Albin Kitzinger and Andreas Kupfer, today considered as two of the best half-back players of all time, formed the core of the Germany national football team and represented their country at the 1938 FIFA World Cup and within the premiere FIFA continent selection Europe XI.
The FC 05 first team, which competes in the tier-four Regionalliga Bayern since the 2013–14 season, is organized within 1. FC Schweinfurt 1905 Fußball GmbH. The club plays its home games at Sachs-Stadion in Schweinfurt.
History
Early years: 1905–1931
At a time when football became more and more popular among broad levels of the population, 1. Fussball-Club Schweinfurt 1905 was founded on 5 May 1905 by a group of sports enthusiasts. The club's first chairman, Pepi Popp, designed the still unchanged FC 05 crest.
The new team played in various local leagues until beginning of the First World War. The home games were held at Hutrasen south of river Main, the later venue of local competitor VfR 07 Schweinfurt. In 1919, Schweinfurt 05 had to move to a new court near Ludwigsbrücke and became member of the tier-one Kreisliga Nordbayern, but relegated after its first season. The team attempted a merger with Turngemeinde Schweinfurt von 1848, which lasted from 1921 to 1923, before the two groups parted ways again and the football division became 1. Fussball-Club Schweinfurt 1905, Verein für Leibesübungen e.V.
While FC 05 did not reap the expected benefits from the brief union, it improved dramatically after re-establishing itself as an independent club. Membership grew significantly and a number of new sports departments were formed within the organization. The football team yielded its first fruits in 1927 by winning the Unterfranken Cup championship, and in 1931, when it became Kreisliga Unterfranken champion.
Years of excellence: 1931–1963
Schweinfurt 05 finally gained first class status again with its entry into the Bezirksliga Bayern in 1931.
After introduction of the Gauliga system in 1933, the club became member of the top-flight Gauliga Bayern thanks to finishing 3rd in Bezirksliga Bayern Nord.
In addition, the team succeeded in winning the 1933 Bavarian Cup championship, but lost 1–2 to VfB Stuttgart in the subsequent Southern German Cup final.
The club experienced an era of successful seasons in the Gauliga years, winning the Gauliga Bayern in 1939 and 1942, and qualifying for the German football championship round.
In the German football championship 1939 competition, Schweinfurt barely missed the semi-final qualification games after three wins in the group stage, where it defeated later 1943 and 1944 German champion Dresdner SC 1–0 in the first leg, but then lost to Dresden 0–1 in the decisive away match.
The team failed in the round of 16 of the 1942 German football championship after a 1–2 loss to SG SS Straßburg.
Schweinfurt made a semi-final appearance in the 1936 Tschammerpokal, when it was defeated 2–3 by FC Schalke 04, the closest it ever came to winning a national title. Again in 1936, the club moved into its newly constructed stadium, the Willy-Sachs-Stadion (today: Sachs-Stadion), a donation by local industrialist and patron Willy Sachs.
At that time, FC 05 midfielders Albin Kitzinger and Andreas 'Ander' Kupfer became renowned in international football as they formed one of the best half-back duos in Europe.
Kitzinger distinguished himself with assuredness on the ball and the calmness in which he distributed the ball.
Kupfer was a player that fascinated the crowds with his elegant ways of playing. He was a master of kicking the ball with just moving his ankle joint.
Kitzinger and Kupfer were an essential part of the famous Germany national team who defeated Denmark 8–0 in Breslau on 16 May 1937. One year later they competed at the 1938 FIFA World Cup in France, and were both called up to represent Germany within the FIFA selection Europe XI in the FA 75th anniversary game against England at Highbury in London.
Due to the Second World War, Schweinfurt 05 merged with Luftwaffen SV Schweinfurt into KSG Schweinfurt for the 1943–44 and 1944–45 Gauliga seasons. The club temporarily had been dissolved in May 1945 under pressure from the occupying powers.
After World War II, the re-established 1. FC Schweinfurt 05 was integrated into the tier-one Oberliga Süd, which, for the first time in German football, introduced the system of contract players in August 1948.
The club stayed in the Oberliga for the duration of the league's existence until the Bundesliga, Germany's new professional league, was founded in 1963.
Schweinfurt reached the round of the last sixteen of the 1954–55 DFB-Pokal, where it lost 0–1 in the replay against FC Schalke 04 after a 1–1 draw in the first match.
On the occasion of the club's 50th anniversary in 1955, Schweinfurt could demonstrate its level when the team defeated German champion Rot-Weiss Essen 3–1, and achieved a 1–1 draw against Everton F.C. from English Football League First Division.
The club made it into the 1957 and 1958 Southern German Cup finals and lost both times, to FC Bayern München and to VfB Stuttgart, respectively.
In 1950, Andreas Kupfer became the first captain of the West Germany national football team in his very final 44th appearance. FC 05 goalkeeper Günter Bernard earned two West Germany caps in 1962, before he joined Bundesliga founding member SV Werder Bremen one year later, and was named in Germany's squad for the 1966 FIFA World Cup.
Second tier years: 1963–1976
1. FC Schweinfurt 05 was one of 46 West German football clubs that applied for admission to the newly established Bundesliga in 1963. However, based on the Oberliga Süd score of its past 12 seasons, the club finally did not qualify for the new league, and thus found itself playing in the second tier Regionalliga Süd.
In the 1965–66 season, Schweinfurt became Southern German Regionalliga champion and made it to the Bundesliga advancement games. Here, the team missed to ascend to the top tier after it was unable to prevail in its qualification group with 1. FC Saarbrücken, FC St. Pauli, and promoted winner Rot-Weiss Essen.
With the introduction of the 2. Bundesliga in 1974, Schweinfurt was founding member of the southern division despite only finishing 15th in the last Regionalliga year. For its first 2. Bundesliga season in 1974–75, the club signed-up former national team striker and Bundesliga top scorer Lothar Emmerich. The team earned an excellent third place and barely missed the advancement games for promotion to Bundesliga.
Yo-yo years: 1976–2016
After the 1974–75 season, FC 05 began to falter: poor results and financial problems saw the club descend first to the Bayernliga (III) and then, for the first time in 1983, to the Landesliga Bayern-Nord (IV).
Schweinfurt 05 became a yo-yo club ascending and descending between tiers III and IV, with just a pair of brief 2. Bundesliga appearances in 1990–91 and in 2001–02.
As 1989–90 Bayernliga champion the club prevailed in the advancement games to 2. Bundesliga, but was not able to keep pace in the new league.
The year before, the team had made it into the last sixteen of the 1989–90 DFB-Pokal, where it lost 0–2 to Eintracht Braunschweig.
In 2001, Schweinfurt was promoted to 2. Bundesliga after finishing 3rd in Regionalliga Süd.
The team's third place finish was enough to let them skip past the amateur side of VfB Suttgart, who were not allowed to advance a second side to the professional ranks.
Despite a decent first half of the tier-two season, FC 05 finally could not avoid relegation after one year.
Disasters happened in 2004 when FC Schweinfurt 05 was forced to leave the Regionalliga Süd (III) because of financial reasons, and in 2005 when the club went bankrupt. The results in the Bayernliga (IV) were annulled, and the team was relegated to the fifth tier Landesliga.
A re-structured club successfully worked its way back into Bayernliga in 2007. After it was relegated again to the now tier-six Landesliga in 2009, the team returned to the Bayernliga immediately the following year. At the end of the 2011–12 season Schweinfurt managed to qualify for the promotion round to the new Regionalliga Bayern (IV) and advanced to the second round, where the team missed out on promotion.
The club finally earned direct promotion to tier-four Regionalliga Bayern in the 2012–13 season by taking the championship in the Bayernliga northern division.
Schweinfurt's first three Regionalliga years, however, were characterized by a permanent but successful struggle against relegation.
Recent years: 2016–today
In 2016, the FC 05 first team was spun off into 1. FC Schweinfurt 1905 Fußball GmbH. By means of the reorganization, the club again established professional structures that shall pave the way back to higher leagues.
Schweinfurt actually experienced an upturn in the 2016–17 season and finished 8th in Regionalliga Bayern. In addition, the team succeeded in winning the Bavarian Cup after a 1–0 victory over SV Wacker Burghausen in the final.
In the 2017–18 Regionalliga, Schweinfurt's ambitioned team was not able to jeopardize the championship of TSV 1860 München, and finally finished 3rd.
1. FC Schweinfurt 05 defeated 2. Bundesliga club SV Sandhausen 2–1 in the 2017–18 DFB-Pokal first round, but then lost 0–4 to later cup winner SG Eintracht Frankfurt.
In the same season, Schweinfurt 05 successfully defended the Bavarian Cup after a 3–1 victory over league competitor SpVgg Bayreuth in the final.
Despite the objective of the 2018–19 Regionalliga championship and promotion to 3. Liga, Schweinfurt clearly missed this chance and finished 4th end of the season.
In the 2018–19 DFB-Pokal first round, the team lost 0–2 to previous season's Bundesliga runner-up and 2018–19 UEFA Champions League competitor FC Schalke 04.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, the original 2019–20 Regionalliga Bayern season was extended until spring 2021, and the 2020–21 season has been cancelled.
In July 2020, the current league leader Türkgücü München was promoted to the 3. Liga, whereas runners-up FC Schweinfurt 05 qualified for the 2020–21 DFB-Pokal.
In the first round cup match, Schweinfurt was defeated 1–4, again by Bundesliga club FC Schalke 04.
1. FC Schweinfurt 05 managed to win the long-desired championship of the finally discontinued 2019–21 Regionalliga Bayern when the club prevailed in a play-off group of the top three eligible teams with Viktoria Aschaffenburg and SpVgg Bayreuth.
However, Regionalliga champion Schweinfurt missed out on promotion to the 3. Liga after a 0–2 on aggregate in the play-offs against TSV Havelse from Regionalliga Nord. In the following two Regionalliga Bayern seasons, the team both times finished in the upper mid-field of the table.
Honours
League
German football championship
Last sixteen: 1942
Oberliga Süd (I)
Third: 1954–55
Gauliga Bayern (I)
Champions: (2) 1938–39, 1941–42
Runners-up: (2) 1936–37, 1942–43†
2. Bundesliga Süd (II)
Third: 1974–75
Regionalliga Süd (II)* (III)**
Champions: 1965–66*
Third: 2000–01**‡
Bayernliga (III)* (IV)**
Champions: (2) 1989–90*‡, 1997–98**
Runners-up: (2) 1981–82*, 1988–89*
Regionalliga Bayern (IV)
Champions: 2019–21
Bayernliga Nord (V)
Champions: 2012–13
Landesliga Bayern-Nord (IV)* (V)** (VI)***
Champions: (3) 1983–84*, 1985–86*, 2006–07**
Runners-up: 2009–10***
Landesliga Bayern-Nordwest (VI)
Champions: 2016–17#
Cup
German Cup/DFB-Pokal
Semi-finals: 1936
Last sixteen: (2) 1954–55, 1989–90
Southern German Cup
Runners-up: (3) 1933, 1957, 1958
Bavarian Cup
Winners: (3) 1933, 2016–17, 2017–18
Unterfranken Cup
Winners: (5) 1927, 1963#, 1996, 2006, 2009
Youth
Bavarian Under 19 championship
Winners: 2001
Runners-up: (4) 1961, 1966, 1968, 2021
Bavarian Under 17 championship
Winners: 2005
Runners-up: 1995
Bavarian Under 15 championship
Winners: 2003
Runners-up: (2) 1986, 1994
† Northern division ‡ Promoted to 2. Bundesliga # Reserve team
Seasons
First team
The season-by-season performance of the club from 1931 until today:
The 1944–45 Gauliga Bayern season operated in five regional divisions. It is unknown whether any of the season's games were played in the Lower Franconia (German: Unterfranken) division.
With the introduction of the Bezirksoberligas in 1988 as the new fifth tier, below the Landesligas, all leagues below dropped one tier. With the introduction of the Regionalligas in 1994 and the 3. Liga in 2008 as the new third tier, below the 2. Bundesliga, all leagues below dropped one tier. With the establishment of the Regionalliga Bayern as the new fourth tier in Bavaria in 2012 the Bayernliga was split into a northern and a southern division, the number of Landesligas expanded from three to five and the Bezirksoberligas were abolished. All leagues from the Bezirksligas onward were elevated one tier.
The 2020–21 Regionalliga Bayern season has been cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, and the original 2019–20 season was extended until spring 2021. In July 2020, the current league leader Türkgücü München was promoted to the 3. Liga and thus suspended from 2019–21 Regionalliga Bayern, and the club's league results have all been annulled. The 2019–21 Regionalliga Bayern champion and participant in the promotion play-offs against the champions of the 2020–21 Regionalliga Nord was determined end of the discontinued season in a double round-robin play-off series with the top three eligible teams Viktoria Aschaffenburg, SpVgg Bayreuth, and 1. FC Schweinfurt 05.
Reserve team
The recent season-by-season performance of the U23 reserve. After the 2017−18 season, the team had been pulled out from future league participation.
Key
German football championship appearances
The club's appearances in German football championship competitions:
* Dresdner SC finished top of the group, level on points with Schweinfurt, due to better scoring
DFB-Pokal appearances
The club's appearances in Tschammerpokal (until 1943) and DFB-Pokal:
* Originally scheduled on 22 August 1943, but adjourned after the allied air-raid on Schweinfurt on 17 August 1943
† Replay
‡ Eintracht Frankfurt won 6–2 on aggregate
# Originally scheduled on 13 September 2020, but postponed after a legal challenge of Türkgücü München regarding the spot allocated to the representative of the Regionalliga Bayern. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany and the organisational effort required to host the fixture, Schweinfurt's home leg was held at Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, and without spectators
Stadium
Early grounds
In its first years, 1. FC Schweinfurt 05 played the home games at Hutrasen, the later ground of local competitor VfR 07 Schweinfurt. After the First World War, the club had to move to a court in close proximity, located at Ludwigsbrücke in Schweinfurt. With promotion to Gauliga Bayern in 1933, however, the existing venue proved to be more and more inadequate.
Sachs-Stadion
The club's necessity finally motivated local industrialist Willy Sachs to the donation of a football stadium to the City of Schweinfurt, where the patron designated a privileged right of use for FC Schweinfurt 05. The new Willy-Sachs-Stadion, built by German architect Paul Bonatz, was opened on 23 July 1936 in the presence of leading politicians of the Third Reich. The stadium saw its first game three days later with a 2–2 draw between Schweinfurt 05 and 1935 German champion FC Schalke 04. Attendance record was 22,500 at a friendly between Schweinfurt 05 and 1. FC Kaiserslautern in 1954.
Today, the stadium has a capacity of 15,060, where the grandstand hosts 860 covered seats. Besides the football field, the stadium offers track and field facilities, and is equipped with a classical Marathon gate. Premises at the stadium include changing rooms for players, coaches, and referees. Speaker cabins and a press area are available in the grandstand.
The stadium has been renovated and equipped with floodlights in 2001 in order to meet the requirements for 2. Bundesliga. In addition, an electronic scoreboard was contributed by Schweinfurt's large industry. Wavebreakers have been installed on the standing rooms in 2014 to safeguard the stadium's full capacity.
The stadium is listed as historic monument and is thus subject to preservation orders.
As a consequence of Willy Sachs' Nazi affiliation, in June 2021 the Schweinfurt city council decided to rename the sports venue into Sachs-Stadion, in recognition of the value of the former Fichtel & Sachs company for the development of Schweinfurt.
Proposed new stadium
Due to the club's ambitions to promote again to professional leagues with stricter legislations on stadium capacity and equipment,
the city administration commissioned a feasibility study for a new stadium to be realised in Schweinfurt.
Two locations for a football arena with a capacity of 15,000 have been proposed by the German architectural office AS+P, one at former U.S. Conn Barracks, the other close to the existing venue.
Players
Current squad
Notable past players
Albin Kitzinger (MF)
Andreas Kupfer (MF)
Robert Bernard (MF)
Günter Bernard (GK)
Lothar Emmerich (FW)
Erwin Albert (FW)
Michael Glowatzky (FW)
Sebastian Kneißl (MF)
Florian Trinks (MF)
Daniel Adlung (MF)
International caps
Germany national football team (Caps/Goals):
Albin Kitzinger: 44/2
Andreas Kupfer: 44/1
Günter Bernard: 2/0 (3 additional caps for SV Werder Bremen)
Europe XI (Caps/Goals):
Albin Kitzinger: 1/0
Andreas Kupfer: 1/0
Non-playing staff
Current management team
Managerial history
Head coaches of the club from 1929:
Supporters and rivalries
The supporters of Schweinfurt 05 maintain a traditional friendship with the fans of Würzburger FV 04. They have a distinct hostility with fans of Würzburger FV's local rival FC Würzburger Kickers.
References
External links
Official club site
The Abseits Guide to German Soccer
1. FC Schweinfurt 05 profile at Weltfussball.de
Football in Bavaria at FuPa.net
Football results at kicker.de
Fan site (Kugellagerstadt.com)
Association football clubs established in 1905
Football clubs in Germany
Football clubs in Bavaria
Football in Lower Franconia
Rugby union clubs in Germany
1905 establishments in Germany
Schweinfurt
2. Bundesliga clubs |
4165176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitas%20depot%20robbery | Securitas depot robbery | The 2006 Securitas depot robbery in Tonbridge, England, was the UK's largest cash heist. It began with a kidnapping on the evening of 21 February 2006 and ended in the early hours of 22 February, when seven criminals stole almost £53million. The gang left behind another £154million because they did not have the means to transport it.
After doing surveillance and placing an insider at the Securitas depot, the gang abducted the manager and his family. The same night, they tricked their way inside the building, and tied up 14 workers at gunpoint. The criminals stole £52,996,760 in used and unused sterling banknotes, the property of the Bank of England. Most of the getaway vehicles were found in the following week, one containing £1.3million in stolen notes. In raids by Kent Police, £9million was recovered in Welling and £8million in Southborough. By 2007, 36 people had been arrested in relation to the crime.
At trial at the Old Bailey in London in 2007, five people were convicted, and received long sentences, including the inside man, Emir Hysenaj. A woman who had made prosthetic disguises for the gang gave evidence in return for the charges against her being dropped. Lee Murray, the alleged mastermind, had fled to Morocco with his friend and accomplice Paul Allen. He successfully fought extradition to the UK and was imprisoned there for the robbery. Allen was extradited and after a second trial in 2008 was jailed in the UK; upon his release he was shot and injured in 2019. By 2016, £32million remained unrecovered, and several suspects were still at large.
Depot
The Bank of England prints pound sterling (£) banknotes in Debden, Epping Forest. In 2006 it was outsourcing the distribution of currency to five companies, Group 4 Securicor, Halifax Bank of Scotland, Post Office Ltd, Royal Bank of Scotland and Securitas. There were 28 centres across England and Wales holding new currency and which stored used currency as it was returned, either to be redistributed or destroyed. Until 2001, Barclays had stored its own supplies of cash; it had built the depot at Medway House, Vale Road, Tonbridge, in Kent, in 1980, choosing the location because it was close to three police stations that were always open (at Royal Tunbridge Wells, Sevenoaks and Tonbridge itself). Medway House was just away from the Tonbridge station and was also near the Angel shopping centre. The first building on Vale Road was a Kwik Fit garage and the second was the depot.
Barclays outsourced the distribution of money to Securitas Cash Management (a subsidiary of Securitas) in 2001, and by 2006 Securitas was running the Tonbridge depot. It operated non-stop with 80 full-time staff split across three shifts; most of the work was sorting and counting banknotes which arrived by armoured transport and were sent out again to restock cash machines. The cash was bundled into bricks, which were wrapped in differently coloured plastic according to denomination: £5 bricks were green (£2,500); £10 bricks were blue (£5,000); £20 bricks were red (£5,000); £50 bricks were yellow (£12,500).
The manager of the depot was Colin Dixon. He lived in Herne Bay with his wife and their young child. Owing to the nature of his job, he had been trained not to tell his colleagues where he lived and to drive to work every day using a different route. The family owned two cars, and he would alternate which car he used. He had been told that if he was ever stopped by the police when driving that he should stay in his car and give the officers a piece of paper describing his job, then follow them to the nearest station, where he would co-operate with their enquiries.
Conspiracy
A criminal gang began to study the depot with the intention of robbing it. Men later convicted of conspiracy included Paul Allen, Jetmir Buçpapa, Roger Coutts, Emir Hysenaj, Lee Murray, Stuart Royle and Lea Rusha. Albanians Buçpapa and Hysenaj were childhood friends who met at school in Bajram Curri. They did not mention this in court, claiming not to know each other at all. Lea Rusha, a roofer and cage fighter, met Buçpapa (a bouncer) at a mixed martial arts (MMA) training session run by Rusha at the Angel Centre, near the depot. Rusha also knew Lee Murray through MMA; Murray was stopped by Kent Police on 28 July 2005 while in his car on a road overlooking the depot, together with two unidentified men. As well as being a cage fighter, Murray was also a drug dealer.
Hysenaj signed up with a recruitment agency which supplied workers to Medway House. He was first given a job at Royal Victoria Place shopping centre in Royal Tunbridge Wells, and then at the end of 2005 offered work at the depot. At his training he asked questions about security measures and passed the information to Buçpapa, who told Rusha. On 6 January 2006, mobile phone records displayed at trial indicated that Allen, Coutts, Murray, Royle and Rusha were present at a meeting at Royle's house. Murray visited a surveillance shop in Derbyshire to buy a spy camera and recording device, with the intention of giving it to Hysenaj. Despite warning by the shop owner to be careful not to get glue on the lens of the camera when placing it in position, someone from the gang did precisely that, so Murray sent his friends Allen and Keyinde "Kane" Patterson back to the shop to get it replaced. The shop owner fixed the camera and attached it to a belt, which Hysenaj used to film inside the depot. On their way back, the men were stopped by Nottinghamshire Police for driving at . Allen had broken the speed limit while driving on an expired provisional licence, and was in a car he did not own which had no MOT and no insurance, so it was impounded by the police.
Several days before the robbery, Murray went clubbing in London and crashed his yellow Ferrari sports car on the New Kent Road the next morning. Murray fled the scene and was arrested by four police officers nearby. He was charged with assault in a case that never came to trial. When he had abandoned his car he left behind two burner phones containing numbers of other gang members and three photographs from the club, which showed him associating with Allen and Patterson. The police later recovered these items from the impounded car. Murray had accidentally recorded himself on one of the phones, talking to Rusha about how to carry out the robbery.
Robbery
In the early evening of Tuesday, 21 February 2006, Dixon was driving home along the A249 when he was pulled over just outside Stockbury, a village northeast of Maidstone, by what he presumed was an unmarked police car. The Volvo S60 had flashing blue lights in its grille and one of the two uniformed officers came to Dixon's window, asking him to turn off his engine and leave the keys in the ignition. Breaching protocol, Dixon followed the officer's order to step out of his car and to sit in the other car, where he was handcuffed. His car was moved off the road and the Volvo travelled west on the M20 motorway to the West Malling bypass. The criminals play-acted driving him to a police station before revealing their deception and threatening him with a gun at Mereworth. He was tied up and transferred into a white van which drove to Elderden Farm near Staplehurst.
The two men impersonating police officers next drove to Dixon's home in Herne Bay and spoke to Lynn Dixon, telling her that her husband had crashed his car and that she and her son should accompany them to the hospital as quickly as possible. When she got into the car Lynn Dixon realised it was not a real police car and the men told her she was being abducted; they took her to the farm as well. Colin Dixon was then interrogated about the layout of the depot and warned at gunpoint that the lives of his family members depended upon his actions.
Around 01:00 on Wednesday, 22 February 2006, three vehicles headed to the depot. Lynn Dixon and her son were held in the back of a 7.5 tonne white Renault Midlum lorry; Colin Dixon and the other gang members travelled in a Vauxhall Vectra and the Volvo. The vehicles split up, and the Volvo arrived at the depot at 01:21. Dixon and a gang member dressed as a police officer got out of the car and walked towards the pedestrian entrance. Dixon rang the bell and looked through the window at the control room operator. Instead of querying why Dixon was returning at night or why he was with an officer, the inexperienced operator opened the door and let the two men through the airlock into the building. The entire robbery was filmed on the building's CCTV and when Kent Police later reviewed the footage, they nicknamed this gang member "Policeman". "Policeman" subdued the operator and, without being asked, Dixon pressed the button which opened the gate and allowed the vehicles to enter the yard.
The rest of the gang now entered the building. One man was later nicknamed "Stopwatch", because he was wearing a stopwatch to time the robbery in an echo of the film Ocean's Eleven. Others were called "Shorty", "Hoodie" and "Mr Average". The criminals' faces were hidden by balaclavas and they were armed with handguns, shotguns, AK-47 assault rifles and a Škorpion submachine gun. Dixon urged staff to comply with the gang's commands, and 14 workers were tied up. Nobody pressed an alarm. The seven members of the gang attempted to load metal cages full of banknotes into the lorry and found they were too heavy, so one criminal tried to drive the Lansing Linde power lifter and the rest shoved the hostages out of the way. It was difficult to manoeuvre the lifter and a Securitas worker was ordered to drive it; when he kept deliberately crashing it, Dixon was told to use a pallet mover. The worker then wedged the power lifter between the tail lift of the truck and the loading bay, rendering it useless. When Dixon pumped the pallet mover up, "Hoodie" became suspicious and pointed a gun at his head; frustrated by the slow progress, the other gang members grabbed bundles of money in their hands and filled up shopping trolleys. The criminals stole £52,996,760 in used and unused banknotes; another £154million would not fit in the lorry and they had to leave it behind. In total they took seventeen cages and three trolleys full of banknotes.
The staff workers were left locked up inside empty cages, as were Lynn Dixon and her son. No alarm had been set off and the gang ordered the staff to stay still when they left at 02:44. At 03:15, when they were sure the robbers had gone, the staff triggered an alarm which called the police. The police arrived and began the investigation by interviewing the staff and taking their clothes and their DNA profiles.
Investigation and arrests
The following day (Thursday, 23 February 2006) Securitas and their insurers offered a reward of £2million for any information about the heist, which Crimestoppers stated was the largest reward ever offered in the UK. Securitas gave the Bank of England £25million as an initial reimbursement. Kent Police said the heist had been meticulously planned by organised crime and that at least £20million had been stolen, possibly as much as £50million. By the evening of 23 February, two arrests had been made in South London: a man aged 29 and a woman aged 31 were detained at separate houses on suspicion of conspiracy to commit robbery. A third person, a 41-year-old woman, was arrested at a branch of the Portman Building Society in Bromley on suspicion of handling stolen goods. This woman was innocent and she told The Guardian she was planning to sue the police on account of "the most distressing experience of my life". As news of the robbery reached the newspapers, Hysenaj was told he had the day off work and went to see the Levellers at the Assembly Hall Theatre in Royal Tunbridge Wells with his girlfriend.
The same day, police discovered some of the vehicles implicated in the robbery: a former Parcelforce van had been left at the Hook and Hatchet pub in Hucking, near Maidstone; a Volvo and a Vauxhall Vectra had been abandoned near Leeds Castle; Dixon's Nissan Almera was located at the Cock Horse pub in Detling. The next day, Friday 24 February, discarded metal cages and other paraphernalia from the crime scene were found at Friningham Farm near Detling, on land rented by a friend of the owner of Elderden Farm.
A white Ford Transit van owned by a friend of Buçpapa and Rusha was reported to be in the car park of the Ashford International Hotel. When the police checked the van, they found a balaclava, a bulletproof vest and the Škorpion submachine gun. Two bags were opened which contained over £1.3million in stolen banknotes. On Saturday, 25 February 2006, armed police officers raided the homes of Buçpapa and Rusha, encountering Buçpapa's wife at their house on Hadlow Road in Tonbridge. At Rusha's house in Lambersart Close in Southborough, police found surveillance footage of Dixon's home, weapons and plans of the depot. In the shed they discovered balaclavas, Royal Mail clothing and a radio scanner tuned to a frequency used by the emergency services. On Sunday afternoon, Kent Police arrested Stuart Royle and another man in Tankerton, between Whitstable and Herne Bay, after shooting out a tyre of the BMW car he was driving. On Monday, police arrested Buçpapa and Rusha in Deptford, London, after shooting out the tyres of their car. The following day, the white 7.5 tonne lorry which had transported the loot was located at a hire centre and Elderden Farm was searched. At the farm £30,000 in stolen notes was found in the boot of a car and £105,600 hidden under a dead tree in the orchard.
Four days after the heist, Murray and Allen fled the UK. After visiting Amsterdam, they travelled to Morocco, where they spent money extravagantly on houses, jewellery and narcotics. Back in the UK, police officers raided a unit on the Graves Industrial Estate in Welling on 2 March. They broke open a shipping container, finding an estimated £7million in cash, which was later announced to be £9,655,040. They also found £50,000 in a bin bag elsewhere. The discoveries were connected to Roger Coutts, a van dealer who rented the yard and kept his boat there. The same day as the find, three people appeared at Maidstone Magistrates' Court: the owner of the farm was charged with conspiracy to commit robbery, handling stolen goods, and three charges of kidnapping; Royle was charged with conspiracy to commit robbery; a third person was charged with handling stolen goods. All three were remanded in custody. Royle had hired the Renault lorry used in the heist in his own name.
Buçpapa and Rusha appeared in court on 3 March, each facing the same charge of conspiracy to commit robbery. They were remanded in custody until a preliminary hearing at Maidstone Crown Court on 13 March. By 3 March, the number of people arrested had grown to fourteen. Two days later, the police discovered a hoard of £8,601,990 in a lock-up garage in Southborough near to Rusha's home. The money was stuffed into eighteen laundry bags and suitcases. The garage was rented by a man who sublet it to Rusha's cousin, who was supposed to pay £10 rent every week but was two weeks behind.
In June a businessman named Ian Bowrem was arrested as he drove around the M25 motorway. In his Mercedes-Benz, the police found almost £1million, of which £380,000 was made up of £50 notes from the robbery. Bowrem refused to say who had given him the money and was eventually sentenced to three years and nine months in prison. Police believed he was carrying out Missing Trader Intra-Community (MTIC) fraud to launder the stolen money. Also in June, Allen and Murray were two out of four men arrested in Morocco's capital Rabat after a three-month investigation. They were charged with possession of drugs, false imprisonment and assaulting the police. In England another man had been arrested as part of the police investigation and was released without having been charged; he then fled to Northern Cyprus in December 2006. By the year's end, Kent Police had recovered £21million and had asked the Home Office for at least £6million to cover both investigating the case and future spending on trial preparations. By 2007, 36 people had been arrested.
Trials
The trial of eight people, including Jetmir Buçpapa, Roger Coutts, Emir Hysenaj, Stuart Royle and Lea Rusha, began on 26 June 2007 at the Old Bailey in London. These five men were all charged with conspiracy to rob, conspiracy to kidnap and conspiracy to possess firearms. The prosecution was led by Sir John Nutting and the High Court judge was Mr Justice David Penry-Davey.
The role of manager Colin Dixon was examined, the defence barristers highlighting "co-incidences" in his conduct which might be interpreted as suggesting he was the inside man. It was noted that he had breached regulations in several ways: he possessed two keys for the vault, when he was supposed to only have one; he had taken photographs of the depot and its workers, which were found on his computer at home; he had told CCTV engineers to postpone a visit; he had waited thirty minutes before raising the alarm after the robbers had departed, despite knowing that if they had left there was no way for them to get back inside. It then emerged that the inside man had actually been Emir Hysenaj. Buçpapa had called Hysenaj at 02:38 as the gang left the depot; Hysenaj had not picked up but the police could show the mobile phone records to prove the call had been made.
During the trial, a woman who had made prosthetic disguises for the gang decided to turn Queen's evidence in return for her charges being dropped. On 28 January 2008, the jury returned guilty verdicts for Buçpapa, Coutts, Hysenaj, Royle and Rusha. Buçpapa, Coutts, Royle and Rusha were given life sentences with an order to serve a minimum of fifteen years. The next day, Emir Hysenaj was sentenced to twenty years in prison with an order that he serve a minimum of ten. The judge also recommended that both the Albanian men be deported after they had served their sentences. The owner of the farm and another man were each acquitted. The second man had been paid £6,000 in stolen notes to make signs on the side of one of the vans used in the heist, but had not been involved in planning the crime.
At the beginning of the second trial in October 2008, presided over again by Penry-Davey, prosecutors dropped charges against the girlfriends of Buçpapa, Royle and Rusha. Paul Allen (who had been extradited from Morocco) and another man were charged with conspiracy to rob, conspiracy to kidnap and conspiracy to possess firearms. Allen was held on remand in the high-security HM Prison Belmarsh and driven to court escorted by a police helicopter which cost £30,000 a day. A court order made during the first trial to preserve Lee Murray's anonymity was lifted and he was named as the leader of the gang. In January 2009 the jury were unable to reach agreement on whether Allen was guilty or not and found the other man not guilty. A retrial was ordered for Allen in September and he was held on remand until then. At the ensuing trial, Allen pleaded guilty to the three charges of conspiracy which he had previously denied, admitting his involvement but denying both that he had handled firearms and that he had been one of the seven men who went inside the depot. He received a sentence of eighteen years' imprisonment and served six. The 1,063 days spent on remand were taken off the sentence.
In June 2009 Murray was confirmed to have Moroccan nationality and therefore he won his fight against extradition from Morocco to the UK. He remained in prison in Salé and one year later stood trial for the robbery. He was convicted and jailed for ten years; when he appealed the length of this sentence, it was raised to 25 years. Kent Police Detective Superintendent Mick Judge said "I'm pleased Murray will now begin serving a significant prison sentence for his part in the Tonbridge robbery." Murray was claimed by other gang members to have been the leader. The police believed he had worn a disguise when taking Dixon hostage, and that he was the person dubbed "Stopwatch" caught on CCTV directing the robbers to move as quickly as possible at the depot. The other man who had abducted Dixon was believed to be Rusha wearing a fake ginger beard.
Later events
Securitas stopped the handling of cash and sold the Tonbridge depot to Vaultex, a company run by Barclays and HSBC. Howard Sounes published a book about the crime in 2009, entitled Heist: The True Story of the World's Biggest Cash Robbery. A decade after the robbery, in 2016, £32million had still not been recovered. In the opinion of a former detective superintendent, the cash would have quickly been absorbed into organised crime networks. Farmers who lived near the robbed depot reported harassment from criminals convinced that some of the money was buried on their land. Several people escaped capture and were suspected by police to be living off the proceeds of the crime in the West Indies and Northern Cyprus.
In February 2013 Malcolm Constable, who was believed by his brother Derek to be associated with the robbery, was found dead of a self-inflicted shotgun wound in Canterbury. Kent Police stated they had no record of any incidents involving Constable. Paul Allen was severely injured on 11 July 2019 when he was shot at his home in north London; he was taken to hospital in a critical condition. He survived and by February 2021, eight men had been arrested in connection with the attack.
In 2016 an appeal by Jetmir Buçpapa to serve the rest of his sentence in Albania was rejected by the Secretary of State for Justice. The following year on judicial review the decision was found to be irrational. Buçpapa was released from HM Prison Belmarsh in 2020 and deported to Albania. On New Year's Day 2022, he married for a second time, in his home town of Tropoja.
Similar incidents
Other Securitas depots had been previously targeted in the mid-1990s, when ram-raiders in Liverpool and Manchester had stolen more than £2million. The Northern Bank robbery in Belfast was previously the biggest cash theft in UK history, when £26.5million was stolen in 2004. This record was broken by the Tonbridge heist. The largest cash heist in global history took place in March 2003, when approximately US$1billion was stolen from the Central Bank of Iraq, shortly after the United States began the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
See also
List of bank robbers and robberies
List of heists in the United Kingdom
References
2006 crimes in the United Kingdom
2006 in England
2000s in Kent
2000s trials
2010s trials
Bank robberies
Crime in Kent
February 2006 crimes
February 2006 events in the United Kingdom
Kidnapping in the 2000s
Kidnappings in England
Organised crime events in the United Kingdom
Organised crime in England
Robberies in England
Robbery trials
Tonbridge
Trials in London
Violent non-state actor incidents in the United Kingdom |
4165775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad%20Henne | Chad Henne | Chad Steven Henne (; born July 2, 1985) is an American former football quarterback who played 15 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Michigan. While there, Henne became only the second freshman starting quarterback in Michigan history, accumulated a total of 32 wins in regular season play, 8,740 offensive yards, and 87 touchdowns, and in his senior season led the Wolverines to a Capital One Bowl victory over Florida. He was subsequently named as the game's MVP after throwing for over 350 yards.
Henne's professional career began when he was drafted by the Miami Dolphins in the second round of the 2008 NFL Draft. Henne spent most of his rookie season on the bench as the back-up to veteran quarterback Chad Pennington. In his second season with the Dolphins, Henne started the majority of the 2009 season after Pennington was unable to play due to an injury. Henne would go on to act as a starter for several seasons for both the Dolphins and Jacksonville Jaguars, before serving as a backup for the Jaguars. In 2018 he signed with the Kansas City Chiefs serving as a backup as well, winning two Super Bowls with the team.
High school career
Henne moved into the Wilson School District prior to the start of his 3rd grade year in 1994. He played in 43 scholastic games for the Bulldogs (42 starts) over four seasons, earning a record of 33–10. His Wilson football teams won two Lancaster-Lebanon League Section 1 titles, the first his freshman year (2000) and the second his junior season (2002). Henne's third scholastic year was his most successful, both individually and as a team. His 2002 Wilson Bulldogs squad finished their regular season undefeated with a record of 10–0 and were the 2002 PIAA District 3 AAAA runner-up, falling to Central Dauphin in a thrilling championship game. He amassed 7,071 passing yards in his high school career, which was fourth-most all-time in PIAA history (and first in PIAA District 3) at the conclusion of the Henne's senior season in the fall of 2003, behind John Veach (Mount Carmel Area), Evan Kraky (Lakeland), and Ron Powlus (Berwick). Henne owns three significant Wilson football program records (as of February 2020): career passing yardage (7,071); career passing touchdowns (74), and most touchdown passes in a game (5; tied). He was named to the Pennsylvania All-State Football Team as a senior in 2003, selected to participate in the 47th Annual Big 33 Football Classic in July 2004, was named the Pennsylvania Football Gatorade Player of the Year for 2003–2004, and earned national recognition as a member of the 2003–2004 Parade High School All-American Football Team. In October 2014, Henne was inducted into the Wilson High School Athletic Hall of Fame. In addition to his football accomplishments, Henne was also a member of the Wilson varsity basketball team for three years as well as an outstanding athlete for the Bulldogs track and field team, finishing as the PIAA runner-up in the javelin as a senior after finishing first at the District 3 meet two weeks earlier. Henne aspires to become a coach at his alma mater following his lengthy NFL career.
In 2000, his freshman season at Wilson Senior High School in West Lawn, Pennsylvania, Henne played QB in all 11 of Wilson's games, with 10 starts. He rotated at QB with junior Ian Firestone in the Week 1 storm-delayed win vs Harrisburg but would start the final 10 games for the Bulldogs and play the majority of the positional snaps. Henne led come-from-behind victories against Wilson's first three opponents – Harrisburg, Stroudsburg, and Boyertown – before a setback at Cedar Crest to open League play. Henne's Wilson team would win their next six contests, including a thrilling comeback victory at Reading, before falling in the 2000 District 3 AAAA semifinals to eventual champion Cumberland Valley, 21–7. His freshman season was an overwhelming success, with the team finishing 9–2 and earning a share of the Lancaster-Lebanon League Section 1 title (with Cedar Crest and Reading).
Henne's Wilson football team would struggle during his second campaign as a starter. The Bulldogs ended their season with an overall record of 6–4 and suffered three consecutive losses for the first time since the 1988 season.
At the end of his junior year in 2002, having been offered forty scholarships from various collegiate athletic programs, Henne narrowed his college options down to five schools: Miami, Michigan, Georgia, Tennessee, and Penn State.
Before his first game as a senior, Henne announced his plans to become a Wolverine at the University of Michigan. He was named to the preseason Pennsylvania All-State Football First-team. Following high school, Henne played in the 2004 U.S. Army All-American Bowl as a member of the East team.
College career
In 2004, Henne entered the season as a freshman for the Wolverines, and third on the depth chart behind redshirt sophomore Matt Gutierrez and redshirt freshman quarterback Clayton Richard. The Monday prior to the season opener against the Miami RedHawks, Michigan head coach Lloyd Carr announced Gutierrez would start even though he was suffering from a sore shoulder. A few days later, Carr decided to allow Henne to start in relief of Gutierrez.
Henne ended his first career game with a 43–10 win, completing 14 of 24 passes for 142 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception. Henne was just the second true freshman in Michigan history to start on opening day, a feat not seen at Michigan since Rick Leach in 1975.
Alongside freshman running back Mike Hart, he galvanized an explosive offensive unit that featured receivers Braylon Edwards, Jason Avant, and Steve Breaston. All five would later go on to the NFL. Henne's freshman season was highlighted by a triple-overtime win over in-state rival Michigan State and a record-tying performance in the Rose Bowl against Texas. He also tied the Michigan season record for touchdown passes with 25, first set by Elvis Grbac in 1991.
Henne was criticized in 2005 after Michigan, ranked in the top five of the preseason polls, stumbled to a 3–3 start. The sophomore quarterback was particularly scrutinized after his performance in a close loss to Notre Dame, in which he completed fewer than half of his pass attempts and lost a fumble on the goal line. After their 3–3 start, Michigan won four consecutive games to clinch the program's 21st consecutive winning season.
As a junior in 2006, Henne earned Rivals.com All-American third-team honors. He was a Manning Award finalist, Maxwell Award semifinalist, Davey O'Brien Award semifinalist, and Walter Camp Award candidate. The All-Big Ten Conference second-team choice started all thirteen games. He hit on 203-of-328 passes for 2,508 yards and 22 touchdowns with eight interceptions, ranking fifth in Michigan's season record list for touchdown passes, eighth in attempts and completions and tenth in passing yards. For the third straight year Michigan concluded their season by losing to Ohio State and then dropping their bowl game, this time to Southern California.
During his senior year in 2007, Henne completed 162 of 278 passes for 1,938 yards, 17 touchdowns, and nine interceptions. The first game of the season ended in disaster for Michigan, a loss to Appalachian State that was considered one of the biggest sports upsets of all time. In the following game Henne suffered a knee injury in the first half against Oregon, and sat out the second half, as well as subsequent games against Notre Dame and Penn State, before returning to the starting lineup against Northwestern. In the final regular season game, Michigan fell to Ohio State 14–3, completing an 0–4 career record for Henne and fellow seniors Mike Hart and Jake Long against the Buckeyes. Henne played his final collegiate game against Florida in the Capital One Bowl. Henne was named the MVP of the game after he led his team to a 41–35 victory over the Gators and reigning Heisman Trophy winner, Tim Tebow.
For his collegiate career, Henne completed 828 of 1,387 passes for 9,715 yards, 87 touchdowns, and 37 interceptions. All five marks are school records. Henne's passing touchdown total is second in Big Ten Conference history.
College statistics
Professional career
Miami Dolphins
Henne was drafted by the Miami Dolphins in the second round (57th overall) of the 2008 NFL Draft. He was the fourth quarterback chosen, following Matt Ryan, Joe Flacco, and Brian Brohm. His left tackle at Michigan, Jake Long, was the first selection of the draft and would again play alongside Henne in Miami.
2008 season
Henne agreed to a four-year, $3.5 million contract with the team on July 26. Out of training camp, Henne earned the backup quarterback role behind starter Chad Pennington. During the second game of the 2008 season, Henne made his NFL debut with 9:42 left; down 31–3 against the Arizona Cardinals. Henne spent the remainder of the season on the bench and played in only two other games, both divisional matchups with the New England Patriots.
2009 season
During the third game of the 2009 season, in the early third quarter of a road game versus the San Diego Chargers, San Diego linebacker Kevin Burnett knocked Chad Pennington out of the game with a season-ending injury to his shoulder and rotator cuff. Henne came off the bench in relief. Though he led the Dolphins offense to ten points in the final 20 minutes of the game, he also had an interception returned 31 yards for a touchdown by Eric Weddle.
Henne made his first career start on October 4, 2009, against the Buffalo Bills at home. Henne went 14–of–22 with one touchdown in a 38–10 victory, lifting the team to a 1–3 record. In his second NFL start, he led the underdog Dolphins to a 31–27 win over the New York Jets in a Monday Night Football game. He completed 20 out of 26 passes for 241 yards with two touchdowns. This was Henne's second straight win as starter and included a 53-yard touchdown pass to Ted Ginn Jr.
Henne consistently improved as the season went on, passing for 335 yards against the New England Patriots in Week 13. In Week 15, Henne passed for 349 yards in a loss to the Tennessee Titans. In Week 16, Henne passed for 322 yards in a loss to the Houston Texans. In Week 17 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Henne had gained 140 yards on 16–of–20 passing with one touchdown and interception, but had to leave the game with an eye injury.
2010 season
On November 10, 2010, after a 4–4 start to the 2010 season, Henne lost his starting job to Pennington. Pennington had led the Dolphins to an AFC East championship in 2008. On November 14, during the game against the Tennessee Titans, Henne came in relief for Pennington who went out with an apparent shoulder injury. During the third quarter, Henne himself was injured with an apparent knee injury and was replaced by Tyler Thigpen. Henne returned to action in Week 12 against the Oakland Raiders winning 33–17. In Week 13, Henne went back to his inconsistencies. He completed 16 of 32 passes and throwing 3 picks in a loss to the Browns. The following week, he went 5–of–18 for 53 yards and one touchdown in a 10–6 win against the New York Jets on an extremely rainy day. In week 15, he faced the Buffalo Bills going 33–of–45 for 176 yards with one touchdown and one interception. This came in a loss, which officially eliminated Miami from the playoffs. In Week 16, Henne faced the Detroit Lions and finished with a loss. Henne went 29 of 44 for 278 yards with one touchdown and two interceptions. Henne had two opportunities in the fourth quarter to lead a game-winning drive and a game-tying drive, but poor play calling led to a loss. In the last week of the season against the New England Patriots, Henne went 6–16 for 71 yards with an interception. Henne finished the year with 3301 yards along with 15 touchdowns and 19 interceptions.
His job as starter was thought to be in question during the off-season when it was rumored that the Dolphins sought to acquire Kyle Orton from the Denver Broncos. Coupled with the acquisition of Carolina Panthers quarterback Matt Moore and rookie draft pick Pat Devlin, it was unclear if Miami would continue its commitment with Henne. The Orton rumor eventually fizzled and Devlin was waived and signed to the practice squad, leaving Moore and Henne as the two quarterbacks on the active roster. It would later be announced that Henne would have the starting job in 2011.
2011 season
Henne's 2011 starting campaign began well, throwing for 416 yards and a professional career-best passer rating of 93.6. These improvements were overshadowed by Tom Brady's 517 pass yards and the resulting loss to the New England Patriots. It was the seventh game of all time to have two quarterbacks surpass 400 yards passing. On Sunday October 2, 2011, in a game against the San Diego Chargers, Henne hurt his left shoulder at the end of a run on a broken play on the Dolphins' second possession and did not return. His injury was later revealed to be a dislocated shoulder in his left (non-throwing) arm. Slated to undergo surgery, Henne was placed on injured reserve and missed the remainder of the 2011 season. The Miami Dolphins announced on February 21, 2012, that they would not re-sign Henne, making him a free agent.
Jacksonville Jaguars
Henne signed a two-year deal with the Jacksonville Jaguars on March 14, 2012. In the Jaguars Week 11 game against the Texans, Henne came in for an injured Blaine Gabbert and threw for 354 yards and 4 touchdowns. Henne and Steve Young are the only two players in NFL history since the merger to not start the beginning of a game and throw 4 touchdowns without an interception. He started the final six games of the season for the team after an injury to Gabbert. After Gabbert was benched midway through the 2013 season, Henne became the starter for the rest of the season, starting a total of thirteen games. The Jaguars would go on to finish the season with a 4–12 record.
On March 7, 2014, Henne signed a two-year, $8 million extension for $4.5 million guaranteed with the Jaguars. Following a disappointing first half in the 2014 home opener in Week 3, Henne was benched in favor of rookie first-round draft pick Blake Bortles. Bortles remained the starter for the rest of the season, leaving Henne as the backup. In 2015, Henne remained the backup for Bortles. He did not see any action in the 2015 season. Henne signed another two-year, $8 million contract extension on February 18, 2016, to remain as the backup to Bortles. Over the next three seasons, he saw action in a total of four games as an alternate. On February 15, 2017, the Jaguars restructured Henne's contract.
Kansas City Chiefs
On March 16, 2018, Henne signed a two-year contract with the Kansas City Chiefs. In the 2018 season, Henne was the backup to Patrick Mahomes. He appeared in one game in the 2018 season, Week 17 against the Oakland Raiders. On September 1, 2019, Henne was placed on injured reserve. He was designated for return from injured reserve on October 23, 2019, and began practicing with the team. On November 2, he was activated off injured reserve. Henne did not play a snap all season but won his first championship when the Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers 31–20 in Super Bowl LIV.
Henne re-signed with the Chiefs on a two-year contract on March 19, 2020. In Week 7, against the Denver Broncos, he came into the game in relief of Mahomes and scored a rushing touchdown in the 43–16 victory. It was his first rushing touchdown since December 2, 2012, against the Buffalo Bills. On December 30, 2020, with the Chiefs locking up the number 1 seed, head coach Andy Reid announced that Henne would start the Chiefs season finale against the Los Angeles Chargers due to them resting their starters. It would be Henne's first start since Week 3 of the 2014 season when he was with the Jaguars. In the game, Henne threw for 218 yards and 2 touchdowns in the 38–21 loss. On January 17, 2021, in the Chiefs divisional playoff game against the Cleveland Browns, Henne came into the game in relief of Mahomes in the third quarter after Mahomes left the game with a concussion. Henne threw for only 66 yards and an interception; however, Henne had a 3rd down run late in the 4th quarter that gained 12 yards, which ran critical time off the clock and left the Chiefs inches from a first down. On the subsequent play, his pass to Tyreek Hill led to the first down, allowing the Chiefs to run out the clock and preserve a 22–17 victory.
Henne signed a one-year contract with the Chiefs on March 24, 2022.
On January 21, 2023, Henne replaced an injured Patrick Mahomes and led a team playoff record 98-yard touchdown drive in the AFC Divisional Round victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars.
Retirement
On February 12, 2023, after the Chiefs defeated the Eagles in Super Bowl LVII, Henne announced via his Instagram that he would be retiring from the NFL. On September 17, 2023, it was reported that Henne had been offered a contract by the New York Jets after quarterback Aaron Rodgers suffered an Achilles injury earlier in the season; however, Henne declined the offer and reiterated his desire to remain retired from playing professional football.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Postseason
Personal life
On July 3, 2010, Henne married Brittany Hartman in Perkasie, Pennsylvania.
See also
Lists of Michigan Wolverines football passing leaders
References
External links
Kansas City Chiefs bio
Michigan Wolverines bio
1985 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Kansas City Chiefs players
Michigan Wolverines football players
Miami Dolphins players
People from Wyomissing, Pennsylvania
Players of American football from Berks County, Pennsylvania |
4166042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20theater%20of%20the%20American%20Civil%20War | Eastern theater of the American Civil War | The eastern theater of the American Civil War consisted of the major military and naval operations in the states of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of North Carolina (Operations in the interior of the Carolinas in 1865 are considered part of the western theater, while the other coastal areas along the Atlantic Ocean are included in the lower seaboard theater.).
The eastern theater was the venue for several major campaigns launched by the Union Army of the Potomac to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia; many of these were frustrated by the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee. President Abraham Lincoln sought a general to match Lee's boldness, appointing in turn Maj. Gens. Irvin McDowell, George B. McClellan, John Pope, Ambrose Burnside, Joseph Hooker, and George G. Meade to command his principal eastern armies. While Meade gained a decisive victory over Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, it was not until newly appointed general-in-chief Ulysses S. Grant arrived from the western theater in 1864 to take personal control of operations in Virginia that Union forces were able to capture Richmond, but only after several bloody battles of the Overland Campaign and a nine-month siege near the cities of Petersburg and Richmond. The surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox Court House in April 1865 brought major operations in the area to a close.
While many of the campaigns and battles were fought in the region of Virginia between Washington, D.C., and Richmond, there were other major campaigns fought nearby. The Western Virginia Campaign of 1861 secured Union control over the western counties of Virginia, which would be formed into the new state of West Virginia. Confederate coastal areas and ports were seized in southeastern Virginia and North Carolina. The Shenandoah Valley was marked by frequent clashes in 1862, 1863, and 1864. Lee launched two unsuccessful invasions of Union territory in hopes of influencing Northern opinion to end the war. In the fall of 1862, Lee followed his successful Northern Virginia Campaign with his first invasion, the Maryland Campaign, which culminated in his strategic defeat in the Battle of Antietam. In the summer of 1863, Lee's second invasion, the Gettysburg Campaign, reached into Pennsylvania, farther north than any other major Confederate army. Following a Confederate attack on Washington, D.C., itself in 1864, Union forces commanded by Philip H. Sheridan launched a campaign in the Shenandoah Valley, which cost the Confederacy control over a major food supply for Lee's army.
Theater of operations
The eastern theater included the campaigns that are generally most famous in the history of the war, if not for their strategic significance, then for their proximity to the large population centers, major newspapers, and the capital cities of the opposing parties. The imaginations of both Northerners and Southerners were captured by the epic struggles between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, under Robert E. Lee, and the Union Army of the Potomac, under a series of less successful commanders. The bloodiest battle of the war (Gettysburg) and the bloodiest single day of the war (Antietam) were both fought in this theater. The capitals of Washington, D.C., and Richmond were both attacked or besieged. It has been argued that the western theater was more strategically important in defeating the Confederacy, but it is inconceivable that the civilian populations of both sides could have considered the war to be at an end without the resolution of Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in 1865.
The theater was bounded by the Appalachian Mountains to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. By far, the majority of battles occurred in the 100 miles between the cities of Washington and Richmond. This terrain favored the Confederate defenders because a series of rivers ran primarily west to east, making them obstacles rather than avenues of approach and lines of communication for the Union invaders. This was quite different from the early years of the Western theater, and since the Union Army had to rely solely on the primitive road system of the era for its primary transportation, it limited winter campaigning for both sides. The Union advantage was control of the sea and major rivers, which would allow an army that stayed close to the ocean to be reinforced and supplied.
The campaign classification established by the United States National Park Service (NPS) is more fine-grained than the one used in this article. Some minor NPS campaigns have been omitted and some have been combined into larger categories. Only a few of the 160 battles the NPS classifies for this theater are described. Boxed text in the right margin show the NPS campaigns associated with each section.
Principal commanders of the eastern theater
Early operations (1861)
After the fall of Fort Sumter in April 1861, both sides scrambled to create armies. President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion, which immediately caused the secession of four additional states, including Virginia. The United States Army had only around 16,000 men, with more than half spread out in the West. The army was commanded by the elderly Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott, veteran of the War of 1812 and the Mexican–American War. On the Confederate side, only a handful of Federal officers and men resigned and joined the Confederacy; the formation of the Confederate States Army was a matter initially undertaken by the individual states. (The decentralized nature of the Confederate defenses, encouraged by the states' distrust of a strong central government, was one of the disadvantages suffered by the South during the war.)
Some of the first hostilities occurred in western Virginia (now the state of West Virginia). Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, commanding the Department of the Ohio, ordered troops to march from Grafton and attack the Confederates under Col. George A. Porterfield. The skirmish on June 3, 1861, known as the Battle of Philippi, or the "Philippi Races", was the first land battle of the Civil War. His victory at the Battle of Rich Mountain in July was instrumental in his promotion that fall to command the Army of the Potomac. As the campaign continued through a series of minor battles, General Robert E. Lee, who, despite his excellent reputation as a former U.S. Army colonel, had no combat command experience, gave a lackluster performance that earned him the derogatory nickname "Granny Lee". He was soon transferred to the Carolinas to construct fortifications. The Union victory in this campaign enabled the creation of the state of West Virginia in 1863.
The first significant battle of the war took place in eastern Virginia on June 10. Union Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler, based at Fort Monroe, sent converging columns from Hampton and Newport News against advanced Confederate outposts. At the Battle of Big Bethel, near Fort Monroe, Colonel John B. Magruder won the first Confederate victory.
First Bull Run (First Manassas)
In early summer, the commander of Union field forces around Washington was Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell, an inexperienced combat officer in command of volunteer soldiers with even less experience. Many of them had enlisted for only 90 days, a period soon to expire. McDowell was pressured by politicians and major newspapers in the North to take immediate action, exhorting him "On to Richmond!" His plan was to march with 35,000 men and attack the 20,000 Confederates under Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas. The second major Confederate force in the area, 12,000 men under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley, was to be held in place by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson with 18,000 men menacing Harpers Ferry, preventing the two Confederate armies from combining against McDowell.
On July 21, McDowell's Army of Northeast Virginia executed a complex turning movement against Beauregard's Confederate Army of the Potomac (Confederate), beginning the First Battle of Bull Run (also known as First Manassas). Although the Union troops enjoyed an early advantage and drove the Confederate left flank back, the battle advantage turned that afternoon. Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson inspired his Virginia brigade to withstand a strong Union attack, and he received his famous nickname, "Stonewall" Jackson. Timely reinforcements arrived by railroad from Johnston's army; Patterson had been ineffective in keeping them occupied. The inexperienced Union soldiers began to fall back, and it turned into a panicky retreat, with many running almost as far as Washington, D.C. Civilian and political observers, some of whom had treated the battle as festive entertainment, were caught up in the panic. The army returned safely to Washington; Beauregard's army was too tired and inexperienced to launch a pursuit. The Union defeat at First Bull Run shocked the North, and a new sense of grim determination swept the United States as military and civilians alike realized that they would need to invest significant money and manpower to win a protracted, bloody war.
George B. McClellan was summoned east in August to command the newly forming Army of the Potomac, which would become the principal army of the eastern theater. As a former railroad executive, he possessed outstanding organizational skills well-suited to the tasks of training and administration. He was also strongly ambitious, and by November 1, he had maneuvered around Winfield Scott and was named general-in-chief of all the Union armies, despite the embarrassing defeat of an expedition he sent up the Potomac River at the Battle of Balls Bluff in October.
North Carolina coast (1861–65)
North Carolina was an important area to the Confederacy because of the vital seaport of Wilmington and because the Outer Banks were valuable bases for ships attempting to evade the Union blockade. Benjamin Butler sailed from Fort Monroe and captured the batteries at Hatteras Inlet in August 1861. In February 1862, Brig. Gen. Ambrose Burnside organized an amphibious expedition, also from Fort Monroe, that captured Roanoke Island, a little-known but important Union strategic victory. The Goldsboro Expedition in late 1862 marched briefly inland from the coast to destroy railroad tracks and bridges.
The remainder of operations on the North Carolina coast began in late 1864, with Benjamin Butler's and David D. Porter's failed attempt to capture Fort Fisher, which guarded the seaport of Wilmington. Union forces at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher, led by Alfred H. Terry, Adelbert Ames, and Porter, in January 1865, were successful in defeating Gen. Braxton Bragg, and Wilmington fell in February. During this period, the western theater armies of Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman were marching up the interior of the Carolinas, where they eventually forced the surrender of the largest remaining Confederate field army, under Joseph E. Johnston, on April 26, 1865.
The Valley (1862)
In the spring of 1862, Confederate exuberance over First Bull Run declined quickly, following the early successes of the Union armies in the western theater, such as Fort Donelson and Shiloh. George B. McClellan's massive Army of the Potomac was approaching Richmond from the southeast in the Peninsula Campaign, Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell's large corps was poised to hit Richmond from the north, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks's army threatened the rich agricultural area of the Shenandoah Valley. For relief, Confederate authorities turned to Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, who earned his nickname at First Bull Run. His command, officially called the Valley District of the Department of Northern Virginia, included the Stonewall Brigade, a variety of Valley militia units, and the Army of the Northwest. While Banks remained north of the Potomac River, Jackson's cavalry commander, Col. Turner Ashby of the 7th Virginia Cavalry, raided the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
Banks reacted by crossing the Potomac in late February and moving south to protect the canal and railroad from Ashby. Jackson's command was operating as the left wing of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's army, and when Johnston moved from Manassas to Culpeper in March, Jackson's position at Winchester was isolated. On March 12, Banks continued his advance to the southwest ("up the Valley") and occupied Winchester. Jackson had withdrawn to Strasburg. Banks's orders, as part of McClellan's overall strategy, were to move farther south and drive Jackson from the Valley. After accomplishing this, he was to withdraw to a position nearer Washington. A strong advance force began the movement south from Winchester on March 17, about the same time that McClellan began his amphibious movement to the Virginia Peninsula.
Jackson's orders from Johnston were to avoid general combat because he was seriously outnumbered, but at the same time he was to keep Banks occupied enough to prevent the detachment of troops to reinforce McClellan on the Peninsula. Receiving incorrect intelligence, Banks concluded that Jackson had left the Valley, and he proceeded to move east, back to the vicinity of Washington. Jackson was dismayed at this movement because Banks was doing exactly what Jackson had been directed to prevent. When Ashby reported that only a few infantry regiments and some artillery of Banks's corps remained at Winchester, Jackson decided to attack the Union detachment in an attempt to force the remainder of Banks's corps to return. But Ashby's information was incorrect; actually, an entire Union division was still stationed in the town. At the First Battle of Kernstown (March 23, 1862), fought a few miles south of Winchester, the Federals stopped Jackson's advance and then counterattacked, turning his left flank and forcing him to retreat. Although a tactical defeat for Jackson, his only defeat during the campaign, it was a strategic victory for the Confederacy, forcing President Lincoln to keep Banks's forces in the Valley and McDowell's 30,000-man corps near Fredericksburg, subtracting about 50,000 soldiers from McClellan's Peninsula invasion force.
The Union reorganized after Kernstown: McDowell's command became the Department of the Rappahannock, Banks's corps became the Department of the Shenandoah, while western Virginia (modern West Virginia) became the Mountain Department, commanded by Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont. All three commands, which reported directly to Washington, were ordered to remove Jackson's force as a threat to Washington. The Confederate authorities meanwhile detached Richard S. Ewell's division from Johnston's army and sent it to the Valley. Jackson, now reinforced to 17,000 men, decided to attack the Union forces individually rather than waiting for them to combine and overwhelm him, first concentrating on a column from the Mountain Department commanded by Robert Milroy. While marching on a devious route to mask his intentions, he was attacked by Milroy at the Battle of McDowell on May 8 but was able to repulse the Union army after severe fighting. Banks sent a division to reinforce Irvin McDowell's forces at Fredericksburg, leaving Banks only 8,000 troops, which he relocated to a strong position at Strasburg, Virginia.Cozzens, pp. 228–229, 243, 255–257.
After Frémont's forces halted their advance into the Valley following McDowell, Jackson next turned to defeating Banks. On May 21, Jackson marched his command east from New Market and proceeded northward. Their speed of forced marching was typical of the campaign and earned his infantrymen the nickname of "Jackson's foot cavalry". He sent his horse cavalry directly north to make Banks think that he was going to attack Strasburg, but his plan was to defeat the small outpost at Front Royal and quickly attack Banks's line of communication at Harpers Ferry. On May 23, at the Battle of Front Royal, Jackson's army surprised and overran the pickets of the 1,000-man Union garrison, capturing nearly 700 of the garrison while suffering fewer than forty casualties himself. Jackson's victory forced Banks from Strasburg into a rapid retreat towards Winchester. Although Jackson attempted to pursue, his troops were exhausted and looted Union supply trains, slowing them down immensely. On May 25, at the First Battle of Winchester, Banks's army was attacked by converging Confederate columns and was soundly defeated, losing over 1,300 casualties and much of his supplies (including 9,000 small arms, a half million rounds of ammunition, and several tons of supplies); they withdrew north across the Potomac River. Jackson attempted pursuit but was unsuccessful, due to looting by Ashby's cavalry and the exhaustion of his infantry; after a few days of rest, he followed Banks's forces as far as Harpers Ferry, where he skirmished with the Union garrison.
In Washington, President Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton decided that the defeat of Jackson was an immediate priority (even though Jackson's orders were solely to keep Union forces occupied away from Richmond). They ordered Irvin McDowell to send 20,000 men to Front Royal and Frémont to move to Harrisonburg. If both forces could converge at Strasburg, Jackson's only escape route up the Valley would be cut. The immediate repercussion of this move was to abort McDowell's coordinated attack with McClellan on Richmond. Starting on May 29, while two columns of Union forces pursued him, Jackson started pushing his army in a forced march southward to escape the pincer movements, marching forty miles in thirty-six hours. His army took up defensive positions in Cross Keys and Port Republic, where he was able to defeat Frémont and James Shields (from McDowell's command), respectively, on June 8 and June 9.
Following these engagements, Union forces were withdrawn from the Valley. Jackson joined Robert E. Lee on the Peninsula for the Seven Days Battles (where he delivered an uncharacteristically lethargic performance, perhaps because of the strains of the Valley Campaign). He had accomplished his mission, withholding over 50,000 needed troops from McClellan. With the success of his Valley Campaign, Stonewall Jackson became the most celebrated soldier in the Confederacy (until he was eventually eclipsed by Lee) and lifted the morale of the public. In a classic military campaign of surprise and maneuver, he pressed his army to travel 646 miles (1,040 km) in 48 days of marching and won five significant victories with a force of about 17,000 against combined foes of 60,000.
Peninsula Campaign (1862)
George B. McClellan spent the winter of 1861–62 training his new Army of the Potomac and fighting off calls from President Lincoln to advance against the Confederates. Lincoln was particularly concerned about the army of General Joseph E. Johnston at Centreville, just 30 miles (50 km) from Washington. McClellan overestimated Johnston's strength and shifted his objective from that army to the Confederate capital of Richmond. He proposed to move by water to Urbanna on the Rappahannock River and then overland to Richmond before Johnston could move to block him. Although Lincoln favored the overland approach because it would shield Washington from any attack while the operation was in progress, McClellan argued that the road conditions in Virginia were intolerable, that he had arranged adequate defenses for the capital, and that Johnston would certainly follow him if he moved on Richmond. This plan was discussed for three months in the capital until Lincoln approved McClellan's proposal in early March. By March 9, however, Johnston withdrew his army from Centreville to Culpeper, making McClellan's Urbanna plan impracticable. McClellan then proposed to sail to Fort Monroe and then up the Virginia Peninsula (the narrow strip of land between the James and York rivers) to Richmond. Lincoln reluctantly agreed.
Before departing for the Peninsula, McClellan moved the Army of the Potomac to Centreville on a "shakedown" march. He discovered there how weak Johnston's force and position had really been, and he faced mounting criticism. On March 11, Lincoln relieved McClellan of his position as general-in-chief of the Union armies so that he could devote his full attention to the difficult campaign ahead of him. Lincoln himself, with the assistance of Secretary of War Stanton and a War Board of officers, assumed command of the Union armies for the next four months. The Army of the Potomac began to embark for Fort Monroe on March 17. The departure was accompanied by a newfound sense of concern. The first combat of ironclad ships occurred on March 8 and March 9 as the CSS Virginia and the USS Monitor fought the inconclusive Battle of Hampton Roads. The concern for the Army was that their transport ships would be attacked by this new weapon directly in their path. And the U.S. Navy failed to assure McClellan that they could protect operations on either the James or the York, so his idea of amphibiously enveloping Yorktown was abandoned, and he ordered an advance up the Peninsula to begin April 4. On April 5, McClellan was informed that Lincoln had canceled the movement of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell's corps to Fort Monroe, taking this action because McClellan had failed to leave the number of troops previously agreed upon at Washington, and because Jackson's Valley Campaign was causing concern. McClellan protested vociferously that he was being forced to lead a major campaign without his promised resources, but he moved ahead anyway.
Up the Peninsula
The Union forces advanced to Yorktown, but halted when McClellan found that the Confederate fortifications extended across the Peninsula instead of being limited to Yorktown as he had expected. After a delay of about a month building up siege resources, constructing trenches and siege batteries, and conducting a couple of minor skirmishes testing the line, the Siege of Yorktown was ready to commence. However, Johnston concluded that the Confederate defenses were too weak to hold off a Union assault and he organized a withdrawal during the night of May 3–4. During the campaign, the Union Army also seized Hampton Roads and occupied Norfolk. As the Union forces chased withdrawing Confederate forces up the Peninsula (northwest) in the direction of Richmond, the inconclusive single-day Battle of Williamsburg took place at and around Fort Magruder, one mile (1.5 km) east of the old colonial capital.
By the end of May, the Union forces had successfully advanced to within several miles of Richmond, but progress was slow. McClellan had planned for massive siege operations and brought immense stores of equipment and siege mortars but poor weather and inadequate roads kept his advance to a crawl. And McClellan was by nature a cautious general; he was nervous about attacking a force he believed was twice his in size. In fact, his imagination and his intelligence operations failed him; the proportions were roughly the reverse. During Johnston's slow retreat up the Peninsula, his forces practiced deceptive operations. In particular, the division under John B. Magruder, who was an amateur actor before the war, was able to fool McClellan by ostentatiously marching small numbers of troops past the same position multiple times, appearing to be a larger force.
As the Union Army drew towards the outer defenses of Richmond, it became divided by the Chickahominy River, weakening its ability to move troops back and forth along the front. McClellan kept most of his army north of the river, expecting McDowell to march from northern Virginia; only two Union corps (IV and III) were south of the river. Pressured by Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his military advisor Robert E. Lee, Johnston decided to attack the smaller Union force south of the river, hoping that the flooded Chickahominy, swollen from recent heavy rains, would prevent McClellan from moving to the southern bank. The Battle of Seven Pines (also known as the Battle of Fair Oaks), fought on May 31 – June 1, 1862, failed to follow Johnston's plan, due to faulty maps, uncoordinated Confederate attacks, and Union reinforcements, which were able to cross the river despite the flooding. The battle was tactically inconclusive, but there were two strategic effects. First, Johnston was wounded during the battle and was replaced by the more aggressive General Robert E. Lee, who would lead this Army of Northern Virginia to many victories in the war. Second, General McClellan chose to abandon his offensive operations to lay siege and await reinforcements he had requested from President Lincoln; as a consequence, he never regained his strategic momentum.
Lee used the month-long pause in McClellan's advance to fortify the defenses of Richmond and extended the works south of the James River to a point below Petersburg; the total length of the new defensive line was about 30 miles (50 km). To buy time to complete the new defensive line and prepare for an offensive, Lee repeated the tactic of making a small number of troops seem more numerous than they really were. Lee also sent Brig. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry brigade completely around the Union army (June 13–15) in order to ascertain if the Union right flank was in the air. In addition, Lee ordered Jackson to bring his force to the Peninsula as reinforcements. Meanwhile, McClellan shifted most of his forces south of the Chickahominy, leaving only Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter's V Corps north of the river.
Seven Days
Lee then moved onto the offensive, conducting a series of battles that lasted seven days (June 25 – July 1) and pushed McClellan back to a safe but nonthreatening position on the James River. McClellan actually struck first on June 25 at the Battle of Oak Grove, during which two Union divisions attempted to seize ground on which McClellan planned to build siege batteries. McClellan planned to attack again the next day but was distracted by the Confederate attack at Mechanicsville or Beaver Dam Creek, on June 26. Lee observed that McClellan had positioned his army straddling the Chickahominy River and could be defeated in detail. He planned for the division of A.P. Hill to demonstrate in Porter's front while Jackson marched behind the Union positions and attacked from the rear. However, Jackson was late in arriving to his assigned position, while Hill started his attack without waiting for Jackson and was repulsed with heavy casualties. Despite being a Union tactical victory, McClellan still ordered Porter to retreat south towards the rest of the Union army, fearing that Porter would be surrounded by vastly superior Confederate forces by morning. Porter set up defensive lines near Gaines's Mill, covering the bridges over the Chickahominy.
Lee continued his offensive at the Battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, launching the largest Confederate attack of the war against Porter's line. (It occurred in almost the same location as the 1864 Battle of Cold Harbor and had similar numbers of casualties.) The attack was poorly coordinated, and the Union lines held for most of the day, but Lee eventually broke through and McClellan withdrew again, heading for a secure base at Harrison's Landing on the James River.
The next two days saw minor battles at Garnett's and Golding's Farm and Savage's Station, as McClellan continued his withdraw and Lee attempted to cut off the Union retreat. The Battle of Glendale on June 30 was a bloody battle in which three Confederate divisions converged on the retreating Union forces in the White Oak Swamp, near Frayser's Farm, another name for the battle. Because of a lackluster performance by Stonewall Jackson, Lee's army failed in its last attempt to cut off the Union army before it reached the James.
The final battle of the Seven Days, July 1, consisted of uncoordinated Confederate assaults against the Union defenses—buttressed by artillery placements and the naval guns of the Union James River squadron—on Malvern Hill. McClellan was absent from the battlefield, instead remaining on the gunboat Galena; the Union corps commanders cooperated in selecting the positions for their troops but none of them exercised overall field command. Lee's army suffered over 5,600 casualties in this effort, compared to only 3,000 Union casualties. Although the Union corps commanders felt that they could hold the field against further Confederate attacks, McClellan ordered the army to retreat back to Harrison's Landing.
Malvern Hill signaled the end of both the Seven Days Battles and the Peninsula Campaign. The Army of the Potomac withdrew to the safety of the James River, protected by fire from Union gunboats, and stayed there until August, when they were withdrawn by order of President Lincoln in the run-up to the Second Battle of Bull Run. Although McClellan retained command of the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln showed his displeasure by appointing Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck to McClellan's previous position as general-in-chief of all the Union armies on July 11, 1862.
The cost to both sides was high. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia suffered almost 20,000 casualties out of a total of over 90,000 soldiers during the Seven Days, McClellan almost 16,000 out of 105,445. After a successful start on the Peninsula that foretold an early end to the war, Northern morale was crushed by McClellan's retreat. Despite heavy casualties and Lee's clumsy tactical performance, Confederate morale skyrocketed, and Lee was emboldened to continue his aggressive strategy through Northern Virginia and Maryland Campaigns.
Northern Virginia and Maryland (1862)
Following his success against McClellan on the Peninsula, Lee initiated two campaigns that can be considered one almost continuous offensive operation: defeating the second army that threatened Richmond and then continuing north on an invasion of Maryland.
Army of Virginia
President Lincoln reacted to McClellan's failure by appointing John Pope to command the newly formed Army of Virginia. Pope had achieved some success in the western theater, and Lincoln sought a more aggressive general than McClellan. The Army of Virginia consisted of over 50,000 men in three corps. Three corps of McClellan's Army of the Potomac later were added for combat operations. Two cavalry brigades were attached directly to two of the infantry corps, which presented a lack of centralized control that had negative effects in the campaign. Pope's mission was to fulfill two objectives: protect Washington and the Shenandoah Valley, and draw Confederate forces away from McClellan by moving in the direction of Gordonsville. Pope started on the latter by dispatching cavalry to break the railroad connecting Gordonsville, Charlottesville, and Lynchburg. The cavalry got off to a slow start and found that Stonewall Jackson had occupied Gordonsville with over 14,000 men.
Lee perceived that McClellan was no longer a threat to him on the Peninsula, so he felt no compulsion to keep all of his forces in direct defense of Richmond. This allowed him to relocate Jackson to Gordonsville to block Pope and protect the railroad. Lee had larger plans in mind. Since the Union Army was split between McClellan and Pope and they were widely separated, Lee saw an opening to destroy Pope before returning his attention to McClellan. Believing that Ambrose Burnside's troops from North Carolina were being shipped to reinforce Pope, and wanting to take immediate action before those troops were in position, Lee committed Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill to join Jackson with 12,000 men, while distracting McClellan to keep him immobilized.
On July 29, Pope moved some of his forces to a position near Cedar Mountain, from whence he could launch raids on Gordonsville. Jackson advanced to Culpeper on August 7, hoping to attack one of Pope's corps before the rest of the army could be concentrated. On August 9, Nathaniel Banks's corps attacked Jackson at Cedar Mountain, gaining an early advantage. A Confederate counterattack led by A.P. Hill drove Banks back across Cedar Creek. By now Jackson had learned that Pope's corps were all together, foiling his plan of defeating each in separate actions. He remained in position until August 12, when he withdrew to Gordonsville.
On August 13, Lee sent Maj. Gen. James Longstreet to reinforce Jackson and on the following day sent all of his remaining forces except for two brigades, after he was certain that McClellan was leaving the Peninsula. Lee himself arrived at Gordonsville to take command on August 15. His plan was to defeat Pope before McClellan's army could arrive to reinforce it by cutting bridges in Pope's rear and then attacking his left flank and rear. Pope spoiled Lee's plans by withdrawing to the line of the Rappahannock River; he was aware of Lee's plan because a Union cavalry raid captured a copy of the written order.
A series of skirmishes between August 22 and August 25 kept the attention of Pope's army along the river. By August 25, three corps from the Army of the Potomac had arrived from the Peninsula to reinforce Pope. Lee's new plan in the face of all these additional forces outnumbering him was to send Jackson and Stuart with half of the army on a flanking march to cut Pope's line of communication, the Orange & Alexandria Railroad. Pope would be forced to retreat and could be defeated while moving and vulnerable.
On the evening of August 26, after passing around Pope's right flank, Jackson's wing of the army struck the railroad at Bristoe Station and before daybreak August 27 marched to capture and destroy the massive Union supply depot at Manassas Junction. This surprise movement forced Pope to leave his defensive line along the Rappahannock and move toward Manassas Junction in the hopes of crushing Jackson's wing before the rest of Lee's army could reunite with it. During the night of August 27–28, Jackson marched his divisions north to the First Bull Run (Manassas) battlefield, where he took position behind an unfinished railroad grade. Longstreet's wing of the army marched through the Thoroughfare Gap to join Jackson, uniting the two wings of Lee's army.
Second Bull Run
In order to draw Pope's army into battle, Jackson ordered an attack on a Federal column that was passing across his front on August 28, beginning the Second Battle of Bull Run, the decisive battle of the Northern Virginia Campaign. The fighting lasted several hours and resulted in a stalemate. Pope became convinced that he had trapped Jackson and concentrated the bulk of his army against him. On August 29, Pope launched a series of assaults against Jackson's position along the unfinished railroad grade. The attacks were repulsed with heavy casualties on both sides. At noon, Longstreet arrived on the field and took position on Jackson's right flank. On August 30, Pope renewed his attacks, seemingly unaware that Longstreet was on the field. When massed Confederate artillery devastated a Union assault, Longstreet's wing of 28,000 men counterattacked in the largest simultaneous mass assault of the war. The Union left flank was crushed and the army driven back to Bull Run. Only an effective Union rearguard action prevented a replay of the First Bull Run disaster. Pope's retreat to Centreville was precipitous, nonetheless. The next day, Lee ordered his army in pursuit.
Making a wide flanking march, Jackson hoped to cut off the Union retreat. On September 1, Jackson sent his divisions against two Union divisions in the Battle of Chantilly. Confederate attacks were stopped by fierce fighting during a severe thunderstorm; both Union division commanders, Isaac Stevens and Philip Kearny, were killed during the fighting. Recognizing that his army was still in danger, Pope ordered the retreat to continue to Washington.
Invasion of Maryland
Lee decided that his army, despite taking heavy losses during the spring and summer, was ready for a great challenge: an invasion of the North. His goal was to penetrate the major Northern states of Maryland and Pennsylvania and cut off the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad line that supplied Washington. He also needed to supply his army and knew the farms of the North had been untouched by war, unlike those in Virginia. And he wished to lower Northern morale, believing that an invading army wreaking havoc inside the North might force Lincoln to negotiate an end to the war, particularly if he would be able to incite an uprising in the slave-holding state of Maryland.
The Army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac River and reached Frederick, Maryland, on September 6. Lee's specific goals were thought to be an advance towards Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, cutting the east–west railroad links to the Northeast, followed by operations against one of the major eastern cities, such as Philadelphia. News of the invasion caused panic in the North, and Lincoln was forced to take quick action. George B. McClellan had been in military limbo since returning from the Peninsula, but Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington and ordered him to deal with Lee.
Lee divided his army. Longstreet was sent to Hagerstown, while Jackson was ordered to seize the Union arsenal at Harpers Ferry, which commanded Lee's supply lines through the Shenandoah Valley; it was also a tempting target, virtually indefensible. McClellan requested permission from Washington to evacuate Harpers Ferry and attach its garrison to his army, but his request was refused. In the Battle of Harpers Ferry, Jackson placed artillery on the heights overlooking the town, forcing the surrender of the garrison of more than 12,000 men on September 15. Jackson led most of his soldiers to join the rest of Lee's army, leaving A.P. Hill's division to complete the occupation of the town.
McClellan moved out of Washington with his 87,000-man army in a slow pursuit, reaching Frederick on September 13. There, two Union soldiers discovered a mislaid copy of the detailed campaign plans of Lee's army—General Order Number 191—wrapped around three cigars. The order indicated that Lee had divided his army and dispersed portions geographically, thus making each subject to isolation and defeat in detail. McClellan waited 18 hours before deciding to take advantage of this intelligence, a delay that almost squandered his opportunity. That night, the Army of the Potomac moved toward South Mountain where elements of the Army of Northern Virginia waited in defense of the mountain passes. At the Battle of South Mountain on September 14, the Confederate defenders were driven back by the numerically superior Union forces, and McClellan was in a position to destroy Lee's army before it could concentrate.
Lee, seeing McClellan's uncharacteristic aggression, and learning through a Confederate sympathizer that his order had been compromised, frantically moved to concentrate his army. He chose not to abandon his invasion and return to Virginia yet, because Jackson had not completed the capture of Harpers Ferry. He also feared the effect on Confederate morale if he gave up his campaign with only the capture of Harpers Ferry to show for it. Instead, he chose to make a stand at Sharpsburg, Maryland.
Antietam
On September 16, McClellan confronted Lee near Sharpsburg, defending a line to the west of Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, the Battle of Antietam began, with Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker's corps mounting a powerful assault on Lee's left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across the Miller Cornfield and the woods near the Dunker Church. Union assaults against the Sunken Road ("Bloody Lane") eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not pressed. In each case, Confederate reinforcements from the right flank prevented a complete Union breakthrough and McClellan refused to release his reserves to complete the breakthrough.
In the afternoon, Burnside's corps crossed a stone bridge over Antietam Creek and rolled up the Confederate right. At a crucial moment, A.P. Hill's division arrived from Harpers Ferry and counterattacked, driving back Burnside's men and saving Lee's army from destruction. Although outnumbered two to one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army. This enabled Lee to shift brigades and concentrate on each individual Union assault. At over 23,000 casualties, it remains the bloodiest single day in American history. Lee ordered the battered Army of Northern Virginia to withdraw across the Potomac into the Shenandoah Valley. Despite being tactically inconclusive, the battle of Antietam is considered a strategic victory for the Union. Lee's strategic initiative to invade Maryland was defeated. But more importantly, President Lincoln used this opportunity to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, after which the prospect of European powers intervening in the war on behalf of the Confederacy was significantly diminished.
Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville (1862–63)
On November 7, 1862, President Lincoln relieved McClellan of command because of his failure to pursue and defeat Lee's retreating army from Sharpsburg. Ambrose Burnside, despite his indifferent performance as a corps commander at Antietam, was appointed to command the Army of the Potomac. Once again, Lincoln pressured his general to launch an offensive as quickly as possible. Burnside rose to the task and planned to drive directly south toward Richmond. He hoped to outflank Robert E. Lee by quickly crossing the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg and placing himself in between the Confederate army and their capital. Administrative difficulties prevented the pontoon bridging boats from arriving on time, and his army was forced to wait across the river from Fredericksburg while Lee took that opportunity to fortify a defensive line on the heights behind the city. Rather than giving up or finding another way to advance, Burnside crossed the river and on December 13, launched massive frontal assaults against Marye's Heights on Lee's left flank. His attacks were more successful on Lee's right, briefly breaking through Jackson's line; but due to a misunderstanding continued to pound the fortified heights with waves of attacks, believing that this would enable the troops opposite Jackson to exploit their advantage. The Union Army lost over 12,000 men that day; Confederate casualties were approximately 4,500.
Despite the defeat and the dismay felt in Washington, Burnside was not yet relieved from command. He planned to resume his offensive north of Fredericksburg, but it went amiss in January 1863 in the humiliating Mud March. Following this, a cabal of his subordinate generals made it clear to the government that Burnside was incapable of leading the army. One of those conspirators was Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, who was appointed to command the Army of the Potomac on January 26, 1863. Hooker, who had an excellent record as a corps commander in previous campaigns, spent the remainder of the winter reorganizing and resupplying his army, paying special attention to health and morale issues. And being known for his aggressive nature, he planned a complex spring campaign against Robert E. Lee.
Both armies remained in their positions before Fredericksburg. Hooker planned to send his cavalry, under Maj. Gen. George Stoneman, deep into the Confederate rear to disrupt supply lines. While one corps remained to fix Lee's attention at Fredericksburg, the others were to slip away and make a stealthy flanking march that would put the bulk of Hooker's army behind Lee, catching him in a vise. Lee, who had dispatched a corps of his army under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet to forage in southern Virginia, was outnumbered 57,000 to 97,000.
The plan began executing well, and the bulk of the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan River and was in position on May 1. However, after minor initial contact with the enemy, Hooker began to lose his confidence, and rather than striking the Army of Northern Virginia in its rear as planned, he withdrew to a defensive perimeter around Chancellorsville. On May 2, Robert E. Lee executed one of the boldest maneuvers of the war. Having already split his army to address both wings of Hooker's attack, he split again, sending 20,000 men under Stonewall Jackson on a lengthy flanking march to attack Hooker's unprotected right flank. Achieving almost complete surprise, Jackson's corps routed the Union XI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard. Following this success Jackson was mortally wounded by friendly fire while scouting in front of his army.
While Lee pounded the Chancellorsville defense line with repeated, costly assaults on May 3, the Union VI Corps, under Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, finally achieved what Ambrose Burnside could not, by successfully assaulting the reduced forces on Marye's Heights in Fredericksburg. The corps began moving westward, once again threatening Lee's rear. Lee was able to deal with both wings of the Army of the Potomac, keeping the stunned Hooker in a defensive posture and dispatching a division to deal with Sedgwick's tentative approach. By May 7, Hooker withdrew all of his forces north of the Rappahannock. It was an expensive victory for Lee, who lost 13,000 men, or 25% of his army; Hooker lost 17,000, but had a lower casualty rate than Lee had incurred.
Gettysburg and fall maneuvering (1863)
In June 1863, Robert E. Lee decided to capitalize on his victory at Chancellorsville by repeating his strategy of 1862 and once again invading the North. He did this to resupply his army, give the farmers of Virginia a respite from war, and threaten the morale of Northern civilians, possibly by seizing an important northern city, such as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or Baltimore, Maryland. The Confederate government agreed to this strategy only reluctantly because Jefferson Davis was concerned about the fate of Vicksburg, Mississippi, the river fortress being threatened by Ulysses S. Grant's Vicksburg campaign. Following the death of Jackson, Lee organized the Army of Northern Virginia into three corps, led by Lt. Gens. James Longstreet, Richard S. Ewell, and A.P. Hill.
Lee began moving his army northwest from Fredericksburg into the Shenandoah Valley, where the Blue Ridge Mountains screened their northward movements. Joseph Hooker, still in command of the Army of the Potomac, sent cavalry forces to find Lee. On June 9, the clash at Brandy Station was the largest predominantly cavalry battle of the war but ended inconclusively. Hooker started his entire army in pursuit; over the next few weeks, Hooker would argue with both Lincoln and Halleck over the role of the garrison at Harpers Ferry. On June 28, President Lincoln lost patience with him and relieved him of command, replacing him with V Corps commander, Maj. Gen. George G. Meade. After reviewing the positions of the army's corps with Hooker, Meade ordered the army to advance into southern Pennsylvania in a wide front, with the intention of protecting Washington and Baltimore and finding Lee's army. He also drew up plans to defend a line behind Pipe Creek in northern Maryland in case he could not find suitable ground in Pennsylvania to fight a battle to his advantage.
Lee was surprised to find that the Federal army was moving as quickly as it was. As they crossed the Potomac and entered Frederick, Maryland, the Confederates were spread out over a considerable distance in Pennsylvania, with Richard Ewell across the Susquehanna River from Harrisburg and James Longstreet and A. P. Hill behind the mountains in Chambersburg. His cavalry, under Jeb Stuart, was engaged in a wide-ranging raid around the eastern flank of the Union army and was uncharacteristically out of touch with headquarters, leaving Lee blind as to his enemy's position and intentions. Lee realized that, just as in the Maryland Campaign, he had to concentrate his army before it could be defeated in detail. He ordered all units to move to the general vicinity of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
The Battle of Gettysburg is often considered the war's turning point. Meade defeated Lee in a three-day battle fought by 160,000 soldiers, with 51,000 casualties. It started as a meeting engagement on the morning of July 1, when brigades from Henry Heth's division clashed with Buford's cavalry, and then John F. Reynolds's I Corps. As the Union XI Corps arrived, they and the I Corps were smashed by Ewell's and Hill's corps arriving from the north and forced back through the town, taking up defensive positions on high ground south of town. On July 2, Lee launched a massive pair of assaults against the left and right flanks of Meade's army. Fierce battles raged at Little Round Top, Devil's Den, the Wheatfield, the Peach Orchard, East Cemetery Hill, and Culp's Hill. Meade was able to shift his defenders along interior lines, and they repulsed the Confederate advances. On July 3, Lee launched Pickett's Charge against the Union center, and almost three divisions were slaughtered. By this time, Stuart had returned, and he fought an inconclusive cavalry duel to the east of the main battlefield, attempting to drive into the Union rear area. The two armies stayed in position on July 4 (the same day the Battle of Vicksburg ended in a stunning Union victory), and then Lee ordered a retreat back across the Potomac to Virginia.
Meade's pursuit of Lee was tentative and unsuccessful. He received considerable criticism from President Lincoln and others, who believed he could have ended the war in the aftermath of Gettysburg. In October, a portion of Meade's army was detached to the western theater; Lee saw this as an opportunity to defeat the Union army in detail and to threaten Washington so no more Union forces could be sent west. The resulting Bristoe Campaign ended with Lee retreating back to the Rapidan River, having failed in his intentions. Meade was pressured by Lincoln into making one final offensive campaign in the fall of 1863, the Mine Run Campaign. However, Lee was able to cut off Meade's advance and construct breastworks; Meade considered the Confederate defenses too strong for a frontal attack and retreated back to his winter quarters.
Grant versus Lee (1864–65)
In March 1864, Ulysses S. Grant was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of all the Union armies. He devised a coordinated strategy to apply pressure on the Confederacy from many points, something President Lincoln had urged his generals to do from the beginning of the war. Grant put Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman in immediate command of all forces in the West and moved his own headquarters to be with the Army of the Potomac (still commanded by George Meade) in Virginia, where he intended to maneuver Lee's army to a decisive battle; his secondary objective was to capture Richmond, but Grant knew that the latter would happen automatically once the former was accomplished. His coordinated strategy called for Grant and Meade to attack Lee from the north, while Benjamin Butler drove toward Richmond from the southeast; Franz Sigel to control the Shenandoah Valley; Sherman to invade Georgia, defeat Joseph E. Johnston, and capture Atlanta; George Crook and William W. Averell to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia; and Nathaniel P. Banks to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Most of these initiatives failed, often because of the assignment of generals to Grant for political rather than military reasons. Butler's Army of the James bogged down against inferior forces under P.G.T. Beauregard before Richmond in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign. Sigel was soundly defeated at the Battle of New Market in May and was soon afterward replaced by David Hunter. Banks was distracted by the Red River Campaign and failed to move on Mobile. However, Crook and Averell were able to cut the last railway linking Virginia and Tennessee, and Sherman's Atlanta campaign was a success, although it dragged on through the fall.
Overland Campaign
In early May, the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan River and entered the area known as the Wilderness of Spotsylvania. There, in dense woods that nullified the Union army's advantages in artillery, Robert E. Lee surprised Grant and Meade with aggressive assaults. The two-day Battle of the Wilderness was tactically inconclusive, although very damaging to both sides. However, unlike his predecessors, Grant did not retreat after the battle; he sent his army to the southeast and began a campaign of maneuver that kept Lee on the defensive through a series of bloody battles and moved closer to Richmond. Grant knew that his larger army and base of manpower in the North could sustain a war of attrition better than Lee and the Confederacy could. And although Grant suffered high losses—approximately 55,000 casualties—during the campaign, Lee lost even higher percentages of his men, losses that could not be replaced.
In the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, Lee was able to beat Grant to the crossroads town and establish a strong defensive position. In a series of attacks over two weeks, Grant hammered away at the Confederate lines, mostly centered on a salient known as the "Mule Shoe". A massive assault by Winfield S. Hancock's II Corps on the "Bloody Angle" portion of this line on May 12 foreshadowed the breakthrough tactics employed against trenches late in World War I. Grant once again disengaged and slipped to the southeast.
Intercepting Grant's movement, Lee positioned his forces behind the North Anna River in a salient to force Grant to divide his army to attack it. Lee had the opportunity to defeat Grant but failed to attack in the manner necessary to spring the trap he had set, possibly because of an illness. After rejecting a frontal assault on Lee's positions as too costly and initially approving a plan to move around Lee's left flank, Grant changed his mind and continued moving southeast.
On May 31, Union cavalry seized the vital crossroads of Old Cold Harbor while the Confederates arrived from Richmond and from the Totopotomoy Creek lines. Late on June 1, two Union corps reached Cold Harbor and assaulted the Confederate works with some success. By June 2, both armies were on the field, forming on a seven-mile (11 km) front. At dawn on June 3, the II and XVIII Corps, followed later by the IX Corps, assaulted the line and were slaughtered at all points in the Battle of Cold Harbor. Grant lost over 12,000 men in a battle that he regretted more than any other and Northern newspapers thereafter frequently referred to him as a "butcher".
On the night of June 12, Grant again advanced by his left flank, marching to the James River. He was able to disguise his intentions from Lee, and his army crossed the river on a bridge of pontoons that stretched over 2,100 feet (640 m). What Lee had feared most of all—that Grant would force him into a siege of the capital city—was poised to occur.
Petersburg
Grant had decided, however, that there was a more efficient way to get at Richmond and Lee. A few miles to the south, the city of Petersburg contained crucial rail links supplying the capital. If the Union Army could seize it, Richmond would be taken. However, Benjamin Butler had failed to capture it earlier and then indecisive advances by Grant's subordinates also failed to break through the thin lines manned by P.G.T. Beauregard's men, allowing Lee's army to arrive and erect defenses. Both sides settled in for a siege.
In an attempt to break the siege, Union troops in Ambrose Burnside's corps mined a tunnel under the Confederate line. On July 30, they detonated the explosives, creating a crater some 135 feet (41 m) in diameter that remains visible to this day. Almost 350 Confederate soldiers were instantly killed in the blast. Despite the ingenuity of the Union's plan, the lengthy, bloody Battle of the Crater, as it came to be called, was marred by poor tactical planning and was a Confederate victory.
Through the fall and winter, both armies constructed elaborate series of trenches, eventually spanning more than 30 miles (50 km), as the Union Army attempted to get around the right (western) flank of the Confederates and destroy their supply lines. Although the Northern public became quite dispirited by the seeming lack of progress at Petersburg, the dramatic success of Sherman at Atlanta helped ensure the reelection of Abraham Lincoln, which guaranteed that the war would be fought to a conclusion.
Shenandoah Valley (1864–65)
The Shenandoah Valley was a crucial region for the Confederacy: it was one of the most important agricultural regions in Virginia and was a prime invasion route against the North. Grant hoped that an army from the Department of West Virginia under Franz Sigel could seize control of the Valley, moving "up the Valley" (southwest to the higher elevations) with 10,000 men to destroy the railroad center at Lynchburg. Sigel immediately suffered defeat at the Battle of New Market on May 15 and was soon replaced by David Hunter, who won a victory at the Battle of Piedmont on June 5. Hunter began burning Confederate agricultural resources as well as the homes of some prominent secessionists, earning him the nickname "Black Dave" from the Confederates. In Lexington he burned the Virginia Military Institute.
Robert E. Lee, now besieged in Petersburg, was concerned about Hunter's advances and sent Jubal Early's corps to sweep Union forces from the Valley and, if possible, to menace Washington, D.C., hoping to compel Grant to dilute his forces around Petersburg. Early got off to a good start, driving back Hunter's force in the Battle of Lynchburg. He drove down the Valley without opposition, bypassed Harpers Ferry, crossed the Potomac River, and advanced into Maryland. Grant dispatched a corps under Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright and other troops under George Crook to reinforce Washington and pursue Early.
At the Battle of Monocacy (July 9, 1864), Early defeated a smaller force under Lew Wallace near Frederick, Maryland, but this battle delayed his progress enough to allow time for reinforcing the defenses of Washington. Early attacked a fort on the northwest defensive perimeter of Washington (Fort Stevens, July 11–12) without success and withdrew back to Virginia. He successfully fought a series of minor battles in the Valley through early August and prevented Wright's corps from returning to Grant at Petersburg. He also burned the city of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, retaliating against Hunter's earlier actions in the Valley.
Grant knew that Washington remained vulnerable if Early was still on the loose. He found a new commander aggressive enough to defeat Early: Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, the cavalry commander of the Army of the Potomac, who was given command of all forces in the area, the Middle Military Division, including the Army of the Shenandoah. Sheridan initially started slowly, primarily because the impending presidential election of 1864 demanded a cautious approach, avoiding any disaster that might lead to the defeat of Abraham Lincoln.
Sheridan began moving aggressively in September. He defeated Early in the Third Battle of Winchester on September 19 and the Battle of Fisher's Hill on September 21–22. With Early damaged and pinned down, the Valley lay open to the Union. Coupled with Sherman's capture of Atlanta and Adm. David Farragut's victory at Mobile Bay, Lincoln's re-election seemed assured. Sheridan pulled back slowly down the Valley and conducted a scorched earth campaign that presaged Sherman's March to the Sea in November. The goal was to deny the Confederacy the means of feeding its armies in Virginia, and Sheridan's army burned crops, barns, mills, and factories.
The campaign was effectively concluded at the Battle of Cedar Creek (October 19, 1864). In a brilliant surprise attack at dawn, Early routed two-thirds of the Union army, but his troops were hungry and exhausted and many fell out of their ranks to pillage the Union camp; Sheridan managed to rally his troops and defeat Early decisively. In late fall, Sheridan sent his infantry to assist Grant at Petersburg, with his cavalry arriving the following spring. Most of the men of Early's corps rejoined Lee at Petersburg in December, while Early remained to command a skeleton force until he was relieved of command in March 1865 after his defeat at the Battle of Waynesboro, Virginia.
Appomattox (1865)
In January 1865, Robert E. Lee became the general-in-chief of all Confederate armies, but this move came too late to help the Southern cause. As the siege of Petersburg continued, Grant attempted to break or encircle the Confederate forces in multiple attacks moving from east to west; gradually, he cut all of the Confederate supply lines except the Richmond & Danville Railroad entering Richmond and the South Side Railroad supplying Petersburg. By March, the siege had taken an enormous toll on both armies, and Lee decided to pull out of Petersburg. Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon then devised a plan to have the army attack Fort Stedman on the eastern end of the Union Lines, forcing the Union forces to shorten their lines. Although initially a success, his outnumbered corps was forced back by a Union counterattack.
Sheridan returned from the Valley and was tasked with flanking the Confederate army, which forced Lee to send forces under Maj. Gen. George Pickett and Maj. Gen. Fitzhugh Lee to defend the flank. Grant then deployed cavalry and two infantry corps under Sheridan to cut off Pickett's forces. Pickett and Fitzhugh Lee attacked first on March 31 at Dinwiddie Court House, and succeeded in pushing back the Union forces but did not gain a decisive advantage. They withdrew their forces to Five Forks that night. On April 1, Sheridan launched another attack, flanking Pickett's forces and destroying the Confederate left wing, capturing over two thousand Confederates. This victory meant that Sheridan could capture the South Side Railroad the next day.
After the victory at Five Forks, Grant ordered an assault along the entire Confederate line on April 2, called the Third Battle of Petersburg, resulting in dramatic breakthroughs. During the fighting, A.P. Hill was killed. During the day and into the night, Lee pulled his forces out from Petersburg and Richmond and headed west to Danville, the destination of the fleeing Confederate government, and then south to meet up with General Joseph E. Johnston in North Carolina. The capital city of Richmond surrendered on the morning of April 3.
The campaign became a race between Lee and Sheridan, with Lee attempting to obtain supplies for his retreat and Sheridan attempting to cut him off, with the Union infantry close behind. At Sayler's Creek on April 6, nearly a quarter of the Confederate army (about 8,000 men, the majority of two corps) was cut off and forced to surrender; many of the Confederate supply trains, crossing the creek to the north, were also captured. Although Grant wrote to him suggesting that surrender was his last remaining course of action, Lee still attempted to outmarch the Union forces. In Lee's final attack at Appomattox on the morning April 9, John B. Gordon's depleted corps attempted to break the Union lines and reach the supplies in Lynchburg. They pushed back Sheridan's cavalry briefly but found themselves faced with the full Union V Corps. Surrounded on three sides, Lee was forced to surrender his army to Grant at Appomattox Court House that day, with the formal surrender ceremony taking place two days later.
There were further minor battles and surrenders of Confederate armies, but Lee's surrender on April 9, 1865, marked the effective end of the Civil War. Lee, rejecting advice from some of his staff, wanted to ensure that his army did not melt away into the countryside to continue the war as guerrillas, helping to heal the divisions of the country.
Major land battles
The costliest land battles in the eastern theater, measured by casualties (killed, wounded, captured, and missing), were:
See also
Bibliography of the American Civil War
Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln
Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
List of American Civil War battles
List of costliest American Civil War land battles
Notes
References
Bonekemper, Edward H., III. A Victor, Not a Butcher: Ulysses S. Grant's Overlooked Military Genius. Washington, DC: Regnery, 2004. .
Calkins, Chris. The Appomattox Campaign: March 29 – April 9, 1865. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, 1997. .
Cooling, B. F. Jubal Early's Raid on Washington 1864. Baltimore, MD: The Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1989. .
Cozzens, Peter. Shenandoah 1862: Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008. .
Davis, William C. Battle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977. .
The Editors of Time-Life Books. Echoes of Glory: Illustrated Atlas of the Civil War. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1991. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website.
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 3, Red River to Appomattox. New York: Random House, 1974. .
Fuller, Maj. Gen. J. F. C. The Generalship of Ulysses S. Grant. New York: Da Capo Press, 1929. .
Furgurson, Ernest B. Chancellorsville 1863: The Souls of the Brave. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. .
Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. .
Hennessy, John J. Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. .
Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. .
Newell, Clayton R. Lee Vs. McClellan: The First Campaign. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1996. .
O'Reilly, Francis Augustín. The Fredericksburg Campaign: Winter War on the Rappahannock. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003. .
Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. .
Sears, Stephen W. Gettysburg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. .
Sears, Stephen W. To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992. .
Sears, Stephen W. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983. .
Trudeau, Noah Andre. Bloody Roads South: The Wilderness to Cold Harbor, May–June 1864. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989. .
Trudeau, Noah Andre. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia June 1864 – April 1865. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1991. .
Further reading
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: Birth of Command, November 1860 – September 1861. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. .
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: McClellan Takes Command, September 1861 – February 1862. New York: Da Capo Press, 2004. .
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: McClellan's First Campaign, March – May 1862. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .
Browning, Robert Jr. From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993. .
Burton, Brian K. Extraordinary Circumstances: The Seven Days Battles. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2001. .
Catton, Bruce. Glory Road. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1952. .
Catton, Bruce. Mr. Lincoln's Army. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1951. .
Catton, Bruce. A Stillness at Appomattox. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1953. .
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. 3 vols. New York: Random House, 1974. .
Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. 3 vols. New York: Scribner, 1946. .
Freeman, Douglas S. R. E. Lee, A Biography. 4 vols. New York: Scribner, 1934.
Glatthaar, Joseph T. General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse. New York: Free Press, 2008. .
Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. .
McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
Murfin, James V. The Gleam of Bayonets: Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862. Covington, GA: Mockingbird Press, 1965. .
Welcher, Frank J. The Union Army, 1861–1865 Organization and Operations. Vol. 1, The Eastern Theater. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. .
Wert, Jeffry D. The Sword of Lincoln: The Army of the Potomac. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. .
Williams, T. Harry. Lincoln and His Generals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952. .
External links
National Park Service Civil War at a Glance
Theaters of the American Civil War
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4166260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20South%20African%20slang%20words | List of South African slang words | South Africa is a diverse country with 12 official languages, and many citizens will speak two or more languages. It is very common to mix languages in casual conversations, on social media, or in music lyrics.
This is a list of commonly used terms and phases across Southern Africa per the United Nations geoscheme for Africa, including mainly South Africa and the neighbouring countries of Botswana, eSwatini (formerly Swaziland), Lesotho, and Namibia. From a linguistic perspective, the Eastern African countries of Mozambique and Zimbabwe are typically included, as well.
Curse words and slurs
South Africa is a country formed from centuries of immigrants, settlers, and colonisers. It has a long history of using racial slurs or derogatory phrases when speaking of the other. Some such words have more recently been reclaimed as a mark of pride and defiance (for example, coloured).
"Voetsek", or simply "tsek", is a fun way of telling someone to "fuck off". This is also used to scare unwanted animals away.
"Jou Ma se gat" or "Jou Ma se poes" is a derogatory phrase that literally translates to "Your Mom's hole" or "Your Mom's vagina". This is often seen as more aggressive than the aforementioned phrase "voetsek".
Colloquial phrases
Time
Normally, in other English-speaking countries, when you say you're doing something "now", you would assume it means that you will do said thing right away. In South Africa, the phrases "now now", "just now", and "right now" all have differing connotations: "Now now" often means minutes later; "just now" means hours later; and "right now" actually means now.
For example, the following line using South African slang:
...actually has the following meaning in standard usageL:
Slang words from English
South Africa uses British English spelling and punctuation, although some American spellings are common.
aswell – increasingly pronounced with emphasis on the "as".
awe – A word that could mean anything, but generally used to convey emphasis (e.g., "Awe, how you doing?"; "Awe, thank you boss").
boykie or boytjie – meaning a young male who is cool in the high-school stereotype kind of way. Sporty and tanned, uses a lot of slang. From English "boy" and the Afrikaans diminutive "-tjie".
boy – a disrespectful term used to describe a black man or a young male of any ethnicity, depending on context. A elderly black gardener may be referred to as a garden boy.
buddy - while the original English meaning stays intact, it also refers to the 500ml/440ml bottles of Soft drink, for example: "Can I get a buddy Coke?"
boss – originating from a person being a boss. People started calling people boss in a friendly manner.
baff – act of flatulence, for example: "Did you baff?"
boney – Bicycle or motorbike
bru – male friend (shortening of brother)
breakdown – an average pick-up truck that has been specially modified into a tow-truck. Often modified for performance.
buttons – mandrax tablet
canyon crab – derogatory term for Afrikaner
carrots – broken, done over, beaten up.
chase – leave, go; analogous to "blow" or "duck", as in "Bru, let's chase."; "This place is dof; I'm gonna chase, boet."
chips or cherps – "Watch out" or "Move out the way", as in "Chips chips everyone, here comes the teacher!" (distinct from the food or snack). Also often used when something gets thrown, or to ask someone to step out the way. Compare "heads up!"
choef - A vape, usually a disposable vape - can be used as a verb aswell; "Jonno was choefing"
chop – idiot
chow – to eat something (Bunny chow, an Indian South African fast food dish)
chot – an offensive term for a sexually active female
civvies – taken from the English term "civilian wear", it refers to day-to-day clothes worn when out of school or military uniform. Casual Fridays are encouraged annually due to the public school system's dress code employing a uniform, similar to European school dress codes. Once or twice a year students are encouraged to come to school in their civvies.
clutchplate – derogatory term for Afrikaner
coconut – lit. coconut fruit; can be used as a racist remark towards black people who behave like Caucasians, "brown on the outside, white on the inside".
connection – a friend, mate, chommie
cozzie – a swimsuit, short for swimming costume
crunchie – derogatory term for Afrikaner
diss – to intentionally disregard somebody else. That oke is totally dissing me
double-up – simply means a lesser-known shortcut
duck/dip – To leave or go, primarily when talking about leaving a location, from the English "duck" (derived from but not related to the bird)."Im gonna make a duck from this party, bru"
flip – A euphemism for the vulgar f-word. Used in various phrases to express anger, annoyance, contempt, impatience, or surprise, or simply for emphasis.
force -when someone does something unnecessarily, too many times for the given situation or adds something to a conversation that is not necessary (It is a noun and verb)
give rocks – to be indifferent. For example: "I give rocks about your concerns!" (I couldn't care about your concerns!) Can also be abbreviated to "Give rocks.", and the negative version "I don't give rocks" means exactly the same thing.
giyn – a homosexual male
graze – a term used in reference to food. "I'm starving, let's go get some graze."
grafting – for a person to be working
higher grade – a bit too complicated (from the South African matric division of exams into standard grade and higher grade. The system of dividing subjects into higher and standard grade has become non-existent as of 2008.)
howzit – lit. "how is it". An informal greeting similar to "hi", often replied to with another "howzit". It is important to note that the last thing anyone expects is for you to actually start telling them how things are. Similar to "How do you do?"
hundreds – good, fine, as in 100 percent; for example: Splaff: "Howzit bru, how are you?" Bazza: "I'm hundreds boet."
jukka – a lazy person or a loser
just now, sometime in the near future or the near past, not necessarily immediately. Expresses an intention to act soon, but not necessarily immediately, or expresses something that happened in the near past. Probably from the Afikaans netnou with the same meaning.
Dutchman – derogatory term for Afrikaner
glug-glug, ama-glug-glug – lit. the sound made by a flowing liquid through a small opening, like a bottle being emptied. Also refers to a viral television advertisement from the 1980s (involving a little boy playing with his toy Ferrari Testarossa) by the South African Oil company, Sasol. The term also became one of Sasol's signature slogans. Amaglug-glug is a youth football team.
isit – (pronounced: \izit\) the words "is" and "it" put together. Short term for "Is that so?" (For example: John: "Bra, I just found out I have a million dollars!" Charles: "Isit?"; or: John: "Bru, you would not believe how amazing it felt to footskate in front of all those people." Charles: "Isit?") Also, it can mean "really?"
kief – nice, good, cool
kokie pen – a felt tip pen, similar to a sharpie.
lokshin – a Bantu township, from the alternate term, "location".
now now – an immediate but not literal declaration of impending action, may be past or future tense. From the Afrikaans expression "nou nou".
OK – lit. "okay" (alternatively pronounced in Afrikaans as "oë-kah") while its original English meaning stays intact, it is also the name of a local retail franchise owned by Shoprite. When used in conjunction with the original word "okay", the franchise's name can become a source of comedy, for example: "I'm at the OK, okay!"
packet or "checkers packet" – a plastic bag
penalty – refers to someone tripping (usually shouted if someone almost trips)
Peppermint Crisp – is a milk chocolate bar invented in South Africa by Wilson-Rowntree, now produced by Swiss chocolatier Nestlé. It features thin layers of milk chocolate and tubes of mint-flavoured crunch. It is also popularly used as a topping on a milk-based tart that shares its name.
Prestik – brand name for a sticky substance normally used to attach paper to walls, similar to Blutack
pong – refers to a strong sense of stench or bad odor.
pull through (pull in) – come or arrive, especially to a place/event that is amenable: "We're having a great jol here, boet. You should pull through."
pull – to kiss someone
poes – an Afrikaans word for cat now turned swear word. Normally means something derogatory; "That oak was so rude bru." "Yeah no he was a proper poes bru."
rate – when you think you should do something; "I rate we go to the club on Friday."
robot – alongside its original English meaning, it is also used exclusively in South Africa, to refer to a traffic light. Originating from traffic guards during the British colonization period, for moving like a robot while directing traffic. Though the traffic guard has largely been replaced by the traffic light, the name stuck.
rockspider – derogatory term for Afrikaner. Though more well known as a national Battle of the Bands-style competition called Rockspaaider that was hosted by JIP, a teen-based lifestyle series, on the Afrikaans music channel MK.
rooinek – derogatory term for an Englishman, literally someone with fair skin whose neck is sunburned red.
rop – nice, radical. (e.g. "That was such a rop wave.") Also used as a verb meaning 'to steal'. (e.g. "I will rop you of that kief watch.")
saamie/saarmie – a sandwich
scheme – to think or plan to do something (e.g. "I scheme we should go home now"; usage evolved from the hyperbole "What are you scheming?" asked of a person deep in thought.)
schweet – a variation of the expression "sweet"
siff – if something is gross or disgusting or ugly. "Did you see her oufit? It was totally siff!"
skipper – a t-shirt
skyrocket/sky-rocket – refers to a portable toilet.
slops – flip-flops
speak goat – derogatory term for speaking Afrikaans
soutpiel – a derogatory term for someone of British descent. Lit. salt dick, one who has one foot in England and one foot in South Africa, with their penis dangling in the Atlantic Ocean. Sometimes shortened to soutie.
spinning – alongside its original English meaning (to spin or turn), it also refers to a popular local motorsport culture. Whereby a driver would spin his car's wheels while performing a doughnut and various other drift-style manoeuvres in front of an audience.
swak – see "swat". From the Afrikaans for "weak"
swat – carrying out an action resulting in an undesirable or negative outcome; "when you chaffed my cherrie the other day, it was swat oke. Totally swat"; "Moderating a list of slang words is impossible and totally swat oke"; "Changing this word to swak would be totally swat oke".
smaak – to like something; "Did you see that car driving down the road? Yeah, I smaak it so much."
shame – a casual South African re-action to something whether it is good or bad.
takkies, tekkies – sneakers; sports shoes, perhaps from when the soles were made of tacky crepe rubber. As in "slap takkie when the robot tunes favour:" hit the gas when the traffic light says go.
tata/ta ta/ta-ta – a goodbye greeting of British origin.
taxi – alongside the original meaning, it is also often shouted in bars or restaurants when someone accidentally spills their drink. Basically, this person is obviously so drunk that a taxi should be called immediately to take them home.
tickey – thruppence, three pence, from the days of pounds, shillings and pence before 1960. "You could get a tickey for returning a coke bottle and three tickeys would buy you an eskimo pie". A tickey-box was a payphone, which cost a tickey to make a call.
town – the city centre (CBD is used in more formal contexts), e.g. "It's too much of a headache to find parking in town, so I go to the mall instead". Also used to refer to the city of Durban when in any of the smaller towns along the south coast between Durban and Port Shepstone. "Hey china, lets go for a jol in town tonight!"
traffic circle – roundabout (road)
chune – to talk back or give someone lip ("Are you tuning me skeef?")
zamalek – Black Label Lager, locally brewed under licence; derived from the Egyptian football team of the same name because of the team colours. A very popular local beer because of its high alcohol content.
Slang words from Afrikaans (Afrikanerisms)
A–M
aya – brother and rasta
Abba – not to be confused with Swedish pop-group ABBA, it is a title given to God the Father, derived from the Aramaic word for father.
abba – to carry someone (normally a child) on one's back.
africtionary – Website for African Slang dictionary.
ag man – oh man; ag as the Afrikaans equivalent to "oh" (pronounced \jach\ like German ACHtung), "man" pronounced as in "mun" in "munches".
ag shame – both an expression of pity and sorrow, depending on context: Ag shame, daardie baba is te oulik! (Aw, that baby is so cute!); Ag shame, die arme hond is dood. (Ah shame, the poor dog died.)
antie – an older female authority figure. Derived from the English "aunt", with the original meaning still intact.
anties – breasts/boobs or plural of the word "aunt"
aweh/awe (pronounced \AAAH-WHE\) – said in excitement, as in: 'Aweh; my boss said I can go home early today.', 'or 'Ok, cool'.' Same as the English pop culture slang 'yas'. The word has many meanings or uses: "hello", "goodbye", "yes", "cool". Also associated with prison use. (Greeting) "Aweh, my bru." (Hello my friend). Similar: howzit, yooit, hoesit, yo.
babbelbekkie – someone who talks a lot
babelaas / babbelas – hangover (of Xhosa origin)
bakgat – cool; expression of appreciation for something very well accomplished
bakore - lit "bowl ears", refers specifically to people who have Protruding ears, like a bowl's handles.
bakkie – a utility truck or pick-up truck, now a mainstream word in South African English. Can also refer to a small plastic container/bowl.
balla – lit. "balls". Refers to the scrotum or penis.
ballie - close male friend. Sometimes used to refer to an older man. Can also be used to describe an old man as irritable or crabby.
ouballie - father. "My 'ouballie' always used to tell us this story."
balsak – lit. "ball-sack". Refers specifically to the scrotum.
bangbroek – lit. "scaredy-pants"
befok – really good, exciting, cool; as in "The rock-show was befok." (Do not confuse with gefok.). Also means to be extremely angry(kwaad); as in "Ek is nou so befok". Can also mean "crazy" in a very strong sense, as in "Are you befok?" – derogatory. Can also mean "to have sex with".
befoetered/bedonnered/bemoerd – lit. "extremely angry" similar to "diedonnerend", etc. Usually used to refer to a person who is often in a very bad mood.
bergie – from Afrikaans berg, which translates to "mountain", originally referring to vagrants who sheltered in the forests of Table Mountain; now a mainstream word for a particular subculture of vagrants, or homeless persons, especially in Cape Town.
beter bang Jan, as dooie Jan – lit. "better to be a scared Jan rather than a dead Jan". English equivalent is "better to be safe than sorry".
bietjie-baie – lit. "a little bit too much". "bietjie" (a little bit – "be-key") and "baie" (a lot – "bye-ya")
bielie – a butch, yet friendly and often brave man with a lot of stamina. Someone who will lovingly do something tough no matter if the odds are stacked against him. Derived from the folk song "Jan, Jan, Jan, die bielie van die bosveld". Which describes a man (Jan) who is willing to do any form of hard labour with a smile on his face.
blerrie/bladdy hell – damn/damnit. Originally from the British English phrase "bloody hell".
bliksem – strike, hit, punch; also used often as an expression of surprise/emphasis. It derives from the Dutch word for "lightning", and often occurs in conjunction with donner. "Bliksem! Daai weerlig was hard!". (Damn! That lightning-strike was loud!) Used as a curse in Afrikaans: "Jou bliksem!" (You bastard!)
bliksemse – lit. "damn thing" Used in conjunction with "donnerse".
bloutrein – literally "blue train", referring to methylated spirits, sometimes used for drinking (filtered through a loaf of white bread). Also refers to the Blue Train, a luxury train that travels from Johannesburg to Cape Town via the Trans Karoo rail-line aka "Transkaroo".
boef – lit. "law-breaker". Refers to any person who has broken a law and got away with it. Derived from the Afrikaans word of the same spelling for "to cuff" (i.e. to arrest, or get arrested). The plural "boewe", refers both to multiple persons in arrest and the handcuffs themselves. Considered outdated as "bliksem" and "skelm" are more commonly used.
boer – literally "farmer" in Afrikaans. (pronounced boo-(r)). Also the verb "to farm".
boer maak 'n plan – "farmer makes a plan" is an expression used to refer to a creative solution, often low-cost and rather innovative.
boererate – a number of local home remedies that are super effective and cheap. May also be applied to DIY projects.
boerewors – a very popular mixed-meat spiced sausage in South Africa. In Afrikaans, literally "farmer's sausage", used as a mainstream word in South African English.
boerewors roll/boerie roll – the South African equivalent of the hot dog, using the boerewors with an onion relish in a hot dog bun
boggerol/bugger-all – Anglicism with identical meaning (absolutely nothing), usually succeeding the words "sweet blou/blue" to emphasize the "nothingness" of the topic.
boland – refers to the geographic region north of Cape Town. See Boland.
bollie – lit "to poop". Of unknown origin, it is the Afrikaans equivalent of "poop". Due to the fact that it's the most child-friendly description of defecation.
bokkie – (diminutive of bok, literally meaning "little buck" or "doe") a popular term of endearment, comparable to "sweetheart", "honey", etc. Another meaning for the word bokkie (or bokbaardjie) is for a style of beard which is short (often pointy) and stylish and often surrounds just the mouth and chin in a circle (Goatee). Based on the Afrikaans word bok (lit. "buck", as well as goat).
boom – marijuana (literally tree)
bosberaad – strategy meeting held in a rural setting
bossies, or bosbefok – crazy, whacko, mad. Also a term for one who has shell shock. Refers to the time of the South African Border War where soldiers spent time in the bush ("bos/bosse") and would return home suffering battle flash-backs (Post-traumatic stress disorder).
braai – a barbecue, to barbecue (from braaivleis – grilled meat), used as a mainstream word in South African English. Specifically to grill meat on an open fire. As a noun, it is also the literal area/object used for the grilling of the meat (in that case, the barbecue grill and stand) as well as the social gathering around it.
braaivleis – same as braai
braaibroodjies – toasted sandwiches that are grilled over an open flame on a braai. Usually served as a side-dish to braaivleis.
brak – mongrel dog, can also refer to brackish water
branna – short for "brandewyn" (lit. "brandy")
broekie – panties or ladies underwear. From Afrikaans: broek, meaning "trousers/briefs". Common usage: "Don't get your broekies in a knot" which means "Calm down".
broekie lace – ornate ironwork found on Victorian buildings (lit. 'pantie lace'), the tie that you find on board shorts
bro/bra/bru/boet/boetie – a close male friend and a term of affection used by one male to another. All words are variations of the word "broer" in Afrikaans meaning "brother". Boetie (Pronounced 'Boet – tea') specifically means little brother in Afrikaans because of the "ie" diminutive suffix. You could say, "Hey bro, howzit" or "Thanks a million bro for lending me your car". When you refer to another male as bro is it because you consider that person to be such a good friend he is like a brother, a family member. Bro can also be used for strangers but only also if you wish to show a welcoming and friendly attitude towards them or when you want to deescalate tension in a friendly way as in "Chill out bro". However you would certainly not walk around calling every man you see, bro, because in South Africa the term is not used as loosely as it is in the US for example.
bring-en-braai/bring-and-braai – guests bring their own food and drink (usually pre-prepared, except for the meat) to the braai. Traditions surrounding the event usually stipulate that any left-over food and drinks are left behind with the hosts of the party as a parting gift, unless the food was pre-prepared in a personal container.
bromponie – lit. "a noisy pony", refers to a scooter motorcycle, because a full-size motorcycle is often referred to as an "ysterperd" (iron horse), considering a pony is much smaller than a horse.
brommer - lit. "a noise maker" refers to a noisy fly, more specifically to the genus Morellia (which is much larger than its cousin, the common housefly).
buk – duck your head down quickly, as in "Buk when you go in the door; it's really low."
bucks – from the English word meaning (antelope) it refers to money (currency), although borrowed from the American term of the same meaning, coincidentally there are two types of bucks featured on the coins of the South African Rand (Springbok on the R1 and Kudu on the R2). Not to be confused with the "Bokke" (Springbokke/Springbucks).
"chop/tjop" – it literally means a piece of meat ("pork chop" or "lamb chop") that you would often cook on a braai. If you can call someone a chop it means they are being silly or an acting like an idiot, "Don't be a chop". Calling someone a chop often does not mean any harm, it is a light and playful insult and this word is most commonly used in a friendly way between associates. It can also be meant in a teasing way, like "dont be silly".
chop-chop – lit. means "quickly". Is used when a person has had something done, or wants to have something done in a short amount of time. Derived from the chopping of a knife.
choty goty – beautiful girl
chrisco – a party/disco where Christian music mainly features; a combination of the words "Christian" and "disco"
Chwee chweereekeys – getting high
koeldrank/cooldrink – refers to a soft drink
dagga – most commonly used word for marijuana
dice – not to be confused with the game of dice, it refers to a form of amateur motor-racing where 2 or more vehicles sprint to an impromptu Finish Line on public roads. Often considered to be a part of illegal street racing, dicing under the legal limit though is usually permitted, though still frowned upon.
dik – lit. "thick". Can be a derogatory term for being overweight, similar to "dikgat", as well satiety (or the sensation of being full)
dikbek – grumpy, in a huff (literally: "thick mouth" (pout)
dikgat – lit. "fat-arsed". Derogatory term for overweight people, same as "vetgat"
diedonnerin; diemoerin; diebliksemin – lit. extremely angry. From "donner", "moer" and "bliksem", all meaning to "hit/ strike (someone)".
dinges – thingamabob, a whatzit or a whatchamacallit. Dutch – dinges.
dof – stupid or slow to understand. "Are you dof?"
Dog het gedog hy plant 'n veer en 'n hoender kom op – lit. "Thought thought it would plant a feather and then a chicken would come up". Used in retort when someone says they thought something was a good idea and it turned out not to be.
doos – literally "box". Depending on context, the slang/derogatory version can mean prat, twat, idiot but most commonly understood as a translation of "arsehole" or "cunt", which in that case would be considered highly offensive.
domkop – idiot (lit. dumbhead), same as German "Dummkopf" or Dutch "domkop"
dom nool – emphasis of "stupid idiot"
donner – to beat up. Same as "bliksem". Derived from "donder" (thunder, related to Thor).
donnerse – lit. "damn thing". Often used in frustration with another person or thing: "Die donnerse ding wil nie werk nie." ("The damn thing doesn't wanna work").
dop – alcohol, to drink alcohol, to fail a test. Originally refers to a tot (measure). The diminutive form "doppie" refers to a bottle cap.
doss, dorse, dossing – sleep or nap
draadsitter – lit. "fence sitter". Refers to someone who is uninterested in choosing a side in an argument and therefore remains neutral.
draadtrek – lit. pull wire, to masturbate
droëwors – (Afrikaans) dried boerewors, similar to biltong
drol – lit. a turd (vulgar); also refers to an arsehole/idiot; a cigarette, with a singly sold cigarette called a 'los drol' ("loose cigarette")
dronkie – drunkard
druk – to embrace or squeeze, hug (noun) "Gee my 'n drukkie," "Give me a hug"
druk 'n drie, druk a drol, druk 'n vinger in jou hol – lit. "score a try, squeeze a turd and insert your finger into your anus". A crude but humorous way to say "go finger-fuck yourself"
eh pappa! – lit. "whoa daddy!"
eina! – ouch!
eish! – Wow! What? Expression of surprise. Of Bantu origin.
ek sê – "I say!" Used when making a statement.
ent, entjie – cigarette, can also refer to the act of smoking a cigarette.
flou – an unfunny (weak) joke (from the Afrikaans word for weak), can also refer to weak coffee or tea or weak alcoholic drink. A person that is weak.
fok – Afrikaans for "fuck", can be used in most ways it is used in English. Fokken = fucking, gefok = fucked. Dutch – Fokken = breeding (animals).
fokker – lit. "fucker".
fokkoff – lit. "fuckoff" (vulgar)
fokkol – lit. "fuck-all". Literally means "absolutely nothing" (vulgar): Ek het fokkol geld ("I've got no money").
fok voort – lit. to proceed in a single-minded direction regardless of obstacles. Derived from the phrase: Kyk Noord en Fok voort. (Look North, and go forth).
fok weet – lit. "fuck knows". A response to an unanswerable question (vulgar).
FPK – flying poes klap, see poesklap
‘’gabba’’ - the section of anatomy between a man’s anus and scrotum. A combination of ‘gat’ and ‘ballas’: After cycling for five hours my gabba is a bit tender. Could also be used as a derogatory term to refer to a man.
gat – lit. "hole". Also refers lit. to "arse". Can also be used as a shortened version of the word "gaan" (going to).
gatkruip – lit. "arse creeping" or brown nosing
gatvol – lit. annoyed enough to the brink of getting angry: Ek is gatvol vir jou kak. (I've had enough of your shit.)
Gebruiker – cigarette
gemorsjors – lit. "a messy person". refers to a person who is behaving, and/or dressing, in a very messy (gemors) manner.
geit – (pronounced "gate", with the "g" sound in the back of the throat) It literally means "quirks". Usually a negative connotation in relation to a person being either: stubborn, fussy or demanding and sometimes also relating to hypochondriasis. Literal English translation will align it with "-ness" (a.i. hardness, stubbornness). An example is: "hardegat-geit" (lit. hard-arsed and cocky).
gham – A word to describe someone that acts out in an uncivilzed manner, or refer to lower class person. (other words would be "tappit", :kommen: or when someone is gham it portrays them as being poor and or dirty.). "Ew, that guy is so gham!"
gin-en-gaap - An expression of unknown origin, describes a person who is wasting time by either laziness or being too slow. Gaap is Afrikaans for yawn.
goffel – ugly girl or woman. For example, "What a G!". Also a degrading term for a person of coloured origin.
gomgat – bumpkin, redneck (in the US sense, not to be confused with rooinek, the literal translation of redneck).
goof, ghoef – swim, take a dip
goofed, ghoefed – stoned
gooi – throw, chuck or to "tune" (see below) someone
goose – also chick, cherry: a young woman or girlfriend (used mainly during the 1950s, now dated). Also a famous line by South African comedian Barry Hilton.
gril – (pronounced with the g-sound in the back of the throat) it refers to a person having an adverse sensory reaction to something that is considered disgusting, creepy or freaky in any way. The closest English equivalent would be "hair-raising". Usually used in the phrase "ek gril myself dood vir...." (i get freaked-out by...).
gwai – also cigarette. derived from "give me a cigarette. Translated – "gee da n gwai"
hardegat-, gheit – lit. "hard-arsed". Describes the stubbornness of a person.
Hier kom Groot Kak! – lit. "Here's comes big shit" Is an expression of revelation towards an often impending and undesired result.
hoesit, hoezit – derived from "How is it going? – contracted to how's it? In South African English context, howzit is more a greeting of "hello" rather than "how are you?", similar to South African black slang's "eta" or "ola"
hoer en remoer – lit "whoring around" by either throwing wild parties, or having casual sex with just about every attractive person you meet, applies to both genders.
hokaai stop die lorrie! – lit. "Whoa there! Stop the lorry!". Often used to call an immediate halt in whatever is being done, usually in conjunction with a possible undesirable outcome.
hol – lit. hollow. It also refers to "run very fast" ("Daai man hol so vinning"; "That man runs so fast"). Also refers to anus.
holskeurend – lit. "anus-ripping". Refers to hysterical laughter.
holvlos – lit. "arsehole-floss", refers to a G-string.
honne – informal spelling and pronunciation of "honde" (dogs).
hottentot – derogatory term describing people of multiracial ethnic backgrounds, especially those of Malaysian-descent (i.e. the majority of Capetonians). The word is derived from the early Dutch term for the Khoi-San people. "Hottentotsgod," or Hottentots' god, is Afrikaans for a Praying Mantis).
huistoegaantyd – lit. "time to go home". From "huis+toe" (to+home), "gaan" (go) and "tyd" (time).
hy sal sy gat sien – lit. "he'll see his arse" fig. "He'll have his come-uppance"
roomys-karretjie/ice-cream-karretjie – lit. "ice-cream car" refers to a purpose-modified vehicle that drives around and sells ice cream. Referred to in the U.S. as an "ice cream truck" and in the UK as an "ice-cream van". It also is considered a nickname for the Volkswagen Type 2 and Volkswagen Type 2 (T3), due to both vehicle's immense popularity in that configuration. Even though it is technically a panel van, it's still referred to as a "karretjie".
in sy moer in – badly damaged, destroyed (rude, often considered profanity due to 'moer' to beat up). often used in conjunction with "moer-in".
in sy glory in – same as above, considered to be less rude.
innie/oppie – informal combined spelling of the phrases "in die" (in the) and "op die" (on the).
in jou noppies – lit. "you are thrilled". Used to describe levels of excitement, similar to "tickled pink".
ipekonders – commonly pronounced as "iepie-corners", refers to Hypochondriasis. Unlike the actual disorder, it is often used to comically exaggerate a person's reaction to any kind of symptoms that are generally considered harmless regardless of the discomfort caused by them. Like when someone drinks cough-syrup after coughing just twice.
ja – yeah (literally "yes" in Afrikaans)
Jakob regop – lit. "Jacob upright". Refers to an erect penis.
jakkals trou met wolf se vrou – lit. "Jackal weds Wolf's wife". Refers to the weather phenomena known as a "monkey's wedding". Can be used to describe an unlikely situation. Also refers to a song of the same name by Afrikaans singer Karlien Van Jaarsveld.
jux/juks/jags – Meaning "horny". For example, "Jinne meisie, jy maak my nou sommer lekker jags."
ja-nee – literally "yes-no", an expression of positive confirmation. Example : Dis warm vandag. ("It's hot today") : Ja-nee ("Indeed")
Jan Allerman – lit. "Jan Every man". Local variant of the American term "Average Joe."
jippo - Bypass, hack, slacking, short-term fix. I'll jippo the alarm to not make a sound while we work on it. While the team was working hard all night, Byron was jippoing.
jippo-guts - Diarrhoea
jislaaik! – expression of surprise, can be positive or negative. Often used when you get a fright, but equally often during particularly exciting parts of a rugby game.
jissie – a shortened version of "jislaaik".
jinne – another variation of "jislaaik".
jip – informal for "yes".
jo – an exclamation e.g., "Jo, that was rude," "Jo, you gave me a fright!" Pronounced as in "yolk".
jol – to have fun, to party, can also refer to a disco or party, to commit adultery or even dating or courting
jou ma se poes! – lit. "your mom's pussy" (vulgar).
Juffie – the shortened version of "Juffrou". "Juffrou" is a shortened version of the formal title given to address a young unmarried woman "Mejuffrou" (Miss). It is also the formal title given to address a female teacher of any age or marital status, whereby "Juffie" would be considered informal.
kaalgat – lit. "naked arse". Derived from the word "kaal" (naked), it's simply a more humorous description. Similar to the English term "birthday suits".
Kaapse Dokter/Cape Doctor – A strong south-eastern wind in the Cape Peninsula-area. Called the "doctor" due to the belief that it clears the Cape Town air of its pollution.
Kaapse Draai – lit. "Cape turn", refers to a folk song (of the same name) that describes a flightpath around the Cape Peninsula literally as the Pied crow flies (known as a Witborskraai in Afrikaans), can now be applied to actual tours around the peninsula. Singer Nádine released a single based on the folk song, with the same name. It also jokingly refers to a car that turns far to wide (i.e. like crossing into the oncoming lane).
kafee/cafee/kaffie/caffie – refers to a café, though it can also refer to a small non-coffee serving grocery shop or Tuck shop.
kaffer – Offensive pejorative referring to a black African. Derived from the Arabic word Kafir meaning a non-Muslim, which included black Africans along the Swahili coast.
kaffer wil nie val nie – a phrase referring to the consumption of KWV. Often used by black South Africans at shebeens.
kak – Literal translation: shit, crap, rubbish, nonsense (vulgar), of very wide usage. Also used as a way of further expressing one's feeling in language, for example, instead of "that girl is pretty" one can say emphatically "that girl is kak pretty!"
kak en betaal – lit "shit and pay". Used when frustrated about spending all your hard-earned money on family, or friends, and having none left for yourself. Closest English equivalent is "Cough it up and pay up", but it doesn't have anywhere near the same power.
kakhuis – lit. "shithouse". Refers to both a toilet and the bathroom it is located in, as well as "a lot of".
kakspul – lit. "shithouse/shitload". Refers to a troublesome situation as well as an exaggerated amount of money.
Kannie is dood van kruiwa stoot - lit "(I can't) died from pushing a Wheelbarrow". The phrase "ek kan nie" (shortened to kannie = cannot/can't) is personified as a lazy man. The phrase is used as a form of motivation and discipline, implying that if you can do a physical task as easy as pushing a wheelbarrow, then you are more than capable enough to do any kind of hard work.
katspoegie – lit. "kat's spit". Refers to a very small amount of something, similar to "bietjie" (a little bit)
khaki – derogatory term for an English person. From the colour worn by British troops, as well as the traditional clothes worn by Boere (Afrikaans speaking white farmers).
kêrels – police (original Afrikaans meaning: guys, chaps). "The kêrels are coming, watch out!" (dated). More commonly referring to boyfriend or literal translation: Guy or young man. Dutch – kerels.
kerrie-en-rys – lit. "curry and rice", is a popular South African variant of a curry usually served with rice and blatjang
kief, kif, kiff – (adjective) wicked, cool, neat, great, wonderful. The word derives from the Arabic word kif كيف, meaning pleasure or marijuana. This may also be related to the Afrikaans word for poison: gif. Coastal pot-smokers used the term to refer to Durban Poison: "Gifs" [locally-grown marijuana]. The word evolved into kiff, an adjective or exclamation meaning "cool", among English-speaking people on the east coast.
kie-kie/kiekie/kiek-kie – pronounced "key-ki"; refers to a photograph
Klaas Vakie – (pronounced "klaas faacky") refers to the mythical creature known as the Sandman, can also ironically refer to people who had just now woken up late.
klankie – lit. "a sound", Can also mean unpleasant smell. Used in conjunction with "klank". Pronounced as in "clunk"
klap – to smack. (from Afrikaans). "He got klapped in the bar". Like a "bitch-slap", but much worse. Another variation on this is the "kopklap" (getting slapped hard over the head), typically done by a parent of authority figure as a form of discipline.
klikkie klik bek – lit. a tattle tale
klippies, klippies n coke – Klipdrift, a brandy preferred by mostly Afrikaans men, usually leading to chinas getting bliksemed
klipslag – lit. "stone-stroke". Used to jokingly refer to a person who can't swim even if their life depended on it and thus sinks like a stone in water, this is mostly a joking self-reference by pessimistic swimmers.
klokke – lit. "bells". The plural of the word "klok" (derived from "clock"). It also refers to a man's testes.
koebaai – an anglicism of "goodbye".
koek – lit. "cake". Can be used to refer to a response to a sticky situation: "O Koek" (Oh Shit); clumped hair that is messy: Jou hare is gekoek (Your hair is very messy and difficult to brush); Can also refer to a vagina.
Koeksister – A sweet pastry that's been fried and dipped in a honey syrup, and shaped in the form of a French-braid. It doesn't have anything to do with a sibling – "sister" is "suster" in Afrikaans. The "sis" refers to the sound it makes when fried in oil. Alternative spelling is koesister. It also can refer to lesbians, or female genitalia: "I can like to be teasing my koeksister while I are wearing a rokkie"
koffie-moffie – a camp male waiter or male flight attendant. See "moffie".
komme-sie komme-sa – lit. "either-or". An expression, of French origin, that states the user isn't sure about an answer and doesn't care either. Similar to the expression "tamato-tomato".
kont – same as "cunt" in English (profanity)
koppie – lit. "cup". Also refers to a relatively small hill, (with "koppie" being the diminutive form of "kop") in reference to it appearing like a small head (kop) poking out of the ground.
kopraas – lit. "head noise". someone who talks endlessly
kortgat – lit. "short arse". Cutesy nickname given to shorter-than average people, can be considered offensive unlike its antonym "langeraad".
kotch – (from "kots") lit. "to vomit" (vulgar)
krimpie – old person
kraaines – lit. "crow's nest". While the original English meaning stays intact, it can also refer to a big mess. Whether it be messy hair, a messy bedroom or a loud and messy gathering, like a party.
kreef – literally means "crayfish" but it refers to a promiscuous woman with the intent to attract men.
kry 'n kramp! – lit. "get a cramp". A definitive expression of strong disagreement, usually used to end an argument regardless if the issue was resolved. Can also be used to refer to exaggerated negative feelings towards a stubborn person: Ek wens hy kry 'n kramp! (I wish he gets a cramp!). Used in conjunction with "gaan kak!".
kwaai – cool, excellent (Afrikaans: "angry". Compare the US slang word phat.)
kydaar – visitor from northern provinces, especially Gauteng, to Cape Town; from "kyk daar!" – "just look at that!". See also "soppiekoppie".
kyk Noord en fok voort. - To continue without any clear plan in mind. To play it by ear. Directly translates to "Look North and fuck onward."
kyk teen jou ooglede vas – lit. "looking through closed eyes". Contrary to "kyk aan die binnekant van jou ooglede" (which means to take a nap, or go to sleep), it refers to a person who is wide awake, yet cannot spot the item they're looking for that's right under their nose. Used in conjunction with "As dit 'n slang was, dan sou hy jou gepik het"
laatlammetjie – lit. "late lamb", refers to the youngest child in a family, specifically if there is a significant age-gap between the child and their older sibling (or more specifically when there is 3 or more siblings; the 2nd youngest sibling). It should also be considered that the parents' are at an advanced age at that point. Laatlammetjies refer to a set of youngest siblings that are close in age to each other, but with a significant age gap between their older siblings. For example: Charlie Duncan (4yrs old) and Toby Duncan (1yr old), from the Disney Channel series Good Luck Charlie, are 12 and 16 years younger (respectively) than their older middle-brother Gabe Duncan.
laf - to be silly or funny. Jy's laf! You're laf boet! "Ek klap 'n ding wat laf raak!" (Jokingly "clap"). (Soft way of saying you've lost it or you're a clown!)
lag – to laugh. For example: They lag at the joke.
laaitie, lighty – a younger person, esp. a younger male such as a younger brother or son
lank – lots/a lot
langeraad – (pronounced: "lung-A-raat") cutesy nickname given to a really tall person
lang maer blonde man – a slight contrast to the phrase "tall, dark and handsome", it describes a goodlooking tall blonde-haired, and usually blue-eyed, man.
laanie, larny – (n) boss, used in a different tone. (adj.) fancy
las – 1. an act that is undesirable to commit, a burden. 2. To tell someone or suggest to stop doing an act. (origin: something that is slowing you or an object down; for example, "'n Las in die pad.", meaning "An object as in a stone in the road."). 3. To physically join two separate objects together: (Las die punte van die twee toue aanmekaar; Tie the two ends of the ropes together.)
leeuloop – lit. "lion walk". Popularized by singer-comedian Robbie Wessels in the song of the same name, it refers to a sexual dance (but slightly more humorous than vulgar). The song mainly describes a man getting down on all fours, clenching two balls (of "any" type) between his legs and pretending to be a lion by roaring.
lekker – (lit. tasty) It means pleasing, tasty, nice, good, great, delicious. Lekker is used for just about anything you find nice. "How was the party? Lekker", "I met a lekker chick last night", "local is lekker, a popular slogan promoting South African culture and produce", "How is that steak? Lekker bro". Unlike its English counterpart "nice", use of the word "lekker" is actually promoted instead of frowned upon despite being very commonly used. It is speculated that "lekker" will never become clichéd.
lorrie – lit. "truck". Derived from the English word "lorry" with an identical meaning, the term gained popularity after the British colonized South Africa. Though "trok" (the proper Afrikaans translation for "truck") is still in use, it has been heavily replaced with the slang term "lorrie". Is sometimes used to jokingly compare cars that are just as difficult to drive as an actual truck.
los or loskind – lit. "loose, loose child." A really slutty girl, usually wears revealing clothes and is easy to get with (for example: "Sarah is 'n fokken loskind!")
loskop – air head, literally a "lost head" refers to someone whose head is in the clouds, clumsy, forgetful.
loslappie – a person who sleeps around a lot (i.e. "whore/manwhore", but not as derogatory)
lus – to have a craving for. "I lus for a cigarette". (Also see "smaak".)
ma-hulle/ma-le/pa-hulle/pa-le – collective references to both parents which can be either centered around the mother (ma) or father (pa). Based on the word hulle (them).
maag wil werk – lit. "stomach wants to work", a polite way to say you need to shit as soon as possible. Often used in conjunction with "maag is omgekrap" (upset stomach).
maak soos Rokoff en fokkoff! – lit. "make like Rokoff and fuckoff!" Of unknown origin, is a crude way of telling someone to go away. Is similar to the English sayings like: Make like hay" and "Make like eggs, and scramble".
maaifoedie – motherfucker, as in "Jou maaifoedie"
maat – friend (OED), also partner (wife, girlfriend)
mal – mad, crazy, insane
malhuis – lit. "looney bin"
mallie – mother
mamparra – idiot. Also refers to a dud or a brick made from recycled clay/mortar.
melktert/milk tart – a traditional custard tart of Dutch origin. Unlike a conventional custard tart, a melktert has a strong milk flavour and is best served with a dash of cinnamon sprinkled on top.
mengelmoes-kardoes – lit. "variety-case". Refers to a larger variety of "thrift" being on offer.
mielie – millet corn (AmE) / maize (BrE), staple diet. The base ingredient of Mielie-meal, which is the flour of choice to make Pap (also called mieliepap), a popular type of porridge.
mmchakawally – cigarettes
moegoe – stupid person, coward, or weakling
moffie – male homosexual (derogatory). Can be compared to "fairy". From "mofskaap", castrated sheep.
moer – to hit / to fight with, for example: "he is gonna moer you" Also a word for a nut used with a bolt
moerkoffie – is a strong blend of ground-coffee usually served with minimal milk in a tin-based mug.
moer-meter – comically describes a person's temperament for their tolerance of bullshit. Derived from the red thermometer and used as a metaphor as illustrated by Donald Duck when he gets mad. Used in conjunction with "bloediglik vererg".
moerse – a very strong word for big, for example: "that's a moerse house"
moer strip – a point in time when a person's patience has worn so thin, he could snap violently at any moment. Derived from a nut (moer) that strips its threads when excessive force is applied.
moer-toe – stuffed up or destroyed (my car is moer-toe)
mompie – retard ("Liesl, you are such a mompie!")
mooi, man! – "well done, man", used as an expression of appreciation in another person's achievement.
Moola – lit. "money". Is the English slang term for money as well as the name of the actual mobile-currency used in the now defunct Mxit.
morne – boring, sterile, unexciting ("This is more morne than watching Saracens play!")
mos – Afrikaans, implies that what has been said is well known or self-evident (a formal part of grammar, the closest English equivalent would be "duh!"). "Ek drink mos tee." ("I drink tea, duh!"). Used at the end of a sentence, as in "...Jy weet mos." ("...Obviously, as you know.")
mossie-poep – lit. "sparrow-fart" based on the definition of "poep-ruik" (oversleeping in the morning), it refers to a very early "waking up time" in the morning, often more specifically before 6:00AM (before sparrows wake up, but after the cock's crow)
muggie – bug, especially a little flying gnat
mugwaai – cigarette
"mung" – the term mung means to lose a life playing video games and it also represents Pallsmoor jail, you gonna go to the"mung" when you stolen something and you get caught by police.
mxit taal – lit. "mix it language". Refers to the text-based grammar usage that was popularized by the now-defunct Mxit, a free instant messaging service. For example: Eng: How R U? Afrikaans: Hoe ganit? (Hoe gaan dit?); Eng: I'm gr8 (I'm great).
N–Z
naai (Afrikaans) – copulate; but strictly speaking "sew", from the action of a sewing machine needle.
nè? – do you know what I mean/agree?, oh really?, is it not so? or British English "innit?". Similar to the French "n'est-ce pas" and the Portuguese "né?", meaning "Isn't it?", e.g. "Jy hou van tee, nè?" ("You like tea, not so?") (informal). The South African English equivalent is "hey", for example "Eish, its cold hey?".
neuk – lit. "to hit", less vulgar than "moer", "donner" and "bliksem"
negentien-voetsek – "nineteen-voetsek" (Commonly pronounced "neëntien"; "nie'an teen"), refers to a date in the early 20th century, with "voetsek" (go far away) referring to a very early date. Translation: a very long time ago, often used when the specific date isn't known.
nogal – of all things. Term expressing a measure of surprise.
nooit – lit. "never." No way, unbelievable!
nou – lit. "Immediately/now". Also means "narrow".
nou-net – lit. "just now". Refers to an event that happened within a few minutes ago.
nou-nou/now now – contrary to the original meaning of the English word "now", it means "in due time", and therefore can mean anything from "in the next five minutes" to "in the next five years".
net-nou – lit. "just now." Can refers to an event that happened a while ago, maybe within 12hrs ("I saw him just now"). Or some time in the future ("I'm coming just now"), which could mean anything from 5 minutes to 5 years, or never.
net-net – lit. "just just". Refers to something/someone that has either impeccable timing and/or is just shy from, and just far enough to, winning any competitive event. English equivalents are: "Just in the nick of time", "just shy of winning", "almost". For example: Ek het my eksamen vraestel net-net deur gekom (I just barely passed my exam).
Nou gaan ons Braai! – lit. "Now we're gonna Braai!". Pokes fun at the procrastination of the braaier, who intends to start immediately, but doesn't start till much much later.
O Griet! – lit. "Oh Gosh!". A catchphrase uttered by the beloved witch Liewe Heksie when calling out her magic horse, Griet, whom she's able to conjure-up with the phrase, though she never remembers his name and as a result she only ever summons him by accident whenever she's in panic. The popularity of the catchphrase ensured that it gained use via the general public and therefore is used by a person whenever their in a state of panic.
O gonna Madonna – ("g" sound pronounced in the back of the throat) Derived from "O Gonna" ("Oh Shit", but not vulgar), the singer Madonna's name was added to the phrase by Leon Schuster for comedic rhyming effect, it has since become one of his signature catchphrases along with: "O gatta patata" and "Oh Schucks" (both mean "Oh Shit", and the latter was inspired by Leon's own last name).
oom – an older man of authority, commonly in reference to an older Afrikaans man (Afrikaans for "uncle")
ou (diminutive outjie, plural = ouens, outjies) man, guy, bloke (also oke) (literally "old")
ou toppie – lit. "old head." Refers usually to an elderly man and a father.
ouballie – lit. "old little ball(s)." Old man, dad; as in: "shaft me, ouballie" "My ouballie (father, dad) will be home soon".
pap – also called "mieliepap", is a traditional maize ("mielie") porridge similar to grits; can also mean "deflated". Pap (porridge) is primarily known in three stages; all three are variant to the water-to-maize ratio: stywepap (lit. "stiff-pap"; 3/4 water-to-maize), phutupap/krummelpap (pap with a crumbly texture; 1/4 water-to-maize) and slap-pap (pap with a runny texture; 4/3 water-to-maize). Unlike most international porridges, pap (specifically the aforementioned phutupap and stywepap variations) is commonly served at both breakfast and dinner times in the Northern half of the country.
paplepel – lit. "pap-spoon"; a wooden spoon used in the making of pap, but can also be used to give a hiding
papgat – lit. "flat/uninflated hole." Tired or weak.
pap-sop-nat – very wet
pak – lit. "to pack". Also means "to give a hiding", as the shortened version of pakslae, a "parcel of hidings"
patat – lit. "sweet potato". A favourite side-dish for Afrikaners, the name "patat" ("pah-tut") can also become a pet-name or term of endearment.
plak – lit. "to stick". Can also refer to starting an informal settlement like a Township (Plakkerskamp)
plakkerskamp/township – an informal settlement primarily housing non-whites of very low-income in poorly self-constructed houses known as "shacks"
paraat – disciplined. Somebody who is paraat, generally has "houding" i.e. style / character
paw-paw – lit. a Paw-paw fruit. Can refer to an idiot, but is less derogatory and often used to lightly joke with the person in question.
perdedrolle is vye – lit. "Horseshit is figs". When someone is accusing another person of bullshitting them: Jy probeer my se dat perdedrolle is fye! (You're trying to tell me that horseshit is figs!)
plaas – lit. "farm". Also, when someone falls down: Plaas gekoop. As a verb, it translates to "placed down" or "put down"
platteland – lit. "flat land", refers to a rural area, country (as in living in the country, as opposed to living in the city). The "flatness" refers to the fact that the area is geographically similar to farmlands.
plaas se prys - lit. "the price of a farm". Refers to anything that is considered too expensive regardless of its actual worth, considering that a farm is one of the most expensive pieces of property one could privately own.
platsak – lit. "flat pocket." Out of cash, flat broke
piel – derogatory term for a male genitalia ("cock" or "dick")
piele – everything is cool, e.g.: piele vir Sannie
piesang, piesang, paw-paw – lit. "banana, banana, paw-paw". Children's rhyme used when a person makes a fool of himself and/or is a sore loser.
Piet Pompies – used to identify an anonymous man, similar to Joe Soap.
poepol – (from poephol, arse) an idiot. lit. an arsehole (more specifically the anus), but not as derogatory. Can be used as source of comedy: Ek voel soos 'n poepol.
poepolletjie – lit. Diminutive form of poepol, strictly reserved as a term of endearment between couples.
poep – lit. "to fart". Derived from the English term "poop", it literally means "to pass gas".
soos 'n poep teen donderweer – lit. "it's like farting against a thunderstorm". Meaning the argument being presented is falling on deaf ears due to either a much more intimidating defense, or just plain ignorance, i.e. the sound of the fart is being drowned-out by the sound of thunder. Its closest English counterpart would be "it's like talking to a brick wall".
poepruik – lit. "to smell a fart". Refers to a person who is sleeping in late, though it specifically points to the person wasting time because of it.
poes – derogatory term for female genitalia ("pussy" or "cunt" or "Ezekiel" )
poesklap – lit. "vagina hit." A very hard slap. similar to "klap" (to smack/slap), but far more painful: Ek gaan jou so 'n harde poesklap gee, jou tanne gaan vibreer vir maande lank. (I'm gonna smack you so hard, that your teeth will vibrate for months). Poesklap therefore is far more life-threatening than a "bitch-slap".
FPK or flying poesklap – the deadliest of all the poesklaps
poplap – derived from "lappop" (rag doll). It is a term of endearment towards young beautiful women, and can also extend to much younger girls usually via a grandfather-figure. The closest English equivalent would be "poppet".
pote – lit. "animal paws". Is an informal reference to a person's feet ("voete" in Afrikaans) directly relating the condition and size of the feet to that of an animal's paws. Also derogatory term for police officers (plural).
potjie – (pronounced "poi-key") lit. the diminutive form of the English/Afrikaans word "pot", referring to the cooking utensil, but more specifically a small-to-large sized cast iron pot that is traditionally used to make potjiekos, phutupap and samp (stampmielies).
Potjiekos – lit. "small pot food". Is a meat and vegetable dish that is specially cooked in a potjie. It is traditionally slow-cooked over an open fire for a couple of hours before being served during a Braai (social gathering). Though it is similar to a stew, the main differences are: a stew has much water/sauce, while a potjiekos has very little water/sauce; and you stir a stew, you don't stir potjiekos as it is intended to not have the individual ingredients' flavor mixing. Potjiekos is traditionally served with phutupap or samp. Though it is considered a meal on its own, it can also be served as a side dish to braaivleis and Mielies (corn on the cob) (as both would take up a considerable amount of space on the plate).
Potte – lit. "Pots". Also refers to a huge behind.
pouse – (pronounced "po-ze"). As an anglicism it is derived from its English counterpart which means to temporarily stop an audio or video, or a musical break. In its Afrikaans pronunciation it refers specifically to an intermission in theatre and a school recess. Due to code-switching, the English pronunciation (in its original meaning) is also regularly used by Afrikaners, though it is separated from the Afrikaans pronunciation's meaning. For example: Ek moet die video pause (Eng pro.) omdat ons nou op pause (Afr pro.) gaan. (I have to pause the video because we're going on recess now.)
praatsiek – lit. "talk sick." Verbal diarrhea. A person who talks non-stop.
praat 'n gat innie kop – lit. "speaking a hole in someone's head". To strongly convince someone to agree with you.
quarter-past kaal arm – lit. "quarter-past naked arm". A sarcastic response to the question "What time is it?", whereby the user either doesn't know the time or doesn't care. "Naked arm" refers to the person not wearing a wristwatch.
rammetjie-uitnek – lit "ram with its head held high". Big-headed. Refers more to sporadic bragging rights, than egocentrism.
reën katte en honde – lit. raining cats and dogs, i.e.: excessive rain
renoster-snot – lit "rhinoceros snot". Prestik (a South African product similar to Blu Tack).
rigting bedonnerd – lit. "directionless". Refers to any person who becomes easily disorientated when no visual references are helping their navigation, i.e. they feel lost very easily. It can also be used to humorously describe a person's poor sense of direction, for example: "James May can get lost in his own house."
rietkooi – lit. "Reed bed", i.e. "bunk bed", considered out-dated as references to bunk beds in general fell out of use in favour of the English term. Original Afrikaans translation for "bunk-bed" is "stapelbed". Riet ("Reed") refers to the bunk bed frame's flimsy appearance while "kooi" is the slang term for a bed (specifically a single-bed), derived from the Capetonian dialect. "Kooi" is still in use in the Southern regions.
rol – ("roll") A fight or brawl. Rolling – to fight.
rooinek – ("red neck") Afrikaner derogatory term for English person or English-speaking South African. Derived in the 19th century due to native British not being used to the hot African sun and getting sunburnt, especially on the neck. Alternative explanation, reference to the fact that British officers during the two Boer Wars had red collars.
rooijasse/rooibaadtjies – lit. a red jacket/coat. Refers to the British soldiers of the Anglo-Boer Wars that wore red coats.
s'n - Pronounced similar to "sin" ("i" is less emphasized), it indicates possession. English Equivalent is the apostrophe ('s). Used in conjunction with "syne" (his) and "hare" (hers)
saffa – lit. "a South African". Taken from the initials "S.A." as well as an informal pronunciation of the name "South Africa" (as Saf-Africa), the term refers to any South African-born person who also grew up in the country. This sometimes also extends to the South African Expats.
sakkie-sakkie – Also known as the Sokkie dans, is a style of sensual Ballroom dance.
sat – tired, dead – "Ek is siek en sat van sy nonsens" – "I'm sick and tired of his nonsense", see 'vrek' below (pronounced as "sut" in English)
schoepit – pronounced "s-choo-pit", is the informal pronunciation of the word "stupid".
scrompie – slang for "hobo" or bergie. (Liesl told her 7-year-old son, Karl, to walk away from the scrompie walking towards them.)
se gat – expression of strong disagreement often used in conjunction with "se moer" & "jou gat" (your arse).
sies, "sis" – expression of disgust, disappointment, annoyance, as in: Ag sies man.
Sie-sah – expression of goodness, or of disgust, depending on context.
sien jou gat – lit. "seeing your own arse". Refers to making an enormous fool of yourself and being out-performed & out-classed.
skommel(draadtrek) – to masturbate
soos Siebies se gat – lit. "like Siebies' arse". Refers to a job done badly and a messy room. Derived from a man of unknown origin known as "Siebies" (short for Siebert or Sieberhagen)
soos 'n poep innie bad – lit "like a fart in a bathtub of water". Refers to something rising very quickly (literally like the bubbles caused by a fart), for example: Soos wat die vliegtuig opgestyg het, toe klim ons soos 'n poep innie bad tot by ons cruising altitude. (As the plane took off, we ascended like a fart in a bathtub to our cruising altitude).
soutpiel – a derogatory term for someone of British descent. Lit. salt dick, one who has one foot in England and one foot in South Africa, with their penis dangling in the Atlantic Ocean. Sometimes shortened to soutie.
sit gat, rus bene – lit. "sit arse, rest legs". Refers to relaxing after a long hard day.
skapie – someone who might be referred to as a "pussy". Literally "little sheep".
skeef – skewed, gay, as in: hy het 'n bietjie skeef voorgekom (he seemed a bit gay)
skief – to glare at someone (root: Afrikaans 'skeef', skew)
skiet kat – Vomiting
skop, skiet en boomklim – literally "kicking, shooting and climbing trees". A colloquial description of an action film, usually of the lighter, more humorous kind. (Think Jackie Chan.)
skop, skiet en donner – literally "kicking, shooting and beating people up". A colloquial description of an action movie of the more violent kind. (Think Jean-Claude Van Damme and Arnold Schwarzenegger.)
skelm – (pronounced: skellem) crook or trouble-maker, mistress, secret lover, on the sly
skilpad het nie vere nie, en appels is nie pere nie – lit. "tortoises don't have feathers, and apples aren't pears". It is a children's rhyme that discusses a mistruth. It is the Afrikaans equivalent of "liar liar pants on fire."
skinner, skinder – gossip
skinderbek/skinnerbekkie – refers to the person(s) who is spreading gossip, not to be taken as a compliment.
skort – watch out, be careful or something is wrong here
skraal – "thin" or "emaciated"
skrik – fright; also used in the phrase skrik my gat af (very big fright)
skyf – cigarette, a puff, and also less commonly marijuana or dagga
skuit – (pronounced "skate") lit. "to shit"; similar to "taking a dump"
skwaanz – to snitch and sue; a bru dat overreacts to situations or activities they themselves participate in, like, they choke out people in the choking game and thinks dat is fun, but when someone chokes THEM out, they snitch and sue. Also, "squanz"; "Yo, dat bru is skwaanz! We don't hang wit daardie fok."
slapgat – English translation is "lazy arse", also can refer to something badly put together, "Hy het dit slapgat gemaak" (he put it together haphazardly)
slaptjips/ slapchips – (pronounced as "slup chips") similar to thick-cut British chips; usually soft, oily and soaked in vinegar. Slap is Afrikaans for "limp". French fries refers to thinly cut chips. Crispy potato/corn chips are referred to as 'chips'.
smaak – "taste" also means, to like another person or thing.
smaak stukkend – to like very much or to love to pieces (literal meaning of stukkend). "Ek smaak you stukkend" = "I love you madly".
sneeudier – old person
snoepie – (pronounced "snoopy") refers almost exclusively to a tuck shop based in a school. Tuck shops that are outside school property are often just called a "winkel" or "winkeltjie" (meaning "a small shop"), and sometimes also called a kafee (referring to a café, though not necessarily one that serves coffee). The original English usage of the term "Tuck shop" stays intact.
snotklap – "i'll slap you so hard the snot will fly". Usually used to discipline a child.
sel – lit."cell" in all definitions of the word, i.e.: selfoon (cellphone); tronk sel (jail sel); plant sel (plant cell)
soek – to look for trouble with someone/to antagonise/to stir up trouble = "you soeking with me?" – Afrikaans: "to seek or look for".
sommer – for no particular reason, "just because"
sopdrol – diarrhea, someone with a weak constitution, literally soup poo
soutpiel/soutie – derogatory term for English person, literally salty penis. Someone with one foot in England, the other in South Africa and their penis hanging in the Atlantic Ocean.
soutpilaar – lit. "salt pillar". Refers to anyone who is standing and staring unnecessarily at something (whether it is at an object or into blank space, i.e. daydreaming) and isn't paying attention to his/her surroundings. Based on the biblical figure Lot's wife, who turned into a pillar of salt after disobeying God's command by looking back at the Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.
spaarbussie/spaarbus – lit. "save-bus". Refers to a piggy bank.
spookasem – lit. "ghost-breath". Refers to candy floss.
springbok – lit. "springbok". As the antelope is the national animal of South Africa, its name has been used in several specialized fields to indicate a "belonging" to the country, incl: the former Springbok Radio (operated by the SABC), the South Africa national cricket team (was originally called the Sprinkboks, now called the Proteas due to disassociation with the Apartheid regime and the Springbok-emblem), the South Africa National Rugby Union Team (commonly called "the Springboks, or Bokke") and the call sign of South African Airways.
spuitpoep – lit. "Diarrhea"
spyker – lit. "a nail". Can also refer to rough sex, similar to "naai".
steek – stab, poke (with a knife). "He/she steeked her/him" = "He/she poked her/him". Also see "naai" = Nick steeked me stukkend.
stoepkakker – a dismissive term for a small, yappy dog, usually of mixed breed and with white curly fur. While putting on a big show of barking, this dog is actually too afraid to leave the porch (stoep) and so ends up having to defecate (kak) there.
stukkie, stekkie – a woman (from the Afrikaans meaning "a piece") – mostly used when referring to a woman that you have/have casual encounters with, girlfriend.
stok sweet, lit. "a stick sweet", combination of Afrikaans word for stick (stok) and sweet. A lollipop.
stompie – a cigarette butt, a short person or impolite term to refer to the remaining arm/leg/finger after an amputation.
stukkend – (Afrikaans) broken, a lot. Also commonly used when someone is hungover. For example, "I am so stukkend".
Stuur Groete aan Mannetjies Roux – lit. "Send greetings to Mannetjies Roux" a popular folk song by Laurika Rauch about the titular Springbok Rugby Player. The song describes a young girl going to live on a farm with her aunt and uncle, who are avid supporters of South African Rugby Union player Mannetjies Roux (pronounced Munne-keys (in Afrikaans) Roux (as in French)). A film based on the song was eventually released in 2013.
suig 'n duik in my kop – lit. "sucking a dent in my skull". Refers to a very strong sucking sensation caused by a thick viscous drink when drinking it through a straw, especially a McDonald's milkshake, which is famous for the sensation.
swak – broke. Original Afrikaans: weak. "I'm swak, ek sê". Also used to suggest that someone's behaviour was harsh (with varying degrees of seriousness, depending on tone and context), for example: "It's swak that I failed the test."
sy naam is Kom Terug en sy van is Bloedbek/Bloedneus – lit. "its first name is Come Back, and its last name is Bloody-mouth/nose/Or Else". A verbal warning given to a person who wants to borrow something.
te-moer-en-gone - an expression that comically states the levels of being lost. Can refer to either an object that is thrown out-of-bounds and is therefore lost, or more specifically getting lost in an area that is far from the nearest civilization. The closest English equivalent is "in the middle of nowhere".
tekkies – running shoes. (The Anglicized pronunciation tackies has become mainstream in South African English.) Sports shoes that are specifically designed for running and often used for comfort.
tiet – English equivalent "boob" or "breast" (from "teat"); tiete (plural); tietie (diminutive) and tieties (plural diminutive)
tietie bottel – lit. "baby bottle".
tet – breast or boob
tjor/tjorretjie/tjorrie – diminutive description of a car, especially one that's being admired: This is a nice tjorretjie you got here!. (The "tj" is pronounced as the "ch" in chat.)
tjorts – defecation, can also refer to the sound droplets of liquid make, often referring to a very minimal amount of a liquid ingredient, similar to "kat spoegie".
toppie, ou toppie – father – see ouballie
tos – lit. to masturbate
trek – to move or pull. (The word has become international with the meaning of "making a pioneering journey"; the slang usage more closely resembles the standard Afrikaans meaning.)
trekker – lit. "mover". Also refers to a tractor, as it can be used to tow (pull) trailers and/or cars.
tannie – lit. "aunt/mother". Derived from the Dutch word tante (aunt), it refers to any older female authority figure. The female counterpart of "oom" (uncle). Though the original English meaning stays intact, the term has come to indicate a sign of tremendous respect towards a much older woman. Rules in using the term correctly are: The woman must be at least 10 years older than oneself, otherwise they might consider it offensive towards their age if they are young; unless she is one's real-life aunt, referring to a woman as "tannie" is purely permission-based, i.e. if she doesn't accept the term (and she'll tell you), then you should refrain from using it when addressing her.
tiekie/tie-kie/ticky – taken from the word "tiekieboks/ticky box", is the popular name of the now outdated streetside payphone. Though ticky boxes are still in use, they have been largely replaced by cellphones. The ticky box takes its name from the limited time-period per call, based on the ticking of a timer. Also the name given to the old 2 and a half cent piece and later the 5 cent piece.
tok-tok-tokkie – refers to a woodpecker, with "tok-tok" being the onomatopoeia of the sound the bird makes while pecking. Also refers to the woodpecker-style birds used in some cuckoo clocks.
toktokkie – a children's game where you knock on someones door and run away before they answer.
trek deur jou hol – lit. "pulling something through your arse" refers to someone who has a tendency to ruin any property that was given to them whether they do it intentionally or not. Contrasts with the expression "kan dit deur 'n ring trek" (can pull it through a ring), which refers to something or someone that is extremely well polished, clean and organized.
TVP (tiener velprobleem) – acne problems
vaalie – mildly derogatory term used by people on the coast for a tourist from inland (Root: Old Transvaal province)
vark – lit. "pig". Identical meaning to the English word in all of its interpretations, i.e.: pig, pork (varkvleis), arsehole (vulgar).
van die os op die wa af – lit. "from the ox onto the wagon and off". Similar to "speaking of which" and "while we're on the subject"
van toeka se dae af – lit. "since the olden days". Derived from the acronym "toeka", which is defined as the foundation of God's Word, which means it has been used since biblical times.
veë jou gat aan dit af - lit. "wiping your arse on it". Refers to blatant ignorance against any person or object, no matter the consequences. Closest English equivalent is: "You don't give a shit."
vellies – veldskoene, traditional Afrikaans outdoors shoes made from hide
verkramp – politically conservative or pessimistic, the opposite of verlig, or enlightened
vetkoek – a deep-fried pastry that can either have a sweet filling of jam, honey, and syrup, or a savory filling of beef, chicken, pork, etc. Though the name literally translates as "fat cake", that name was already reserved by an English dessert, so in order to distinguish between the two very different dishes, vetkoek remains the universal name across all languages.
viswyf – lit. "fish female", refers to a woman that throws a "bitch-fit" when she doesn't get her way. "Jy gaan soos 'n viswyf tekere!" (You're being really bitchy now!).
voertsek, voetsek – get lost, buzz off, go away, run, scram, stuff off, bugger off (it can be considered rude, depending on the context) – usually used when referring to an animal. From the Dutch "vort, zeg ik" – used with animals, meaning "Go away!" or "Get moving". Voetsek is considered to be far more assertive than its English counterparts.
voetjie-voetjie – lit. a game of footsie
voël – lit. "bird". While the original meaning remains intact, it also refers to a penis (vulgar), due to "eiers" (eggs) being another nickname for testicles.
voshaarnooi – lit. "a red-headed girl". Derived from the song of the same name, by Afrikaans singer Louis Van Rensburg, the song describes the beauty of a young fiery red-headed girl (voshare = red hair). The original Afrikaans term for a "red-head" is a rooikop.
Volksie – (pronounced as "folk-see") Is the local name of the Volkswagen Type 1 "Beetle" (based on the German/Afrikaans pronunciation – "folks-vach-en"). It essentially translates to "little Volkswagen". Also known as a "Volla".
vrek – Afrikaans, meaning an animal dying. Possibly from Dutch verrekken to dislocate? Is considered extremely rude when used to refer to a person that has died, as the person would be likened to a mere animal.
vroeg ryp, vroeg vrot – lit. "the quicker the fruit ripens, the quicker it will rot". Refers to anything that is being rushed.
vrot – bad, rotten, putrid, sometimes drunk
vrotbek – someone who swears a lot or is swearing a lot at the moment, as well as someone with bad breath.
vry – to make out or courting (equivalent to American "necking", British "snogging" or Australian "pashing")
Vrystaat vernier – shifting spanner
vuilbek – lit. "dirty mouth", refers someone who swears a lot or is swearing a lot at the moment.
vuil uil – lit. "dirty owl", an unsavoury character, a person of ill repute, guilt of transgressions
waai – Afrikaans for "wave hello/goodbye". Slang for "to go". Durbanites like to say "Hey, let's waai pozzy." = "Let's go home." Also refers to the blowing of wind.
dis n Weber dag/maand/koffie – Afrikaans slang to describe a good day or thing, using Weber. Originated from a High School teachers attitude and the students adopted it.
waar val jy uit die bus uit/van die bus af? – lit. "Where did you fall off the bus?". Is a question usually asked when the person you are talking to, wasn't paying attention to the topic changing when they joined the discussion, and as a result they usually interrupt the discussion with an off-topic question.
watookal – lit. "what also all." Whatever.
wakkerslaap – despite its original Dutch meaning "worry", it can also be used to verbally "wake-up" a drowsy person.
windgat – lit. "wind hole." A loquatious over-talkative, perhaps bragging person.
woes – wild, untidy, unkempt or irreverent. A general term pertaining to either a person, behaviour or situation. Also could mean angry, in a rage, or sexually aroused.
word wakker, die dag word al swakker! – lit. "become awake, the day is getting ever-weaker." A wake-up call in military fashion, usually is accompanied with loud banging on the door.
wys – multiple meanings – to insult (see tune) or to say e.g. "Yoh, John wys me after I told him to shut up!". Also refers to "wysheid" (wisdom/wise) in a sarcastic tone: "O jy dink jy's wys né! (You think you're smart huh, do you!)
yoh – an expression of surprise e.g., "Yoh, that was rude" "Yoh, you gave me a fright!", (Police-chief talking about the poor physique of his policemen): "They should look at our men and say "yoh!".
ysterperd – "iron horse", describes a motorcycle, specifically a Harley-Davidson-style "full-size" motorcycle. Is derived from the fact that a motorcycle, with all its uses, is the modern day equivalent of a horse-and-rider.
ystervarkie(s) – lit. "iron piglets". Also known by their English/Australian name "Lamingtons", these are small cubes of sponge cakes dipped in chocolate syrup and covered in desiccated coconut. It takes its Afrikaans name from the ystervark (Afrikaans for porcupine) due to its resemblance to the animal.
zap – while the original English usage remains intact, though the term "to shock" is preferred, it also refers to one's obscene usage of the middle finger, while a "double-zap" would be where both middle fingers are extended at the same time.
zef – from the Ford Zephyr car, cheap to tune up; cool, rough guy; common person; kitsch, trashy
zol – a homemade cigarette rolled with old newspaper or Rizla pape, possibly marijuana-filled, equivalent to American "doobie"
Words from Khoi languages
aitsa – is usually used when exclaiming agreement like you would when saying "sweet!", "nice!", "lekker!", and "got it!".
buchu – a wonderful smelling range of medicinal plants.
dagga – marijuana (has become a mainstream word in South African English) (from Khoe daxa-b for Leonotis plant)
eina – exclamation of pain, as in ouch (from Khoekhoe exclamation of pain or surprise)
goggo – bug (from Khoe xo-xo, creeping things, here the g is pronounced like ch in Scottish loch)
kaross – garment made of animal skin (from Khoe meaning skin blanket)
kierie – a walking stick, or cane, usually made of wood. Primarily used by the elderly as general usage of a cane fell out of fashion among younger generations, though people still have a habit of when carrying a stick to use it as a walking stick, even though they don't necessarily need it.
Words from Xhosa, Zulu and other Nguni languages
The following lists slang borrowings from the Nguni Bantu languages (which include Zulu and Xhosa). They typically occur in use in the South Africa townships, but some have become increasingly popular among white youth. Unless otherwise noted these words do not occur in formal South African English.
abba – the act of carrying a child on your back. Is a tradition of tribal African women to carry their young hands-free on their backs by literally binding them in a sarong-like garment, emulating the pouch of a Kangaroo.
Aikhona! – not on your nellie; nice try. Sometimes a strong refusal/disagreement, No!
tjhaile/tshayile – (pronounced: chai-leh) "time to go home"
chaai – used to describe a feeling of loss or disappointment (It is what it is or it's over in other words) e.g. "That test was chaai!" or "i lost my money it's chaai because I won't get it back "
cherry – "meddie" could mean girl or girlfriend e.g. "is that your cherry "
chommie – a friend (similar to English "chum")
cava – meaning "to see: (the c is pronounced as a dental click). It can be used meaning both "to see" or "to understand" as in "Did you cav that ?" or as in "Do you cav what I am saying?"
cocopan – small tip truck on rails used in mines (from Nguni nqukumbana, Scotch cart)
donga – lit. "wall" (Xhosa). Small erosion channel, akin to arroyo in Mexico.
eish! – an interjection expressing resignation
fundi – expert (from Nguni "umfundisi" meaning teacher or preacher) – used in mainstream South African English
faka – to put (pronounced as fuh-kuh) from the common Nguni word meaning the same thing, faka
gogo – grandmother, elderly woman (from Mbo-Nguni, ugogo)
hawu! – expression of disbelief, surprise. Pronounced like English "how!". From the Zulu "hawu".
hayibo! – has no direct English translation. It's used as an exaggerated response to something and can be apply to any situation (from Zulu, 'definitely not').
indaba – meeting of the community (from Nguni, 'a matter for discussion'); has become a mainstream word in South African English in the sense of consultative conference.
inyanga – traditional herbalist and healer (compare with sangoma)
jova – injection, to inject (from Zulu)
laduma! – a popular cheer at soccer matches, "he scores!" (literally: "it thunders", in Nguni)
nca – meaning something is nice or tasty (the nc is a nasalised dental click)
Vati – water, kasi word for water,also the name of a water purification company from standerton Sakhile
muti – medicine (from Nguni umuthi) – typically traditional African
Mzansi – South Africa (uMzantsi in Xhosa means "south"), specifically refers to the South Africa.
Ngca – (pronounced "Ngc-ah", dental click) an expression of appreciation or admiration, similar to "nice"
ousie – Term used to refer to a maid, usually a black female; also used by black females to call/refer to each other (from Sesotho for 'sister)
sangoma – traditional healer or diviner
shongololo (also spelt songalolo) – millipede (from Nguni, ukusonga, 'to roll up')
Tshisa Nyama - of Xhosa origin, lit means to "burn meat". Is the Zulu equivalent to the braai.
spaza – an informal trading-post/convenience store found in townships and remote areas (also a term referring to something cheap and nasty – i.e. of poor quality)
tokoloshe – a dwarf-like water sprite, taken from tokoloshe.
toyi-toyi – (more commonly spelt toi-toi) protest-dancing; used in mainstream South African English
tsotsi – gangster, layabout, no gooder
ubuntu – compassion or kindness, humanity, connectedness
Vuvuzela – a traditional horn made from the hollowed-out horns of a Kudu bull. It produces a monotonous tone and is often used as a summonings. A modernized version is made from plastic and more closely resembles a straight trumpet. The modern version is commonly used by the audience at soccer games, though usage of it has been highly frowned upon and in some cases banned because of noise-regulations, due to its incredibly loud blaring monotonous tone.
Ntwana yam> A friend of yours
Ewe – lit. "yes" (Mbo-Nguni)
wena – Literally "you" (Mbo-Nguni). Commonly used in a sentence "Hayiwena!"
Slang originating from other countries
The following slang words used in South African originated in other parts of the Commonwealth of Nations and subsequently came to South Africa.
bint – a girl, from Arabic بِنْت. Usually seen as derogatory.
buck – the main unit of currency: in South Africa the rand, and from the American use of the word for the dollar.
china – friend, mate (from Cockney rhyming slang china [plate] = "mate").
chow – to eat
coaster – a state of affairs that surpasses cool
pom – name for an English person originating from England
shab short for shebeen.
Slang originating from ethnic minorities
South African Coloured slang
The majority of Coloureds in South Africa speak Afrikaans. Those who speak English use the equivalent English words as slang.
Girl – Meisie
Girlfriend – Noi
Awe – "Howzit", "hello"; a slang way of greeting someone
befok – "mad"; also possibly "super cool", as in My broe daai kar is befok. Pronounced \ber fork\.
betters – "To replenish" or "refill". Example: Ekse lets make a betters with the mineral
boss – "nice" – "that girl is boss, ek sê"
boppin – "Very Good", example: "awe ekse my brah, howzit your side?"; in reply: "nei, eks (i am) boppin brah"
bot – refer to gaam usually associated with a person, act or object that is either dodgy or gangster-like. (Originated from Afrikaans slang bot.)
bushie – derogatory term for a "Coloured" person. Derived from the word bushman. Bushman are predominantly light in complexion.
guy – similar to the American English word "dude"
bok – girlfriend
bolt/ace out – used extensively in KZN. Means "by yourself" or "only one".
chop – "stupid" or "pathetic" – "don't be such a chop (idiot)"
chup – "tattoo" – "cool chup exse"
chow – "eat" or food
chuck – "leave". Equivalent of American "to bounce". Examples: "Come bru lets chuck" or "sorry can't go to the braai i gotta chuck." If you are funny you might say, "boet, I have to make like Norris and Chuck."
crown/kroon – "money"; can also refer to virginity.
dowwel – "gamble"/ "nice or tasty" Examples: "He is going to dowwel all his money he earned." "That food dowwel."
dasifouti – "no problem", lit. "there is no fault"
duidelik – direct from Afrikaans, meaning "clear"; used to express clarity on something or excitement about something.
eksê – from Afrikaans, translated it means "I say". Used in greeting i.e. "Whakind eksê" or in general speech.
gaam – dodgy/gangster i.e. That person is gaam. (He is a gangster.)That place is gaam. (it is dodgy.)
gam – derogatory term for Coloured people in South Africa. Derived from "Gham" or "Ham" referring to Ham in the Old Testament. It is a reference to the children of Noah's son Ham who were illegitimate and cursed into slavery by God.
gammie – diminutive of "Gam", derogatory term for coloured people in South Africa, particularly in Cape Town.
gatsby – large chip roll with meat and lekker sauces (Cape Town)
gully – "area" or "corner" (KZN)
hard up – "in love"
Hosh – "Hello"; also used before combat. Example in combat: Hosh, jy raak wys ("Hello, show me what you made of"). This gang-related word occurs inside as well as outside of prison: use at own discretion (Black Slang).
jas – "horny". The first form occurs in Cape Town; the second predominates on the east coast of South Africa. May also mean "crazy" or "mad". Examples: Person A: I want to get robbed Person B: Are you jas? or Person A: Ek wil my werk verloor Person B: Is jy jas?.
jap/jep – "steal". "They jepped that okes car" used in Gauteng.
lekker/lukka – "nice" (from Afrikaans). The first form occurs more commonly; the second predominates in Kwa-Zulu Natal.
lappie(pronounced *luppee*) – "cloth", "dish towel", "face cloth"
maader – "the best", "excellent"
meet up – Used in the Kwa-Zulu Natal region, a term usually used when saying "goodbye". For example: Lukka meet up ekse.
miff – "gross", "disgusting". "That's completely miff!" "Oh my god it was so miff"
min – to be very interested or excited in something, or for something. For example, "so min for that jol" or "when you're min you win"
mineral – pronounced 'min ral'; used by Indians as well. "Fizzy drink" such as Coke, Fanta, Sprite, etc. (KZN)
motjie – wife/woman
naai – "sex" (Western Cape) Also used as a noun "Jou ou naai" (literally "You screw") and used in the plural: "naaie" (literally more than one "screw"), meaning an undesirable person rather than the sexual act. Definitely not polite language.
oweh – pronounced \ow where\, a way of saying "oh yes" or expressing delight.
posie/pozzie – "home". Afrikaans-speakers tend to use the first for; English-speakers the second.
press – "sex", as in: "I want to press my young one tonight" (KZN)
shot – "good", "cool", "correct" or "thanks" (depending on context). Example for the meaning "good" – Person A: What is 3+3? Person B: six Person A: shot. Example for the meaning "thanks": – Person: A I have bought you a sweet Person B: Shot.
sunno – initially an insult, but used amongst friends as a greeting, as in: Whakind son
Stukkie – "girl" or possibly "girlfriend"
Tannie – "aunt", used by Afrikaans-speakers
Taah-nie – "Mother", used by some Cape Townians
tops – "excellent", "the best", "great!"
Toppie – "old man", used by Afrikaans-speakers, can also mean 'dad', ex: 'My friend recently became a Toppie'
Whakind – a greeting (Used as "Howzit" in KZN), usually used amongst guys only, and frowned upon when used in greeting women. This word can also express an enquiry about something, especially when used outside the Kwa-Zulu Natal region.
What say/What you say/Wat sê jy – alternative for Whakind in the greeting-sense. English-speakers use the first and second forms; Afrikaans-speakers the third.
Young one – Refer to "Stekkie"
Skommel – masturbate
onetime – of course, without delay; often used as a positive reply to a question.
operate – lets perform or to have sex
ou – a boy/man/guy, homo sapiens
Charr Ou/Charou/charo – Charr is from charring from the sun like charcoal (burnt wood) derogatory term for an Indian, Bangladeshi or Pakistani person
Bruin Ou – a Coloured person – mixed race
Wit (pronounced as vit) Ou – a White person
Correct Ou – a good guy
Gorra Ou – a White person (insulting usage)
Darkie ou/ darky ou – a derogatory term for African/black person
Pekkie Ou – a Black African person (derogatory; from the Zulu word for "cook")
Slum Ou – a Muslim person (derived from the words Islam/Muslim)
Exploding Ou – a Muslim person (insulting, derogatory usage)
boss – a salute to a person, usually of higher authority or status (usually to a male), as in "you know what it is boss".
bra – a way of addressing a friend, as in 'Howzit my bra'. 'bra' derived from 'brother'
bung – (from Afrikaans 'bang' – to be scared) to be afraid of someone.
condai – bus conductor.
graft – work, e. "hey kazzie, I'm grafting at coconut grove, lakkaz ekse"
kêrel – boyfriend
hit a luck – expression, to meet with good fortune, as in, "hey my bru hit a luck, eee got graft at the Casino".
choon/tune – talk/to tell someone something.
clips – Money, 1 clip = R100
laanie – From the Afrikaans word meaning "fancy", but used by Indian people to mean "smart guy" ("Smart" as in "well-to-do") or, more frequently, "boss". Compare larnie.
lakkaz – meaning lekker from the Afrikaans language.
late – A euphemism for dead/deceased; as in 'My daddy is two years late'. (Unconnected with the idea of tardiness.)
let's vye – let's go; (waai pronounced as vuy, same like buy) (From Afrikaans, "kom ons waai") Used mostly by Durban Indians. "Dave let's vye sook a betters.""
maader – excellent, very good (used especially by KZN people of Indian origin)
min-rill – from the English word "mineral", meaning mineral water; taken to mean any fizzy drink in a bottle, normally Coke, Fanta, etc.
plot – pursue romantically, courting
poke – stab
pozzy – house or home; place where one lives or hangs out.
perrie – paranoid; "He is moerse perrie"
pehrer – a fight. (Often heard as "Who's gunning a pehrer?" meaning "Who's looking for a fight?")
slaan – wear (as in clothes), ex "He is ge (prefix) slat (slaan) clothingwise"; meaning "He's dressed well"
Vrou – my wife, as in 'Ek sê, I must first ask my Vrou'; from the Afrikaans word for 'wife"/"woman".
vying – going, as in we vying to the soccer
vriete – "food" from the Afrikaans word "Vreet" – "to eat like an animal". Used as a noun, ex: He must kyk(look) sy(his) eie(own) vriete(food) translated: He must find his own food
dite – food(noun), ex: "i smaak(like to) a dite(food) kry(to get)"
dite – food(verb), ex: "ek(i) gaan(to go) eers (firstly) dite(to eat)"
speech – an argument/fight
stekie – girl/girlfriend
swaai – to dance. (For example: "Lets vaai (go) swaai.")
swak – bad or weak
what kind – Greeting, similar to Howzit
what what – mostly used in arguments, meaning "this and that". Often heard as what you say what what
spiet – to fight
slow boat – Splif/joint – normally related to marijuana
para/pareh – to fight/argument
pulling moves – related to doing some sort of crime or fraud
100's / hundreds – relating to being ok, for example: "I am hundreds today after last night's jol"
bust up – a big party involving abundant drugs and booze
pull in – literally means to come; example: "Pull in to my pozzy tonight, gona have a bust up"
benou – (pronounce BER-NOW) – marijuana or dagga. Commonly used by Indians in Gauteng. "no benou there?"-do you have any dagga?
sharp – goodbye, ("shap im out" – goodbye I'm leaving)
aspriss – to do something deliberately ("I closed the door on him aspriss")
gusheshe – BMW 325is (Black Slang).
arrawise – greeting, derived from the English word 'otherwise' ("arrawise bra watse?")
Salut – Hello, hi, as in a greeting, or "dis (it's) salut (good) my bra (friend/brother)"
Ben 10 – someone dating a woman who is 1–10 years older than him or a young male partner of a cougar. The name comes from the Cartoon Network animated series of the same name.
Blesser – This is a high level sugar daddy, but with a lot more money. He's filthy rich, and can set a lady up with clothing accounts, overseas holidays and sometimes even a car in exchange for sex benefits. The lady is expected to be readily available at all times when the blesser needs her (Black Slang).
Blessee – a lady who dates a blesser (Black Slang).
Bosoh – Commonly known as weed or dagga. "Jdogger roll the bosoh there. Im keen to get blazed"
Make the thing there – This is commonly used with the word betters referring to the purchasing of a bag." Make the thing there Lyles. Make a betters for the boys"
Chow a bean – A bean which is also known a blue boy, is commonly used at the end of a sesh to cut things before they get dangerous "We on day 4 now Cheeno. Time to call it and chow a bean."
Beef – A small Muslim boy also known as tokoloshe.
Gup – Indian slang for a lie. Can be used as a verb which is "gupping" or past tense "gupped". "I told Cheeno I got a backdoor into Wikipedia. That guy got gupped hard""
Let's have it – A commonly used phrase to instigate the start of a past time activity. Can be used for anything leisure, from FIFA to a betters (Please refer to the definition of betters above). "Lets have it there quick Stanosh before more owes come"
Jux – To be horny or excited. "Ekse this betters is making me jux"
Catch a press – To have sexual intercourse which lasts only a few moments due to being jux. "Bra, im so jux, lets vye catch a press said Cheens"
South African Portuguese slang
maburro – slang for a white Afrikaans person, usually derogatory but sometimes used affectionately depending on context. (a "burro" in Portuguese is an ass, donkey or stupid person.)
padece – slang for a white Afrikaans person, usually derogatory but sometimes used affectionately depending on context.
South African Indian slang
Many of these terms occur in the Cape Town and Durban areas, and few in Indian areas in Gauteng. Many words are shared with Coloured slang, such as pozzie (in Durban) and let's waai.
cake – idiot
cameway – to go with someone, like come with me. Used in Durban.
Charo – a person of Indian origin. From the word "curry" (or tea).
eeuww man! – an informal way of greeting. The South African Indian equivalent of "Hey dude!"
guzzie – friend (from the Zulu gaz'lami)
Jaaver – an Afrikaner person
kassam – serious, not joking. From Islamic meaning "oath".
mooing – to flirt. From the Afrikaans word mooi meaning "nice"/"pretty".
ou – person
Roti Ou / Bread Ou Hindi person
Wit Ou – a White person
Porridge Ou – a Tamil person
paining – having pain
pano – money, from the Tamil word for "money". Commonly used by all South African Indian linguistic groups as a euphemism for money (not slang).
patla, flouie – usually refers to poor (unfunny) jokes. Patla can also refer to any kind of damp squib. Patla Patla often refers obliquely to having sex; imitating the sound of two bodies meeting.
potter-marie – means a dumbass (Hindu language roots)
right – an affirmation, mostly used while giving traffic directions, as in "Go straight, Right. Turn Left, Right."
sheila – an ugly woman
slaat – action like hit. For example: Don't choon me what what an' all, I slaat you one time laanie.
this thing/"dis ting" – watchamacallit
y'all – "you all" appears across all varieties of South African Indian English. Its lexical similarity to the y'all of the United States is attributed to coincidence.
South African Jewish slang
chattis, khateis (plural chatteisim, khateisim. Yiddish: "a sinner"): approximately equivalent to "white trash". The word refers particularly to poor, white, Afrikaans-speaking communities with endemic social problems. Sometimes used as an ethnic slur against Afrikaners in general. From Talmudic phrase Eyn bor yerey khet – a bor – (uncouth ignoramus) is not afraid of sin. The bor-Boer assonance gives a case for quibble: if not afraid of sin must be therefore a sinner.
kugel: an overly groomed, materialistic woman (from the Yiddish word for a plain pudding garnished as a delicacy). Older-generation Jews coined this usage as a derogatory label for Jewish women who aspired to become part of the privileged English-speaking white community. usage, often humorously intended, applies the word to any nouveau riche women in South African society who appear overly groomed and materialistic. Bagel and bagel-boy occur as labels for the male counterpart of the kugel. (Compare the American-English term Jewish-American princess which has subtly differing connotations.)
Peruvian / Peruvnik: a low-class, unmannered and unsophisticated person regardless of wealth, usually Jewish. The etymology is unclear. (Theories: (a) Yiddish corruption of Parvenu; (b) derives from an acronym for "Polish and Russian Union", supposedly a Jewish club founded in Kimberley in the 1870s, according to Bradford's Dictionary of South African English.) The more assimilated and established Jews from Germany and England looked down on this group, and their descendants remain stigmatised.
Schwarzer: Yiddish / German for "black" – a black person
shiksa: as in other Jewish communities, this means "non-Jewish girl". Traditionally "slave-girl", from the Yiddish version of the Hebrew word for "dirty, unclean, loathsome" In South Africa, however, it has the additional meaning of a "female domestic worker".
weisser: Yiddish for "white" – a white person
South African Lebanese slang
bint: from the Lebanese word for "girl"; used in reference to women in general (as in "check out that hot bint over there.")
drib: from the Lebanese word for "hit" (as in "hey ghey ... if you don't stop talking gara, I may have to drib you!")
khara: from the Lebanese word for "faeces" or "dung"; refers to something that is crap (as in "that guy is talking khara!")
ghei: literally translated from the Lebanese word for "brother"; in colloquial South African refers to "a tinted-windows, lots-of-jewellery" kinda guy (pronounced like gHAY but with a /x/, like a guttural "g" or the "ch" in Scottish loch)
stiffle: so what: "if you don't like it stiffle!"
Special-use slang
Kasi/township slang
411 – giving someone the latest news and gossip.
5 Jacket, Half clipper, 5 Tiger, pinkies, 5Ten – R50 note
2 Bob – 20-cent coin
442 (Four, four, two) – lies or lying.
150 – Ladysmith/Emnambithi (KZN)
69 (Six nine) – It is to pee.
9 (nine) – Girlfriend as in a love relationship.
Peepee, 45 (four five) or Ntutu – Penis.
6 no 9 – "same difference". Like "potato, potatoe".
99 (nine nine) – "for real"
ayoba – expression of excitement
bokgata or Bo 4 – "the police"
cake/ikuku/kuku – Vagina or a scone depends on context.
Chalk/choc – R20 note
chommie – More likely to be used by young girls than guys, the word refers to a friend. A music artist goes by this name.
clipper/lkippa – R100 note
doing a bafana – demanding more smeka (money) for being mediocre
doing a benni – The saying comes from the formerly much-lauded Bafana Bafana striker Benni McCarthy's "uncharitable habit of turning his back on his country" following many instances of failing to turn up to play in the South Africa national football team. Meaning "showing disloyalty / being irresponsible".
eish – [compare Bantu usage above] (pronounced like /aysh/ but also, less often, as /ish/) – Used to express everything ranging from frustration to surprise to disapproval, but also just everyday acknowledgement of things you can't change like "Eish, the traffic is bad today". Heard frequently each and every day! Also used to indicate displeasure. For example: 'At the time I was the only black guy and I used to ask myself "Eish, what am I doing here?"'
fong kong – cheap and fake products that one can buy from vendors on the streets.
Tiger – R10 note (from the word "jacket")
Yoh – Exclamation/reaction to something shocking or surprising
juish (pronounced /Joowish/) – refers to nice and flashy clothes that someone has on.
moegoe – a fool, idiot or simpleton. For example: "moegoe of the week". Related to the Nigerian term mugu, fool, fraud victim.
mzansi – from the isiXhosa words, Mzantsi Afrika; a common term which means South Africa. [Mzansi] List of colloquial South African place names first published in Y magazine.
Pinkies – R50 note, because of its colour
roogie – R50 note
Ova – To talk
O zo fa ntja! – You will die, dog
skoon – Kaal voël steek (without a condom). Generally unprotected sex
starter pack – (Origins: Terminology first used by mobile-phone companies but quickly adapted by car thieves and car hijackers.) Refers to entry-level cars, especially vehicle-makes occurring commonly on the road and therefore less easy to spot as stolen. Thieves can "chop up" the parts at an illegal "chop shop" and used them for repairs on more expensive vehicles.
Stena/isitina (from the Afrikaans word for brick) – A stack of money amounting to R1000
umlungu – white South African or the boss (baas) of the company
yebo – a Zulu word which means "yes".
Z3 – refers to HIV and AIDS, because of its speed. This is a reference to the BMW Z3.
Coconut – Referring to a self hating African black person who is dualistic in their nature. Black on the outside and White on the inside.
Machangura – Refers to cash or money.
Zaka – Money
Pompo – Tap water
Dintshang? – What's happening?
Ke shap – I am good.
Sati – Saturday
Spani – Work
Achuz – Friend (from "accused". Someone with whom you have committed a crime and appear in court alongside. "Can accused no.1 and accused no.2 please stand."
Choof – Crystal Meth
Gayle language (gay slang)
Slang developed in the 1970s to allow the speakers to converse in public without drawing attention – usually referring to girls' names often with the first letter in common with the intended meaning: See the article Gayle language.
abigail – abortion
ada – backside
agatha – a gossip
aida – AIDS
amanda – amazing
annie – anus
barbara – straight man
belinda – blind
bella – to hit or slap "I will bella you if you don't stop staring at that beulah."
bertha – Hilda's big sister (really, really ugly), after Big Bertha, the giant cannon
beulah – beautiful, usually referring to a good looking man
cilla – cigarette
betty bangles – policeman
carol – cry
chlora – coloured person
connie – come
cora – common
diana – disgusting or dead
dora – a drink; drunk
elsie geselsie – chatterbox
erica – erection
esterjie – ecstasy
ethel – old person
frieda – sexually frustrated
fuella – furious
gail – chat
gayle – the name for this slang
gonda – a vagina
grazelda – extremely ugly
harriet – hairy man
hilda – ugly (or horrible), usually referring to a not-so good looking guy
iona – Indian
jenny – masturbate
jessica – jealous
julia – jewellery
lana – penis (from alliteration Lana Lunch)
laura – lover
lettie – lesbian
lily – law (the police)
lisa – male model
lulu – laugh
marie – mad
marjorie – margarine
mary – obvious homosexual
mathilda – migraine
maureen – murder
mavis – effeminate queen
mildred – mentally deranged
milly – crazy (mad) – milder than mildred
mitzi – small
monica – money
nancy – no
natalie – native person
nelly – neurotic
nora – stupid or naive
olga – old and ugly
pandora – inquisitive queen
patsy – dance, party
polly – Portuguese homosexual
priscilla – policeman
reeva – revolting
rita – rent boy
sally – suck
sheila – shit (action or insult)
stella – steal
trudy – someone that's beyond help
ursula – understand/understanding
vast – very ("She's vast nora, my dear!")
vera – vomit
wendy – white (caucasian)
lodge – house
pram – car
Example
Jinne man, just put on your tekkies and your costume, don't be dof! We're going to walk to the beach and then go for a swim, if you want to come with you better hurry up, chyna. Ag nee, I stepped on a shongololo, I just bought new tekkies the other day! You know what, lets just forget about the beach and have a braai instead, all we need is some meat, mieliepap, some cooldrinks, maybe a brinjal and some other veggies. And if someone can bring some biscuits for a banofi pie that would be great. Hey bru, it's lekker day today for a jol ek sê! I'm warning you my dad won't tolerate any gesuipery, he'll klap you stukkend! Is it? Ja, he's kwaai! He was tuning me just now from his bakkie my bokkie is a soutie and a rooinek. Eish! Well at least he's duidelik.
See also
Gayle language
Languages of South Africa
List of colloquial South African place names
List of lexical differences in South African English
South African English
References
Bibliography
External links
Languages of South Africa
South African
Slang
South African English |
4166572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Foss | Arthur Foss | Arthur Foss, built in 1889 as Wallowa at Portland, Oregon, is likely the oldest wooden tugboat afloat in the world. Its 79-year commercial service life began with towing sailing ships over the Columbia River bar, and ended with hauling bundled log rafts on the Strait of Juan de Fuca in 1968. Northwest Seaport now preserves the tug as a museum ship in Seattle, Washington.
The tug's long service in the Pacific Northwest, including a role in the Klondike Gold Rush, was interrupted by preparations for war in early 1941. After delivering a drydock gate to Pearl Harbor the tug was chartered by Contractors Pacific Naval Air Bases, a consortium formed to build air fields on remote Pacific islands as the United States prepared for war. In June 1941 Arthur Foss was supporting construction on Wake Island and was there in November along with the smaller Justine Foss transporting construction materials from barges in the lagoon to the island. When the work was completed the tug was scheduled to return to Hawaii with two barges in tow.
The captain, concerned about the warnings of war, left the island without refueling. The smaller tug had to refuel and remained to do so. Arthur Foss was about twelve hours into the voyage to Honolulu when word of the attack on Pearl Harbor was received. The tug's crew repainted the tug with what paint was available and kept radio silence. The tug, overdue and thought lost, was spotted by Navy patrol planes and made Pearl Harbor on 28 December with fuel for less than a day's operation left. The crew of Justine Foss were captured when the island was taken by the Japanese with all but one eventually executed. The Navy put Arthur Foss in service as a yard tug under the name Dohasan from early 1942 until February 1945. The tug was laid up until 1947 when it was returned to Foss and transported to its home area where it was rehabilitated for company service in 1948. It served the company for 20 more years until retirement in July 1968.
Construction and early operations
Wallowa was built in 1889 in Portland, Oregon, for the Oregon Railway & Navigation Company (OR & N). The hull was designed by noted shipbuilder David Stephenson, and constructed by the shipyard/machinery firm of Willamette Iron and Steel Works. The twin inclined (or "bilge") steam engines for the new vessel came from an older tug, Donald, which was retired from service that year. As built, Wallowa was listed as long, with a beam of and a depth of hold of . According to another report, Wallowa was roughly long; this is in fact the overall length. The hull was launched in summer 1889, and fitting out was completed by September. On the 3rd, Captain George A. Pease, one of the most experienced pilots on the Columbia River, took Wallowa downriver from Portland to Astoria, Oregon. Although it is unknown if all were present for the maiden voyage, A.F. Goodrich and John S. Kidd served as engineers on the tug in its early years, as did John Melville.
The first master of Wallowa in service was Captain R.E. Howes. Howes was born in 1846 on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and had been captain of Wallowa predecessor Donald. Donald had been used to tow sailing vessels across the dangerous bar at the mouth of the Columbia River, and Wallowa was placed into the same service, operating out of Astoria. The new tug was taken on its first inspection trip across the bar on 23 September 1889, starting out from Astoria at 0300 hours. Present on board were a number of OR & N officials, including the chief of maritime and riverine operations, Captain James W. Troup. Wallowa returned to Astoria that afternoon, having been found to be fully satisfactory for bar service. The tug went on to successfully perform its intended duties in this dangerous service for the next nine years.
Klondike Gold Rush service
In 1898, caught up in the shipping boom caused by the Klondike Gold Rush, the OR & N leased Wallowa to the White Star Line to tow that company's large sidewheeler Yosemite north up the Inside Passage to St. Michael, Alaska. (That town was a major gateway to the gold fields via the Yukon River.) An early return voyage to Seattle from Skagway towing the bark Columbia nearly resulted in the loss of Wallowa on 1 November 1898. A strong gale drove the tug ashore near Mary Island, north of Portland Canal on the southeast Alaska coast. Wallowa was found to have suffered no damage and was successfully refloated on the next high tide, but three days later Columbia was stranded at the mouth of Portland Canal and became a total loss. Wallowa was able to safely endure the rest of the stormy voyage to Seattle.
Wallowa'''s strong construction continued to serve it in good stead. The tug made many subsequent voyages up the Inside Passage transporting supply barges and construction materials for the mining camps. By 1900, Wallowa was listed as working for the Pacific Clipper Line under Captain E. Caine, carrying mail and supplies between Juneau, Haines, Skagway, and Seattle. In 1903, the tug returned to Puget Sound and was sold into the timber industry a year later. There is only one other Alaskan gold rush vessel still in existence: the privately owned 1890 wooden tugboat Elmore.
Puget Sound Mill & Timber Company service
In 1904, Wallowa was purchased by lumber baron Mike Earles, owner of Puget Sound Mill & Timber Company (PSM & T Co.), based at Port Angeles. For the next 25 years, the tug towed log rafts from the Port Crescent "booming grounds" on the Olympic Peninsula to sawmills in Bellingham. At some point shortly after acquiring Wallowa, Earles had the tug refitted and re-powered with a new boiler and a new vertical double-expansion steam engine to replace the worn and obsolete inclined "bilge engines" originally fitted to the old Donald. Wallowa emerged from the refit with much more power and towing capability than before. It performed reliable work for the PSM & T Co. without any significant layups, except for a rebuild of the main deckhouse following a fire in 1927. During this period the vessel was mostly under the command of Captain Frank Harrington.
In early 1929, Earles sold Wallowa to a neighboring timber concern: Merrill & Ring Logging Company, formed in 1886 by two families established in the lumber business back in Michigan and Minnesota. T.D. Merrill and Clark Ring had formed their joint venture after arriving in the Pacific Northwest to scout timberlands, acquiring large tracts around the Pysht River. The company still owns these today. Wallowa undertook the same types of jobs for Merrill & Ring as it had for the PSM & T Co., but operating primarily between booming grounds at Pysht and Port Angeles. However, after less than a year, Merrill & Ring decided to sell the tug.
Foss Launch & Tug Company service (pre-war)
Foss Launch & Tug Company (Foss) purchased Wallowa in late 1929, and the vessel became among the first of that company's large, seagoing acquisitions. To help pay off the large purchase, Foss donated a previously agreed-upon amount of towing services to Merrill & Ring, then in 1931 leased Wallowa to MGM Studios for filming the 1933 blockbuster hit Tugboat Annie. That film, the first major motion picture filmed in Washington state, became a huge success and made Wallowa (unofficially renamed "Narcissus" during filming) a movie star.
Afterward, Wallowa was returned to Foss, which rebuilt and modernized the tug from its main deck up at company headquarters in Tacoma in 1934. The primary component of the rebuild was installation of a state-of-the-art, six cylinder, four-stroke, Washington Iron Works direct-drive diesel engine, which made the tug the most powerful on the West Coast. At re-launch, Foss renamed the tug Arthur Foss in honor of the company president and eldest son of company founder Thea Foss. Following successful trials, Arthur Foss went into commercial service as the Foss company flagship. However, steering troubles were presumably encountered, for a pneumatic power-steering assist system was installed in 1937. This was likely needed because increased right-hand torque from the propeller due to the more powerful engine made manual steering difficult for a single person.
For nearly three years following modernization, Arthur Foss was utilized primarily for coastal tows to California, Oregon, and Alaska, based mostly out of Tacoma. The tug set several speed and tonnage hauled records, most notably while towing large lumber schooners down the coast to California. The most famous of these voyages occurred in 1936 under the command of Captain W. B. Sporman when, battling bad weather the whole time, Arthur Foss towed the large four-masted schooner Commodore, loaded with of lumber, from Oregon to Los Angeles in a record seven days. During this period the tug also frequently towed log rafts, ships, and barges along the Inside Passage as it had during the gold rush. Disaster struck on 18 February 1937, when a severe fire broke out in the forward crew quarters. In order to save Arthur Foss, Captain J.M. Bowers deliberately steered the tug into shallow water near Discovery Bay and sank it, extinguishing the fire. Several other vessels came to assistance, and Arthur Foss was refloated and taken to Tacoma for repairs.
By late 1937, Arthur Foss was back in service with a new power steering system and a new, extremely skillful captain. In November both tug and captain, Martin Guchee, were commended for towing the disabled motorship Eastern Prince from Yakutat, Alaska, to Seattle in just six days. Captain Guchee was also at the helm when Arthur Foss became in involved in the construction of two of the Northwest's most famous landmarks. In 1938, the tug made a long tow from San Francisco with the giant barge Foss No. 64, which had been used in the construction of the Golden Gate Bridge. Foss No. 64 was needed up north for the construction of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge which began in September 1938. The bridge was completed in 1940 and, after just a few months in service, collapsed in high winds due to aeroelastic flutter. Students of physics and structural engineering have been studying the infamous event ever since. In January 1939, construction of another famous bridge began on Lake Washington, the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge connecting Seattle to Mercer Island. Prior to construction, extensive testing of the pontoons' strength and stability occurred over a nine-month period in 1938. An experimental barge approximating the proposed bridge's configuration was anchored in the lake, and the most powerful tug on the West Coast was hired to put it to the test. Captain Guchee took Arthur Foss at full speed around and around the test barge, generating four-foot waves and simulating lake conditions in an wind. Engineers and technicians were on hand to take readings. The test barge held, but not satisfied with the amount of stress he was putting it under, Captain Guchee put Arthur Foss bow against the barge and "gave her full power". The anchoring system still held. Utilizing the data gathered during this unorthodox experiment and others, the world's first floating highway bridge was completed in 1940. To this day, there are only five similar floating spans in the world, and three are located in Washington State.
After its involvement with the two soon-to-be-famous bridges, Arthur Foss returned to its normal towing duties up and down the coast. Captain Vince Miller was in command at this time. After a record barge tow of of lumber to Los Angeles in late 1940, on 8 February 1941 the tug departed Tacoma for Oakland, California, to pick up a barge carrying a huge gate for one of the United States Navy's dry docks at Pearl Harbor. Arthur Foss and tow departed for Hawaii on 15 February 1941 and arrived without mishap two weeks later. The crew thought they were on just another routine job and would soon be returning home.
World War II serviceArthur Foss successfully delivered the drydock gate to the navy yard at Pearl Harbor in early March 1941. Instead of returning to the West Coast, the vessel was chartered by Foss to a consortium of civilian engineering firms: Contractors Pacific Naval Air Bases (CPNAB), which had been formed in January 1941 to begin construction of military bases on strategic Pacific atolls, including Wake Island. Arthur Foss's first assignment with CPNAB was towing gravel barges from Kaneohe to Honolulu for construction of airport runways. This work lasted until June, when the tug was assigned to a regular run between Hawaii and Wake towing barges of construction materials and military supplies for the airfield and barracks there. Meanwhile, the United States quietly prepared for the coming of war. In November, amid increasing U.S.-Japanese tensions, the tug was again dispatched from Honolulu under the command of Captain Oscar Rolstad to Wake towing two fully loaded barges. Upon arrival, Arthur Foss was joined by the smaller Justine Foss in the atoll harbor. Offloading the barges and lightering the equipment ashore occupied the two tug crews for the next few weeks. Upon completion of the work, Arthur Foss was scheduled to return to Honolulu towing two 1,000-ton fuel barges (empty). Departure from Wake was expected in the first week of December.
Work was completed on schedule. Arthur Foss needed to refuel before undertaking the voyage back to Hawaii. Captain Rolstad and the crew were extremely anxious to leave as soon as possible. By the early morning of 8 December 1941 (7 December on the other side of the International Date Line), three war warnings had been issued over the radio, and Captain Rolstad decided to forego refueling. He took Arthur Foss and tow to sea. Twelve hours out of Wake, news of the attack on Pearl Harbor was received. Japanese naval air forces simultaneously attacked Wake. Painted a highly visible white and green, Arthur Foss was a ripe target standing "out like a chain of coral islands on the empty sea", and Captain Rolstad was acutely aware of the likelihood of being bombed or torpedoed. While underway, the crew hastily mixed all white paint on board with engine grease to repaint the tug dark gray to help blend in with the ocean. All lights were blacked out and Arthur Foss proceeded under radio silence. Still towing the two barges at barely more than walking speed, the crew debated whether they should head for Alaska or Hawaii. No one was certain if they had enough fuel to reach either place, or whether when/if they arrived they would find the enemy in control. The decision was made to follow original orders and head to Honolulu at reduced speed to conserve as much fuel as possible.Arthur Foss and tow were spotted by U.S. naval scout planes and escorted into Pearl Harbor on 28 December 1941, where Admiral Claude Bloch cited the crew for action beyond the call of duty. Due to the reduced speed of the voyage, they were a week overdue and had been presumed missing in action. According to Captain Rolstad's log, less than 500 U.S. gallons of fuel remained when they docked (this was the equivalent of running on fumes, as the main engine uses about 42 U.S. gallons per hour).Arthur Foss was ultimately the last vessel to escape Wake before Japanese forces captured the island on 23 December 1941, after a prolonged and bloody siege. After Arthur Foss departure, only a few flights of Pan Am flying boats carrying employees and some civilian contractors were able to escape. The crew of Justine Foss, which unlike Arthur Foss had remained to refuel, was captured and used as forced labor. Justine Foss itself was scuttled by the Japanese. All members of the crew except Thea Foss's grandson Drew (who had been removed to a prisoner of war camp in Burma) were executed along with all the remaining captives in 1943.Arthur Foss was placed in service by the United States Navy in early 1942, renamed Dohasan and designated YT-335 (harbor tug) and later YTM-335 (district harbor tug, medium). The tug continued to tow supply barges between bases in the Hawaiian archipelago and even ventured as far as French Frigate Shoals, northwest of Oahu. Dohasan towed a large grab dredge to the Shoals on 8 August 1942 for construction of an emergency landing strip there, then remained as a tender to the dredge as it removed material from the lagoon and deposited it ashore to build up and form a runway. The tug returned to Hawaii after three months of this work, but afterward apparently spent a lot of time idle as navy crews were unfamiliar with operation of the main engine. After the war ended in September 1945, Dohasan continued in naval service until being stricken from the Navy List on 7 February 1945 and lay up at Honolulu through 1946. The tug was finally returned to Foss Launch & Tug Company ownership in fall 1947, and renamed Arthur Foss. To return the worn-out tug to the West Coast, CPNAB secured it in a floating drydock and had it towed to Los Angeles. During the stormy voyage, rough seas knocked Arthur Foss off its keel blocks, heavily damaging the hull. Upon arrival back in Tacoma, Foss began a comprehensive rehabilitation of the tug which occupied it until August 1948.
Foss Launch & Tug Company service (post-war)
Upon completion of repairs, the newly refurbished Arthur Foss was assigned to Foss's Port Angeles division with the task of towing log cribs and later bundled log rafts in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, mostly under contract to Crown Zellerbach, Rayonier, and Weyerhaeuser. Each raft averaged about of timber. Arthur Foss operated between Neah Bay, Sekiu, Clallam Bay, Pysht, Port Crescent, and Port Angeles; and continued this work for 20 years, setting the record for the longest uninterrupted towing service in the Straits. During this period the tug was almost exclusively under the command of captains Lynn Davis and Arnold Tweter. In 1964 during annual overhaul the tug was renamed Theodore Foss in honor of Thea Foss's eldest brother-in-law; a brand-new oceangoing tug took on the venerable name Arthur Foss that year. Upon retirement in July 1968, Theodore Foss was moved to Tacoma and sat idle for the next two years. In 1970, the vessel was donated to Northwest Seaport by Foss Launch & Tug Company and renamed Arthur Foss once again (since no longer part of the commercial fleet). Henry Foss himself, youngest and last surviving son of Thea Foss, presided at the official transfer ceremony.
Museum ship and National Historic Landmark
Northwest Seaport volunteers cleaned and organized the tug's interior and refurbished the main engine piece by piece, with the first official startup as a museum ship occurring in 1980. Afterward Arthur Foss regularly cruised Puget Sound waters during the summer months with a volunteer crew, participating in tugboat races, boat shows, and other maritime heritage events until 2001. The tug's excursions ended that year due to rising fuel and insurance costs, and increased safety concerns, in the wake of the 11 September attacks. Volunteer crew burnout, lack of organizational development, and the increasing need for major restoration work also played a part. Varying non-professional attempts at spot repairs over the years were superseded beginning in 2004 with larger but specifically focused restoration projects run by contracted professionals. However, a comprehensive restoration has not yet been attempted. Following extensive survey, documentation, and hull maintenance projects in 2017, planning and fundraising efforts are under way to restore the vessel to its 1940 appearance, in cruising condition.Arthur Foss was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1989, is on the National Register of Historic Places, and is a Seattle Landmark. The tug was also named a Washington State Centennial Heritage Flagship in 1989, when both tug and state celebrated their 100th "birthday".andArthur Foss'' is currently docked at the Historic Ships Wharf at Seattle's Lake Union Park, and is a featured attraction open for public tours most summer weekends, or by appointment. Visitors of all ages enjoy a glimpse of life aboard what is now one of the oldest and most historic vessels in the United States.
See also
Northwest Seaport
References
External links
Northwest Seaport
HNSA Web Page: Tug Arthur Foss
Pearl Harbor and the Outlying Islands: US Navy Base Construction in World War II
Massacre on Wake Island
Museums in Seattle
Museum ships in Washington (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Seattle
Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
Tugboats of the United States
Steam tugs
Historic American Engineering Record in Washington (state)
Industry museums in Washington (state)
South Lake Union, Seattle
National Historic Landmarks in Washington (state)
World War II auxiliary ships of the United States |
4166591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dashboard%20%28business%29 | Dashboard (business) | In business computer information systems, a dashboard is a type of graphical user interface which often provides at-a-glance views of key performance indicators (KPIs) relevant to a particular objective or business process. In other usage, "dashboard" is another name for "progress report" or "report" and considered a form of data visualization. In providing this overview, business owners can save time and improve their decision making by utilizing dashboards.
The “dashboard” is often accessible by a web browser and is usually linked to regularly updating data sources.
Well known dashboards include Google Analytics dashboards, used on 55% of all websites, which show activity on a website; such as visits, entry pages, bounce rate and traffic sources.
The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 brought other dashboards to the fore, with the Johns Hopkins coronavirus tracker and the UK government coronavirus tracker being good examples.
The term dashboard originates from the automobile dashboard where drivers monitor the major functions at a glance via the instrument panel.
History
The idea of digital dashboards followed the study of decision support systems in the 1970s. Early predecessors of the modern business dashboard were first developed in the 1980s in the form of Executive Information Systems (EISs). Due to problems primarily with data refreshing and handling, it was soon realized that the approach wasn't practical as information was often incomplete, unreliable, and spread across too many disparate sources. Thus, EISs hibernated until the 1990s when the information age quickened pace and data warehousing, and online analytical processing (OLAP) allowed dashboards to function adequately. Despite the availability of enabling technologies, the dashboard use didn't become popular until later in that decade, with the rise of key performance indicators (KPIs), and the introduction of Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton's balanced scorecard. In the late 1990s, Microsoft promoted a concept known as the Digital Nervous System and "digital dashboards" were described as being one leg of that concept. Today, the use of dashboards forms an important part of Business Performance Management (BPM). Initially dashboards were used for monitoring purposes, now with the advancement of technology, dashboards are being used for more analytical purposes. The use of dashboards has now been incorporating; scenario analysis, drill down capabilities, and presentation format flexibility.
Benefits
Digital dashboards allow managers to monitor the contribution of the various departments in their organization. In addition, they enable “rolling up” of information to present a consolidated view across an organization. To gauge exactly how well an organization is performing overall, digital dashboards allow you to capture and report specific data points from each department within the organization, thus providing a "snapshot" of performance.
Benefits of using digital dashboards include:
Visual presentation of performance measures
Ability to identify and correct negative trends
Measure efficiencies/inefficiencies
Ability to generate detailed reports showing new trends
Ability to make more informed decisions based on collected business intelligence
Dashboards offers a holistic view of the entire business as it gives the manager a bird's eye view into the performance of sales, data inventory, web traffic, social media analytics and other associated data that is visually presented on a single dashboard. Dashboards lead to better management of marketing/financial strategies as a dashboard for the display of marketing data makes the process of marketing easier and more reliable as compared to doing it manually. Web analytics play a crucial role in shaping the marketing strategy of many businesses. Dashboards also facilitate for better tracking of sales and financial reporting as the data is more precise and in one area. Lastly, dashboards offer for better customer service through monitoring because they keep both the managers and the clients updated on the project progress through automated emails and notifications.
Align strategies and organizational goals
Saves time compared to running multiple reports
Gain total visibility of all systems instantly
Quick identification of data outliers and correlations
Consolidated reporting into one location
Available on mobile devices to quickly access metrics
Classification
Dashboards can be broken down according to role and are either strategic, analytical, operational, or informational. Dashboards are the 3rd step on the information ladder, demonstrating the conversion of data to increasingly valuable insights.
Strategic dashboards support managers at any level in an organization and provide the quick overview that decision-makers need to monitor the health and opportunities of the business. Dashboards of this type focus on high-level measures of performance and forecasts. Strategic dashboards benefit from static snapshots of data (daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly) that are not constantly changing from one moment to the next.
Dashboards for analytical purposes often include more context, comparisons, and history, along with subtler performance evaluators. In addition, analytical dashboards typically support interactions with the data, such as drilling down into the underlying details. Dashboards for monitoring operations are often designed differently from those that support strategic decision making or data analysis and often require monitoring of activities and events that are constantly changing and might require attention and response at a moment's notice.
Types of dashboards
Digital dashboards may be laid out to track the flows inherent in the business processes that they monitor. Graphically, users may see the high-level processes and then drill down into low-level data. This level of detail is often buried deep within the corporate enterprise and otherwise unavailable to the senior executives.
Three main types of digital dashboards dominate the market today: desktop software applications, web-browser-based applications, and desktop applications are also known as desktop widgets. The last are driven by a widget engine.
Both Desktop and Browser-based providers enable the distribution of dashboards via a web browser. An example of the latter is web-based-browser Asana, which helps teams orchestrate their work, from daily tasks to strategic cross-functional initiatives. With it, teams can manage everything from company objectives to digital transformation to product launches and marketing campaigns.
Specialized dashboards may track all corporate functions. Examples include human resources, recruiting, sales, operations, security, information technology, project management, customer relationship management, digital marketing and many more departmental dashboards. For a smaller organization like a startup a compact startup scorecard dashboard tracks important activities across lot of domains ranging from social media to sales.
Digital dashboard projects involve business units as the driver and the information technology department as the enabler. Therefore, the success of dashboard projects depends on the relevancy/importance of information provided within the dashboard. This includes the metrics chosen to monitor and the timeliness of the data forming those metrics; data must be up to date and accurate.
Key performance indicators, balanced scorecards, and sales performance figures are some of the content appropriate on business dashboards.
Performance Dashboards
Dashboards involve the combination of visual and functional features. This combination of features helps improve cognition and interpretation. A performance dashboard sits at the intersection of two powerful disciplines: business intelligence and performance management. Therefore, there are different users who could use these dashboards for different reasons. For example, a level of workers could look at monitoring inventory while those in more managerial roles can look at lagging measure. Then executives could utilize the dashboard to evaluate strategic performance against objectives.
Dashboards and scorecards
Balanced scorecards and dashboards have been linked together as if they were interchangeable. However, although both visually display critical information, the difference is in the format: Scorecards can open the quality of an operation while dashboards provide calculated direction. A balanced scorecard has what they called a "prescriptive" format. It should always contain these components:
Perspectives – group
Objectives – verb-noun phrases pulled from a strategy plan
Measures – also called metric or key performance indicators (KPIs)
Spotlight indicators – red, yellow, or green symbols that provide an at-a-glance view of a measure's performance.
Each of these sections ensures that a Balanced Scorecard is essentially connected to the businesses critical strategic needs.
The design of a dashboard is more loosely defined. Dashboards are usually a series of graphics, charts, gauges and other visual indicators that can be monitored and interpreted. Even when there is a strategic link, on a dashboard, it may not be noticed as such since objectives are not normally present on dashboards. However, dashboards can be customized to link their graphs and charts to strategic objectives.
Design
Digital dashboard technology is available "out-of-the-box" from many software providers. Some companies, however, continue to do in-house development and maintenance of dashboard applications. For example, GE Aviation has developed a proprietary software/portal called "Digital Cockpit" to monitor the trends in the aircraft spare parts business.
Good dashboard design practices take into account and address the following:
the medium it is designed for (desktop, laptop, mobile, tablet)
use of visuals over the tabular presentation of data
bar charts: to visualize one or more series of data
line charts: to track changes in several dependent data sets over a period of time
sparklines: to show the trend in a single data set
scorecards: to monitor KPIs and trends
use of legends anytime more than one color or shape is present on a graph
spatial arrangement: place your most important view on the top left (if the language is written left to right) then arrange the following views in a Z pattern with the most important information following the top-to-bottom, left-to-right pattern
use colorblind friendly palettes with color used consistently and only where necessary
A good information design will clearly communicate key information to users and makes supporting information easily accessible.
Assessing the quality of dashboards
There are a few key elements to a good dashboard:.
Simple, communicates easily
Minimum distractions...it could cause confusion
Supports organized business with meaning and useful data
Applies human visual perception to visual presentation of information
It can be accessed easily by its intended audience
A research-based framework for Business Intelligence dashboard design includes the following questions:
Dashboard software
Dashboards serve as a visual representation for a company to monitor progress and trends, not only among themselves but against other companies as well. Dashboards and visualizations contain data that is updated in real time. For example, if the underlying data in an Excel spreadsheet were to change, so would the visualization.
Power BI
Power BI provides the tools for a user to create different types of visualizations to communicate the data that they are using. Some examples of these visualizations include graphs, maps, and clustered columns. Power BI pulls data from Excel that can be used to create dashboards and visualizations. Whereas Excel does not import data from Power BI. Excel is typically used for less data and Power BI is more complex. Power BI can be used to display trends over time. For example, a company can create a time plot that shows its costs and revenues over a certain period. The data can then be arranged to show per day, month, quarter, year, etc. This requires simple formatting tools so the data can quickly be changed and compared. Power BI allows the user to customize their visualizations by adding colors and labels. In addition, when the user clicks a data point, they are able to understand what the point or selection is showing. Power BI also has a commonly used map feature where businesses can view their sales and earnings across different states and countries. Places with the highest amounts of data will appear larger in size. For example, a state with the most revenue will be bigger than states with less data. Power BI is also interactive in that in any type of map a person can expand a specific category to look deeper into the data contained.
Tableau
Tableau is another program that allows users to create dashboards. Allegedly, One of Tableau's biggest advantages is how much data it can hold. Tableau can hold an unlimited amount, whereas an Excel spreadsheet has a capacity of 1,048,576 rows. However, it is possible to hold and analyze effectively billions of rows in Excel, using its Power Pivot feature. Tableau has the ability to make interactive dashboards by clicking into a specific point. For example, you can have data be displayed within a map. By clicking a specific state or city you can get a closer look at the data contained within that location. Filters and parameters can also be added. For example, if one were to analyze revenues across the United States you could set a parameter to only show salaries within a particular range. Once set, only states within this range will be highlighted.
Excel
Excel has many tools that help the user not only implement data but also visualize data. Excel has many built in functions that can help break down data and also separate data by scenarios. The user can easily download and add files to their Excel sheets to use for their data. Other tools Excel offers is the use of conditional formatting and basic pivot tables and charts. Excel allows the user to reference other cells which ultimately allows for complex computations to be made and conclusions to be drawn from data.
Arena Calibrate
Arena Calibrate provides a comprehensive business intelligence reporting tool, accompanied by hands-on data & BI support. Their offerings cater to startups, agencies, and SMEs, empowering them to fully leverage Advertising, Sales, Email, CRM, Web, and Analytics data.
Offering high-tier ETL data integration, flexible data warehousing, and custom data visualization, Arena Calibrate is trusted by businesses like Amex, Gentle Dental, and National Golf Foundation. Their dedicated account managers and BI specialists work as an extension of the client's team, aiming to realize each client's unique reporting vision.
Guidelines for dashboard design
There are certain guidelines that can be useful when creating dashboards and other visualizations. The guidelines have a structure that can be followed and that is beginning with reading direction. When it comes to how you are arranging your information on your dashboard or a visualization it can be helpful to think about reading direction. General reading direction is from left to right and from top to bottom. Having information flow in this structure will allow others to read and understand your visuals in a more natural structure. Local proximity is another idea to keep in mind when creating a visual or a dashboard. Having information in a close proximity can be compared with a better effectiveness and allow users to draw conclusions. Being able to make sure the user is not being overloaded with information when creating your visual. Having a few key figures with significant importance can be more helpful compared to having too much information. When you have too much information and not a structure to what you are presenting then that is known as a “data graveyard”. Another aspect to keep in mind while creating visuals that goes along with information overload is the idea of interaction within your visual. Interacting with the dashboard would allow for further detail to be obtained from the user and allow them to better understand the information on your dashboard.
Chart visualization is an important aspect when creating dashboards, diagrams in particular. When you have complex data it can be difficult to come to conclusions from that material and being able to have different visual elements within the dashboard can be helpful in giving a larger overview of the material. Being able to have a visual reporting system allows multiple processing operations to be carried out and that could increase the effectiveness of decisions. There are different types of visualizations that can be seen as more effective depending on the data type and the recipient. Looking at traditional business graphics in an interactive form is another aspect to keep in mind when creating a dashboard. Business charts are used mainly in the form of interactive dashboards. A major advantage of business charts is that the majority of users have an understanding of them.
There are many connections between dashboards and accounting. Dashboards aid with budgeting, management control, and wage control. Dashboards are used to present data in a quick and easy to read way. The ability to present data in a quick way with a visual allows for more data to be processed and understood. Dashboards are used for performance reports, sales analysis on sectors, and inventory rotation. Dashboards should be quick visualizations that allow decisions to be made quicker than they usually would without the access to dashboard technology.
Dashboards are also used in accounting decision making settings. The data can help prove a change is efficient or inefficient and therefore help with improving systems throughout an organization.
In order for a dashboard to be efficient, the individual creating the dashboard needs to make sure that the information is simple and easy to read and be interpreted.
See also
Business activity monitoring
Complex event processing
Corporate performance management
Data presentation architecture
Enterprise manufacturing intelligence
Event stream processing
Information graphics
Information design
Scientific visualization
Control panel (software)
References
Further reading
Business software
Business terms
Computing terminology
Content management systems
Data warehousing
Data management
Information systems
Website management |
4166932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism%20in%20modern%20times | Gnosticism in modern times | Gnosticism in modern times (or Neo-Gnosticism) includes a variety of contemporary religious movements, stemming from Gnostic ideas and systems from ancient Roman society. Gnosticism is an ancient name for a variety of religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish-Christian milieux in the first and second century CE.
The Mandaeans are an ancient Gnostic ethnoreligious group that have survived and are found today in Iran, Iraq and diaspora communities in North America, Western Europe and Australia.
The late 19th century saw the publication of popular sympathetic studies making use of recently rediscovered source materials. In this period there was also the revival of a Gnostic religious movement in France. The emergence of the Nag Hammadi library in 1945 greatly increased the amount of source material available. Its translation into English and other modern languages in 1977 resulted in a wide dissemination, and as a result had observable influence on several modern figures, and upon modern Western culture in general. This article attempts to summarize those modern figures and movements that have been influenced by Gnosticism, both prior and subsequent to the Nag Hammadi discovery.
A number of ecclesiastical bodies that identify as Gnostic have set up or re-founded since World War II as well, including the Ecclesia Gnostica, Johannite Church, Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, the Thomasine Church (not to be confused with the St. Thomas Christians of India), the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, and the North American College of Gnostic Bishops.
Late 19th century
Source materials were discovered in the 18th century. In 1769, the Bruce Codex was brought to England from Upper Egypt by the Scottish traveller James Bruce, and subsequently bequeathed to the care of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Sometime prior to 1785, The Askew Codex (a.k.a. Pistis Sophia) was bought by the British Museum from the heirs of Dr. Askew. The Pistis Sophia text and Latin translation of the Askew Codex by M. G. Schwartze were published in 1851. Although discovered in 1896, the Coptic Berlin Codex (a.k.a. the Akhmim Codex) was not 'rediscovered' until the 20th century.
Charles William King
Charles William King was a British writer and collector of ancient gemstones with magical inscriptions. His collection was sold because of his failing eyesight, and was presented in 1881 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. King was recognized as one of the greatest authorities on gems at the time.
In The Gnostics and their Remains (1864, 1887 2nd ed.) King sets out to show that rather than being a Western heresy, the origins of Gnosticism are to be found in the East, specifically in Buddhism. This theory was embraced by Blavatsky, who argued that it was plausible, but rejected by G. R. S. Mead. According to Mead, King's work "lacks the thoroughness of the specialist."
Madame Blavatsky
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, co-founder of the Theosophical Society, wrote extensively on Gnostic ideas. A compilation of her writings on Gnosticism is over 270 pages long. The first edition of King's The Gnostics and Their Remains was repeatedly cited as a source and quoted in Isis Unveiled.
G. R. S. Mead
G. R. S. Mead became a member of Blavatsky's Theosophical Society in 1884. He left the teaching profession in 1889 to become Blavatsky's private secretary, which he was until her death in 1891. Mead's interest in Gnosticism was likely awakened by Blavatsky who discussed it at length in Isis Unveiled.
In 1890–1891 Mead published a serial article on Pistis Sophia in Lucifer magazine, the first English translation of that work. In an article in 1891, Mead argues for the recovery of the literature and thought of the West at a time when Theosophy was largely directed to the East, saying that this recovery of Western antique traditions is a work of interpretation and "the rendering of tardy justice to pagans and heretics, the reviled and rejected pioneers of progress..." This was the direction his own work was to take.
The first edition of his translation of Pistis Sophia appeared in 1896. From 1896 to 1898 Mead published another serial article in the same periodical, "Among the Gnostics of the First Two Centuries," that laid the foundation for his monumental compendium Fragments of a Faith Forgotten in 1900. Mead serially published translations from the Corpus Hermeticum from 1900 to 1905. The next year he published Thrice-Greatest Hermes, a massive, comprehensive three volume treatise. His series Echoes of the Gnosis was published in 12 booklets in 1908. By the time he left the Theosophical Society in 1909, he had published many influential translations, commentaries, and studies of ancient Gnostic texts. "Mead made Gnosticism accessible to the intelligent public outside of academia". Mead's work has had and continues to have widespread influence.
The Gnostic Church revival in France
After a series of visions and archival finds of Cathar-related documents, a librarian named Jules-Benoît Stanislas Doinel du Val-Michel (a.k.a. Jules Doinel) established the Église Gnostique (French: Gnostic Church). Founded on extant Cathar documents with the Gospel of John and strong influence of Simonian and Valentinian cosmology, the church was officially established in the autumn of 1890 in Paris. Doinel declared it "the era of Gnosis restored." Liturgical services were based on Cathar rituals. Clergy was both male and female, having male bishops and female "sophias."
Doinel resigned and converted to Roman Catholicism in 1895, one of many duped by Léo Taxil's anti-masonic hoax. Taxil unveiled the hoax in 1897. Doinel was readmitted to the Gnostic church as a bishop in 1900.
Early to mid-20th century
Carl Jung
Carl Gustav Jung evinced a special interest in Gnosticism from at least 1912, when he wrote enthusiastically about the topic in a letter to Freud. After what he called his own 'encounter with the unconscious,' Jung sought for external evidence of this kind of experience. He found such evidence in Gnosticism, and also in alchemy, which he saw as a continuation of Gnostic thought, and of which more source material was available. In his study of the Gnostics, Jung made extensive use of the work of GRS Mead. Jung visited Mead in London to thank him for the Pistis Sophia, the two corresponded, and Mead visited Jung in Zürich.
Jung saw the Gnostics not as syncretic schools of mixed theological doctrines, but as genuine visionaries, and saw their imagery not as myths but as records of inner experience. He wrote that "The explanation of Gnostic ideas 'in terms of themselves,' i.e., in terms of their historical foundations, is futile, for in that way they are reduced only to their less developed forestages but not understood in their actual significance." Instead, he worked to understand and explain Gnosticism from a psychological standpoint. While providing something of an ancient mirror of his work, Jung saw "his psychology not as a contemporary version of Gnosticism, but as a contemporary counterpart to it."
Jung reported a series of experiences in the winter of 1916-17 that inspired him to write Septem Sermones ad Mortuos (Latin: Seven Sermons to the Dead).
The Jung Codex
Through the efforts of Gilles Quispel, the Jung Codex was the first codex brought to light from the Nag Hammadi Library. It was purchased by the Jung Institute and ceremonially presented to Jung in 1953 because of his great interest in the ancient Gnostics. The first publication of translations of Nag Hammadi texts occurred in 1955 with the Jung Codex by H. Puech, Gilles Quispel, and W. Van Unnik.
French Gnostic Church split, reintegration, and continuation
Jean Bricaud had been involved with the Eliate Church of Carmel of , the remnants of Fabré-Palaprat's Église Johannite des Chrétiens Primitifs (Johannite Church of Primitive Christians), and the Martinist Order before being consecrated a bishop of the Église Gnostique in 1901. In 1907 Bricaud established a church body that combined all of these, becoming patriarch under the name Tau Jean II. The impetus for this was to use the Western Rite. Briefly called the Église Catholique Gnostique (Gnostic Catholic Church), it was renamed the Église Gnostique Universelle (Universal Gnostic Church, EGU) in 1908. The close ties between the church and Martinism were formalized in 1911. Bricaud received consecration in the Villate line of apostolic succession in 1919.
The original church body founded by Doinel continued under the name Église Gnostique de France (Gnostic Church of France) until it was disbanded in favor of the EGU in 1926. The EGU continued until 1960 when it was disbanded by Robert Amberlain (Tau Jean III) in favor of the Église Gnostique Apostolique that he had founded in 1958. It is active in France (including Martinique), Ivory Coast, and the Midwestern United States.
Modern sex magic associated with Gnosticism
The use of the term 'gnostic' by sexual magic groups is a modern phenomenon. Hugh Urban concludes that, "despite the very common use of sexual symbolism throughout Gnostic texts, there is little evidence (apart from the accusations of the early church) that the Gnostics engaged in any actual performance of sexual rituals, and certainly not anything resembling modern sexual magic." Modern sexual magic began with Paschal Beverly Randolph. The connection to Gnosticism came by way of the French Gnostic Church with its close ties to the strong esoteric current in France, being part of the same highly interconnected milieu of esoteric societies and orders from which the most influential of sexual magic orders arose, the Ordo Templi Orientis (Order of Oriental Templars, OTO).
Theodor Reuss founded the OTO as an umbrella occult organization with sexual magic at its core. After Reuss came into contact with French Gnostic Church leaders at a Masonic and Spiritualist conference in 1908, he founded Die Gnostische Katholische Kirche (the Gnostic Catholic Church), under the auspices of the OTO. Reuss subsequently dedicated the OTO to the promulgation of Crowley's philosophy of Thelema. It is for this church body, called in Latin the Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica (EGC), that Aleister Crowley wrote the Ecclesiæ Gnosticæ Catholicæ Canon Missæ ("Canon of the Mass of the Gnostic Catholic Church"), the central ritual of the OTO that is now commonly called the Gnostic Mass.
The Gnostic Society
The Gnostic Society, was founded for the study of Gnosticism in 1928 and incorporated in 1939 by Theosophists James Morgan Pryse and his brother John Pryse in Los Angeles. Since 1963 it has been under the direction of Stephan Hoeller and operates in association with the Ecclesia Gnostica. Initially begun as an archive for a usenet newsgroup in 1993, the Gnosis Archive became the first web site to offer historic and source materials on Gnosticism.
Mid-20th century
The Gospel of Thomas, held to be the most complete of the Nag Hammadi texts, is the subject of the book The Mustard Seed by Indian mystic Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, also known as Osho.
Ecclesia Gnostica
Established in 1953 by Richard Duc de Palatine in England under the name 'the Pre-nicene Gnostic Catholic Church', the Ecclesia Gnostica (Latin: "Church of Gnosis" or "Gnostic Church") is said to represent 'the English Gnostic tradition', although it has ties to, and has been influenced by, the French Gnostic church tradition. It is affiliated with the Gnostic Society, an organization dedicated to the study of Gnosticism. The presiding bishop is the Rt. Rev. Stephan A. Hoeller, who has written extensively on Gnosticism.
Centered in Los Angeles, the Ecclesia Gnostica has parishes and educational programs of the Gnostic Society spanning the Western US and also in the Kingdom of Norway. The lectionary and liturgical calendar of the Ecclesia Gnostica have been widely adopted by subsequent Gnostic churches, as have the liturgical services in use by the church, though in somewhat modified forms.
Ecclesia Gnostica Mysteriorum
The Ecclesia Gnostica Mysteriorum (EGM), commonly known as "the Church of Gnosis" or "the Gnostic Sanctuary," was initially established in Palo Alto by bishop Rosamonde Miller as a parish of the Ecclesia Gnostica, but soon became an independent body with emphasis on the experience of gnosis and the balance of the divine masculine and feminine principles. The Gnostic Sanctuary is now located in Redwood City, California. The EGM also claims a distinct lineage of Mary Magdalene from a surviving tradition in France.
Samael Aun Weor in South America
Samael Aun Weor had been a member of an occult order called the Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua, but left after the death of Arnold Krumm-Heller. He reported an experience of being called to his new mission by the venerable White Lodge (associated with Theosophy). Samael Aun Weor taught a "New Gnosis," consisting of sexual union between man and woman, without the ejaculation of the sexual liquid. He called this the Arcanum AZF. For him it is "the synthesis of all religions, schools and sects."
Moving through Latin America, he finally settled in Mexico where he founded the Movimiento Gnostico Cristiano Universal (MGCU) (Universal Gnostic Christian Movement), then subsequently founded the Iglesia Gnostica Cristiana Universal (Universal Gnostic Christian Church) and the Associacion Gnostica de Estudios Antropologicos Culturales y Cientificos (AGEAC) (Gnostic Association of Scientific, Cultural and Anthropological Studies) to spread his teachings.
The MGCU became defunct by the time of Samael Aun Weor's death in December 1977. However, his disciples subsequently formed new organizations to spread his teachings, under the umbrella term 'the International Gnostic Movement'. These organizations are currently very active via the Internet and have centers established in Latin America, the US, Australia, Canada and Europe.
Hans Jonas
The philosopher Hans Jonas wrote extensively on Gnosticism, interpreting it from an existentialist viewpoint. For some time, his study The Gnostic Religion: The message of the alien God and the beginnings of Christianity published in 1958, was widely held to be a pivotal work, and it is as a result of his efforts that the Syrian-Egyptian/Persian division of Gnosticism came to be widely used within the field. The second edition, published in 1963, included the essay "Gnosticism, Existentialism, and Nihilism."
Eric Voegelin's anti-modernist 'gnostic thesis'
In the 1950s, Eric Voegelin brought a German academic debate concerning the classification of modernity to the attention of English-language readers. He responded to Karl Löwith's 1949 Meaning in History: the Theological Implications of the Philosophy of History and Jacob Taubes's 1947 Occidental Eschatology. Voegelin put forward his version of a "gnosticism thesis": criticizing modernity by identifying an "immanentist eschatology" as the "gnostic nature" of modernity. Differing with Löwith, he did not criticize eschatology as such, but rather the immanentization which he described as a "pneumopathological" deformation. Voegelin's gnosticism thesis became popular in American neo-conservative and cold war political thought. The category of gnosticism has been adopted by other scholars to frame several revolutionary phenomena (such as Bolshevism and Nazism, Puritanism, radical Anabaptism, Jacobinism, and lastly Salafi-Jihadism).
Gnosticism in popular culture
Gnosticism has seen something of a resurgence in popular culture in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This may be related, certainly, to the sudden availability of Gnostic texts to the reading public, following the emergence of the Nag Hammadi library.
Philip K. Dick explored gnosticism in many of his later works, particularly the VALIS trilogy.
Polish Nobel's laureate Olga Tokarczuk depicts worlds that strongly resemble one known from the Gnostic cosmogony. Notable examples are Primeval and Other Times and House of Day, House of Night.
Blood Meridian by American author Cormac McCarthy features several Gnostic elements.
A Little World Made Cunningly Paperback – September 1, 2013, by Scott David Finch (Author, Illustrator)
Legacy of Kain: Soul Reaver was said by director Amy Hennig to have been inspired by Gnosticism.
The Atlus video game series Persona extensively uses Gnostic terms and concepts.
Fringe theories presented by David Icke refer to a humanoid reptilian race as Archons.
Catholic priest Alfonso Aguilar has described Star Wars, Harry Potter, and The Matrix as embodying Gnostic views, as "two signs of the power of the real enemy: Gnosticism" and stressing the need to "examine their philosophical background and reject what is incompatible with our Christian faith."
In The Matrix, Morpheus offering Neo the truth and asking him to choose between a blue or red pill symbolizing materialistic relativism and secret knowledge respectively, which has been compared to Gnosticism in scholarly criticism.
See also
Gnostic churches:
Ecclesia Gnostica
Johannite Church
Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica
Ecclesia Pistis Sophia
Gnostic Church of France
Jungian interpretation of religion
Notes
References
Jonas, Hans (1966). “Gnosticism, Existentialism, and Nihilism.” In The Phenomenon of Life: Toward a Philosophical Biology, University of Chicago Press.
Lasch, Christopher. "Gnosticism, Ancient and Modern: The Religion of the Future?," Salmagundi, No. 96, Fall 1992.
O’Reagan, Cyril (2001). Gnostic Return in Modernity, SUNY Press.
Rossbach, Stefan (2000). Gnostic Wars, Edinburgh University Press.
Versluis, Arthur (2006). "Eric Voegelin, Anti-Gnosticism, and the Totalitarian Emphasis on Order." In The New Inquisitions: Heretic-Hunting and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Totalitarianism, Oxford University Press.
Voegelin, Eric (1956). Order and History, Louisiana State University Press.
Voegelin, Eric (1968). Science, Politics, and Gnosticism: Two Essays, Regnery Gateway.
Voegelin, Eric (1987). The New Science of Politics, University Of Chicago Press.
Further reading
External links
"The Gnostics and their Remains" - online text of the book
Extensive on-line collection of the writings of GRS Mead (at the Gnosis Archive)
The Gnostic Society Library
Gnosticism |
4167079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana%20Creole%20people | Louisiana Creole people | Louisiana Creoles (, , ) are people descended from the inhabitants of colonial Louisiana before it became a part of the United States during the period of both French and Spanish rule. As an ethnic group, their ancestry is mainly of Louisiana French, Central African, West African, Spanish and Native American origin. Louisiana Creoles share cultural ties such as the traditional use of the French, Spanish, and Creole languages and predominant practice of Catholicism.
The term Créole was originally used by French Creoles to distinguish people born in Louisiana from those born elsewhere, thus drawing a distinction between Old-World Europeans and Africans from their Creole descendants born in the New World. The word is not a racial label and does not imply mixed racial origins—people of any race can and have identified as Louisiana Creoles.
Créole was used as an identity in Louisiana from the 18th century onward. After the Sale of Louisiana, the term "Creole" took on a more political meaning and identity, especially for those people of Latinate culture. The Catholic Latin-Creole culture in Louisiana contrasted greatly to the Anglo-Protestant culture of Yankee Americans.
Although the terms Cajun and Creole today are often portrayed as separate identities, Cajuns have historically been known as Creoles. Presently, some Louisianians may identify exclusively as either Cajun or Creole, while others embrace both identities.
Creoles of French descent, including those of Québécois or Acadian lineage, have historically comprised the majority of white-identified Creoles in Louisiana. Later 19th-century immigrants to Louisiana, such as Irish, Germans and Italians, also married into the Creole group. Most of these immigrants were Catholic.
New Orleans in particular has retained a significant historical population of Creoles of color, a group mostly consisting of free persons of multiracial European, African, and Native American descent. As Creoles of color had received superior rights and education with Spain & France than their Black American counterparts, many of the United States' earliest writers, poets and civil activists (e.g. Victor Séjour, Rodolphe Desdunes and Homère Plessy) were Louisiana Creoles. Today, many Creoles of color have assimilated into African-American culture, while others remain a distinct yet inclusive subsection of the African-American ethnic group.
In the twentieth century, the gens de couleur libres in Louisiana became increasingly associated with the term Creole, in part because Anglo-Americans struggled with the idea of an ethno-cultural identity not founded in race. One historian has described this period as the "Americanization of Creoles," including an acceptance of the American binary racial system that divided Creoles between white and black. (See Creoles of color for a detailed analysis of this event.) Concurrently, the number of white-identified Creoles has dwindled, with many adopting the Cajun label instead.
While the sophisticated Creole society of New Orleans has historically received much attention, the Cane River area in northwest Louisiana—populated chiefly by Creoles of color—also developed its own strong Creole culture.
Today, most Creoles are found in the Greater New Orleans region or in Acadiana. Louisiana is known as the Creole State.
Origin of Louisiana Creoles
First French period
Through both the French and Spanish (late 18th century) regimes, parochial and colonial governments used the term Creole for ethnic French and Spanish people born in the New World as opposed to Europe. Parisian French was the predominant language among colonists in early New Orleans.
Later the regional French evolved to contain local phrases and slang terms. The French Creoles spoke what became known as Louisiana French. The language was formulated differently than that of France, which is today's Modern French. The French Creoles, speak the Ancient French language of their ancestors. It was spoken by the ethnic Religious French and Spanish and the French and Romantic of Creole descent.
The commonly accepted definition of Louisiana French Creole today is a person descended from Old World ancestors in Louisiana before the Louisiana Purchase by the United States in 1803. An estimated 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana before the 16th century, one percent of the number of Frenchmen were very prominent in the Founding of the United States National including the Thirteen Colonies along the Atlantic coast. There is recorded of presidents signing of constitutional agreements in prominent French Creole Plantation Homes. Southern Louisiana attracted considerably more Frenchmen due to the links of the Roman Catholic Culture. Most of the other regions were reached by Protestant missionaries instead which may have included parts of the other parts including the island regions.
The French Creoles intermarried with the Algonquin Tribes as they both shared not only the French language, but also culture and heritage as a private social tribal community. In addition, in Canadian records, especially those of the Roman Catholic Church, there are marriages that took place as early as the 1520s.
In addition, as there are more historical links to the same groups traveling along the head to the tail of the Mississippi River, this included what we know today's as Texas. At one point in history Jefferson Parish started in or around Orange County, Texas, Beaumont, all the way to New Orleans southernmost regions next to the Barataria Island. Which was also the possibly the name of Galveston, before those who originally occupied the region as indigenous peoples were thrown off their land, by the U.S. Navy. It was said to be called also, Barataria Island. [citation needed-will come soon]
After the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, which lasted more than two months, the colonists had numerous challenges ahead of them in the Louisiana frontier. Their living conditions were difficult: uprooted, they had to face a new, often hostile, environment, with difficult climate and tropical diseases. Many of these immigrants died during the maritime crossing or soon after their arrival.
Hurricanes, unknown in France, periodically struck the coast, destroying whole villages. The Mississippi Delta was plagued with periodic yellow fever epidemics. Europeans also brought the Eurasian diseases of malaria and cholera, which flourished along with mosquitoes and poor sanitation. These conditions slowed colonization. Moreover, French villages and forts were not always sufficient to protect from enemy offensives. Attacks by Native Americans represented a real threat to the groups of isolated colonists.
The Natchez massacred 250 colonists in Lower Louisiana in retaliation for encroachment by French settlers. The Natchez warriors took Fort Rosalie (now Natchez, Mississippi) by surprise, killing many settlers. During the next two years, the French attacked the Natchez in return, causing them to flee or, when captured, be deported as slaves to their Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue (later Haiti).
In the colonial period of French and Spanish rule, men tended to marry later after becoming financially established. French settlers frequently took Native American women as their wives (see Marriage 'à la façon du pays'), and as slaves began to be imported into the colony, settlers also took African wives. Intermarriage between the different groups of Louisiana created a large multiracial Creole population.
Indentured servants and Pelican girls
Aside from French government representatives and soldiers, colonists included mostly young men who were recruited in French ports or in Paris. Some labored as engagés (indentured servants), i.e. "temporary semi-slaves"; they were required to remain in Louisiana for a length of time, fixed by the contract of service, to pay back the cost of passage and board. Engagés in Louisiana generally worked for seven years, and their masters provided them housing, food, and clothing. They were often housed in barns and performed hard labor.
Starting in 1698, French merchants were obliged to transport a number of men to the colonies in proportion to the ships' tonnage. Some of the men brought over were engaged on three-year indenture contracts under which the contract-holder would be responsible for their "vital needs" as well as provide a salary at the end of the contract term. Under John Law and the Compagnie du Mississippi, efforts to increase the use of engagés in the colony were made, notably including German settlers whose contracts were absolved when the company went bankrupt in 1731.
During this time, to increase the colonial population, the government also recruited young Frenchwomen, known as filles à la cassette (in English, casket girls, referring to the casket or case of belongings they brought with them) to go to the colony to be wed to colonial soldiers. The king financed dowries for each girl. (This practice was similar to events in 17th-century Quebec: about 800 filles du roi (daughters of the king) were recruited to immigrate to New France under the monetary sponsorship of Louis XIV.)
In addition, French authorities deported some female criminals to the colony. For example, in 1721, the ship La Baleine brought close to 90 women of childbearing age from the prison of La Salpêtrière in Paris to Louisiana. Most of the women quickly found husbands among the male residents of the colony. These women, many of whom were most likely prostitutes or felons, were known as The Baleine Brides. Such events inspired Manon Lescaut (1731), a novel written by the Abbé Prévost, which was later adapted as an opera in the 19th century.
Historian Joan Martin maintains that there is little documentation that casket girls (considered among the ancestors of French Creoles) were transported to Louisiana. (The Ursuline order of nuns, who were said to chaperone the girls until they married, have denied the casket girl myth as well.) Martin suggests this account was mythical. The system of plaçage that continued into the 19th century resulted in many young white men having women of color as partners and mothers of their children, often before or even after their marriages to white women. French Louisiana also included communities of Swiss and German settlers; however, royal authorities did not refer to "Louisianans" but described the colonial population as "French" citizens.
French Indians in Louisiana
New France wished to make Native Americans subjects of the king and good Christians, but the distance from Metropolitan France and the sparseness of French settlement prevented this. In official rhetoric, the Native Americans were regarded as subjects of the Viceroyalty of New France, but in reality, they were largely autonomous due to their numerical superiority. The local authorities of New France (governors, officers) did not have the human resources to establish French law and customs, and instead often compromised with the Indians.
Indian tribes offered essential support for the French: they ensured the survival of New France's colonists, participated with them in the fur trade, and acted as guides in expeditions. The French alliance with Indians also provided mutual protection from hostile non-allied tribes and incursions on French & Indian land from enemy European powers. The French & Indian alliance proved invaluable during the later French and Indian War against the New England colonies in 1753.
The French & Indians influenced each other in many fields: the French settlers learned the languages of the natives, such as Mobilian Jargon, a Choctaw-based Creole language that served as a trade language in use among the French and various Indian tribes in the region. The Indians bought European goods (fabric, alcohol, firearms, etc.), learned French, and sometimes adopted their religion.
The coureurs des bois and soldiers borrowed canoes and moccasins. Many of them ate native food such as wild rice and various meats, like bear and dog. The colonists were often dependent on the Native Americans for food. Creole cuisine is the heir of these mutual influences: thus, sagamité, for example, is a mix of corn pulp, bear fat and bacon. Today jambalaya, a word of Seminole origin, refers to a multitude of recipes calling for meat and rice, all very spicy. Sometimes medicine men succeeded in curing the colonists thanks to traditional remedies, such as the application of fir tree gum on wounds and Royal Fern on rattlesnake bites.
Many French colonists both admired and feared the military power of the Native Americans, though some governors from France scorned their culture and wanted to keep racial purity between the whites and Indians. In 1735, interracial marriages without the approval of the authorities were prohibited in Louisiana. However, by the 1750s in New France, the idea of the Native Americans became one of the "Noble Savage," that Indians were spiritually pure and played an important role in the natural purity of the New World. Native Americans did marry French settlers, with Indian women being consistently considered as good wives to foster trade and help create offspring. Their intermarriage created a large métis (mixed French Indian) population In New France.
In spite of some disagreements (some Indians killed farmers' pigs, which devastated corn fields), and sometimes violent confrontations (Fox Wars, Natchez uprisings, and Chickasaw Wars), the relationship with the Native Americans was relatively good in Louisiana. French imperialism was expressed through some wars and the slavery of some Native Americans. But most of the time, the relationship was based on dialogue and negotiation.
Africans in Louisiana
Inability to find labor was the most pressing issue in Louisiana. In 1717, John Law, the French Comptroller General of Finances, decided to import African slaves into Louisiana. His objective was to develop the plantation economy of Lower Louisiana. The Royal Indies Company held a monopoly over the slave trade in the area. The colonists turned to sub-Saharan African slaves to make their investments in Louisiana profitable. In the late 1710s the transatlantic slave trade imported slaves into the colony. This led to the biggest shipment in 1716 where several trading ships appeared with slaves as cargo to the local residents in a one-year span.
Between 1723 and 1769, most slaves imported to Louisiana were from modern day Congo, Angola, Senegal and Mali. The highest number of imported slaves were of Bakongo descent from Congo and Angola, representing 35.4% of all people with African heritage in Louisiana. They were followed by the Mandinka people at 10.9% and Mina (believed to represent the Ewe and Akan peoples of Ghana) at 7.4%. Other ethnic groups imported during this period included members of the Igbo people, Chamba people, Bamileke, Tikar, and Nago people, a Yoruba subgroup.
Bakongo and Mbundu ancestry
In Louisiana, so many enslaved Africans came from West-Central Africa and the Congo region that the word Congo became synonymous with "Africa." Renowned for their work as agriculturalists, the Bakongo and Mbundu peoples of the Kingdom of Kongo, Kingdom of Ndongo, and the Kingdom of Loango were targeted by enslavers for their slash-and-burn technique, mining and ironwork expertise, mastery of fishing, and their bushcraft skills.
Elements of Kongo and Mbundu culture still exist in Louisiana today. Congo Square, a historic place of worship and recreation for both enslaved and free Black people, was named for the people of Kongo. Their descendants went on to birth blues music, jazz, rock and roll, and zydeco, which are some of the most popular music genres in the world. Today, Hoodoo and Louisiana Voodoo practitioners still gather at the Square for rituals and to honor their ancestors.
Bakongo and Mbundu influence is also present in Creole cuisine, such as gumbo. Gumbo is "a thick stew served over rice and made with a roux (a mixture of butter and flour) and a wide variety of ingredients such as celery, peppers, okra, onions chicken, sausage and/or seafood." The word gumbo is derived from the Bantu word ngombo, which means "okra plant," a ingredient in gumbo. Though it is often attributed to West Africa, gumbo actually has a Central African origin.
Bambara ancestry
In Louisiana, the term Bambara was used as a generic term for African slaves. European traders used Bambara as a term for defining vaguely a region of ethnic origin. Muslim traders and interpreters often used Bambara to indicate Non-Muslim captives. Slave traders would sometimes identify their slaves as Bambara in hopes of securing a higher price, as Bambara slaves were sometimes characterized as being more passive.
Further confusing the name's indication of ethnic, linguistic, religious, or other implications, the concurrent Bambara Empire had notoriety for its practice of slave-capturing wherein Bambara soldiers would raid neighbors and capture the young men of other ethnic groups, forcibly assimilate them, and turn them into slave soldiers known as Ton. The Bambara Empire depended on war-captives to replenish and increase its numbers; many of the people who called themselves Bambara were indeed not ethnic Bambara.
Code Noir and Affranchis
Africans contributed to the creolization of Louisiana society. They brought okra from Africa, a plant common in the preparation of gumbo. While the Code Noir required that the slaves receive baptism and Christian education, many continued to practice animism and often combined elements of the two faiths.
The Code Noir conferred affranchis (ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects.
Louisiana slave society generated its own distinct Afro-Creole culture that was present in religious beliefs and the Louisiana Creole language. The slaves brought with them their cultural practices, languages, and religious beliefs rooted in spirit and ancestor worship, as well as Roman Catholic Christianity—all of which were key elements of Louisiana Voodoo. In addition, in the early nineteenth century, many St. Dominicans also settled in Louisiana, both free people of color and slaves, following the Haitian Revolution on Saint-Domingue, contributing to the Voodoo tradition of the state. During the American period (1804-1820), almost half of the slaves came from the Congo.
Spanish period
In the final stages of the French and Indian War with the New England colonies, New France ceded the Louisiana to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). The Spanish were slow and reluctant to fully occupy the colony, however, and did not do so until 1769. That year, Spain abolished Native American slavery. In addition, Spanish liberal manumission policies contributed to the growth of the population of Creoles of color, particularly in New Orleans. Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré (French Quarter) dates from the Spanish period (the Ursuline Convent an exception). These buildings were designed by French architects, as there were no Spanish architects in Louisiana. The buildings of the French Quarter are of a Mediterranean style also found in southern France.
Spanish Louisiana's multiracial Creole descendants, which included affranchis (ex-slaves), free-born blacks, and mixed-race people, known as Creoles of color (gens de couleur libres), were strongly influenced by French Catholic culture. By the end of the 18th century, many Creoles of color were educated and tended to work in artisan or skilled trades; a relatively high number were property owners. Many Creoles of color were free-born, and their descendants often enjoyed many of the same privileges as whites while under Spanish rule, including (but not limited to) property ownership, formal education, and service in the militia. Indeed, Creoles of color had been members of the militia for decades under both French and Spanish control of the colony of Louisiana. For example, around 80 Creoles of color were recruited into the militia that participated in the Battle of Baton Rouge in 1779.
Throughout the Spanish period, most Creoles continued to speak French and remained strongly connected to French colonial culture. However, the sizeable Spanish Creole communities of Saint Bernard Parish and Galveztown spoke Spanish. The Malagueños of New Iberia spoke Spanish as well. (Since the mid-20th century, the number of Spanish-speaking Creoles has declined in favor of English speakers. Even today, however, the Isleños of St. Bernard Parish have maintained cultural traditions from the Canary Islands.)
Acadians and Isleños in Louisiana
In 1765, during Spanish rule, several thousand Acadians from the French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) made their way to Louisiana after having been expelled from Acadia by the British government after the French and Indian War. They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called Acadiana. The governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga, eager to gain more settlers, welcomed the Acadians, who are the ancestors of Louisiana's Cajuns.
Spanish Canary Islanders, called Isleños, emigrated from the Canary Islands of Spain to Louisiana under the Spanish crown between 1778 and 1783. In 1800, France's Napoleon Bonaparte reacquired Louisiana from Spain in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, an arrangement kept secret for two years.
2nd French period, the Sale of Louisiana
Spain ceded Louisiana back to France in 1800 through the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, although it remained under nominal Spanish control until 1803. Weeks after reasserting full control over the territory, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the wake of the defeat of his forces in Saint-Domingue, which Napoleon had been trying to regain control of Saint-Domingue following the St. Dominican Rebellion and subsequent Haitian Revolution. After the Purchase, many Anglo-Americans migrated to Louisiana. Later European immigrants included Irish, Germans, and Italians.
St. Dominican refugees in Louisiana
In the early 19th century, floods of St. Dominican refugees fled from Saint-Domingue and poured into New Orleans, nearly tripling the city's population. Indeed, more than half of the refugee population of Saint-Domingue settled in Louisiana. Thousands of St. Dominican refugees, both white and Creole of color, arrived in New Orleans, sometimes bringing slaves with them. While Governor Claiborne and other Anglo-American officials wanted to keep out additional free black men, the Louisiana Creoles wanted to increase the French-speaking Creole population. As more refugees were allowed in Louisiana, St. Dominican refugees who had first gone to Cuba also arrived. Officials in Cuba deported many of the St. Dominican refugees in retaliation for Bonapartist schemes in Spain.
Nearly 90 percent of early 19th century immigrants to the territory settled in New Orleans. The 1809 deportation of St. Dominicans from Cuba brought 2,731 whites, 3,102 Creoles of color and 3,226 slaves, which, in total, doubled the city's population. The city became 63 percent black in population, a greater proportion than Charleston, South Carolina's 53 percent.
The Dominican Creoles' specialized population raised Louisiana's level of culture and industry, and was one of the reasons why Louisiana was able to gain statehood so quickly. Here is a quote from a Louisiana Creole who remarked on the rapid development of his homeland:
St. Dominican controversy
American authorities initially forbade access of slaves into Louisiana. However, some concessions were made to fleeing St. Dominican refugees, especially after the 1804 Haiti Massacre. In 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines decreed that all Creoles of color and freed slaves deemed traitors to the Haitian Empire should be put to death. He ordered that all whites in Haiti should also be exterminated, with few exceptions. Many of the slaves who accompanied St. Dominican refugees came willingly, as they feared the bloodshed, murder, pillaging, lawlessness, and economic collapse in the Haiti. Here is a letter from a fleeing St. Dominican about his petition for asylum to the American government on behalf of his servants in Saint-Domingue:
When St. Dominican refugees arrived with slaves, they often followed the old Creole custom, liberté des savanes (savannah liberty), where the owner allowed their slaves to be free to find work at their own convenience in exchange for a flat weekly or monthly rate. They often became domestics, cooks, wig makers, and coachmen.
Although St. Dominicans remained concentrated in the city of New Orleans, about 10% of them very slowly scattered into surrounding parishes. There, manual labor for agriculture was in greatest demand.<ref name="AAM" The scarcity of slaves made Creole planters turn to petits habitants (Creole peasants), and immigrant indentured servitude (engagés) to supply manual labor; they complimented paid labor with slave labor. On many plantations, free people of color and whites toiled side-by-side with slaves. This multi-class state of affairs converted many minds to the abolition of slavery.
The large, rich families of old Saint-Domingue were almost nowhere to be found in Louisiana. Indeed, the majority of St. Dominican refugees who made a mark on 19th century Louisiana and Louisiana Creole culture came from the lower classes of Saint-Domingue, such as Louis Moreau Gottschalk's and Rodolphe Desdunes' family.
American fears of the St. Dominican refugees
Anglo-Americans harbored much hostility towards the St. Dominican refugees, as they would identify them with the St. Dominican Rebellion. Some St. Dominican refugees did attempt to perpetuate French Revolutionary ideas on their arrival into Louisiana, which American authorities feared.
American fears were eventually confirmed; in 1805, Grandjean, a white St. Dominican, and his Dominican Creole accomplices attempted to incite a slave rebellion aimed at overthrowing the American government in Louisiana. The plan was foiled by New Orleanian Creoles of color who revealed the plot to American authorities. The Americans sentenced Grandjean and his accomplices to work on a slave chain-gang for the rest of their lives.
Rivalry between Louisiana Creoles and Anglo-Americans
The transfer of the French colony to the United States and the arrival of Anglo Americans from New England and the South resulted in a cultural confrontation. Some Americans were reportedly shocked by aspects of the culture and French-speaking society of the newly acquired territory: the predominance of the French language and Roman Catholicism, the free class of Creoles of color and the strong African traditions of slaves. They pressured the United States' first governor of the Louisiana Territory, W.C.C. Claiborne, to change it.
Anglo-Americans classified society into white and black people (the latter associated strongly with slaves); slavery was a racial caste in the American South. Since the late 17th century, children in the British colonies took the status of their mothers at birth; therefore, all children of enslaved mothers were born into slavery, regardless of the race or status of their fathers; many mixed-race slaves were born in the Anglo-Protestant South over the generations.
In the South, Anglo-Protestant Free black people often did not hold the same rights and freedoms as Catholic Creoles of color during French and Spanish rule; Creoles of color held office and served in the state militia. Around 80 Creole of color militiamen of Spanish Louisiana fought in the Battle of Baton Rouge in 1779. And 353 Creoles of color were recruited into the militia that fought in the Battle of New Orleans in 1812. Later on, some of the descendants of these Creole of color veterans of the Battle of New Orleans, like Caesar Antoine, went on to fight in the American Civil War.
When Claiborne made English the official language of the territory, the French Creoles of New Orleans were outraged, and reportedly paraded in protest in the streets. They rejected the Americans' effort to transform them overnight. In addition, upper-class French Creoles thought that many of the arriving Americans were uncouth, especially the rough Kentucky boatmen (Kaintucks) who regularly visited the city, having maneuvered flatboats down the Mississippi River filled with goods for market.
Realizing that he needed local support, Claiborne restored French as an official language. In all forms of government, public forums and in the Catholic Church, French continued to be used. Most importantly, Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole remained the languages of the majority of the population of the state, leaving English and Spanish as minority languages.
Louisiana Creole exceptionalism
Louisiana's development and growth was rapid after its admission as a member state of the American Union.
By 1850, one-third of all Creoles of color owned over $100,000 worth of property. Creoles of color were wealthy businessmen, entrepreneurs, clothiers, real estate developers, doctors, and other respected professions; they owned estates and properties in French Louisiana. Aristocratic Creoles of color were very wealthy, such as Aristide Mary who owned more than $1,500,000 of property in the State of Louisiana.
Nearly all boys of wealthy Creole families were sent to France where they received an excellent classical education.
Being a French, and later Spanish colony, Louisiana maintained a three-tiered society that was very similar to other Latin American and Caribbean countries, with the three tiers: aristocracy, bourgeoisie, and peasantry. The blending of cultures and races created a society unlike any other in America.
Ethnic blend and race
During the Age of Discovery, native-born colonists were referred to as Creoles to distinguish them from the new arrivals of France, Spain, and Africa. Some Native Americans, such as the Choctaw people, also intermarried with Creoles.
Like "Cajun," the term "Creole" is a popular name used to describe cultures in the southern Louisiana area. "Creole" can be roughly defined as "native to a region," but its precise meaning varies according to the geographic area in which it is used. Generally, however, Creoles felt the need to distinguish themselves from the influx of American and European immigrants coming into the area after the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. "Creole" is still used to describe the heritage and customs of the various people who settled Louisiana during the early French colonial times. In addition to the French Canadians, the amalgamated Creole culture in southern Louisiana includes influences from the Chitimacha, Houma and other native tribes, Central and West Africans, Spanish-speaking Isleños (Canary Islanders) and French-speaking Gens de couleur from the Caribbean.
There was also a sizable German Creole group of full German descent, which centered on the parishes of St. Charles and St. John the Baptist. (It is for these settlers that the Côte des Allemands, "The German Coast," is named.) Over time, many of these groups assimilated into the dominant francophone Creole culture, often adopting the French language and customs.
As a group, Creoles of color rapidly acquired education, skills (many in New Orleans worked as craftsmen and artisans), businesses and property. They were overwhelmingly Catholic, spoke Colonial French (although some also spoke Louisiana Creole), and maintained French social customs, modified by other parts of their ancestry and Louisiana culture. The Creoles of color often married among themselves to maintain their class and social culture.
Under the French and Spanish rulers, Louisiana developed a three-tiered society, similar to that of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), Cuba, Brazil, Saint Lucia, Martinique, Guadeloupe and other Latin colonies. This three-tiered society of multi-racial Creoles of European, African and Native American descent included an elite group of large landowners (grands habitants); a prosperous, educated urban group (bourgeoisie); and the far larger class of indentured servants (engagés), African slaves and Creole peasants (petits habitants).
The status of Creoles of color (Gens de Couleur Libres) was one they guarded carefully. The American Union treated Creoles as a unique people due to the Louisiana Purchase Treaty of April 30, 1803. By law, Creoles of Color enjoyed most of the same rights and privileges as whites. They could and often did challenge the law in court and won cases against whites. They were property owners and created schools for their children.
Race did not play as central a role as it does in Anglo-American culture: oftentimes, race was not a concern, but instead, family standing and wealth were key distinguishing factors in New Orleans and beyond. The Creole civil rights activist Rodolphe Desdunes explained the difference between Creoles and Anglo-Americans, concerning the widespread belief in racialism by the latter, as follows:
The groups (Latin and Anglo New Orleanians) had "two different schools of politics [and differed] radically ... in aspiration and method. One hopes [Latins], and the other doubts [Anglos]. Thus we often perceive that one makes every effort to acquire merits, the other to gain advantages. One aspires to equality, the other to identity. One will forget that he is a Negro to think that he is a man; the other will forget that he is a man to think that he is a Negro."
After the United States acquired the area in the Louisiana Purchase, Creoles resisted American attempts to impose their binary racial culture. In other American states, slavery had been a racialized lens through which people with any African descent were considered lower in status than whites; the American binary lens stood contrary to the distinct tri-partite society of Louisiana, including white, black, and multi-racial people.
Louisiana Creoles during the Civil War
In 1863, two years into the American Civil war, the Federal government decreed the emancipation proclamation, promising rights and opportunities for slaves in Southern states. However, Creoles of color, who had long been free before the war, worried about losing their identity and social position, as Anglo-Americans did not legally recognize Louisiana's three-tiered society. Nevertheless, Creoles of color such as Thomy Lafon, Victor Séjour and others, used their position to support the emancipation effort. One Creole of color, Francis E. Dumas, emancipated his slaves and organized them into a company in the Second Regiment of the Federal Louisiana Native Guards.
Alexander Dimitry, a Creole of New Orleans, was one of the few people of color to take on a leadership role within the Confederate Government. His son, John Bull Smith Dimitry, fought with the Confederate Louisiana Native Guards to defend the Creole State.
Invasion of the Creole State
During the U.S. invasion of French Louisiana, Federal soldiers came across Creoles of color, a society that they had not encountered while fighting in other Southern states.
After conquering New Iberia in the summer of 1863, U.S. Officer John William Deforest of the 12th Connecticut Infantry Regiment reported:
You would be amazed to see the swarming blacks who possess this region and call themselves Americans. Some of the richest planters, men of really great wealth, are black. When we march through a town the people who gather stare at us and remind me of the Negro quarters of Philadelphia and New York.
The occupation was a social tragedy for Louisiana's Creoles of color; Creoles of color held positions of esteem and respect in French Louisiana, but the invading Federal soldiers soon humiliated and subjected them to racism.
New Iberia's Creole population- men, women, children of all ages, of all classes, including former slaves- were forced to work on Federal projects, digging massive earth fortifications.
A correspondent for the Cincinnati Gazette reported:
"Such a mess I dare say was never before seen. Nice young gentlemen in fancy kids and patent leathers, heavy operator with pocket crammed with 'legal tenders', greedy shylock vending his various wares, and sooty citizens of African descent, in one heterogenous mass, quietly delving in mother earth side by side. Of course, they thought it was a great outrage that citizens should have to work on Yankee fortifications... Fortifications had to be built, and citizens, speculators, 'rounders', shylocks, and negroes did the work, while soldiers stood firm at the picket post, ready to shoot down those who attempted to escape."
An Ohio soldier reported: "As you go along the works, you can hear them talking away in their mixed French lingo, the subject being no doubt their degradation."
Federal occupation of French Louisiana
When Federal forces conquered Vermilionville (Lafayette) in fall of 1863, the Creole citizenry embraced them as liberators. Prior to its conquest, Vermilionville had been under Texan military occupation and conscription, which Creoles opposed; many Creoles claimed to be "French neutrals" during the conflict.
The Texan forces included Texas Germans, Tejanos, Hispanic Texans. The 23rd Wisconsin Regiment, a Wisconsin German unit, reported trading insults in German with Texas Germans during battle.
An Iowan soldier, speaking about the Creoles of Vermilionville, reported:
A great many people in this section were French, or claimed to be, and when we were marching through, claimed French protection by hanging out French flags. All good enough in their estimation, but a fat rooster or a sheep over which a flag of France floated was just the same as from one carrying rebel colors.
During the occupation, Federal soldiers looted and plundered many Creoles. Jean Baptiste Hébert of Vermilionville recalled:
(Federal soldiers) came to our premises and broke open our store door, and were about to break into a large box inside our store which contained goods and merchandise... We protested against the breaking into our store and the taking of our merchandise. We claimed our French nationality (and) showed them a small French flag, or tri-color, in our store. They tore down the same, threw it on the road and stomped on it, saying "Damn the French flag!"
One time, a Federal cavalry regiment massacred Creoles of St. Martinville. On a Sunday, citizens left church services and gathered at the town square to bask in the sunshine and chat. At this point, they were accustomed to the Federal soldiers' presence, and were comfortable with them. However, without any warning or provocation, Federal soldiers raised their muskets and fired into the crowd, which was filled with men, women, and children. Frightened Creoles ran in all directions; families became separated, mothers shrieked for their children, and many people were trampled in the stampede.
After only six weeks of Federal occupation, the Texan forces returned and retook Vermilionville, forcing Federal forces to retreat. Creoles of Vermilionville flew the CSA flag from every rooftop, and greeted the Texans as heroes; a band even played the "Texas Rangers" song.
Retreat of the Texans
In winter of 1863, the Texans retreated to protect Galveston and Houston in Texas, abandoning French Louisiana to Federal forces.
Just like the Texans earlier, Federal forces began conscripting Creoles to fight in the war. Attempting to circumvent conscription, some Creoles formed "jayhawker" raider bands, refusing to fight on either Confederate or Federal sides, and surviving off of the land through raiding. For the final two years of the conflict, violent jayhawker raids plagued French Louisiana, leaving widespread destruction and poverty in their wake.
The most infamous Creole raider band, Bois Mallet, was formed by Ozémé Carrière and his relative Martin Guillory, a prominent Creole of color from St. Landry parish; Guillory acted as Carrière's chief lieutenant. In 1865 Carrière was killed in battle, leaving Guillory in charge. Guillory later accepted a Federal commission as captain, organizing his raider band into the U.S. Mallet Free Scouts before the end of the war.
At this point, Louisiana was completely devastated, and its inhabitants were left with meager resources and misery. The Federal invasion and occupation of Louisiana negatively impacted Louisiana society, especially for Creoles. Prior to the war, neighbors and friends conversed openly and freely, able to disagree without being disagreeable. Afterwards, an ugly tone of hate, ostracism and hostilities set neighbor against neighbor, relative against relative, white against black, friend against friend. The Federal occupation of Louisiana left societal scars and trauma, many that remain even today.
Louisiana Creoles after the Civil War
Following the Union victory in the Civil War, the Louisiana three-tiered society was gradually overrun by more Anglo-Americans, who classified everyone by the South's binary division of "black" and "white". During the Reconstruction era, Democrats regained power in the Louisiana state legislature by using paramilitary groups like the White League to suppress black voting. The Democrats enforced white supremacy and racial segregation by passing Jim Crow laws and a constitution in 1898 that effectively disenfranchised most black people and Creoles of color through discriminatory application of voter registration and electoral laws.
Louisiana Unification Movement, 1873
Some Creoles, such as the ex-Confederate general Pierre Gustave Toutant-Beauregard, advocated against racism, and became proponents for black civil rights and suffrage, involving themselves in the creation of the Louisiana Unification Movement that called for equal rights for black people, denounced discrimination, and opposed segregation. The chant of the Unification movement was "Equal Rights! One Flag! One Country! One People!"
Beauregard approached Lieutenant Governor Caesar Antoine, who was a Creole Republican, and invited fifty leading white and fifty black New Orleanian families to join for a meeting on June 16, 1873. The fifty white sponsors were leaders of the community in business, legal and journalistic affairs, and the presidents of almost every corporation and bank in the city attended. The black sponsors were the wealthy, cultured Creoles of color, who were well-off and had been free before the war. Beauregard was the chairman of the resolutions committee; he advocated at the meeting:
The Louisiana Unification Movement advocated complete political equality for blacks, an equal division of state offices between the races, and a plan where blacks would become land owners. It denounced discrimination because of color in hiring laborers or in selecting directors of corporations, and called for the abandonment of segregation in public conveyances, public places, railroads, steams, and public schools." Beauregard argued that blacks "already had equality and the whites had to accept that hard fact".
Federally imposed segregation, 1896
Creoles of color had a unique legacy in regards to race; Creoles had lived in racially integrated neighborhoods for almost two centuries. They valued the colorblind inclusion of New Orleans, and thrived within its historic intracommunity privileges. Creoles of Louisiana fought the rising tide of racism in the 1890s with a distinct outlook and a strong belief in the value of an integrated society.
In 1896, Homère Plessy of New Orleans and other Creole activists came together to challenge the informal practices of racial separation that were plaguing Louisiana. Their efforts resulted in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson.
The U.S. Supreme Court made a ruling on the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, supporting the legalization of a binary, racially separated society by law; thus the Federal government imposed segregation in every state following the policy of "separate but equal".
Disintegration of Creole society
While Creoles aspired for "liberté, égalité, et fraternité" (freedom, equality, brotherhood), black and white Americans instead sought segregation and racial separation. Louisiana Creoles found themseleves caught in the middle of a great mass of white and black people fighting against each other.
To fit in the new racial system, especially after the ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson, some Creoles were forced into a position where they had to distance themselves from their black and multiracial cousins; they deliberately erased or destroyed public records, and many "passed over" fully into a white American identity. Increasingly influenced by white American society, some Creoles claimed that the term "Creole" applied to whites only. According to Virginia R. Domínguez:
Charles Gayarré ... and Alcée Fortier ... led the outspoken though desperate defense of the Creole. As bright as these men clearly were, they still became engulfed in the reclassification process intent on salvaging white Creole status. Their speeches consequently read more like sympathetic eulogies than historical analysis.
Sybil Kein suggests that, because of the white Creoles struggle for redefinition, they were particularly hostile to the exploration by the writer George Washington Cable of the multi-racial Creole society in his stories and novels. She believes that in The Grandissimes, Cable exposed white Creoles' preoccupation with covering up blood connections with Creoles of color. Kein writes:
There was a veritable explosion of defenses of Creole ancestry. The more novelist George Washington Cable engaged his characters in family feuds over inheritance, embroiled them in sexual unions with blacks and mulattoes and made them seem particularly defensive about their presumably pure Caucasian ancestry, the more vociferously the white Creoles responded, insisting on purity of white ancestry as a requirement for identification as Creole.
In the 1930s, populist Governor Huey Long satirized such Creole claims, saying that you could feed all the "pure white" people in New Orleans with a cup of beans and a half a cup of rice, and still have food left over! The effort to impose Anglo-American binary racial classification on Creoles continued, however. In 1938, in Sunseri v. Cassagne—the Louisiana Supreme Court proclaimed traceability of African ancestry to be the only requirement for definition of colored. And during her time as Registrar of the Bureau of Vital Statistics for the City of New Orleans (1949–1965), Naomi Drake tried to impose these binary racial classifications. She unilaterally changed records to classify mixed-race individuals as black if she found they had any black (or African) ancestry, an application of hypodescent rules, and did not notify people of her actions.
Among the practices Drake directed was having her workers check obituaries. They were to assess whether the obituary of a person identified as white provided clues that might help show the individual was "really" black, such as having black relatives, services at a traditionally black funeral home, or burial at a traditionally black cemetery—evidence which she would use to ensure the death certificate classified the person as black. Not everyone accepted Drake's actions, and people filed thousands of cases against the office to have racial classifications changed and to protest her withholding legal documents of vital records. This caused much embarrassment and disruption, finally causing the city to fire her in 1965.
Louisiana French renaissance
In the wake of the "Cajun Renaissance" of the 1960s and 1970s, the (often racialized) Creole identity has traditionally received less attention than its Cajun counterpart. However, the late 2010s have seen a minor but notable resurgence of the Creole identity among linguistic activists of all races, including among white people whose parents or grandparents identify as Cajun or simply French.
Contemporary French-language media in Louisiana, such as Télé-Louisiane or Le Bourdon de la Louisiane, often use the term Créole in its original and most inclusive sense (i.e. without reference to race), and some English-language organizations like the Historic New Orleans Collection have published articles questioning the racialized Cajun-Creole dichotomy of the mid-twentieth century. Documentaries such as Nathan Rabalais' Finding Cajun examine the intersection and impact of Creole culture on what is commonly described as Cajun, likewise questioning the validity of recent racialization.
Culture
Cuisine
Louisiana Creole cuisine is recognized as a unique style of cooking originating in New Orleans, starting in the early 1700s. It makes use of what is sometimes called the Holy trinity: onions, celery and green peppers. It has developed primarily from various European, African, and Native American historic culinary influences. A distinctly different style of Creole or Cajun cooking exists in Acadiana.
Gumbo (Gombô in Louisiana Creole, Gombo in Louisiana French) is a traditional Creole dish from New Orleans with French, Spanish, Native American, African, German, Italian, and Caribbean influences. It is a roux-based meat stew or soup, sometimes made with some combination of any of the following: seafood (usually shrimp, crabs, with oysters optional, or occasionally crawfish), sausage, chicken (hen or rooster), alligator, turtle, rabbit, duck, deer or wild boar. Gumbo is often seasoned with filé, which is dried and ground sassafras leaves. Both meat and seafood versions also include the "Holy Trinity" and are served like stew over rice. It developed from French colonists trying to make bouillabaisse with New World ingredients. Starting with aromatic seasonings, the French used onions and celery as in a traditional mirepoix, but lacked carrots, so they substituted green bell peppers. Africans contributed okra, traditionally grown in regions of Africa, the Middle East and Spain. Gombo is the Louisiana French word for okra, which is derived from a shortened version of the Bantu words kilogombó or kigambó, also guingambó or quinbombó. "Gumbo" became the anglicized version of the word 'Gombo' after the English language became dominant in Louisiana. In Louisiana French dialects, the word "gombo" still refers to both the hybrid stew and the vegetable. The Choctaw contributed filé; the Spanish contributed peppers and tomatoes; and new spices were adopted from Caribbean dishes. The French later favored a roux for thickening. In the 19th century, the Italians added garlic. After arriving in numbers, German immigrants dominated New Orleans city bakeries, including those making traditional French bread. They introduced having buttered French bread as a side to eating gumbo, as well as a side of German-style potato salad.
Jambalaya is the second of the famous Louisiana Creole dishes.
Today, jambalaya is commonly made with seafood (usually shrimp) or chicken, or a combination of shrimp and chicken. Most versions contain smoked sausage, more commonly used instead of ham in modern versions. However, a version of jambalaya that uses ham with shrimp may be closer to the original Creole dish.
Jambalaya is prepared in two ways: "red" and "brown". Red is the tomato-based version native to New Orleans; it is also found in parts of Iberia and St. Martin parishes, and generally uses shrimp or chicken stock. The red-style Creole jambalaya is the original version. The "brown" version is associated with Cajun cooking and does not include tomatoes.
Red beans and rice is a dish of Louisiana and Caribbean influence, originating in New Orleans. It contains red beans, the "holy trinity" of onion, celery, and bell pepper, and often andouille smoked sausage, pickled pork, or smoked ham hocks. The beans are served over white rice. It is one of the famous dishes in Louisiana, and is associated with "washday Monday". It could be cooked all day over a low flame while the women of the house attended to washing the family's clothes.
Music
Alphonse "Bois Sec" Ardoin
Zydeco (a transliteration in English of 'zaricô' (snapbeans) from the song, "Les haricots sont pas salés"), was born in black Creole communities on the prairies of southwest Louisiana in the 1920s. It is often considered the Creole music of Louisiana. Zydeco, a derivative of Cajun music, purportedly hails from Là-là, a genre of music now defunct, and old south Louisiana jurés. As Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole was the lingua franca of the prairies of southwest Louisiana, zydeco was initially sung only in Louisiana French or Creole. Later, Louisiana Creoles, such as the 20th-century Chénier brothers, Andrus Espree (Beau Jocque), Rosie Lédet and others began incorporating a more bluesy sound and added a new linguistic element to zydeco music: English. Today, zydeco musicians sing in English, Louisiana Creole or Colonial Louisiana French.
Today's Zydeco often incorporates a blend of swamp pop, blues, and/or jazz as well as "Cajun Music" (originally called Old Louisiana French Music). An instrument unique to zydeco is a form of washboard called the frottoir or scrub board. This is a vest made of corrugated aluminum, and played by the musician working bottle openers, bottle caps or spoons up and down the length of the vest. Another instrument used in both Zydeco and Cajun music since the 1800s is the accordion. Zydeco music makes use of the piano or button accordion while Cajun music is played on the diatonic accordion, or Cajun accordion, often called a "squeeze box". Cajun musicians also use the fiddle and steel guitar more often than do those playing Zydeco.
Zydeco can be traced to the music of enslaved African people from the 19th century. It is represented in Slave Songs of the United States, first published in 1867. The final seven songs in that work are printed with melody along with text in Louisiana Creole. These and many other songs were sung by slaves on plantations, especially in St. Charles Parish, and when they gathered on Sundays at Congo Square in New Orleans.
Among the Spanish Creole people highlights, between their varied traditional folklore, the Canarian Décimas, romances, ballads and pan-Hispanic songs date back many years, even to the Medieval Age. This folklore was carried by their ancestors from the Canary Islands to Louisiana in the 18th century. It also highlights their adaptation to the Isleño music to other music outside of the community (especially from the Mexican Corridos).
Language
Louisiana Creole (Kréyol La Lwizyàn) is a French Creole language spoken by the Louisiana Creole people and sometimes Cajuns and Anglo-residents of the state of Louisiana. The language consists of elements of French, Spanish, African and Native American roots.
Louisiana French (LF) is the regional variety of the French language spoken throughout contemporary Louisiana by individuals who today identify ethno-racially as Creole, Cajun or French, as well as some who identify as Spanish (particularly in New Iberia and Baton Rouge, where the Creole people are a mix of French and Spanish and speak the French language), African-American, white, Irish or of other origins. Individuals and groups of individuals through innovation, adaptation, and contact continually enrich the French language spoken in Louisiana, seasoning it with linguistic features that can sometimes only be found in Louisiana.
Tulane University's Department of French and Italian website prominently declares "In Louisiana, French is not a foreign language".
Figures from U.S. decennial censuses report that roughly 250,000 Louisianans claimed to use or speak French in their homes.
Among the 18 governors of Louisiana between 1803 and 1865, six were French Creoles and spoke French: Jacques Villeré, Pierre Derbigny, Armand Beauvais, Jacques Dupré, Andre B. Roman and Alexandre Mouton.
According to the historian Paul Lachance, "the addition of white immigrants to the white creole population enabled French-speakers to remain a majority of the white population [in New Orleans] until almost 1830. If a substantial proportion of Creoles of color and slaves had not also spoken French, however, the Gallic community would have become a minority of the total population as early as 1820." In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community; they maintained instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts. In 1862, the Union general Ben Butler abolished French instruction in New Orleans schools, and statewide measures in 1864 and 1868 further cemented the policy. By the end of the 19th century, French usage in the city had faded significantly. However, as late as 1902 "one-fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two-fourths was able to understand the language perfectly," and as late as 1945, one still encountered elderly Creole women who spoke no English. The last major French-language newspaper in New Orleans, L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orléans, ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after ninety-six years; according to some sources Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans continued until 1955.
Today, it is generally in more rural areas that people continue to speak Louisiana French or Louisiana Creole. Also during the '40s and '50s many Creoles left Louisiana to find work in Texas, mostly in Houston and East Texas. The language and music is widely spoken there; the 5th ward of Houston was originally called Frenchtown due to that reason. There were also Zydeco clubs started in Houston, like the famed Silver Slipper owned by a Creole named Alfred Cormier that has hosted the likes of Clifton Chenier and Boozoo Chavis.
On the other hand, Spanish usage has fallen markedly over the years among the Spanish Creoles. Still, in the first half of twentieth century, most of the people of Saint Bernard and Galveztown spoke the Spanish language with the Canarian Spanish dialect (the ancestors of these Creoles were from the Canary Islands) of the 18th century, but the government of Louisiana imposed the use of English in these communities, especially in the schools (e.g. Saint Bernard) where if a teacher heard children speaking Spanish she would fine them and punish them. Now, only some people over the age of 80 can speak Spanish in these communities. Most of the youth of Saint Bernard can only speak English.
New Orleans Mardi Gras
Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday in English) in New Orleans, Louisiana, is a Carnival celebration well known throughout the world. It has colonial French roots.
The New Orleans Carnival season, with roots in preparing for the start of the Christian season of Lent, starts after Twelfth Night, on Epiphany (January 6). It is a season of parades, balls (some of them masquerade balls) and king cake parties. It has traditionally been part of the winter social season; at one time "coming out" parties for young women at débutante balls were timed for this season.
Celebrations are concentrated for about two weeks before and through Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras in French), the day before Ash Wednesday. Usually there is one major parade each day (weather permitting); many days have several large parades. The largest and most elaborate parades take place the last five days of the season. In the final week of Carnival, many events large and small occur throughout New Orleans and surrounding communities.
The parades in New Orleans are organized by Carnival krewes. Krewe float riders toss throws to the crowds; the most common throws are strings of plastic colorful beads, doubloons (aluminum or wooden dollar-sized coins usually impressed with a krewe logo), decorated plastic throw cups, and small inexpensive toys. Major krewes follow the same parade schedule and route each year.
While many tourists center their Mardi Gras season activities on Bourbon Street and the French Quarter, none of the major Mardi Gras parades has entered the Quarter since 1972 because of its narrow streets and overhead obstructions. Instead, major parades originate in the Uptown and Mid-City districts and follow a route along St. Charles Avenue and Canal Street, on the upriver side of the French Quarter.
To New Orleanians, "Mardi Gras" specifically refers to the Tuesday before Lent, the highlight of the season. The term can also be used less specifically for the whole Carnival season, sometimes as "the Mardi Gras season". The terms "Fat Tuesday" or "Mardi Gras Day" always refer only to that specific day.
Creole cultures
Cajun Creoles
Cajuns as an ethnic group historically included Indians and Black people. Black Louisiana Frenchmen have historically self-identified as Cajun, using the term in regards to the ethnicity of the Cajun Country and the language they speak: Amédé Ardoin for example spoke only Cajun French and at his height was known as the first Black Cajun recording artist; Clifton Chenier the King of Zydeco, routinely self-identified as a Black Cajun:
People of the Cajun Country have historically described what the Cajun nationality means to them; Brandon Moreau, a Cajun of Basile, Louisiana, described Cajun as an "inclusive term designating region, descent, or heritage – not race." Moreau also described an incident of where he used the term coonass with a good friend of his: "We were all talking in the hall, and I said I was a coonass. She said she was Cajun, but that she would never be a coonass. She's black and it offended her."
Cajun culture due to its mixed Latin-Creole nature had fostered more laissez-faire attitudes between black and white people in the Cajun Country more than anywhere else in the South. Roman Catholicism actively preached tolerance and condemned racism and all hate crimes; the Roman Church threatened to excommunicate any of its members who would dare to break its laws.
Anglo-Americans openly discriminated against Cajuns because they were Catholics, had a Latin Culture, and spoke Cajun French. White Cajuns and White Creoles accepted advances in racial equality, and they had compassion for Black Cajuns, Black Creoles, and African Americans. In the 1950s, twice as many black people in Louisiana's French-Catholic parishes registered to vote compared to black people in the Anglo-Protestant parishes.
Americanization of Acadiana (1950–1970)
When the United States of America began assimilating and Americanizing the parishes of the Cajun Country between the 1950s and 1970s, they imposed segregation and reorganized the inhabitants of the Cajun Country to identify racially as either "white" Cajuns or "black" Creoles. As the younger generations were made to abandon speaking French and French customs, the White or Indian Cajuns assimilated into the Anglo-American host culture, and the Black Cajuns assimilated into the African American culture.
Cajuns looked to the Civil Rights Movement and other Black liberation and empowerment movements as a guide to fostering Louisiana's French cultural renaissance. A Cajun student protester in 1968 declared "We're slaves to a system. Throw away the shackles... and be free with your brother."
Cane River Creoles
While the sophisticated Creole society of New Orleans has historically received much attention, the Cane River (Rivière aux Cannes) area developed its own strong Creole culture. Creole migrants from New Orleans and various ethnic groups including Africans, Spanish, Frenchmen, and Native Americans inhabited this region and mixed together in the 18th and early 19th centuries. The community is located in and around Isle Brevelle in lower Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. There are many Creole communities within Natchitoches Parish, including Natchitoches, Cloutierville, Derry, Gorum and Natchez. Many of their historic plantations still exist. Some have been designated as National Historic Landmarks, and are noted within the Cane River National Heritage Area, as well as the Cane River Creole National Historical Park. Some plantations are sites on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail.
Isle Brevelle, the area of land between Cane River and Bayou Brevelle, encompasses approximately of land, 16,000 acres of which are still owned by descendants of the original Creole families. The Cane River as well as Avoyelles and St. Landry Creole family surnames include but are not limited to: Antee, Anty, Arceneaux, Arnaud, Balthazar, Barre', Bayonne, Beaudoin, Bellow, Bernard, Biagas, Bossier, Boyér, Brossette, Buard, Byone, Carriere, Cassine, Catalon, Chevalier, Chretien, Christophe, Cloutier, Colson, Colston, Conde, Conant, Coutée, Cyriak, Cyriaque, Damas, DeBòis, DeCuir, Deculus, DeLouche, Delphin, De Sadier, De Soto, Dubreil, Dunn, Dupré. Esprit, Fredieu, Fuselier, Gallien, Goudeau, Gravés, Guillory, Hebert, Honoré, Hughes, LaCaze, LaCour, Lambre', Landry, Laurent, LéBon, Lefìls, Lemelle, LeRoux, Le Vasseur, Llorens, Mathés, Mathis, Métoyer, Mezière, Monette, Moran, Mullone, Pantallion, Papillion, Porche, PrudHomme, Rachal, Ray, Reynaud, Roque, Sarpy, Sers, Severin, Simien, St. Romain, St. Ville, Sylvie, Sylvan, Tournoir, Tyler, Vachon, Vallot, Vercher and Versher. (Most of the surnames are of French and sometimes Spanish origin).
Pointe Coupee Creoles
Another historic area to Louisiana is Pointe Coupee, an area northwest of Baton Rouge. This area is known for the False River; the parish seat is New Roads, and villages including Morganza are located off the river. This parish is known to be uniquely Creole; today a large portion of the nearly 22,000 residents can trace Creole ancestry. The area was noted for its many plantations and cultural life during the French, Spanish, and American colonial periods.
The population here had become bilingual or even trilingual with French, Louisiana Creole, and English because of its plantation business before most of Louisiana. The Louisiana Creole language is widely associated with this parish; the local mainland French and Creole (i.e., locally born) plantation owners and their African slaves formed it as communication language, which became the primary language for many Pointe Coupee residents well into the 20th century. The local white and black populations as well as people of blended ethnicity spoke the language, because of its importance to the region; Italian immigrants in the 19th century often adopted the language.
Common Creole family names of the region include the following: Aguillard, Bergeron, Bonaventure, Boudreaux, Carmouche, Chenevert, Christophe, Darensbourg, Decuir, Domingue, Duperon, Eloi, Elloie, Ellois, Ellsworth, Fabre, Francois, Gaines, Gremillion, Guerin, Honoré, Jarreau, Joseph, Lacour, Morel, Olinde, Patin, Polard, Porche, Pourciau, Purnell, Ricard, St. Amant, St. Romain, Tounoir, Valéry and dozens more.
Brian J. Costello, an 11th generation Pointe Coupee Parish Creole, is the premiere historian, author and archivist on Pointe Coupee's Creole population, language, social and material culture. Most of his 19 solely-authored books, six co-authored books and numerous feature articles and participation in documentaries since 1987 have addressed these topics. He was immersed in the area's Louisiana Creole dialect in his childhood, through inter-familial and community immersion and is, therefore, one of the dialect's most fluent, and last, speakers.
Avoyelles Parish Creoles
Avoyelles Parish has a history rich in Creole ancestry. Marksville has a significant populace of French Creoles. The languages that are spoken are Louisiana French and English. This parish was established in 1750. The Creole community in Avoyelles parish is alive and well and has a unique blend of family, food and Creole culture. Creole family names of this region are: Auzenne, Barbin, Beridon, Beaudoin, Biagas, Bonton, Bordelon, Boutte, Broussard, Carriere, Chargois, DeBellevue, DeCuir, Deshotels, Dufour, DuCote, Esprit, Fontenot, Fuselier, Gaspard, Gauthier, Goudeau, Greenhouse, Gremillion, Guillory, Lamartiniere, Lemelle, Lemoine, LeRoux, Mayeux, Mouton, Moten, Muellon, Normand, Perrie, Rabalais, Ravarre, Saucier, Sylvan, Tounouir and Tyler. A French Creole Heritage day has been held annually in Avoyelles Parish on Bastille Day since 2012.
Evangeline Parish Creoles
Evangeline Parish was formed out of the northwestern part of St. Landry Parish in 1910, and is therefore, a former part of the old Poste des Opelousas territory. Most of this region's population was a direct result of the North American Creole & Métis influx of 1763, the result of the end of the French & Indian War which saw former French colonial settlements from as far away as "Upper Louisiana" (Great Lakes region, Indiana, Illinois) to "Lower Louisiana's" (Illinois, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama), ceded to the Thirteen Colonies.
The majority of these French Creoles and Métis peoples chose to leave their former homes electing to head for the only 'French' exempted settlement area in Lower Louisiana, the "Territory of Orleans" or the modern State of Louisiana.
These Creoles and Métis families generally did not remain in New Orleans and opted for settlement in the northwestern "Creole parishes" of higher ground. This area reaches upwards to Pointe Coupee, St. Landry, Avoyelles and what became Evangeline Parish in 1910. Along with these diverse Métis & Creole families came West Indian slaves (Caribbean people).
Still later, Dominican Creoles, Napoleonic soldiers, and 19th century French families would also settle this region. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's adjutant majors is actually considered the founder of Ville Platte, the parish seat of Evangeline Parish. General Antoine Paul Joseph Louis Garrigues de Flaugeac and his fellow Napoleonic soldiers, Benoit DeBaillon, Louis Van Hille, and Wartelle's descendants also settled in St. Landry Parish and became important public, civic, and political figures. They were discovered on the levee in tattered uniforms by a wealthy Creole planter, "Grand Louis' Fontenot of St. Landry (and what is now, Evangeline Parish), a descendant of one Jean Louis Fonteneau, one of Governor Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville's French officers from Fort Toulouse, in what is now the State of Alabama.
Many Colonial French, Swiss German, Austrian, and Spanish Creole surnames still remain among prominent and common families alike in Evangeline Parish. Some later Irish and Italian names also appear. Surnames such as, Ardoin, Aguillard, Mouton, Bordelon, Boucher, Brignac, Brunet, Buller (Buhler), Catoire, Chapman, Coreil, Darbonne, David, DeBaillion, Deshotel, DeVille, DeVilliers, Duos, Dupre', Esprit, Estillette, Fontenot, Guillory, Gradney, LaFleur, Landreneau, LaTour, LeBas, LeBleu, Ledoux, Ledet, LeRoux, Manuel, Milano-Hebert, Miller, Morein, Moreau, Moten, Mounier, Ortego, Perrodin, Pierotti, Pitre (rare Acadian-Creole), Rozas, Saucier, Schexnayder, Sebastien, Sittig, Soileau, Vidrine, Vizinat and many more are reminiscent of the late French Colonial, early Spanish and later American period of this region's history.
As of 2013, the parish was once again recognized by the March 2013 Regular Session of the Louisiana Legislature as part of the Creole Parishes, with the passage of SR No. 30. Other parishes so recognized include Avoyelles, St. Landry Parish and Pointe Coupee Parishes. Natchitoches Parish also remains recognized as "Creole".
Evangeline Parish's French-speaking Senator, Eric LaFleur sponsored SR No. 30 which was written by Louisiana French Creole scholar, educator and author, John laFleur II. The parish's namesake of "Evangeline" is a reflection of the affection the parish's founder, Paulin Fontenot had for Henry Wadsworth's famous poem of the same name, and not an indication of the parish's ethnic origin. The adoption of "Cajun" by the residents of this parish reflects both the popular commerce as well as media conditioning, since this northwestern region of the French-speaking triangle was never part of the Acadian settlement region of the Spanish period.
The community now hosts an annual "Creole Families Bastille Day (weekend) Heritage & Honorarium Festival in which a celebration of Louisiana's multi-ethnic French Creoles is held, with Catholic mass, Bastille Day Champagne toasting of honorees who've worked in some way to preserve and promote the French Creole heritage and language traditions. Louisiana authors, Creole food, and cultural events featuring scholarly lectures and historical information along with fun for families with free admission, and vendor booths are also a feature of this very interesting festival which unites all French Creoles who share this common culture and heritage.
St. Landry Parish Creoles
St. Landry Parish has a significant population of Creoles, especially in Opelousas and its surrounding areas. The traditions and Creole heritage are prevalent in Opelousas, Port Barre, Melville, Palmetto, Lawtell, Eunice, Swords, Mallet, Frilot Cove, Plaisance, Pitreville, and many other villages, towns and communities. The Roman Catholic Church and French/Creole language are dominant features of this rich culture. Zydeco musicians host festivals all through the year.
Notable people
See also
Creoles of color
Cane River Creole National Historical Park
Criollo people
Melrose Plantation
French Quarter
Faubourg Marigny
Tremé
Little New Orleans
Frenchtown, Houston
Magnolia Springs, Alabama
Institute Catholique
7th Ward of New Orleans
Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve
Native Americans in the United States
Isleños
Spanish Americans
French Americans
Canarian Americans
Mexicans
St. Dominicans
African Americans
African Americans in Louisiana
French Louisianians
Louisiana (New France)
Louisiana (New Spain)
Explanatory notes
Who are Louisiana Creole people descended from? In present Louisiana, Creole generally means a person or people of mixed colonial French, African American and Native American ancestry. The term Black Creole refers to freed slaves from Haiti and their descendants. https://explorehouma.com › about: The Difference Between Cajun & Creole | Visit Houma-Terrebonne, LA
References
Further reading
Brasseaux, Carl A. Acadian to Cajun: Transformation of a people, 1803–1877 (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1992)
Eaton, Clement. The Growth of Southern Civilization, 1790–1860 (1961) pp 125–49, broad survey
Eble, Connie. "Creole in Louisiana." South Atlantic Review (2008): 39–53. in JSTOR
Gelpi Jr, Paul D. "Mr. Jefferson's Creoles: The Battalion d'Orléans and the Americanization of Creole Louisiana, 1803–1815." Louisiana History (2007): 295–316. in JSTOR
Landry, Rodrigue, Réal Allard, and Jacques Henry. "French in South Louisiana: towards language loss." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (1996) 17#6 pp: 442–468.
Stivale, Charles J. Disenchanting les bons temps: identity and authenticity in Cajun music and dance (Duke University Press, 2002)
Tregle, Joseph G. "Early New Orleans Society: A Reappraisal." Journal of Southern History (1952) 18#1 pp: 20–36. in JSTOR
External links
French Creoles
Quadroons for Beginners: Discussing the Suppressed and Sexualized History of Free Women of Color with Author Emily Clark
I Am What I Say I Am: Racial and Cultural Identity among Creoles of Color in New Orleans
The creole people of New Orleans
Creole spirit
Cast From Their Ancestral Home, Creoles Worry About Culture's Future
'Faerie Folk' Strike Back With Fritters
Left Coast Creole
LA Creole
CreoleGen
Who are Louisiana Creole people descended from?
In present Louisiana, Creole generally means a person or people of mixed colonial French, African American and Native American ancestry. The term Black Creole refers to freed slaves from Haiti and their descendants.https://explorehouma.com › about The Difference Between Cajun & Creole | Visit Houma-Terrebonne, LA
Nsula.edu: Louisiana Creole Heritage Center website
Loyno.edu: "Creoles" — Kate Chopin website.
Cajun | American ethnic group | Britannica Cajun - American ethnic group
Louisiana Creole people
Louisiana Creole
Louisiana Creole culture
Creole peoples
African-American culture
African-American history of Louisiana
African-American society
American people of Creole descent
American people of French descent
American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent
Ethnic groups in Louisiana
French-American culture
French-American history
French diaspora in North America
Native American culture
Native American history of Louisiana
People from Louisiana
People of Colonial Spanish Louisiana
Spanish-American culture
Spanish-American history
People of Louisiana (New France) |
4167276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serena%20Deeb | Serena Deeb | Serena Deeb (born June 29, 1986) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW). She is well known for her first stint with WWE, appearing on the SmackDown brand and also known for her time with the developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling, under the ring name Serena. She made appearances for National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) where she is a former NWA Worlds Women's Champion, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling and Ohio Valley Wrestling champion. Serena was a six-time Women's Champion, Shimmer Women Athletes and Wrestling New Classic and a one-time WNC Women's Champion.
Early life
Serena Deeb was born and raised in the Washington, D.C. suburb of Oakton, Virginia. Deeb's love of wrestling began when she was eleven after watching a World Wrestling Federation show. However, her main passion as a child, from the age of five until she actively pursued wrestling at 18, was soccer. Serena Deeb graduated from Oakton High School in nearby Vienna, Virginia in 2004. Though she began training for wrestling at age 18, she coupled this with an academic career, studying for her Bachelor of Arts in Spanish until graduating in 2008 from Indiana University Southeast. She has a desire to learn more languages, other than Spanish, and also enjoys Arabic, Thai, and Italian food which matches her interest in traveling.
Professional wrestling career
Ohio Valley Wrestling
Training and debut (2005–2006)
Serena started her wrestling career in the OVW Wrestling School, training from March until November 2005 after relocating on her own money from Virginia to Kentucky to attend the school. She debuted on the November 4 OVW house show, teaming with Fuji Cakes in a losing effort against Shelly Martinez and Beth Phoenix. Beth Phoenix and Shelly Martinez also defeated her in January even with the new tag team partner of Venus (Rosa Salvage). She picked up her maiden victory over Shelly Martinez in February and over Beth Phoenix the following month. Her misfortune in tag team action continued though, as she and Fuji Cakes lost to Cherry Pie and Roni Jonah. Unhappy with the loss, Serena changed her partners and teamed with Roadkill and Kasey James for a mixed tag team match with The Untouchables, including Cherry Pie, but lost once more. Later that month, a dark match between her and Beth Phoenix ended in a no contest and was changed into a tag match, which Serena and Shelly Martinez lost to Beth Phoenix and Maria.
Serena then began to feud with ODB. In early June, Martinez guest refereed a tag team match where she and Daisy Mae defeated ODB and Sosay. At OVW's Six Flags event, ODB scored a return victory as she and Venus defeated Serena and Daisy. In her television debut at the June 21 tapings, Serena came out to save the participants of OVW's first bikini contest, who had been attacked by ODB. She defeated ODB in a singles match at another Six Flags show at the end of June but the two continued to feud, exchanging victories in mixed tag team and six-man tag team matches. Eventually, ODB declared herself the inaugural Women's Champion, supposedly after winning a tournament in Rio de Janeiro. ODB retained the title in an eight-woman Battle Royal on the September 6 television tapings but in a four-way match, Serena finally managed to win the Women's Championship during the main event of the September 13 episode of OVW TV involving ODB, Beth Phoenix and Katie Lea.
Women's Champion (2006–2008)
When she became champion, Serena was targeted by Beth Phoenix. She managed to retain her title on September 16's house show but lost a televised rematch on October 4. Serena instantly set her sights on winning back the title and commandeered an all-female six-man tag team victory over Beth Phoenix and her team three days later before interfering in Beth's title defence, spearing her to end the match in disqualification just as Phoenix was about to pin ODB. Though she would continue to interfere with Phoenix, Serena never had the chance to win back the title as Katie 'The Kat' Lea won the championship in the penultimate round of a gauntlet match Phoenix had to contest, losing on the sixth match while a refreshed Kat only had Serena to defend against. Serena tried to contend with The Kat once more for the title but the match ended in disqualification. To settle their dispute, Serena, The Kat and Beth Phoenix closed out the year with a non-title no-disqualification three way, which Serena won.
During 2007, Serena spent many weeks in a variety of tag team matches in an attempt to gain an opportunity at the Women's Champion and Phoenix too before competing in the Miss OVW Divalympics, though ODB would eventually win this competition. Serena went on an undefeated streak in March and April, but this was brought to a halt by Lea in May. On May 11, she and her team lost a 2/3 tug of war contest, but beat them in the wrestling tag match immediately afterwards. It would not be until September before she received another shot at the title. Milena Roucka picked up the victory in this six-way match-up, while Serena also lost a non-title match the following week in an attempt to prove her contendership. After spending the opening months of 2008 on a losing streak, Serena disappeared in February from the promotion. During her hiatus, Serena got a nose job and breast implants in an attempt to get closer to a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment. Serena made a surprise return in late May when reigning champion Josie issued an open challenge, which Serena answered to win her second title. At the June 4 TV tapings, Serena stated her intentions to defend the title at all times, under 24/7 rules. Josie, who had assaulted her during the speech, took advantage of the rule in early July when Serena defended her title successfully against Reggie, only for Josie to attack her straight afterwards and win the title. Serena avenged this loss by similarly attacking Josie during a speech and winning the title back. The ruling proved too chaotic – at one point Serena gave a speech during which Josie and Melody attacked her, almost double-pinning her only for Reggie to come out and pin all three of them to win the title for a matter of minutes until Serena speared Reggie and won it back – and by August the 24/7 ruling was deactivated after Serena won the title back for an unprecedented sixth time.
After this, wrestler Moose sought Serena's affections, eventually winning a right to a date after defeating Lumpy Magoo in late September. After being rebuffed by Serena on the date, Moose turned sour and tried to interfere in a championship defence against Josie only for Magoo, who was accompanying Serena, to make sure his interference did not cost her the title. On October 29, Serena teamed with Magoo and defeated Moose and Women's Championship contender Reggie in a tag team match. On November 12, Serena lost the championship to Melody in a four-way match with Josie and Reggie.
The Insurgency (2009)
In 2009, Serena turned heel for the first time in her career. This was signalled when she appeared on January 14 with The Insurgency (Ali Akbar, Turcan Celik and Bin Hamin) to help them win a non-title match against the Southern Tag Team Champions Totally Awesome. With Serena in their corner, The Insurgency went on a winning streak, though Serena herself could not emulate this as her title match with Melody on February 25 saw Melody retain the title via disqualification. On the 500th episode of OVW, she challenged Melody once again, this time in a steel cage match, but failed to win the championship.
Shimmer Women Athletes
Early feuds (2006–2007)
On October 22, 2006, Serena began working for Shimmer Women Athletes at Volume 5 where she lost to Amber O'Neal in her debut match after O'Neal used Serena's tights to keep her down. She gained a victory in a rematch during Volume 6 with a roll-up pin. Despite this win, she went on a losing streak in both tag team and singles competition until she reversed Lexie Fyfe's Attitude Adjuster into a roll-up during Volume 10. Later at Volume 14: Hot Summer Nights Fyfe defeated Daffney and, after exposing her long-suffering knee injury, proceeded to assault her after the match with Experience tag team partner Malia Hosaka. Daffney's friend MsChif and Serena, having history with Fyfe, came to clear the ring leading to a match-up between Hosaka and Serena after the others had been chased off. Serena pinned Hosaka after a spear but her revenge was short-lived, as The Experience pinned her after a double inverted suplex slam, despite help from Allison Danger.
Pursuit of the Shimmer Championship (2007–2009)
En route to the tournament to crown the inaugural Shimmer Champion, Serena was involved in a car crash and thus could not participate. An interview with her opened Volume 12, where she revealed her desire to challenge the eventual Shimmer Champion having missed out on her tournament opportunity, but still could not maintain a winning streak, falling victim to Rain and later her tag team partner Jetta. After being eliminated from a 20-woman Battle Royal to determine the Shimmer Championship contender during Volume 19, Serena pinpointed champion Sara Del Rey for her next match, but came up short. On Volume 21, Serena maintained she demanded another title match, blaming her loss on an injury. Sara Del Rey refused, calling her "bottom of the barrel" but an impromptu brawl turned into a sanctioned match, in which Serena once again put up a strong effort but lost. The event closed with Serena talking backstage about how the defeat would not stop her in trying to become champion at which point MsChif, the Shimmer Champion, commended her drive and ambition and offered her a match on the condition of beating Del Rey.
At Volume 22 Del Rey's manager, Larry Sweeney, announced she did not need to face Serena having beaten her twice already and that Del Rey's only goal was to reclaim the Shimmer Championship. After the main event closed, Del Rey hit the ring and attacked MsChif until Serena appeared to fight in MsChif's corner; the referee quickly declared their impromptu bout another match where, after taking yet another severe beating, Serena finally managed to defeat Del Rey. After another post-match assault, MsChif came to save Serena making the event end with the Shimmer Champion raising Serena's hand. Despite a storied build up over the years, including a seldom used video package to hype the main event, Serena was unsuccessful in her match. Though she failed to win her title match, it seemed her rivalry with Del Rey wasn't over. As well as bouncing back over Cat Power, she had a competitive victory over Mercedes Martinez. After her match, Del Rey and Amazing Kong had a Shimmer Tag Team Championship shot against Ashley Lane and Nevaeh, which ended when they started using chairs against the champions. Despite having just wrestled, Martinez assisted Serena in clearing the ring and keeping Del Rey at bay. Their attempts at Volume 26 to form a successful tag team saw them come undone against Del Rey and Kong's brutish power.
Wrestlicious (2009)
Also in early 2009, Serena appeared in the fledgling all-female Wrestlicious promotion. In the camp show, Take Down she was known as "Webmistress" Paige Webb and debuted on the second episode of their television show which, while being recorded in early 2009, was not broadcast until March 2010 after she had begun to appear in WWE. In her first singles match she lost to "Ice Princess" Autumn Frost and won her first match on the fifth episode, where she teamed with Charlotte to take on the team of Hope and Faith.
World Wrestling Entertainment
On the May 19, 2009, episode of World Wrestling Entertainment's ECW on Sci Fi, Serena was seen standing backstage while Finlay was walking to the ring. Though Serena initially denied she signed with WWE, Shimmer promoter Dave Prazak confirmed that a contract had been negotiated on July 1, 2009.
Florida Championship Wrestling (2009–2010)
Serena made her debut on July 15, 2009, at a Florida Championship Wrestling house show where she teamed with Maria and Angela Fong to win against the team of Natalya, Layla and Alicia Fox in a six Diva Tag match. In her televised debut match, Serena defeated Layla. Her ring name was soon changed to Serena Mancini and once again to Mia Mancini, portraying the character of a mafia boss's daughter. On August 14, Mancini pinned April Lee in a four-way match during the TV taping for FCW's fiftieth episode to win a future opportunity to compete against Angela for her Queen of FCW crown. She followed up on September 3, though it would not air until October 4, with a win over Angela to become the second Queen of FCW. While defending her crown, Mancini began taking on WWE Divas from the televised roster, defeating Tiffany, Natalya, Savannah and Gail Kim. Later in September, Mancini was involved in a backstage segment which was unacknowledged by the commentary team where a mysterious man told her to lose her match against Angela, though she would refuse to. At the February 4, 2010, FCW television tapings, AJ Lee defeated Serena, who incorporated her SmackDown character into the Mancini role, to become the new Queen of FCW. When Matt Martlaro announced that there would be a creation of the FCW Divas Championship, Serena competed in the tournament to determine the inaugural Champion, during which she defeated Aksana and AJ Lee en route to the final where she was defeated by Naomi Night.
The Straight Edge Society (2010)
On the January 22, 2010, edition of SmackDown, Serena appeared, playing the part of an audience member, before jumping over the crowd barrier to join CM Punk's group of straight edge followers; as part of the initiation, she agreed to have her head shaved bald. In a later podcast interview with wrestling journalist Brady Hicks, Serena said of the head shaving: "It was a really unique opportunity. Seeing a woman getting her head shaved was so rare, you don't see it all that often in the history of wrestling. Getting to do it as my debut was really, really cool, and really powerful. I was also very scared about what I was going to look like. There were a lot of uncertainties, but it ended up being really, really great for my career." One week later, she reappeared with Punk and Luke Gallows, now as a member of villainous group the Straight Edge Society, for their match against D-Generation X for the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship. However, Theodore Long changed the title match and instead set up a singles match between Punk and Triple H, during which she and Gallows attacked Triple H, disqualifying Punk in the process. On the July 2, 2010, edition of SmackDown, Serena unwillingly showed video security footage of her drinking alcohol at a bar as an alibi for Punk's whereabouts, raising the ire of The Society; she was forgiven by Punk the next week, though Gallows showed signs of disapproval. This incident was the first of many signs of trouble within the group, leading to Serena's first and only televised match in WWE on August 20 (taped August 17). In a match where she and Gallows would be expelled from The Society if they lost, the duo took on Big Show and Kelly Kelly in a mixed tag team match, where Serena used a gutbuster to pin Kelly. On August 20, Serena was released from her WWE contract, reportedly for not "living out" her straight edge persona in public. Because SmackDown was pre-recorded, her release was not revealed immediately, which gave her one last appearance, airing on August 27 as a valet to Punk and Gallows in separate matches.
Return to Shimmer (2010–2011; 2013)
On September 11, 2010, at the Volume 33 taping for Shimmer, Serena made a surprise return to the promotion, answering Kellie Skater's open challenge and defeating her in a singles match. She then had a verbal confrontation with former partner Portia Perez who accused her of selling out by going to WWE which led to a match at Volume 35 where Serena submitted to a crossface after the referee was distracted from seeing Serena reaching the ropes. She then rekindled her rivalry with Sara Del Rey, who made a speech criticizing her, leading to Serena main eventing Volume 36 in a Four-on-Four Tag Team Elimination match where Serena was eliminated second after Tomoka Nakagawa. In March 2011, Serena defeated Daizee Haze on Volume 37 and was victorious in a tag team match on Volume 38. Serena continued her rivalry with Portia Perez on Volume 39, defeating her via DQ. On Volume 40, Serena defeated Portia Perez, Cheerleader Melissa, and LuFisto in a four-corner survival match to earn a shot at the Shimmer Championship. She got her shot on Volume 41 in October but was defeated by Madison Eagles. Serena lost to Nicole Matthews on Volume 42 after interference from Portia Perez. Serena finished her rivalry with Portia on Volume 43 by defeating her in a no holds barred match.
After 18 months off due to injury, Serena made her return for Shimmer Women Athletes as part of WrestleCon on April 6, 2013. In her return match at the Volume 53 internet pay-per-view, Serena teamed with Allison Danger and Leva Bates to defeat The Midwest Militia (Jessicka Havok, Nevaeh and Sassy Stephie) in a six-woman tag team match, pinning Nevaeh for the win. Afterwards, Serena was attacked by Havok.
Independent circuit (2007–2015)
Due to Shimmer's working relationship with Ring of Honor (ROH), Serena began to make occasional appearances for ROH in 2007 as part of February's Fifth Year Festival, she teamed up with MsChif in a losing effort to the Dangerous Angels (Danger and Del Rey). In the middle of the year she was similarly unsuccessful against Lacey at United We Stand and afterwards received a beating from her Age of The Fall partners Rain and Jimmy Jacobs until Haze saved her. She also came out on the losing end of a Shimmer guest match at 2008's Southern Hostility in a four corner survival match. She returned to ROH for their year-end internet pay-per-view Final Battle 2010 teaming with long-term rival Del Rey against Daizee Haze and Amazing Kong, winning the match after taking out Kong with a spear to let Del Rey pin Haze.
Serena appeared at Total Nonstop Action Wrestling's pay-per-view Slammiversary in June 2008, where she took part in Awesome Kong's $25,000 Fan Challenge in a three-minute squash match, as did fellow OVW and Shimmer wrestler Josie, who signed a contract with the company.
In November 2008 at a Pro Wrestling Syndicate show, Serena wrestled Daffney for the vacant NWA France Women's Championship, which she won. After winning the title, Serena travelled to France to defend the title under the International Catch Wrestling Alliance the following month. At Revolution V in Lille, she defended the title against three-time champion Bella Punk. Despite landing her Spear finisher, Punk's accomplice Gangrel turned the lights out in the arena from which Punk took advantage and pinned Serena after a spike DDT. Serena accompanied Joe E. Legend in the main event against Gangrel, which the latter won.
Serena found herself back in France during March 2009 for American Wrestling Rampage's nine-day tour of France. For most of the events, Serena wrestled fellow Shimmer wrestler Portia Perez, who was the only other woman on the tour. After two losses, Serena managed to pick up a victory but would only gain one more from their eight singles matches. On the final night, she teamed up with Scotty The Hotty to gain a third victory over Perez and Chris Masters in a tag team match.
In November 2010, Serena debuted for Women Superstars Uncensored (WSU) and established herself as a villainess by cutting a promo stating that she should be handed a title shot because she was in WWE. Serena would later gain a victory over Traci Brooks on WSU's first internet pay-per-view (iPPV). Serena followed up by winning a Four Way match over Alicia, Portia Perez and Jana to become number one contender to the WSU Championship. Deeb would target WSU Champion Mercedes Martinez by attacking her after a title defense late that evening and cutting some of Martinez's hair. Serena received her title shot in the main event of WSU's 4 Year Anniversary show where she was defeated by Mercedes. On June 25, 2011, at The Uncensored Rumble IV event Serena defeated Nikki Roxx but was eliminated from the eponymous match by Lexxus, having made it to the final two.
In January 2011, Serena made her first excursion to Japan. While working for Yoshihiro Tajiri's promotion Smash, she wrestled Syuri at Smash.12 and won the match. She remained undefeated by beating Makoto on Smash.13, Kana on Smash.17, Tomoka Nakagawa on Smash.19 in the first round and Syuri on Smash.20 in the semifinals of a tournament for the Smash Diva Championship. On September 8, Serena suffered her first loss in Smash, when she was defeated by Kana in the finals of a tournament to crown the first ever Smash Diva Champion.
On April 19, 2011, Deeb wrestled a dark match in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, however she lost to Winter.
On October 22, 2011, Deeb announced that she was taking an indefinite break from wrestling, following her doctor's instructions after suffering a serious concussion. Her break ended up lasting eighteen months.
On March 17, 2013, Deeb returned to TNA to take part in the tapings of the Knockout Knockdown pay-per-view, where she was defeated by Mickie James. On July 25, Deeb returned to Japan to work for Smash's follow-up promotion, Wrestling New Classic (WNC), unsuccessfully challenging Lin Byron for the WNC Women's Championship in the main event of a show at Shinjuku Face. Three days later, Deeb made her debut for the JWP Joshi Puroresu promotion, teaming with Hanako Nakamori and Morii in a six-woman tag team match, where they were defeated by Kayoko Haruyama, Leon and Tsubasa Kuragaki. On August 3, Deeb entered a three-woman round-robin tournament for the vacant WNC Women's Championship, defeating Makoto in her first match. On August 8, Deeb defeated Syuri in her second round-robin match, advancing to the finals of the tournament. On August 10, Deeb defeated Syuri in the finals to win the tournament and become the new WNC Women's Champion. Continuing her tour of Japan, Deeb made her debut for the World Woman Pro-Wrestling Diana promotion on September 8, teaming with Makoto in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Crazy Mary and Mima Shimoda. On September 18, Deeb lost the WNC Women's Championship to Syuri in her first defense.
On January 24, 2014, Deeb made her debut for Shine Wrestling, defeating Santana Garrett in a singles match. Following the main event, Deeb joined the promotion's top villainous stable, Valkyrie. Deeb challenged for the Shine Championship against Ivelisse at Shine 20, with their match ending in a time-limit draw.
On March 21, 2014, Deeb debuted for Queens of Combat as a villainess at the promotion's first show, competing in a losing effort to Taeler Hendrix.
Semi-retirement (2015)
On June 17, 2015, the Japanese Reina Joshi Puroresu promotion announced that Deeb would be wrestling her retirement match for the promotion on July 10 in Korakuen Hall. Deeb confirmed this would be her final match on July 9. The following day, Deeb was defeated by Syuri in her retirement match.
Despite her retirement, Deeb made an appearance for TNA on the June 25, 2015, episode of Impact Wrestling in an intergender tag team match. She teamed with James Storm in a losing effort against Mickie James and Magnus.
Return to WWE (2017–2020)
Deeb returned to WWE as part of the first Mae Young Classic on July 13, 2017, defeating Vanessa Borne in the first round. This was Deeb's first match since 2015. The following day, Deeb was eliminated from the tournament in the second round by Piper Niven. It was announced on February 8, 2018, that Deeb has been signed by WWE to become a coach at the Performance Center in Orlando, Florida. She was released on April 15, 2020, amid company-wide cutbacks due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
All Elite Wrestling (2020–present)
Deeb made her All Elite Wrestling (AEW) debut on September 2, 2020, episode of Dynamite, losing to NWA Women's Champion, Thunder Rosa. On September 21, AEW announced that she had signed with the promotion. On September 22, in her first appearance on AEW Dark, Deeb defeated Kilynn King, gaining her first victory in AEW. On October 27, 2020, Deeb faced Rosa again during United Wrestling Network's Primetime Live event, where Deeb defeated Rosa to become the NWA World Women's Champion for the first time in her career. Deeb also defeated Rosa on the November 18 edition of AEW Dynamite by retaining her NWA Women's title.
On the February 17, 2021, episode of Dynamite, Deeb competed in the AEW Women's World Title Eliminator Tournament, where Deeb lost to Riho in the first round at the American bracket. On March 5, Deeb confirmed that she injured her left knee. On May 19, Deeb returned to action taking on Red Velvet defending her championship, Deeb defeated Velvet resulting in Deeb retaining her NWA Women's title. At When Our Shadows Fall, Deeb lost the NWA Women's title to Kamille. On the October 6 episode of Dynamite, Deeb turned heel by attacking Hikaru Shida after she defeated her in a match. On October 27 episode of Dynamite Deeb had a rematch with Shida in the AEW TBS women's championship tournament which Deeb lost and resulted in Deeb attacking Shida again. Deeb would then start using the nickname “the professor” and hosting a “5 minute rookie challenge” where she dominates her inexperienced adversaries.
Personal life
Outside the ring, Deeb works as a yoga instructor. Deeb also works backstage for AEW as a coach for both men's and women's matches. In an interview with The Flagship to promote All Elite Wrestling in October 2022, Deeb mentioned, "I’ve been coaching a little less because I’ve been wrestling more."
Championships and accomplishments
Florida Championship Wrestling
Queen of FCW (1 time)
Great Lakes Championship Wrestling
GLCW Ladies Championship (1 time)
International Catch Wrestling Alliance
NWA France Women's Championship (1 time)
Memphis Championship Wrestling
MCW Women's Championship (1 time)
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA World Women's Championship (1 time)
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Women's Championship (6 times)Pro Wrestling IllustratedRanked No. 11 in the top 150 female wrestlers in the PWI Women's 150 in 2021
Ranked No. 16 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50'' in 2011
Wrestling New Classic
WNC Women's Championship (1 time)
WNC Women's Championship League (2013)
References
External links
1986 births
21st-century American women
21st-century female professional wrestlers
Living people
All Elite Wrestling personnel
American female professional wrestlers
American yoga teachers
Indiana University Southeast alumni
Oakton High School alumni
Professional wrestlers from Virginia
Professional wrestling trainers
Sportspeople from Fairfax County, Virginia
People from Oakton, Virginia
OVW Women's Champions
Queen of FCW |
4167805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ%20Premier%20production%20discography | DJ Premier production discography | The following list contains songs produced, co-produced or remixed by hip-hop producer DJ Premier.
1989
Gang Starr - No More Mr. Nice Guy
01. "Premier & The Guru"3
02. "Jazz Music"
03. "Gotch U"
04. "Manifest"
06. "DJ Premier in Deep Concentration"
07. "Positivity (Remix)"
08. "Words I Manifest (Remix)"
09. "Conscience Be Free"
10. "Cause and Effect"
11. "2 Steps Ahead"
12. "No More Mr. Nice Guy"
14. "Positivity"
1990
Lord Finesse & DJ Mike Smooth - Funky Technician
01. "Lord Finesse's Theme Song Intro" (featuring Grandpa Finesse)
02. "Baby, You Nasty (New Version)"
06. "Slave to My Soundwave" (co-produced by DJ Mike Smooth)
10. "A Lesson to Be Taught"
12. "Strictly for the Ladies" (featuring Patricia (Chocolate))
13. "Track the Movement"
Lord Finesse & DJ Mike Smooth - "Strictly for the Ladies / Back to Back Rhyming"
A1. "Strictly for the Ladies (Radio Remix)"
B1. "Back to Back Rhyming (Vocal Remix)" (featuring A.G.)
Kool DJ Red Alert - (Part 3) Let's Make It Happen
08. "Red Alert Chant"
Branford Marsalis Quartet - Mo' Better Blues Soundtrack
08. "Jazz Thing" (featuring Gang Starr, co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
Gang Starr - Step in the Arena
01. "Name Tag (Premier & The Guru)"
02. "Step in the Arena"
03. "Form of Intellect"
04. "Execution of a Chump (No More Mr. Nice Guy Pt. 2)"
05. "Who's Gonna Take the Weight?"
06. "Beyond Comprehension"
07. "Check the Technique"
08. "Lovesick"
09. "Here Today, Gone Tomorrow"
10. "Game Plan"
11. "Take a Rest"
12. "What You Want This Time?"
13. "Street Ministry"
14. "Just to Get a Rep"
15. "Say Your Prayers"
16. "As I Read My S-A"
17. "Precisely the Right Rhymes"
18. "The Meaning of the Name"
19. "Credit Is Due" [Japan-only bonus track]
1991
Cookie Crew - Fade to Black
09. "A Word from the Conscious" (co-produced by Guru)
Cookie Crew - "Secrets (Of Success)"
B3. "A Word to the Conscious" (co-produced by Guru)
Dream Warriors - "I Lost My Ignorance (And Don't Know Where to Find It)"
A1. "I Lost My Ignorance (And Don't Know Where to Find It) (Original Mix)" (featuring Gang Starr, co-produced by Guru and Dream Warriors)
A2. "I Lost My Ignorance (And Don't Know Where to Find It) (Gang Starr Remix)" (featuring Gang Starr, co-produced by Guru)
Ice-T - "Lifestyles of the Rich and Infamous / The Tower"
A1. "Lifestyles of the Rich and Infamous (Remix)"
J Rock - Streetwize
04. "Brutality"
05. "The Pimp"
11. "Ghetto Law"
14. "The Real One"
20. "Neighborhood Drug Dealer (DJ Premier Remix)" [Bonus Track]
Subsonic 2 - Include Me Out
12. "Dedicated to the City" (featuring Keith E, co-produced by Guru and Subsonic 2)
19. "Regardless" (co-produced by Guru, Subsonic 2 and MG Bad)
Subsonic 2 - "Unsung Heroes of Hip Hop"
B1. "Dedicated to the City (The Gang Starr Mix)" (co-produced by Guru)
Wendy & Lisa - Re-Mix-In-A-Carnation
05. "Satisfaction (Gangstarr Remix)" (featuring Guru)
1992
Gang Starr - Lovesick 12"
A1. "Lovesick (Extended Mix)"
B2. "Credit Is Due"
Gang Starr - Daily Operation
01. "Daily Operation (Intro)"
02. "The Place Where We Dwell"
03. "Flip the Script"
04. "Ex Girl to Next Girl"
05. "Soliloquy of Chaos"
06. "I'm the Man" (featuring Lil Dap & Jeru the Damaja)
07. "’92 Interlude"
08. "Take It Personal"
09. "2 Deep"
10. "24-7/365"
11. "No Shame in My Game"
12. "Conspiracy"
13. "The Illest Brother"
14. "Hardcore Composer"
15. "B.Y.S."
16. "Much Too Much (Mack a Mil)"
17. "Take Two and Pass"
18. "Stay Tuned"
Gang Starr - Take It Personal / DWYCK 12"
B1. "DWYCK" (featuring (Nice & Smooth)
Various Artists - Trespass Soundtrack
08. "Gotta Get Over (Taking Loot)" (by Gang Starr)
Gang Starr / Mobb Deep - Doe in Advance / Cop Hell 12"
A1. "Doe in Advance (Main Mix)"
B1. "Cop Hell (Main Mix)"
Loose Ends - Tighten Up Vol. 1
05. "A Little Spice (Gang Starr Remix)" (co-produced by Guru)
Soul II Soul - Just Right
B2. "Intelligence (Jazzie II Guru Mix)" (co-produced by Guru)
Too Short - In the Trunk
B1. "In the Trunk (Glove Compartment Radio Mix)"
Compton's Most Wanted - Def Wish II
A1. "Def Wish II (East Coast Gang Starr Re-Mix)"
Neneh Cherry - Homebrew
01. "Sassy" (featuring Guru, co-produced by Guru)
04. "I Ain't Gone Under Yet" (co-produced by Guru, Booga Bear, Johnny Dollar and Neneh Cherry)
Heavy D & the Boyz - Blue Funk
10. "Here Comes the Heavster"
12. "Yes Y'all"
1993
Marxman - 33 Revolutions per Minute
09. "Drifting" (co-produced Guru)
Da Youngsta's - The Aftermath
13. "Wake Em Up"
Mobb Deep - Juvenile Hell
04. "Peer Pressure"
Boss - Deeper
B2. "Drive By (Rollin' Slow Remix)" (produced by Norris "Roblow" Jones Of Crimelab Music Group and Co-Produced by Erick Sermon)
Da King & I - Krak Da Weazel
B3. "Flip Da Scrip (Remix) (Main Pass)"
KRS-One - Return of the Boom Bap
01. "KRS-One Attacks"
02. "Outta Here"
04. "Mortal Thought"
05. "I Can't Wake Up" (co-produced by KRS-One)
12. ""P" Is Still Free"
14. "Higher Level"
Red Fox - As a Matter of Fox
14. "Ya Can't Test Me Again"
Das EFX - Kaught in Da Ak
A1. "Kaught in Da Ak (Remix - Clean)"
Shyheim - On and On
A3. "On and On (Premier Remix)"
1994
Nas - Illmatic
02. "N.Y. State of Mind"
06. "Memory Lane (Sittin' in da Park)"
09. "Represent"
Gang Starr - Hard to Earn
01. "Intro (The First Step)"
02. "ALONGWAYTOGO"
03. "Code of the Streets"
04. "Brainstorm"
05. "Tonz 'O' Gunz"
06. "The Planet"
07. "Aiiight Chill..."
08. "Speak Ya Clout"
09. "DWYCK"
10. "Words from the Nutcracker"
11. "Mass Appeal"
12. "Blowin' Up the Spot"
13. "Suckas Need Bodyguards"
14. "Now You're Mine"
15. "Mostly tha Voice"
16. "F.A.L.A."
17. "Comin' for Datazz"
Gang Starr - Suckas Need Bodyguards 12"
B2. "The ? Remainz (Street Version)"
M.O.P. - "Rugged Neva Smoove"
B. "Rugged Neva Smoove (Premier Remix - Street)"
D2. "Downtown Swinga (Radio)"
Jeru the Damaja - The Sun Rises in the East
01. "Intro (Life)"
02. "D. Original"
03. "Brooklyn Took It"
04. "Perverted Monks in tha House (Skit)"
05. "Mental Stamina" (featuring Afu-Ra)
06. "Da Bichez"
07. "You Can't Stop the Prophet"
08. "Perverted Monks in tha House (Theme)"
09. "Ain't the Devil Happy"
10. "My Mind Spray"
11. "Come Clean"
12. "Jungle Music"
13. "Statik"
Buckshot LeFonque - Buckshot LeFonque
01. "Ladies & Gentlemen, Presenting..." (co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
05. "Wonders & Signs" (featuring Blackheart, co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
08. "Some Shit @ 78 BPM (The Scratch Opera)"
09. "Hotter Than Hot" (featuring Blackheart, co-produced by Blackheart)
10. "The Blackwidow Blues" (featuring The Lady of Rage, co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
11. "Breakfast @ Denny's" (co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
13. "No Pain, No Gain" (co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
15. "...And We Out" (co-produced by Branford Marsalis)
16. "Breakfast @ Denny's (Uptown Version)" (featuring Uptown) [Bonus Track]
Big Daddy Kane - Daddy's Home
04. "Show & Prove" (featuring Big Scoop, J.Z., Ol' Dirty Bastard, Sauce and Shyheim)
The Notorious B.I.G. - Ready to Die
16. "Unbelievable"
Omar - "Keep Steppin'"
A3. "Keep Steppin' (D.J. Premier Mix)" (featuring Uptown)
Various Artists - Kickin Da Flava
03. "Ease My Mind (Premier's Radio)" (by Arrested Development)
Dream Warriors - Subliminal Simulation
05. "It's a Project Thing" (co-produced by Dream Warriors)
07. "I've Lost My Ignorance" (featuring Guru, co-produced by Guru and Dream Warriors)
1995
Showbiz and A.G. - Goodfellas
05. "Next Level (Nyte Time Mix)"
Big Shug - "Treat U Better"
A1. "Treat U Better" (co-produced Guru)
Guru - Jazzmatazz, Vol. 2: The New Reality
05. "Skit A (Interview) / Watch What You Say" (featuring Chaka Khan and Branford Marsalis, co-produced by Guru)
Guru - "Lifesaver"
A2. "Lifesaver (DJ Premier Remix)"
Bone Thugs-n-Harmony - "1st of Tha Month"
A1. "1st of Tha Month (DJ Premier's Phat Bonus Remix)"
Various Artists - Clockers Soundtrack
05. "Return of the Crooklyn Dodgers" (by Crooklyn Dodgers '95 - Chubb Rock, O.C. and Jeru the Damaja)
Blahzay Blahzay - "Danger"
B1. "Danger (Remix) (Street Mix)"
Das EFX - Hold It Down
02. "No Diggedy"
05. "Real Hip Hop (Original Version)"
KRS-One - KRS-One
01. "Rappaz R. N. Dainja"
03. "MC's Act Like They Don't Know"
08. "Wannabemceez" (featuring Mad Lion)
Fat Joe - Jealous One's Envy
08. "The Shit Is Real (DJ Premier Remix)"
13. "Success (DJ Premier Remix)"
Group Home - Livin' Proof
01. "Intro"
02. "Inna Citi Life"
03. "Livin' Proof"
05. "Suspended in Time"
06. "Sacrifice"
07. "Up Against the Wall (Low Budget Mix)"
09. "Baby Pa"
10. "2 Thousand"
11. "Supa Star"
12. "Up Against the Wall (Getaway Car Mix)"
13. "Tha Realness"
Scha Dara Parr - The Cycle Hits-Remix Best Collection
03. "Cracker MC's (DJ Premier Remix)"
Various Artists - The D&D Project
01. "1, 2 Pass It" (by D&D All-Stars (Doug E. Fresh, Fat Joe, Jeru the Damaja, KRS-One, Mad Lion and Smif-n-Wessun))
The D&D All-Stars - 1, 2 Pass It 12"
B1. "1, 2 Pass It Remix"
1996
Group Home - "Suspended in Time / Tha Realness"
A1. "Suspended in Time (Groovy Remix Street)" (featuring Groove Theory)
Bahamadia - Kollage
01. "Intro"
04. "Rugged Ruff"
05. "Interlude"
13. "True Honey Buns (Dat Freak Shit)"
14. "3 Tha Hard Way"
Big Shug - "Crush / Official"
A1. "Crush (Street)"
Jay-Z - Reasonable Doubt
06. "D'Evils"
10. "Friend or Foe"
13. "Bring It On" (featuring Big Jaz and Sauce Money)
Nas - It Was Written
04. "I Gave You Power"
D'Angelo - "Lady"
A1. "Lady (Clean Street Version)" (featuring AZ)
D'Angelo - "Me and Those Dreamin' Eyes of Mine"
B1. "Me and Those Dreamin' Eyes of Mine (Two Way Street Mix)"
Jeru the Damaja - Wrath of the Math
01. "Wrath of the Math"
02. "Tha Frustrated Nigga"
03. "Black Cowboys"
04. "Tha Bullshit"
05. "Whatever"
06. "Physical Stamina"
07. "One Day"
08. "Revenge of the Prophet (Part 5)"
09. "Scientifical Madness"
10. "Not the Average"
11. "Me or the Papes"
12. "How I'm Livin'"
13. "Too Perverted"
14. "Ya Playin' Yaself"
15. "Invasion"
M.O.P. - Firing Squad
01. "Intro"
03. "Firing Squad" (featuring Teflon)
04. "New Jack City" (featuring Teflon)
05. "Stick to Ya Gunz" (featuring Kool G Rap)
08. "Brownsville"
09. "Salute"
11. "Downtown Swinga ('96)"
Rawcotiks - "Hardcore Hip-Hop"
B1. "Hardcore Hip-Hop (Street Mix II)"
Special Ed - "Freaky Flow (DJ Premier Remixes)"
A2. "Freaky Flow (DJ Premier Remix) (Street Version)"
1997
Gang Starr - You Know My Steez 12"
B2. "So Wassup?! (Down & Dirty Version)"
Jeru the Damaja - "Me or the Papes"
B4. "Me, Not the Paper (Remix Dirty)"
The Notorious B.I.G. - Life After Death
1-04. "Kick in the Door" (featuring The Madd Rapper)
2-05. "Ten Crack Commandments"
Buckshot LeFonque - "Music Evolution"
A1. "Music Evolution (DJ Premier Version)"
Howie B
"Take Your Partner by the Hand (DJ Premier Remix)"
The Lady of Rage - Necessary Roughness
11. "Some Shit"
12. "Microphone Pon Cok" (featuring Madd 1)
Various Artists - Soul in the Hole Soundtrack
03. "Against the Grain" (by Sauce Money)
O.C. - Jewelz
02. "My World"
03. "War Games" (featuring Organized Konfusion)
07. "Win the G" (featuring Bumpy Knuckles)
10. "M.U.G." (featuring Freddie Foxxx)
Zeebra - "マイクの刺客 / The Untouchable"
B1. "The Untouchable"
Jay-Z - In My Lifetime, Vol. 1
01. "Intro / A Million and One Questions / Rhyme No More"
06. "Friend or Foe '98"
Rakim - The 18th Letter
04. "It's Been a Long Time"
10. "New York (Ya Out There)"
Janet Jackson - "Together Again"
1. "Together Again" (DJ Premier 100 in a 50 Remix)
2. "Together Again" (DJ Premier Just the Bass Vocal)
1998
Various Artists - Belly Soundtrack
02. "Devil's Pie" (by D'Angelo)
13. "Militia Remix" (by Gang Starr)
Various Artists - Blade Soundtrack
02. "1/2 & 1/2" (by Gang Starr featuring M.O.P.)
Various Artists - Tommy Boy's Greatest Beats 1981 - 1996
5-02. "Wrath of My Madness (DJ Premier Remix)" (by Queen Latifah)
Gang Starr - Moment of Truth
01. "You Know My Steez"
02. "Robbin Hood Theory"
03. "Work"
04. "Royalty" (featuring K-Ci & JoJo)
05. "Above the Clouds" (featuring Inspectah Deck)
06. "JFK 2 LAX"
07. "Itz a Set Up" (featuring Hannibal Stax)
08. "Moment of Truth"
09. "B.I. vs Friendship" (featuring M.O.P.)
10. "The Militia" (featuring Big Shug, Freddie Foxxx)
11. "The Rep Grows Bigga"
12. "What I'm Here 4"
13. "She Knowz What She Wantz"
14. "New York Strait Talk"
15. "My Advice 2 You"
16. "Make 'Em Pay" (featuring Krumbsnatcha)
17. The Mall" (featuring G-Dep, Shiggy Sha)
18. "Betrayal" (featuring Scarface)
19. Next Time"
20. "In Memory Of…"
Gang Starr - The Militia 12"
B1. "You Know My Steez (Three Men And A Lady Remix)" (featuring The Lady Of Rage, Kurupt)
Jay-Z - "A Million and One Questions"
B1. "A Million and One Questions (Premier Remix)"
M.O.P. - First Family 4 Life
02. "Breakin' the Rules"
08. "I Luv" (featuring Freddie Foxxx)
09. "Salute Part II" (featuring Gang Starr)
11. "Handle Ur Bizness (DJ Premier Remix)"
14. "Downtown Swinga '98"
Robbie Robertson - Contact from the Underworld of Redboy
11. "Take Your Partner by the Hand (Red Alert Mix)" (featuring Howie B)
Krumbsnatcha - Snatcha Season Pt. 1
07. "Closer to God"
Cheyenne - "Feel My Love"
B1. "Feel My Love (DJ Premier Remix)"
Jermaine Dupri - Life in 1472
12. "Protectors of 1472" (featuring Snoop Dogg, Warren G and R.O.C.)
Fat Joe - Don Cartagena
09. "Dat Gangsta Shit"
Funkmaster Flex - The Mix Tape Volume III 60 Minutes Of Funk (The Final Chapter)
20. "Freestyle" (by Gang Starr)
Jay-Z - Vol. 2... Hard Knock Life
01. "Intro - Hand It Down" (featuring Memphis Bleek)
Brand Nubian - Foundation
02. "The Return"
Paula Perry - "Extra, Extra!!"
A2. "Extra, Extra!! (LP Version)" (featuring Nikki D and Que 45)
All City - Metropolis Gold
07. "The Actual"
1999
Tef - Premier Presents...: F-U / Comin' At Cha
A. "F-U"
B. "Comin' At Cha"
Gang Starr - Full Clip: A Decade of Gang Starr
1-01. "Intro"
1-02. "Full Clip"
1-03. "Discipline" (featuring Total)
2-01. "All 4 Tha Ca$h"
Nas - I Am...
01. "Album Intro"
02. "N.Y. State of Mind Pt. II"
13. "Nas Is Like"
Group Home - A Tear for the Ghetto
06. "The Legacy" (featuring Guru)
Limp Bizkit - Significant Other
02. "N 2 Gether Now" (featuring Method Man, co-produced by Terry Date and Limp Bizkit)
Charli Baltimore - Cold as Ice
06. "Everybody Wanna Know"
Brandy - U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) - The Remix EP
02. "Almost Doesn't Count" (DJ Premier Mix)"
Truck - Symphony 2000 / Who Am I
B2. "Who Am I (Album)"
Truck - Breaker One 12"
A2. "Breaker One (Dirty Version)"
B2. "Bring It To The Cypher (Dirty Version)" (featuring KRS-One)
A.G. - The Dirty Version
09. "Weed Scented" (featuring O.C., Mr. Mudd and Guru)
Mos Def - Black on Both Sides
16. "Mathematics"
Nas - Nastradamus
06. "Come Get Me"
Rakim - The Master
03. "When I B on the Mic"
16. "Waiting for the World to End"
The Notorious B.I.G. - Born Again
11. "Rap Phenomenon" (featuring Method Man & Redman)
Jay-Z - Vol. 3... Life and Times of S. Carter
02. "So Ghetto"
2000
Afu-Ra - Body of the Life Force
03. "Defeat"
07. "Mic Stance"
12. "Visions"
15. "Equality" (featuring Ky-Mani)
16. "Monotony"
Big L - The Big Picture
01. "The Big Picture (Intro)"
08. "The Enemy" (featuring Fat Joe) Originally released in 1997
12. "Platinum Plus" (featuring Big Daddy Kane)
Chauncey Black - Shame On You
"Shame On You" (co prod. by Chauncey Black)
Black Eyed Peas - Bridging the Gap
01. "BEP Empire"
Sonja Blade - "Look 4 Tha Name"
A1. "Look 4 Tha Name (Street Version)/ Body Bag Sh*t"
Bumpy Knuckles - Industry Shakedown
14. "R.N.S."
19. "Part of My Life"
Capone-n-Noreaga - The Reunion
05. "Invincible"
Common - Like Water for Chocolate
09. "The 6th Sense" (featuring Bilal)
D'Angelo - Voodoo
02. "Devil's Pie"
D.I.T.C. - D.I.T.C.
01. "Thick"
09. "Ebonics (Premo Mix)"
11. "Da Enemy"
D.I.T.C. - The Official Version
B1. "Where Ya At (Remix)"
Edo. G - The Truth Hurts
01. "Sayin' Somethin'"
Guru - Jazzmatazz, Vol. 3: Streetsoul
03. "Hustlin' Daze" (featuring Donell Jones)
12. "Where's My Ladies" (feat. Big Shug) [co-produced with Guru]
Heather B - "Guilty"
A1. "Guilty (Street)"
M.O.P. - Warriorz
01. "Premier Intro"
03. "Everyday" (featuring Product G&B)
05. "Face Off 2K1"
09. "On the Front Line"
11. "Follow Instructions"
18. "Roll Call"
PUSHIM - "Set Me Free"
A1. "Set Me Free (Main Mix)"
Rah Digga - Dirty Harriet
16. "Lessons of Today"
The Lox - We Are the Streets
09. "Recognize"
Sauce Money - Middle Finger U
11. "Intruder Alert"
Screwball - Y2K The Album
03. "F.A.Y.B.A.N."
06. "Seen It All"
Tony Touch - The Piece Maker
02. "The Piece Maker" (featuring Gang Starr)
Various Artists - Lyricist Lounge 2
17. "I've Committed Murder" (by Macy Gray, featuring Mos Def, co-produced by Guru)
2001
Biz Markie - "...And I Rock / Interview"
A1. "...And I Rock" (featuring Black Indian)
DJ Cam - Soulshine
14. "Voodoo Child (DJ Premier Remix)" (featuring Afu-Ra)
Craig David - "7 Days (DJ Premier Remix)"
"7 Days" (Remix) w/o Mos Def and Nate Dogg
"7 Days" (Remix) w/o Nate Dogg
A1. "7 Days (DJ Premier Remix) (Vocal)" (featuring Mos Def and Nate Dogg)
Dilated Peoples - Expansion Team
03. "Clockwork"
Guru - Baldhead Slick & Da Click
02. "Back 2 Back" (featuring Mendoughza)
J-Live - The Best Part
16. "The Best Part"
Jadakiss - Kiss tha Game Goodbye
06. "None of Y'all Betta" (featuring Styles P and Sheek)
Janet Jackson - "All for You"
1. "All for You" (Top Heavy Remix)
2. "All for You" (Top Heavy TV Mix)
3. "All for You" (Top Heavy Remix Instrumental)
Limp Bizkit - New Old Songs
08. "Getcha Groove On (Dirt Road Mix)" (featuring Xzibit)
14. "My Way (DJ Premier Way Remix)"
Lina - "It's Alright (Gang Starr Remix)"
A1. "It's Alright (Gang Starr Remix)" (featuring Gang Starr, co-produced by Guru)
Nas - Stillmatic
08. "2nd Childhood"
Various Artists - Fat Beats Compilation, Volume One
02. "The Lah" (by Bumpy Knuckles)
05. "Bigacts Littleacts (Remix)" (by Afu-Ra, featuring GZA)
Various Artists - Rawkus Exclusive
01. "First Nigga (DJ Premier Remix)" (by Kool G Rap)
Various Artists - Training Day soundtrack
13. "Tha Squeeze" (by Gang Starr)
2002
Afu-Ra - Life Force Radio
07. "Lyrical Monster"
17. "Blvd." (featuring Guru)
Various Artists - Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture 8 Mile
1-15. "Battle" (by Gang Starr)
Devin the Dude - Just Tryin' Ta Live
11. "Doobie Ashtray"
Gang Starr - Skills / Natural 12"
A2. "Skills (Main Version)"
B2. "Natural (Main Version)"
Heather B - Eternal Affairs
02. "Steady Rockin'" (featuring Twyla)
Jaz-O & The Immobilarie - Kingz Kounty
01. "718"
13. "Love Is Gone"
Just-Ice - "Gangsta's Don't Cry / Just Rhymin' with Kane"
A1. "Gangsta's Don't Cry (Street)"
Krumbsnatcha - Respect All Fear None
04. "Incredible" (featuring Guru)
Non Phixion - The Future Is Now
07. "Rock Stars"
Ras Kass - "Goldyn Chyld"
A2. "Goldyn Chyld (Street Version)"
Royce da 5'9" - Rock City (Version 2.0)
04. "My Friend"
11. "Boom"
Snoop Dogg - Paid the Cost to Be the Bo$$
13. "The One and Only"
18. "Batman & Robin" (featuring The Lady of Rage & RBX)
Snoop Dogg Presents…Doggy Style Allstars - Welcome to Tha House, Vol. 1
14. "Unfucwitable" (featuring The Lady of Rage)
The X-Ecutioners - Built from Scratch
12. "Premier's X-Ecution"
Tony Touch - The Last of the Pro Ricans
07. "Gotcha Back" (featuring Rise & Shine)
Various Artists - Fat Beats Compilation, Volume Two
12. "Just Rhymin with Kane" (by Just-Ice, featuring Big Daddy Kane)
Xzibit - Man vs. Machine
2-02. "What a Mess"
2003
Bumpy Knuckles - Konexion
03. "Paine (Pressure At INdustry Expense)"
13. "Lazy Days"
Craig G - This Is Now!!!
03. "Ready Set Begin"
The Ranjahz - Who Feels It Knows
03. "Inspiration" (featuring Cee-Lo)
Just-Ice - History / Love Rap
A1. "History"
B1. "Love Rap (Street)"
Various Artists - Fat Beats Compilation, Volume Three
02. "Any Type of Way" (by Big Daddy Kane)
11. "History" (by Just-Ice)
KRS-One - D.I.G.I.T.A.L.
06. "Bring It to the Cypher"
Gang Starr - The Ownerz
01. "Intro (HQ, Goo, Panch)"
02. "Put Up or Shut Up" (featuring Krumbsnatcha)
03. "Werdz from the Ghetto Child" (featuring Smiley The Ghetto Child)
04. "Sabotage"
05. "Rite Where U Stand" (featuring Jadakiss)
06. "Skills"
07. "Deadly Habitz"
08. "Nice Girl, Wrong Place" (featuring Boy Big)
09. "Peace of Mine"
10. "Who Got Gunz" (featuring Fat Joe & M.O.P.)
11. "Capture (Militia Pt. 3)" (featuring Big Shug & Freddie Foxxx)
12. "PLAYTAWIN"
13. "Riot Akt"
14. "(Hiney)"
15. "Same Team, No Games" (featuring NYG'z & H. Stax)
16. "In This Life..." (featuring Snoop Dogg & Uncle Reo)
17. "The Ownerz"
18. "Zonin'"
19. "Eulogy"
20. "Natural" [Japan Bonus Track]
21. "Tha Squeeze" [Japan Bonus Track]
2004
CeeLo Green - Cee-Lo Green... Is the Soul Machine
11. "Evening News" (featuring Chazzie & Sir Cognac the Conversation)
Freddie Foxxx - "Turn Up the Mics / Teach the Children"
B1. "Teach the Children (Main Mix)"
Hasstyle - "BX-TRA"
02. "Projects" (featuring Shinobi #7)
Masta Ace Incorporated - "Born to Roll / Saturday Night Live (DJ Premier Remix)"
B1. "Saturday Night Live (DJ Premier Remix) (Main)"
Nas - It Was... Remixed (Rare Unreleased & Remixed)
B2. "Nas Is Like (DJ Premier Remix)"
Pitch Black - Pitch Black Law
03. "It's All Real"
10. "Got It Locked" (featuring Foxy Brown)
Proof - I Miss the Hip Hop Shop
12. "Play with Myself" (Freestyle)
Royce Da 5'9" - Death Is Certain
07. "Hip Hop"
The Marxmen - Marxmen Cinema
1-04. "Bloody Murdah"
Various Artists - Fastlife Music Presents: Code of the Streets
16. "2 to the Stomach" (by Blaq Poet)
2005
Afu-Ra - State of the Arts
13. "Sucka Free"
AZ - A.W.O.L.
10. "The Come Up"
Big Shug - Who's Hard?
02. "The Way It Iz"
03. "Counter Punch" (featuring Guru)
04. "On the Record"
05. "Bang 'Em Down"
06. "Do Ya"
07. "Tha 3 Shugs"
08. "Sic a Niguz" (featuring Bumpy Knuckles)
19. "Dirt" (featuring H Stax & Smiley the Ghetto Child)
20. "What's Really Real?"
Blaq Poet - "We Gonna Ill / Poet's Comin'"
A1. "We Gonna Ill (Street)"
B1. "Poet's Comin' (Street)"
Gang Starr Foundation - Ahead of the Game
01. "Intro" (co-produced by DJ Jones)
Heather Hunter - H Double: The Unexpected
09. "Freak Like Me"
Lord Finesse - Rare Selections EP Vol. 3
A1. "Keep the Crowd Listening (DJ Premier Remix)"
M.O.P. - St. Marxmen
07. "Pop Shots (featuring O.D.B.)"
Smooth B - "Game Over / Rude Awakening"
A1. "Game Over (Street)"
Ol' Dirty Bastard - Osirus
01. "Pop Shots (Wu-Tang)"
Sway & King Tech - Back 2 Basics
08. "Enough Beef" (featuring Royce da 5'9", Common & Chino XL)
Teriyaki Boyz - Beef or Chicken?
11. "You Know What Time Is It!?"
Tony Touch - "Play that Song"
B2. "Gangsta Gangsta (Dirty Version)" (featuring Tego Calderón)
2006
AZ - The Format
10. "The Format"
Agallah - You Already Know
06. "New York Ryder Music"
Black Eyed Peas - Renegotiations: The Remixes
03. "My Style (DJ Premier Remix)" (featuring Justin Timberlake)
Blaq Poet - Rewind: Deja Screw
01. "Bang This"
03. "Message from Poet"
06. "Watch Your Back"
10. "Poet Has Come"
Christina Aguilera - Back to Basics
1-01. "Intro (Back to Basics)" (featuring Linda Perry)
1-03. "Back in the Day"
1-04. "Ain't No Other Man"
1-11. "Still Dirrty"
1-13. "Thank You (Dedication to the Fans)"
F.A.B.I.D. - "Proper Dosage / It Iz What It Iaz"
A2. "Proper Dosage (Dirty)" (featuring Boy Big)
Lake Featuring Cormega - My Brother's Keeper
18. "Dirty Game"
MC Lyte - Back To Lyte
"Wonder Years"
Panjabi MC - Inside Man (Soundtrack)
"Chaiyya Chaiyya Bollywood Joint"
Pitch Black - Revenge
01. "Nice" (featuring Styles P)
02. "Revenge"
03. "Rep Da Hardest"
Ras Kass - Eat or Die
11. "Realness Freestyle"
Smiley the Ghetto Child - The Antidote
14. "The Wake Up Call"
Tef - "Showtime / Just Rhymin' with Krumb"
A1. "Showtime (Dirty)"
Termanology - "Watch How It Go Down (Remix) / Far Away"
A2. "Watch How It Go Down (Remix) (Dirty)" (featuring Papoose & Lil' Fame)
Various Artists - The Source Presents Fat Tape
17. "Never Be" (by J-Hood)
Verbal Threat - "Reality Check / Reckless Eye-Ballin'"
A1. "Reality Check (Main)"
Gang Starr - Mass Appeal: Best of Gang Starr
19. "The Natural"
2007
Big Shug - Streetchamp
04. "Play It"
08. "Streets Move" (featuring Singapore Kane)
10. "It Just Don't Stop"
Kanye West, Nas, KRS-One & Rakim - "Better Than I've Ever Been / Classic (Remix)"
B1. "Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been) (DJ Premier Remix)"
Mark Ronson - "Just"
A2. "Just (DJ Premier's Justremixitmix) (Clean)" (featuring Blaq Poet and Phantom Planet)
NYGz - Welcome 2 G-Dom
01. "Itz On" (featuring Rave)
02. "Ya Dayz R #'d"
06. "Get 2 Tha Point"
07. "G'z & Hustlaz" (featuring Rave)
08. "Welcome 2 G-Dom"
10. "Giantz Ta Thiz"
16. "Strength"
NYG'z - "Ya Dayz R #'d / N.H.B. / What Kinda Life"
B1. "N.H.B. (Street)" (featuring Blaq Poet)
Royce da 5'9" - "The Bar Exam"
A1. "Hit'Em (Street)"
B1. "Ding! (Street)"
Special Teamz - Stereotypez
06. "Main Event"
2008
Big Shug - Other Side of the Game
02. "Soundcheck"
03. "When I Strike"
05. "Like a Muhfucka"
09. "My Boston" (featuring Termanology & Singapore Kane)
Byata - Undefined
14. "Byata Is the Illest"
Fat Joe - The Elephant in the Room
12. "That White"
House of Repz - "U Gotta Love Us"
01. "U Gotta Love Us"
Ill Bill - The Hour of Reprisal
09. "Society Is Brainwashed"
Smirnoff Signature Mix Series - "Criminal Minded '08 / The Light '08 / Midnight '08"
A1. "Criminal Minded '08" (by KRS-One)
Kool G Rap - Half a Klip
09. "On the Rise Again" (feat. Haylie Duff)
SunKiss - We Go Back
Laura Izibor - Shine
02. "From My Heart to Yours (DJ Premier Version)"
Little Vic - Each Dawn I Die
07. "The Exorcist"
Ludacris - Theater of the Mind
12. "MVP"
Maroon 5 - Call and Response: The Remix Album
15. "Secret (Premier 5 Remix)"
NYGz - "Welcome 2 G-Dom / Ya Dayz R #'d (NYGemix)"
B1. "Ya Dayz R #'d (NYGemix) (Street)" (featuring Bumpy Knuckles, Lady of Rage and Royce da 5'9")
Reks - Grey Hairs
03. "Say Goodnight"
DJ Premier - Beats That Collected Dust Vol. 1
01. "Spin Live"
02. "Sing Like Bilal"
03. "Blow Horn Joint"
04. "Pee-An-Oh"
05. "Mysterious"
06. "Dadaa"
07. "Dink"
08. "B-Line"
09. "Trackhorn"
10. "Waaaaaa"
11. "Droop"
12. "Original Represent"
Termanology - Politics as Usual
02. "Watch How It Go Down"
07. "How We Rock" (featuring Bun B)
10. "So Amazing"
Torae - Daily Conversation
05. "Click" (featuring Skyzoo)
13. "Get It Done" (featuring Skyzoo)
2009
Blaq Poet - Tha Blaqprint
01. "I-Gititin"
03. "Ain't Nuttin' Changed"
04. "What’s the Deal?"
05. "Legendary Pt. 1" (featuring Nick Javas 7 NYGz)
06. "Hood Crazy"
07. "Voices"
08. "Hate" (featuring N.O.R.E.)
10. "Stretch Marks & Cigarette Burns" (featuring Panchi & Imani Montana)
11. "S.O.S."
12. "Let the Guns Blow"
13. "Don't Give a Fucc"
14. "Rap Addiction" (featuring Lil' Fame & Shabeeno)
15. "Never Goodbye"
Capone-N-Noreaga - Channel 10
06. "Grand Royal"
Cormega - Born And Raised
07. "Make It Clear"
11. "Dirty Game"
M.O.P. - Foundation
05. "What I Wanna B" (feat. Rell)
Reks - More Grey Hairs
03. "Cloud 9"
Royce da 5'9" - Street Hop
04. "Something 2 Ride 2" (featuring Phonte)
10. "Shake This"
19. "Hood Love" (featuring Bun B & Joell Ortiz)
Seven - "Go Slow"
B1. "Go Slow" (featuring Talib Kweli) (DJ Premier Remix)
Rytmus - Král
15. "Jediný" (feat. DJ Premier)
Deams - The Legacy EP
01. "DJ Premier Legacy Intro" (feat. DJ Premier)
2010
Bun B - Trill O.G.
13. "Let 'Em Know"
Canibus - C of Tranquility
06. "Golden Terra Of Rap"
15. "Golden Terra Of Rap" (iM Remix) (featuring Donwill & Von Pea, Moe Green & Truthlive)
Fat Joe - The Darkside
11. "I'm Gone"
Joell Ortiz
"Project Boy"
Smiley the Ghetto Child - I'm Legend
A1. "I'm Legend"
DJ Premier Presents Get Used To Us
01. "Bang Dis!" (featuring Blaq Poet)
02. "Policy" (featuring NYGz)
03. "Opportunity Knoccs" (featuring Nick Javas)
04. "Hot Flames" (featuring Khaleel)
05. "Epic Dynasty" (featuring Dynasty)
07. "Temptation" (featuring Young Maylay)
08. "5%" (featuring KRS-One & Grand Puba)
09. "Ya Dayz R #'d (NYGemix)" (featuring NYGz, The Lady of Rage, Bumpy Knuckles & Royce da 5'9")
10. "Sing Like Bilal" (featuring Joell Ortiz)
11. "Married 2 Tha Game" (featuring Teflon & Styles P)
12. "Not A Game" (featuring Nick Javas)
13. "Ain't Nuttin' Changed (Remix)" (featuring Blaq Poet, MC Eiht & Young Maylay)
14. "Lifetime Membership" (featuring Teflon, Saigon & Papoose)
16. "The Gang Starr Bus" (featuring Bumpy Knuckles)
2011
Apathy - Honkey Kong
05. "Stop What Ya Doin'" (featuring Celph Titled)
Bushido - Jenseits von Gut und Böse
10. "Gangster"
DJ Premier - Beats That Collected Dust Vol. 2
01. "John T."
02. "Ch-Ching"
03. "Dots"
04. "Doomp Doomp Doomp"
05. "Stylesss"
06. "Epic-ishh"
07. "Beautiful"
08. "Change"
09. "Live Pro"
10. "I Don't Know"
11. "Late Night"
12. "N.Y.S.O.M. #20"
DJ Premier & The Berklee Symphony - Regeneration CDQ
"Regeneration" (featuring Nas)
DJ Premier
"Yo MTV Raps Theme Remix"
Edo G - A Face In The Crowd
01. "Fastlane"
Evidence - Cats & Dogs
06. "You"
17. "The Epilogue"
Mac Miller
"Face the Facts"
Game - The R.E.D. Album
18. "Born In the Trap"
Joell Ortiz - Free Agent
05. "Sing Like Bilal"
Kendra Morris - Concrete Waves
"Concrete Waves" (DJ Premier 320 Remix)
Nick Javas - Destination Unknown
"Anonymous" (featuring Khaleel)
"One of Them Days"
Prop Dylan - The Cardinal Sin
"Shock & Amaze"
Reks - Rhythmatic Eternal King Supreme
01. "25th Hour"
Roscoe P. Coldchain
"Imma Kill This Nigga" (featuring Ab-Liva)
Royce da 5'9" - Success Is Certain
01. "Second Place"
13. "Writer's Block" (DJ Premier Remix) (featuring Eminem) [iTunes Bonus Track]
SebastiAn - Embody
B. "Embody (DJ Premier 95 Break Remix)"
Slick Rick - The Sitter O.S.T.
"Need Some Bad"
Soulkast - Honoris Causa
01. "Première Salve"
Teflon
"4 Tha Love"
Sample Credit: Isaac Hayes - "The Feeling Keeps On Coming"
Torae - For the Record
12. "For the Record"
Venom - Vigilantes
A2. "Vigilantes" (DJ Premier VHS Remix) (featuring Blaq Poet)
Verve Records and Rockstar Games Present LA Noire Remixed
04. "Ain't Nobody Here But Us Chickens" (DJ Premier Remix)
Wais P - Premo Pimpin' EP
01. "Competition (Skit)"
02. "Multiple Sclerosis"
03. "Premo Fresh (Skit)"
04. "Money In The Yard"
05. "Some of The Best (Skit)"
06. "Lessons"
07. "Premo Still Prevail"
08. "Come Back To Collect"
09. "When The Cops Come (Snitch Bitch)"
10. "Trill OG Bun B (Skit)"
11. "Ampitheatre"
2012
DJ Premier & Bumpy Knuckles - StOoDiOtYmE EP
01. "StOoDiOtYmE"
02. "Fake"
03. "That Preemo Shit"
04. "tAkEiT2tHeToP"
05. "Inspired By Fire"
DJ Premier & Bumpy Knuckles - KoleXXXion
01. "My Thoughts"
02. "Shake the Room" (featuring Flavor Flav)
03. "B.A.P. (Bumpy And Premier)"
04. "eVrEEbOdEE"
05. "wEaRe aT WaR"
06. "P.A.I.N.E. (Pressure At Industry Expense)"
07. "The Life"
08. "F.Y.P.A.U. (Fuck Your Punk Ass Up)"
09. "D'Lah"
10. "More Levels"
11. "GrEaTnEsS"
12. "EyEnEvErPuTmY4cUsAwAy"
13. "Turn Up the Mic (DJ Premier Remix)" (featuring Nas)
14. "The Key"
15. "OwNiT"
16. "The Gang Starr Bus"
N.O.R.E. - Crack On Steroids mixtape
11. "Thiz Iz Hip Hop" (featuring Bumpy Knuckles)
La Coka Nostra - Masters of the Dark Arts
04. "Mind Your Business"
38 Spesh - Time Served mixtape
20. "No More"
Big Shug - I.M. 4-Eva
02. "Hardbody" (featuring Fat Joe & M.O.P)
03. "Spit Six"
05. "Blue Collar"
11. "We Miss You"
Scott Knoxx - Take Off
04. "Make the Sound" (featuring Rhymefest & Money-B)
ChrisCo - MI State of Mind
02. "Straight Up" (featuring Jon Connor & Elzhi)
Lil' Fame & Termanology - Fizzyology
06. "Play Dirty" (featuring Busta Rhymes & Styles P)
Vinnie Paz - God of the Serengeti
03. "The Oracle"
Game
"HVN4AGNGSTA" (featuring Master P)
2013
Joey Bada$$ - Summer Knights
17. "Unorthodox"
Big Daddy Kane
"28 Bars of Kane"
Khaleel
"Nobody Tryna Hear Ya"
Czarface - Czarface
09. "Let It Off"
Ill Bill - The Grimy Awards
17. "World Premier"
Demigodz - Killmatic
06. "Worst Nightmare"
Papoose - The Nacirema Dream
15. "Turn It Up"
Tony Touch - The Piece Maker 3: Return of the 50 MC's
01. "Touch and D-Stroy" (featuring D-Stroy)
Rapsody - She Got Game
14. "Kingship"
Fat Joe - The Darkside Vol. 3
05. "Your Honor" (featuring Action Bronson)
Mack Wilds - New York: A Love Story
06. "Keepin It Real" (co-produced by Salaam Remi)
Dynasty - A Star In Life's Clothing
05. "Street Music"
Sokół & Marysia Starosta - Czarna Biała Magia
13. "Zepsute Miasto"
Kontrafakt - Navždy
01. "O5 S5"
Disclosure - Settle (Special Edition)
03. "Latch" (DJ Premier Remix)
2014
DJ Premier
"Guitar Stomp" (Instrumental)
"Love At The Store" (Instrumental)
"Zoo York Welcomes Gavin Nolan" (Instrumental)
"Bars in the Booth (Session 2)" with Dres
"Bars in the Booth (Session 3)" with Jakk Frost
"Bars in the Booth (Session 4)" with A.G.
"Bars in the Booth (Session 5)" with Loaded Lux
"Bars in the Booth (Session 6)" with Bumpy Knuckles
Various Artists
"Najsilniejsi przetrwają" (featuring Pyskaty, Numer Raz, Proceente, Pelson, Rahim, Łysol, Mielzky, Dwa Sławy, Zeus, Chada, Klasik, Quebonafide, JodSen, Joteste, Bezczel, Siwers & Ten Typ Mes) (produced by DJ Premier & Luxon)
Papoose
"Current Events"
Various Artists - DJ Premier X Serato 2x12"
A1. NYGz - "My Influences"
A2. The Lady of Rage - "Chemical Burn"
A3. "Spaced Dem Mo" (Instrumental)
A4. "Scarz Face" (Instrumental)
D.I.T.C. - The Remix Project
01. "Diggin' In the Crates (DJ Premier Remix)" (featuring Diamond D, Showbiz, A.G. & Lord Finesse)
Skyzoo & Torae - Barrel Brothers
14. "The Aura" (co-produced by AntMan Wonder)
38 Spesh - The Art of Production
08. "The Meeting (Problems or Peace)" (featuring Kool G Rap)
Soulkast - Memento Mori
02. "French Touch"
Dilated Peoples - Directors of Photography
06. "Good As Gone"
First Division - Overworked & Underpaid
11. "This Iz Tha Time"
Ea$y Money - The Motive of Nearly Everybody, Yo
03. "Nothin Alike"
Dynamic Duo - A Giant Step (single)
01. "AEAO"
02. "Animal"
Saigon - G.S.N.T. 3: The Troubled Times of Brian Carenard
08. "Let's Get Smart"
09. "One Foot In The Door" (featuring Big Daddy Kane)
10. "Nunya"
Leftover
"One Foot In The Door" (featuring Big Daddy Kane) (Original version)
Diabolic - Fightin' Words
01. "Diabolical Sound"
Ryan Bowers - Owtsider
02. "The Premier"
Various Artists - Shady XV
05. "Y'all Ready Know" (by Slaughterhouse)
PRhyme - PRhyme
01. "PRhyme"
02. "Dat Sound Good" (featuring Ab-Soul & Mac Miller)
03. "U Looz"
04. "You Should Know" (featuring Dwele)
05. "Courtesy"
06. "Wishin'" (featuring Common)
07. "To Me, To You" (featuring Jay Electronica)
08. "Underground Kings" (featuring Schoolboy Q & Killer Mike)
09. "Microphone Preem" (featuring Slaughterhouse)
2015 bonus tracks
10. "Golden Era" (featuring Joey Badass)
11. "Wishin' II" (featuring Black Thought)
12. "Highs and Lows" (featuring MF DOOM & Phonte)
13. "Mode II" (featuring Logic)
Paolo Nutini
"Let Me Down Easy (DJ Premier Remix)"
2015
DJ Premier
"Bars in the Booth (Session 7)" with Skyzoo & Torae
"Bars in the Booth (Session 8)" with Ras Kass
Joey Bada$$ - B4.DA.$$
03. "Paper Trail$"
The Four Owls - Natural Order
04. "Think Twice"
DJ EFN - Another Time
09. "Who's Crazy?" (featuring Troy Ave, Scarface, Stalley & DJ Premier)
Big Shug - Triple OGzus
01. "I Am Somebody"
02. "I Bleed for This"
09. "Off Rip" (featuring Termanology & Singapore Kane)
Lion Babe
"Wonder Woman (DJ Premier Remix)"
DJ Premier & BMB Spacekid
"Til It's Done" (featuring Anderson .Paak)
Jakk Frost
"Dope Boy Talk"
DJ Snake - Encore (Target Edition)
16. "You Know You Like It (DJ Premier Remix)"
King Magnetic - Timing Is Everything
09. "Status"
Papoose - You Can't Stop Destiny
04. "The Plug"
Various Artists - Southpaw (Music from and Inspired By the Motion Picture)
11. "Mode" (by PRhyme featuring Logic)
Dr. Dre - Compton
14. "Animals" (featuring Anderson .Paak, additional production by BMB Spacekid)
Sidney Max
"Here Come The Birds" (featuring Dres)
Torae - Entitled
15. "Saturday Night"
G. Fisher - God MC
"Fish Over Premier"
Various Artists - NBA 2K16 (soundtrack)
"Hold the City Down" (by Papoose)
"Bum Bum Bum" (Instrumental)
The Game - The Documentary 2
15. "The Documentary 2"
Termanology - Term Brady - EP
09. "Get off the Ground (DJ Premier Mix)" (featuring Sean Price, Fame, Ruste Juxx, Justin Tyme, Hannibal Stax, Papoose & Reks)
Jimi Charles Moody
"Other Man (DJ Premier Remix)"
2016
DJ Premier & The Badder
"Rockin' With The Best" (featuring Royce da 5'9")
Bumpy Knuckles & Sy Ari
"EmOsHuNaL GrEeD"
Yuna - Chapters (Deluxe Edition)
11. "Places to Go"
Kanye West
"I Love Kanye (T.L.O.Preemix)"
Royce da 5'9" - Tabernacle: Trust the Shooter
01. "Black History"
Classified - Greatful
01. "Filthy"
D.I.T.C. - Sessions
10. "Connect 3" (featuring Diamond D, A.G. & O.C.)
Torii Wolf
"1st (Remix)" (featuring Dilated Peoples)
"Shadows Crawl (Open Eyes Remix)" (featuring Rapsody)
DJ Premier & Bumpy Knuckles
"Rock The Room" (featuring Flavor Flav)
Desiigner
"Tiimmy Turner (Preemix)"
Twenty One Pilots
"Lane Boy (DJ Premier Remix)"
The Lox - Filthy America... It's Beautiful
05. "Move Forward"
2017
Faith Evans & The Notorious B.I.G. - The King & I
24. "NYC" (featuring Jadakiss)
DJ Premier
"2 Lovin U" (with Miguel)
"My Space Baby" (with Cherub)
MC Eiht - Which Way Iz West
06. "Runn the Blocc" (featuring Young Maylay)
13. "Last Ones Left" (featuring Compton's Most Wanted)
14. "4 Tha OG'z" (featuring Bumpy Knuckles)
Torii Wolf - Flow Riiot
01. "Everlasting Peace"
02. "Meant to Do"
03. "1st"
04. "Big Big Trouble"
06. "I'd Wait Forever and a Day for You"
08. "Go from Here"
09. "Shadows Crawl"
10. "Nobody Around"
12. "Where We Belong"
Miley Cyrus - Younger Now (The Remixes)
03. "Younger Now (DJ Premier Remix)"
Slaine & Termanology - Anti-Hero
02. "Anti-Hero" (featuring Bun B & Everlast)
ASAP Ferg
"Our Streets"
2018
Evidence - Weather or Not
12. "10,000 Hours"
Apathy - The Widow's Son
05. "The Order"
PRhyme - PRhyme 2
01. "Interlude 1 (Salute)"
02. "Black History"
03. "1 of the Hardest"
04. "Era" (featuring Dave East)
05. "Respect My Gun" (featuring Roc Marciano)
06. "W.O.W. (With Out Warning)" (featuring Yelawolf)
07. "Sunflower Seeds" (featuring Novel & Summer of '96)
08. "Streets at Night"
09. "Rock It"
10. "Loved Ones" (featuring Rapsody)
11. "My Calling"
12. "Made Men" (featuring Big K.R.I.T. & Denaun Porter)
13. "Relationships (Skit)"
14. "Flirt" (featuring 2 Chainz)
15. "Everyday Struggle" (featuring Chavis Chandler)
16. "Do Ya Thang"
17. "Gotta Love It" (featuring Brady Watt & CeeLo Green)
Torii Wolf & DJ Premier - Love Me (Amazon Original)
"Silent Crow"
Trick-Trick - SmokeGang
11. "Get 2 It" (featuring B-Real)
38 Spesh & Kool G Rap - Son of G Rap
"The Meeting"
"Young 1s" (featuring Che'Noir & Anthony Hamilton)
J. Cole
"1985 (DJ Premier 1966 Remix)"
Rudimental
"These Days (DJ Premier Remix)" (featuring Jess Glynne, Macklemore & Dan Caplen)
Drake - Scorpion
10. "Sandra's Rose" (additional production by Maneesh)
Casanova
"Wut U Said"
2019
Papoose - Underrated
02. "Numerical Slaughter"
Masta Ace & Marco Polo - A Breukelen Story
20. "E.A.T. (Evolve And Transcend)" (featuring Evidence) (Bonus Track)
Conway The Machine, Westside Gunn & Benny the Butcher
"Headlines"
Mike Posner
"Slow It Down"
Gang Starr - One of the Best Yet
01. "The Sure Shot (Intro)"
02. "Lights Out" (featuring M.O.P.)
03. "Bad Name"
04. "Hit Man" (featuring Q-Tip)
05. "What's Real" (featuring Group Home & Royce Da 5'9")
06. "Keith Casim Elam (Interlude)"
07. "From A Distance" (featuring Jeru The Damaja)
08. "Family and Loyalty" (featuring J. Cole)
09. "Get Together" (featuring Ne-Yo & Nitty Scott)
10. "NYGz/GS 183rd (Interlude)"
11. "So Many Rappers"
12. "Business Or Art" (featuring Talib Kweli)
13. "Bring It Back Here"
14. "One Of The Best Yet (Big Shug Interlude)"
15. "Take Flight (Militia, Pt. 4)" (featuring Big Shug & Freddie Foxxx)
16. "Bless the Mic"
Big Shug - The Diamond Report
02. "EMF"
11. "Still Big"
David Bars - The Bar Code
01. "Just like that"
04. "Beat The Odds"
2020
Bishop Nehru - Nehruvia: My Disregarded Thoughts
05. "Too Lost"
The Four Owls - Nocturnal Instinct
07. "100%"
Jamo Gang - Walking With Lions
05. "The 1st Time" (feat. Slug, Tyler Kimbro)
Westside Gunn - Pray for Paris
11. "Shawn vs Flair"
Singapore Kane - Don Manifesto
05. "Dreams and Visions"
Public Enemy - What You Gonna Do When the Grid Goes Down?
03. "State Of The Union (STFU)"
Armani Caesar - The Liz
07. "Simply Done" (feat. Benny the Butcher)
Conway the Machine - From King to a God
14. "Nothin' Less"
Busta Rhymes - Extinction Level Event 2: The Wrath of God
10. "True Indeed"
Papoose - Endangered Species
11. "Workin"
Russ - CHOMP
03. "Inside Job"
Gang Starr
00. "Glowing Mics"
2021
Gang Starr
"Glowing Mics (Founders Rmx)" featuring Big Shug
Papoose
"NBA Rhyme Scheme"
Westside Gunn
"Narcissist"
Russ - CHOMP 2
07. "Free" featuring Big K.R.I.T., Snoop Dogg & DJ Premier
DJ Premier & 2 Chainz
"Mortgage Free"
DJ Premier
"Why Would I Stop" featuring Wale
2022
Mass Appeal Records - Hip Hop 50 EP Vol.1
01. "Lettin Off Steam" (feat. Joey Bada$$)
02. "Remy Rap" (feat. Remy Ma, Rapsody)
03. "Beat Breaks" (feat. Nas)
04. "Terrible 2´s" (feat. Run The Jewels)
05. "Root Of It All" (feat. Slick Rick, Lil Wayne)
Sonnyjim & The Purist - White Girl Wasted
03. "Doc Ellis" (featuring DJ Premier)
Black Soprano Family - Long Live DJ Shay
"Times Is Rough"
Liam Gallagher
"Diamond In The Dark (DJ Premier Remix)
Prodigy - The Hegelian Dialectic 2: The Book of Heroine
"Walk Out" (featuring DJ Premier)
El Gant - O.S.L.O.
03. "Leave It Alone"
Feid
"Le Pido a Dios"
Ab-Soul - Herbert
18. "Gotta Rap"
2023
Teflon - 2 Sides To Every Story
02. "Out The Gate"
03. "Contraband"
04. "4 Tha Love"
11. "Hostile Takeover" (featuring Benny the Butcher)
13. "The Thoro Side" (featuring M.O.P.)
DJ Premier
"Runway" (featuring Westside Gunn & Rome Streetz)
BLP Kosher - Bars Mitzvah
12. "Endless" (co-produced with Brady Watt (Producer))
DJ Premier - Beats That Collected Dust Vol. 3
01. "WooWooWoo"
02. "Really"
03. "Kelly B"
04. "Eiht 45"
05. "Climb Max"
06. "Here We Go"
07. "Haye"
08. "Bah Dah"
09. "Bogart"
10. "The Can"
11. "Dee Ell P"
12. "Bark ‘N Growl"
13. "Spaced Dem No"
14. "Shy Role"
15. "Perc Pad"
16. "Bobble"
17. "In Moe"
18. "Episode 207"
References
External links
DJ Premier Trackology
Discography
Production discographies
Hip hop discographies
Discographies of American artists |
4168268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Zosky | Eddie Zosky | Edward James Zosky (born February 10, 1968) is a former professional baseball shortstop. He played in brief parts of five seasons in Major League Baseball, between 1991 and 2000, for the Toronto Blue Jays, Florida Marlins, Milwaukee Brewers and Houston Astros. He also played in the Baltimore Orioles, San Francisco Giants and Pittsburgh Pirates minor league systems.
Zosky was a collegiate star prior to playing professionally, becoming a member of Fresno State University's athletic Hall of Fame. He developed into a promising shortstop prospect for the Toronto Blue Jays in the early 1990s, being named their starting shortstop of the future multiple times, though injury problems and a lack of offense ended his hopes of stardom.
Zosky began his professional career in 1989 at the age of 21 and played for 12 seasons until the age of 32 in 2000. He spent most of his professional career in the minor leagues, spending parts of two seasons at the rookie level, part of one season at the Class A level, two full seasons at the Double-A level, parts of three seasons at the Triple-A level and seven full seasons at the Triple-A level. In total, he played in 1,056 minor league games, hitting .257 with 59 home runs and 407 RBI in 3,670 at-bats. Defensively, he spent 752 games at shortstop, 147 games at third base, 139 games at second base, two games at pitcher and one game in the outfield. As a pitcher, he threw 1 innings, striking out two batters and allowing one earned run, posting a 6.75 ERA.
He spent parts of five seasons at the Major League level – 1991, 1992, 1995, 1999 and 2000. He played in 44 big league games, collecting eight hits in 50 at-bats for a .160 batting average. Though he never hit a home run, he did collect two triples and a double, while driving three runs in. Defensively, he played 30 games at shortstop (starting eight of them), four games at third base and three games at second base. He committed two errors for a .967 fielding percentage, while turning eight double plays.
At all levels, both Major League and minor league, Zosky hit a combined .256 with 59 home runs and 410 RBI in 3,720 at-bats.
Early and personal life
Zosky, who is Jewish, was born in Whittier, California to Ed and Yvonne Zosky and attended St. Paul High School in Santa Fe Springs, California, graduating in 1986.
College career
After his graduation from high school, he attended Fresno State University, where he mostly played shortstop. He hit .292 in his first season with Fresno State University, earning second-team all-league honors. In May 1988, he suffered from mononucleosis and an ankle sprain, slightly shortening his sophomore season. In addition, Zosky was selected to try out for the United States Olympic baseball team in June of his sophomore season, along with teammates Tom Goodwin and John Salles. Though he was considered the front-runner for the shortstop position on the Olympic squad, he did not make the team. During his junior and final season at Fresno State University, Zosky was named Sporting News and Baseball America All-Americans after posting a .370 batting average. In addition, he was named first-team All Big West, along with teammates Bobby Jones, Tom Goodwin and Rich Crane.
Draft
Zosky was drafted by Major League Baseball teams twice. Originally, he was drafted out of St. Paul High School by the New York Mets in the fifth round of the 1986 amateur draft, 128th overall. He did not sign, choosing to attend college instead.
He was next drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays 19th overall in the first round of the 1989 draft, out of Fresno State University. He was one of three Fresno State University alum drafted in the first round that year, the others being Steve Hosey (14th overall) and Tom Goodwin (22nd overall). It was the first time since the 1979 draft that three players were selected in the first round from the same school. The Blue Jays gave Zosky a $185,000 ($ today) signing bonus.
Professional career
Early minor league career
The initial plan was to have Zosky begin his professional career with the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Single-A Florida State League. However, citing poor performances by his current shortstops, Double-A manager Barry Foote had Zosky start with the Southern League Knoxville Blue Jays. He made his professional debut on July 4, collecting a hit and driving in Knoxville's lone run in his first professional game. He played 56 games at shortstop for Knoxville, batting .221 with a .303 slugging percentage.
In 1990, Zosky was ranked the third-best prospect in the Southern League. After he attended Major League spring training, he spent the entire season in the minor leagues, playing for the Knoxville Blue Jays and hitting .271 in 115 games – tying William Suero for the team lead in triples with seven.
Prior to the 1991 season, Baseball America named Zosky the 22nd-best prospect in professional baseball, ahead of Jeff Bagwell (32nd), Chipper Jones (49th) and Jim Thome (93rd). That season, he attended his second Major League spring training, and was in competition with Manuel Lee and Rene Gonzales for the starting shortstop position. However, after making six errors during the spring, he was deemed unready for Major League action and sent to minor league camp on April 1.
He spent most of the season with the Triple-A International League Syracuse Chiefs, hitting .264 with six home runs, 39 RBI and 69 runs. He led the team in both plate appearances and at bats, and, despite committing 24 errors in the field, he led league shortstops with 221 putouts, 371 assists and 88 double plays. His performance landed him a spot on the 1991 International League All-Star Team, as well as a September 1 promotion to the Major Leagues.
Major League debut
Though Zosky spent the majority of the 1991 season with the Syracuse Chiefs, he made his Major League Baseball debut that season as well. He appeared in his first big league game on September 2, against the Baltimore Orioles replacing shortstop Manuel Lee, who had been feeling dizzy and suffering from a stiff neck, in the top of the fourth inning. In the fifth inning, facing pitcher Dave Johnson in his first at-bat, Zosky singled to left field. Later in the game, he was replaced by Rance Mulliniks.
So anticipated was Zosky's debut that Toronto Star writer Dave Perkins compared Zosky's debut to Lou Gehrig in 1925, asking "Did Manuel Lee just become Manuel Pipp?" (in reference to Gehrig usurping Wally Pipp's first base position that season). The next day, September 3, he made his first Major League start, again against the Baltimore Orioles. Batting ninth in the starting lineup, he collected zero hits in three at-bats, striking out twice against pitchers Ben McDonald and Mike Flanagan.
He spent 18 games in total with the Toronto Blue Jays in 1991, batting .148 with two runs and two RBI in 27 at-bats. Though he did not hit a home run, two of his four hits were for extra bases—the first was a triple off of Bob Welch and the second was a double off of Denny Neagle. He also drove in his first career RBIs against Welch, scoring John Olerud and Candy Maldonado on the same play.
1992–1994: Zosky's Blue Jays career
Prior to the 1992 minor league baseball season, Baseball America ranked Zosky as the 82nd best prospect in professional baseball. Though he was expected to unseat Manuel Lee as the starting shortstop for the 1992 Major League season, he began the year with the Triple-A Syracuse Chiefs after posting a batting average of .151 and committing five errors during spring training. Rather than giving Zosky the backup job, the Blue Jays gave it to non-roster invitee Alfredo Griffin, who had been signed previously.
He struggled early during the season with batting averages of .150 and .160 in April and May, respectively, and though he batted .350 in June, his season batting average was only .231. Following the conclusion of the 1992 minor league season in September, Zosky was promoted to the Toronto Blue Jays, with whom he appeared in eight games. He batted .286 in seven at-bats, with one of his two hits being a triple (which he hit off of José Mesa on September 14—exactly one year after his first career extra-base hit, which was also a triple). Following the 1992 regular season, Zosky played for the Tucson Javelinas in the newly formed Arizona Fall League, hitting .326.
As early as January 1993, Zosky was expected to be the Toronto Blue Jays' starting shortstop for the 1993 regular season. However, later that month Zosky was shut down due to a muscle problem in his throwing elbow. To provide insurance in case Zosky floundered, the Toronto Blue Jays signed veteran free agent Dick Schofield, who had played for the California Angels and New York Mets the previous season. They also re-signed Alfredo Griffin and traded Kelly Gruber and cash to the California Angels for Luis Sojo, who would provide even further insurance in case Zosky failed. Though Zosky was expected to be the starting shortstop earlier in the year, by February Schofield was the leading contender for the position. Due to his struggles in 1992 – not only did he hit .231, he also committed 27 errors – and his injuries, the Blue Jays began looking beyond Zosky as the future starting shortstop for the team, paying more attention to their other prospect Alex Gonzalez.
After undergoing a surgery on his bad elbow to remove a bone spur on March 16, Zosky's starting prospects dimmed even further – he was placed on the 15-day disabled list on March 26, 1993, later spending some time in extended spring training. He returned to the playing field in late July, and played in 33 minor league games – five in a rehabilitation stint with the Hagerstown Suns, for whom he hit .100 in 20 at-bats and 28 for the Syracuse Chiefs, for whom he hit .215 in 103 at-bats. Overall, he batted .195 with zero home runs and nine RBI, while committing five errors in the field. He did not play in the Major Leagues in 1993. Instead, Dick Schofield was the Opening Day starter, though Tony Fernández seized the starting job after his June 11 trade to the Blue Jays from the New York Mets. Following the 1993 season, he played for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the Arizona Fall League.
By 1994, Alex Gonzalez had all but replaced Zosky as the Blue Jays' shortstop of the future. Though he had some bright moments during that season's spring training, including a game-winning three-run home run in an exhibition game on March 23, Zosky had become relegated to back-up status as Dick Schofield was set to make another Opening Day start – this time as a placeholder for Gonzalez, rather than Zosky. As it turned out, Gonzalez won the starting shortstop job and was the Opening Day performer at that position. By April 28, however, Gonzalez was struggling, Schofield had retaken the starting shortstop position, and – because he was performing well with the Syracuse Chiefs – Zosky was back in the mix as a potential suitor for the position himself. Schofield retained a hold on the job, however, and Zosky spent the entire year in Triple-A with the Chiefs, batting .264 with seven home runs and 34 RBI in 85 games, rattling off a 16-game hitting streak at one point. Though he played a shortened season due to injury, he tied Robert Montalvo for the team lead in sacrifice hits with six. Despite hitting .264, his on-base percentage was only .287 as he walked only nine times in 284 at-bats. Though a shortstop by trade, he played more games at second base (41) than shortstop (34) that season.
Florida Marlins
On November 18, 1994, Zosky's Blue Jays career came to an end when he was traded to the Florida Marlins for a player to be named later, who ended up being minor league pitcher Scott Pace. That was the first trade ever made by new Blue Jays general manager Gord Ash, who replaced Pat Gillick following the 1994 season. Zosky made the Marlins Opening Day roster for the 1995 season and on April 29, he played in his first Major League game since October 4, 1992. Facing Trevor Wilson of the San Francisco Giants, Zosky singled in his first big league at-bat in over two seasons. He played the whole game, going 1-for-3 at the plate. Appearing in only six games at the Major League level in 1995 (with the single in his first at-bat his only big league hit), Zosky spent most of the year with the Triple-A International League's Charlotte Knights, to whom he was optioned after the Marlins cut their roster from 28 to 25 players on May 15. With Charlotte, he hit .247 with three home runs and 42 RBI in 92 games, walking only seven times in 312 at-bats. On October 16, he was granted free agency.
Baltimore Orioles and San Francisco Giants
On January 24, 1996, Zosky signed a contract with the Baltimore Orioles. He spent most of the season with the Orioles' Triple-A International League affiliate, the Rochester Red Wings, though he also spent a game with their rookie-level affiliate, the Gulf Coast League Orioles. That season, he hit a combined .257 with three home runs, 34 RBI and a career-high 23 doubles. With eight double plays grounded into, he tied Joe Hall for the Red Wings team lead. On October 15, he was granted free agency by the Orioles.
On November 25, 1996, the San Francisco signed Zosky to a contract, making him a non-roster invitee to spring training. He was cut from the big league squad on March 17 and was assigned to minor league camp the following day. He then spent the entire 1997 season in Triple-A, playing for the Pacific Coast League's Phoenix Firebirds. He began the season with a bang, hitting a grand slam on April 6 against the Colorado Springs Sky Sox. In total, he played in 86 games that season, hitting .278 with nine home runs and 45 RBI. Defensively, he spent more games at third base (42) than at his natural shortstop position (30). On October 15, 1997, he was granted free agency by the Giants.
Milwaukee Brewers
On December 17, 1997, the Milwaukee Brewers signed Zosky as a free agent, inviting him to spring training. By the second week of the 1998 season's spring training, it looked as though Zosky would earn a spot on the Brewers' 25-man roster – he would eventually be cut after the Brewers purchased outfielder Eric Owens from the Florida Marlins, however, and spend the entire season with the Triple-A Louisville Redbirds. That season, he hit .245 with eight home runs and 35 RBI in 90 games. He pitched for the first time in his career that season as well, appearing as a reliever in one game, allowing one hit and striking out the second batter he faced. He was granted free agency by the Brewers on October 15, but was re-signed on December 18 and given an invite to spring training.
Like in previous years, Zosky began the 1999 season in Triple-A, playing for the Louisville RiverBats. He remained with the RiverBats through late July, though after catcher Bobby Hughes went on the 15-day disabled list, the Brewers purchased Zosky's contract and brought him up to the Major League team. He made his first Major League appearance since May 14, 1995, when, on August 1, 1999, he pinch hit for Brewers pitcher Reggie Harris in the sixth inning and remained in the game, replacing Ronnie Belliard at second base. In his first Major League game in over four seasons, Zosky went 1-for-2 at the plate, collecting a single in his second at-bat off of Montreal Expos pitcher Dan Smith. Just a few days later, on August 5, he was assigned back to Louisville. He earned yet another promotion to the Major Leagues on September 5 with starting shortstop Mark Loretta injured and pitcher Chad Fox placed on the 60-day disabled list. In total, he played in eight games for the Brewers that season, collecting one hit in seven at-bats for a .143 batting average. He had perhaps the best minor league season of his career in 1999, as he hit .294 with 12 home runs and 47 RBI (all career-highs). Following the season, on October 7, he refused a minor league assignment and became a free agent.
Pittsburgh Pirates and Houston Astros
On January 18, 2000, the Pittsburgh Pirates signed Zosky to a minor league contract, also offering him an invitation to spring training. On March 15, the Pirates assigned him to minor league camp. He began the 2000 season in the Pirates minor league system, playing in 53 games for the Triple-A Nashville Sounds (with whom he hit .221 with two home runs and 16 RBI) and in eight games for the rookie-level GCL Pirates (with whom he hit .333 with six doubles in 30 at-bats).
On August 23, he was traded to the Houston Astros for a player to be named later. He began his stint in the Astros organization in the minor leagues, playing in 11 games with the Triple-A New Orleans Zephyrs and hitting .273 in 33 at-bats. On September 12, the Astros purchased his contract, bringing him up to the Major League squad. The Astros used him sporadically after his promotion as he played in four games with them, collecting zero hits in four at-bats. His final appearance with the Astros, on October 1, would also be the final game of his professional career. On October 11, he became a free agent. No team ended up signing him. In the minor leagues that season, he hit a combined .247 with two home runs and 22 RBI in 72 games.
Jersey numbers and salaries
See also
List of select Jewish baseball players
References
External links
, or Baseball Prospectus, or Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Winter League)
1968 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
California State University, Fresno alumni
Charlotte Knights players
Florida Marlins players
Fresno State Bulldogs baseball players
Gulf Coast Orioles players
Gulf Coast Pirates players
Hagerstown Suns players
Houston Astros players
Jewish American baseball players
Jewish Major League Baseball players
Knoxville Blue Jays players
Louisville Redbirds players
Louisville RiverBats players
Major League Baseball shortstops
Milwaukee Brewers players
Nashville Sounds players
New Orleans Zephyrs players
Phoenix Firebirds players
Rochester Red Wings players
Baseball players from Whittier, California
Syracuse Chiefs players
Tiburones de La Guaira players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Toronto Blue Jays players
All-American college baseball players
21st-century American Jews
Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks players |
4168274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane%20Hall | Lane Hall | Lane Hall is a later 20th-century neoclassical building serving as the principal workplace and headquarters of the central administration of Bates College, located at 2 Andrews Road in Lewiston, Maine. It has been the principle administrative headquarters of every Bates president since Thomas Hedley Reynolds in 1964. Lane Hall was named after George Lane Jr., who served as treasurer of the college and secretary of the corporation.
The building name, Lane Hall is used to refer metonymically to the central administration of Bates College. The board of trustees combined with the office of the presidency create the Bates College Corporation, the highest level of authority for the college and its extended domains. The members of the board of trustees, central administration, and the president are afforded certain and selected powers, privileges, rights and immunities through the laws of the president and trustees of Bates College, the highest ranking document in the Corporation of Bates College.
The hall, often confused with the official residence of the president, provides no residential space for any executive offices. The president is afforded the President's House as an official residence. Lane Hall has no specific security detail but is under the security protection of the college's security units and the Lewiston Police Department. Lane Hall is by Hathorn Hall to the south and to the North flanked by Parker Hall and Dana Chemistry Hall. It is adjacent to Pettigrew Hall and Pettengill Hall. Lane overlooks the Historic Quadrangle of the college and protrudes from Lake Andrews.
History
1900 photo of Bates College featuring a newly constructed refurbished Historic Quad; protruding from the Hathon mound. The only buildings constructed at the time was the first academic building Hathorn Hall, and the first residential dormitory Parker Hall as well as Hedge Hall and Roger Williams Hall.
The founder of Bates College, Oren Burbank Cheney, began with the establishment of the Nichols Latin School, a collegiate preparatory school and the Cobb Divinity School which subsequently turned into the Maine State Seminary in 1852, later expanding to include liberal arts academics in 1855, making it one of the oldest liberal arts colleges in the United States. Cheney met with religious leaders in Topsham, Maine, to discuss the formation of a school that catered to Free Will Baptists and was based on principles of egalitarianism, liberty, and scholarship. He began his speech by stating:We do not propose an Academy [referring to Colby College (then Waterville Academy)], but a school of higher order, between a college [referring to Bowdoin College] and an Academy. We shall petition the state legislature to suitably endow, as well as incorporate, such an institution. We know our claim is good and intend openly and manfully and we trust in a Christian spirit to press it. If we fail next winter, we shall try another legislature. If we fail on a second trial, we shall try a third and a fourth.
The speech was well received and of the one required, twenty-four petitions were submitted to the Maine State Legislature. After minimal delay the charter was approved and appropriated with $15,000 for its conception. Benjamin Bates suggested to Cheney that the school be located in a more central part of Maine; Lewiston, Maine.
Construction
The construction of the Lane Hall began with the laying of the cornerstone in 1963, although there was no formal ceremony. The principal façade of the Lane Hall, from the north, is of four floors and eleven bays. The ground floor is hidden by a raised carriage ramp and parapet, thus the façade appears to be of three floors. The central three bays are behind a prostyle portico (this was a later addition to the hall, built in 1970) serving, thanks to the carriage ramp, as a porte cochere. The hall's southern façade is a combination of the Palladian and neoclassical styles of architecture. It is of three floors, all visible. The ground floor is rusticated in the Palladian fashion. At the center of the façade is a neoclassical projecting triangular point of four bays. The point is flanked by two bays, the windows of which, as on the north façade, have alternating segmented and pointed pediments at first-floor level. The bows cover two staircase levels leading to a colonnaded loggia, next to Pettengill Hall. Lane Hall was constructed at a totaled cost of $630,000 ($4.8 million in 2016 U.S. dollars.)
Administration
Past presidents
There have been eight presidents of Bates College, and one interim president.
Trustees of the college
The college's Board of Fellows and board of overseers combined to create a united board of trustees featuring alumni, and accomplished members of society associated with Bates. The president and board of trustees of Bates College are afforded certain and selective rights that they are free to exercise in their official capacity. The property and government has historically been vested in its founder, and in his each president thereafter, including each of the following groups by ruling of the laws of the president and trustees of Bates College. The Laws of the president and trustees of Bates College ensures the following:
The number of active members on the board of trustees is constitutionally set to be barred from exceeding a maximum of forty people with a minimum set at three members. When the allowed and mandated amount is reached only then can the Board of Trustees establish their quorum. The members are directly responsible for the election and eventual appointment of a chairperson of the board, Vice-Chairperson of the Board and a Secretary of the board. With the aforementioned completed, the board of trustees may pursue the nomination, confirmation, and appointment of new members. All members of the Board of Trustees have a good standing term limit of up to five years, with a maximum of one selection. Although a rarity, a trustee may serve for longer than ten years (or two terms of five years each) and may even serve at the incumbent president's pleasure. In order for such a status to be reached the trustee must be appointed by the executive committee, and must be confirmed by two-thirds majority vote by the entire board of trustees. Only the president of the college and the chairperson of the board of trustees may convene a meeting unprompted and unscheduled in the event of a confirmed emergency.The board of trustees may convene independently of the Corporation, that is to say, the office of the presidency and central administration to discuss sensitive or legally personal matters effecting the welfare of the college or its administration. Independent meetings may choose to bar the president or any member of the central administration from attending. An age limit of seventy years old is set for each and every trustee unless one has been selected to serve at the incumbent president's pleasure.
The board of trustees is to elect a treasurer of the board of trustees, who is to also serve as the Treasurer of the Corporation. This office is separate and distinctive from the central administration's treasurer and vice president for finance and administration. More specifically the corporation's treasurer is directly responsible for its "stocks, bonds, debentures, notes and other such instruments".
Due to the provisions of Title 13-B of the Maine Revised Statutes, any member of the Corporation of Bates College, including the president and trustees, in good faith and standing, has totaled immunity from all financial and economic expenses through the charter's indemnification policy. Enacted only when directly protecting, securing or promoting the overall welfare of the college.
The board of trustees establish the numerous committees to secure the administration and wellbeing of the college. The Committee on Academic Affairs was established to oversee the college's athletic program and the academic activities and meet with the Faculty's Committee on Faculty Governance to discuss and promote the academic program of the college. The Committee on Admissions and Financial Aid was created to reviews policies and decides the direction for new admissions standards.
Executive committee
The board of trustees are constitutionally required to elect an executive committee, that features the president of the college and the chairperson of the board of trustees, and no less than five members of the board of trustees. The committee is directly responsible for the general administration of the college and its domains. The chairman of the board of trustees is to also be appointed as the chairman of the Bates College Corporation and to serve as the chief council to the president of Bates College.
Presidency of the college
The president of Bates College is the appointed head of the college, as well as the principal securer, principal academic, chief executive officer of the corporation, and the ex officio president of the board of trustees. Lane Hall serves as the principal workplace and headquarters of the president's central administration.
Barring the specifications of the board of trustees, the president has full and final authority and responsibility for all components of Bates including the academics, operations, and finances. The president is de facto the highest ranking academic official of ten separate functions including, the board of trustees (both active and honorary), Departments of Student Affairs, Finance, Admissions, Communications, Faculty, Library Services, College Advancement and the treasury. Although not the highest-ranking officer within the departments, the president maintains substantial influence (should they choose to exercise the right) over the operational capabilities of such departments. The president is granted the right to, at their pleasure, attend, vote and otherwise participate in any (with some minimal specified restrictions) meeting established by the Corporation. Only the president of the college and the chairperson of the board of trustees may convene a meeting unprompted and unscheduled in the event of an confirmed emergency. The office of the presidency is filled by a majority vote by the board of trustees and the office of the presidency is vacated by the same. The president may not be removed for any reason whatsoever if a majority is not reached, formal notification is not presented to the incumbent, or a requested hearing is not granted. The president is the chief executive officer of the corporation and principal academic of the college. Only the president of the college may physically confer honorary degrees to recipients, no other member of the college, board of trustees, or corporation is allowed to do so.
The executive compensation for the president as of 2013 included a base salary of $432,000, with overall compensation totaling $465,170. This make the president the second highest paid president of the CBB schools off of base pay, and the third highest paid president of the CBB schools off of overall compensation. The presidency of the college is afforded an official residence, and various other expense free benefits. The presidential salary is ranked as the 7th highest paid president (in base pay) in the New England Small College Athletic Conference.
Charter specifications
Rights and privileges
The office of the presidency of Bates College is afforded certain rights and responsibilities, as well as some select privileges.It will be the duty of the President to be the chief executive and academic officer of the College and to cooperate with the other members of the Corporation and with the Faculty of the College in the formulation of the policies of the Corporation and to administer these policies when formulated, in accordance with such instructions as the Corporation as a whole, its Executive Committee, or its other committees, acting within their authority, will give the President. He/she will have such powers as are reasonable and necessary for the carrying out of such instructions. All officers of administration and members of the teaching faculty shall be responsible to the President of the College, or to such officers or officers as the President may designate, for the satisfactory performance of their respective duties as set forth by the President, or by such of cer or of cers as the President may designate, except as may otherwise be provided in the Charter, these Bylaws, or by the vote of the Trustees.The Office of the President, along with the board of trustees, is immune from paying expenses incurred during the defense of the operational well-being of the college.[The President of the College when] acting within the scope of his or her employment in good faith and in a manner reasonably believed by such person to be lawful and in the best interest of the College, shall, in accordance with the provisions of Title 13-B of the Maine Revised Statutes, be indemnified against all expenses, including attorneys’ fees, judgments, nes and amounts paid in settlement, actually and necessarily incurred by action.
Signature
The signature of the president is considered an essential execution in the operation of the college.The signature of the President or the Treasurer will be essential to the execution of all deeds and contracts to which the Corporation may become a party, except for those contracts involving less than an amount designated by the Board from time to time, and the signature of the President will be essential to the authentication of diplomas unless otherwise ordered by the Corporation.
State of the College
It is mandated by both board of trustees and the laws of the president and trustees of Bates College that the incumbent president present an annual report detailing the current state of the institution.The President will present annually at a meeting of the corporation a report on the state of the College, including in each such report such recommendations as to policies or changes thereof as he/she may consider desirable.
Ex officio membership
The president is given the ex officio position of President of the Board of Trustees.The President is an ex officio member of the Board of Trustees and all committees, and may at his/her pleasure attend, participate and vote at the meetings of the Board of Trustees and its committees, except for meetings or portions of meetings designated by the Trustees or any committee thereof as "independent."
Tenure and term limits
The president of Bates College serves at Trustees' Pleasure, meaning a set contractual term that is suspensive and expansive. Certain specifications of the laws of the president and trustees of Bates College bar the board of trustees from removing the incumbent for any reason.The term of the President's service will be described in a contract between the Board of Trustees and the President. Should the office of President become vacant or should the President be temporarily unable to perform the duties of his/her office, the Executive Committee will elect some person as Acting President, who will perform such duties of the presidency as they may determine until further action thereon is taken by the Board.
Corporation of the college
With the office of the presidency, the board of trustees completes the Bates College Corporation which is given the right to adopt new rules, bylaws, and regulations as long as they stay within the jurisdiction of the legal system of the state of Maine. It is held directly responsible for the actions of the college with regard to finance and economic expenditure. The corporation as a whole may establish new departments, majors, as well as schools within the college itself. It also reserves the right to hire and terminate professors, administrators, and staff. The employees of the college may be removed at any time, even faculty with academic tenure, if contractual destinations are faulted on or in any way disbanded. The Corporation also has the exclusive rights to establish the conferring of academic degrees. The members of the board of trustees, central administration, and the president are afforded certain and selected powers, privileges, rights and immunities through the laws of the president and trustees of Bates College, the highest ranking document in the corporation of the college. The corporation is to convene annually prior to the college's commencement in May to discuss the academic structuring of the following academic and calendar year.
Societies
The central administration of Bates sanctions five giving and participant societies. They are, in alphabetical order;
Benjamin Bates Society – Established in 2005: For those who donate more than $US 1 million dollars in their lifetime.
Cheney Society – Established in 2005: For those who serve honorably on the Board of Trustees of Bates College.
Garcelon Society – Established in 2005: For those donate to the Androscoggin Scholarship Fund.
Mount David Society – Established in 2005: For those "who put the college first in their annual philanthropy."
Phillips Society – Established in 1998: For those participate in legacy or estate donations.
See also
History of Bates College
List of Bates College people
References
Citations
Further reading
Alfred, Williams Anthony. Bates College and Its Background. (1936) Online Deposit.
Stuan, Thomas. The Architecture of Bates College. (2006)
Chase, Harry. Bates College was named after Mansfield Man. (1878)
Woz, Markus. Bates College – Traditionally Unconventional. (2002)
Bates College Archives. Bates College Catalog. (1956–2017). 2017 Catalog.
Bates College Archives. Maine State Seminary Records. Online Deposit.
Bates College Archives. Bates College Oral History Project. Online Deposit.
Clark, Charles E. Bates Through the Years: an Illustrated History. (2005)
Smith, Dana. Bates College – U. S. Navy V-12 Program Collection. (1943) Online Deposit.
Eaton, Mabel. General Catalogue of Bates College and Cobb Divinity School. (1930)
Larson, Timothy. Faith by Their Works: The Progressive Tradition at Bates College. (2005)
Calhoun, Charles C. A Small College in Maine. p. 163. (1993)
Johnnett, R. F. Bates Student: A Monthly Magazine. (1878)
Phillips, F. Charles Bates College in Maine: Enduring Strength and Scholarship. Issue 245. (1952)
Dormin J. Ettrude, Edith M. Phelps, Julia Emily Johnsen. French Occupation of the Ruhr: Bates College Versus Oxford Union Society of Oxford College. (1923)
The Bates Student. The Voice of Bates College. (1873–2017)
Emeline Cheney; Burlingame, Aldrich. The story of the life and work of Oren Burbank Cheney, founder and first president of Bates College. (1907) Online Version.
Direct notes
"Faith by Their Works: The Progressive Tradition at Bates College from 1855 to 1877", By Tomothy Larson (2005), Multi-source.
Bates College |
4168368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20Square%20%28Belgrade%29 | Republic Square (Belgrade) | The Republic Square or the Square of the Republic (Serbian: Трг републике / Trg republike) is one of the central town squares and an urban neighborhood of Belgrade, located in the Stari Grad municipality. It is the site of some of Belgrade's most recognizable public buildings, including the National Museum, the National Theatre and the statue of Prince Michael.
Location
The square is located less than 100 meters away from Terazije, designated center of Belgrade, to which it is connected by the streets of Kolarčeva (traffic) and Knez Mihailova (pedestrian zone). Many people erroneously consider Square of the Republic to be the center of the city. Through Vasina street it is connected to the fortress and park of Kalemegdan to the west and through Sremska street it is connected to the neighborhood of Zeleni Venac and further to Novi Beograd. It also borders the neighborhoods of Stari Grad and Dorćol, to the north. Today, it makes one of the local communities within Belgrade with a population of 2,360 in 2002.
Name
The name of the square has been the subject of much debate in the city. Vuk Drašković of the Serbian Renewal Movement suggested the square be renamed to Freedom Square (Трг Слободе / Trg Slobode) after pro-democracy demonstrations were held in the square to oust Slobodan Milosević on 9 March 1991, during the 1991 protests in Belgrade. Most recently, a group of theater academics suggested the square's original name Theater Square (Позоришни Трг / Pozorišni trg) be returned.
History
Antiquity
The Celtic and Roman predecessor of Belgrade was Singidunum. Castrum occupied part of today's Belgrade Fortress but the civilian zone spread from the Kralja Petra Street, over both the Sava and Danube slopes, till Kosančićev Venac, extending in a series of necropolises from Republic Square, along the Bulevar kralja Aleksandra all the way to the Mali Mokri Lug. Necropolis at Republic Square contained a well-shaped graves from the 1st century AD. In general, the largest section of the civilian settlement was situated between the modern Simina (Dorćol) and Brankova streets (Zeleni Venac, Kosančićev Venac), and the Republic Square.
During the digging of the foundations for the Monument to Prince Michael in 1882, tombs from different periods of Roman rule were discovered. One tomb was made from bricks, and there were 13 circular and 2 rectangle grave pits. Some of them are "well-tombs", named so because they are more than deep. The "well-tombs" are rare in these areas and it is believed that the custom arrived from Gaul. The brick tomb, which contained rushlight, was discovered close to the Čika Ljubina Street, while the other pits were where the monument is today. The materials found in the tombs include pottery fragments and vessels, pieces of terracotta and stone statues, fan-shaped floor tiles, bronze and bone needles, bricks, rushlights, etc. The pits were filled with ashes and contained animal bones. Coins and bronze rings, parts of the armor, have also been discovered. These "well-tombs" are considered to be the oldest part of the vast Singidunum necropolis, originating from c.100 AD, while the brick tomb is dated to c.400 and some of its bricks have a stamp of the Legio IV Flavia Felix. The entire square area belongs to the Archaeological Site of Singidunum, which was declared a protected zone on 30 June 1964. During the 2018–2019 renovation, two additional, though devastated tombs were discovered.
Baroque Belgrade
During their occupation of northern Serbia from 1717 to 1739, the Austrians conducted massive project of extensive refurbishment of Belgrade from an oriental town into the modern, baroque-style, European one. Major section was the German Town, modern Dorćol, where large-scale settlement of ethnic Germans ensued. In the next two decades the goal was mostly achieved, and the historians today refer to this part of city's history as Baroque Belgrade. Project included construction of several imposing objects, some of which were located in the area of modern square, which was on the outskirts of German Town.
After Austria lost the Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739, the northern Serbia, including Belgrade, was returned to the Turks. One of the provisions of the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade stated that Austria had to demolish all the fortifications and military and civilian building it has constructed during the occupation. Many baroque buildings were demolished, however, Austrians didn't demolish the buildings outside of the Belgrade Fortress' walls, so the Ottomans destroyed them and almost completely re-orientalized Belgrade.
Württemberg Gate
The Württemberg Gate was built in 1725. It predated the construction of the protective trench built on the orders by the Generalissimo Ernst Gideon von Laudon. It was one of the four gates which lead outside of the fortress and was part of the fortification's outer walls. The gate was a typical baroque gate of its day. It was designed by Nicolas Doxat, who renovated the entire fortress during the Austrian period. His task was to project the new walls and ramparts system around the city, to develop a completely new grid of streets and the transform Belgrade into the typical baroque town. The final completed section of the inner fortified system was the Württemberg Gate. Other three gates were located in the modern Cara Dušana Street (Imperial Gate), Pop-Lukina Street and along the Sava river.
The basic layout of the entire fortified system was finished by 1737. That year, another Austro-Turkish war broke out and the works on further fortification were stopped. After being defeated in the Battle of Grocka in July 1739, Austria agreed to sign a truce. As stipulated by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, Austrians had to withdraw and they insisted to demolish all objects and fortifications within the Belgrade Fortress, built in the period of their rule. In June 1740, on a boat in the middle of the Sava river, which now became border between Austria and Ottoman Empire again, an agreement was signed and the fortress, including the gates was demolished. The remains of the gate were found during the 1958 digging of the foundations for the "Press House". The remains of the walls and foundations were re-discovered during the 2018 reconstruction and showed no evidence of additional works and reconstructions after it was built.
The gate was named after Charles Alexander, Duke of Württemberg, who was Austrian governor of occupied Serbia from 1720 to 1733. His court and military barrack were located right behind the gate, at the very entrance into the fort. The National Theatre is today located on that spot. From descriptions, it is known that it was much larger and more monumental than the latter Stambol Gate, but there are no surviving illustrations so the exact appearance of the gate is unknown.
Württemberg Palace
Württemberg also ordered construction of the massive building, stretching over several blocks, which occupied the area between the German and Serbian sections of Belgrade. Originally intended to be a military barrack, after Württemberg's direction it was vastly expanded into his palace, or court. The palace occupied the area between the modern Ruski car Tavern, Zmaj Jovina Street and Republic Square. On one of its narrower side, where the "Jadran" cinema was located for decades, it faced the Württemberg Gate. On the other side it also faced a square, which was designated for the musters.
The palace had rectangular base and was vertically divided into ground floor, two storeys and Mansard roof. As the original purpose of the edifice was military one, the facade is ornamented in the style of plainer, classical baroque. The narrower sides were decorated more. The longer sides were divided in three avant-corps, one central and two flanks. The central avant-corps, or risalit, was especially enhanced with decorative elements, on all four facades. Also, all four had balcony porch, under which all four entrances into the building were located. The upper outline of the building ended with highly elevated roof and plump chimneys, which was typical for the Austrian architecture of the day.
Later Serbian folk songs said the palace had "windows as many as there are days in the year". However, after the examinations of the surviving images, that number was established to be around 312 rather than 365. Württemberg also formed something of the first zoo in Belgrade. He ordered his military to capture and bring to him "wild beasts from the forests and mountains of Serbia", which he then kept in cages.
After the Austrians withdrew in 1739, the local Ottoman administration sent a letter to the Sublime Porte asking for the "large masonry saray for the wālis to be demolished. Even before the reply came from Constantinople, local administration mined the building and leveled it to the ground. Partial remains of the palace were discovered during the 2018-2019 reconstruction. The building is today considered one of the most representative Belgrade edifices in the entire 18th century. Digital archaeological 3D representation of the building was finished in 2020.
Stambol Gate
After entering Belgrade in 1740, the Ottomans found completely destroyed ramparts. They walled the remaining earthen defensive mounds with palisades. The Ottomans decided to build only one gate, while on the other access points they set čardaks. They didn't use the foundations of the demolished Württemberg Gate, but built their gate a bit to the right, where the modern Vasina Street is, so the gate occupied the area between the modern National Theatre and the Monument to Prince Michael.
During the Austrian occupation, generalissimo Laudon ordered a vast effort to fortify the city, which included the defensive trench which encircled a wider Belgrade area. The trench became known as the Laudan's Trench (Laudanov šanac) and passed in front of the gate which was accessed over a small bridge over it. Though smaller than the previous Württemberg Gate, it was still the largest of all city gates at the time, but was also considered the most beautiful.
The gate got its name as it was the starting point of the Tsarigrad Road, which linked Belgrade with Constantinople. Hence the name of both the road (Carigrad was Serbian name for Constantinople) and the gate (after shortened Serbian version of the Ottoman name for Constantinople, "Istanbul Gate"). The gate was made of dressed stone and bricks, on a rectangular base. It had rooms for housing the sentry units and three entry points: large, central one, for the carts and two smaller ones on the sides for the pedestrians. Above the main entrance there was tughra, a medallion with the signature of the Ottoman sultan. Doors were made of thick oak beams, nailed down with the strong iron plating. In time, the plating became full of obvious bullet holes.
The Stambol Gate became notorious as the place in front of which the Turks executed the rayah, their non-Muslim subjects, by impaling them on stakes. It was also the place where during the attack on Belgrade in 1806 in the First Serbian Uprising, one of the leading Serbian military commanders, Vasa Čarapić, was fatally wounded. In his memory, a street near the square (Vasina Street) and a monument in the vicinity were named after him. When the rebellion collapsed, the Ottomans regained Belgrade in October 1813. Their vanguards burned wooden hovels in Savamala and when the main army landed, a large number of people remained stranded on the bank in Savamala, trying to flee across the river into Austria. Men were massacred, while women and children were sold into slavery. All over the city heads on a spike appeared, while people were impaled on stakes along all city roads. Rows of impaled people were placed from the gate to Terazije in one direction, and along the Tsarigrad Road itself, from the Batal mosque to Tašmajdan, in another.
The gate continued to have certain strategic role in the 18th and the 19th century. After 1815, when Serbia was granted autonomy, Ottoman guards were placed at the gate to control the entering into the fortress. Already notorious, it became a symbol of the hated Ottoman rule after the Čukur Fountain incident in 1862. After the armed clash and rioting which followed, the gate lost its importance as the Ottoman garrison withdrew into the Belgrade Fortress itself, abandoning the gate.
The gate was demolished in 1866, on the orders of Prince Michael, as the plans for the National Theatre were already in the works. The prince ordered it to be completely demolished to the ground on 20 March 1866. On 1 April, the military parade of the regular units of Serbian army was organized, from the gate, over Terazije, to the Old Konak, in the Royal Compound. Demolition began on 26 April, and the work was finished on 31 May 1866. That way, the last physical obstacle which divided city parts on the opposite sides of the trench was demolished, thus making neighborhoods outside of the old city walls one urban unit with the older part of the city which prompted accelerated urbanization. The Ottomans fully evacuated from Belgrade in 1867. The stones from the gate were re-used for the construction of the surrounding houses and for the building of the theatre itself. The rubble was partially used for burying the marsh in Bara Venecija, where the Belgrade Main railway station was built. When the square was renovated in 1928–1929, the remains of the Stambol Gate's foundations were discovered beneath the pavement, but it was not recorded whether the remains were dug up again or were removed. Additional remains were found in 1949, during another rearrangement of the square.
Formation of the square
Belgrade's first chief urbanist, Emilijan Josimović, devised a plan in 1867 for the system of "green groves" along the former route of the Laudon trench, which now divided old part of the city from the newer neighborhoods. The green belt was also to include avenues, promenades, etc. The plan was only partially conducted at the time, while the only two surviving parts of the plan are two small squares, at Topličin Venac, where the Park Proleće is today, and at the present Republic Square's section in front of the Central Military Club building.
After the demolition of the gate and establishment of Serbian rule in all of Belgrade in 1867, the site of the present square was not laid out for a long time. The remains of the Stambol Gate were still visible. They were surrounded by bogs and gullies and a row of black locusts, which was leading to the open farmer's market. The market was known for the lamb and pork meat, while the kiridžije, who transported various goods from Užice on their little horses, were bringing and selling bacon, sirene, kaymak, pršut and kegs of rakia.
The National Theatre, built in 1869, was the only large building for the more than 30 years as the square didn't develop as an urban area until the monument to Prince Mihailo was erected on 19 December 1882 when the square gradually started to acquire more buildings. The square was named Pozorišni Trg ("Theatre square"), keeping the name until the Communist rule after 1945. The square was formed between the theatre building, Cooperation of the printing workers, the Dardaneli kafana, the lots of Dimitrije and Lazar Andrejević, the Kolarac House with pharmacy and the First Belgrade Brewery.
The second ice rink in Belgrade, after one in Savamala, was built in 1909 near the modern Army House. The place where now the National Museum is, was the location of long single-storied building which housed, among other edifices, the famous "Dardaneli" restaurant, founded in 1855. It was the most popular kafana in Belgrade at that time, especially after the 1896 reconstruction, when it became the meeting-place of actors and writers, and the central point of city's urban spirit and bohemianism. The building was pulled down to make way in 1903 for the Treasury (now the building of the National Museum). In a small park next to the National Theatre, there were the well-known "Kolarac" kafana and cinema (owned by Ilija Milosavljević-Kolarac, a merchant and benefactor). The "Kolarac" was a regular meeting place of young officers and here, headed by Dragutin Dimitrijević Apis, they plotted the 1903 May Coup, which ended with the deaths of king Alexander Obrenović and queen Draga and termination of the Obrenović dynasty. As the building was also location of the Association of Writers of Serbia, the first book fair in the city was held here.
The square was damaged during World War I, in the bombardment by the Austro-Hungarian and German armies. Especially damaged was the building of the National Theatre. It was fully reconstructed by 1922.
The "Riunione" Palace, in which "Jadran" cinema used to be located, was built from 1929 to 1931, on one section of the Andrejević family parcel. It was built by the Adriatic Insurance Company "Riunione" from Trieste, Italy. The palace had apartments, offices, cinema "Uranija" and "Milanović" bistro. It was adapted into the pastry shop later (Kod kneževog spomenika) and is café-pastry shop even today. Part of the building was rented to German Transportation Bureau (Deutsches Verkehrs Buro). It was a public secret that it is actually a hotspot for German spies, but the state didn't react. Few days before the 27 March 1941 anti-German protests, including the coup d'état, Germans hastily left the building, so the protesters smashed it. Boško Buha Theatre is today located in that section of the building.
"Uranija" was later renamed "Jadran", and the cinema was popular for its repertoire, mostly made of dramas and romantic movies. When it was sold to the privately owned company in 2007, they resold it the a company from Cyprus which closed the cinema and opened a café and a pastry shop instead.
World War II and later
Most of the buildings were destroyed during the German bombing on 6 April 1941. In the summer of 1942 a failed assassination on Dušan Letica by a group of six Yugoslav Partisans happened here. German occupational forces reconstructed the building of the theatre in 1942. After World War II, the tram tracks were removed as, until then, a tram terminus was located in the square.
During the Belgrade Offensive in 1944, in which the Partisans and the Red Army expelled occupying Germans from Belgrade, 24 Red Army tank crewmen were killed. On 23 October 1944, three days after the liberation, a funeral procession consisting of 24 tanks moved from the Slavija Square to the Republic Square, where the crewmen were buried. Among the buried soldiers was Lt. (1921–44), who was the only soldier participant in the Belgrade Offensive awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union medal. General Vladimir Zhdanov held eulogy at the mass burial, but addressed Kravtsov specifically. In 1954, the crypt and the monument were moved to the newly formed Cemetery of the Liberators of Belgrade at Belgrade New Cemetery. The crypt was known as the "Monument with cross and five-pointed star".
Later, the biggest building on this square, the "Press House" was constructed in 1961 on the remaining part of the former Andrejević family lot, so as the "City Restaurant" and the International Press Center. For the construction of the Press House, a series of old, ground-floor houses was demolished.
In the early 1990s, club "Buha" was opened in the building of the Boško Buha Theatre. It was very popular in the 1990–1992 period as one of the first venues in Belgrade to play electronic music, and was also a pioneer of rave music in Serbia.
Opera controversy
The area of the present 'Plateau of Dr Zoran Đinđić', right across the National Theatre was seen as the site of the future Belgrade Opera from the 1960s. However, this became highly controversial issue, both academic and public, in the 2003, when city government decided to tear down the Staklenac mall (saying it has done its purpose, even though it was built in 1989) and to construct City Gallery, while the Opera is supposed to be built in the swampy and uninhabited area of Ušće in Novi Beograd. Despite opposition from the citizens, ensemble of the opera and prominent architects and artists, the city government, most prominently the official city architect Đorđe Bobić, insisted that regardless of everything, they already made a decision that the Opera will not be built on the Square. Architect Milan Pališaški proposed in 2003 a project "Opera on the Square". It included construction of the national opera and ballet house (up to 1,200 seats) and a large underground garage (1,400 parking spots). The project would rule out the need for smaller underground garages in the vicinity (like to one planned on Studentski Trg or, as it is the case with La Scala and Covent Garden, a separate building for the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra which could also use it. The project, which also included the underground passage which would connect the new building with the building of the National Theatre across the Francuska Street, was supported by the "Opera at the Square" movement, headed by the opera singer . As of 2018 nothing has been either demolished or built.
In 2015 city announced that the Staklenac mall (Serbian for glassy) will be demolished. The mall, with of floor area, was built in 1989 on a temporary permit from 1988, which expired after ten years. Hence, the object can't be officially legalized. It was built concurrently with the reconstruction of the National Theatre, in the scopes of the city beautification for the IX Non-Aligned Movement summit which was held in Belgrade. New project is a cultural venue, covering and comprising galleries, bookstores, conference halls and an underground garage for 500 vehicles. In August 2017, city architect Milutin Folić said that the plan will include opera, ballet and a gallery, or a combination of those, though that was not in the project accepted in 2015 and even announced a possibility of yet another architectural design competition.
In January 2018 it was again announced by the city that the mall will be demolished to make room for an opera and ballet house. It was disclosed that the demolition will start in the summer of 2018, but there is a possibility of postponing it, as the city will only then organize an architectural design competition so there is no economic point in demolishing the well established mall so early. In August 2018 it was announced by the city officials that the Staklenac will be demolished and the building of the Opera and ballet house will be built, "in the next several years". Some architects consider opera house on the square as a bad solution. City then announced in March 2022 that the "House of Dance" will be built instead on the location.
21st century
After 2013, new city government announced the closing of the entire downtown for traffic, including the square, and turning the central city area in the pedestrian zone. The square and the entire section till the Kalemegdan will be paved in granite or concrete slabs, almost without any trees. The idea met with the universal opposition from the professionals (architects, urbanists, traffic experts) but also from the public. Total open pedestrian square area, west of the thoroughfare, is - of which is the plateau with the prince's monument, and is the section with fountains which connects the square with the Knez Mihailova Street.
In 2017 city announced plans for the details of the major reconstruction of the square. The flower beds will be removed, the square will be paved with granite slabs and the traffic calming zone will be formed. The works started in August 2018 and the deadline is 14 months. The works will be organized in two phases. Phase I is dealing with the square plateau itself and should be finished on 1 March 2019. In the phase II, the streets will be closed for adaptation and renovation, rerouting the traffic in the sole center of the city. It is planned that the granite slabs in different color will mark the locations of some former landmarks, like the Stambol Gate and the temporary graveyard from 1944. During the process, the Prince Michael Monument will be renovated, too. In the end, even this idea was abandoned.
In September 2018, during the excavations, original wooden cobble laid in the second half of the 19th century was discovered. Once, the entire square, up to the Terazije, was covered with it. The cobbles were removed for cleaning. One part will be returned and form the protected patch so that pedestrians can see what the cobble looked like. Another part will be kept in the National Museum while the third will be used for other pedestrian areas in the city. Also, it was originally thought that remains of the former Stambol Gate were discovered, though it was believed that nothing survived. The remains were to be preserved and shielded by glass so that they will remain visible to passersby. The works were then stopped again for a while after the remains of the Roman tombs were discovered. It was later announced that the remains are actually of the Württemberg Gate, not the Stambol Gate. It was decided to scrap the idea of a glass cover which would leave the remains visible, and to continue with the original plan which included reburying of the remains and differently colored slabs which will mark its former position.
The deputy mayor Goran Vesić said that the works will be done "24 hours a day" and that cameras will be installed so that everyone can watch the progress. Asked why it takes 420 days for such a reconstruction, under such a rigorous working hours, Vesić replied that it was a question for the authors of the project. Soon, reporters and public figures noted that the working site is still without workers from time to time or that it took less to build the entire Empire State Building, back in 1930–1931. In April 2019, administration of the Stari Grad municipality began intermittent physical blockades of the construction site and removal of the construction fencing, hence "liberating the square". Employees, local residents and sympathizers of the opposition would either physically prevent machines from working and escort workers from the site or would organize sport activities or sitting sessions on the square thus stopping works.
Public complains continued, including the lack of greenery and replacement of the street pavement with the stone slabs. The cobblestone was placed as it was originally intended to turn the entire square into the pedestrian zone, but after much protests, the idea was scrapped, at least for now. Instead, city urbanist Marko Stojčić announced the revival of an old idea of building an underground garage on the square. During one of his inspections, president Vučić said that the massive building of the Press House should be demolished because it is "so ugly". Despite the legion of problems caused by the reconstruction, a patio of the local café, belonging to the controversial businessman with criminal past , was opened and operational all the time, even though it was right next to the reconstruction site.
In June 2022 city announced that the Boško Buha Theatre will get additional, evening scene in the building of the Post Office No. 6 which was to be renovated within the project Belgrade Waterfront. However, in March 2023 the theatre ensemble went to protest as they were informed the entire theatre will be relocated from the Riunione Palace, where it has been since the foundation in 1950 and has indefinite lease right, to Belgrade Waterfront. Problem turned out to be the ownership in the cadaster, which was explained to the ensemble being a mistake which will be corrected.
Problem turned out to net that the premises of the theatre were purchased by the company owned by Aleksandar Kajmaković in 2017. Nicknamed Aca Bosanac, he already owns numerous hospitality venues throughout Belgrade, including the recently purchased Western City Gate which also caused protests. Kajmaković's connections to major criminal clans in Serbia include being a right-hand man of Peconi. He was also apprehended by the police during investigation of top Serbian gang kingpin for suspicion of Kajmaković acting as the legal owner of Belivuk's properties safeguarded by the Belivuk's gang members, and for money laundering. A bomb was placed under Kajmaković's car in 2002 in Budva, Montenegro.
A state cadaster service reacted claiming everything is clear and legal, and that there is no mistake. A major public backlash, and support for the theatre from citizens and colleagues, ensued. Prime minister Ana Brnabić personally intervened, claiming the theatre stays at the square, and accusing previous administration for "vague documentation" which allowed for the "mistaken" registration of Kajmaković's company despite all the cadastre registrations in question happened during the present administration. She then contradicted herself and the cadaster, claiming that actually nothing is true, including Kajmaković's ownership, but that his company, as a co-owner of the building, gave permission to the city to reconstruct the theatre.
Post-reconstruction
The square was reopened on 1 September 2019. Public reaction was overwhelmingly negative: carriageway cobblestones were 41,000 cubes of rugged stone which made driving unpleasant and motorcycle, bicycle, pedestrian traffic almost impossible. City claimed such cubes were placed deliberately, to slow down the vehicles. At the widest section, the carriageways were narrowed. In protest, residents placed a fake monument to Goran Vesić on the square. City and state official praised the works. President of the Republic, Aleksandar Vučić, said the square looks "wonderful and that the cobblestone is from high quality material which is "for ever". Vesić said they originally wanted plain concrete cubes, but president Vučić said "no, you are doing the central city square, place everything best for Belgrade...and he was right, so we placed the best granite".
Less than two weeks later, heavy rains damaged the surface layer of the carriageways, prompting question whether it was granite at all. Amidst continued negative reactions, Stojčić said granite cubes will be turned upside down, with lower, flat part of the cubes on top. Vesić, claiming he was in a "surprise control visit", had an outburst, scolding the contractor "Strabag" (which billed additional €287,000 for "unexpected works"), calling them to repair it with their own money and without closing the traffic. Asked how the cubes, by city's orders with rugged side up, were praised for 12 days, Vesić replied that "Strabag had to point out this is not a functional solution", calling the situation "unacceptable". 15 days after the re-opening, "reconstruction of the reconstruction" began. Despite promises, the traffic was stopped again.
Repairs showed cubes are not made of granite as stipulated by the invitation to tender and paid as such by the city, but concrete cubes with a thin silicone-glued rugged layer on top. Architects criticized the process - simple flipping of the cubes, especially glued ones like this - as a threat for traffic safety, especially during rain or winter, with pedestrians already complaining the cubes are slippery. The responsible engineer refused to sign the reconstruction project as the original project was changed by the city during the reconstruction, unknowingly to the public. Additional rains showed the draining system on the square wasn't functional.
President Vučić supported city government again, saying "Vesić has done everything right" and that he doesn't understand the "hysteria surrounding continued works", adding he is proud how things are done in Belgrade. City claims the total price of the reconstruction is €8 million, which is deemed way to high and criticized even by the state Radio Television Serbia. Architect estimated real cost to no more than €4.4 million, though he deemed the reconstruction as unnecessary anyway. In protest, students painted cubes in "gold", to show how things function in Belgrade: façades are painted, but everything decays inside. They were invoking government's claim that Serbia currently lives its "golden age". City filed charges against students claiming they are hooligans who destroy "granite" cubes. It was soon obvious that new cubes, instead of the old, turned upside down ones, are being placed. Mayor Zoran Radojičić, when asked who is paying for this, said: "Well, you know what, I can't really know about every single cube, you have to admit that".
The square was re-re-opened for traffic on 1 November 2019, however, despite claims that all lines of public transportation will be restored, two trolleybus lines remained shortened to Slavija Square, while two were completely abolished. This right away resulted in crowds in the surviving lines and massive public discontent. Authorities said that everything is covered with changing buses on other lines, but it turned out that for some, previously direct routes, it takes an extra hour for the commuters. But it was also reported that the reduction is part of the plan to transform the main traffic route into the pedestrian zone and because of the weight restrictions due to the botched reconstruction of the square. City responded that they acted after "serious analyses and talks" and upon wishes of the citizens. Asked to make public those analyses and explain when and how the citizens were interviewed about such "tectonic" changes, administration refused to disclose any documents. Simultaneously, city extended the deadline to 23 January 2020, which would make the reconstruction 519 days long, though without specifications what will be done in this period, except that there will be "no field work". In the end, locations of the Stambol Gate and the Red Army soldiers burial site were marked with different slabs. City announced that the total expenditures per contract (for 420 days) is 768.3 million dinars, or €6.5 million, but that exact number will be known by the end of the year. The warranty period is three years. In the end, city claimed that the total price was 744 million dinars, or €6.4 million.
In August 2020, city announced continuation of their idea of closing the central city streets for traffic and the reintroduction of the tram line across the square. The bidding for the project was announced and, though the works were not planned in at least a year due to the preparatory works, they should include another removal of the new cubes so that tracks can be placed. Due to the negative reactions, and even though deputy mayor Vesić said in 2018 that the tracks will, at least partially, be laid already in 2019, city's Directorate for Land Development now claimed that works can't start before 2025 or 2027, while president Vučić, who personally pushed the project, now called it unnecessary. Just few days after the announcement, the directorate called the bidding off.
University of Manchester professor and meteorologist Vladimir Janković, was guest in the September issue of the TV serial , hosted by . Janković estimated that, in September, in sunset, temperature of the square's granite slabs is up to . This heat is then being radiated over the entire night, until the next morning. He concluded this wouldn't happen if majority of the square remained covered by the flower beds, trees and a fountain.
Architecture
In terms of architecture, the square is not favorably perceived by the architects and artists nor is considered a proper square, which are generally lacking in Belgrade. Isidora Sekulić wrote in the 1930s that "in Belgrade, you have no beautiful squares. The square is a bordered and appeasing plane, which can't express the real character of Belgrade which is arbitrary, complex and opposed to the planimetrics". During the Interbellum, the square was smaller and less "spilled" than it is today. One the sides where the Press House, space in front of it and park area in front of the Staklenac are today, the square was cornered by two blocks of tall and unrepresentative buildings. In such arrangement, the Riunione Palace (modern Boško Buha Theatre) was de facto the frontal edifice of the square's composition, despite the building of the National Theatre was clearly the most public object.
The objects surrounding the square were all of different heights, creating "height schism" and not allowing for the buildings to be considered as an "ensemble". As a result of this, after the Riunione Palace was built in 1931, it created insulating fluctuation, both daily and seasonal. After the noon, one half of the square is in deep shade while the other is fully lit up. In summer, this becomes extreme due to the heat, which was only aggravated with the 2018-2019 reconstruction. Building of the Mortgage Bank (now a National Museum) wasn't a proper public building until it was adapted into the museum. Just as the height is diversified, the arrangement on the ground is off the markers, too. The strictly symmetrical front façade of the museum faces the monument to Prince Michael, which, however, is not in the symmetrical axis regarding the museum's façade. Older, monument was placed right in the central axis between the Vasina and Čika Ljubina streets and misses the museum's axis because the streets are not equally wide.
After the reconstruction, the square retained its amorphous borderline. The curved section to the Kolarčeva Street was bounded by two rows of trees, some of which withered before the reconstruction was finished. However, several trees were placed in front of the museum's front façade, closing it, especially as the trees grow bigger in the future. Though it was tried to transform the square into the "casserole" (tepsija), the perceptive plane of the square was indeed lowered to the level zero but it only made obvious the tilting of the square. While some, even more tilted squares are considered architectural gems, like the Piazza Grande in Arezzo, the Republic Square misses all the important elements: spatial articulation, borderline edifices and impeccable junction details of all objects with the paved ground. In the "shaved" square, the tilted empty space reinforced its "collage" character.
In December 2021, the existing 21 trees on the square were replaced, with the idea of uniforming the species of trees. Newly planted but already mostly withered sycamore maples were replaced with plane trees. Maple trees which remained in good shape were replanted across the city. However, the older linden trees, across the street and in front of the Staklenac, were not replaced with planes, but with ash trees.
Characteristics
The square is one of the busiest places in Belgrade, as one of the central business areas in the city, with over 20 bus and trolleybus lines of the city public transportation passing through the square.
On one side, the square extends to the Knez Mihailova street, the pedestrian zone and one of the main commercial sections of Belgrade. On the opposite side, the square is occupied by the Staklenac, the Belgrade's first modern glass and steel constructed shopping mall. The small flat area in front of Staklenac has been officially named 'Plateau of Dr Zoran Đinđić', after the Serbian prime minister was assassinated in 2003. There are two park areas in this section of the square. One, in front of the Army House ("Guards Park", which covers ), and another in front of the Staklenac ().
Prince Michael monument
The bronze statue of Prince Michael on a horse, by the Italian sculptor Enrico Pazzi was erected in 1882. It was erected in honor of the Prince's most important political achievement, complete expulsion of the Turks from Serbia and liberation of the remaining 7 cities within (then) Serbian territory, still under the Turkish rule (1867). The names of the cities are carved on a plates on the monument itself, on the statue's pedestal and prince is sculptured with his hand allegedly pointing to Constantinople, showing the Turks to leave. During recent years, the role and honor of prince somewhat fell into the oblivion and the statue became simply known as kod konja (Serbian for 'at the horse'). Even the nearby restaurant is named that way, Kod konja.
Millennium clock
In 2000, a modern public clock, named the Millennium clock and funded by Delta Holding, was installed in the square. The clock is placed on a tall stand, and it also displays current weather conditions. Two main, digital clocks face the less busy sides of the square (near Čika Ljubina and Kolarčeva streets), while two small, analog clocks face the two busier sides (near Knez Mihailova street and the National Theatre). The clock and its stand are made of chromed steel and glass and the stands are tall.
The clock was described as the "nice and modern architectural detail" of Belgrade and that it has been designed and built in the accordance with the surrounding objects. Due to its appearance and construction, it looks almost transparent. With the addition of the clock, as the square is one of the most popular meeting points in the city, for a while Belgraders also used 'let's meet at the clock' as a meeting catchphrase, but by 2018 the clock was out of order for a long time. Public opinion on the clock remained divided as it was perceived by many as a foreign body in the square environment.
One of the complaints by the citizens during the massive 2018-2019 reconstruction was why the clock wasn't removed from the square. In August 2019 it was announced that the clock will be moved to the plateau next to the Belgrade Arena, across the Sava river, in the New Belgrade. On 8 August 2019 the clock and the entire installation were dismantled and sent to the repair shop as it was out of service for years. After the repairs, it will be installed next to the Arena.
Jugoexport building
Lushly decorated building at the entry section into the square from the Terazije direction was built in 1923. Located in the Kolarčeva Street, the building has a total floor area of and is protected within the Spatial Cultural-Historical Complex of Old Belgrade. The building is projected by the architect Matija Bleh, but it is better known for its façade ornamentation, which can be divided into the façade plastics and sculptures. Ornamental plastic was done by the Czech sculptor while Serbian sculptor of Italian origin Giuseppe Pino Grassi carved the sculptures in artificial stone. Decorative elements include figures of Atlases with Earth on their shoulders, male heads with šajkača caps, female heades with bandanas, half-figures of lions, etc.
After World War II, the building was occupied by the state-owned trade company Jugoexport. Jugoexport went bankrupt in 2001 and state tried to sell the building since 2006, but it was unsuccessful in the next 10 years. Main flaws of the building included non-functionality, high maintenance costs and lack of parking places. Serbian industrialist Petar Matijević, nicknamed the "meat king" purchased the object in 2016 for €7,3 million, with an intention to turn it into hotel. It was announced that actually his sons purchased the building to him for his birthday, in the memory of Matijević's father, who worked in the building as a bellboy.
Adaptation into the hotel began in November 2017. As the building is protected, the exterior must be preserved. The investment is €6 million and it is expected to return in the next 12 years. Matijević also purchased a lot of in Simina Street, below the square, for the future parking lot. The four star hotel with 68 tooms, which should be named "Centar", is expected to open in summer of 2018, but as of July 2019 the hotel still wasn't finished.
References
External links
City of Belgrade
Tourist Organization of Belgrade
Squares in Belgrade
Neighborhoods of Belgrade
Stari Grad, Belgrade |
4168389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Texas%20Longhorn%20Band | University of Texas Longhorn Band | The University of Texas Longhorn Band (LHB), also known as the Showband of the Southwest, is the marching band of The University of Texas at Austin. The Longhorn Band was founded in 1900 by distinguished professor of chemistry, Dr. Eugene P. Schoch. The band is currently under the direction of Dr. Cliff Croomes. The band performs at all in-state football games, for various Texas Longhorn Athletics teams, and at special pep rallies and parades throughout the year. The band includes about 375 students, all of whom must register for a year-round course offered by the Butler School of Music.
The Longhorn Band has received prestigious honors, such as the Sudler Trophy, in 1986 and performed at many notable occasions, including Super Bowl VIII and the inaugural parades of five presidents: John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush.
History
Founding and early years (1900–1955)
The Longhorn Band was founded in 1900 by distinguished professor of chemistry, Dr. Eugene P. Schoch. With Dr. H. E. Baxter, the first director of the Longhorn Band, they purchased $150 worth of instruments from a local pawn shop and recruited 16 students to make up the band. Dr. Baxter served as the director for five years before stepping aside, after which Dr. Schoch took full control of the band. Dr. Schoch stepped down as director after five years, but continued to serve as a chaperone for the band. For the next seven years, the Longhorn Band was run by students.
In 1921, Mr. Burnett "Blondie" Pharr became the director of the Longhorn Band. Pharr developed the young band and led it on a tour through 17 states, performing at the Chicago World's Fair, Madison Square Garden, and Washington, D.C. Colonel George E. Hurt became director in 1936. Under his tenure, the Longhorn Band grew to over 200 members. After Col. Hurt suffered a stroke in 1949, Moton Crockett assumed the directorship of the Longhorn Band. In his final year as director, Mr. Crockett oversaw the purchase of the large bass drum that is today known as Big Bertha and affectionately called the "Sweetheart of the Longhorn Band". Big Bertha was purchased from the University of Chicago for $1. The drum had sat in storage in the school's stadium after UChicago disbanded their varsity football program. Big Bertha was radioactively contaminated by testing for the Manhattan Project that occurred at the stadium.
Vincent R. DiNino era (1955–1975)
In 1955, Vincent R. DiNino was hired as the director of the Longhorn Band. He is credited with shaping the band into the organization it is today. DiNino's time as director saw the introduction of many traditions and characteristics of the band, such as the western-style uniforms, Big Flags Brigade, the Longhorn Alumni Band, and cowbells. DiNino oversaw the introduction of women into the band in a position besides majorette in 1956 and the integration of the band in 1962. The adoption of the moniker "Showband of the Southwest" also occurred during this time.
Under the direction of Mr. DiNino, the Longhorn Band performed in the inaugural parades of Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.
Late 20th century (1975–2001)
Tom C. Rhodes served as director of the band from 1975 to 1980. Glenn A. Richter, an alumnus of the University of Texas, returned to his alma mater as director of the Longhorn Band from 1980 to 1995. Paula Crider became director in 1995 and remained until 1999. Kevin Sedatole served as director for the short span from 1999 to 2001.
Present day (2001–present)
Dr. Robert Carnochan assumed the directorship of the Longhorn Band in 2001. He served as director until 2015, leaving the Longhorn Band for a position as the Director of Bands at the University of Miami.
Dr. Scott Hanna became the 14th director of the Longhorn Band in 2015. Dr. Hanna had served as the associate director of the band for the sixteen years prior to his appointment as director.
In May 2021, Dr. Hanna announced his retirement, effective May 31. Dr. Cliff Croomes, then assistant director of bands at Louisiana State University was chosen to succeed as the 15th director of the Longhorn Band and the first Black director. Dr. Croomes graduated with his Bachelor of Music from the UT Butler School of Music in 2001 and is a former member of the Longhorn Band.
Directors
Drum Majors, Presidents, and Twirlers
Organizational structure
Audition Process
Membership in the Longhorn Band is contingent upon a multi-step audition process. Prospective members must first submit a video playing audition. Upon approval of the video audition by band staff, the prospective member is invited to Band Week, which immediately precedes the start of the fall semester, and are sent traditional music and selected halftime music. At Band Week, prospective members are taught the band's marching style and attend multiple music rehearsals to prepare for the final marching and playing audition. This final audition determines membership in the band and field placement.
Auditions for feature twirler are held only when the position is open. These auditions occur separately from the auditions for the main band and are generally held in the spring.
Auditions for the colorguard involve submitting a short video demonstrating flag technique and dance skill. Upon approval of the video audition by the colorguard director, the prospective member is then invited to attend band week, where they will perform a short choreography and marching audition to determine membership in the band and field placement.
Instrumentation
Rather than mellophones, baritones, and tubas, LHB has Mellos, SOB's (Society of Baritones), and TUBA!s. Also, the band does not march flutes, only piccolos or Piccs.
Marching
The Longhorn Band performs a different show at each home football game throughout the year. These shows include 'Traditional Shows', which feature signature music and drill, and 'Non-Traditional Shows', which feature contemporary music and a modern marching style.
Curl-on entrance
The curl-on entrance is a traditional entrance in which the marchers enter from both east and west sidelines. To reach this position, the section is positioned on the field, divided in the center, and then the marcher closest to the sideline begins a spiral towards the nearest end zone until all marchers are in a tight spiral with the last marcher on the sideline. This entrance is utilized for Wall-to-Wall Band performances, as well as other special occasions. Marchers enter with a Taps 8 to 5 stride, but adjust to a 6 to 5 interval for downfield marching.
Execution
After 4 whistles, the percussion will play eight "dead beats," during which time the band remains at attention. The function of these 8 counts is to establish tempo in a noisy stadium. Following the 8 dead beats, the person on the sideline leads on the marchers to the field. Marchers kick off from the sideline every two steps. After a designated number of counts, a 9-count halt cadence will be played.
Script Texas
First performed in 1957, "Script Texas" is a traditional halftime show performed every year. The Drum Major leads the band onto the field in a single-file line, spelling "Texas" in script writing. The band is split into two blocks at the start of the performance and begins by playing "The Yellow Rose of Texas." The Drum Major marches over to the front of block one and block one begins spelling out the T-E-X of "Texas". They only spell out the bottom part of the T and the / of the X, though. While the first block follows the Drum Major out onto the field, the color guard who are in block one march in a large circle to the side of the band before putting the top on the T after block one has marched to their positions. At the end of "The Yellow Rose of Texas," the band goes straight into "March of the Longhorns" and the rest of "Texas" is spelled out. Once "March of the Longhorns" is over, "Calypso" starts and the Drum Major leads the Saxophones, who are by themselves, into an arc that comes down and below A and S. This concludes Script Texas, and "Texas Fight" is played while the band marches off of the field.
Wall-to-Wall Band/Shotgun Texas
"Wall to Wall Band" is another traditional drill performed annually by Longhorn Band. The drum line starts in the end zone while the band is off on each of the sidelines curled into spirals. The drum line marches onto the field, playing a cadence while the band usually jumps up and down over on the sides. After the drum line reaches their starting position, the Drum Major calls the band to attention, followed by another cadence that brings the band onto the field. The spirals are unrolled and the band marches straight down the yard lines and form into fronts. A roll off ensues, and "March Grandioso" begins. Every six counts, parts of fronts step off, marching in a six-to-five step, and form less dense fronts that still span the width of the field. Halfway through "March Grandioso," the band halts for 4 counts of silence, followed by a proclamation to beat the hell out of Texas' opponent. The band then continues down the field playing the rest of "March Grandioso" and transitioning straight into "March of the Longhorns." Once a front reaches the opposite end zone, a counter-march is performed to bring the band back the way it came. Before the counter-march, the Longhorn band covers the entire football field, putting meaning to the name Wall-to-Wall band. At the trio of "March of the Longhorns," the band contracts into larger fronts that span the width of the football field, then condense into smaller ones that span a little more than the distance between the hashes. At the end of "March of the Longhorns," Wall-to-Wall Band is officially finished, though it is typically followed by Shotgun Texas, in which several condensed fronts quickly shift to spell "TEXAS" in block letters. To start Shotgun Texas, another roll off starts and the band goes straight into "Texas Fight." After the Intro of "Texas Fight," the band spells out each letter of "TEXAS," leaving the fronts every 8 counts of "Texas Fight." In 2007, a twist was added to Shotgun Texas where, during the Interlude of "Texas Fight," the Longhorn band flipped the "Texas" from its traditionally facing west direction to spell it to the east side for the student section of the stadium. After the Interlude, the band marches off the field, concluding Shotgun Texas.
Pregame
Prior to kickoff at all home football games, the band marches through the north tunnel and fills the north end-zone with fourteen fronts. Instruments are held above the heads of the band members while they march in before coming down to play the fight song. The fronts cross the field using a modified high-step, called Taps Stride. The fronts march through the duration of "Texas Fight" and 8 counts afterwards, then halt and perform "Eyes Fanfare" to the east, north, and finally west side. Afterwards, the band begins "Texas Fight" again and marches the rest of the way down the field, turning once each front hits the 15 yard line and performing a counter-march toward the opposite end zone until stopping at the end of "Texas Fight." The band turns to face the west stands and performs an up-tempo arrangement of "Texas our Texas", the official state song, and the fronts then adjust to form an interlocking UT. The band stays at this position for announcements, the opponent's school song, and finally "The Star Spangled Banner" is played. Since some opponents travel long distances, they can't bring their band. If this is the case, the Longhorn band plays the opponents school song. After "The Star Spangled Banner" and the presentation of the colors, the band starts "Deep in the Heart of Texas" and marches to form a block T. After "Deep in the Heart of Texas," the sideways block T is then floated toward the south end zone while the band plays "Calypso." About a third of the way through "Calypso," the band halts and faces toward the 25 or 35 yard line. Normally, the top of the T stops at the back of the south end zone. However, due to stadium construction, for the 2007 season, the visiting team uses a locker room at the south end of the stadium, so the band stops at the front of the end zone to give the visiting team room to run to their side line. Once stopped, there are a few more announcements that take place, followed by the possible performance of "March Grandioso." "March Grandioso" is only played if enough time is left before the football team comes out. If not, the band goes straight into "The Eyes of Texas." Right after this, a short video is shown, followed by the entrance of the football team, accompanied by "Texas Fight." After this, the band marches through the south end zone before entering the stand for the game.
Non-traditional shows
The Longhorn Band performs four non-traditional shows each year. The band typically selects music that highlights a wide variety of musical artists and thematic ideas. The music and drill for these performances are arranged by current and former staff of the University of Texas School of Music. Thanks to the high general level of musical talent in the Longhorn Band, complex arrangements of popular tunes appear many times every year.
Selected recent non-traditional shows
Grammy's Show – "Get Lucky", "Happy", "Can't Hold Us", "Black Dog", and "Kashmir" Performed November 27, 2014
Buble Show – "It Had Better Be Tonight", "Fever", and "Theme from Spiderman" Performed October 4, 2014
LHBeyoncé Show – "End of Time", "Crazy in Love", "Single Ladies", "Love on Top", "Countdown", and "Love on Top" Performed September 7, 2014
Les Misérables Show – "Look Down", "On My Own", "Plummet Attack", and "One Day More" Performed October 12, 2013
Funk Show – "Living in America", "Superstition", "Uptight", and "Fantasy" Performed November 28, 2013
Disney Show – "The Incredibles", "Pirates of the Caribbean", and "Circle of Life" – Performed September 14, 2013The Who Show – "Who Are You", "Pinball Wizard", "I Can See for Miles", "Won't Get Fooled Again" Performed November 22, 2012Music from West Side Story – "Mambo", "Maria", "Tonight" Performed October 20, 2012Queen Show – "Somebody to Love", "We Are the Champions", "Bicycle Race", "Fat Bottomed Girls", "Bohemian Rhapsody" Performed November 19, 2011Led Zeppelin Show – "Rock and Roll", "Heartbreaker", "Black Dog", "Kashmir", "Stairway to Heaven" Performed January 5, 2009 at the Fiesta Bowl
Heroes Show – "Batman/ Superman", "The Incredibles", "Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves" Performed November 10, 2007Channel One Suite – Buddy Rich's "Channel One Suite" Performed October 20, 2007TV Show – Theme from "Hawaii Five-O", "The A-Team", "The Simpsons", "Family Guy" Performed November 4, 200670s/80s Rock Show – "Any Way You Want It", "25 or 6 to 4", "Carry On Wayward Son" Performed September 2, 2006The Beatles Show – "Help!", "Got to Get You In My Life", "She Loves You", "I Want to Hold You Hand", "Hey Jude" Performed January 4, 2006 at the Rose Bowl
Malagueña – Ernesto Lecuona's "Malagueña" Performed October 7, 2006Secret Agent Show – Theme from "James Bond", "Austin Powers", "Inspector Gadget" Performed October 22, 2005Video Game Show – Theme from "Tetris", "The Legend of Zelda", "Super Mario Bros." Performed November 6, 2004Music
In attendance at all home and away football games, the band performs signature songs. Many have been rooted in the band for many years.
"The Eyes of Texas"
"Texas Fight"
"Taps in One" (a version of Texas Fight played in 3, played after a win)
"Wabash Cannonball" (first played at the request of Darrell K Royal), coincidentally a main fight song of Big 12 Conference rival Kansas State
"March Grandioso"
"March of the Longhorns"
"Deep in the Heart of Texas"
"Calypso"
"William Tell Overture"
"UT Detroit"
"Victory"
"Ghost Riders in the Sky"
"Respect"
"Rawhide"
"Bone Tell" (a version of William Tell Overture arranged for the trombone section and performed at all home games, sometimes for fans around the stadium)
"Strong Eyes"
"Mickey Mouse March" (played to make fun of the Texas A&M Aggies; the Longhorn Band discontinued this practice after the 1999 Aggie Bonfire collapse)
Features
Big Bertha
The band features Big Bertha, which is considered to be one of the world's largest bass drums. The drum is managed by the Bertha Crew, sometimes called "drum wranglers". The crew moves the drum around the field during performances, and twirls it when the team scores. Big Bertha was nicknamed the "Sweetheart of the Longhorn Band" when it arrived at The University of Texas campus in 1955. In 1955, the director of the Longhorn Band was Colonel D. Harold Byrd who purchased Big Bertha from the University of Chicago, then for only one dollar. Big Bertha performs in the traditional Longhorn Band pregame show performed before kickoff at every home game. She also performs in 'Script Texas', another LHB traditional show. She makes appearances at other events, such as appearing outside Gregory Gymnasium before volleyball games.
The drum was retired on October 15, 2022, after 100 years of service, making its last appearance during the halftime show in the football game with the Iowa State Cyclones alongside its replacement, Big Bertha II. The new drum measures 9.5 ft in diameter, making it the largest bass drum in the world.
Cowbells
During football games, members of the Longhorn Band shake cowbells to create noise in the stadium while the opposing team has the ball. The bells are rung only after the opposing team snaps the ball or in conjunction with drum cadences. When the opposing team is in the "red zone", the drumline will, at times, call a cadence that simply calls for the band to create as much noise as possible with the cowbells.
Travel Band
While the entire band traditionally travels to all in-state football games and bowl games, a smaller travel band composed mainly of section leaders is taken to out-of-state games.
Traditions
The University of Texas and Longhorn Band are rooted in countless traditions and historic events. High standards of achievement are at the foundation of these institutions. The most important and lasting of all band traditions are the ever-present pride and spirit. Longhorn Band, the largest organization on The University of Texas campus, is the backbone of school spirit on campus. They take the initiative at pep rallies and games in firing up Texas fans with their favorite yells, and generally add to the excitement that is so characteristic of Texas sporting events. Below are a few of examples of these Longhorn Band and University of Texas traditions.
"Shake the Fringe"
Performed in conjunction with certain drum cadences, "Shake the Fringe" refers to the effect that results from a Longhorn Band member moving their shoulders back and forth in quick, violent motions. The "Fringe" of the uniform then flails wildly in the air.
"Home on the Range"
Sung during the last two minutes of every home football game, the members of the Longhorn Band place their arms around each other, begin swaying from side to side and then jump up-and-down as they sing their own colorful take on a traditional state song:
Home, home on the range,
where the deer and the antelope play [shout: with themselves!]
Where seldom is heard,
a discouraging word,
and the skies are not cloudy all day. [Hey, hey, hey]
The tradition started in the 1970s when the band would often sing dirty songs in the stands. The director at the time yelled at the band to sing something nice like "Home on the Range", and so the version now sung was created.
"Hup...hup...hup"
Innocent and unsuspecting pedestrians may find themselves as objects of entertainment for the Longhorn Band members. After targeting an individual, LHB members will yell "hup" every time the target takes a step. Once the individual realizes what is happening they typically adjust their strides in an effort to confuse, trick, evade, or hoodwink the band. The "hups" continue until the individual stands still, at which point the band lets out a long sigh, or if the individual trips and falls down.
In The Stands
The Longhorn Band follows many traditions while in the stands for Longhorn football games. Most of all, all members stand for the entire game and yell before every play in conjunction with ringing their cowbells. Numerous times throughout the game, the "Texas! . . . Fight!" chant is yelled by the entire stadium. Also, the drumline plays cadences between almost every play, all of which are accompanied by dancing or chanting, such as "Go, Horns, Go", "Where my horns at?", "Defense!", and "Texas, Texas, yeehaw!"
New Member Beanie
After audition results are posted, the new members are presented with the traditional Longhorn Band New Member Beanie. There is then a contest held to see which of the new members can consecutively wear the beanie to practices the longest. The male and female new members who wear their beanie the longest are traditionally rewarded with a steak dinner.
Spring Banquet
Each spring, usually the first weekend in May, the Longhorn Band Spring Awards Banquet takes place. This event is not only a celebration of the previous year's achievements but also the event that passes the torch to the next generation of LHB by the presentation of scholarships and traditional honors such as:
Scholarships awarded by the Alumni Band
Lettering awards for LHB's First and Veteran Members
Passing of the President's Ring to the new council president
Passing of the Freshman Advisor Beanies to the new Advisors
Announcement of the next year's Drum Major, and presentation of the Drum Major Buckle''
Presentation of various other awards for service, achievement, or other significance.
President's Ring
One tradition of LHB is the "Passing of the President's Ring." During this ceremony, which takes place at the annual Spring Banquet, the former Band President presents the ring to the new president. The tradition began at the close of World War II when the parents of Curtis Popham, Longhorn Band Drum Major, who was killed in the war, gave Curtis' University ring to the Band for this purpose.
Drum Major's belt buckle
The Drum Major's belt buckle is passed on to the new Drum Major at the annual Spring Banquet. Engraved on the back are the names of past Longhorn Band Drum Majors beginning in 1969.
Auxiliary and related organizations
Longhorn Alumni Band
The Longhorn Alumni Band, or LHAB, was founded in 1964 by 5 couples and former director Vincent R. DiNino and his wife Jane. LHAB is composed of former members of the Longhorn Band. The Longhorn Alumni Band plays at many events, services, and celebrations around the state as well as Alumni Band Day. On Alumni Band Day, many of the former band members come together for a special halftime performance during one of the football games. During the combined performance, LHB and LHAB share the field, with over 1,000 musicians. The Longhorn Alumni Band is the largest in the world, with over 5,000 members among its ranks, scattered around the globe. In 2015, LHAB performed in the London New Year's Day Parade as the featured band and Big Bertha led the parade. In 2019, LHAB was featured at the 75th Anniversary of D-Day in Normandy France, performed a parade in St. Marie Egleses, and a public performance in Paris France at the Jardin d'Acclimatation. Members of the Longhorn Alumni Band also were instrumental in the formation of the National Association of Alumni Bands in 2020. Since its inception, LHAB has raised over $2,000,000 in scholarships to help Longhorn Band students with tuition and school expenses.
Longhorn Band Student Association
The Longhorn Band Student Association (LHBSA) is the group responsible for organizing student activities within the Longhorn Band. Its main purpose is to serve the Longhorn Band by helping members become acquainted and accustomed to working with one another. The LHBSA is a registered student organization with the U.T. dean of students office. Membership is open to any Longhorn Band member, and the active fees are determined by the members each year. The LHBSA sponsors social events throughout the year and the annual Longhorn Band Awards Banquet in the spring.
The officers of LHBSA are collectively termed the Band Council. Election of officers is held during the spring semester at a general meeting of the members of the LHBSA. The Freshman Advisors are elected by the LHBSA members during a general meeting in the fall. The Presidents of Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma are elected by their respective organizations and the Drum Major is determined by audition. Freshman Representatives are elected by the first year members of Longhorn Band at a special meeting following the posting of the final Longhorn Band audition results. The Parliamentarian, if deemed beneficial, is appointed by the President.
Kappa Kappa Psi/Tau Beta Sigma
The band is supported by a service fraternity and sorority, the Alpha Tau chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi and the Beta Gamma chapter of Tau Beta Sigma, respectively.
Longhorn Pep Band
The Longhorn Pep Band plays at all home volleyball and men's and women's basketball games. While technically a separate ensemble from the Longhorn Band, it falls under the same umbrella of leadership and shares many members with the Longhorn Band.
Supporting organizations
The Longhorn Air Force Reserve Officers Training Corps (AFJROTC) Detachment 825 maintains a small military band that also supports the Longhorn Marching Band.
Awards and honors
In 1974, the Longhorn Band was selected to perform at Super Bowl VIII in Houston, Texas.
In 1986, the Longhorn Band was awarded the prestigious Louis Sudler Intercollegiate Marching Band Trophy.
The Longhorn Band was selected and performed for inaugurations of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and the two inaugurations of George W. Bush.
Honorary members
On May 7, 2007, for the first time in Longhorn Band history presented Coach Mack Brown and Athletic Director DeLoss Dodds with Honorary Membership for their outstanding spirit, pride, and leadership. The Longhorn Band Honorary Membership honor was established by then President of Kappa Kappa Psi Eddie Lopez.
Notable alumni
Rex Tillerson — 69th United States Secretary of State and former ExxonMobil CEO
Alan Bean — NASA astronaut and fourth man to walk on the Moon
Michael Webber — distinguished engineering professor, author, and energy scientist
Carl Meade — NASA astronaut and mission specialist on STS-38, STS-50, and STS-64
References
External links
The University of Texas Longhorn Band
The University of Texas Longhorn Alumni Band
Story on Longhorn Football and Band on ESPN.com
Musical groups established in 1900
University of Texas at Austin
Big 12 Conference marching bands
Musical groups from Texas
1900 establishments in Texas |
4168623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic%20mythology | Turkic mythology | Turkic mythology refers to myths and legends told by the Turkic people. It features Tengrist and Shamanist strata of belief along with many other social and cultural constructs related to the nomadic and warrior way of life of Turkic and Mongol peoples in ancient times. Turkic mythology shares numerous points in common with Mongol mythology. Turkic mythology has also been influenced by other local Asiatic and Eurasian mythologies. For example, in Tatar mythology elements of Finnic and Indo-European mythologies co-exist. Beings from Tatar mythology include Äbädä, Alara, Şüräle, Şekä, Pitsen, Tulpar, and Zilant.
The ancient Turks apparently practised all the then-current major religions in Inner Asia, such as Tibetan Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Judaism, and Manichaeism, before the majority's conversion to Islam filtered through the mediation of Persian and Central Asian culture, as well as through the preaching of Sufi Muslim wandering ascetics and mystics (fakirs and dervishes). Often these other religions were assimilated and integrated through syncretism into their prevailing native mythological tradition, way of life, and worldview. Irk Bitig, a 10th-century manuscript found in Dunhuang, is one of the most important sources for the recovery and study of Turkic mythology and religion. The book is written in Old Turkic alphabet like the Orkhon inscriptions. The circumcision of boys was not practiced, this custom only found its way through Islam.
Mythical creatures
Qarakorshaq, a hiding animal-like creature that can be scared away by light and noise.
Tepegöz, a cyclops-like creature with only one eye on his forehead.
Mythical locations
Yalbuz (Bald Mountain), a mysterious and legendary mountain.
Gods in Turkic mythology
Turko-Mongol mythology is essentially polytheistic but became more monotheistic during the imperial period among the ruling class, and was centered around the worship of Tengri, the omnipresent Sky God. Deities are personified creative and ruling powers. Even if they are anthropomorphised, the qualities of the deities are always in the foreground.
İye are guardian spirits responsible for specific natural elements. They often lack personal traits since they are numerous. Although most entities can be identified as deities or İye, there are other entities such as Genien (Çor) and demons (Abasi).
Tengri
Kök Tengri is the first of the primordial deities in the religion of the early Turkic people. After the Turks started to migrate and leave Central Asia and encounter monotheistic religions, Tengrism was modified from its pagan/polytheistic origins, with only two of the original gods remaining: Tengri, representing goodness and Uçmag (a place like heaven), while Erlik represents evil and hell. The words Tengri and Sky were synonyms. Tengri's appearance is unknown. He rules the fates of all people and acts freely, but he is fair as he awards and punishes. The well-being of the people depends on his will. The oldest form of the name is recorded in Chinese annals from the 4th century BC, describing the beliefs of the Xiongnu. It takes the form /, which is hypothesized to be a Chinese transcription of Tengri.
Other deities
Umay (The Turkic root originally meant 'placenta, afterbirth') is the goddess of fertility and virginity. Umay resembles earth-mother goddesses found in various other world religions and is the daughter of Tengri.
Öd Tengri is the god of time and is not well-attested. It is recorded in the Orkhon stones that Öd Tengri is the ruler of time and a son of Kök Tengri.
Boz Tengri, like Öd Tengri, is also not well-attested. He is seen as the god of the grounds and steppes and is a son of Kök Tengri.
Kayra is the Spirit of God. A primordial god of the highest sky, upper air, space, atmosphere, light, life and a son of Kök Tengri.
Ülgen is the son of Kayra and Umay and is the god of goodness. The Aruğ (Arı) denotes "good spirits" in Turkic and Altaic mythology. They are under the control of Ülgen and do good things on earth.
Mergen is the son of Kayra and the brother of Ülgen. He represents the mind and intelligence. He sits on the seventh floor of the sky, and is considered omniscient.
Kyzaghan is associated with war and depicted as a strong and powerful god. Kyzaghan is the son of Kayra and the brother of Ulgan, and lives on the ninth floor of the sky. He is portrayed as a young man with a helmet and a spear, riding on a red horse.
Erlik is the god of death and the underworld, also known as Tamag.
Alara is a water fairy from Tatar mythology that lives in Lake Baikal. She has the power to heal broken hearts and help people feel love, similar to Cupid.
Ak Ana, the "White Mother", is the primordial creator-goddess of the Turkic peoples. She is also known as the goddess of the water.
Ayaz Ata is a winter god.
Ay Dede is the moon god.
Gün Ana is the sun goddess.
Alaz is the god of fire.
Talay or Dalai is the god of the ocean and seas. (See also: Dalai Lama)
Elos is the goddess of chaos and control. She can be found underground, in the sky or on the earth.
Symbols
Horse
As a result of the Turks' nomadic lifestyle, the horse is also one of the main figures of Turkic mythology; Turks considered the horse an extension of the individual, particularly the male horse. This might have been the origin of the title "at-beyi" (horse-lord).
Tulpar is a winged or swift horse in Turkic mythology (for example, Kazakh and Tatar mythology), similar to Pegasus. Tulpar is also found on the state emblems of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Bashkortostan.
Dragon
The dragon (Evren, also Ebren), also depicted as a snake or a lizard, is a symbol of might and power. It is believed, especially in mountainous Central Asia, that dragons still live in the mountains of Tian Shan/Tengri Tagh and Altay. Dragons also symbolize the god Tengri in ancient Turkic tradition, although dragons themselves were not worshiped as gods.
Tree
The World Tree or Tree of Life is a central symbol in Turkic mythology, and may have its origin in Central Asia. According to the Altai Turks, human beings are actually descended from trees. According to the Yakuts, Ak Ana sits at the base of the Tree of Life, whose branches reach to the heavens and are occupied by various supernatural creatures which have been born there. The Tree of Life is known as the "white creator lord" (Yryn-al-tojon). Yakut myth thus combines the cosmic tree with a mother goddess into a concept of nourishing and sustaining entity. The blue sky around the tree indicates the peaceful nature of the country. The red ring that surrounds all of the elements represents rebirth, growth and the development of the Turkic peoples.
Deer
Among animals, the deer was considered to be the mediator par excellence between the worlds of gods and men; thus at the funeral ceremony the soul of the deceased was accompanied in his/her journey to the underworld (Tamag) or abode of the ancestors (Uçmag) by the spirit of a deer offered as a funerary sacrifice (or present symbolically in funerary iconography accompanying the physical body) acting as psychopomp.
In the Ottoman Empire, and more specifically in western Asia Minor and Thrace the deer cult seems to have been widespread, no doubt as a result of the meeting and mixing of Turkic with local traditions. A famous case is the 13th century holy man Geyiklü Baba (ie. 'father deer'), who lived with his deer in the mountain forests of Bursa and gave hind's milk to a colleague. Material in the Ottoman sources is not scarce but it is rather dispersed and very brief, denying us a clear picture of the rites involved.
In this instance the ancient funerary associations of the deer (literal or physical death) may be seen here to have been given a new (Islamic) slant by their equation with the metaphorical death of fanaa (the Sufi practice of dying-to-self) which leads to spiritual rebirth in the mystic rapture of baqaa.
Epics
Grey Wolf legend
The wolf symbolizes honor and is also considered the mother of most Turkic peoples. Ashina is the name of one of the ten sons who were given birth to by a mythical wolf in Turkic mythology.
The legend tells of a young boy who survived a raid in his village. A she-wolf finds the injured child and nurses him back to health. He subsequently impregnates the wolf which then gives birth to ten half-wolf, half-human boys. One of these, Ashina, becomes their leader and establishes the Ashina clan which ruled the Göktürks (T'u-chueh) and other Turkic nomadic empires. The wolf, pregnant with the boy's offspring, escaped her enemies by crossing the Western Sea to a cave near to the Qocho mountains, one of the cities of the Tocharians. The first Turks subsequently migrated to the Altai regions, where they are known as experts in ironworking.
Ergenekon legend
The Ergenekon legend tells about a great crisis of the ancient Turks. Following a military defeat, the Turks took refuge in the legendary Ergenekon valley where they were trapped for four centuries. They were finally released when a blacksmith created a passage by melting a mountain, allowing the gray wolf to lead them out. A New Year's ceremony commemorates the legendary ancestral escape from Ergenekon.
Oghuz legends
The legend of Oghuz Khagan is a central political mythology for Turkic peoples of Central Asia and eventually the Oghuz Turks who ruled in Anatolia and Iran. Versions of this narrative have been found in the histories of Rashid ad-Din Tabib, in an anonymous 14th-century Uyghur vertical script manuscript now in Paris, and in Abu'l Ghazi's Shajara at-Turk and have been translated into Russian and German.
Korkut Ata stories
The Book of Dede Korkut from the 11th century covers twelve legendary stories of the Oghuz Turks, one of the major branches of the Turkic peoples. It originates from the state of Oghuz Yabghu period of the Turks, from when Tengriist elements in the Turkic culture were still predominant. It consists of a prologue and twelve different stories. The legendary story which begins in Central Asia is narrated by a dramatis personae, in most cases by Korkut Ata himself. Korkut Ata heritage (stories, tales, music related to Korkut Ata) represented by Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkey was included in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO in November 2018 as an example of multi-ethnic culture.
Other epics
Alp Er Tunga
Akbuzat
Epic of Manas: The epic war of Manas is the hero of the Kyrgyz with the Khitan and Kalmykian Turks, in which Manas defeats other Turks.
After Islam
Battal Gazi: The Epic of the Battle of Battal, the story of the battle between the Turkish and Arab Muslim heroes, Battal, with Byzantium (modern-day Turkey)
Epic of Köroğlu: Köroğlu or (?) is the son of Ali Kishi. The name Köroğlu, a combination of Persian and Turkish, means 'the son of a blind man'. Ali Kishi is blinded by his tyrant master and takes refuge in the mountains with two legendary horses and his son. During his adventures, Köroğlu obtains his sword and horses and defeats the tyrant lord.
Edigu: Edigu was a Turkic Muslim emir of the White Horde and founder of the Nogai Horde.
Danishmend Gazi: Danishmend Gazi was the founder of the beylik of Danishmends. After the Turkish advance into Anatolia, following the Battle of Manzikert, his dynasty controlled the north-central regions in Anatolia.
Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan: Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was one of the first Turkic rulers to convert to Islam,
Alpamysh: Love story of Alpamish and Barchin.
Ural Batyr: The story of Ural and his legends taken from Persian and Bashkir stories.
Epic of King Gesar in Turkic peoples
Chadwick and Zhirmunsky consider that the main outlines of the cycle as we have it in Mongolia, Tibet and Ladakh show an outline that conforms to the pattern of heroic poetry among the Turkic peoples.
(a) Like the Kirghiz hero Bolot, Gesar, as part of an initiation descends as a boy into the underworld.
(b) The gateway to the underworld is through a rocky hole or cave on a mountain summit.
(c) He is guided through the otherworld by a female tutelary spirit (Manene/grandmother) who rides an animal, like the Turkic shamaness kara Chach.
(d) Like kara Chach, Gesar's tutelary spirit helps him against a host of monstrous foes in the underworld.
(e) Like Bolot, Gesar returns in triumph to the world, bearing the food of immortality and the water of life.
(f) Like the Altai shamans, Gesar is borne heavenward on the back of a bird to obtain herbs to heal his people.
They conclude that the stories of the Gesar cycle were well known in the territory of the Uyghur Khaganate.
Orkhon Inscriptions and Creation narrative
The Old Turkic Orkhon inscriptions tells about Father-Heaven and Mother Earth giving raise to Mankind (child):
"When the blue Heaven above and the brown Earth beneath arose, between the twain Mindkind arose."
Mankind was not created but the result of interaction between heaven and earth.
Legendary origins of the Turkic peoples
One of the most important features of Turkic mythology is that each tribe, however small, has a personal descent legend. For example, in the Oğuzname, the legend of the descent of each mentioned tribe is told first.
Another well-known genesis legend is the genesis of the Kirghiz people. According to this legend, forty girls (Kirghiz: kırk kız) left from the water of a sacred lake constitute the first Kirghiz people.
Siberian Turkic mythology
The Turkic peoples of Siberia are the ones who have kept Turkic mythology the most lively, colorful and preserved. Until today, they still worship the sacred beings of Tengrism and continue to keep the legend tradition of the old Turks alive.
For example, there is an ancient mythology among people of Dolgan, whose numbers are very low. Dolgans, living in the Tundra climate in the far north of Siberia, occasionally encounter Mammoth corpses, half of which have not been thawed out of the ground for 10,000 years, during their nomads. The Dolgans believe that Erlik Khan, the lord of the underworld, took the mammoths into the underworld and made them serve him. According to their beliefs, mammoths are trapped in the underworld. If they try to get to the earth, they will freeze immediately as a punishment. According to Vasily Radlov, Dolgans explained that these giant animals, which they had never seen alive, were half buried, half out, and frozen in this way. In Altaians, Yakuts, and other Siberian Turks, too, it is the good and evil spirits and sacred beings who are responsible for much of what goes on in their world. By praying and giving victim, they try to make them pleasant so that the blessings are not interrupted.
Buddhist Turkic mythology
In the 9th century, they adopted the Buddhist religion of the Old Uyghurs and developed the first large established Turkic culture on the basis of this religion. It is known that Uyghur monks translated thousands of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit and Chinese into Turkic during this period. Among these, many foreign legends were translated into Turkic, but old Turkic epics and history were also written down. They built the largest library of its time in the city of Khotan, but unfortunately this library was completely burned in an attack by the Kyrgyz. Only few of the pages remain to this day, but the number of pages (page 500- page 600) appearing on some of these page fragments proves how extensive and detailed these books are.
Among these few remains are legends designed to bring new monks to monasteries. For example, someone tells a terrible story to portray material life as bad and disgusting (Old Turkic):
körüp ince sakıntı. Bo menin yutuzum bo tep içgerü kirip ülüg birle yattı... Yeme esrökin biligsizin üçün ölügüg kuçup uluvsuz bilig sürüp ol ölügke katıltı küçedükinte ötrü ölüg yarıltı... ol yarsinçıg et'özinteki kan irin arıgsız yablak taşıltı tökülti... yeme ol tözün är kamag özi tonı baştan adakka tegü kanka irinke örgenip uvutsuz biligin üçün esrükin ögsüz bolup könülina anıg ögrünçülük boltum tep sakıntı... ançagınçagan yarın yarudı kün tugdı... ol tözün er esröki adıntı usınta uduntı birök başın yokarı kötürüp körti supurgan icre yatukın koyınta ölüg yatur irin kan tökülür tüze yıdıyor kenti özün körtü kop kanka bulganmış arıgsızka ürgenmişin körüp ötrü belinledi anıg korkutı ulug ünün manradı terkin tul tonka taşıkıp tezdi nece yügürür erti anca kusar yarsıyur erti ol munca arıg ton kedsimişin antak terkin butarlayu üze bice yırtıp taşgaru kemişti ancak yügürtü bardı.. bir toş boşına tegti.. ötrü özin ol toş başına kemişti yuntı arıtıntı ol..
In the story quoted above, a desperate man, whose wife died and was drinking, goes to the grave of his deceased wife, opens the grave and has sexual intercourse with his wife's body until he is very drunk. He makes love to the corpse so violently that the decomposed body begins to crumble between his arms. The man is covered with bruised blood and pus from head to toe. Finally, the day breaks, the man lifts his head and sees that his wife is lying in the grave next to his body, blood is spilled from the body. He sees himself covered with blood and pus. Suddenly he realizes his monstrosity, hates himself, begins to tear his clothes, fears, and panics. The man comes out of the grave and starts running. On the one hand it cries, on the other hand it vomits. As always in such Buddhist stories, the man eventually goes to a monastery and devotes his life to the Buddha, far from the whole material world.
Gazelle Hunt
In some other stories the subject of Buddha's being reborn in other bodies is dealt with. In one of the stories, an unstable Indian ruler hunts with hundreds of his men and kills thousands of gazelles. A golden gazelle, the leader of gazelles, is the reincarnation of Buddha. The golden gazelle warns the ruler and orders him to stop taking life, but the ruler does not listen. The golden gazelle will punish them all badly in the end.
Traces of Turkic mythology in Europe
It is possible to find traces of Turkic mythology in Europe due to the ancient Turkic peoples who migrated to Europe. Especially Huns and proto-Bulgarians have been the subject of epics. The best-known epic of German mythology is the epic of the German hero Siegfried, who fought against the Huns and dragons. In this epic, Attila's name is "Etzel".
Every Bulgarian child who reads the Asparuh saga brought to the Balkans by the Proto-Bulgars (Turkic Bulgars) in the first grade in Bulgaria can know by heart. In addition, elementary school children play parts of the Asparuh saga on the spring festival "March mother", also brought by the Proto-Bulgarians. In the animated part, Khan Asparuh founded the first Bulgarian state and asks to make a dedication to the Sky God Tengri to celebrate it. Before making a dedication, he must burn a bunch of dill in a sacred fire, but he cannot find dill anywhere. That's why he gets very sad. His sister, who is far away on the Volga shores, feels the pain of Asparuh and ties a bunch of dill to the feet of a hawk and sends them. Hungarians also have a very long Attila and old Turkic epics.
Sven Laagarbring said, “Our ancestors Oden's comrades are Turks. We have enough documents on this subject. There are those who want to show them as Thraces or Gets. I do not feel the need to criticize. My conclusions do not change. Because these are also peoples who have an adventure with the Turks. Our leaders easily portray our ancestors as Turks and Nomads.” About the Similarities of Swedish with Turkic Undersecretary and Knight Bay Johan Ihre 5 years before he wrote the book, the book of history and he wrote to Snorre Sturlesson's writings that Oden and his supporters are Turkic. Wanted to prove it based on northern legends, tales and epics. He went further and examined the similarities between Swedish and Turkish.
Modern interpretations
Decorative arts
A motif of the tree of life is featured on Turkish 5-kuruş-coins, circulated since early 2009.
The flag of the Chuvash Republic, a federal subject of Russia, is charged with a stylized tree of life, a symbol of rebirth, with the three suns, a traditional emblem popular in Chuvash art. Deep red stands for the land, the golden yellow for prosperity.
See also
Finnic mythology
Hungarian mythology
Mongol mythology
Manchu mythology
Tibetan mythology
Scythian mythology
Shamanism in Siberia
Turkish folklore
Susulu (mythology)
Turkic creation myth
Notes
References
Bonnefoy, Yves; Doniger, Wendy (1993). Asian Mythologies, University Of Chicago Press, pp. 315-339.
Hausman, Gerald; Hausman, Loretta (2003). The Mythology of Horses: Horse Legend and Lore Throughout the Ages. pp. 37-46.
Heissig, Walter (2000). The Religions of Mongolia, Kegan Paul.
Klyashtornyj, S. G. (2005). 'Political Background of the Old Turkic Religion' in: Oelschlägel, Nentwig, Taube (eds.), "Roter Altai, gib dein Echo!" Leipzig:FS Taube, , pp. 260-265.
Türk Söylence Sözlüğü (Turkish Mythology Dictionary), Deniz Karakurt, (OTRS: CC BY-SA 3.0)
满都呼, 中国阿尔泰语系诸民族神话故事 [Folklores of Chinese Altaic races]. 民族出版社, 1997. .
贺灵, 新疆宗教古籍资料辑注 [Materials of old texts of Xinjiang religions]. 新疆人民出版社, May 2006. .
Further reading
Kulsariyeva, Aktolkyn, Madina Sultanova, i Zhanerke Shaigozova. 2018. "The Shamanistic Universe of Central Asian Nomads: Wolves and She-Wolves". In: Przegląd Wschodnioeuropejski 9 (2): 231-40. https://doi.org/10.31648/pw.3192.
External links
Alpamysh
Shamanism in Mongolia and Tibet
DASTAN GENRE IN CENTRAL ASIA
The Altaic Epic
Tengri on Mars
Turkish Mythology Dictionary - Multilingual (English)
Doğan Kaya, Derlemeler
Archive of Turkish Oral Narrative
Turuz - Online Turkic Dictionaries
Turklib - Turkistan Library
Culture of Turkey
Asian mythology
Culture of Azerbaijan
Tengriism |
4168628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season | 1997 NCAA Division I-A football season | The 1997 NCAA Division I-A football season, play of college football in the United States organized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the Division I-A level, began in late summer 1997 and culminated with the major bowl games in early January 1998. The national championship was split for the third time in the 1990s. The Michigan Wolverines finished the season atop the AP Poll after completing a 12–0 campaign with a Big Ten Conference championship and a victory in the Rose Bowl over Washington State. The Nebraska Cornhuskers garnered the top ranking in the Coaches' Poll with a 13–0 record, a Big 12 Conference championship, and a win over Tennessee in the Orange Bowl. Michigan's Charles Woodson, who played primarily at cornerback, but also saw time on offense as a wide receiver and on special teams as a punt returner, won the Heisman Trophy, becoming the first primarily defensive player to win the award. The 1997 season was the third and final season in which the major bowl games were organized under the Bowl Alliance system. The Bowl Championship Series was instituted the following year.
In Tom Osborne's last season as head coach, Nebraska took over the No. 1 ranking in the nation after defeating Texas Tech midway through the season. Three weeks later, Nebraska slipped to a No. 3 ranking in both polls, as voters weren't impressed by the way the Cornhuskers won their game against an unranked Missouri team (a controversial kicked ball was caught for the game-tying TD as time expired in regulation, leading to a 45-38 overtime win). Michigan moved to No. 1 in the AP Poll after its 34–8 victory over previously No. 2 ranked Penn State, while the Coaches Poll selected Florida State as No. 1 due to their 20-3 win over previously No. 5 North Carolina.
Florida State went into their final regular season game undefeated and still ranked No. 1 in the Coaches Poll. However, Fred Taylor of Florida would run for 162 yards and four touchdowns on the nation's top-ranked run defense, one of those touchdowns being the winning score with less than two minutes to play. This game is commonly referred to as "The Greatest Game Ever Played in the Swamp".
Meanwhile, undefeated No. 1 Nebraska squared off in the 1998 Orange Bowl versus the No. 3 ranked Tennessee Volunteers. The Cornhuskers made a point of smacking down Tennessee as they defeated the Volunteers 42–17. Unusually for the low-key Osborne and his straight-ahead team, after the game he campaigned openly for Nebraska to be named the consensus national champion (Grant Wistrom stated that if "they wanted to give it to Michigan because they haven't won one in 50 years, we don't want it anyway.").
After the bowl games, the coaches poll awarded the national championship to Nebraska, and the AP Poll awarded the national championship to Michigan, giving Osborne his third national title in four seasons to cap his career. This also marked the last time that a Big 10 (or Pac-10) team would be bound to play in the Rose Bowl instead of heading to a No. 1-No. 2 title game, due to the 1998 BCS realignment.
The Humanitarian Bowl, now known as the Famous Idaho Potato Bowl, began play in Boise, Idaho to help publicise the dwindling Big West Conference and Boise State. The Broncos with their blue turf had just made the jump to Division I-A a year earlier. The Big West champion had formerly gone to the Las Vegas Bowl, but the now only 6 team conference wasn't much of a seat filler.
The Motor City Bowl, now the Little Caesars Pizza Bowl, began play in Detroit hosted by a MAC team.
The Copper Bowl gained corporate sponsorship and was now known as the Insight.com Bowl; it is now known as the Cactus Bowl.
The MAC also grew to a 12-team, two-division conference with a championship game after the return of two former MAC members—Northern Illinois, returning from the independent ranks, and Marshall, moving up from Division I-AA. Marshall's addition increased the number of teams in Division I-A to 112. In a scenario similar to the Big West in 1992, this up-and-comer from I-AA was able to win its division and the inaugural conference championship game in its first year. The Thundering Herd had gone unbeaten and won the I-AA national title the previous season, and had future NFL stars Randy Moss and Chad Pennington.
Rule changes
Starting with the third overtime period, teams must go for a two-point conversion after a touchdown.
Strengthened the enforcement of chop blocks.
Charged teams with a time-out if a player is not wearing their mouth guard. If a team is out of time-outs when the infraction occurs, a five-yard penalty is assessed.
Changed the penalty for roughing the punt receiver to 15 yards if he is contacted by a defender within six feet after catching the ball.
Requiring the game clock be started once the ball is kicked on kickoffs and free kicks after safeties except in the final 2:00 of each half.
The clock for halftime was to be started immediately following the conclusion of the second quarter. Previously, the clock did not start until all participants had cleared the field and the referee signaled the timekeeper to start the clock.
The officials' uniforms now include a letter on the back showing their position ("R" for Referee, "U" for Umpire, "H" for Head Linesman, etc.). The Big Eight Conference was the first to require this in the mid-1980s, followed shortly thereafter by the Southwest Conference and the Pacific-10 Conference. The Atlantic Coast Conference, Big Ten Conference and Southeastern Conference did not require this until the NCAA made it mandatory.
Conference and program changes
One team upgraded from Division I-AA prior to the season. As such, the total number of Division I-A schools increased again, from 111 to 112.
The MAC added two new members, independent (and former member) Northern Illinois and Division I-AA power Marshall, to expand to 12 teams. The league subsequently formed two divisions and added a league championship game.
East Carolina joined a conference for the first time since Division I split in 1978, becoming a member of Conference USA.
Regular Season
August–September
The preseason AP Poll listed Penn State as the top team, followed by No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 Washington, and No. 5 Tennessee. Foreshadowing a year with a lack of consensus at the top, the Coaches Poll selected Florida rather than Penn State as their No. 1 club.
August 30: No. 2 Florida defeated Southern Mississippi 21-6 and No. 5 Tennessee won 52-17 over Texas Tech. The other top teams had not begun their schedules, and the next AP Poll featured No. 1 Penn State, No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Washington, and No. 5 Florida State.
September 6: No. 1 Penn State defeated rival Pittsburgh 34-17, No. 2 Florida overwhelmed Central Michigan 82-6, No. 3 Tennessee staved off a UCLA comeback for a 30-24 victory, No. 4 Washington won 42-20 at No. 19 Brigham Young, and No. 5 Florida State used a late 97-yard touchdown drive to beat No. 23 USC 14-7. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Penn State, No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Washington, No. 4 Tennessee, and No. 5 Florida State.
September 13: No. 1 Penn State dominated Temple 52-10. No. 2 Florida was idle. No. 3 Washington continued to move up with a 36-3 defeat of San Diego State, No. 4 Tennessee was also idle, and No. 5 Florida State crushed Maryland 50-7. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Penn State, No. 2 Washington, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Tennessee, and No. 5 Florida State.
September 20: No. 1 Penn State won 57-21 at Louisville, but No. 2 Washington fell 27-14 to No. 7 Nebraska. No. 3 Florida and No. 4 Tennessee squared off in Gainesville, where the defending champs prevailed 33-20; Volunteers quarterback Peyton Manning finished his career winless against the Gators in four tries. Peter Warrick had 249 receiving yards as No. 5 Florida State beat No. 16 Clemson 35-28, while conference rival No. 6 North Carolina won 40-14 at Maryland. Florida now took over the No. 1 spot in both polls, and they were followed in the AP rankings by No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 Florida State, and No. 5 North Carolina.
September 27: No. 1 Florida won 55-28 at Kentucky. No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Nebraska, and No. 4 Florida State were all idle, while No. 5 North Carolina defeated Virginia 48-20. The top five remained the same.
October
October 4: All of the highly-ranked teams won easily. No. 1 Florida blew out Arkansas 56-7, No. 2 Penn State was almost as dominant with a 41-6 victory at Illinois, No. 3 Nebraska hosted No. 17 Kansas State for a 56-26 win, No. 4 Florida State shut out rival Miami 47-0, and No. 5 North Carolina beat Texas Christian 31-10 on the road. The top five again remained the same.
October 11: No. 1 Florida was upset 28-21 by No. 14 LSU. No. 2 Penn State returned to the top spot with a 31-27 comeback win over No. 7 Ohio State. No. 3 Nebraska won 49-21 at Baylor, No. 4 Florida State visited Duke for a 51-27 victory, No. 5 North Carolina beat Wake Forest 30-12, and No. 6 Michigan defeated Northwestern 23-6. The next poll featured No. 1 Penn State, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 North Carolina, and No. 5 Michigan.
October 18: After trailing 15-3 in the fourth quarter, No. 1 Penn State scored two late touchdowns to escape mediocre Minnesota by a 16-15 score. No. 2 Nebraska was more impressive in a 29-0 shutout of Texas Tech. No. 3 Florida State also held their opponent scoreless, winning 38-0 over No. 21 Georgia Tech. No. 4 North Carolina won 20-7 at North Carolina State, and No. 5 Michigan made a late comeback of their own in a 28-24 defeat of No. 15 Iowa. Nebraska took over the No. 1 spot in both polls by a very close margin, followed by No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 North Carolina, and No. 5 Michigan.
October 25: No. 1 Nebraska posted their second straight shutout, 35-0 at Kansas. No. 2 Penn State was idle. No. 3 Florida State won 47-21 at Virginia. No. 4 North Carolina was also idle, while No. 5 Michigan posted a 23-7 defeat of No. 15 Michigan State. With their second straight win over a ranked opponent, the Wolverines moved up in the next poll: No. 1 Nebraska, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 Michigan, and No. 5 North Carolina.
November
October 30-November 1: No. 1 Nebraska overwhelmed rival Oklahoma 69-7. No. 2 Penn State had another close call, winning 30-27 at Northwestern. No. 3 Florida State defeated North Carolina State 48-35, No. 4 Michigan beat Minnesota 24-3, and No. 5 North Carolina held off Georgia Tech 16-13. The top five remained the same in the next poll.
November 8: In the “Flea Kicker” game, No. 1 Nebraska trailed Missouri 38-31 with seven seconds left. Cornhuskers quarterback Scott Frost launched a pass which bounced off the receiver’s chest, off a Missouri defender’s foot, off a Nebraska player’s leg, and finally into the arms of Nebraska’s Matt Davison for a game-tying touchdown. The Cornhuskers came away with a 45-38 overtime victory. Meanwhile, No. 2 Penn State fell 34-8 to No. 4 Michigan and No. 3 Florida State won 20-3 at No. 5 North Carolina. No. 7 Ohio State blew out Minnesota 31-3, while No. 8 Tennessee beat No. 24 Southern Mississippi 44-20. After Nebraska’s struggles and Michigan and Florida State’s triumphs, both polls elevated new teams to the top. The AP’s top five were No. 1 Michigan, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 Ohio State, and No. 5 Tennessee, while the Coaches Poll ranked Florida State in the top spot.
November 15: No. 1 Michigan won 26-16 at No. 23 Wisconsin, No. 2 Florida State blew out Wake Forest 58-7 to clinch the outright ACC title, No. 3 Nebraska destroyed Iowa State 77-14 to earn a spot in the Big 12 championship game, No. 4 Ohio State beat Illinois 41-6, and No. 5 Tennessee won 30-22 at Arkansas. The top five remained the same in the next poll.
November 22: No. 1 Michigan faced off against No. 4 Ohio State with the opportunity to clinch the Big Ten title and a Rose Bowl berth. Three times in the past four years, Ohio State had entered their rivalry game undefeated only to be tripped up by the Wolverines. This time Michigan was the one with a perfect record, and they continued their winning streak over the Buckeyes with a 20-14 victory. In another rivalry game, No. 2 Florida State visited No. 10 Florida hoping to conclude an undefeated season of their own. In a back-and-forth contest with seven lead changes, Doug Johnson’s 63-yard pass set up a 1-yard touchdown run by Fred Taylor for a 32-29 Gators victory. No. 3 Nebraska was idle. No. 5 Tennessee won 59-31 at Kentucky to lock up the SEC Eastern Division title. No. 6 Penn State, whose Rose Bowl hopes were dashed by Michigan’s win, beat No. 24 Wisconsin 35-10. Michigan now held the No. 1 spot in both polls, followed by No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Penn State, and No. 5 Florida State.
November 29: No. 1 Michigan had finished their schedule. No. 2 Nebraska held off a late Colorado comeback for a 27-24 win. No. 3 Tennessee got past Vanderbilt 17-10. No. 4 Penn State lost 49-14 at Michigan State. No. 5 Florida State and No. 6 UCLA had finished their schedules, but both teams moved up in the next poll: No. 1 Michigan, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Florida State, and No. 5 UCLA.
December
December 6: No. 2 Nebraska annihilated No. 14 Texas A&M in the Big 12 Championship Game, leading 47-3 in the fourth quarter and coming away with a 54-15 victory to enter bowl season undefeated. No. 3 Tennessee had a much harder time in the SEC Championship Game against No. 11 Auburn, but Peyton Manning threw for 373 yards and four touchdowns, including a 73-yard pass in the fourth quarter which made the difference in the Volunteers’ 30-29 win. With all other teams having finished their schedules, the top five remained the same in the next poll.
For the third time in four years, the Big Ten and Pac-10’s contract with the Rose Bowl prevented the only two undefeated teams in the nation from meeting in a bowl game. Since No. 1 Michigan was obligated to play the Pac-10 champion (No. 8 Washington State) in Pasadena, No. 2 Nebraska’s Orange Bowl opponent would be one-loss No. 3 Tennessee. Among other major bowls, the Sugar would match No. 4 Florida State up against No. 9 Ohio State, the Cotton would feature No. 5 UCLA and No. 20 Texas A&M, and the Fiesta would pit No. 10 Kansas State against the Big East champ, No. 14 Syracuse.
Conference standings
AP Poll progress
+Penn State and Michigan were Big Ten teams, and Washington was a Pac-10 team. The Big Ten and Pac-10 conferences played in the Rose Bowl rather than the Bowl Alliance championship game.
Bowl games
Final AP Poll
Michigan
Nebraska
Florida State
Florida
UCLA
North Carolina
Tennessee
Kansas St.
Washington St.
Georgia
Auburn
Ohio St.
LSU
Arizona St.
Purdue
Penn St.
Colorado St.
Washington
So. Mississippi
Texas A&M
Syracuse
Mississippi
Missouri
Oklahoma St.
Georgia Tech
Others receiving votes: 26. Arizona; 27. Oregon; 28. Air Force; 29. Marshall; 30. Virginia; 31. Clemson; 32. Louisiana Tech; 33. Mississippi St.; 34. Michigan St.; 35. Wisconsin; 36. New Mexico ; 37. Cincinnati; 38. Notre Dame; 39. Iowa; 40. Virginia Tech.
Final Coaches Poll
Nebraska
Michigan
Florida State
North Carolina
UCLA
Florida
Kansas St.
Tennessee
Washington St.
Georgia
Auburn
Ohio St.
Louisiana St.
Arizona St.
Purdue
Colorado St.
Penn St.
Washington
Southern Mississippi
Syracuse
Texas A&M
Mississippi
Missouri
Oklahoma St.
Air Force
Others receiving votes: 26. Clemson (58); 27. Georgia Tech (55); 28. Iowa (32); 29. Louisiana Tech (31); 30. Oregon (25); 31. Cincinnati (24); 32. Arizona (23); 33. Mississippi St. (20); 34. Michigan St. (16); 35. New Mexico and Wisconsin (13); 37. Tulane (10); 38. Virginia (9); 39. West Virginia (7); 40. Marshall (4); 41. Notre Dame (1).
Awards
Heisman Trophy voting
The Heisman Trophy is given to the year's most outstanding player
Other major awards
Maxwell Award (College Player of the Year) – Peyton Manning, Tennessee
Walter Camp Award (Back) – Charles Woodson, Michigan
Davey O'Brien Award (Quarterback) – Peyton Manning, Tennessee
Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award (Senior Quarterback) – Peyton Manning, Tennessee
Doak Walker Award (Running Back) – Ricky Williams, Texas
Fred Biletnikoff Award (Wide Receiver) – Randy Moss, Marshall
Bronko Nagurski Trophy (Defensive Player) – Charles Woodson, Michigan
Dick Butkus Award (Linebacker) – Andy Katzenmoyer, Ohio St.
Lombardi Award (Lineman or Linebacker) – Grant Wistrom, Nebraska
Outland Trophy (Interior Lineman) – Aaron Taylor, Nebraska
Jim Thorpe Award (Defensive Back) – Charles Woodson, Michigan
Lou Groza Award (Placekicker) – Martin Gramatica, Kansas State
Paul "Bear" Bryant Award – Lloyd Carr, Michigan
Football Writers Association of America Coach of the Year Award: Mike Price, Washington St.
References |
4168648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20symphonies%20by%20key | List of symphonies by key | This list of symphonies by key is a list of symphonies sorted by key. For the least often used keys in orchestral music, the symphony listed might be famous only for being in that key.
C major
In the Classical period, C major was the key most often chosen for symphonies with trumpets and timpani. Even in the Romantic period, with its greater use of minor keys and the ability to use trumpets and timpani in any key, C major remained a very popular choice of key for a symphony. The following list includes only the most famous examples.
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 1, Op. 21 (1800)
Georges Bizet
Symphony in C (1855)
Paul Dukas
Symphony in C (1896)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 7, “Le Midi” (1761)
Symphony No. 48, “Maria Theresia” (1769)
Symphony No. 82, “The Bear” (1786)
Symphony No. 97 (1792)
Michael Haydn
Symphony No. 39, MH 478, Perger 31 (1788)
Franz Liszt
Faust Symphony, S 108 (1857)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 9, KV 73 (1769)
Symphony No. 16, KV 128 (1772)
Symphony No. 22, KV 162 (1773)
Symphony No. 28, KV 200 (1774)
Symphony No. 34, KV 338 (1780)
Symphony No. 36, "Linz", KV 425 (1783)
Symphony No. 41, "Jupiter", KV 551 (1788)
Sergei Prokofiev
Symphony No. 4 (original version), Op. 47, 1930
Symphony No. 4 (revised version), Op. 112, 1947
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 6, D. 589
Symphony No. 9, "The Great", D. 944 (1828)
Robert Schumann
Symphony No. 2, Op. 61 (1846)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 7, "Leningrad", Op. 60 (1942)
Jean Sibelius
Symphony No. 3, Op. 52 (1907)
Symphony No. 7, Op. 105 (1924)
Igor Stravinsky
Symphony in C (1940)
Richard Wagner
Symphony in C major, WWV 29 (1832)
C minor
The key of C minor was, like most other minor keys, associated with the literary Sturm und Drang movement during the Classical period. But ever since Ludwig van Beethoven's famous Symphony No. 5, Op. 67, of 1808, C minor imparts a symphony in the key a character of heroic struggle. Early classical symphonies in the key typically ended in C minor but with a picardy third for the very final chord. Following Beethoven's precedent, most C minor symphonies of the Romantic period end in C major. Another option is to end in E-flat major (the relative key), as Mahler does in his Second Symphony.
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 5, op. 67 (1808)
Felix Mendelssohn
Symphony No. 1, Op. 11 (1824)
Johannes Brahms
Symphony No. 1, Op. 68 (1876)
Anton Bruckner
Symphony No. 1 (1868)
Symphony No. 2 (1872)
Symphony No. 8 (1887)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 1 (1865)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 52
Symphony No. 95
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 2 "Resurrection" (1894)
Camille Saint-Saëns
Symphony No. 3 "Organ", Op. 78 (1886)
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 4 "Tragic", D 417
Alexander Scriabin
Symphony No. 2, Op. 29 (1901)
Symphony No. 3 "Le Divin Poème", Op. 43 (1904)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 4, Op. 43 (1936)
Symphony No. 8, Op. 65 (1943)
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Symphony No. 2 "Little Russian", Op. 17 (1872)
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 6, Op. 58
C-sharp minor
Even by Mahler's time, symphonies in C-sharp minor were rare. Some of the works listed below might have no claim to fame besides being in this key.
Arnold Bax
Symphony No. 5
Ernest Bloch
Symphony in C-sharp minor (1902)
Joseph Martin Kraus
Symphony in C-sharp minor, VB 140. Identified by musicologist Bertil H. van Boer in program notes for the Naxos recording as one of only two C-sharp minor symphonies written in the 18th century.
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 5 (1902) - Mahler objected to this key assignment, preferring none at all
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 2 (1910–11)
Sergei Prokofiev
Symphony No. 7, Op. 131 (1952)
Ture Rangström
Symphony No. 1 August Strindberg in Memoriam (1914)
Vissarion Shebalin
Symphony No. 2 (1929 )
C-sharp major
Symphonies in C-sharp are much rarer than those in D-flat major and one has to look beyond the standard core repertoire to find them.
Erwin Dressel
Symphony in D-flat major (1928)
Anastazy Wilhelm Dreszer (1843 - 1907)
Symphony No. 1, Op. 3 (1865)
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 25, Op. 69 (1945-6)
Ture Rangström
Symphony No. 3, "Song under the Stars" (1929)
D major
Baroque and Classical symphonies in D major typically used horns in D (reading a seventh down) and when they used trumpets, trumpets in D reading a step up. The following list includes only the most famous of the Classical and Romantic periods.
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 2, Op. 36 (1802)
Johannes Brahms
Symphony No. 2, Op. 73 (1877)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 6 "Le Matin" (1761)
Symphony No. 13 (1763)
Symphony No. 70 (1779)
Symphony No. 86 (1786)
Symphony No. 93 (1791)
Symphony No. 96 "Miracle" (1791)
Symphony No. 101 "Clock" (1794)
Symphony No. 104 "London" (1795)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 6, Op. 60, B. 112 (1880)
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 1 (1888)
Symphony No. 9 (1909)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 4, KV 19 (1765)
Symphony No. 7, KV 45 (1768)
Symphony No. 8, KV 48 (1768)
Symphony No. 11, KV 84 (1770)
Symphony No. 20, KV 133 (1772)
Symphony No. 23, KV 181 (1773)
Symphony No. 30, KV 202 (1774)
Symphony No. 31 "Paris", KV 297 (1778)
Symphony No. 35 "Haffner", KV 385 (1782)
Symphony No. 38 "Prague", KV 504 (1786)
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 1, D 82
Symphony No. 3, D 200
Symphony No. 10, D 936A (unfinished)
Jean Sibelius
Symphony No. 2, Op. 43 (1902)
Sergei Prokofiev
Symphony No. 1 "Classical", Op. 25 (1917)
Johann Stamitz
Symphony in D major, Op. 3, No. 2
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Symphony No. 3 "Polish", Op. 29 (1875)
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Symphony No. 5 - nominally in the key
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 3, Op. 33
D minor
Baroque and Classical symphonies in D minor usually used 2 horns in F (whereas for most other minor keys 2 or 4 horns were used, half in the tonic and half in the relative major). Michael Haydn's Symphony No. 29 in D minor is notable for using two trumpets in D (the horns are in F but change to D for the coda of the finale). In the Romantic era, D minor symphonies, like symphonies in almost any other key, used horns in F and trumpets in B-flat.
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 9 "Choral", Op. 125 (1824)
Havergal Brian
Symphony No. 1 "Gothic" (1927)
Robert Schumann
Symphony No. 4, Op. 120 (1841)
Anton Bruckner
Symphony No. 0 (1869)
Symphony No. 3 (1873, 1877, 1891)
Symphony No. 9 (1896, unfinished)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 4, Op. 13, B. 41 (1874)
Symphony No. 7, Op. 70, B. 141 (1885)
César Franck
Symphony in D minor
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 9 (1910, unfinished)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 26 "Lamentatione" (1768)
Symphony No. 80 (1784)
Michael Haydn
Symphony No. 29 (1784)
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 3 (1896)
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Symphony No. 1, Op. 13 (1895)
Felix Mendelssohn
Symphony No. 5 "Reformation", Op. 107 (1830)
Martin Scherber
Symphony No. 1 (1938)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 5, Op. 47 (1937)
Symphony No. 12, Op. 112 (1961)
Richard Strauss
Symphony No. 1 (1880)
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Symphony No. 8 (1955)
E-flat major
Elfrida Andrée
Symphony No. 2
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 3 "Eroica", Op. 55 (1804)
Alexander Borodin
Symphony No. 1 (before 1869)
Anton Bruckner
Symphony No. 4 "Romantic" (1874)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 3 (1873)
Edward Elgar
Symphony No. 2, Op. 63 (1911)
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 4, Op. 48
Symphony No. 8, Op. 83
Karl Goldmark
Rustic Wedding Symphony, Op. 26 (1875)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 22 "The Philosopher" (1764)
Symphony No. 99 (1793)
Symphony No. 103 "Drumroll" (1795)
Robert Schumann
Symphony No. 3 "Rhenish", Op. 97 (1850)
Jean Sibelius
Symphony No. 5, Op. 82 (1915)
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 8 "Symphony of a Thousand" (1907)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 1, KV 16 (1764)
Symphony No. 3, KV 18 (1765)
Symphony No. 19, KV 132 (1772)
Symphony No. 39, KV 543 (1788)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 3 "The First of May", Op. 20 (1931)
Symphony No. 9, Op. 70 (1945)
Johann Stamitz
Symphony in E-flat major, Op. 11, No. 3
E-flat minor
The two examples of symphonies in E-flat minor that come up most readily are both Sixth Symphonies by Soviet composers.
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 6, Op. 23 (1921-3)
Sergei Prokofiev
Symphony No. 6, Op. 111 (1947)
E major
In the classical period, symphonies in E major used horns in E but no trumpets.
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 12 (1763)
Symphony No. 29 (1765)
Max Bruch
Symphony No. 3
Joachim Raff
Symphony No. 5 "Lenore", Op.177 (1872)
Anton Bruckner
Symphony No. 7 (1883)
Alexander Scriabin
Symphony No. 1, Op. 26 (1900)
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 7, D 729
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 1, Op. 5
E minor
Amy Beach
Gaelic Symphony, Op. 32 (1894)
Johannes Brahms
Symphony No. 4, Op. 98 (1885)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 9 "From the New World", Op. 95, B. 178 (1893)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 44 "Trauer" (1770)
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Symphony No. 5, Op. 64 (1888)
Jean Sibelius
Symphony No. 1, Op. 39 (1898)
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 7 (1906)
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Symphony No. 2, Op. 27 (1907)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 10, Op. 93 (1948)
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Symphony No. 6 (1948)
Symphony No. 9 (1957)
F major
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 79 (1784)
Symphony No. 89 (1787)
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 6 "Pastoral", Op. 68 (1808)
Symphony No. 8, Op. 93 (1812)
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 7 "Pastoral", Op. 77
Joachim Raff
Symphony No. 3 "Im Walde", Op. 153 (1870)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 5, Op. 76, B. 54 (1875)
Johannes Brahms
Symphony No. 3, Op. 90 (1883)
Zdeněk Fibich
Symphony No. 1, Op. 17 (1883)
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 16 "Aviation", Op. 39 (1935-1936)
F minor
Even in the Sturm und Drang era, F minor was not a frequent choice for a minor key symphony, though Haydn did contribute one.
Anton Bruckner
Study Symphony in F minor
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 49 "La Passione" (1768)
Richard Strauss
Symphony No. 2, Op. 12 (1884)
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Symphony No. 4, Op. 36 (1878)
Sir Charles Villiers Stanford
Symphony No. 3 "The Irish", Op. 28 (1887)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 1, Op. 10 (1925)
Richard Strauss
Symphony No. 2, Op. 12 (1885)
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Symphony No. 4 (1934)
Martin Scherber
Symphony No. 2 (1951–52)
F-sharp major
The only notable (completed) symphony written explicitly in F-sharp major is Erich Wolfgang Korngold's Symphony in F-sharp major, Op. 40 of 1950.
Gustav Mahler's unfinished Tenth Symphony is in this key. So is Olivier Messiaen's Turangalîla-Symphonie, as several of its movements including the finale are in that key, although it could be excluded on the grounds that it is very far from traditionally tonal.
F-sharp minor
Though it has just three sharps and its relative major was used somewhat frequently, F-sharp minor was an unusual choice of key in the Classical era.
George Frederick Bristow
Symphony in F-sharp minor, Op. 26
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 2, Op. 16
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 45 "Farewell" (1772)
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 21, Op. 51 (1940)
Dora Pejačević
Symphony (1917)
G major
In the Baroque and Classical periods, G major was one of the most often used keys. Classical symphonies in G major typically had horns in G, but no trumpets. In the Romantic era, the key was less often used. The following list only includes the most famous works.
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 8, Op. 88, B. 163 (1889)
George Dyson
Symphony in G major (1937)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 8 "Le Soir" (1761)
Symphony No. 88 (late 1780s)
Symphony No. 92 "Oxford" (1791)
Symphony No. 94 "Surprise" (1791)
Symphony No. 100 "Military" (1794)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 10, KV 74 (1770)
Symphony No. 12, KV 110 (1771)
Symphony No. 15, KV 124 (1772)
Symphony No. 17, KV 129 (1772)
Symphony No. 27, KV 199 (1773)
Symphony No. 32, KV 318 (1779)
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 4 (1901)
Johann Stamitz
Symphony in G major "Mannheim No. 1"
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Symphony No. 2 "A London Symphony" (1914)
G minor
G minor was a frequent choice for minor key symphonies. In the Classical period, symphonies in G minor almost always used four horns, two in G and two in B-flat alto.
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 39 (1767)
Symphony No. 83, The Hen (1785)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 25, KV 183 (1773)
Symphony No. 40, KV 550 (1788)
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Symphony No. 1 "Winter Daydreams" (1866)
Carl Nielsen
Symphony No. 1 (1891)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 11 "The Year 1905", Op. 103 (1957)
A-flat major
Although A-flat major was chosen often enough for inner movements of symphonies in other keys (most notably slow movements of C minor symphonies), there are very few symphonies with A-flat major as their main key.
Edward Elgar
Symphony No. 1, Op. 55 (1908)
Jef van Hoof
Symphony No. 2 (1941)
Johann Baptist Wanhal
Symphony in A-flat major, Bryan Ab1
A-flat minor
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 17
Elliot Goldenthal
Symphony in A-flat minor
A major
The following list only includes the most famous A major symphonies.
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 7, Op. 92 (1812)
Anton Bruckner
Symphony No. 6 (1881)
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 59, "Fire" (before 1769)
Symphony No. 64, "Tempora mutantur" (1778)
Symphony No. 87 (1785/6)
Felix Mendelssohn
Symphony No. 4 "Italian", Op. 90 (1833)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 14, KV 114 (1771)
Symphony No. 21, KV 134 (1772)
Symphony No. 29, KV 201 (1774)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 15, Op. 141 (1971)
Johann Stamitz
Symphony in A major "Mannheim No. 2"
Richard Wetz
Symphony No. 2, Op. 47 (1921)
A minor
Alexander Borodin
Symphony No. 3 (1886–1887, unfinished)
Felix Mendelssohn
Symphony No. 3 "Scottish", Op. 56 (1842)
Gustav Mahler
Symphony No. 6 "Tragic" (1904)
Jean Sibelius
Symphony No. 4, Op. 63 (1911)
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Symphony No. 3, Op. 44 (1936)
Stephen Brown
Symphony, The Northern Journey (1986–89, revision 1992)
B-flat major
Haydn's Symphony No. 98 is credited as the first symphony written in B-flat major in which trumpet and timpani parts are included. Actually, his brother Michael Haydn had written one such symphony earlier, No. 36. However, Joseph still gets credit for writing the timpani part at actual pitch with an F major key signature (instead of transposing with a C major key signature), a procedure that made sense since he limited that instrument to the tonic and dominant pitches. Many editions of the work, however, use no key signature and specify the instrument as "Timpani in B-flat - F." (Note that in German, the pitch B-flat is called "B", and B natural is "H", thus the specification for timpani in a B-flat work could be written "Pauken in B. - F.")
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 4, Op. 60 (1806)
Anton Bruckner
Symphony No. 5 (1876)
Ernest Chausson
Symphony in B-flat, Op. 20 (1890)
Antonín Dvořák
Symphony No. 2 (1865)
Alexander Glazunov
Symphony No. 5, Op. 48
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 85 "La Reine" (1785/6)
Symphony No. 98 (1792)
Symphony No. 102 (1794/5)
Andrea Luchesi
Symphony in B-flat major (ca.1770)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Symphony No. 24, KV 182 (1773)
Symphony No. 33, KV 319 (1779)
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 2, D 125 (1815)
Symphony No. 5, D 485 (1816)
Robert Schumann
Symphony No. 1 "Spring", Op. 38 (1841)
Sergei Prokofiev
Symphony No. 5, Op. 100 (1944)
Johann Stamitz
Symphony in B-flat major "Mannheim No. 3"
B-flat minor
B-flat minor occurs often enough in the piano repertoire, much less so in the orchestral repertoire. Even allowing little-known works, the list is rather short.
Havergal Brian
Symphony No. 8 (1949)
Frederic Hymen Cowen
Symphony No. 4
Jānis Ivanovs
Symphony No. 1 (1933)
Dmitry Kabalevsky
Symphony No. 3, Op. 22 (1933)
Miloslav Kabeláč
Symphony No. 5 Dramatic, Op. 41 (1960)
Tikhon Khrennikov
Symphony No. 1, Op. 4 (1933-5)
Sergei Lyapunov
Symphony No. 2, Op. 66
Albéric Magnard
Symphony No. 3, Op. 11 (1896)
Nikolai Myaskovsky
Symphony No. 11, Op. 34 (1932)
Symphony No. 13, Op. 36 (1933)
Harald Sæverud
Symphony No. 3, Op. 5
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 13 "Babi Yar", Op. 113 (1962)
Maximilian Steinberg
Symphony No. 2, Op. 8 (1909) In Memoriam Rimsky-Korsakov
Richard Wetz
Symphony No. 3, Op.48 (1922)
William Walton
Symphony No. 1 (1932–35)
B major
Haydn's use of B major in his Symphony No. 46 was deemed "extraordinary" for a symphony in the 18th century.
Joseph Haydn
Symphony No. 46 (1772)
Erich Wolfgang Korngold
Sinfonietta, Op. 5 (1912)
Georg Matthias Monn
Sinfonia (1740s)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 2 "To October", Op. 14 (1927)
B minor
B minor is the key of some famous symphonies in the repertoire, as well as a few lesser known ones.
Alexander Borodin
Symphony No. 2 (1876)
Wilhelm Furtwängler
Symphony No. 1 (1941)
Ignacy Jan Paderewski
Symphony in B minor (Polonia), Op. 24 (1908)
Martin Scherber
Symphony No. 3 (Die Russische) (1952–55)
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 8 (Unfinished), D. 759 (1822, inc.)
Dmitri Shostakovich
Symphony No. 6, Op. 54 (1939)
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Manfred Symphony, Op. 58 (1885)
Symphony No. 6 (Pathétique), Op. 74 (1893)
Reinhold Glière
Symphony No. 3 "Ilya Muromets", Op. 42 (1911)
References
Symphonies |
4168725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Crime%20Records%20Bureau | National Crime Records Bureau | The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) is an Indian government agency responsible for collecting and analyzing, crime data as defined by the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and Special and Local Laws (SLL). NCRB is headquartered in New Delhi and is part of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Government of India. Vivek Gogia (IPS) is current Director of National Crime Record Bureau.
NCRB was set-up in 1986 to function as a repository of information on crime and criminals so as to assist the investigators in linking crime to the perpetrators. It was set up based on the recommendation of the Task force, 1985 and National Police Commission, 1977 by merging the Directorate of Coordination and Police Computer (DCPC), Inter State Criminals Data Branch of CBI and Central Finger Print Bureau of CBI, Earlier Statistical Branch of Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) was also merged with NCRB, but was later de-merged.
Mission
To provide Indian Police with Information Technology and Criminal Intelligence to enable them to uphold law and protect people.
To provide leadership and excellence in crime analysis particularly on serious and organized crime.
Objectives
Create and maintain secure sharable National Databases on crimes and criminals for law enforcement agencies and promote their use for public service delivery.
Collect and process crime statistics at the national level and clearing house of information on crime and criminals both at National and International levels.
Lead and coordinate development of IT applications and create an enabling IT environment for Police organizations.
National repository of fingerprints of all criminals.
To evaluate, modernize and promote automation in State Crime Records Bureau and State Finger Print Bureau.
Training and capacity building in Police Forces in Information Technology and Finger Print Science.
Evolution of NCRB
Crime and criminal tracking network and systems
Crime and Criminal Information System (CCIS) was implemented at district level during the period 1995–2004. Common Integrated Police Application (CIPA) was implemented at police station level during the period 2004–2009 in three phases. Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS) is approved by Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) on 19.06.2009.
Objectives
Creating State and Central level databases on crime and criminals.
Enable easy sharing of real-time information/ intelligence across police stations, districts and States.
Improved investigation and crime prevention.
Improved service delivery to the public/ stakeholders through Citizen Portals.
Current Status
Citizen Portal
Various services as enlisted below are being provided/ proposed to be provided in the Citizen Portals of CCTNS.
Filing of Complaints
Obtaining the copies of FIRs.
Obtaining the status of the complaint/ FIR.
Details of arrested persons/ wanted criminals & their illegal activities.
Details of missing/ kidnapped persons and their matching with arrested, unidentified persons and dead bodies.
Details of stolen/ recovered vehicles, arms and other properties.
Verification requests for servants, employment, passport, senior citizen registrations etc.
Requests for issue/renewal of various NOCs / Permits/ Clearances
Portal for sharing information and enabling citizens to down load required forms.
Inter-operable Criminal Justice System (ICJS)
ICJS has been mandated for integrating CCTNS (Police) with e-Courts, e-prisons, Forensics, Finger Print Bureaux and Prosecution, which are the key components of the Criminal Justice System. Implementation of ICJS will ensure quick data transfer among different pillars of criminal justice system.
Crime records matching
The main objective of the Crime Records Branch is to collect, collate and disseminate information on Crime, Criminals, Persons and Property for matching purposes. The branch utilizes following software systems:
VahanSamanvay - An online Motor Vehicle Coordination System for coordination of stolen and recovered motor vehicles across the country. Police, RTOs, and Insurance sector are main stakeholders. The general public is also benefited with this system.
Talash Information System - This system is used to maintain and coordinate information on Missing, Traced, Unidentified persons and unidentified dead bodies.
Fake Indian Currency Notes System (FICN) - It is an online system for compilation of fake Indian currency data. Police, Banks, Investigating agencies, other intelligence agencies and Ministries are stakeholders of this system.
Fire Arms Coordination System - This system is used for coordination of missing/stolen and recovered firearms.
Colour Portrait Building System - This system is used to create portraits of suspects based on the description given by victims and eyewitnesses.
Since year 2011, 600 persons (live & dead) have been united with their families by matching photographs and other physical features.
Since launch of online application "VahanSamanvay" in 2014 till date 14,14,055 data has been captured and 30,577 Stolen vehicles have been matched from different states.
Crime statistics
NCRB brings out three annual reports i.e. Crime in India, Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India and Prison Statistics India. These reports are principal reference points for police officers, researchers, media & policy makers.
Besides, the Bureau is also collecting Crime Statistics and Anti-human Trafficking statistics on monthly basis. The complete software package of ‘Monthly Crime Statistics’ has been released in the month of December, 2016.
After extensive and exhaustive deliberation with various stakeholders, the proformae for Crime in India, Monthly Crime Statistics and Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India were revised in the year 2014.
NCRB has developed application software for Crime in India (CII), Monthly Crime Statistics (MCS), Accidental Deaths & Suicide in India (ADSI), Prison Statistics of India (PSI). The Bureau is also conducting Training of Trainers (ToT) on Crime in India and Accidental Death & Suicide in India and Prison Statistics India for officials of SCRBx and Prison Departments of States/UTs.
NCRB has been conferred with ‘Digital India Awards 2016’ in open data championship category with Silver on 9 December 2016 for updation of more than 3,000 datasets on Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India in open source format. NCRB has digitised ‘Crime in India’ since 1967 and Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India since 1998. The digitised data have been made available on national data portal https://data.gov.in.
Director, NCRB is designated as National Focal Point for United Nations Surveys on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (UN-CTS). On the behalf of Government of India, NCRB is selected as Member to Technical Advisory Group (TAG) of International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS).
Central finger print bureau
The World's First Finger Print Bureau was set up in Calcutta in 1897. A CFPB was established at Shimla in 1905, however it was closed in 1922 as a result of retrenchment proposals of the Inchcape Committee. The Present CFPB came into existence in 1955 under the administrative control of Intelligence Bureau at Delhi. It was relocated to Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1956. The administrative control of CFPB shifted to Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) in 1973, and since July, 1986, this has been under the administrative control of NCRB.
Objectives
To maintain Finger Print record slips of the accused person convicted in various Acts.
To conduct search relating to unidentified Interstate arrested/suspected persons received from police stations and other investigating agencies in India.
To maintain the fingerprints of international criminals and red corner notices sent by Interpol and to conduct search on references received from foreign countries, through Interpol.
To undertake examination of questioned finger impressions on documents received from Central Government Departments/ Undertakings/Courts of law.
To impart training in Fingerprint Science to State/Central Police personnel and also to personnel from foreign countries under `Technical Co- Operation Scheme' (TCS) of Colombo Plan, 'Special Commonwealth African Assistance Plan' (SCAAP) and `International Technical and Economic Co-Operation' (ITEC).
To co-ordinate the work of the State Finger Print Bureaux and give necessary guidance in all matters relating to Fingerprint Science.
To conduct the All India Conference of Directors of Finger Print Bureaux.
To conduct All India Board Examination annually for accrediting Finger Print Experts.
To conduct competition in Finger Print science at the All India Police Duty Meet held annually.
CFPB Evolution
Activities
1. Automated Finger Print Identification System (AFIS)
The CFPB has pioneered the automation of fingerprints through its Automated Finger Print Identification System (AFIS) in 1992. This software was jointly developed by NCRB and CMC Ltd. and named as "Fingerprint Analysis & Criminal Tracing System" (FACTS). Currently CFPB is maintaining 10,93,408 Ten Digit Finger Print Record slips of convicted and arrested persons
These Finger Print Slips (Record) and Finger Print Slips (Search) are received from the Finger Print Bureaux of various States/Union Territories and also from the police stations.
During the calendar 2016, in addition to the above, 151 Search references were also received from Interpol Division of Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), New Delhi and 1620 slips for record.
CFPB receives number of finger print document cases, from Government departments, courts of law, banks, post offices, investigation agencies etc. for expert opinion.
2. All India Board Examination of Finger Print Experts
The All India Board Examination is conducted every year at C.F.P.B. The Board, consists of Director, CFPB as chairman and two technical heads of the State F.P.Bx. as members. CFPB make all arrangements for conducting theory, practical & viva-voce of this examination.
The successful candidates are awarded certificates. Those who secure 1st, 2nd and 3rd places a Cash prize also.
The Aziz ul Haque rolling trophy is also awarded to the topper of the AIBE.
Passing this examination is mandatory to become Finger Print Expert who is competent to give evidence in the Court of Law.
3. Training
Each year CFPB New Delhi conducts around 5 to 6 training programmes of one week duration for Indian Police Officers in Finger Print Science. Kolkata Unit of CFPB is conducting 18 weeks duration Proficiency course in Finger Print Science twice a year. During the last four years, 266 Indian Police Officers are trained.
Besides CFPB/NCRB also conducts two courses of 12 weeks duration and Four Courses of 8 Weeks duration for Foreign Police Officers under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) and Special Commonwealth African Assistance Programme (SCAAP) of Ministry of External Affairs. Around 75 foreign officers are being trained every year under this program. During the last four years, 270 foreign police officers are trained.
Foreign Trainees of 25th Advanced course on IT in Law Enforcement & 21st Advanced Fingerprint Science & IT from (2nd January to 24th March 2017) with Director Dr Ish Kumar and other senior officers of NCRB
4. Publication
CFPB also compiles data collected from Finger Print Bureaux of States/UT on standard Annual Statistics Report format, and publishes the -Finger Print in India since 1997. This is the principal resource document for all concerned.
5. All India Conference of Directors of Finger Print Bureaux
The All India Conference of Directors of Finger Print Bureaux of States/UTs, is an annual conference as mandated by the MHA. It is being held annually by CFPB (NCRB) to deliberate on recent trends in the field of finger print science and other priority issues concerning finger print fraternity of the nation. This conference was started in the year 1980 at New Delhi and is being hosted at different locations in the Country. It is completely funded by the Government of India. The 18th edition of the conference is being held at HPA, Madhuban, Haryana on 30 and 31 March 2017.
Competition "Award of Excellence" is conducted to identify an excellent work performed by FP Experts in States/UTs and three cash rewards of Rs.10,000/=, Rs.7,500/=, Rs.5000/= are given during the conference.
6. All India Board Police Duty Meet
CFPB is participating in All India Police Duty Meet (AIPDM) for conducting Finger Print Test to judge the acumen and knowledge of participating police personnel in the field.
Some Success Stories
1. The Interpol had requested CFPB to compare finger print and demographic details of BARRIOS GUARIN Jose Mauricio with existing records in connection with Identification of an International Fugitive wanted for Homicide in Colombia (South America) vide Ref. No. 203/2010F. It was ascertained that the fingerprint of BARRIOS GUARIN Jose Mauricio was IDENTICAL with the Right Index (RI) finger impression present on the specimen 10-digit F.P. slip of MAITA RODRIGUEZ Perd Alejandro, hence the two finger prints were found to be of one and the same person.
2. A fingerprint slip pertaining to one Singh Iqbal was forwarded by Interpol for record purpose. This slip was processed in FACTS (CFPB-AFIS) and was found to be a ‘trace’ against a record slip archived with CFPB PIN 604744. The successful search brought to light the criminal antecedents of the subjected person, who was convicted in pursuance of criminal case registered vide FIR No. 34 dated 24.09.1996 in the court of SDJM, Nabha on 20.09.2000 U/s 324/34 IPC
3. Interpol search slip from New Zealand Police vide Case Reference No. A&SP/New Zealand/FP /2016/454 Dt. 12-02-2016 was traced against the F.P. slip bearing PID No. 90474919 present in CFPB data base, of one Arvinder Pal Singh S/o Malkeet Singh R/o H. No. 53, Professor Enclave, opposite Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab.
4. The NIA suspected that N.Shanti Metei chief of PREPAK (UPPK), a banned terrorist organization active in anti-national activities was using forged documents, and false identities, Thorough comparison of the fingerprints of T. Hemanta Sharma on land agreements, sale deeds etc., and specimen fingerprints of N.Shanti Metei, proved that N. Shanti Metei used a pseudonym for illegal purchases.
5. The Ordnance Factory, Ministry of Defence, Raipur, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, doubted the authenticity of the final list of 54-candidates selected through written and trade tests conducted by them. The CFPB compared the finger prints of all provisionally selected candidates, After thorough examination, the expert in the Bureau was able to discern, that in three cases the finger impressions were different, from one another, indicating impersonation on the part of the candidates.
6. Document case received from Dy. Director of Income Tax (inv.) relating to a search and seizure operation u/s 132 of the Income Tax Act 1961 in a case of M/s National Enterprises and Group and recovered some documents.. The documents consisted of 1536 pages with eight to twelve thumb prints on each page (i.e. over 12000 prints in total). After examination of the document, CFPB experts were able to establish that all the prints were given by 8 to 10 fingers only indicating fraudulent payment of approximately 2.25 crores. Approximately 40% finger impressions were faint, blurred or partial.
7. A total of fifty five (55) fingerprint slips for establishing identity were received in FACTS (CFPB-AFIS) from Uttarakhand State police Department. The slips carried fingerprints of Unidentified Dead Bodies (UDBs). Majority of fingerprints were faint, smudged, or partial. All the slips required additional computer based enhancement efforts to make them decipherable for comparison by the system. Out of the 55 slips, one unidentified dead body fingerprint slip matched with the slip of one Jamil S/o. Mustaq of P.S. Kithore, Meerut, U.P. The successful input of UDB Fingerprint slip (CFPB PIN No. 90440105) followed by trace with slip bearing PIN 90423149, revealed the antecedents of the subjected person - Jamil was convicted in pursuance of criminal case registered vide FIR No. 60 dated 19-03-2013 U/S 363 IPC of ODRS police station.
Training branch
Each year Training branch conducts on an average 20-25 training programmes for Indian Police Officers of the duration of 1 week on the subjects like CCTNS, Advanced Fingerprint Science, Network & e-Security etc. NCRB also conducts the courses on "Training of Trainers" for development of training resource persons in subjects like Basic Crime Analysis, Windows 2000 & SQL Server, Network & e-Security, Linux and CCTNS.
NCRB also conducts two courses of 12 weeks duration and four courses of 8 weeks duration for Foreign Police Officers under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) and Special Commonwealth African Assistance Programme (SCAAP) of Ministry of External Affairs. Different programmes viz., Cyber Crime & Network Security, Advanced Fingerprint Science, IT in Law Enforcement, Advanced Course on IT in Law Enforcement and Advanced Fingerprint Science and IT are conducted for these officers. Every year, on an average more than 125 officers from 20 to 25 countries from Latin America, Africa, South Asia and Middle East attend these programmes. Special Training Programmes have been conducted for Afghanistan & Mongolian Police Officers on Fingerprint Science.
Regional Police Computer Training Centre (RPCTC)
Four RPCTCs in Hyderabad, Gandhi Nagar, Lucknow and Kolkata conduct similar courses for lower functionaries of Indian Police. NCRB provides funds to these centres for faculty, stationery, training material and infrastructure including computer hardware, software etc.
Training
Revelations from Crime Statistics
The NCRB data 2020 brought out glaring statistics that pointed out married men committed more suicide due to family problems. The statistics went further to point out that one man commits suicide every 5 minutes.
The Crime Records also pointed out a very pertinent fact that over 74% of rape cases and 80% dowry cases filed in India end in acquittal which suggest there is a growing trend of false cases being filed by women against men to meet their needs and use the Gender Biased Laws to their favor. Interpreting the statistics and also drawing inference from the own lessons, Delhi High Court pointed out that there is an alarming rise in false rape cases in India and this must be checked at the earliest.
News Letter
A quarterly publication named NCRB New Letter is also compiled and published by the Training Branch and circulated to the police fraternity to make them aware about NCRB achievements/activities.
See also
Crime reporting and tracking
Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPRD)
Call 112
Criminal record
Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS)
Law enforcement in India
Sex offender registry (SOR)
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
Other police related
Indian Police Foundation and Institute
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy
References
External links
Prison Statistics India 2015
NCRB website
Crime in India 2012 Statistics
Federal law enforcement agencies of India
New Delhi |
4168768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdivia | Valdivia | {{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Valdivia
| other_name =
| native_name =
| nickname = The City of Rivers, The Pearl of the South of Chile, Chile's Brewery Capital
| named_for = Pedro de Valdivia
| motto = Muy Noble y Muy Leal("Most noble and most loyal")
| settlement_type = City and Commune
| image_skyline = Montaje de Valdivia.png
| image_caption = From top to bottom, left to right: Valdivia waterfront, Town Square, Hotel Naguilán (top), Sciences Building of Austral University (bottom), Los Canelos tower, Rodolfo Amando Philippi Museum, Historical and Anthropologic Museum Maurice van de Maele, St. Francisco Church, Prochelle House, Dreams Hotel & Casino, Los Lotos Lagoon on Teja Island, Mapuche's Rewe, Botanical Garden of Valdivia.
| image_flag = Flag of Valdivia, Chile.svg
| flag_size =
| image_shield = Escudo de Valdivia.svg
| shield_size =
| image_map = Comuna de Valdivia.svg
| map_caption = Location of the Valdivia commune in Los Ríos Region
| map_alt = Location of the Valdivia commune in Los Ríos Region
| pushpin_map = Chile
| pushpin_map_narrow = yes
| pushpin_mapsize = 150
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Chile
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = Chile
| subdivision_type1 = Region
| subdivision_name1 = Los Ríos
| subdivision_type2 = Province
| subdivision_name2 = Valdivia
| government_footnotes =
| government_type = Municipality
| leader_title = Alcaldesa
| leader_party = RD
| leader_name = Carla Amtmann
| established_title = Founded as
| established_date = Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia
| established_title2 = Founded
| established_date2 = 9 February 1552
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 1015.6
| elevation_footnotes =
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 150,048
| population_as_of = 2017 Census
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Valdivian
| population_blank1_title = Urban
| population_blank1 = 129952
| population_blank2_title = Rural
| population_blank2 = 10607
| demographics_type1 = Sex
| demographics1_footnotes =
| demographics1_title1 = Men
| demographics1_info1 = 68,510
| demographics1_title2 = Women
| demographics1_info2 = 72,049
| blank1_name = Climate
| blank1_info = Cfb
| timezone = CLT
| utc_offset = −04:00
| timezone_DST = CLST
| utc_offset_DST = −03:00
| coordinates =
| elevation_m = 5
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 5090000
| area_code = country 56 + city 63
| website = Municipality of Valdivia
| footnotes =
}}Valdivia''' (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder, Pedro de Valdivia, and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and Cau-Cau Rivers, approximately east of the coastal towns of Corral and Niebla. Since October 2007, Valdivia has been the capital of Los Ríos Region and is also the capital of Valdivia Province. The national census of 2017 recorded the commune of Valdivia as having 166,080 inhabitants (Valdivianos), of whom 150,048 were living in the city. The main economic activities of Valdivia include tourism, wood pulp manufacturing, forestry, metallurgy, and beer production. The city is also the home of the Austral University of Chile, founded in 1954 and the Centro de Estudios Científicos.
The city of Valdivia and the Chiloé Archipelago were once the two southernmost outliers of the Spanish Empire. From 1645 to 1740, the city depended directly on the Viceroyalty of Peru, which financed the building of the Valdivian fort system that turned Valdivia into one of the most fortified cities of the New World. In the mid-19th century, Valdivia was the port of entry for German immigrants who settled in the city and surrounding areas.
In 1960 Valdivia was severely damaged by the Great Chilean earthquake, the most powerful earthquake ever recorded, at magnitude 9.5. The earthquake caused c. 2 m of subsidence around Valdivia leaving large areas of former pastures and cultivated fields permanently flooded. Today there are various protected wetlands within the urbanised area of Valdivia as well as in its outskirts.
History
Pre-Hispanic times (12,000 BC – 1543)
The area around Valdivia may have been populated since 12,000 – 11,800 BC, according to archaeological discoveries in Monte Verde (less than 200 km south of Valdivia), which would place it about a thousand years before the Clovis culture in North America. This challenges the "Clovis First" model of migration to the New World. Researchers speculate that the first inhabitants of Valdivia and Chile travelled to America by watercraft and not across a land-bridge in the Bering Strait.
During at least the Middle Archaic, southern Chile was populated by indigenous groups who shared a common lithic culture called the Chan-Chan Complex, named for the archaeological site of Chan-Chan located some 35 km north of Valdivia along the coast.
There was also a very early Valdivia culture on the coast of Ecuador, but it is not related to the city of Valdivia. This archaeological culture flourished near the small village of Valdivia in Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE.
Ainil
By the time of the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, Valdivia was inhabited by the Huilliche (Mapudungun for People of the South). The Huilliche and Mapuche were both referred to by the Spaniards as Araucanos. Their main language was a variant of Mapudungun, the Mapuche language.
A large village called Ainil stood where present-day downtown Valdivia has been developed. The Huilliche called the river, Ainilebu (now known as the Valdivia River). Ainil seemed to have been an important trade center; it was a port on the sea and had access to the interior via the network of the Cruces and Calle-Calle rivers, both tributaries of the Valdivia. Ainil may be described as "a kind of little Venice," as it had large areas of wetlands and canals. Since that period, most of these waterways and wetlands have been drained or filled. The market in Ainil received shellfish and fish from the coast, legumes from Punucapa, and other foods from San José de la Mariquina, an agricultural zone northeast of Valdivia. A remnant of this ancient trade is the modern Feria Fluvial (English: Riverside Market) on the banks of Valdivia River. The surroundings of Valdivia were described as extensive plains having a large population that cultivated potatoes, maize, quinoa and legumes, among other crops. He also stated that "there is not much cleared land near Valdivia" which contrasted with the description made by early Spaniards of large fields and extensive croplands.
The expansion and economic development of the city were limited in the early 19th century. To jump-start economic development, the Chilean government initiated a highly focussed immigration program under Bernhard Eunom Philippi and later Vicente Pérez Rosales as government agents. Through this program, thousands of Germans settled in the area, incorporating then-modern technology and know-how to develop agriculture and industry. While immigrants that arrived to the Llanquihue area were often poor farmers, Valdivia received more educated immigrants, including political exiles and merchants. Some of the immigrants that arrived in Valdivia established workshops and built new industries. One of the most famous immigrants was Carlos Anwandter, an exile from Luckenwalde who arrived in Valdivia in 1850 and in 1858 founded Chile's first German school. Other Germans left the city and became settlers, drawn by the promise of free land. They were often given forested land, which they cleared to turn into farms. Native Mapuche and Huilliche either sold their land or were pushed into reservations. The Osorno department of Valdivia Province was moved to Llanquihue Province (created in 1853) as consequence of German immigration to the Llaquihue area.
Valdivia prospered with industries, including shipyards, the Hoffmann gristmill, the Rudloff shoe factory, the Anwandter beer company and many more. The steel mills of Corral were the largest recorded private investment in Chile at the time, and were the first steel mills in South America. In 1891 Valdivia became a commune according to a law that created such subdivisions. After the Malleco Viaduct was built in 1890 the railroads advanced further south, reaching Valdivia in 1895. The first passenger train arrived in 1899. In 1909 a fire destroyed 18 city blocks in downtown Valdivia, which were rebuilt with modern concrete buildings. By 1911 lumber production, from clearing of native forests, became the most important industry. Cattle-raising was a growing industry, and wheat was grown on the cleared lands. Lumber, cattle, leather, flour and beer were exported. In 1895 the city's population was 8,062 inhabitants and was estimated at 9,704 in 1902.
The economic prosperity of Valdivia continued throughout the first half of the 20th century. In 1917 the first "Valdivian Week" (Spanish: Semana Valdiviana) was celebrated. Chile's oldest beauty contest, "Queen of The Rivers" (Spanish: Reina de Los Ríos) began the same year. The city evolved as an early tourist center in Chile, while popular songs that named Valdivia and the Calle-Calle River made it better known in Chilean popular culture. The Pedro de Valdivia Bridge crossing the Valdivia River was built in 1954. Valdivia came to be one of the most important industrial centers in Chile together with the capital Santiago and the main port city, Valparaíso.
The commercial and human flux Valdivia suffered two setbacks in the early 20th century, first the connection of Osorno by railroad to central Chile which meant that Valdivia lost the quality of being the port that connected Osorno to Central Chile. Later on 1911 the opening of the Panama Canal meant a decrease in ship traffic all over Chile since ships travelling from the north Atlantic to north Pacific no longer had to pass through the Straits of Magellan or visit any Chilean port.
Great Chilean earthquake and Los Lagos Region (1960–2006)
On May 22, 1960, Chile suffered the most powerful earthquake ever recorded, rating 9.5 on the moment magnitude scale, with Valdivia being the most affected city. The earthquake generated devastating tsunamis that affected Japan and Hawaii. Spanish-colonial forts around Valdivia were severely damaged, while soil subsidence destroyed buildings, deepened local rivers, and created wetlands of the Río Cruces y Chorocomayo – a new aquatic park north of the city.
Large sections of the city flooded after the earthquake, and a landslide near the Tralcán Mount dammed the Riñihue Lake. Water levels in Lake Riñihue rose more than , raising the danger of a catastrophic break and of destroying everything downriver. Government authorities drew plans for evacuating the city, but many people left on their own. Danger to the city was reduced after a large team of workers opened a drainage channel in the landslide; water levels of the lake slowly returned to normal levels. There is evidence that a similar landslide and earthquake happened in 1575. After the Great Chilean earthquake Valdivia's economy and political status declined. Much of the city was destroyed and many inhabitants left.
The 1973 Chilean coup d'état and the military's actions that followed brought dozens of detainees to Valdivia and saw the imposing of a nationwide curfew. In October a group of 12 young men, among them José Gregorio Liendo, were brought from the Complejo Forestal y Maderero Panguipulli in the Andes to be executed in Valdivia by firing squad due to alleged participation in the assault on Neltume police station and "guerrilla activities".
By 1974, the military junta reorganized the political divisions of Chile and declared Valdivia a province of the Los Lagos Region with Puerto Montt as the regional capital. Many Valdivians resented the decision, and felt theirs should have been the legitimate regional capital—while Valdivia was founded in 1552, and had resisted pirate attacks, hostile natives and several earthquakes, Puerto Montt was a relatively new city founded only in 1853 (three hundred and one years later).
Since the liberalization of the economy in Chile in the 1980s the forestry sector in Valdivia boomed, first by exporting wood chips to Japan from Corral and then by producing woodpulp in Mariquina (50 km northeast of Valdivia). This led to deforestation and substitution of native Valdivian temperate rainforests to plant pines and eucalyptus, but also created new jobs for people with limited education. Valdivia also benefitted from the development of salmon aquaculture in the 1990s, but to a much lesser extent than places such as Puerto Montt and Chiloé.
Culture
Valdivia is often promoted for its unique characteristics, that make it different from other cities in Chile: Valdivia has an early Spanish colonial past, plus a later history of German colonization. Both eras left visible landmarks such as the forts of Corral Bay and the German-style wood houses. The governments of Spain and Germany currently maintain honorary consulates in Valdivia. The city is commonly seen as a tourist magnet in Chile, and sometimes described as La Perla del Sur (The Pearl of the South) and as La ciudad mas linda de Chile (Chile's most beautiful city).
Every year during the summer months of January and February the municipality organizes many free cultural events along the river site, such as concerts, sporting events, and other entertainment. To mark and celebrate the end of the touristic summer months, halfway through February all entertainment reaches its climax with the celebration of noche Valdiviana (Valdivian night). During this night many local groups and communities present themselves on boats during a night parade over the river. Every boat has its own theme related with one theme of that year. At the end a jury picks the winners in different categories. The parade is by tradition started by a boat which presents la reina de los ríos. In recent years Valdivians have showed an increasing interest in nature and ecotourism. An example of this was the formation of Acción por los Cisnes an ecologist group formed to protect black-necked swans and the natural environment that surrounds the city, particularly wetlands created or expanded by the Great Chilean earthquake. With the founding of Universidad Austral in 1954 and the arrival of the CECS research center, Valdivia is now considered a major research center in Chile, particularly in areas related to nature such a glaciology and ecology. The Great Chilean earthquake and the national government's creation of the Los Lagos Region were difficult for Valdivian society. Valdivians resented to be punished first by a major earthquake and then by being placed under the administration of what they perceived to be a less-deserving city, Puerto Montt. The recent creation of a new, smaller, but more independent region (Los Ríos), with Valdivia as its capital, reduced the previous stigma.
Valdivia's varied influences are reflected by its multicultural toponyms that include placenames of Mapuche, Spanish, Quechua and German origin.
Spanish colonial influences
During much of the colonial period, Valdivia was essentially a military camp, a walled city surrounded by hostile natives. The coastal defenses and their garrisons made up a large part of the population. After several fires and earthquakes, nearly all buildings from this period were destroyed, with the exception of the military defenses. Valdivia's best known historical landmarks are now the two towers which were part of a former city wall, built by the Spaniards to defend the city, known as Torreones: Torreón Los Canelos and Torreón del Barro.
German influences
Since the first Germans migrated to Valdivia in the mid-1840s, German cultural influence has been visible in the city. Germans in Valdivia settled mostly in the Isla Teja and Collico suburban areas. Until the building of Pedro de Valdivia Bridge, inhabitants of Isla Teja lived isolated from the city, where it was common that children first learned to speak German before Spanish. Nowadays, the German language is preserved by the Instituto Alemán Carlos Anwandter one of Latin America's oldest German schools. German descendants also form Valdivia's oldest fire station Germania, located in Isla Teja.
German immigrants and their descendants formed their social club Club Alemán, which after World War II changed names to Club la Unión. German workers once had their own club simply called El Alemán (The German).
Valdivia also hosts Bierfest Valdivia, a celebration that could be described as a small, regional Oktoberfest, despite being celebrated in late January or February of every year (during the local summer, when there is the largest influx of tourists). The main sponsor and organizer is Kunstmann, a local beer company, founded by German nationals, but since bought out by the largest beer and beverages company in Chile (CCU).
Literature
The Valdivia Book Fair is organized annually by the Municipal Cultural Corporation in Parque Saval. Likewise, the Society of Writers of Chile, through its subsidiary Valdivia and with the collaboration of the Austral University of Chile, regularly holds literary gatherings, a space in which books are presented and local letters are shared with the student community. Several authors born in the Los Ríos Region also stand out in the city, such as Maha Vial, Iván Espinoza Riesco, José Baroja, Aldo Astete Cuadra, Efraín Miranda Cárdenas, among others.
Demography
According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, the commune of Valdivia spans an area of and has 140,559 inhabitants (68,510 men and 72,049 women). Of these, 129,952 (92.5%) lived in urban areas and 10,607 (7.5%) in rural areas. Between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, the population grew by 15.1% (18,391 persons).
The city of Valdivia spans had a population of 127,750 and 35,217 homes, giving it a population density of . The commune is divided into 19 census districts with one recognized town, Niebla, with an area of , population of 2,202 (in 1,169 homes) and population density of .
Within the population, the presence of descendants of migrants of German origin and of Spanish origin also stands out, colonies that are grouped into different social, educational, sports and cultural institutions.
Geography
As part of the Chilean Patagonia, the geography of the Valdivia area consists of wetlands and alluvial terraces. Several rivers, such as Cau-Cau, Calle-Calle and Cruces, join near the city forming the larger Valdivia River. Valdivia River in turn empties to Corral Bay in the Pacific Ocean just some 15 km west of Valdivia. This river network made Valdivia a trade center even since Pre-Hispanic times. The city itself was built on a riverine terrace but expanded later over adjacent wetlands. Nowadays the city is virtually surrounded by hills by all sides except north where Valdivia's lowlands connect to the flatlands of San José de la Mariquina. Some hilly areas around Valdivia are covered with exotic forest species such as Douglas-fir, Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus globulus. Other places are used for recreational purposes or conservation of native ecosystems. Additional Northern Hemisphere exotic trees such as birch, horsechestnut and poplar are common in residential areas. Palms are occasional.
Parts of city is built on poor soils made up of former wetlands or artificial fills that are prone to suffer during earthquakes as demonstrated in 1960 and 2010.
Geology
Within the context of plate tectonics the city lies at a convergent margin where Nazca Plate in the Pacific is subducted beneath the South American Plate. Topographically Valdivia lies in a depression amidst the Chilean Coast Range. The basement rocks that crops out in the hills around the city are of metamorphic type. The city itself is chiefly built upon terraces made up of hardened volcanic sand. This volcanic sandstone is known as "cancagua" and deposited during the late Pleistocene epoch. As terraces took shape during the interglacial preceding the Llanquihue glaciation —the last glacial period— this interglacial is known in Chile as the Valdivia interglacial.
A tectonically and eustatically stable period during the Oligocene and Early Miocene allowed erosion to create deep valleys in the Coast Range and peat swamps at what is now the estuary of the Valdivia basin. About 23.5 million years ago this stable period was interrupted by a major volcanic eruption and 23 mya ago an increase in convergence rate at the Peru–Chile Trench caused an uplift of the landscape and renewed erosion. However basin subsidence and a marine transgression formed deep embayments, tidal flats, bayhead deltas and beaches.
Climate
Valdivia has an oceanic climate with Mediterranean influences. The natural vegetation of the region is the Valdivian temperate rainforest.
During the summer months (December, January and February) the average temperature is about , while in winter the temperature descends to . The annual average temperature for Los Ríos Region is , while the mean temperature amplitude is 8.8 °C (47.8 °F) and the daily is 11 °C (51.8 °F). Average annual precipitation is , distributed through the year, but primarily between March and October. Hail occurs with some frequency during winter, but snow falls rarely. The last times it snowed in Valdivia were in August 2020, July 2007, and in August 1995 during the so-called Terremoto Blanco (Spanish for White Earthquake). The Seven Lakes in the interior help to keep an average relative humidity of 80% for the region as whole and there are no months with less than 75% average humidity. The precipitation is generated by frontal systems that cross the zone, which produce cloudiness and few clear days. The leeward effect of the Valdivian Coast Range is minimal due to its low height (715 m at Cerro Oncol) and the gap in the range at Valdivia River's outflow to the Pacific Ocean.
Decreasing precipitation has caused the city's water supply in Calle-Calle River to be contaminated with saline water from the coast. The effects of saline water entering the water supply of Valdivia were particularly noticeable in March 2015 when there was a surge in complains about the taste of the water. The saltwater in the rivers near Valdivia during autumn is expected to increase in the future. Estimations indicate that whenever the sum of the water discharge of Cruces and Calle-Calle rivers falls below saltwater reaches the supply site at Cuesta Soto.
Government and politics
The commune of Valdivia is a third-level administrative division of Chile governed by a directly elected mayor (alcalde) and a municipal council (consejales). The city's current mayor is Carla Andrea Amtmann Fecci of the Democratic Revolution party. The prior mayor was Omar Sabat Guzmán of the Independiente UDI.
Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Valdivia is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Alfonso De Urresti (PS) and Roberto Delmastro (RN) as part of the 53rd electoral district, together with Lanco, Mariquina, Máfil and Corral. The commune is represented in the as part of the 16th senatorial constituency (Los Ríos Region).
The creation of Los Ríos Region and environmental issues have dominated the political scene of Valdivia in recent years. The communist lawyer Wladimir Riesco headed the legal actions against pulp mill enterprise CELCO after the deaths of black-necked swans in Carlos Anwandter Nature Sanctuary in 2004.
Ecological action
In response to the alleged contamination of Cruces River by the Celco cellulose pulp mill, a group of citizens formed the Accion por los Cisnes (Action for the Swans) ecology group. Action for the Swans attracted the attention of the national newspapers and succeeded in temporarily closing down Valdivia Pulp Mill through a court order.
Economy and tourism
The city and commune of Valdivia rely heavily on silviculture, the pulp and paper industry and other forestry-related activities (the harvesting and processing of wood from nearby plantations of eucalyptus and Douglas firs). Large businesses such as CELCO, Bomasil and Louisiana-Pacific have established wood processing factories near Valdivia. Metallurgy, naval construction and repairs are also important industries, with the companies of Asenav and Alwoplast based in the area. Agroforestry/agriculture, livestock, aquaculture and food processing are lesser but also important industries that contribute to the region's economy. The chocolate company (Entrelagos) contributes to the image of the region, as does the brewing industry, a symbol of the area and another important part of the local economy, with Kunstmann the most famous brewery in Valdivia. Beer, along with cold cut meat and sausages, is part of the city's German heritage and is preserved as part of the local heritage. Trade, restaurants and hotels link to the tourism industry which represent an important part in Valdivia's growing economy.
Tourism
Valdivia is a historic tourist destination in Chile, valued for the beauty of the city and surrounding areas, the area's culture and its history. It is an all season city, but during the summer months in particular (December, January, February) tourism is a major source of income for Valdivia's economy. "Valdivian Week" (Spanish: Semana Valdiviana), as it has been known since 1917, is a long-held tradition that dates back to the foundation of the city. Starting February 9 each year, it commemorates the city's anniversary and also gives Valdivia the chance to promote itself as a tourism center. "Semana Valdiviana" features an allegorical parade of ships – a tradition that began in the seventeenth century as a protest against the Spaniard authorities – and also includes a big artisan market, fairground rides, and the election of the "queen" of Los Rios. The week ends with fireworks and theatre performances on the closing night, known as "Noche Valdiviana" (Valdivian Night).
The center of the city has a rich architectural heritage. One of its most visited buildings is the "Mercado Municipal" ("municipal market"), a local produce market that is also now a gastronomic and cultural attraction. Also popular are the "Convento San Francisco" (Saint Francis Convent) and the European-style buildings dating back to the beginning of the 20th century, used today by the city's universities, cultural centers and government.
Education
Universities and colleges
Valdivia is home to several public and private schools and universities. The largest and oldest university is the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh) that was founded by decree in 1954 as one of Chile's seven original Chilean Traditional Universities. Its main campus is located in Isla Teja but it has other minor campus and properties spread through the city and southern Chile. Since the liberalization of higher education in Chile in the 1980s other universities have established campuses in Valdivia, including Universidad Arturo Prat, Universidad San Sebastián, Universidad Santo Tomás and Universidad de Los Lagos.
Schools
Like in the rest of Chile, most of Valdivia's best schools are private. Instituto Alemán Carlos Anwandter (Deutsche Schule Valdivia) founded in 1858 is Chile's second oldest German school after the Instituto Alemán de Osorno (1854). Other notable private schools are Windsor School and Colegio San Luis de Alba. Among public schools Instituto Salesiano de Valdivia, Liceo Rector Armando Robles Rivera and Liceo Comercial have reached good results.
Sports
Facilities for playing football, tennis, rowing, rugby, golf, indoor swimming, indoor and outdoor basketball and some other sports are available throughout the area. Rowing is practiced in Valdivia in three clubs: Club Deportivo Phoenix Valdivia, Club Centenario de Remeros and Club Arturo Prat. Valdivian rowers Cristian Yantani and Miguel Cerda won the first place in Men's Lightweight Coxless Pair-Oared Shells at the world championship in Seville, 2002.
Club Deportivo Valdivia is Valdivia's main basketball team and plays in Chiles first division, DIMAYOR where it won the 2001 season. In 1977 and 2001 Valdivia hosted South Americas Men's Basketball Championship.
The football club Club Deportivo Deportes Valdivia, founded in 2003, plays currently in the Chilean third division and , will play in the Primera B (or Second Division)
Transport
Roads and bridges
Most of Valdivia lies on the southern side of the Valdivia and Calle-Calle Rivers but other areas of the city, such as Isla Teja and Las Animas, are connected to it by bridges. The main access points to the city are Calle-Calle Bridge from the north and a southern route. Both connect the city with the Pan-American Highway and run through forested areas and wetlands. Route 207 runs from Valdivia southeast connecting the city with the town of Paillaco at the Route 5.
Calle-Calle Bridge, the first bridge built in the city, connects Valdivia with Las Animas and forms the northern highway access to the city. Pedro de Valdivia Bridge was built in 1954 and connects the city with Isla Teja, where many German immigrants once lived. During the Great 1960 Valdivia earthquake only the minor Caucau Bridge (connecting Las Animas with Isla Teja) was destroyed, while all other bridges were repaired and are still in use. In 1987 Augusto Pinochet opened Río Cruces Bridge, making the coastal town of Niebla as well as Torobayo and Punucapa accessible by road. Calle-Calle Bridge, the main access to the city, was enlarged in the 1990s.
The new Caucau bridge was intended to provide a faster route from the city centre to the Pichoy airport via Isla Teja, but the faulty construction made it unusable.
Waterways
Until highway bridges were built, Valdivia's economy and citizens depended on boat traffic on the surrounding rivers, but with a contraction of bridges and highways, the river has lost its importance. Today, the rivers are used by the commercial ships built or repaired in Asenav, one of Chile's most important shipyard companies, and by tourist boats. Some of the locations that are regularly reached by tourist boats include Mancera Island and Punucapa.
Fishing boats also travel inland from the coast to the River Market. Today, just one ferry is still in operation, the Niebla–Corral line, as it is much quicker to reach Corral by ferry than by road.
Although in recent years the rivers have not had a major role in Valdivia's public transportation, a new private project is being developed by "Los Solares", an environmentally friendly company that operates solar-powered river taxis on Valdivia River. The project is called Transporte Fluvial Sustentable (TFS, or "Sustainable Water Transportation" in English). So far, the company has a fleet of three river taxis, and a small, sustainable and locally designed floating village that includes a pier, a café and the company's offices. The community produces its own electricity, water supply and processes its own wastewater with a bacterial solution.
Airports
The city is served mainly by Pichoy Airport, lying 32 km northeast of the city via the north entrance road that connects the city with the Pan American Highway. The smaller but much closer Las Marías Airport is used primarily by small aircraft, with no airlines operating there.
Twin towns – sister cities
Gallery
See also
Ecotourism in the Valdivian Temperate Rainforest
Flag of Valdivia
Iglesia San Francisco de Valdivia
Pilolcura
Punucapa
Valdivian Coastal Reserve
References
Notes
Sources
Francisco Solano Asta-Buruaga y Cienfuegos, Diccionario geográfico de la República de Chile (Geographic dictionary of the Republic of Chile), SEGUNDA EDICIÓN CORREGIDA Y AUMENTADA, NUEVA YORK, D. APPLETON Y COMPAÑÍA, 1899. pg. 859–862 Valdivia – Ciudad
Brüggen, Juan. Fundamentos de la geología de Chile'', Instituto Geográfico Militar 1950.
External links
https://www.munivaldivia.cl/web/
Ilustre Municipalidad de Valdivia
Diario Austral de Valdivia, Valdivian newspaper
Geology and geomorphology of Valdivia and Los Ríos Region
Museo de Arte Contemporanea (MAC), a modern art museum
Museo Fuerte Niebla, Niebla fort's museum
Museo Philippi, a museum about the naturalist Rodolfo Armando Philippi
La Librería de Valdivia, biggest bookstore in south of Chile
Panorámicas de Valdivia en 360°
Valdivia
Museo de las Telecomunicaciones
Anime related internet forum made in Valdivia
Alwoplast, Valdivian designer/builder of custom catamarans
Cerveza Kunstmann, local beer maker
Valdivia Guide, an introductory guide for moving to Valdivia and Chile
Populated places in Valdivia Province
Capitals of Chilean regions
Communes of Chile
Capitals of Chilean provinces
Populated places established in 1552
1599 disestablishments
Port cities in Chile
Destroyed populated places
1552 establishments in the Spanish Empire
South American sea lion colonies |
4168940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20City%20Bar%20Association | New York City Bar Association | The Association of the Bar of the City of New York, commonly referred to as the New York City Bar Association (City Bar), founded in 1870, is a voluntary association of lawyers and law students. Since 1896, the organization has been headquartered in a landmark building on 44th Street, between Fifth and Sixth Avenues in Manhattan. Today the City Bar has more than 23,000 members. Its current president, Susan J. Kohlmann, began her two-year term in May 2022.
History
The Association of the Bar of the City of New York (now known as the New York City Bar Association) was founded in 1870 in response to growing public concern over corruption among judges and lawyers in New York City. Several of its early officers, including William M. Evarts and Samuel Tilden, were active in seeking the removal of corrupt judges and in leading prosecutions of the notorious Tweed Ring. It counted many of the country's most prominent lawyers among its officers, including Elihu Root, Charles Evans Hughes, and Samuel Seabury.
By the 1960s, under the leadership of presidents Bernard Botein and Francis T. P. Plimpton, the association became an increasingly democratic organization, easing restrictions on membership and actively engaging in social issues. The association hosted Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Chief Justice Earl Warren, among others, and actively campaigned for initiatives such as the Equal Rights Amendment. It also played an important role in two controversial confirmation battles in the United States Supreme Court, over nominees G. Harrold Carswell in 1970 and Robert Bork in 1987.
Since the 1980s, it has continued to diversify its membership with active recruitment efforts among women and minorities and to expand its involvement in access to justice initiatives, international human rights, and pro bono representation in many areas, including immigration, AIDS, homelessness, and criminal justice.
Since 1896, the association has been housed in its six-story landmark building at 42 West 44th Street.
Activities
Committees and public policy
The City Bar has over 160 committees that focus on legal practice areas and issues. Through reports, amicus briefs, testimony, statements and letters drafted by committee members, the City Bar comments on public policy and legislation. The City Bar's Policy department acts as a liaison between the committees and the New York State Legislature and New York City Council.
Examples of committee activity and issue areas include:
Business/corporate
Report: The Enforceability and Effectiveness of Typical Shareholders Agreement Provisions (February 2010)
Statement to the Obama transition team on financial regulation. (December 2008)
Civil liberties/security
Letter to U.S. Senators opposing a provision in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 that would require the Inspector General of the Department of Defense to investigate lawyers representing Guantanamo detainees in habeas corpus proceedings or military commissions. (May 2010)
Amicus Brief: Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, before the U.S. Supreme Court (January 2006)
Report: The Indefinite Detention of "Enemy Combatants": Balancing Due Process and National Security in the Context of the War on Terror (February 2004)
Consumer affairs
Report calling on regulatory offices, the judiciary, the organized bar and the process service industry to work together to reform process service in New York City. (May 2010)
Report in support of the Consumer Credit Fairness Act, which would strengthen consumer protections in consumer debt collection proceedings. (April 2010)
Government reform
2014 State Legislation Agenda: representing a portion of the dozens of positions generated by City Bar committees over the course of each legislative session. (February 2014)
Report: Reforming New York State's Financial Disclosure Requirements for Attorney-Legislators (February 2010)
Report on Community Benefit Agreements in New York City, urging the City to define a clear policy for considering agreements during the land use approval process for development projects. (March 2010)
Report identifying issues New York City's Charter Revision Commission should address and encouraging the Commission to conduct a deliberate examination of the entire Charter, and the principles underlying it, in detail. (April 2010)
International
Report of the Mission to China of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York (December 2009)
Report on the Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements (September 2006)
Report: The Prevention and Prosecution of Terrorist Acts: A Survey of Multilateral Instruments (June 2006)
Report: Human Rights Standards Applicable to the United States' Interrogation of Detainees (April 2004)
Notable events
The City Bar produces hundreds of events per year, most of them through its committees. These have included:
Supreme Court Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Sonia Sotomayor are interviewed by Charlie Rose in the inaugural event of the Barbara Paul Robinson Series. (October 25, 2016)
Sally Yates, former U.S. Deputy Attorney General, gave a keynote address at the White Collar Crime Institute. U.S. Attorney for the E.D.N.Y. Robert L. Capers gave the other keynote. (May 10, 2016)
United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon delivered a speech on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the role of the United Nations and the legal community in achieving Goal 16 over the next 15 years. (April 2016)
Supreme Court Justice Elena Kagan delivered the annual Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg Distinguished Lecture on Women and the Law, entitled "Justice Ginsburg's Greatest Hits." (February 2014)
A forum was held with the New York City Mayoral Candidates, including future Mayor Bill de Blasio. (June 2013)
Chen Guangcheng, Chinese legal activist and Distinguished Visitor at NYU Law School's U.S.-Asia Law Institute, was presented with City Bar Honorary Membership. (February 2013)
Harold Hongju Koh, former Legal Adviser to the U.S. Department of State, spoke on "International Lawyering for the U.S. Government in an Age of Smart Power." (November 2012)
Hon. Louise Arbour was elected to Honorary Membership "in recognition of her courageous commitment to justice as Chief Prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda, and for her unwavering leadership as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights." (May 2012)
The first legal clinic for the reopened September 11th Victim Compensation Fund was held at the City Bar. (November 2011)
Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, and President of Chile, Michelle Bachelet reported on the progress of gender equality and empowerment of women. (June 2011)
Leaders of nearly two dozen New York bar associations gathered at the City Bar to urge that legislation be passed to end discrimination against same-sex couples who wish to marry in New York. (May 2011)
Preet Bharara, United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, delivered a lecture on the future of white collar criminal enforcement. (October 20, 2010)
Retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor delivered the annual Arps Lecture at the City Bar, speaking on the topics of judicial independence and civic education. (April 5, 2010)
Robert Khuzami, Director of the Securities and Exchange Commission's Division of Enforcement, gave his first major policy speech at the New York City Bar. (August 5, 2009)
Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Linda Greenhouse delivered the Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg Distinguished Lecture on Women and the Law. (November 18, 2008)
Honorary membership was presented to Pakistan's former Chief Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry, who had become a symbol of the movement for judicial and lawyer independence in Pakistan. (November 17, 2008)
John Lennon held a press conference in the City Bar's Stimson Room on April Fool's Day to respond to the U.S. government's efforts to deport him as a "strategic countermeasure" to his mounting criticisms of U.S. policy in Southeast Asia. At the press conference, Lennon produces a "birth announcement" for Nutopia, "a new conceptual country with no laws other than the cosmic," where anyone could be a citizen merely by thinking about it. (April 1, 1973)
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gave a speech in the City Bar's Meeting Hall on "The Civil Rights Struggle in the United States Today." (April 21, 1965)
Member services
The City Bar's member services include career development workshops; networking events; a Small Law Firm Center; the Lawyer Assistance Program, which provides free counseling for members and their families struggling with substance abuse or mental health issues; a law library; discounts on Continuing Legal Education courses; insurance and other benefits; and contact info for the City Bar's 25,000 members.
Continuing legal education
The City Bar Center for Continuing Legal Education is an accredited provider in the States of New York, New Jersey, California and Illinois, offering over 150 live programs a year, as well as audio and video tapes, for members and non-members.
Pro bono and access to justice
Through its nonprofit affiliates, the City Bar Justice Center and the Cyrus R. Vance Center for International Justice, the City Bar provides pro bono legal services in New York City and supports the creation and expansion of pro bono and access to justice in other countries.
Legal referral service
The New York City Bar Legal Referral Service (LRS) is the oldest lawyer referral service in New York State, and the first one in New York City approved by the American Bar Association. The LRS is a not-for-profit organization, founded by the New York City Bar Association (est. 1870) and the New York County Lawyers' Association (est. 1908).
The LRS is one of the few in the United States to have attorneys answering calls and online requests. The attorney referral counselors help clients determine if they will benefit from working with a lawyer or refer clients to other helpful resources that might be better or more cost-effective. There is no charge to speak with an attorney referral counselor. LRS also serves the public by sponsoring the association's Monday Night Law Program providing free client consultations in various areas of the law, and by sponsoring a Request a Speaker program that can provide an office, community group, school, or organization with an experienced lawyer who will give a free presentation on a legal topic.
Evaluation of judicial candidates
The City Bar's Judiciary Committee evaluates candidates for judgeships on New York City's courts, and announces its finding of either "Approved" or "Not Approved."
The City Bar's Executive Committee, working with the Judiciary Committee and the Committee on State Courts of Superior Jurisdiction, evaluates candidates for New York's highest court, the Court of Appeals, issuing a finding of "Well Qualified, "Not Well Qualified" or "Exceptionally Well Qualified."
The Executive Committee, working with the Judiciary Committee, also considers the qualifications of the President's nominees to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court, issuing a finding of "Qualified," "Unqualified," or "Highly Qualified."
National Moot Court Competition
The City Bar has sponsored the National Moot Court Competition in conjunction with the American College of Trial Lawyers since 1950. Over 150 law schools compete each year in the regional rounds throughout the United States. The winners advance to the final rounds, which are held at the House of the association.
Awards
Association Medal Established in 1951, this award is presented periodically to a member of the New York Bar who has made exceptional contributions to the honor and standing of the bar in the community. The first Association Medal was awarded to Hon. Robert P. Patterson, posthumously, in 1952.
Bernard Botein Medal The Bernard Botein Medal is awarded annually to Court Attaches "for outstanding contributions to the administration of the courts." The award is meant to recognize members of the personnel attached to the courts of the First Judicial Department. The award is in memory of Bernard Botein, a former Presiding Justice of the Appellate Division and a former President of the City Bar.
Henry L. Stimson Medal The Henry L. Stimson Medal is presented annually to outstanding Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the Southern District and in the Eastern District of New York. The medal is awarded in honor of Henry L. Stimson, who served as U.S. Attorney for the Southern District from 1906–1909 and as President of the City Bar from 1937–1939.
Thomas E. Dewey Medal The Thomas E. Dewey Medal is presented annually to an outstanding Assistant District Attorney in each of the city's D.A. offices. Among prosecutors in New York County, Thomas E. Dewey is remembered as having ushered in the era of staffing the District Attorney's office with professional prosecutors chosen on merit rather than political patronage. Dewey first made a name for himself as a prosecutor in the 1930s, instituting successful criminal proceedings against bootleggers and organized crime figures. By 1937, Dewey was elected District Attorney of New York County, where he served one term before resigning to run for governor.
Minority Fellowship in Environmental Law The Minority Fellowship in Environmental Law is a joint program of the City Bar and the New York State Bar Association. It was established to encourage minorities to enter the area of environmental law by providing selected minority law students with grants for summer internships in governmental environmental agencies or nonprofit organizations, and participation in activities of the City Bar's Committee on Environmental Law and the Environmental Law Section of the New York State Bar Association.
Thurgood Marshall Fellowship The Thurgood Marshall Fellowship Program was established in 1993 to provide three exceptional minority law students with the opportunity to work with the City Bar to advance the goals of civil rights and equal justice that are Thurgood Marshall's legacy.
Legal Services Awards The Legal Services Awards were established to recognize the efforts of attorneys who provide critical civil legal assistance to underprivileged people in New York City.
Katherine A. McDonald Award The Katherine A. McDonald Award recognizes the vital services of attorneys who work in the Family Court in New York City.
Municipal Affairs Awards The Municipal Affairs Awards were established to recognize outstanding achievement as an Assistant Corporation Counsel.
Leadership and governance
The City Bar is governed by the Office of the President and an Executive Committee, consisting of the president, three vice presidents, a treasurer, a secretary and 16 members. The president serves a term of two years, and the Executive Committee is divided equally into four classes of staggered four-year terms.
City Bar Presidents
Susan J. Kohlmann: 2022–present
Sheila S. Boston: 2020–2022
Roger Juan Maldonado: 2018–2020
John S. Kiernan: 2016–2018
Debra L. Raskin: 2014–2016
Carey R. Dunne: 2012–2014
Samuel W. Seymour: 2010–2012
Patricia M. Hynes: 2008–2010
Barry M. Kamins: 2006–2008
Bettina B. Plevan: 2004–2006
E. Leo Milonas: 2002–2004
Evan A. Davis: 2000–2002
Michael A. Cooper: 1998–2000
Michael A. Cardozo: 1996–1998
Barbara Paul Robinson: 1994–1996
John D. Feerick: 1992–1994
Conrad K. Harper: 1990–1992
Sheldon Oliensis: 1988–1990
Robert M. Kaufman: 1986–1988
Robert B. McKay: 1984–1986
Louis A. Craco: 1982–1984
Oscar M. Ruebhausen: 1980–1982
Merrell E. Clark Jr.: 1978–1980
Adrian W. DeWind: 1976–1978
Cyrus R. Vance: 1974–1976
Orville Schell: 1972–1974
Bernard Botein: 1970–1972
Francis T. P. Plimpton: 1968–1970
Russell D. Niles: 1966–1968
Samuel I. Rosenman: 1964–1966
Herbert Brownell: 1962–1964
Orison Marden: 1960–1962
Dudley B. Bonsal: 1958–1960
Louis M. Loeb: 1956–1958
Allen T. Klots: 1954–1956
Bethuel M. Webster: 1952–1954
Whitney North Seymour: 1950–1952
Robert P. Patterson: 1948–1950
Harrison Tweed: 1945–1948
Allen Wardwell: 1943–1945
William D. Mitchell: 1941–1943
Samuel Seabury: 1939–1941
Henry L. Stimson: 1937–1939
Clarence J. Shearn: 1935–1937
Thomas D. Thacher: 1933–1935
John W. Davis: 1931–1933
Charles Culp Burlingham: 1929–1931
Charles Evans Hughes: 1927–1929
William D. Guthrie: 1925–1927
Henry W. Taft: 1923–1925
James Byrne: 1921–1923
John G. Milburn: 1919–1920
George L. Ingraham: 1917–1918
George W. Wickersham: 1914–1916
William B. Hornblower: 1913–1914
Lewis Cass Ledyard: 1912
Francis Lynde Stetson: 1910–1911
Edmund Wetmore: 1908–1909
John L. Cadwalader: 1906–1907
Elihu Root: 1904–1905
William Gardner Choate: 1902–1903
John E. Parsons: 1900–1901
James C. Carter: 1897–1899
Joseph Larocque: 1895–1896
Wheeler H. Peckham: 1892–1894
Frederic René Coudert Sr.: 1890–1891
Joseph H. Choate: 1888–1889
William Allen Butler: 1886–1887
James C. Carter: 1884–1885
Francis N. Bangs: 1882–1883
Stephen P. Nash: 1880–1881
William M. Evarts: 1870–1879
See also
Bar Association
City Bar Justice Center
History of the New York City Bar Association
House of the New York City Bar Association
National Moot Court Competition
New York State Bar Association (NYSBA)
References
Further reading
Batlan, Felice. "The birth of legal aid: Gender ideologies, women, and the Bar in New York City, 1863–1910." Law and History Review 28.4 (2010): 931–971. Online
Martin, George Whitney. Causes and Conflicts: The Centennial History of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York, 1870–1970 (Fordham Univ Press, 1997).
New York
New York (state) state courts
Organizations based in New York City
Office buildings completed in 1896
Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan |
4169431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callaway%20Gardens | Callaway Gardens | Callaway Resort & Gardens is a resort complex located near Pine Mountain in Harris County, Georgia, from LaGrange, Georgia. The world's largest azalea garden, this destination draws over 750,000 visitors annually. Callaway Gardens was ranked as Best Georgia Attraction in 2018 by USA Today.
On April 6, 2022, Herschend Family Entertainment agreed to purchase Callaway Garden's revenue-producing assets from the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation.
History and expansion
When the Great Depression struck in 1929, much of Harris County land was former cotton fields that were "worn out", depleted of nutrients after nearly 100 years of cultivation. Former Callaway Mills Chairman Cason Callaway and his wife, Virginia, acquired vast tracts of property in stages, eventually reaching . Callaway originally conceived of developing the garden in 1930 after he discovered a rare azalea, Rhododendron prunifolium (plumleaf), growing in the area.
To create the garden, streams were dammed creating 13 lakes; bulldozers filled in eroded gullies and drained bottom land clogged with silt; crops were planted that restored nitrogen and other nutrients in the soil.
Virginia Callaway consulted with Gilmore David Clarke, a noted landscape architect, to plant more than 20,000 trees, shrubs and native flowers in the renovated landscape.
Callaway Gardens opened on May 21, 1952, as the Ida Cason Gardens. It had , a number of lakes, a golf course, and scenic drives. The gardens were named for the mother of founder Cason J. Callaway. Robin Lake Beach and the Overlook Azalea Garden opened the following year in 1953. In 1955, the gardens were renamed as Ida Cason Callaway Gardens.
After serving in the Korean War, their son Bo Callaway returned to Harris County, Georgia to help his parents develop and run the gardens.
On April 12, 1961, founder Cason J. Callaway died. He was succeeded as chairman of the board by his wife, co-founder Virginia (Hand) Callaway.
The gardens have been expanded several times following Cason Callaway's death. The Cason J. Callaway Memorial Forest opened in 1972, and was designated a National Natural Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior. Robin Lake was the site of a ferry accident in 1974. Thirty-five years later, a visitor drowned there in 2009 while trying to save a struggling boy.
Non-Callaway management
Following Virginia Hand Callaway's death in 1995, George P. Fischer became the third President & CEO of Callaway Gardens. Fischer resigned after 7 years and was replaced on November 25, 2003, by Edward Cason Callaway, Bo's son. Howard H. “Bo” Callaway, who served the Gardens since January 1953, was designated chairman emeritus.
The Ida Cason Callaway Foundation applied for and was granted conservation easements on land in 2004 and 2007 by the Georgia Forestry Commission. This restricts use of the land if sold. It can only be developed to include a lodge on .
Edward C. Callaway remained in charge until 2014, when he stepped down. Don Perry served as acting president and CEO while an executive search continued.
Outside management
William R. "Bill" Doyle, III was hired in June 2015 to replace Edward Callaway. He had just turned 60 and wanted to find a leader with "expertise to take the gardens and resort to the next level with new programming and branding efforts". Doyle had 25 years of experience in the Hospitality industry, including Brasstown Valley Resort in Young Harris, Georgia, Wild Adventures in Valdosta, Georgia and Dollywood. Edward Callaway remained a trustee of the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation.
The gardens closed temporarily following Hurricane Irma in 2017, as it downed hundreds of trees and left the area without power. Cleanup lasted more than a week.
Cason’s Tap Room is Callaway Gardens’ newest eating and drinking establishment just outside the Lodge. It opened February 5, 2018, on the birthday of founder Cason J Callaway. In addition to the standard menu served at all restaurants in the Lodge complex, craft beers (including their own, Cason’s); "handcrafted" (specialty) cocktails; and an extensive wine menu, including their own Callaway Family Wines, are offered. Patrons can sit inside or outside on the patio, depending on the weather.
During Doyle's tenure he closed two popular major attractions that had been open for 30+ years: Sibley Horticultural Center. This brought some criticism.
Doyle resigned effective July 8, 2019, to return to a previous employer, Herschend Family Entertainment. He briefly remained a trustee of the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation and assisted in the search for his replacement.
Garland E. Horton, III was hired as President/CEO in 2019 and continues as of 2022.
Lodge and Spa
In a joint venture between Callaway Gardens and Atlanta-based Noble Investment Group, ground was broken on September 27, 2005, for Callaway's resort hotel, the Lodge & Spa. Each of the 150 large guest rooms has a balcony, a 4-fixture bathroom, and windows for natural light. The Spa has over a dozen treatment rooms offering traditional massage, hydrotherapy, Vichy showers, yoga and exercise rooms, plus salon services.
The Lodge opened November 1, 2006, just as attendance peaked at 1 million admissions. Noble developed the property, but Callaway Gardens had the option to purchase it. Noble contracted with Marriott Hotels & Resorts to operate the property, and Noble kept all the profits. Two years later, the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 struck, sharply reducing tourism. Yearly visitors had dropped to 400,000 in 2010/11 just as debt had grown to more than $44 million. Callaway Gardens sold the Mountain Creek Inn, its conference center, to Noble Investment Group for $12 million, along with 40 cottages for $4 million, but that was not enough. The Ida Cason Callaway Foundation decided that selling large tracts of land was the best way to reduce debt. In July 2012, was sold to Joe Rogers Jr., Chairman of Waffle House for $8 million. Another was sold for $4.63 million to an Atlanta Real Estate broker Brad Smith. CEO Edward Callaway stated that the Gardens were now "on sound financial footing" with total debt down to $7.5 million, which he called a "sustainable level". Callaway Garden's land area was reduced from with no plans to sell more. However, at some point the left after the 2012 sales was reduced by , because current promotional media states that Callaway Gardens is a garden. Although Edward Callaway claimed that the gardens finances were stable following the 2012 land sales, there were deeper cuts to be made. Two popular major attractions, Mr. Cason's Vegetable Garden and the Sibley Horticultural Center were closed in late October and early November 2015. Each had been open for more than 30 years.
William R. Doyle III, President & CEO announced in mid-April 2016 that Callaway Gardens had purchased The Lodge & Spa from Noble Investment Group and would begin a $2.5 million renovation of the entire Lodge & Spa facility. The spa was renamed, “Spa Prunifolia”, a reference to the rare azalea that still grows at the garden.
Nearly of pine trees were cut in early 2017 between Robin Lake and the Lodge. It created a clear line of sight between the hotel and the water plus a view of land in the F. D. Roosevelt State Park. Many of the trees were 60 years old, planted in the 1950s, but Cason Calloway did the same thing years prior for the Mountain View Inn. The open area will remain greenspace, have scattered fire pits and hammocks.
Renovation for the Lodge conference center was scheduled to begin in late 2019 and be ready in February 2020. The Longleaf Ballroom can accommodate 450-500 people; the Cypress Room holds 75-100 people; the Ironwood Courtyard seats 50-75 people.
Lodge at Blue Springs
The Lodge at Blue Springs, constructed in the 1930s by Cason J. Callaway, was used by the Callaway family as a vacation home. Local quarried stone was used extensively including the property entrance & gatehouse, pathways, pool & koi pond, plus fireplaces.
Built using the Adirondack style and designed by Ivey and Crook, it played host to three US Presidents, including FDR and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places before being left to the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation. Edward Callaway lived there until he moved out in 2015. It is located from Callaway Gardens and not involved with any Garden activity, so the decision was made to list it for sale in 2017 for $5.8 million. The compound featured the five-bedroom house, a guest house, indoor pool and the Blue Spring-fed Lake Ida on plus an additional . One quarter of the property's under roof was service space.
The property finally sold in late March 2019 for $1.28 million; the extra acreage was not included in the final sale.
Cason Callaway Woodland Estate
Another parcel of land acquired by Cason J. Calloway and owned by his family was put on the market for the first time in May 2017. The Cason Callaway Woodland Estate is being sold for $42.5 million. The property around the estate is owned by Dan Amos, Jeff Foxworthy, Bill Jordan and Joe Rogers Jr., some of whom purchased tracts from the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation.
Herschend Family Entertainment
Herschend Family Entertainment began managing Callaway Gardens in 2020, shortly after Callaway Gardens President & CEO (and former Herschend employee) William R. "Bill" Doyle, III resigned to return to that company.
On April 6, 2022, a press release announced that Herschend Family Entertainment agreed to purchase Callaway Garden's revenue-producing assets from the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation. These include The Lodge & Spa, Conference Center, Golf Courses and Robin Lake Beach. Herschend will also lease and manage the Virginia Hand Callaway Discovery Center, the Cecil B. Day Butterfly Center, the Ida Cason Memorial Chapel and Callaway Gardens. There was no mention of Callaway's 500 employees.
Fran Rogers, Board Chairwoman for the Ida Cason Callaway Foundation, was quoted, "This is an exciting and important milestone for the Foundation — one that assures we can continue our philanthropic efforts in the community and continue Cason and Virginia Callaway’s vision of ‘creating a garden so beautiful that it would make visitors want to go home and lead better lives,’ for generations to come.”.
A quote in that document from Andrew Wexler, CEO of Herschend, stated, "We’re honored to carry on the Callaway legacy by bringing our more than 70 years of experience in destination marketing to further develop Callaway as Georgia’s premier resort destination. We are wholeheartedly committed to preserving and strengthening all that makes Callaway so beloved and special — and look forward to celebrating the area’s natural beauty with a focused effort on world-class events and activities that complement the surrounding landscape."
The release also said that Herschend plans to invest over $20 million in the next five years on renovations and other improvements at Callaway Gardens.
Attractions
Trails
The garden has trails both for walking and biking. The Discovery Bike Trail, a paved trail that weaves through the wooded gardens, provides guests access to all attractions. In early 2017, Callaway upgraded miles of bicycle trails at a cost of $750,000.
Butterfly Center
The Cecil B. Day Butterfly Center, named after the founder of Days Inns of America, Inc., opened to the public on September 25, 1988. Mrs. Deen Day Sanders, Cecil Day's wife, provided the initial funding for the center. In 2004, the center earned a LEED certification. Guests visit the attraction year-round. In 2005, the Day Butterfly Center underwent a $2 million renovation to accommodate more visitors.
The conservatory is maintained at approximately 80 °F and 74% relative humidity. The center has 1,000 butterflies representing over 50 species. The butterflies are received in the pupa stage (or chrysalis) from Malaysia, the Philippines and Central and South America. Because the butterflies are considered to be invasive species, an inward blast of air is shot by a machine at the doorway to prevent any butterfly breakouts.
Golf and tennis
As of 2022, Callaway Gardens had two golf courses in operation. The Lake View Course was opened on May 21, 1952, the same day the gardens opened. The Mountain View Course, designed in 1965, hosted the Buick Challenge from 1991 to 2002. In 2001, Buick pulled its sponsorship of the tournament because of low attendance and little network coverage. A third course, the Gardens View Course, was opened in 1969 but was closed in 2002.
TreeTop Adventure
This attraction opened in May 2011 and combines a Zip line with an Obstacle Course. The 25 "games" run over in length. Instructors review tethering and safety before going to the course, but participants move their own carabiner clips while on the course.
The Sapling Course is for young children; the Discovery Course is more advanced and the Lake Course is challenging and includes two land zip lines and three water zip lines which range between . A spiral staircase rises up.
Birds of Prey
The Birds of Prey Show is presented several times a day at the Discovery Amphitheater. In the mid-1990s, the Earthquest company was contracted to conduct shows during the Summer season. In 2000, the Discovery Amphitheater was constructed along with hawk mews and the flight tower. Earthquest began performing more shows until 2005, when Callaway Gardens decided to hire their own staff and do it themselves.
Callaway's birds come to them injured or are human imprinted, which means they never learned to survive in the wild. Raptors are federally protected, so Callaway is permitted to keep and use the birds for conservation education. Show attendees can learn about different raptors from a bird handler and see them fly from their aviary to perches around the arena, then receive a reward. The audience is cautioned not to stand up or raise their hands while the birds are being flown to avoid collisions and/or injury to the birds and spectators. The show usually lasts less than an hour and includes at least one hawk and an owl.
Chapel
Situated on the shore of Falls Creek Lake, the Ida Cason Callaway Memorial Chapel was built to honor Cason J. Callaway's mother. It was dedicated on April 12, 1962 by Dr. Norman Vincent Peale, "to the glory of God, and in loving memory of Ida Cason Callaway."
Constructed using regional materials such as fieldstone quartz, massive pine beams and a slate roof, it was inspired by Gothic architecture. The stained glass windows depict a forest through the four seasons. A majestic Möller pipe organ is used for seasonal concerts, weekend services during the Summer and at Christmas, plus weekend afternoons from 2 to 4 PM. Randall Smith has been the principal organist at the Chapel since 2008. The pipe tower on the right side of the chapel has 1,229 organ pipes. The chapel is a popular location for small wedding ceremonies but seats only 50 people.
Vegetable Garden
Mr. Cason's Vegetable Garden was started in 1960 and named for Cason Callaway after his death in 1961. He said, "This is going to be the most productive 7½ acres, with the largest number of varieties of fruits and vegetables in the Southeast." The goal was to provide a demonstration garden that would show visitors how and what to grow in their own gardens. As of 1965, the garden provided much of the produce for restaurants serving Callaway Gardens.
The attraction was the location for years of television shows about growing vegetable gardens, most notably the southern edition of The Victory Garden on PBS.
Due to declining popularity and cost-cutting measures, the attraction was permanently closed October 26, 2015. A November 2, 2015, article in the
Atlanta Business Chronicle stated, "There are plans to move the garden elsewhere, but a decision has not yet been made regarding the location and size." In a November 9, 2015, Columbus Ledger-Enquirer article, then-President & CEO Bill Doyle said the vegetable garden land might end up being the site of a golf course clubhouse or a hotel or both. As of April 2022, no additional plans had been announced.
Horticultural Center
The grand opening of the John A. Sibley Horticultural Center was March 22, 1984, and something was always in bloom. The center's namesake was a Georgia banker, Callaway Gardens trustee, conservation advocate and friend of the Callaway family. The attraction was originally funded by private donations from people who knew John Sibley. Because the center contained a production greenhouse and was a top display conservatory, their research, internship and educational programs had a profound impact over 30+ years. Callaway Gardens promoted it as "one of the most advanced garden/greenhouse complexes in the world".
The goal of the Sibley Horticultural Center was "an expression of man working in harmony with nature while addressing the needs and wants of both plants and people".
The facility was permanently closed on November 12, 2015.
Seasonal events
Callaway Gardens annually hosts quite a few seasonal events depicted in the table below. There are other events that have been held including: Sip & Savor, a four-day food and drink festival; Callaway Marathon/Half Marathon/5k/Kids Fun Run;
Atlanta Symphony Orchestra concert; Free Admission on Founders Day; Organ concerts at the Memorial Chapel; Free Fireworks shows; Concerts featuring Travis Tritt, Parmalee, 38 Special, The Beach Boys and Foghat;
Gallery
See also
List of botanical gardens in the United States
References
External links
Callaway Gardens
Callaway Gardens historical markers
Hotels in Georgia (U.S. state)
Golf clubs and courses in Georgia (U.S. state)
Tourist attractions in Harris County, Georgia
Botanical gardens in Georgia (U.S. state)
Protected areas of Harris County, Georgia
Butterfly houses
Protected areas established in 1952
1952 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Callaway family
Herschend Family Entertainment |
4169553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood/Water | Wood/Water | Wood/Water is the fourth and final studio album by American rock band the Promise Ring. It was released by Anti- on April 23, 2002. While touring in support of their third studio album, Very Emergency (1999), the Promise Ring were due to leave for a European tour; frontman Davey von Bohlen was diagnosed with meningioma on the day of departure. As a result of a post-surgical infection, the band could not tour for the remainder of 2000. In early 2001, the Promise Ring made demos with Kristian Riley, and then recorded a track with producer Mario Caldato Jr. in Los Angeles, California. The Promise Ring flew to the UK for six weeks of recording with Stephen Street, before returning to Milwaukee, Wisconsin for further recording. The album moved away from the emo sound of the band's past works into alternative country, indie rock, and pop territory.
Wood/Water received generally favorable reviews from music critics, many of whom praised the reinvention of the Promise Ring's sound. Before the band promoted it, Bohlen had additional surgery. They embarked on an accompanying US tour, which featured touring keyboardist William Seidel. The music video for "Stop Playing Guitar" was released in May 2002; the song was released as the album's lead single two months later. The Promise Ring appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in May 2002, before supporting Jimmy Eat World on a UK tour; a US support slot for Jimmy Eat World followed in July and August of that year. The band performed for the 2002 Plea for Peace tour prior to breaking up in mid-October that same year.
Background and recording
Writing and Bohlen's illness
The Promise Ring released their third studio album Very Emergency in September 1999 on independent record label Jade Tree, fulfilling their three-album contract with the label. The album expanded the band's fan base and received some airplay on college radio. Vocalist-guitarist Davey von Bohlen and drummer Dan Didier worked as part of the acoustic side project Vermont around this time; Vermont also released their second studio album Living Together in September 1999. The Promise Ring were tired of playing what drummer Dan Didier called "those stripped down power type songs" while touring to promote Very Emergency in February 2000, and released their sixth EP Electric Pink in May of that year. Although the band were then scheduled to leave for a two-month European tour, Bohlen was diagnosed with meningioma on the day of departure.
With the tour having been canceled, Bohlen had surgery; the Promise Ring took the next few months off for his recuperation, and to work on new material. The band then supported Bad Religion on tour, and around this time, guitarist Jason Gnewikow said they had five new songs which were closer in style to their second studio album Nothing Feels Good (1997) than Very Emergency. Bohlen developed a post-surgical infection that forced the Promise Ring to drop out of the Bad Religion tour, and made them unable to tour for the rest of 2000. Although they had planned to write and record, the band members spent little time together. Gnewikow worked at his graphics company, while Bohlen and Didier focused on Vermont, and Didier relaxed with his family. The Promise Ring brought recording equipment to their rehearsal room, which allowed Didier and Gnewikow to experiment for hours at a time.
Pre-production and label change
In February 2001, the Promise Ring went to Bionic Studios in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to work on material with Kristian Riley of Citizen King. Pre-production was done for "Stop Playing Guitar", "Wake Up April", "My Life Is at Home" and "Say Goodbye Good"; the session resulted in songs that differed in style from those on Very Emergency. The band was no longer signed to Jade Tree by March 2001, and signed with the Epitaph Records imprint Anti- later that year. In April and May 2001, the band went on a short tour with Camden; by this point, William Seidel joined as a touring keyboardist. Later in May 2001, the band demoed material on Pro Tools, which marked a change from their previous process of jamming when rehearsing, playing songs live and recording them as quickly as possible in the studio. They attempted to reinvent their sound, although initially wrote material in the vein of Very Emergency. After some difficulty, the Promise Ring re-evaluated and decided to write material at a steady pace.
Epitaph Records contacted the Promise Ring when it became known that they would not release their next album on Jade Tree. The record label contacted the band's manager, but the band had little interest due to their unpleasant appearance on tour with Bad Religion. Epitaph was also primarily known for one style: Californian pop punk. Brett Gurewitz of Bad Religion, who founded Epitaph, flew the Promise Ring out to Los Angeles, California. Although he wanted them to sign with Epitaph, the Promise Ring wanted to record for Anti- because they were more familiar with the imprint; it featured artists, such as Tom Waits, Tricky and Merle Haggard, who did not fit into Epitaph's roster.
Anti- was understanding, since it was aware that the band wanted to move away from the emo genre. The Promise Ring also wanted more money than Jade Tree could offer, which was the main reason they left the label. Bohlen said that the band and Jade Tree "became more or less synonymous," and they wanted to distance themselves from the record label's sound. Another issue was Jade Tree's reluctance to license the Promise Ring's releases to labels in other countries. The band had to convince Jade Tree to license Electric Pink to Epitaph imprint Burning Heart Records for European release, and to license their albums in Japan, where the Promise Ring were becoming more popular.
Production
The Promise Ring wanted to work with Stephen Street because they thought he could understand the sound they wanted to create. Didier, Bohlen and Gnewikow were fans of the Smiths and Blur, both of whom Street had produced for. Since Street did not want to fly to the US, the Promise Ring flew to the UK to record with him. The band were in the process of finalizing details when Street went on vacation, and they had no way to communicate with him. Beginning to panic about their budget, the Promise Ring decided to split the recording between Street in the UK and Mario Caldato Jr. in Los Angeles. The band went to Los Angeles in mid-2001 and tracked "Say Goodbye Good" at Sonora Studios and MCJ Sound with Caldato producing; Robert Carranza handled recording. The song features bassist Scott Schoenbeck, who was unhappy with the change of sound and unenthusiastic about being in a band. He was replaced by Ryan Weber of Camden for the remainder of Wood/Waters recording. When Street returned from vacation, he said that he would charge less than his usual fee, and the band sent him demos of material they had recorded. They flew to the UK and went to Street's house, playing him the songs' session files.
Street and the Promise Ring then went to Farnham and recorded at Jacobs Studios, a converted farmhouse. The band stayed above the studio, and waited every morning for Street to arrive and listen to the recordings from each previous day. He and Cenzo Townsend engineered the sessions, with assistance from Jon Olliffe. On the first day, Street and the Promise Ring ran through separate lists of songs on which they wanted to work. Although "Become One Anything One Time" was at the bottom of the band's list, it was at the top of Street's; working on the song turned out to be enjoyable for them. During the sessions, the band wrote "Size of Your Life" and "Get on the Floor". The sessions lasted for six weeks, beginning in September 2001 and ending in early November. Additional recording was done for "Suffer Never", "Half Year Sun", "Letters to the Far Reaches" and "Feed the Night" at Polish Moon in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The total cost for the sessions was between $100,000 and $200,000, 10 to 15 times the recording budgets of the Promise Ring's past releases. Street mixed the recordings at Jacobs, except for "Say Goodbye Good", which was mixed by Caldato at Sonora and MCJ Sound. Stephen Marcussen mastered the final recordings at Marcussen Mastering in Los Angeles.
Composition and lyrics
Musically, Wood/Water has been described as an alternative country, indie rock, and pop album, with elements of roots rock, alternative pop, and psychedelic pop. The band moved away from their old emo sound, incorporating keyboards, percussion, pianos, acoustic guitars and soft vocals in the vein of Cat Stevens and Travis. Vermont's acoustic guitars and folk-based melodies are also present. Andrew Sacher of BrooklynVegan wrote that the band had "already started branching away from emo on 1999's power pop-infused Very Emergency, but Wood/Water drew a thick line in the sand between The Promise Ring and the E word". The album was described as reminiscent of the music by Wilco, Guided by Voices, Superchunk, the Flaming Lips, Wheat, and the Delgados. The title of Wood/Water comes from the opening line of "Become One Anything One Time". Gnewikow viewed the album as the "older cousin" of Nothing Feels Good, and said that recording in England was a positive influence: "The area that we were in was very lush and green and in some ways that's how I see the record, sort of warm and comfortable." Bohlen's vocals were compared to the Kinks frontman, Ray Davies, and lyrics on Wood/Water address the themes of change and re-evaluating one's life. Didier said that most of the lyrics are related to touring, especially the tours for Very Emergency; two songs from that album, namely, "Things Just Getting Good" and "All of My Everythings", pre-empted the direction they would explore on Wood/Water.
"Size of Your Life", the opening track, begins with guitar work that was compared to that in R.E.M.'s "What's the Frequency, Kenneth?" (1994), and features audio manipulation over Bohlen's vocals. The garage rock-pop song evokes "Tender" (1999) by Blur, and its abrupt keyboard ending recalls the sound Spiritualized. The song sets the lyrical tone for the rest of Wood/Water. During recording, Street told the Promise Ring to stand at the other end of the studio and interact with objects; Didier hit a fire extinguisher, Weber opened and closed a wooden chest, Bohlen banged two croquet mallets together, and Gnewikow played on an upside-down tennis-ball can. The resulting sound was the song's percussion track. "Stop Playing Guitar" is a power ballad that showcases Bohlen's storytelling ability, as he describes spending more time reading books than playing with the band. "Suffer Never", a primarily-acoustic song using synthesizers and distorted electric guitars, resembles their earlier material and the Flaming Lips' "Race for the Prize" (1999). "Become One Anything One Time", originally called "Wood/Water", features slide guitar; its "la la la" chorus is reminiscent of "Downhill" (1998) by Mysteries of Life.
"Wake Up April" opens with a drum machine and a keyboard as the Promise Ring shifts from a minor to a major scale. The song is reminiscent of 10cc's style, with Bohlen wondering what it would be like to drink his morning coffee in the afternoon. It has a percussion loop that the band had used as a click track; at Street's suggestion, they left it in the final version. The drum pattern and guitar riff of "Get on the Floor" recalls "Death of a Disco Dancer" (1987) by the Smiths, which Street also produced. According to Gnewikow, he was unaware of the comparisondespite listening to the Smiths' fourth studio album Strangeways, Here We Come (1987) at the timeuntil it was pointed out to him. "Half Year Sun" is an ambient country, song which borrows from the early work of Wilco. The folk rock track "My Life Is at Home" was compared to the Beach Boys and Weezer; it is followed by the Mercury Rev-inspired "Letters to the Far Reaches". The piano ballad "Bread and Coffee" is followed by "Say Goodbye Good", which features a phaser effect. With its choir section, the latter was compared to a Stereophonics rendition of the Beatles' "Hey Jude" (1968).
Release and promotion
On December 17, 2001, Wood/Water was announced for release the following April. On February 9, 2002, the album's artwork was released: a photograph by Christopher Strong, referring to the greenery surrounding Jacobs Studio. "Get on the Floor" was posted online on March 3 of that year. The Promise Ring played a few shows around their appearance at the South by Southwest conference later in the month. During their performance, Bohlen passed out; he had additional surgery over the next few weeks in which a plate was implanted in his head. Wood/Water was made available for streaming on March 26, 2002 via a microsite before its April 23 release. The double 10" vinyl edition was released on Foreign Leisure Records, the band's own label. The version contains one bonus track, "All Good Souls", and has a slightly-different track listing. To promote the album, the Promise Ring delivered two acoustic in-store performances. They then headlined a US tour in April and May 2002, being supported by the Weakerthans and Certainly, Sir.
The music video for "Stop Playing Guitar" was posted online on May 3, 2002; filmed at a Los Angeles guitar factory, it was directed by former GusGus members Arni + Kinski. On May 24 of that year, the band performed on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, playing "Become One Anything One Time". They then supported Jimmy Eat World on their UK tour, where Wood/Water was released on May 27, 2002. "Stop Playing Guitar" was released as the album's lead single on July 9 of that year; the 7" vinyl version included an edit of "Stop Playing Guitar" alongside "You Only Tell Me You Love Me When You're Drunk", and the CD version featured an edit and album versions of "Stop Playing Guitar" and "All Good Souls". Jimmy Eat World were again supported by the Promise Ring for a handful of US dates in late July and early August 2002. In September and October, the band appeared as part of the 2002 Plea for Peace tour. Although the Promise Ring planned to film a video for "Suffer Never" after the tour, Epitaph and Anti- announced on October 14, 2002 that they had broken up. The band explained a week later that they had decided to focus on other projects, and had considered a breakup for a month or two. Additional plans, such as a two-to-three stint in mainland Europe and an early 2003 Japanese tour were also cancelled.
Critical reception
Wood/Water was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, the album received an average score of 69, based on 12 reviews.
The A.V. Club writer Noel Murray said of the album that the "purposefully leaves aside youthful aggression in favor of probing, thoughtful musicality," and the "maturation process is like a bold rebuke to those who'd rather not grow up." Ox-Fanzine Joachim Hiller wrote that the "latent punk-rock hardness has disappeared," being replaced by "soft, tender songs," which have "gained the upper hand." Stuart Green of Exclaim! wrote that the album is a "dark and sombre journey through the mind of the artist as a survivor" and "a testament to [Bohlen's] growth as a songwriter." PopMatters critic Adrien Begrand called Wood/Water "a great little album" and enjoyed hearing the Promise Ring "stretch out their sound." The staff of E! Online liked the album's change from "the fast track to the, um, slower track," and noted that the band's "jagged riffs and were aemotional intensity" are a "distant memory."
For the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Gemma Tarlach called the album a combination of "lyrical introspection and a ... lack of inhibition musically" that sees the Promise Ring "taking its creativity to a new and exciting level." Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone found it "less blatantly melodic, peppy and cloying" than the Promise Ring's three earlier albums. LAS Magazine founder Eric J. Herboth wrote that the album's "structuring, layers, effects and ... mopey pace" make it sound more like Vermont than the Promise Ring; he said the album wasn't a "bad pop album, but it's totally impossible to digest as a Promise Ring album." According to AllMusic reviewer Kurt Morris, it "features hooks aplenty, vocal manipulations, and quite a few mellow numbers to boot." However,he opined that the album "starts out lukewarm" and has a "subdued feel, alienating die-hard fans and not doing anything daring enough to attract new ones." Pitchfork Brent DiCrescenzo criticized the album for "miss[ing] the boat"; although he found the experimentation "admirable," DiCrescenzo explained that "you can't put a Sizzler sirloin on a gold plate and call it a filet."
On the album's legacy, Sacher said it "disappointed fans that wanted another Nothing Feels Good, and it didn't catch on with its intended audience either [...] but over the years, Wood/Water's profile has risen, and some (like Texas Is The Reason's Norman Brannon) consider it their best".
Track listing
All songs written by the Promise Ring. All recordings produced by Stephen Street, except "Say Goodbye Good" produced by Mario Caldato Jr.
Personnel
Personnel per booklet.
The Promise Ring
Davey von Bohlenvocals, guitar
Jason Gnewikowguitar, keyboards, percussion
Dan Didierdrums, keyboards, percussion
Ryan Weberbass, guitar
Additional musicians
Scott Schoenbeckbass (track 11)
Roger Joseph Manning Jr.keyboards (track 11)
Quincy McCrarysoloist (track 11)
Wolfgangadditional strings (track 11)
Joharl Funches Pennychoir (track 11)
Larnakhosl Kunenochoir (track 11)
Shalott Hazzardchoir (track 11)
Production
Stephen Streetproducer (all tracks except 11), mixing (all tracks except 11), engineer
Cenzo Townsendengineer
Jon Olliffeassistant
Mario Caldato Jr.producer (track 11), mixing (track 11)
Robert Carranzarecording (track 11)
Kristian Rileypre-production (tracks 2, 5, 8 and 11)
Stephen Marcussenmastering
Jason Gnewikowart direction, design
Christopher Strongphotography
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Wood/Water at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
Review at The Boston Phoenix
Review at Maxim
The Promise Ring albums
2002 albums
Albums produced by Stephen Street
Anti- (record label) albums |
4169851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel%20Kook | Hillel Kook | Hillel Kook (, 24 July 1915 –18 August 2001), also known as Peter Bergson (Hebrew: פיטר ברגסון), was a Revisionist Zionist activist and politician.
Kook led the Irgun's efforts in the United States during World War II to promote Zionism and mainly to save the abandoned Jews of Europe during the Holocaust. His rescue group's activism was the main factor leading to President Roosevelt establishing the US War Refugee Board, which protected and rescued tens of thousands and possibly many more, partly via the Wallenberg mission. He later served in Israel's first Knesset.
Biography
Hillel Kook was born in Kriukai in the Russian Empire (today in Lithuania) in 1915, the son of Rabbi Dov Kook, the younger brother of Abraham Isaac Kook, the first Ashkenazi chief rabbi of Mandatory Palestine. In 1924, his family immigrated to Palestine, where his father became the first Chief Rabbi of Afula. Hillel Kook received a religious education in Afula and attended his uncle's Religious Zionist yeshiva, Merkaz HaRav in Jerusalem. He also attended classes in Jewish Studies at the Hebrew University, where he became a member of Sohba ("Comradeship"), a group of students who would later become prominent in the Revisionist movement, including David Raziel and Avraham Stern.
Military career
Kook joined the pre-state Haganah militia in 1930 following widespread Arab riots. In 1931, Kook helped found the Irgun, a group of militant Haganah dissidents, and fought with them in Palestine through most of the 1930s. He served as a post commander in 1936, and eventually became a member of the Irgun General Staff.
In 1937, Kook began his career as an international spokesperson for the Irgun and Revisionist Zionism. He first went to Poland, where he was involved in fundraising and establishing Irgun cells in Eastern Europe. It was there that he met the founder of the Revisionist movement, Ze'ev Jabotinsky, and became friends with his son Ari. At the founders' request, Kook traveled to the United States with Jabotinsky in 1940, where he soon served as the head of the Irgun and revisionist mission in America, following the elder's death in August. This assignment was clandestine, and Kook publicly denied he was affiliated with the Irgun many times while in America.
Activism in America
While in America, Kook led a group of Irgun activists under the pseudonym "Peter Bergson." The name "Bergson Group" or "Bergsonites" eventually became used to refer to all the members of Kook's immediate circle. The Bergson Group was composed of a hard-core cadre of ten Irgun activists from Europe, America and Palestine, including Aryeh Ben-Eliezer, Yitzhak Ben-Ami, Alexander Rafaeli, Shmuel Merlin, and Eri Jabotinsky. The Bergson Group was closely involved with various Jewish and Zionist advocacy groups, such as the American Friends for a Jewish Palestine and the Organizing Committee of Illegal Immigration. The group also founded some separate initiatives of its own, specifically the Committee for a Jewish Army of Stateless and Palestinian Jews, whose goal was the formation of an Allied fighting force of stateless and Palestinian Jews. Some credit the later formation of the Jewish Brigade, a British unit of Palestinian Jews, with Kook's activism. Two American members of the Bergson Group were author and screenwriter Ben Hecht and cartoonist Arthur Szyk.
Initially the Bergson Group largely limited its activities to Irgun fundraising and various propaganda campaigns. The outbreak of World War II saw a dramatic transformation in the group's focus. As information about the Holocaust began to reach the United States, Kook and his fellow activists became more involved in trying to raise awareness about the fate of the Jews in Europe. This included putting full-page advertisements in leading newspapers, such as "Jews Fight for the Right to Fight", published in The New York Times in 1942, and "For Sale to Humanity 70,000 Jews, Guaranteed Human Beings at $50 a Piece", in response to an offer by Romania to send their Jews to safety if the travel expenses would be provided. On March 9, 1943, the Group produced a huge pageant in Madison Square Garden written by Ben Hecht, titled "We Will Never Die", memorializing the 2,000,000 European Jews who had already been murdered. Forty thousand people saw the pageant that first night, and it went on to play in five other major cities including Washington, D.C., where First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, six Supreme Court Justices, and some 300 senators and congressmen watched it.
In 1943, Kook established the Emergency Committee for the Rescue of European Jewry. The Committee, which included Jewish and non-Jewish American writers, public figures, and politicians, worked to disseminate information to the general public, and also lobbied the President and Congress to take immediate action to save the remnants of Europe's Jews. United States immigration laws at the time limited immigration to only 2% of the number of each nationality present in the United States since the census of 1890, which limited Jews from Austria and Germany to 27,370 and from Poland to 6,542; even these quotas often went unfilled, due to United States State Department pressure on US consulates to place as many obstacles as possible in the path of refugees.
The proposal to admit more refugees was ratified by the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, and, in response to the pressure by the Bergson Group as well as Jewish Secretary of Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr and his team, President Roosevelt subsequently issued an administrative order in January 1944 for the establishment of a special national authority, the War Refugee Board (WRB) to deal with Jewish and non-Jewish war refugees. An official government emissary sent to Turkey was of considerable assistance in the rescue of Romanian Jewry. The WRB saved about 200,000 Jews. Those rescued through the WRB were probably mostly in Hungary, in part through the Raoul Wallenberg mission which was sponsored by the WRB.
Some of the members of the Emergency Committee to Save the Jewish People of Europe were: Hillel Kook (Peter Bergson) and Alex Hadani Rafaeli, Alex Wilf, Arieh Ben-Eliezer, Arthur Szyk, Ben Hecht, Rabbi Ben Rabinowitz (Robbins), Eri Jabotinsky, Esther Untermeyer, Gabe Wechsler, Senator Guy Gillette, Harry Selden, Johan Smertenko, Konrad Bercovici, M. Berchin, Samuel Merlin, Sigrid Undset, Stella Adler, Congressman Will Rogers, Jr., Yitzchak Ben-Ami, Col. John Henry Patterson (author).
There were many others who actively supported the "Bergson Group", for example a number of the best known people on Broadway and Hollywood, probably due to Ben Hecht's contacts (such as Kurt Weill).
The Irgun declared an open revolt against British rule in Palestine. To assist in recruiting and propaganda efforts, Kook established the Hebrew Committee for National Liberation and the American League for a Free Palestine, both of which were involved in lobbying U.S. and other diplomats and in trying to attract the American public to support the Irgun's rebellion. Kook remained strongly affiliated with the Revisionist camp after the war during the creation of the State of Israel. While he was unquestionably loyal to the cause, his position as the Irgun's leading American activist was not free from conflict. In 1946 Kook received a letter from Menachem Begin, who had become chief of the Irgun in 1943. Begin admonished Kook for various policy positions that strayed from the official Irgun party-line. These included Kook focusing on the transportation of illegal immigrants to Palestine instead of a "primary" assignment - arms shipments to Irgun fighters, as well as a (rather common) usage of the term "Palestine". At the time Kook was in the habit of saying "Palestine Free State", which Begin thought left too much potential for bi-nationalism. Begin demanded that Kook refer to the future Jewish state as the "Free State of Eretz Israel".
Controversy
Kook and his followers were opposed by American Zionist and progressive Jewish organizations. In December 1943, the American Jewish Conference launched a public attack against the Bergsonites in an attempt to derail support for the resolution.
The British embassy and several American Zionist groups, including the American Jewish Committee and other political opponents sought to have Kook deported or drafted. They encouraged the IRS to investigate the Bergson Group's finances in an attempt to discredit them, hoping to find misappropriation, or at least careless bookkeeping, of the large amount of funds the groups handled. The United States IRS found no financial irregularities. Among those trying to stop the Bergson Group's rescue activities were Jewish Congressman Blum and leaders of the World Jewish Congress: Stephen Wise, Nahum Goldmann. A State Department protocol shows Goldmann telling the State Department that Hillel Kook did not represent organized Jewry, and suggested either deporting him or drafting him for the war effort.
Rabbis' March
One of the Committee's more memorable activities was a protest Kook organized known as the Rabbis' march. The protest took place in Washington, D.C., on October 6, 1943, three days before Yom Kippur. Joined by Bergson Group activists, the Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America marched on the United States Capitol, Lincoln Memorial, and White House in Washington, DC. They were met by a number of prominent members of Congress including William Warren Barbour, the protesters plead for U.S. intervention on behalf of the Jews in Europe. The delegation was received by Vice President Henry Wallace. Disappointed by the President's failure to meet with them, the rabbis stood in front of the US Capitol, where they were met by Senator William Barbour and other members of Congress. They refused to read their petition aloud, instead handing it to the Presidential secretary, Marvin H. McIntyre. The march garnered much media attention, much of it focused on what was seen as the cold and insulting dismissal of many important community leaders, as well as the people in Europe they were fighting for. One Jewish newspaper commented, "Would a similar delegation of 500 Catholic priests have been thus treated?" Years later, Rabbi Soloveitchik, in recorded lectures, would bemoan the betrayal of the Rabbis' mission by Stephen Wise, who dismissed them as a group of Orthodox rabbis who didn't represent anyone. A week later, Senator William Warren Barbour (R; New Jersey), one of a handful of politicians who met with the rabbis on the steps of the US Capitol, proposed legislation that would have allowed as many as 100,000 victims of the Holocaust to emigrate temporarily to the United States. A parallel bill was introduced in the House of Representatives by Rep. Samuel Dickstein (D; New York). This also failed to pass.
Political career
In 1947, the Bergson Group had purchased a ship originally intended to carry new immigrants to Palestine, but, perhaps partially due to Begin's influence, was eventually used to ship arms. The ship was named Altalena, and was the focus of a violent confrontation between the newly formed Israel Defense Forces and the Irgun on the beaches of Kfar Vitkin and Tel Aviv. Following the Altalena Affair, Kook was arrested with four other senior Irgun commanders and held for over two months. Of the five, only Kook was a member of the Bergson Group. The five were eventually released after about two months.
Kook served in the first Knesset as part of the Herut party list, but quit the party with his close friend and fellow Herut Member of the Knesset Ari Jabotinsky. This followed two years of ongoing disagreements with their colleagues, particularly Menachem Begin, over the party's leadership and direction. Kook, who had returned to Israel after a ten-year absence, was now confronted with the reality that the country and movement he had fought for bore little resemblance to his ideals. Kook and Jabotinsky served as independent or "single" MKs for the remaining months of their terms, the first ever to do so. Profoundly disillusioned with the Israeli political process and future of the Revisionist movement, Kook left Israel in 1951 with his wife and daughter. In 1968, four years after his wife's death, he returned to Israel with his two daughters. He remarried in 1975 and lived near Tel Aviv in Kfar Shmaryahu until his death in 2001.
Views and opinions
While Kook never re-entered politics, he continued to give interviews in which he articulated his independent perspectives on Zionism, Jewish identity, and Israeli politics. He held that Jabotinsky's primary goal in creating a Jewish state was in making a country to which all Jews would want to belong, and that once Israel had been created, any Jews who refused to make aliyah had made a conscious choice to become "integrated" citizens of their naturalized countries. Making a distinction between Jews and Hebrews was another point of contention between Kook and the Irgun leadership as early as the mid–1940s. Kook's views have been described as a more moderate version of the "Canaanist" ideology espoused by Yonatan Ratosh. Like Ratosh, Kook was influenced by Adolf Gurevich, a Betar activist with connections to Bergson Group members Shmuel Merlin and Eri Jabotinsky.
Kook had a specific body of critiques concerning what he saw as the distortion of Zionist philosophy and idealism by Israeli politics. He maintained that he had always conceived of Israel being a "Jewish state" by having a majority of Jewish citizens, not through specific associations to Jewish nationalism. Paradoxically, Kook's "theocratic" vision of Israel gave him a great deal of ideological flexibility regarding some of Israel's more intractable problems. Accordingly, he supported all non-Jewish citizens of Israel with full rights and privileges, and once, in an interview with an Israeli Druze, commented that, like Jabotinsky, he saw "no reason" why the State of Israel could not have a non-Jewish president. He suggested amending the Law of Return for Jews residing outside Israel to be limited to a few years after Independence (1948) and to consider prospective immigrants on an individual, and not on a national or religious basis, except for cases of immediate danger.
Kook was also a strong supporter of Israel's constitution, which had been stalled during its writing in 1948 and never completed. Kook claimed that a formal constitution could have solved many ongoing issues in Israeli society, such as discrimination against Israeli Arabs, by providing all of Israel's citizens with a clearly defined, and egalitarian, role in Israeli nationalism. He once remarked that the lack of a constitution was "Israel's greatest tragedy": that Ben-Gurion's decision to change the Israeli governing body from a Constituent Assembly to a Parliament had been a putsch, and that he regretted not having resigned from the Knesset immediately after the decision had been made. Kook also favored the creation of a Palestinian state, albeit one established in modern-day Jordan. He was one of the first Israelis to call for a Palestinian state shortly after the Six-Day War. For the remainder of his life, Kook adamantly claimed that his position would have been shared by his mentor Jabotinsky.
Kook repeatedly referred to himself as a post-Zionist, and was one of the first in Israeli society to voluntarily (and positively) adopt the term.
Commemoration and legacy
Since the late 1990s, some historians have attempted to re-examine and evaluate the significance of his activities during World War II and his role as a political opponent of Begin. One allegation is that Kook's adversaries in Israel and America downplayed some of his accomplishments and minimized their own role in curtailing his activities. David Wyman and Rafael Medoff, co-authors of a 2002 Kook biography, suggested that, despite the frequent obstruction by the modern American Jewish establishment, Kook's rescue group's activism was the major factor in establishment of the War Refugee Board and that it was an instrument rescuing approximately 200,000, partly by means of the Raoul Wallenberg mission.
A play, The Accomplices, written by Bernard Weinraub and based on Kook's wartime efforts in the United States premiered at The New Group in 2007 and played thereafter in regional theatres. It played also in Jerusalem in April 2009.
The role of Hillel Kook was played twice onstage by actor Steven Schub (lead singer of The Fenwicks), in 2008 at The Fountain Theatre and in 2009 at the Odyssey Theatre in Los Angeles. Actor Raphael (Rafi) Poch (Artistic Director of J-Town Playhouse) played Hillel Kook in Jerusalem.
Film maker Pierre Sauvage directed a documentary about the activities of Kook during World War II: Not Idly By - Peter Bergson, America and the Holocaust. The film won an award at the Toronto Jewish Film Festival. The work-in-progress was screened in short versions beginning in 2009, and the final version was released in 2017.
There was an earlier 1982 documentary Who Shall Live and Who Shall Die by Larry Jarvik, including many of his mid-1970s interviews with Hillel Kook in Manhattan. The more recent 2009 Against the Tide, directed by Richard Trank and produced by Moriah Films of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, includes narration by Dustin Hoffman.
Quotes
We, the Hebrews, descendants of the ancient Hebrew nation, who remained alive on God's earth despite that great calamity that our people have experienced, have come together in the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation. The Jews today who live in the European hell together with the Jews in the Land of Israel constitute the Hebrew nation—there isn't another nation to which they owe their allegiance but the Hebrew nation. We must state it clearly: the Jews in the United States do not belong to the Hebrew nation. These Jews are Americans of Hebrew descent.
– From A Manifesto of the Hebrew Nation, 1944.
Why did we respond the way we did? The question should be, why didn't the others? We responded as a human and as a Jew should.
– On his Holocaust activism, 1973.
I, who was the liaison officer of the Irgun central command with Jabotinsky, and who accompanied him almost daily for four years—remained loyal to his teachings. I also believe that the Land of Israel, on both banks of the Jordan River, is our historic homeland. But I am also certain that had Jabotinsky lived today, he would have argued that now, after we've achieved our independence, our mission is to attain peace in order to establish the Israeli people as the political heir of the Jewish people.
– Interview in 1977.
There is no exile. The exile ended on May 14, 1948.
– Interview in 1982.
See also
George Mantello, Holocaust rescuer, publicized the Auschwitz Report
Gisi Fleischmann, Zionist activist and Holocaust rescuer
Michael Dov Weissmandl, Holocaust rescuer
Recha and Yitzchak Sternbuch, Holocaust rescuers
Solomon Schonfeld, Holocaust rescuer
References
Further reading
Videos
ALTALENA (VHS video produced in Israel)
Laurence Jarvik, Who Shall Live and Who Shall Die (dist. on DVD by KINO International at: kino.com
Not Idly By: Peter Bergson, America and the Holocaust (2009 documentary short) by Pierre Sauvage, Varian Fry Institute
Richard M Trank, Against the Tide, about Hillel Kook and the rescue group he led, as well as about obstruction by the American Jewish establishment leadership (Moriah Films, USA 2008)
External links
Jewish Journal interview with actor Steven Schub on playing Hillel Kook
Hollywood Reporter review of the Los Angeles production of "The Accomplices"
American League for a Free Palestine at the American Jewish Historical Society, New York, NY
Wyman Conference 2007 Videos
The Day the Rabbis Marched on Washington , from the American Jewish Historical Society
The Day the Rabbis Marched On-line Exhibit, from the David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies.
Irgun in Exile
Bergson Bio, from USHMM
The "Bergson Boys", from America and the Holocaust, PBS.
The Bergson Group, America, and the Holocaust: A Previously Unpublished Interview with Hillel Kook, by David S. Wyman, from American Jewish History 89:1 (2001)
A Rebel with a Cause: Hillel Kook, Begin and Jabotinsky's Ideological Legacy, by Eran Kaplan, from Israel Studies 10.3 (2005)
Jewish World Review op-ed
1915 births
2001 deaths
Abraham Isaac Kook
Herut politicians
Irgun members
Members of the 1st Knesset (1949–1951)
Post-Zionists
The Holocaust and the United States
Hillel
Mercaz HaRav alumni
Lithuanian emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Israeli prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of Israel |
4170060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadhyaya%20Movement | Swadhyaya Movement | The Swadhyaya Movement or Swadhyaya Parivara started in mid 20th-century in the western states of India, particularly Maharashtra and Gujarat. Founded by Pandurang Shastri Athavale (1920-2003), the movement emphasizes self-study (swadhyaya), selfless devotion (bhakti) and application of Indian scriptures such as the Upanishads and Bhagavad gita for spiritual, social and economic liberation.
The movement focuses on the Upanishadic mahāvākyas (great teachings) related with Vedic belief that god is within oneself, every human being, all living beings and all of god's creation. It encourages voluntary self-study, self-knowledge, community discourses and action with a responsibility to the god in oneself and others. Its temples typically highlight the deities Yogeshwara Krishna, Parvati, Ganesha and Shiva in a Vriksha Mandir ("temple of trees") setting. Deity Surya is recognized in the form of sunlight. Prayers are performed in the Smarta tradition's Panchayatana puja format, attributed to Adi Shankara. Community members participate in Bhavabhakti (emotional devotion to the divine), Krutibhakti (actional devotion by voluntary service to the divine in all of god's creation), and Bhaktipheri (devotional travel to meet, work and help the well-being of the community partners). The movement members treat all men and women in the organization as a Parivara (family).
History
Pandurang Shastri Athavale was born in a Maharashtrian Brahmin family in colonial India. In the 1940s, while he was in his early twenties, Athavale began to deliver discourses on the Bhagavad Gita in Mumbai, India. He argued that both the liberal welfare-centric approach and socialism were incapable of bridging the gap between rich and needy. He rejected charity handouts, arguing that this creates a dependent relationship, attacks human dignity, and robs the recipient's sense of self-worth. He sought another way for liberating oneself spiritually, economically, and socially. He believed that the foundation and values for such a search were in the ancient texts of Hinduism. He began preaching these principles from Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita in his community, particularly in the downtrodden segments of society he called Agri, Bagri, and Sagri. This initiative began Athavale's Swadhyaya movement in 1958. His followers call him "Dada" (elder brother).
The movement refuses any support or assistance from the state or non-governmental organizations (NGOs), relying entirely on volunteer activity of its members. It claims to have between 50,000 and 100,000 centres ("kendra" locations) and between 6 and 20 million followers in India, Portugal, USA, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the Middle East.
Discussion
In standard Classical Sanskrit, svādhyāyaḥ (Devanāgarī: स्वाध्याय:) means study (adhyāya) by oneself (sva), i.e., private study or studying alone. For Athavale and the Parivar, Swadhyay is interpreted as the study of the self for a spiritual quest, an innovative and striking interpretation. According to members, it is a "journey to work out a unity in a multiverse of cultures and world views, of harmonizing the self with a network of relationships, of creating and maintaining vital connections between self, society, and God, of knowing and enriching human action with sacredness." The understanding of an in-dwelling God imbibed into Swadhyayees (practitioners of Swadhyay) by Athavale is claimed to motivate them towards true expression of devotion (Bhakti).
Athavale introduced educational institutions, developed wealth redistribution measures and social welfare projects. Athavale has shown that individual transformation eventually can lead to wider social change. Devotion, he says, can be turned into a social force. "Since God is with us and within us, he is a partner in all our transactions. Naturally, he has his share..." God's part of our wealth, Athavale suggests, can be redistributed among the poor and needy.
Athavale also presented the idea of Yogeshwar Krishi (divine farming) to the farming community. In this social experiment, a Swadhyayee gives a piece of land for use for a season as God's farm. Thereafter each person subsequently, one day a month, works on cultivating that particular plot of land. Seen as God's plot, the income thus generated is called "impersonal wealth" and belongs to no one but God. The wealth is consecrated in the local temple (called Amritalayam) and later disbursed to those in need as prasad or divinely blessed food. Swadhyay emphasizes "graceful giving" where "the help to the needy family's house is taken in the middle of the night so that others may not know that the family concerned has received help from the community."
Activities & "Prayogs"
Every activity in Swadhyay Parivar is based on Devotion, with a purpose to lift myself spiritually and to take me one step closer to God. Along with actively living Swadhyay principles in his daily life, Dada has been giving his discourses since 1942 to bring spirituality out in the common man. But instead of playing the role of teacher or preacher, he always became part of all and went to the same level of a common man, worked with all as a divine brother, and brought oneness in everyone who came into touch with him The understanding of indwelling God imbibed into his followers (known and referred as Swadhyayees) by Rev. Dada motivated them to willingly, knowingly and lovingly offer their efficiency, skill, and toil at the feet of God out of gratitude and reverence, which is a true expression of Devotion. The concept of Devotion has two important aspects: one self-exploration with a view to coming closer to God and two an active/creative principle of devotion to promote communal good. Through a series of Practical steps and programs, the awareness that the self is the abode of the Divine is facilitated.
Currently, Swadhyay is actively practiced in many countries (India, USA, UK, Middle East, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Surinam, Fiji, West Indie, etc.) across the world with over 5 million active Swadhyayees practicing these principles in their daily life.
In addition, he started many social experiments (Prayogs) to bring man closer to man, and man closer to God. These prayogs were on the basis of Devotion (Bhakti), whereas Bhakti is not limited to only going to the temple, praying at your house, or donating money in the name of God. It is more so on donating your time and efficiency to God. The by-product of these prayogs resulted in an alternative society where the other is not another, but he is my divine brother.
Prayogs (प्रयोग) (Social Experiments) by Swadhyaya Parivar
Trikal Sandhya - Remembering God at the most important times in our life when God comes to gift us, three times a day: 1) morning (when we get up) recollection is gifted; 2) (when we have our food) digestion is gifted; and 3) (at night while sleeping) peace is gifted by God.
Yuva/Yuvati Kendra (Previously known as DBT - Divine Brain Trust) - Youth gatherings to discuss modern-day issues for ages 16 to 30.
Bal Sanskar Kendra (BSK) - Sessions for kids between ages 7 to 15, learn verses from scriptures and stories from History, Puranas, and other texts.
Swadhyaya Kendra - Meeting once a week to learn about Hindu Scriptures and listen to discourses given by Dada.
Bhavpheri/Bhaktipheri - Selflessly and devotionally traveling to meet, work and help the well-being of community partners. Bhavpheri is usually more local, whereas Bhaktipheri may involve traveling further into rural areas or places where local Bhavpheri does not happen.
Vruksha Mandir - Where villages have a collective garden or orchard and members, generally from Amrutalayam villages, come and help in the name of god. It incorporates seeing God residing in nature, usually through trees (Vruksha) in this method.
Madhav Vrund - A way for people who cannot access a Vruksha Mandir to respect and bond with nature; involves having plants in the house, keeping good care of them as a family, and reciting stotras like the Narayana Upanishad while watering the plant.
Yogeshwar Krishi - Where farmers would meet once a month and farm in the name of God. If money is made in the process, it is considered God's and is used for village welfare or given to those who need it most at the time. Based on the Shrimad Bhagavad Gita: स्वकर्मणातमभ्यचर्य.
ShriDarshanam- 9 Amritalayala's together make one ShriDarshanam.
Matsyagandha - Where fishermen would meet once a month and fish in the name of God. Again, money made is God's and used for good works. Based on the Shrimad Bhagavad Gita: स्वकर्मणातमभ्यचर्य.
Patanjali Chikitsalay - Where doctors would go to various parts of India and give their efficiency by treating their brothers and sisters. Based on the Shrimad Bhagavad Gita: स्वकर्मणातमभ्यचर्य.
Loknath Amrutalayam- ALl the people of that respective village people are Swadhyay members and respect and care for each other. In the evening, everyone gets together to do Kutumba Prarthana (prayer as a family) together in this Amrutalayam.
Hira Mandir - The same idea as Matsyagandha and Yogeshwar Krushi, but with mineral miners and polishers.
Beliefs
Swadhyay is a Sanskrit word. In the Parivar, Swadhyay means the study, knowledge, and discovery of the ‘Self’. The ‘Self’ or the ‘I’ is the indwelling spirit underlying the ego, the intellect, and the mind. Swadhyay involves studying, discovering, knowing, and understanding one's true and inner self and paying due respect to other selves. It is a "journey to work out a unity in a multiverse of cultures and world views, of harmonizing the self with a network of relationships, of creating and maintaining vital connections between self, society, and God, of knowing and enriching human action with sacredness."
The teachers in the Swadhyay Parivar assert that it is not a sect, a cult, a creed, a tradition, an institution, or even an organization. It is not an organized religion. It does not require any membership or vows. It is not initiated to be an agitation or a revolution. Swadhyay is independent of caste, religion, nationality, color, education, and one's status in society. Swadhyay is about individual transformation through spiritual awareness. It is an attitude of the mind. Swadhyay is the right perspective or the vision, which enables one to understand deeper aspects of spirituality and devotion. The basic fundamental thought that Swadhyay emphasizes is the concept of indwelling God. ‘God dwells within’ i.e. ‘God exists within me and within everyone else’. All are children of the Divine. Hence, Swadhyay establishes the Divine Brotherhood under the Fatherhood of God i.e. ‘the other is not ‘other’, but he is my divine brother.’ Blood relationship is extended to a relationship through the Blood Maker. The concept of the traditional family is extended to the Divine Family. This is a natural extension of the concept of an indwelling God. The concept looks very simple. However, for almost all of those who have come into deeper contact with Swadhyay, it has brought about a permanent transformation in their lives. The very understanding that God resides within me makes me divine and worthy of respect. It also inspires the view that God or divinity is everywhere, present in all living things, and therefore all should be treated with respect and devotion. Thus, the concept of an indwelling God motivates people to care for the welfare of others.
Though Swadhyay does not function as a conventional organization but works as an extended family, it seems to have a definite vision. The vision is to achieve all-around upliftment of humanity at large through the holistic development of the human being by reason-based religion. Religion, in this context, refers to the Religion of a Human Being and should not be interpreted for conventional organized religions such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, or Buddhism. Swadhyay is not interested in quick results or publicity, although it has been operating since the 1940s with incredible ‘results’, it has remained quite unknown to date. It neither seeks nor accepts financial help from governments or philanthropic agencies for any of its experiments, projects, or gatherings. It does not report to any donor, religious body, or controlling force; it has no political ideology or dogma.
Swadhyay efforts resulted in creating a society that is self-disciplined, has faith in God, is adventurous and brave, loves culture and the Holy Scriptures, and is filled with devotion. In this society, greater importance will be given to the right attitude rather than to action, thoughts will be valued more than things, feelings more than enjoyment, self-surrender more than selfishness, group more than individual, culture more than manners, efforts more than results, goodness more than strength, truth more than mere logic and righteousness more than wealth. The origin of Swadhyay goes back to 1942, when Pandurang Shastri Athavale, the originator of the activity who is affectionately called (and hereafter referred to) as ‘Dada’ (Elder brother), started going on devotional visits alone in Mumbai, India. He inspired a small set of co-workers, primarily professionals, to go on similar visits themselves, to various villages around Bombay. Through the concept of an indwelling God, millions of individuals recognize the inner God, cultivate increased self-respect, and abandon immoral behavior. The villages where Swadhyay has a firm footing have witnessed a reduction in crime, the removal of social barriers, and a drastic alleviation from poverty, hunger, and homelessness, among other bad social and civic conditions.
Scriptures and foundation
Bhagavad Gita
Geeta 4.28
dravya-yajñās tapo-yajñā yoga-yajñās tathāpare
swādhyāya-jñāna-yajñāśh cha yatayaḥ sanśhita-vratāḥ
Some offer their wealth as a sacrifice, while others offer severe austerities as a sacrifice. Some practice the eight-fold path of yogic practices, and yet others study the scriptures and cultivate knowledge as a sacrifice while observing strict vows.
Geeta 16.1
abhayaṁ sattva-sanśhuddhir jñāna-yoga-vyavasthitiḥ
dānaṁ damaśh cha yajñaśh cha svādhyāyas tapa ārjavam
O son of Bharat, these are the saintly virtues of those endowed with a divine nature—fearlessness, purity of mind, steadfastness in spiritual knowledge, charity, control of the senses, performance of sacrifice, study of the sacred books, austerity, and straightforwardness;
Geeta 17.15
anudvega-karam vakyam satyam priya-hitam ca yat
svadhyaya bhyasanam caiva van-mayam tapa ucyate
The austerity of speech consists in speaking words that are truthful, pleasing, beneficial, and not agitating to others, and also in regularly reciting Vedic literature.
Taittiriya Upanishad
Hymn 1.9.1 emphasizes the central importance of Svadhyaya in one's pursuit of Reality (Ṛta), Truth (Satya), Self-restraint (Damah), Perseverance (Tapas), Tranquility and Inner Peace (Samas), Relationships with others, family, guests (Praja, Prajana, Manush, Atithi) and all Rituals (Agnaya, Agnihotram).
Taittiriya Upanishad, however, adds in verse 1.9.1, that along with the virtue of 'svādhyāyā' process of learning, one must teach and share (pravacana) what one learns. This is expressed by the phrase "'svādhyāyapravacane ca'", translated as "and learning and teaching" by Gambhīrānanda
In verse 1.11.1, the final chapter in the education of a student, the Taittiriya Upanishad reminds:
सत्यंवद। धर्मंचर। स्वाध्यायान्माप्रमदः।
Speak the Satya, follow the Dharma, from Svadhyaya never cease.
— Taittiriya Upanishad, 1.11.1-2
Patanjali's Yogasutra
Verse II.44, recommends Svadhyaya as follows
स्वाध्यायादिष्टदेवतासंप्रयोगः॥
From study comes a connection with one's chosen deity.
— Patanjali's Yogasutra II.44
References
Bibliography
Swadhyaya: A Movement Experience in India - August 2003 Visions of Development: Faith-based Initiatives, by Wendy Tyndale. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. . Page 1.
Self-Development and Social Transformations?: The Vision and Practice of the Self-Study Mobilization of Swadhyaya, by Ananta Kumar Giri. Lexington Books. 2008. .
Role of the swadhyaya parivar in socioeconomic changes among the tribals of Khedasan: A case study, by Vimal P Shah. Gujarat Institute of Development Research, 1998. .
Vital Connections: Self, Society, God : Perspectives on Swadhyaya, by Raj Krishan Srivastava. 1998; Weatherhill, .
"Dharma and Ecology of Hindu Communities: Sustenance and Sustainability", by Pankaj Jain. 2011; Ashgate, .
Bhakti movement
Organisations based in Mumbai
Hindu organisations based in India
Hindu new religious movements
Smarta tradition
Religious organizations established in 1954
1954 establishments in Bombay State |
4170137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde%20Park%20Barracks%2C%20Sydney | Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney | The Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney is a heritage-listed former barracks, hospital, convict accommodation, mint and courthouse and now museum and cafe located at Macquarie Street in the Sydney central business district, in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. Originally built from 1811 to 1819 as a brick building and compound to house convict men and boys, it was designed by convict architect Francis Greenway. It is also known as the Mint Building and Hyde Park Barracks Group and Rum Hospital; Royal Mint – Sydney Branch; Sydney Infirmary and Dispensary; Queen's Square Courts; Queen's Square. The site is managed by the Sydney Living Museums, an agency of the Government of New South Wales, as a living history museum open to the public.
The site is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as one of 11 pre-eminent Australian Convict Sites as amongst "the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts", and was listed on the Australian National Heritage List on 1 August 2007, and on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.
The historic site was closed in January 2019 for $18 million restoration work to transform it into "a rich new, immersive visitor experience like no other in Australia" and reopened in February 2020.
History
Hyde Park Barracks
Governor Macquarie, after his arrival in Sydney, had become increasingly disturbed by the male convicts' behaviour in the streets after work. Convicts had been allowed to find their own lodgings, however, Macquarie thought that barracks accommodation would improve the moral character of the men and increase their productivity. To this end, Macquarie requested convict architect Francis Greenway design barracks for 600 men. Constructed by convicts, the foundation stone was laid by Macquarie on 6 April 1817 and the barracks were completed in 1819. Macquarie was so impressed by Greenway's design that he granted him a full pardon shortly after its completion. The barracks officially opened on 4 June 1819, when 589 convicts were admitted.
Internally, the four rooms on each floor were hung with two rows of hammocks, with a 0.9-metre (3-foot) passage. The room allowed for each hammock was 2.1 by 0.6 metres (7 by 2 feet). In this way, the long eastern rooms could sleep 70 men each, while 35 men slept in the smaller western rooms.
Francis Greenway was the architect who designed the Barracks. He was a convict for forging signatures and he had to move to Australia. He was also known for his architectural skills and quickly advertised himself in local places.
Macquarie was happy to note that since the confinement of the male convicts to the Barracks at night "not a tenth part of the former Night Robberies and Burglaries" occurred. Commissioner Bigge, however, complained that the congregation of such a large number of "depraved and desperate characters" in one area had just condensed the problem. Stealing was rife within the Barracks, items being passed over the walls to waiting accomplices for disposal. In an attempt to curb the thefts convicts were searched at the gates and broad arrows were painted on items of clothing and bedding.
The accommodation soon proved inadequate and up to 1400 men were housed in the Barracks at any one time. It has been estimated that perhaps 30,000 men and boys passed through the Barracks between 1819 and 1848. The convict response to the Barracks was somewhat mixed: those that were able to pay for lodgings by working on Saturday were not happy about the confinement; others were happy to have a roof over their heads. In 1820, in order to ease the pressure on the crowded Barracks the reward of being allowed to live outside the Barracks was extended. Convicts found gambling, drunk, engaged in street violence, or other unseemly behaviour had this freedom revoked and were sent to live in the Barracks. It had become a form of punishment. Loitering or idling on a Saturday was also punishable by confinement to the Barracks. Convicts had a peculiar mix of detention and freedom, convicts had to work for the Government during the week, but were allowed to work for their own benefits on Saturdays. This was a privilege Governor Macquarie did not like to see abused.
From 1830, convicts were brought to the site for sentencing and punishment by the Court of General Sessions sitting in northern perimeter buildings. Punishments handed down included floggings, which were carried out onsite, or terms on the treadmill or chain gangs. While one of the first agencies to encroach on the Barracks, they were not the last. The Board for the Assignment of Servants operating from the Barracks between 1831 and 1841.
The cessation of convict transportation in 1840 saw a dwindling number of convicts to house. By 1848, the numbers remaining did not warrant the use of such a large premise and the remaining convicts were removed to Cockatoo Island. The Barracks became instead the Female Immigration Depot. Occupying the first two floors, the Depot had the purpose of giving temporary shelter to newly arrived single females while they were found positions. Depending on the arrival of ships, the Depot could be overcrowded or almost vacant. Single women were encouraged to immigrate to address labour shortages, particularly for maids and servants, and the gender imbalance evident in the Colony. Women from Ireland, devastated by the Great Famine, were particularly targeted for immigration, coaxed to leave their homeland by the promise of better employment prospects and life. Additionally, the Barracks also housed the Orphan Institution until 1852, through which many more Irish famine victims passed. The perimeter buildings were taken over by a variety of government agencies including, but not limited to, the Government Printing Office (1848–1856), Stamp Office (1856), Department of the Chief Inspector of Distilleries (1856–1860) and the Vaccine Institute (1857–1886).
The Asylum for Infirm and Destitute Women used the top floor, between 1862 and 1886, to provide accommodation and care to 150 women with terminal illnesses who could not afford medical treatment, the senile, insane, and generally destitute women. Both the Asylum and the Immigration Depot were managed by Matron Lucy Applewhaite-Hicks, who lived on the second floor with her family. Overcrowding was a constant problem, and the Barracks ceased to provide accommodation in 1886 when the women were moved to new purpose-built facilities at Newington
The Courts continued to expand their use of the former Barracks buildings and by the early 19th century had almost exclusive use of the site. Courts were shuffled between buildings on the site and moved elsewhere in the city as more appropriate facilities were found or as pressures on space requirements grew or shrank. The new social policies of the 1880s saw the creation of a raft of legally specialised courts, which, in commemoration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria (1887) and 100 years of settlement in Sydney (1888), were consolidated in the Hyde Park Barracks. The facility became known as Chancery Square, later the Queen's Square Courts. Extensive modifications were undertaken to accommodate the courts, including the addition of fibro buildings in the courtyard and internal divisions to the Principle Dormitory to convert it into courts.
The courts occupying the site represent "all facets of the new phases of state intervention in personal and property relations", a sample of which includes: the Court of Requests (1856–1859), the Sydney District Court (1858–1978), the City Coroner (1864–1907), Supreme Court Judges (1887–1970), Bankruptcy Court (1888–1914), Clerk of the Peace (1888–1903, 1915–1961), Curator of Intestate Estates (1888–1913), Probate Court and Offices (1893–1915), Court of Review (1901–1938), Court of Marine Enquiry (1901–1979), NSW Registrar & Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court (1908–1914), Industrial Court (1911–1914), Industrial Arbitration Court (1912–1927), Legal Aid Office (1919–1944), Profiteering Prevention Court (1921–1922), Land and Valuation Court (1922–1956, 1976–1979), Court Reporting Branch (1944–1964).
During the early 20th century, industrial relations dominated proceedings at Queen's Square. Two landmark decisions were handed down by the Courts while in the buildings: in 1927 the basic living wage was approved; in 1921 a case for equal pay for women was presented and rejected, to be granted only in 1973.
In 1975, the Department of Public Works began extensive conservation works on the buildings. During these works, one of the first Permanent Conservation Orders, under the 1977 Heritage Act, was given to the Barracks in 1981. The conservation works were completed in 1984 and the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences opened a museum of Sydney. This museum operated until 1990 when ownership was transferred to the Historic Houses Trust of NSW (now Sydney Living Museums). The museum underwent refurbishment and further conservation works were undertaken, becoming a museum of the site, dedicated to interpreting how the site has developed, been used by multiple occupants and the physical evidence of their presence. During 2019 Hyde Park Barracks was closed while a new exhibition space was developed. The exhibition space has a diminished focus on the significant role of Lachlan Macquarie. The site reopened in 2019.
The Friends of the Historic Houses Trust have been responsible for fundraising through interpretive tours and events to acquire the Neville Locker collection of convict artefacts for Hyde Park Barracks.
The Mint
Governor Macquarie signed an agreement with Garnham Blaxcell, Alexander Riley and D'Arcy Wentworth to build a new convict hospital in November 1810. In return, the three gentlemen received the monopoly on the purchase of spirits for three years. As a result, the building became known as the Rum Hospital.
While the architect is unknown, the inspiration for the form of the buildings is thought to have come from Macquarie's time in India, especially the Madras Government House. The Hospital, however, is constructed to the standard institutional army plan of the time – as seen at Victoria Barracks. The Hospital was originally constructed with three wings, the northern wing is now part of Parliament House, the central wing has been demolished and the southern wing became the Mint.
The Legislative Council of New South Wales had begun petitioning the British Government for the establishment of a Mint in 1851. The gold rush had brought in to circulation large amounts of unrefined gold that was threatening the official currency. The British Government finally approved the establishment of a Mint in 1853, sending equipment and twenty staff. The Mint began operation on 14 May 1855. Now known simply as The Mint, its official title was the Royal Mint, Sydney Branch. The first five years of operation saw exports of gold fall sharply as over one million pounds worth of gold was converted into sovereign and half sovereign coins each year. In 1868, Sydney's coins were recognised as legal tender in all British colonies, but it was not until February 1886 that they were accepted in Britain. The coins were identical to those produced in Britain, except for a small mint mark. Federation encouraged the consolidation of minting activities in Canberra, Melbourne and , the facilities in Sydney deteriorated to such an extent that the Mint was closed in January 1927, due to ageing equipment and unprofitability.
On the departure of the Mint a series of government departments sought office space in the buildings. Similar to the Barracks next door, with no security of tenure there was little incentive to maintain the buildings and, instead fibro buildings filled all available spaces to meet the requirements of the Family Endowment Department (1927–1940), State Headquarters of National Emergency Service (1940–1950s), Housing Commission of NSW (mid 1940s) and the Land Tax Office (mid 1940s). The Court Reporting Branch, District Courts and Parliamentary Library moved in during the 1950s. Fibro-lined courtrooms were created within the former Coining Factory for use by them.
In the 1930s, with increasing use of the motor car, and demand for parking spaces, the Mint's Macquarie Street gates were removed, a common fate for the gates of public buildings at the time. They were eventually acquired by Barker College at Hornsby in 1937 following the efforts of its Council Chairman, Sir John Butters. This was not the first time a school had acquired significant city gates: St. Joseph's College at Hunters Hill had bought the Sydney Town Hall gates and fencing when they became redundant with construction of Town Hall Railway Station. Restoration of the buildings, announced in 1975, were undertaken in 1977-79, with the intended purpose of utilising at least the Mint as a Museum. In 1982 the Mint opened as a branch of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences.
In 1998, ownership of the site was transferred to the Historic Houses Trust, who continued to operate a small museum, plus a cafe. In 2004 restoration and construction was undertaken to enable the HHT to use the site as a Head Office. The former Coining Factory was sympathetically remodelled into offices and the Superintendent's Office to hold the Caroline Simpson Library and Research Collection. A new theatrette and foyer were also added. The work was overseen by architect Richard Francis-Jones, of FJMT Architects; Clive Lucas Stapleton and Partners as conservation architects and Godden Mackay Logan as archaeologists. In July 2016 the Mint celebrated its 200th anniversary of continuous civic function with a symposium "A future for the past" as part of a programme of events.
Description
The Hyde Park Barracks are located in Queen's Square on the corner of Macquarie Street and Prince Albert Road, Sydney. The complex is bounded by high walls on the south and western sides. The northern and eastern boundaries are marked by ranges of structures. Located in the middle of the enclosure is the Principal Barracks or Dormitory Block. Near the north eastern and north western corners of the Dormitory Block are two weeping lillypillys (Waterhousia floribunda). The remainder of the gravelled courtyard is interspersed with sandstone pathways to facilitate disabled access. The major elements, namely the Dormitory Block, Northern Perimeter and Eastern Perimeter structures are discussed separately below in more detail.
Principal Barracks/Dormitory Block
The main building is a three-storey sandstock brick, gabled former convict barracks of Georgian style. It has sandstone foundations, sills and string courses, while the pedimented gable is decorated by a shaped stone panel containing an early colonial clock. The clock is surmounted by a crown and inscribed "L.Macquarie Esq., Governor 1817". The pedimented temple form of the front is divided horizontally by a string course at the first and attic floors, and vertically by simple piers or pilasters, finished by Greenway's distinctive "double string course" beneath the eaves; relieving arches implying an arcade to the basement storey; shallow overhanging domes to the roof ventilator, lodges and corner pavilions; shaped blocking courses of the cornices of the pavilions and circular niches.
The facade is simple but elegant and divided by brick pilasters and arched recesses to the ground floor. The central door has a semi-circular fanlight above, while the windows, 24 panes to ground and first floors and 16 panes to the second floor have flat lintels.
During the late 1980s, concerted efforts were made to return the Barracks to their appearance . External doorways made to access the now demolished court buildings have been carefully in-filled and it is now difficult to determine where some of these openings were. The stone string courses and sills are replacements, as is the shingling on the roof. By necessity, new joinery for doors and windows was constructed.
Internally, partitions have been removed, again in an attempt to reveal Greenway's original design. The floor plan of all three levels is essentially identical, consisting of four rooms opening off two corridors forming a cross, the two rooms to the west being slightly smaller. Two stairwells provide access between the levels, the first in the north eastern corner and the second, also abutting the northern wall, in the hallway crossing the Barracks north/south.
Restoration works were unable to remove all evidence relating to District Court, some fireplaces, doorways and transom lights are now "unusually placed". The door joinery shows evidence of the successive adaptations to the building during its use as a Court. The skirtings, architraves, doors and windows represent two periods - –1887 and . The upper flights of the staircases are thought to be original, the lower flights being interspersed with Victorian repairs. The internal structure of the staircases has been augmented to ensure visitor safety.
Based on a paterae block (an ornamental device) and mortice openings in the floor, uncovered during conservation works, together with documentary evidence, one room has been fitted with hammock frames. Given the evidence, it is thought this mirrors the sleeping arrangements during the convict era. The frames have a rough adzed appearance and consist of half-round architraves, skirtings and plain paterae blocks.
Paint and plaster wall finishes have been incorporated into the aesthetic, including signage, which remains exposed. The removal of later false ceilings and linings in some sections has revealed earlier finishes, including the original roof structure on the second level. In others, parts of the later ceilings have been used to conceal track hangers and display partitions. Track hung spotlights and recessed down-lights have been introduced to illuminate the museum displays.
Perimeter Wall and Outbuildings (Barracks Square)
The northern boundary of the Barracks site is lined with six structures of both one and two storeys. Constructed of brick, those of two storeys have had the second storey rendered in imitation of ashlar and painted off-white. In the north western corner, the original cell block remains, as does the Superintendent's Apartment midway along the boundary. In the eastern corner remnants of the original corner pavilion is visible from outside the Barracks Square. The north western corner pavilion, originally used as a cell block, has been substantially altered during its use by the District Court. Further alterations were undertaken to convert the cell block and part of the structure to the east into a cafe. Sections of the ground floor are open to visitors. A wooden platform has been constructed to allow the exposed archaeological features to be viewed. The interior walls have had various layers of paint and plaster removed in sections, so as to display the multiple renovations the interior underwent. The effect created is that of partially completed restoration - a work in progress.
The Southern Perimeter is marked by a wall constructed of stone from the Gladesville Mental Hospital c.1963. It follows the northern extent of Greenway's original structure, which was demolished in 1909. The wall is also marked by the Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine. The Monument consists of a plaque on the wall and a metal table, set with a dinner plate, protruding at a 45-degree angle from the wall. The memorial was opened by Governor-General of Australia, Sir William Deane on 28 August 1999.
The Eastern Perimeter is marked by a conglomerate of three buildings, the northern two are of two storeys, while a small southern section has just one level. Central to the structures is a set of external stairs, which dominate the western facade. The stairs lead to a balcony running the length of the buildings, which provides access to the series of unconnected first floor rooms. On the ground floor, public toilets are provided in the southern section, while the remainder of the building provides office space to the Museum.
The Western section consists of a wall with a central set of gates, flanked by a lodge on each side. The southern lodge was altered during the realignment of Prince Albert Road. The northern lodge is accessible by visitors, having a wooden platform to protect the exposed archaeological deposits. A fireplace is evident in the northern wall. The interior walls also display the various internal treatments, the plaster having been removed to expose the brick construction.
Archaeology
Formal archaeological investigations began at the Hyde Park Barracks during the 1980s restoration work. Originally Carol Powell, who was employed to research the archival material, was also asked to catalogue artefacts exposed by the conservation works. It quickly became apparent that the magnitude and preservation of the archaeological deposits required more attention and Wendy Thorp was employed in September 1980.
Thorp excavated a series of test-trenches before recommending a larger scale program was needed. Patricia Burritt completed what was known as the Stage II excavations. Trenches were located to over all aspects of the Barracks. Small scale trenches were excavated near the entrance to the Dormitory Block and in the northern perimeter buildings, formerly the bakery. A large open-area was excavated in the courtyard east of the Dormitory Block. Extensive excavations were also undertaken in the underfloor spaces between levels one and two and levels two and three. The last of these excavations exposed a remarkable artefact collection of paper and fabric, items not commonly preserved in archaeological deposits. In 2006 a publication was released by the Historic Houses Trust that interprets these artefacts.
Concealed for up to 160 years in the cavities between floorboards and ceilings, the assemblage is a unique archaeological record of institutional confinement, especially of women. The underfloor assemblage dates to the period 1848 to 1886, during which a female Immigration Depot and a Government Asylum for Infirm and Destitute Women occupied the second and third floors of the Barracks.
Since the completion of the 1980s restoration works any disturbance of the ground has been preceded by archaeological excavation, seeing a number of smaller excavations carried out for the laying of pipes etc. and the construction of the Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine. There remains the potential for further archaeological materials to be uncovered.
Museum
In 1994, Hyde Park Barracks underwent conservation and adaptation work by award-winning architects Tonkin Zulaikha Greer and conservation architects Clive Lucas Stapleton and Partners. The completed project won the Australian Institute of Architects national Lachlan Macquarie Award in 1992. Now, the newly installed Hyde Park Barracks is a museum operated by the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales. Tourists who visit the building discover the daily lives of convicts and other occupants through exhibitions on Sydney's male convict labour force, Australia's convict system, an innovative soundscape, excavated artefacts, exposed layers of building fabric and the complex's rooms and spaces.
In June 2015, Mark Speakman, the then Minister for the Environment of New South Wales announced Unlocking Heritage, a two-year program aimed at giving children the opportunity to experience Sydney's living museums. This program will allow students to wear convict clothing and sleep in the Barrack's hammocks. A million dollars has been allocated for this program. Museum director Mark Goggin thinks that children will learn more about history if they can experience it hands-on, '"Particularly for the kids to wear the convict shirts, eat the gruel, sleep over with their mates in hammocks and imagining what life was like 200 years ago."' The program is starting out with children and hoping to expand to adult participation.
Heritage listing
World Heritage List
In July 2010, at the 34th session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, the Hyde Park Barracks and ten other Australian sites with a significant association with convict transportation were inscribed as a group on the World Heritage List as the Australian Convict Sites. The listing explains that the 11 sites present "the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts". Of the 11 sites the Old Great North Road, Old Government House at Parramatta and Cockatoo Island are also within the Sydney region.
Australian National Heritage List
The site was placed on the National Heritage List on 1 August 2007. It was recognised:
as a turning point in the management of convicts in the colony, as the government could now exercise more effective control over convicts,
for its links with Governor Macquarie and his role in developing the colony's infrastructure, and
as a demonstration of the skill of its architect, Francis Greenway.
New South Wales State Heritage List
The primary significance of Hyde Park Barracks is its unique evidence of the convict period of Australian history, particularly in its demonstration of the accommodation and living conditions of male convicts in NSW 1819–1848. They also provide evidence of the conditions experienced by immigrant groups between 1848 and 1887. The site is important for its significant archaeological record, both excavated and unexcavated, relating to the convict and immigrant periods of occupation. The barracks is one of the finest surviving works by Francis Greenway, the essence of his design persisting through various adaptations. They provide major evidence of Governor Macquarie's vision for Sydney and the relationship with The Domain, the Mint, St James' Church and Hyde Park demonstrate patterns of early 19th century planning in NSW.
Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney (inclusive of the Sydney Mint), was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
There is a diversity of structures which document the evolution of the Hyde Park Barracks complex from the late Georgian era to modern times: from the era of convict cell blocks and enclosed penal institutions, through to judicial courts and offices and present-day museum. It contains two fig trees on Macquarie Street which are symbolic of a number of significant town planning schemes throughout the 19th century, such as the creation of Chancery Square, (now known as Queen's Square). Within the complex are structures associated with the first purpose-built government institution for the housing of convicts. It is associated with the development of the legal system in NSW being the location of the first meeting in 1830 of the bench of magistrates for the Court of General Sessions and the first location of the Metropolitan District Court established under the District Courts Act, 1958. It is associated with other historic landmarks in the area such as the former Rum Hospital, St James' Church, Hyde Park, the Domain, St Mary's Cathedral and Macquarie Street.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
It contains elements such as the perimeter walls, parts of the two gate lodges, one former pavilion and parts of another, some external and probably internal walls on the northern range of buildings which are associated with the convict architect Francis Greenway's design. Together with the central barracks building, the place possesses a rich architectural history from the earliest days of European settlement in Australia.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
It contains a museum which is a centre of tourist and cultural activity in Sydney.
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The site contains areas of potential archaeological significance which are likely to provide significant insight into the establishment of the place and its subsequent developmental history.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
It is the oldest example of a walled penal institution in Australia. The barracks provide rare evidence of the standards and skills of building practice, architectural design and urban planning in early 19th century Sydney
Operations
The Hyde Park Barracks are part of the Sydney Living Museums series. Other locations in the series are the Susannah Place Museum, the Museum of Sydney and the Justice & Police Museum. A pass can be purchased at any of the locations that will enable visitors to visit all four locations at a discounted price.
Gallery
See also
Architecture of Sydney
Culture of Sydney
Sydney Mint
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney Living Museums
A Place For The Friendless Female: Sydney's Female Immigration Depot (online version of the Hyde Park Barracks Museum exhibition by the same name)
Tonkin Zulaikha Greer (Website)
UNESCO announcement of World Heritage listing
[CC-By-SA]
[CC-By-SA]
Colonial Secretary's papers 1822-1877, State Library of Queensland- includes digitised letters written about Hyde Park Barracks to the Colonial Secretary of New South Wales. Reel 8 Item 2347 includes list of prisoners forwarded from the Hydpe Park Barracks to various penal settlements in Australia.
Former Barracks in Australia
Convictism in New South Wales
Australian Convict Sites
Neoclassical architecture in Australia
Museums in Sydney
Prison museums in Australia
Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales
1819 establishments in Australia
Adaptive reuse of industrial structures
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Francis Greenway buildings
Government buildings in Sydney
Military installations in New South Wales
Courthouses in New South Wales
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
Macquarie Street, Sydney
World Heritage Sites in New South Wales
Military history of New South Wales |
4170332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goffal | Goffal | Goffals or Coloured Zimbabweans are persons of mixed race, predominately those claiming both European and African descent, in Malawi, Zambia, and, particularly Zimbabwe. They are generally known as Coloureds, though the term Goffal is used by some in the Coloured community to refer to themselves, though this does not refer to the mixed-race community in nearby South Africa. The community includes many diverse constituents of Shona, Northern Ndebele, Bemba, Fengu, British, Afrikaner, Cape Coloured, Cape Malay and less commonly Portuguese, Greek, Goan, and Indian descent. Similar mixed-race communities exist throughout Southern Africa, notably the Cape Coloureds of South Africa.
It is not clear when the term Goffal first entered common usage, but among Coloureds themselves it had surfaced by the mid- to late 1970s. Their precise numbers are difficult to ascertain, due to the fact that some identify exclusively as members of other ethnic groups.
History
Zimbabwe
The earliest Coloured communities in central Africa were formed in Southern Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe), mainly by those who had emigrated as servants of Afrikaners and other white South African settlers from the Cape of Good Hope. Coloured immigration from
South Africa spiked following a depression after the Second Boer War and continuing throughout much of the early twentieth century. By the 1930s most local Coloureds had been born in Southern Rhodesia as offspring of British administrators and colonists and local women. The Coloured populace increased to about 24,000 through intermarriage, and by 1969 about 91% were considered Rhodesian citizens, a smaller number being Zambians, Malawians, and South Africans. During World War II, Coloureds served with distinction alongside Southern Rhodesian units during the East African Campaign.
Southern Rhodesia, which had unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia in 1965, classified Coloureds as persons of mixed ancestry who did not follow a traditional African way of life and whose culture was European in origin and form. Coloureds who lived with black African families were notably excluded, as were those who physically passed for Europeans and Asians, respectively. Coloured Rhodesians were heavily urbanised, and the colonial government permitted them to live in segregated neighbourhoods reserved for Europeans. In 1969 the largest proportion of working Coloureds—about 30%— were employed by the Rhodesian manufacturing sector, the remainder being tradesmen or engaged in service delivery.
At the outbreak of the Rhodesian Bush War, conscription was enforced for all male Coloureds of military age, who were expected to contribute four to five months of service to the Rhodesian Security Forces. In 1966, the Ministry of Defence gave notice that it would henceforth extend conscription to all foreigners with residency status, making Coloureds of South African or other nationalities in Rhodesia also liable for military service. Most Coloured recruits were assigned to the Reinforcement Holding Unit (RHU), which was primarily concerned with transport and logistics. They were also tasked with providing convoy security and guarding installations targeted for sabotage by insurgents. In 1978 the RHU was reorganised into the Rhodesian Defence Regiment. As the war intensified, Coloured personnel deployed to operational areas successfully petitioned to receive the same pay as white soldiers.
When Rhodesia was reconstituted as the new Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980, accompanied by the electoral triumph of leading black nationalist Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwe African National Union, Coloureds numbered about 20,000. Mugabe won the country's first general elections held under a universal franchise, despite facing militant opposition from Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and a number of minority parties. All Coloureds registered in the Rhodesian electoral system prior to December 31, 1979 were permitted to vote, and those that did so overwhelmingly endorsed the Rhodesian Front. As a conciliatory gesture Mugabe later nominated a leading member of the Coloured community, Joseph Culverwell, to the Senate, the upper house of the Parliament of Zimbabwe. Nevertheless, ZANU's ascension was greeted with caution. During the bush war, black nationalists frequently decried Coloureds as having benefited unjustly from the colonial racial hierarchy, and those who attempted to join ZANU and ZAPU's guerrilla armies were often detained or executed as spies. Less educated, blue collar Coloured workers were also concerned they would face job displacement from an advancing black workforce once they lost the advantage of preferential employment by white supervisors. Others seemed convinced only blacks would benefit economically under Mugabe's rule, at the expense of themselves and other ethnic minorities. For their part, community activists were disappointed they weren't invited to participate at the Lancaster House talks on behalf of their people, and felt this demonstrated both white and black Zimbabweans were uninterested in Coloureds' future political and social welfare.
Since the 1980s, Coloured Zimbabweans have complained of being increasingly disenfranchised, and being projected as foreigners with limited rights. A Coloured lobby group, the National Association for the Advancement of Mixed Race Coloureds (NAAC), was formed in 2001 to protest against what they perceived as severe discrimination against their community by the state. The NAAC has issued a statement claiming that "Coloured people are visibly and verbally treated with disdain contemptuously dismissed with xenophobic comments" urging them to "go back to Britain". NAAC activists have also highlighted the removal of Coloureds from important positions in the public service, usually following complaints by ruling party officials, and the government's steadfast refusal to grant loans to Coloured entrepreneurs. At the height of President Mugabe's land reform programme, Zimbabwean Minister of Education, Sports, and Culture Aeneas Chigwedere demanded that Coloureds be excluded from the redistribution process on racial grounds, insisting that "if we give them land it will be giving it back to the white man".
Zambia
Unlike Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia), a British possession which remained governed directly by the Colonial Office, considered "Coloured" to be a strictly South African racial distinction, and evoked the term only when referring to immigrants of mixed race from South Africa accordingly. This resulted in considerable ambivalence towards local Coloureds born in Northern Rhodesia, whom colonial officials described with a menagerie of labels as varied as "half-castes", "Anglo-Africans", "Indo-Africans", and "Eurafricans". Northern Rhodesian Coloureds often bore distinguished British surnames, having descended from some of the colony's earliest pioneers, administrators, and officials. Nevertheless, beginning in the 1920s such individuals posed a particular classification problem for the Colonial Office, which remained frustrated by the fact it could classify Coloureds neither as European nor African. The British paternity of mixed children was an especially contentious issue, allowing Coloureds to petition for recognition as British subjects, entitled to British passports. Their requests were ignored by the Colonial Office, which regarded them only as protected subjects, a status otherwise reserved for black Africans.
The question of Coloureds' legitimacy and status hinged on the legality of marriage between their European and African parents. Under the Northern Rhodesian Immorality Suppression Ordinance, it was a criminal offence for a white woman to marry or cohabit with a black man. Marriages between white men and black women, although not expressly forbidden, were likewise unrecognised by the state. As marriages of this nature were not recognised as marriage under law, the Welfare Department was empowered to seize any first-generation mixed race children resulting from such unions as "orphans".
Since Coloureds lacked segregated schools of their own, and Northern Rhodesian authorities forbade children of other races from attending the same educational institutions as Europeans, most Coloureds studied at Roman Catholic missions in Southern Rhodesia. Their exclusion from schools severely limited Coloured economic and social prospects. In 1927, the missions criticised Northern Rhodesia's practice of building schools specifically for white and black pupils while failing to provide similar facilities for Coloureds. It was proposed that the administration erect Coloured schools or at least furbish the funds for their independent construction. This scheme was approved by the Northern Rhodesian Native Education Advisory Board but rejected by Governor James Crawford Maxwell. Maxwell regarded the label "Coloured" as a purely artificial distinction, and did not believe they constituted a separate race from Europeans or Africans. He insisted that the construction of Coloured schools equated to official recognition of an ethnic group that did not exist. Maxwell's habit of arguing that Coloureds should identify either as Europeans or Africans, rather than a distinct mixed race population, became policy in Northern Rhodesia for the next three decades. Coloureds who physically resembled Europeans and lived like Europeans were treated as such, while those who lived as Africans or with black families were classified as native. In this regard Northern Rhodesia represented a marked departure from South Africa, where racial legislation strictly defined the rights and status of individuals from birth. Some Coloureds became integrated with African society; others joined white social clubs, received managerial jobs reserved for whites, and lived in affluent white neighbourhoods.
In 1952, the Coloured community petitioned Henry Hopkinson, the United Kingdom's newly appointed Minister of State for the Colonies, for recognition as British subjects. The Coloureds argued that the British Nationality Act 1948 had reaffirmed their status as protected subjects instead, and expressed disappointment that unlike white Rhodesians they could only obtain British subject status through naturalisation. Their grievances were discussed in the Colonial Office, which responded that if a marriage between a male British subject and an African woman was properly documented, any children should be allowed to take up their father's nationality. The Colonial Office also observed through its inquiries that Coloured housing in Northern Rhodesia was almost nonexistent and ordered the administration to see the issue resolved. Their request resulted in the establishment of "Coloured Quarters", residential areas in all major towns built specifically for Coloured people, often situated near the railway lines. The Coloured Quarters included segregated schools and social clubs. Most of their residents were employed by the Public Works Department and Rhodesia Railways, which also offered economic housing.
When Northern Rhodesia became a constituent territory of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, most Coloureds failed to qualify for citizenship under federal law, which stipulated all citizens must also be British subjects. The new electoral roll established that voters had to possess a secondary education and earn an income of at least £720 a year. While a percentage of Southern Rhodesian Coloureds could meet these standards, owing to their longstanding educational disadvantages and the lack of schools few Coloureds in Northern Rhodesia had received anything more than the most basic primary education. This, in turn, restricted their avenues of employment: the average monthly income for Coloured men in Lusaka was between £15 and £25 a month.
Following the dissolution of the federation and Zambian independence in 1964, many Coloured parents began sending their children abroad to avoid military conscription into the Zambian Defence Force. The British Nationality Act 1981 aroused considerable interest among Zambia's Coloured population, since it revoked a legitimacy clause from the 1948 legislation wherein only children born to legitimate marriages of their British fathers were considered British subjects. As mixed race marriages were not recognised as legitimate under Northern Rhodesian law, this excluded Coloureds. Under the statutes of the new British Nationality Act, any Zambians able to prove beyond reasonable doubt they were consanguineous descendants of a specific British citizen could apply for right of abode in the United Kingdom, irrespective of their ancestor's marital status. During the 1980s and 1990s, roughly half of Zambia's Coloured population immigrated to the United Kingdom.
In 1980 there were 6,000 Coloureds remaining in Zambia, nearly all of them concentrated in major urban districts.
Malawi
From its inception the British protectorate of Nyasaland (present-day Malawi) included a burgeoning mixed race population of Asian, rather than European, and African descent. An exodus of migrant workers from the Indian subcontinent to various British dependencies across sub-Saharan Africa formed an integral part of colonial migration patterns during the early twentieth century; the Indians came to earn modest incomes which in turn supported their extended families back home. Most Indian business owners were bachelors or married men who immigrated without their wives; a number cohabited with African women accordingly. Children from these relationships were usually raised by the mother, and embraced African culture and lifestyles as their own. They were regarded with disdain by the comparatively few individuals of mixed European and African ancestry, who came to reject use of the general label "Coloured" to avoid association with the descendants of Asians. Calling themselves "Anglo-Africans", they formed the Nyasland Anglo-African Association to lobby for formal recognition. This situation gave rise to a crisis and conflict of identity over the legal definition of Coloured, a matter affecting even the Nyasaland courts.
From 1907 to 1929, Coloureds of both Indian and European parentage were accorded the same status as black Africans under the Nyasaland Interpretation Ordinance, which classified them as "natives". Educated Coloureds protested this policy, and successfully lobbied to have it challenged before the colonial judiciary. A Nyasaland judge determined that "half-castes" did not meet the legal definition of "native", although he refrained from ruling on whether their newly altered status made them British subjects. The ruling incited considerable debate about the social, legal, and political standing of mixed-descent Africans in other British colonies. The Anglo-African Association seized this opportunity to demand they be taxed as Europeans, and exempted from what they perceived as a degrading "hut tax" levied on black residents of indigenous settlements. As a result of their lobbying, Coloureds were exempted from the hut tax; ironically, however, the government failed to clarify whether this entailed also subjecting Coloureds to the same taxes as the white population—a bureaucratic oversight that resulted in the entire community paying no tax by the early 1930s.
In 1931, a Coloured man provoked a storm of controversy when he attempted to lease 200 acres in a Native Trust Area, the communal lands reserved for African farming and use. Since the courts had previously ruled Coloureds were not natives, this accelerated local discussion over the legal definition of Coloured. Deferring to the precedent set by Northern Rhodesia, the Nyasaland Attorney-General designated a Coloured person as "any person of mixed European or Asiatic and native descent, who does not live after the manner of members of the aboriginal tribes or races of Africa".
The initial success of the Anglo-African Association encouraged the formation of the mutually exclusive Nyasaland Indo-African Association, and further deepened rivalries between the two components of the Coloured population. The Indo-African Association was largely succeeded by the theoretically integrated Nyasaland Coloured Community Welfare Association, established in 1954 to present a united front for coordinated Coloured education demands. Nevertheless, the Anglo-African Association's influence remained strong, and during the inception of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland they persuaded the Federal Ministry of Education to differentiate between separate "Coloured" and "Eurafrican" agendas.
As the dissolution of the federation became apparent and independence approached for Malawi, Coloureds began to face severe job discrimination in the public sector due to an unwritten British policy which reserved civil service jobs solely for whites on short-term contracts until such a date that black Malawians could succeed them.
The Malawian government eliminated all recognition of "Coloured" as a separate ethnicity following independence.
Demographics
In 1973, 83.2% of all Coloureds in Rhodesia lived in a major urban population centres, the largest number being concentrated in Bulawayo (6,630 Coloured residents) and Salisbury (6,030 Coloured residents). Only about 2,290 resided in rural areas, mostly on farms. The Rhodesian government reported that the Coloured population had an extremely high rate of natural increase of 4.9% per year. The corresponding infant mortality rate was 38 infant deaths per 1,000 live births.
According to the Zimbabwean census of 2012, the largest proportion of Coloured Zimbabweans (8,745 people) fell into the 18 to 49 age bracket. There were 5,375 individuals under 14, 2,469 aged 50 to 64, and 1,300 over 64. Slightly over 88% of Coloureds lived in a major urban population centre, although the size of the rural Coloured community remained identical to that in 1973, about 2,261 persons. Coloureds made up 0.4% of Zimbabwe's urban population and 0.1% of its total population.
The Zambian census of 1980 found that the 6,000 Coloureds were mostly located in urban areas, at which time they constituted 0.1% of Zambia's total population. Malawi has not published demographic information on Coloureds since independence.
Society
Coloured societies in Zambia, Zimbabwe and the African diaspora abroad are rather close-knit, linked by intermarriage and a large web of familial connections dating back to their earliest European and Asian ancestors. Many Coloureds remaining in Zambia have documented their bloodline well and can recall the original progenitors of their family and name.
The internal ranking stratum among Coloureds is complex. During the colonial era, they identified first and foremost with the non-African component in their ancestry, and within equal socio-economic circles social prestige was dependent upon one's progenitors. For instance, Afrikaans-speaking Coloureds descended from South African immigrants typically formed the Coloured elite in Zimbabwe; they were followed in descending order on the social scale by Coloureds with one white and one Coloured parent, those with two Coloured parents, those with one white and one black parent, and the so-called "Indo-African" Coloureds with an Asian ancestor or parent. Marriages between Coloureds and black Africans were generally stigmatised, before independence in 1980, as the former preferred to select partners with visible white characteristics, though this is no longer the case today.
Coloureds of British descent from Zambia and Malawi retain strong emotional ties to the United Kingdom. When India's independence movement began gaining momentum in the late 1940s, Coloured schools in central Africa rejected Indian instructors, emphasising that "love and patriotism to the British nation" were an integral part of their curricula. Since the decolonisation of the African continent, it has been a longstanding tradition for Coloured parents to send their children to the United Kingdom for schooling. Others are sent to work there after completing their schooling locally.
Zimbabwean Coloureds have traditionally been Roman Catholic, although a sizeable minority also belongs to the Anglican Church. Some descendants of Cape Malays were still practising Islam in 1975.
Goffal Slang
Goffal Dictionary
References
External links
The Goffal Speaks
British diaspora in Africa
Ethnic groups in Zimbabwe
Ethnic groups in Zambia
South African English
Multiracial affairs in Africa
Coloured African people |
4170535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93United%20Kingdom%20relations | France–United Kingdom relations | The historical ties between France and the United Kingdom, and the countries preceding them, are long and complex, including conquest, wars, and alliances at various points in history. The Roman era saw both areas largely conquered by Rome, whose fortifications largely remain in both countries to this day. The Norman French conquest of England in 1066 decisively shaped English history, as well as the English language; the vocabulary of English is 50% derived from French, including most of the large and complex words. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the Early Modern Period, France and England were often bitter rivals, with both nations' monarchs claiming control over France and France routinely allying against England with their other rival Scotland until the Union of the Crowns. Some of the noteworthy conflicts include the Hundred Years' War and the French Revolutionary Wars which ended in French victories, as well as the Seven Years' War and Napoleonic Wars, from which Great Britain emerged victorious.
The historical rivalry between the two nations was seeded when the Angevin House of Plantagenet gained control over England and additional French territories and engaged in a struggle with the French ruling House of Capet to retain their French holdings; this culminated in the Hundred Years' War. After this French victory, England would never again establish a foothold in French territory. Rivalry continued into the early modern period, with the fighting often spilling over to both countries' overseas colonies. Major conflicts from this period include the Italian wars, the Hundred Years' War, the French wars of religion, the Nine Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, and finally the Boshin War, a small civil war in Japan.
The last major conflict between the two was the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), in which coalitions of European powers, financed and usually led by London, fought a series of wars against the French First Republic, the First French Empire and its client states, culminating in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. For several decades the peace was uneasy with fear of French invasion in 1859 and during the later rivalry for African colonies. Nevertheless, peace has generally prevailed since Napoleon I, and friendly ties between the two were formally established with the 1904 Entente Cordiale, and the British and French were allied against Germany in both World War I and World War II; in the latter conflict, British armies helped to liberate occupied France from Nazi Germany.
Both France and the UK were key partners in the West during the Cold War, with governments of both countries consistently supporting liberal democracy and capitalism. They were founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defence alliance and are permanent members of the UN Security Council. France has been a member of the European Union (EU), and its predecessors, since creation as the European Economic Community in 1957. In the 1960s, relations deteriorated due to French President Charles de Gaulle's concerns over the special relationship between the UK and the United States. He repeatedly vetoed British entry into the European Communities, the predecessor organisation to the EU, and withdrew France from NATO integrated command, arguing the alliance was too heavily dominated by the United States.
In 1973, following de Gaulle's death, the UK entered the European Communities and in 2009 France returned to an active role in NATO. Since then, the two countries have experienced a close relationship, especially on defence and foreign policy issues; however the two countries disagreed on a range of other matters, most notably the direction of the European Union. The United Kingdom left the European Union on 31 January 2020, following a referendum held on 23 June 2016, commonly known as Brexit. Relations have since deteriorated, with disagreements surrounding Brexit and the English Channel migrant crisis.
In the 21st century, France and Britain, though they have chosen different paths, share many overlooked similarities (with roughly the same population, economic size, commitment to democracy, diplomatic clout, and as heads of former global empires) and are often still referred to as "historic rivals", or with emphasis on the perceived ever-lasting competition between the two countries. French author José-Alain Fralon characterised the relationship between the countries by describing the British as "our most dear enemies".
It is estimated that about 350,000 French people live in the UK, with approximately 200,000 Britons living in France.
History
Roman and post-Roman era
When Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, he encountered allies of the Gauls and Belgae from southeastern Britain offering assistance, some of whom even acknowledged the king of the Belgae as their sovereign.
Although all the peoples concerned were Celts (as the Germanic Angles and Franks had not yet invaded either country that would later bear their names), this could arguably be seen as the first major example of Anglo-French co-operation in recorded history. As a consequence, Caesar felt compelled to invade, in an attempt to subdue Britain. Rome was reasonably successful at conquering Gaul, Britain and Belgica; and all three areas became provinces of the Roman Empire.
For the next five hundred years, there was much interaction between the two regions, as both Britain and France were under Roman rule. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, this was followed by another five hundred years with very little interaction between the two, as both were invaded by different Germanic tribes. Anglo-Saxons invaded southern Britain and established several kingdoms, intermixing and assimilating the local Brythonic population during the process, as well as the later Viking invasions of the British Isles. France saw intermixture with and partial conquest by Germanic tribes such as the Salian Franks to create the Frankish kingdoms. Christianity as a religion spread through all areas involved during this period, replacing the Germanic, Celtic and pre-Celtic forms of worship. The deeds of chieftains in this period would produce the legendaria around King Arthur and Camelot – now believed to be a legend based on the deeds of many early medieval British chieftains – and the more historically verifiable Charlemagne, the Frankish king who founded the Holy Roman Empire throughout much of Western Europe. At the turn of the second millennium, the British Isles were primarily involved with the Scandinavian world, while France's main foreign relationship was with the Holy Roman Empire.
Before the Conquest
Prior to the Norman Conquest of 1066, there were no armed conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. France and England were subject to repeated Viking invasions, and their foreign preoccupations were primarily directed toward Scandinavia.
Such cross-Channel relations as England had were directed toward Normandy, a quasi-independent fief owing homage to the French king; Emma, daughter of Normandy's Duke Richard, became queen to two English kings in succession; two of her sons, Harthacnut and Edward the Confessor later became kings of England. Edward spent much of his early life (1013–1041) in Normandy and, as king, favoured certain Normans with high office, such as Robert of Jumièges, who became Archbishop of Canterbury.
This gradual Normanization of the realm set the stage for the Norman Conquest, in which Emma's brother's grandson, William, Duke of Normandy, gained the kingdom in the first successful cross-Channel invasion since Roman times. Together with its new ruler, England acquired the foreign policy of the Norman dukes, which was based on protecting and expanding Norman interests at the expense of the French kings. Although William's rule over Normandy had initially had the backing of King Henry I of France, William's success had soon created hostility, and in 1054 and 1057, King Henry had twice attacked Normandy.
Norman conquest
However, in the mid-eleventh century, there was a dispute over the English throne, and the French-speaking Normans, who were of Viking, Frankish, and Gallo-Roman stock, invaded England under their duke William the Conqueror and took over following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, and crowned themselves Kings of England. The Normans took control of the land and the political system. Feudal culture took root in England, and for the next 150 years England was generally considered of secondary importance to the dynasty's Continental territories, notably in Normandy and other western French provinces. The language of the aristocracy was French for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest. Many French words were adopted into the English language as a result. About one third of the English language is derived from or through various forms of French. The first Norman kings were also the Dukes of Normandy, so relations were somewhat complicated between the countries. Though they were dukes ostensibly under the king of France, their higher level of organisation in Normandy gave them more de facto power. In addition, they were kings of England in their own right; England was not officially a province of France, nor a province of Normandy.
Breton War, 1076–1077
This war was fought between the years 1076 to 1077.
Vexin War, 1087
In 1087, following the monastic retirement of its last count, William and Philip partitioned between themselves the Vexin, a small but strategically important county on the middle Seine that controlled the traffic between Paris and Rouen, the French and Norman capitals. With this buffer state eliminated, Normandy and the king's royal demesne (the Île-de-France) now directly bordered on each other, and the region would be the flashpoint for several future wars. In 1087, William responded to border raids conducted by Philip's soldiers by attacking the town of Mantes, during the sack of which he received an accidental injury that turned fatal.
Rebellion of 1088
With William's death, his realms were parted between his two sons (England to William Rufus, Normandy to Robert Curthose) and the Norman-French border war concluded. Factional strains between the Norman barons, faced with a double loyalty to William's two sons, created a brief civil war in which an attempt was made to force Rufus off the English throne. With the failure of the rebellion, England and Normandy were clearly divided for the first time since 1066.
Wars in the Vexin and Maine, 1097–1098
Robert Curthose left on crusade in 1096, and for the duration of his absence Rufus took over the administration of Normandy. Soon afterwards (1097) he attacked the Vexin and the next year the County of Maine. Rufus succeeded in defeating Maine, but the war in the Vexin ended inconclusively with a truce in 1098.
Anglo-Norman War, 1101
In August 1100, William Rufus was killed by an arrow shot while hunting. His younger brother, Henry Beauclerc immediately took the throne. It had been expected to go to Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, but Robert was away on a crusade and did not return until a month after Rufus' death, by which time Henry was firmly in control of England, and his accession had been recognised by France's King Philip. Robert was, however, able to reassert his control over Normandy, though only after giving up the County of Maine.
England and Normandy were now in the hands of the two brothers, Henry and Robert. In July 1101, Robert launched an attack on England from Normandy. He landed successfully at Portsmouth, and advanced inland to Alton in Hampshire. There he and Henry came to an agreement to accept the status quo of the territorial division. Henry was freed from his homage to Robert, and agreed to pay the Duke an annual sum (which, however, he only paid until 1103).
Anglo-Norman War, 1105–1106
Following increasing tensions between the brothers, and evidence of the weakness of Robert's rule, Henry I invaded Normandy in the spring of 1105, landing at Barfleur. The ensuing Anglo-Norman war was longer and more destructive, involving sieges of Bayeux and Caen; but Henry had to return to England in the late summer, and it was not until the following summer that he was able to resume the conquest of Normandy. In the interim, Duke Robert took the opportunity to appeal to his liege lord, King Philip, but could obtain no aid from him. The fate of Robert and the duchy was sealed at the Battle of Tinchebray on 28 or 29 September 1106: Robert was captured and imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry was now, like his father, both King of England and Duke of Normandy, and the stage was set for a new round of conflict between England and France.
Anglo-French War, 1117–1120
In 1108, Philip I, who had been king of France since before the Norman Conquest, died and was succeeded by his son Louis VI, who had already been conducting the administration of the realm in his father's name for several years.
Louis had initially been hostile to Robert Curthose, and friendly to Henry I; but with Henry's acquisition of Normandy, the old Norman-French rivalries re-emerged. From 1109 to 1113, clashes erupted in the Vexin; and in 1117 Louis made a pact with Baldwin VII of Flanders, Fulk V of Anjou, and various rebellious Norman barons to overthrow Henry's rule in Normandy and replace him with William Clito, Curthose's son. By luck and diplomacy, however, Henry eliminated the Flemings and Angevins from the war, and on 20 August 1119 at the Battle of Bremule he defeated the French. Louis was obliged to accept Henry's rule in Normandy, and accepted his son William Adelin's homage for the fief in 1120.
High Middle Ages
During the reign of the closely related Plantagenet dynasty, which was based in its Angevin Empire, and at the height of the empires size, 1/3 of France was under Angevin control as well as all of England. However, almost all of the Angevin empire was lost to Philip II of France under Richard the Lionheart, John and Henry III of England. This finally gave the English a separate identity as an Anglo-Saxon people under a Francophone, but not French, crown.
While the English and French had been frequently acrimonious, they had always had a common culture and little fundamental difference in identity. Nationalism had been minimal in days when most wars took place between rival feudal lords on a sub-national scale. The last attempt to unite the two cultures under such lines was probably a failed French-supported rebellion to depose Edward II. It was also during the Middle Ages that a Franco-Scottish alliance, known as the Auld Alliance was signed by King John of Scotland and Philip IV of France.
The Hundred Years' War
The English monarchy increasingly integrated with its subjects and turned to the English language wholeheartedly during the Hundred Years' War between 1337 and 1453. Though the war was in principle a mere dispute over territory, it drastically changed societies on both sides of the Channel. The English, although already politically united, for the first time found pride in their language and identity, while the French united politically.
Several of the most famous Anglo-French battles took place during the Hundred Years' War: Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Orléans, Patay, Formigny and Castillon. Major sources of French pride stemmed from their leadership during the war. Bertrand du Guesclin was a brilliant tactician who forced the English out of the lands they had procured at the Treaty of Brétigny, a compromising treaty that most Frenchmen saw as a humiliation. Joan of Arc was another unifying figure who to this day represents a combination of religious fervour and French patriotism to all France. After her inspirational victory at Orléans and what many saw as Joan's martyrdom at the hands of Burgundians and Englishmen, Jean de Dunois eventually forced the English out of all of France except Calais, which was only lost in 1558. Apart from setting national identities, the Hundred Years' War was the root of the traditional rivalry and at times hatred between the two countries. During this era, the English lost their last territories in France, except Calais, which would remain in English hands for another 105 years, though the English monarchs continued to style themselves as Kings of France until 1800.
The Franco-Scots Alliance
France and Scotland agreed to defend each other in the event of an attack on either from England in several treaties, the most notable of which were in 1327 and 1490. There had always been intermarriage between the Scottish and French royal households, but this solidified the bond between the royals even further.
Scottish historian J. B. Black took a critical view, arguing regarding the alliance:
The Scots...love for their 'auld' ally had never been a positive sentiment nourished by community of culture, but an artificially created affection resting on the negative basis of enmity to England.
The early modern period
The English and French were engaged in numerous wars in the following centuries. They took opposite sides in all of the Italian Wars between 1494 and 1559.
An even deeper division set in during the English Reformation, when most of England converted to Protestantism and France remained Roman Catholic. This enabled each side to see the other as not only a foreign evil but also a heretical one. In both countries there was intense civil religious conflict. Because of the oppression by Roman Catholic King Louis XIII of France, many Protestant Huguenots fled to England. Similarly, many Catholics fled from England to France. Scotland had a very close relationship with France in the 16th century, with intermarriage at the highest level.
Henry VIII of England had initially sought an alliance with France, and the Field of the Cloth of Gold saw a face to face meeting between him and King Francis I of France. Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587) was born to King James V and his French second wife, Mary of Guise and became Queen when her father was killed in the wars with England. Her mother became Regent, brought in French advisors, and ruled Scotland in the French style. David Ditchburn and Alastair MacDonald argue:
Protestantism was, however, given an enormous boost in Scotland, especially among the governing classes, by the suffocating political embrace of Catholic France. The threat to Scotland's independence seem to come most potently from France, not England... And absorption by France was not a future that appealed to Scots.
Queen Elizabeth I, whose own legitimacy was challenged by Mary Queen of Scots, worked with the Protestant Scottish Lords to expel the French from Scotland in 1560. The Treaty of Edinburgh in 1560 virtually ended the "auld alliance." Protestant Scotland tied its future to Protestant England, rejecting Catholic France. However, friendly relations at the business level did continue.
17th century
While Spain had been the dominant world power in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the English had often sided with France as a counterweight against them. This design was intended to keep a European balance of power, and prevent one country gaining overwhelming supremacy. France replaced Spain as the dominant power after 1650 so the basis of English strategy was the fear that a French universal monarchy of Europe would be able to overwhelm the British Isles.
At the conclusion of the English Civil War, the newly formed Republic under Oliver Cromwell, "the Commonwealth of England" joined sides with the French against Spain during the last decade of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). The English were particularly interested in the troublesome city of Dunkirk and in accordance with the alliance the city was given to the English after the Battle of the Dunes (1658), but after the monarchy was restored in England, Charles II sold it back to the French in 1662 for £320,000.
Following the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, and as France finally overcame its rebellious "princes of the blood" and Protestant Huguenots, the long fought wars of the Fronde (civil wars) finally came to an end. At the same time Spain's power was severely weakened by decades of wars and rebellions – and France, began to take on a more assertive role under King Louis XIV of France with an expansionist policy both in Europe and across the globe. English foreign policy was now directed towards preventing France gaining supremacy on the continent and creating a universal monarchy. To the French, England was an isolated and piratical nation heavily reliant on naval power, and particularly privateers, which they referred to as Perfidious Albion.
However, in 1672, the English again formed an alliance with the French (in accordance with the Secret Treaty of Dover of 1670) against their common commercial rival, the rich Dutch Republic – the two nations fighting side by side during the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) and Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674). This war was extremely unpopular in England. The English had been soundly beaten at sea by the Dutch and were in a worsening financial situation as their vulnerable global trade was under increasing threat. The English pulled out of the alliance in 1674, ending their war with the Netherlands and actually joining them against the French in the final year of the Franco-Dutch War in 1678.
During the course of the century a sharp diversion in political philosophies emerged in the two states. In England King Charles I had been executed during the English Civil War for exceeding his powers, and later King James II had been overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. In France, the decades long Fronde (civil wars), had seen the French Monarchy triumphant and as a result the power of the monarchs and their advisors became almost absolute and went largely unchecked.
England and France fought each other in the War of the League of Augsburg from 1688 to 1697 which set the pattern for relations between France and Great Britain during the eighteenth century. Wars were fought intermittently, with each nation part of a constantly shifting pattern of alliances known as the stately quadrille.
Second Hundred Years' War 1689–1815
18th century
Partly out of fear of a continental intervention, an Act of Union was passed in 1707 creating the Kingdom of Great Britain, and formally merging the kingdoms of Scotland and England (the latter kingdom included Wales). While the new Britain grew increasingly parliamentarian, France continued its system of absolute monarchy.
The newly united Britain fought France in the War of the Spanish Succession from 1702 to 1713, and the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748, attempting to maintain the balance of power in Europe. The British had a massive navy but maintained a small land army, so Britain always acted on the continent in alliance with other states such as Prussia and Austria as they were unable to fight France alone. Equally France, lacking a superior navy, was unable to launch a successful invasion of Britain.
France lent support to the Jacobite pretenders who claimed the British throne, hoping that a restored Jacobite monarchy would be inclined to be more pro-French. Despite this support the Jacobites failed to overthrow the Hanoverian monarchs.
The quarter century after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 was peaceful, with no major wars, and only a few secondary military episodes of minor importance. The main powers had exhausted themselves in warfare, with many deaths, disabled veterans, ruined navies, high pension costs, heavy loans and high taxes. Utrecht strengthened the sense of useful international law and inaugurated an era of relative stability in the European state system, based on balance-of-power politics that no one country would become dominant. Robert Walpole, the key British policy maker, prioritised peace in Europe because it was good for his trading nation and its growing British Empire. British historian G. M. Trevelyan argues:
That Treaty [of Utrecht], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilisation, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, — the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain.
But "balance" needed armed enforcement. Britain played a key military role as "balancer." The goals were to bolster Europe's balance of power system to maintain peace that was needed for British trade to flourish and its colonies to grow, and finally to strengthen its own central position in the balance of power system in which no one could dominate the rest. Other nations recognised Britain as the "balancer." Eventually the balancing act required Britain to contain French ambitions. Containment led to a series of increasingly large-scale wars between Britain and France, which ended with mixed results. Britain was usually aligned with the Netherlands and Prussia, and subsidised their armies. These wars enveloped all of Europe and the overseas colonies. These wars took place in every decade starting in the 1740s and climaxed in the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814.
As the century wore on, there was a distinct passage of power to Britain and France, at the expense of traditional major powers such as Portugal, Spain and the Dutch Republic. Some observers saw the frequent conflicts between the two states during the 18th century as a battle for control of Europe, though most of these wars ended without a conclusive victory for either side. France largely had greater influence on the continent while Britain were dominant at sea and trade, threatening French colonies abroad.
Overseas expansion
From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The Western Design of Oliver Cromwell intended to build up an increasing British presence in North America, beginning with the acquisition of Jamaica from the Spanish Empire in 1652. The first British settlement on continental North America was founded in 1607, and by the 1730s these had grown into thirteen separate colonies.
The French had settled the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, the wealthiest colony in the world. Both countries, recognising the potential of India, established trading posts there. Wars between the two states increasingly took place in these other continents, as well as Europe.
Seven Years' War
The French and British fought each other and made treaties with Native American tribes to gain control of North America. Both nations coveted the Ohio Country and in 1753, a British expedition there led by George Washington clashed with a French force. Shortly afterwards the French and Indian War broke out, initially taking place only in North America but in 1756 becoming part of the wider Seven Years' War in which Britain and France were part of opposing coalitions.
The war has been called the first "world war", because fighting took place on several different continents. In 1759, the British enjoyed victories over the French in Europe, Canada and India, severely weakening the French position around the world. In 1762, the British captured the cities of Manila and Havana from Spain, France's strongest ally, which led ultimately to a peace settlement the following year that saw a large number of territories come under British control.
The Seven Years' War is regarded as a critical moment in the history of Anglo-French relations, which laid the foundations for the dominance of the British Empire during the next two and a half centuries.
South Seas
Having lost New France (Canada) and India in the northern hemisphere, many Frenchmen turned their attention to building a second empire south of the equator, thereby triggering a race for the Pacific Ocean. They were supported by King Louis XV and by the Duc de Choiseul, Minister for War and for the Navy. In 1763, Louis Bougainville sailed from France with two ships, several families, cattle, horses and grain. He established the first colony in the Falkland Islands at Port Saint Louis in February 1764. This done, Bougainville's plan was to use the new settlement as a French base from where he could mount a search for the long-imagined (but still undiscovered) Southern Continent and claim it for France.
Meanwhile, the Secretary of the Admiralty, Philip Stephens, swiftly and secretly dispatched John Byron to the Falklands and round the world. He was followed in 1766 by Samuel Wallis who discovered Tahiti and claimed it for Britain. Bougainville followed and claimed Tahiti for France in 1768, but when he tried to reach the east coast of New Holland (Australia), he was thwarted by the Great Barrier Reef.
The Admiralty sent Captain Cook to the Pacific on three voyages of discovery in 1768, 1772 and 1776. Cook was killed in Hawaii in 1779 and his two ships, Resolution and Discovery, arrived home in October 1780.
At the same time, more Frenchmen were probing the South Seas. In 1769, Jean Surville sailed from India, through the Coral Sea to New Zealand then traversed the Pacific to Peru. In 1771, Marion Dufresne and Julien–Marie Crozet sailed through the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Later in 1771, another French expedition under Yves de Kerguelen and Louis St Aloüarn explored the southern Indian Ocean. St Aloüarn annexed the west coast of New Holland for France in March 1772.
In August 1785, King Louis XVI sent Jean-François Lapérouse to explore the Pacific Ocean. He arrived off Sydney Heads in January 1788, three days after the arrival of Britain's First Fleet commanded by Arthur Phillip. The French expedition departed Australia three months later in March 1788 and, according to the records, was never seen again.
The race for territory in the South Seas continued into the nineteenth century. Although the British had settled the eastern region of New Holland, in 1800 Napoleon dispatched an expedition commanded by Nicolas Baudin to forestall the British on the south and west coasts of the continent.
American War of Independence
As American Patriot dissatisfaction with British policies grew to rebellion in 1774–75, the French saw an opportunity to undermine British power. When the American War of Independence broke out in 1775, the French began sending covert supplies and intelligence to the American Patriots.
In 1778, France, eager to capitalise on the British defeat at Saratoga, recognised the United States of America as an independent nation. Negotiating with Ambassador Benjamin Franklin in Paris, they formed a military alliance. France in 1779 persuaded its ally Spain to declare war on Britain. France despatched troops to fight alongside the Americans, and besieged Gibraltar with Spain. Plans were drawn up, but never put into action, to launch an invasion of England. The threat forced Britain to keep many troops in Britain that were needed in America. The British were further required to withdraw forces from the American mainland to protect their more valuable possessions in the West Indies. While the French were initially unable to break the string of British victories, the combined actions of American and French forces, and a key victory by a French fleet over a British rescue fleet, forced the British into a decisive surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. For a brief period after 1781, Britain's naval superiority was threatened subdued by an alliance between France and Spain. However, the British recovered, defeated the main French fleet in April 1782, and kept control of Gibraltar. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris gave the new nation control over most of the region east of the Mississippi River; Spain gained Florida from Britain and retained control of the vast Louisiana Territory; France received little except a huge debt.
The crippling debts incurred by France during the war, and the cost of rebuilding the French navy during the 1780s caused a financial crisis, helping contribute to the French Revolution of 1789.
The French Revolution and Napoleon
The continental European monarchies went to war against France to protect their monarchies against the Revolutionary threat of republics. The British goals were more complex: not just to defend its national security but even more to uphold the European balance of power so that France would not dominate the continent. British decision-making was in the hands of Prime Minister William Pitt and lords Grenville and Lord Melville. They devised strategies to use the superior Royal Navy and superior financial resources. Both sides demonised each other, thereby broadening the base of warfare to include the total population. London tried to foment rebellions inside France while Paris sent an invasion force to Ireland to stir up a revolt there. French leaders emphasised their nation's much larger population, the excitement of its revolutionary ideology, and popular hatred of the exiled aristocrats.
While France was plunged into chaos, Britain took advantage of its temporary weakness to stir up the civil war occurring in France and build up its naval forces. The Revolution was initially popular with many Britons, both because it appeared to weaken France and was perceived to be based on British liberal ideals. This began to change as the Jacobin faction took over, and began the Reign of Terror in 1793–1794.
The French were intent on spreading their revolutionary republicanism to other European states, including Britain. The British initially stayed out of the alliances of European states which unsuccessfully attacked France trying to restore the monarchy. In France a new, strong nationalism took hold enabling them to mobilise large and motivated forces. Following the execution of King Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Britain. This period of the French Revolutionary Wars was known as the War of the First Coalition. Except for a brief pause in 1802–03, the wars lasted continuously for 21 years. During this time Britain raised several coalitions against the French, continually subsidising other European states with gold (called the "Golden Cavalry of St George"), enabling them to put large armies in the field. In spite of this, the French armies were very successful on land, creating several client states such as the Batavian Republic, and the British devoted much of their own forces to campaigns against the French in the Caribbean, with mixed results. The British and their allies got off to a poor start in 1793–94. The main problem was poor coordination between London and Vienna, including delays in planning, poor preparations, and diversion of forces. The result was diplomatic and military reversals in Flanders in the summer of 1794.
First phase, 1792 to 1802
Following the execution of King Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Britain. This period of the French Revolutionary Wars was known as the War of the First Coalition. It lasted from 1792 to 1797. Relying on its large Royal Navy rather than its small army, British strategy was to support smaller allies against France, and try to cut off food shipments. That was an innovative strategy in modern warfare, but the French prioritised feeding their army over the populace, and carried on. Britain's continental allies did nearly all of the actual fighting on land. France meanwhile set up the conscription system that built up a much larger army than anyone else. After the king was executed, nearly all the senior officers went into exile, and a very young new generation of officers, typified by Napoleon, took over the French military. Britain relied heavily on the Royal Navy, which sank the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, trapping the French army in Egypt. In 1799, Napoleon came to power in France, and created a dictatorship. Britain led the Second Coalition from 1798 to 1802 against Napoleon, but he generally prevailed. The Treaty of Amiens of 1802 was favourable to France. That treaty amounted to a year-long truce in the war, which was reopened by Britain in May 1803.
Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of Amiens when it declared war on France in May 1803, thus starting the War of the Third Coalition, lasting from 1803 to 1805. The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon's reordering of the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was insulted and alarmed especially by Napoleon's assertion of control over Switzerland. Britons felt insulted when Napoleon said it deserved no voice in European affairs (even though King George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire), and ought to shut down the London newspapers that were vilifying Napoleon. Russia, furthermore, decided that the Switzerland intervention indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution. Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon's possible threat to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses – an irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions." However, in the end it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon's intentions were hostile to British national interest. Furthermore, Napoleon was not ready for war and this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain therefore seized upon the Malta issue (by refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island).
The deeper British grievances were that Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, making the international system unstable, and forcing Britain to the sidelines.
Ireland 1798
In 1798, French forces invaded Ireland to assist the United Irishmen who had launched a rebellion. Although the French joined by thousands of rebels, they were defeated by British and Irish loyalist forces. The fear of further attempts to create a French satellite in Ireland led to the Act of Union, merging the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom in 1801. Ireland now lost its last vestiges of independence.
War resumes, 1803–1815
After he had triumphed on the European continent against the other major European powers, Napoleon contemplated an invasion of the British mainland. That plan collapsed after the annihilation of the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, coinciding with an Austrian attack over its Bavarian allies.
In response Napoleon established a continental system by which no nation was permitted to trade with the British. Napoleon hoped the embargo would isolate the British Isles severely weakening them, but a number of countries continued to trade with them in defiance of the policy. In spite of this, the Napoleonic influence stretched across much of Europe.
In 1808, French forces invaded Portugal trying to attempt to halt trade with Britain, turning Spain into a satellite state in the process. The British responded by dispatching a force under Sir Arthur Wellesley which captured Lisbon. Napoleon dispatched increasing forces into the Iberian Peninsula, which became the key battleground between the two nations. Allied with Spanish and Portuguese forces, the British inflicted a number of defeats on the French, confronted with a new kind of warfare called "guerrilla" which led Napoleon to brand it the "Spanish Ulcer".
In 1812, Napoleon's invasion of Russia caused a new coalition to form against him, in what became the War of the Sixth Coalition. In 1813, British forces defeated French forces in Spain and caused them to retreat into France. Allied to an increasingly resurgent European coalition, the British invaded southern France in October 1813, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile on Elba in 1814.
Napoleon was defeated by combined British, Prussian and Dutch forces at Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. With strong British support, the Bourbon monarchy was restored and Louis XVIII was crowned King of France. The Napoleonic era was the last occasion on which Britain and France went to war with each other, but by no means marked the end of the rivalry between the two nations. Viscount Castlereagh shaped British foreign policy as foreign minister 1812–1822; he led the moves against Napoleon 1812 and 1815. Once the Bourbon allies were back in power he established a partnership with France during the Congress of Vienna.
Long 19th century: 1789–1914
Britain and France never went to war after 1815, although there were a few "war scares". They were allied together against Russia in the Crimean War of the 1850s.
1815–1830
Britain emerged from the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the ultimate leading financial, military and colonial power of the world, going on to enjoy a century of global dominance in the Pax Britannica. France recovered from its defeat to rebuild its position on the world stage. Talleyrand's friendly approaches were a precursor to the Entente Cordiale in the next century, but they lacked consistent direction and substance. Overcoming their historic enmity, the British and French eventually became political allies, as both began to turn their attentions to acquiring new territories beyond Europe. The British developed India and Canada and colonised Australia, spreading their powers to several different continents as the Second British Empire. Likewise the French were quite active in Southeast Asia and Africa.
They frequently made stereotypical jokes about each other, and even side by side in war were critical of each other's tactics. As a Royal Navy officer said to the French corsair Robert Surcouf "You French fight for money, while we British fight for honour.", Surcouf replied "Sir, a man fights for what he lacks the most." According to one story, a French diplomat once said to Lord Palmerston "If I were not a Frenchman, I should wish to be an Englishman"; to which Palmerston replied: "If I were not an Englishman, I should wish to be an Englishman." Upon seeing the disastrous British Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War against Russia, French marshal Pierre Bosquet said 'C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre.' ('It's magnificent, but it's not war.') Eventually, relations settled down as the two empires tried to consolidate themselves rather than extend themselves.
July Monarchy and the beginning of the Victorian age
In 1830, France underwent the July Revolution to expel the reactionary Bourbon kings, and install the Orléanist Louis-Philippe as king. By contrast, the reign of Queen Victoria began in 1837 in a peaceful fashion. The major European powers—Russia, Austria, Britain, and to a lesser extent Prussia—were determined to keep France in check, and so France generally pursued a cautious foreign policy. Louis-Phillipe allied with Britain, the country with which France shared the most similar form of government, and its combative Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston. In Louis-Philippe's first year in power, he refused to annex Belgium during its revolution, instead following the British line of supporting independence. Despite posturings from leading French minister Adolphe Thiers in 1839–1840 that France would protect the increasingly powerful Muhammad Ali of Egypt (a viceroy of the Ottoman Empire), any reinforcements were not forthcoming, and in 1840, much to France's embarrassment, Ali was forced to sign the Convention of London by the powers. Relations cooled again under the governments of François Guizot and Robert Peel. They soured once more in 1846 though when, with Palmerston back as Foreign Secretary, the French government hastily agreed to have Isabella II of Spain and her sister marry members of the Bourbon and Orléanist dynasties, respectively. Palmerston had hoped to arrange a marriage, and "The Affair of the Spanish Marriages" has generally been viewed unfavourably by British historians ("By the dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned"), although a more sympathetic view has been taken in recent years.
Second French Empire
Lord Aberdeen (foreign secretary 1841–46) brokered an Entente Cordiale with François Guizot and France in the early 1840s. However Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected president of France in 1848 and made himself Emperor Napoleon III in 1851. Napoleon III had an expansionist foreign policy, which saw the French deepen the colonisation of Africa and establish new colonies, in particular Indochina. The British were initially alarmed, and commissioned a series of forts in southern England designed to resist a French invasion. Lord Palmerston as foreign minister and prime minister had close personal ties with leading French statesmen, notably Napoleon III himself. Palmerston's goal was to arrange peaceful relations with France in order to free Britain's diplomatic hand elsewhere in the world.
Napoleon at first had a pro-British foreign policy, and was eager not to displease the British government whose friendship he saw as important to France. After a brief threat of an invasion of Britain in 1851, France and Britain cooperated in the 1850s, with an alliance in the Crimean War, and a major trade treaty in 1860. However, Britain viewed the Second Empire with increasing distrust, especially as the emperor built up his navy, expanded his empire and took up a more active foreign policy.
The two nations were military allies during the Crimean War (1853–56) to curb Russia's expansion westwards and its threats to the Ottoman Empire. However, when London discovered that Napoleon III was secretly negotiating with Russia to form a postwar alliance to dominate Europe, it hastily abandoned its plan to end the war by attacking St. Petersburg. Instead Britain concluded an armistice with Russia that achieved none of its war aims.
There was a brief war scare in 1858-1860 as alarmists in England misinterpreted scattered hints as signs of an invasion, but Napoleon III never planned any such hostility. The two nations co-operated during the Second Opium War with China, dispatching a joint force to the Chinese capital Peking to force a treaty on the Chinese Qing Dynasty.
In 1859 Napoleon, bypassing the Corps législatif which he feared would not approve of free trade, met with influential reformer Richard Cobden, and in 1860 the Cobden-Chevalier Treaty was signed between the two countries, reducing tariffs on goods sold between Britain and France. The Cobden–Chevalier Treaty of 1860 lowered tariffs in each direction, and began the British practice of encouraging lower tariffs across Europe, and using most favoured nation treaties.
During the American Civil War (1861-1865) both nations considered intervention to help the Confederacy and thereby regain cotton supplies, but remained neutral. The cutoff of cotton shipments caused economic depression in the textile industries of both Britain and France, resulting in widespread unemployment and suffering among workers. In the end France dared not enter alone and Britain refused to go to war because it depended on food shipments from New York.
Napoleon III attempted to gain British support when he invaded Mexico and forcibly put his pawn Maximilian I on the throne. London was unwilling to support any action other than the collection of debts owed by the Mexicans. This forced the French to act alone in the French Intervention in Mexico. Washington, after winning the civil war, threatened an invasion to expel the French and Napoleon pulled out its troops. Emperor Maximilian remained behind and was executed. When Napoleon III was overthrown in 1870, he fled to exile in England.
Late 19th century
In the 1875–1898 era, tensions were high, especially over Egyptian and African issues. At several points, these issues brought the two nations to the brink of war; but the situation was always defused diplomatically. For two decades, there was peace—but it was "an armed peace, characterized by alarms, distrust, rancour and irritation." During the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s, the British and French generally recognised each other's spheres of influence. In an agreement in 1890 Great Britain was recognised in Bahr-el-Ghazal and Darfur, while Wadai, Bagirmi, Kanem, and the territory to the north and east of Lake Chad were assigned to France.
The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt (see Urabi Revolt) prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's expansionist Prime Minister Jules Ferry was out of office, and the government was unwilling to send more than an intimidating fleet to the region. Britain established a protectorate, as France had a year earlier in Tunisia, and popular opinion in France later put this action down to duplicity. It was about this time that the two nations established co-ownership of Vanuatu. The Anglo-French Convention of 1882 was also signed to resolve territory disagreements in western Africa.
One brief but dangerous dispute occurred during the Fashoda Incident in 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew and Britain took control over the area, As France recognised British control of the Sudan. France received control of the small kingdom of Wadai, Which consolidated its holdings in northwest Africa. France had failed in its main goals. P.M.H. Bell says:
Between the two governments there was a brief battle of wills, with the British insisting on immediate and unconditional French withdrawal from Fashoda. The French had to accept these terms, amounting to a public humiliation....Fashoda was long remembered in France as an example of British brutality and injustice."
Fashoda was a diplomatic victory for the British because the French realised that in the long run they needed friendship with Britain in case of a war between France and Germany.
20th century
The Entente Cordiale
From about 1900, Francophiles in Britain and Anglophiles in France began to spread a study and mutual respect and love of the culture of the country on the other side of the English Channel. Francophile and Anglophile societies developed, further introducing Britain to French food and wine, and France to English sports like rugby. French and English were already the second languages of choice in Britain and France respectively. Eventually this developed into a political policy as the new united Germany was seen as a potential threat. Louis Blériot, for example, crossed the Channel in an aeroplane in 1909. Many saw this as symbolic of the connection between the two countries. This period in the first decade of the 20th century became known as the Entente Cordiale, and continued in spirit until the 1940s. The signing of the Entente Cordiale also marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Up to 1940, relations between Britain and France were closer than those between Britain and the US. This also started the beginning of the French and British Special Relationship. After 1907 the British fleet was built up to stay far ahead of Germany. However Britain nor France committed itself to entering a war if Germany attacked the other.
In 1904, Paris and London agreed that Britain would establish a protectorate over Egypt, and France would do the same over Morocco. Germany objected, and the conference at Algeciras in 1906 settled the issue as Germany was outmaneuvered.
First World War
Britain tried to stay neutral as the First World War opened in summer 1914, as France joined in to help its ally Russia according to its treaty obligations. Britain had no relevant treaty obligations except one to keep Belgium neutral, and was not in close touch with the French leaders. Britain entered when the German army invaded neutral Belgium (on its way to attack Paris); that was intolerable. It joined France, sending a small expeditionary force to fight on the Western Front, later reinforced by volunteers and conscripts to form a large army.
There was close co-operation between the British and French forces. French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre worked to coordinate Allied military operations and to mount a combined Anglo-French offensive on the Western Front. The result was the great Battle of the Somme in 1916 with massive casualties on both sides and only limited gains. Paul Painlevé took important decisions during 1917 as France's war minister and then, for nine weeks, premier. With some reservations, he promoted the Nivelle Offensive—which failed badly and drove the French Army to mutiny. The disasters at Passchendaele hurt Britain, its army and civil-military relations. The positive result was the decision to form the Supreme War Council that led eventually to unity of Allied command.
Unable to advance against the combined primary alliance powers of the British, French, and later American forces as well as the blockade preventing shipping reaching German controlled North Sea seaports, the Germans eventually sued for peace after four years of heavy fighting.
Treaty of Versailles
Following the war, at the Treaty of Versailles the British and French worked closely with the Americans to dominate the main decisions. Both were also keen to protect and expand their empires, in the face of calls for self-determination. On a visit to London, French leader Georges Clemenceau was hailed by the British crowds. Lloyd George was given a similar reception in Paris.
Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge. Clemenceau wanted terms to cripple Germany's war potential that were too harsh for Wilson and Lloyd George. A compromise was reached whereby Clemenceau softened his terms and the U.S. and Britain promised a Security Treaty that would guarantee armed intervention by both if Germany invaded France. The British ratified the treaty on condition the U.S. ratified. In the United States Senate, the Republicans were supportive, but Wilson insisted this security treaty be closely tied to the overall Versailles Treaty, and Republicans refused and so it never came to a vote in the Senate. Thus there was no treaty at all to help defend France.
Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany, as in the Locarno Treaties. Under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in 1923–24, Britain took the lead in getting France to accept a solution to the issue of reparations through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. The Dawes Plan (1924–1929) stabilised the German currency and lowered reparations payments, allowing Germany to access capital markets (mostly American) for the money it owed the Allies in reparations, although the payments came at the price of a high foreign debt.
1920s
Both states joined the League of Nations, and both signed agreements of defence of several countries, most significantly Poland. The Treaty of Sèvres split the Middle East between the two states, in the form of mandates. However the outlook of the nations were different during the inter-war years; while France saw itself inherently as a European power, Britain enjoyed close relationships with Australia, Canada and New Zealand and supported the idea of imperial free trade, a form of protectionism that would have seen large tariffs placed on goods from France.
In the 1920s, financial instability was a major problem for France, and other nations as well. it was vulnerable to short-term concerted action by banks and financial institutions by heavy selling or buying, in the financial crisis could weaken governments, and be used as a diplomatic threat. Premier and Finance Minister Raymond Poincaré decided to stabilise the franc to protect against political currency manipulation by Germany and Britain. His solution in 1926 was a return to a fixed parity against gold. France was not able to turn the tables and use short-term financial advantage as leverage against Britain on important policy matters.
In general, France and Britain were aligned in their position on major issues. A key reason was the Francophile position of Foreign Minister Austen Chamberlain, and the ambassador to Paris the Marquess of Crewe (1922–28). They promoted a pro-French policy regarding French security and disarmament policy, the later stages of the Ruhr crisis, the implementation of the Geneva Protocol, the Treaty of Locarno and the origins of the Kellogg-Briand Pact. The high point of cooperation came with the Treaty of Locarno in 1925, which brought Germany into good terms with France and Britain. However, relations with France became increasingly tense because Chamberlain grew annoyed that foreign minister Aristide Briand's diplomatic agenda did not have at its heart a reinvigorated Entente Cordiale.
Furthermore, Britain thought disarmament was the key to peace but France disagreed because of its profound fear of German militarism. London decided Paris really sought military dominance of Europe. Before 1933, most Britons saw France, not Germany, as the chief threat to peace and harmony in Europe. France did not suffer as severe an economic recession, and was the strongest military power, but still it refused British overtures for disarmament. Anthony Powell, in his A Dance to the Music of Time, said that to be anti-French and pro-German in the 1920s was considered the height of progressive sophistication.
Appeasement of Germany
In the 1930s, Britain and France coordinated their policies toward the dictatorships of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany. However, public opinion did not support going to war again, so the diplomats sought diplomatic solutions, but none worked. Efforts to use the League of Nations to apply sanctions against Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia failed. France supported the "Little Entente" of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. It proved much too weak to deter Germany.
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed between Britain and Nazi Germany in 1935, allowing Hitler to reinforce his navy. It was regarded by the French as the ruining of the anti-Hitlerian Stresa front. Britain and France collaborated closely especially in the late 1930s regarding Germany, based on informal promises with no written treaty. Efforts were made to negotiate a treaty but they failed in 1936, underscoring French weakness.
In the years leading up to World War II, both countries followed a similar diplomatic path of appeasement of Germany. As Nazi intentions became clear, France pushed for a harder line but the British demurred, believing diplomacy could solve the disputes. The result was the Munich Agreement of 1938 that gave Germany control of parts of Czechoslovakia settled by Germans. In early 1939, Germany took over all of Czechoslovakia and began threatening Poland. Appeasement had failed, and both Britain and France raced to catch up with Germany in weaponry.
Second World War
After guaranteeing the independence of Poland, both declared war on Germany on the same day, 3 September 1939, after the Germans ignored an ultimatum to withdraw from the country. When Germany began its attack on France in 1940, British troops and French troops again fought side by side. Eventually, after the Germans came through the Ardennes, it became more possible that France would not be able to fend off the German attack. The final bond between the two nations was so strong that members of the British cabinet had proposed a temporary union of the two countries for the sake of morale: the plan was drawn up by Jean Monnet, who later created the Common Market. The idea was not popular with a majority on either side, and the French government felt that, in the circumstances, the plan for union would reduce France to the level of a British Dominion. When London ordered the withdrawal of the British Expeditionary Force from France without telling French and Belgian forces and then refused to provide France with further reinforcements of aircraft the proposal was definitively turned down. Later The Free French resistance, led by Charles de Gaulle, were formed in London, after de Gaulle gave his famous 'Appeal of 18 June', broadcast by the BBC. De Gaulle declared himself to be the head of the one and only true government of France, and gathered the Free French Forces around him.
War against Vichy France
After the preemptive destruction of a large part of the French fleet by the British at Mers-el-Kebir (3 July 1940), as well as a similar attack on French ships in Oran on the grounds that they might fall into German hands, there was nationwide anti-British indignation and a long-lasting feeling of betrayal in France. In southern France a collaborative government known as Vichy France was set up on 10 July. It was officially neutral, but metropolitan France came increasingly under German control. The Vichy government controlled Syria, Madagascar, and French North Africa and French troops and naval forces therein. Eventually, several important French ships joined the Free French Forces.
One by one de Gaulle took control of the French colonies, beginning with central Africa in autumn`1940, and gained recognition from Britain but not the United States. An Anglo-Free French attack on Vichy territory was repulsed at the Battle of Dakar in September 1940. Washington maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy (until October 1942) and avoided recognition of de Gaulle. Churchill, caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle, tried to find a compromise.
From 1941, British Empire and Commonwealth forces invaded Vichy controlled territory in Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Middle East. The first began in 1941 during the campaign against Syria and the Lebanon assisted with Free French troops. In two months of bitter fighting the region was seized and then put under Free French control. Around the same time after the Italian defeat in East Africa, Vichy controlled French Somaliland subsequently became blockaded by British and Free French forces. In a bloodless invasion the colony fell in mid 1942. In May 1942, the Vichy controlled island of Madagascar was invaded. In a seven-month campaign the island was seized by British Empire forces. Finally in the latter half of 1942, the British with the help of US forces took part in the successful invasion of French North Africa in Operation Torch. Most Vichy forces switched sides afterwards to help the allied cause during the Tunisian Campaign fighting as part of the British First Army.
Levant Crisis
Following D-Day, relations between the two peoples were at a high, as the British were greeted as liberators and remained so till the surrender of Germany in May 1945. At the end of that month, however, French troops, with their continued occupation of Syria, had tried to quell nationalist protests there. With heavy Syrian civilian casualties reported, Churchill demanded a ceasefire. With none forthcoming, he ordered British forces into Syria from Jordan. When they reached Damascus in June, the French were then escorted and confined to their barracks at gunpoint. That became known as the Levant Crisis and almost brought Britain and France to the point of conflict. De Gaulle raged against 'Churchill's ultimatum' and reluctantly arranged a ceasefire. Syria gained independence the following year and France labelled British measures as a 'stab in the back'.
1945–1956
The UK and France nevertheless became close as both feared the Americans would withdraw from Europe leaving them vulnerable to the Soviet Union's expanding communist bloc. The UK was successful in strongly advocating that France be given a zone of occupied Germany. Both states were amongst the five Permanent Members of the new UN Security Council, where they commonly collaborated. However, France was bitter when the United States and Britain refused to share atomic secrets with it. An American operation to use air strikes (including the potential use of tactical nuclear weapons) during the climax of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 was cancelled because of opposition by the British. The upshot was France developed its own nuclear weapons and delivery systems.
The Cold War began in 1947, as the United States, with strong British support, announced the Truman Doctrine to contain Communist expansion and provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. Despite its large pro-Soviet Communist Party, France joined the Allies. The first move was the Franco-British alliance realised in the Dunkirk Treaty in March 1947.
Suez Crisis
In 1956, the Suez Canal, previously owned by an Anglo-French company, was nationalised by the Egyptian government. The British and the French were both strongly committed to taking the canal back by force. President Eisenhower and the Soviet Union demanded there be no invasion and both imposed heavy pressure to reverse the invasion when it came. The relations between Britain and France were not entirely harmonious, as the French did not inform the British about the involvement of Israel until very close to the commencement of military operations. The failure in Suez convinced Paris it needed its own nuclear weapons.
Common Market
Immediately after the Suez crisis Anglo-French relations started to sour again, and only since the last decades of the 20th century have they improved towards the peak they achieved between 1900 and 1940.
Shortly after 1956, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg formed what would become the European Economic Community and later the European Union, but rejected British requests for membership. In particular, President Charles de Gaulle's attempts to exclude the British from European affairs during France's early Fifth Republic are now seen by many in Britain as a betrayal of the strong bond between the countries, and Anthony Eden's exclusion of France from the Commonwealth is seen in a similar light in France. The French partly feared that were the British to join the EEC they would attempt to dominate it.
Over the years, the UK and France have often taken diverging courses within the European Community. British policy has favoured an expansion of the Community and free trade while France has advocated a closer political union and restricting membership of the Community to a core of Western European states.
De Gaulle
In 1958, with France mired in a seemingly unwinnable war in Algeria, de Gaulle returned to power in France. He created the Fifth French Republic, ending the post-war parliamentary system and replacing it with a strong Presidency, which became dominated by his followers—the Gaullists. De Gaulle made ambitious changes to French foreign policy—first ending the war in Algeria, and then withdrawing France from the NATO command structure. The latter move was primarily symbolic, but NATO headquarters moved to Brussels and French generals had a much lesser role.
French policy blocking British entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) was primarily motivated by political rather than economic considerations. In 1967, as in 1961–63, de Gaulle was determined to preserve France's dominance within the EEC, which was the foundation of the nation's international stature. His policy was to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. De Gaulle feared that letting Britain into the European Community would open the way for Anglo-Saxon (i.e., US and UK) influence to overwhelm the France-West Germany coalition that was now dominant. On 14 January 1963, de Gaulle announced that France would veto Britain's entry into the Common Market.
Since 1969
When de Gaulle resigned in 1969, a new French government under Georges Pompidou was prepared to open a more friendly dialogue with Britain. He felt that in the economic crises of the 1970s Europe needed Britain. Pompidou welcomed British membership of the EEC, opening the way for the United Kingdom to join it in 1973.
The two countries' relationship was strained significantly in the lead-up to the 2003 War in Iraq. Britain and its American ally strongly advocated the use of force to remove Saddam Hussein, while France (with China, Russia, and other nations) strongly opposed such action, with French President Jacques Chirac threatening to veto any resolution proposed to the UN Security Council. However, despite such differences Chirac and then British Prime Minister Tony Blair maintained a fairly close relationship during their years in office even after the Iraq War started. Both states asserted the importance of the Entente Cordiale alliance, and the role it had played during the 20th century.
Sarkozy presidency
Following his election in 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy attempted to forge closer relations between France and the United Kingdom: in March 2008, Prime Minister Gordon Brown said that "there has never been greater cooperation between France and Britain as there is now". Sarkozy also urged both countries to "overcome our long-standing rivalries and build together a future that will be stronger because we will be together". He also said "If we want to change Europe my dear British friends—and we Frenchmen do wish to change Europe—we need you inside Europe to help us do so, not standing on the outside." On 26 March 2008, Sarkozy had the privilege of giving a speech to both British Houses of Parliament, where he called for a "brotherhood" between the two countries and stated that "France will never forget Britain's war sacrifice" during World War II.
In March 2008, Sarkozy made a state visit to Britain, promising closer cooperation between the two countries' governments in the future.
Hollande presidency
The final months towards the end of François Hollande's tenure as president saw the UK vote to leave the EU. His response to the result was "I profoundly regret this decision for the United Kingdom and for Europe, but the choice is theirs and we have to respect it."
The then-Economy Minister and current President Emmanuel Macron accused the UK of taking the EU "hostage" with a referendum called to solve a domestic political problem of eurosceptics and that "the failure of the British government [has opened up] the possibility of the crumbling of Europe."
In contrast, the vote was welcomed by Eurosceptic political leaders and presidential candidates Marine Le Pen and Nicolas Dupont-Aignan as a victory for "freedom".
Macron presidency
In the aftermath of Brexit, fishing disputes, notably the 2021 Jersey dispute, have caused turbulence in relations between the two countries.
In May 2021, France threatened to cut off electricity to the British Channel Island of Jersey in a fight over post-Brexit fishing rights.
In August 2021, Tensions emerged between the countries after the announcement of the AUKUS agreement between the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia.
In October 2021, the UK Foreign Office summoned the French ambassador over "threats" made by French officials against Jersey. In November, France threatened to ban UK fishing vessels from French ports.
In November 2021, relations became more stagnant after the French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian claimed that British Prime Minister Boris Johnson is a "populist who uses all elements at his disposal to blame others for problems he faces internally". A few days later, after 27 migrants drowned in the English Channel, Prime Minister Boris Johnson tweeted a letter that was sent to French President Emmanuel Macron which had irritated him due to the letter being made public on Twitter. The French Interior Minister Gérald Darmanin cancelled a proposed meeting with British Home Secretary Priti Patel over the migrant crossings due to the row over the letter.
On 6 March 2022, French Interior Minister Gerald Darmanin urged Britain to do more to assist Ukrainian refugees trapped in the French port of Calais, claiming that British officials were turning them away owing to a lack of permits or papers.
On 25 August 2022, Liz Truss, the expected candidate for Prime Minister from the Conservative Party was asked if she sees Macron as a friend or a rival. Truss hesitated and replied that "The jury's out. But if I become prime minister, I'll judge him on deeds, not words".
This answer brought a sharp reaction on behalf of the Labour Party when David Lammy, who serves as the party's foreign affairs spokesman, said in response that "the fact that she chose to unnecessarily insult one of our closest allies shows a lack of judgement, and that lack of capacity is a terrible and worrying thing."
Macron himself responded that "the British people, Britain itself, are a friendly, strong nation and our ally, regardless of the identity of its leaders, and sometimes despite its leaders or the small mistakes they make in their attempt to impress the audience". He added: "If we, France and Britain, are unable to say whether we are friends or enemies - and the term is not neutral - then we are on the way to serious problems. If I were to be asked this question, I would not hesitate for a second - Britain is France's friend."
Defence cooperation
The two nations have a post WWII record of working together on international security measures, as was seen in the Suez Crisis and Falklands War. In her 2020 book, Johns Hopkins University SAIS political scientist Alice Pannier writes that there is a growing "special relationship" between France and the UK in terms of defence cooperation.
On 2 November 2010, France and the UK signed two defence co-operation treaties. They provide for the sharing of aircraft carriers, a 10,000-strong joint reaction force, a common nuclear simulation centre in France, a common nuclear research centre in the UK, sharing air-refuelling tankers and joint training.
Their post-colonial entanglements have given them a more outward focus than the other countries of Europe, leading them to work together on issues such as the Libyan Civil War.
Commerce
France is the United Kingdom's third-biggest export market after the United States and Germany. Exports to France rose 14.3% from £16.542 billion in 2010 to £18.905 billion in 2011, overtaking exports to the Netherlands. Over the same period, French exports to Britain rose 5.5% from £18.133 billion to £19.138 billion.
The British Foreign & Commonwealth Office estimates that 19.3 million British citizens, roughly a third of the entire population, visit France each year. In 2012, the French were the biggest visitors to the UK (12%, 3,787,000) and the second-biggest tourist spenders in Britain (8%, £1.513 billion).
Education
The Entente Cordiale Scholarship scheme is a selective Franco-British scholarship scheme which was announced on 30 October 1995 by British Prime Minister John Major and French President Jacques Chirac at an Anglo-French summit in London.
It provides funding for British and French students to study for one academic year on the other side of the Channel. The scheme is administered by the French embassy in London for British students, and by the British Council in France and the UK embassy in Paris for French students. Funding is provided by the private sector and foundations.
The scheme aims to favour mutual understanding and to promote exchanges between the British and French leaders of tomorrow.
The programme was initiated by Sir Christopher Mallaby, British ambassador to France between 1993 and 1996.
The sciences
The Concorde supersonic commercial aircraft was developed under an international treaty between the UK and France in 1962, and commenced flying in 1969. It was a technological success but a financial disaster and was closed down after a runway crash in 2000 and fully ended flights in 2003.
Art and culture
Over the centuries, French and British art and culture have been heavily influenced by each other. During the 19th century, numerous French artists moved to the United Kingdom, which many of them settling in London. These artists included Charles-François Daubigny, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, James Tissot and Alfred Sisley. This exodus would prove to have a significant influence on the development of impressionism in Britain.
Sexual euphemisms with no link to France, such as French kissing, or French letter for a condom, are used in British English slang. While in French slang, the term le vice anglais refers to either BDSM or homosexuality. French classical music has always been popular in Britain. British popular music is in turn popular in France. English literature, in particular the works of Agatha Christie and William Shakespeare, has been immensely popular in France. French artist Eugène Delacroix based many of his paintings on scenes from Shakespeare's plays. In turn, French writers such as Molière, Voltaire and Victor Hugo have been translated numerous times into English. In general, most of the more popular books in either language are translated into the other.
Language
The first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in Britain is French, and the first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in France is English; those are also the languages perceived as "most useful to learn" in both countries. Queen Elizabeth II of the UK was fluent in French and did not require an interpreter when travelling to French-language countries. French is a substantial minority language and immigrant language in the United Kingdom, with over 100,000 French-born people in the UK. According to a 2006 European Commission report, 23% of UK residents are able to carry on a conversation in French and 39% of French residents are able to carry on a conversation in English. French is also an official language in both Jersey and Guernsey. Both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative or ceremonial capacity. Jersey Legal French is the standardised variety used in Jersey. However, Norman (in its local forms, Guernésiais and Jèrriais) is the historical vernacular of the islands.
Both languages have influenced each other throughout the years. According to different sources, more than 50% of all English words have a French origin, and today many French expressions have entered the English language as well. The term Franglais, a portmanteau combining the French words "français" and "anglais", refers to the combination of French and English (mostly in the UK) or the use of English words and nouns of Anglo-Saxon roots in French (in France).
Modern and Middle English reflect a mixture of Oïl and Old English lexicons after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, when a Norman-speaking aristocracy took control of a population whose mother tongue was Germanic in origin. Due to the intertwined histories of England and continental possessions of the English Crown, many formal and legal words in Modern English have French roots. For example, buy and sell are of Germanic origin, while purchase and vend are from Old French.
Sports
In the sport of rugby union there is a rivalry between England and France. Both countries compete in the Six Nations Championship and the Rugby World Cup. England has the edge in both tournaments, having the most outright wins in the Six Nations (and its previous version the Five Nations), and most recently knocking the French team out of the 2003 and 2007 World Cups at the semi-final stage, although France knocked England out of the 2011 Rugby World Cup with a convincing score in their quarter final match. Though rugby is originally a British sport, French rugby has developed to such an extent that the English and French teams are now stiff competitors, with neither side greatly superior to the other. While English influences spread rugby union at an early stage to Scotland, Wales and Ireland, as well as the Commonwealth realms, French influence spread the sport outside the commonwealth, to Italy, Argentina, Romania and Georgia.
The influence of French players and coaches on British football has been increasing in recent years and is often cited as an example of Anglo-French cooperation. In particular the Premier League club Arsenal has become known for its Anglo-French connection due to a heavy influx of French players since the advent of French manager Arsène Wenger in 1996. In March 2008 their Emirates stadium was chosen as the venue for a meeting during a state visit by the French President precisely for this reason.
Many people blamed the then French President Jacques Chirac for contributing to Paris' loss to London in its bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics after he made derogatory remarks about British cuisine and saying that "only Finnish food is worse". The IOC committee which would ultimately decide to give the games to London (by four votes) had two members from Finland.
Transport
Ferries
The busiest seaway in the world, the English Channel, connects ports in Great Britain such as Dover, Newhaven, Poole, Weymouth, Portsmouth and Plymouth to ports such as Roscoff, Calais, Boulogne, Dunkerque, Dieppe, Cherbourg-Octeville, Caen, St Malo and Le Havre in mainland France. Companies such as Brittany Ferries, P&O Ferries, DFDS Seaways and LD Lines operate ferry services across the Channel.
In addition, there are ferries across the Anguilla Channel between Blowing Point, Anguilla (a British Overseas Territory) and Marigot, Saint Martin (an overseas collectivity of France).
Channel Tunnel
The Channel Tunnel (; also referred to as the Chunnel) is a 50.5-kilometre (31.4 mi) undersea rail tunnel (linking Folkestone, Kent, in the United Kingdom with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais, near the city of Calais in northern France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, but British political and press pressure over compromised national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel. The eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and was opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The same year the American Society of Civil Engineers elected the Channel Tunnel as one of the seven modern Wonders of the World.
Flights
11,675,910 passengers in 2008 travelled on flights between the United Kingdom and France.
Twin cities and towns
France has the most twin cities and towns in the United Kingdom.
Aberdeen and Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Dôme
Andover, Hampshire and Redon, Ille-et-Vilaine
Angmering, West Sussex and Ouistreham, Calvados
Anstruther, Fife and Bapaume, Pas-de-Calais
Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire and Bourg-en-Bresse, Ain
Aylsham, Norfolk and La Chaussée-Saint-Victor, Loir-et-Cher
Barnet, London and Le Raincy, Seine-Saint-Denis
Barrow upon Soar, Leicestershire and Marans, Charente-Maritime
Basildon, Essex and Meaux, Seine-et-Marne
Basingstoke, Hampshire and Alençon, Orne
Bath, Somerset and Aix-en-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône
Beaminster, Dorset and Saint-James, Manche
Beccles, Suffolk and Petit-Couronne, Seine-Maritime
Birmingham, West Midlands and Lyon, Metropolitan Lyon
Blandford Forum, Dorset and Mortain, Manche
Bolton, Greater Manchester and Le Mans, Sarthe
Bridport, Dorset and Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, Manche
Bristol, City of Bristol and Bordeaux, Gironde
Bury, Greater Manchester and Angoulême, Charente
Camberley, Surrey and Sucy-en-Brie, Val-de-Marne
Canterbury, Kent and Reims, Marne
Cardiff and Nantes, Loire-Atlantique
Chelmsford, Essex and Annonay, Ardèche
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire and Annecy, Haute-Savoie
Chester, Cheshire and Sens, Yonne
Chichester, West Sussex and Chartres, Eure-et-Loir
Chippenham, Wiltshire and La Flèche, Sarthe
Chipping Ongar, Essex and Cerizay, Deux-Sèvres
Christchurch, Dorset and Saint-Lô, Manche
Cockermouth, Cumbria and Marvejols, Lozère
Coleraine and La Roche Sur Yon
Colchester, Essex and Avignon, Vaucluse
Congleton, Cheshire and Trappes, Yvelines
Cowbridge, Vale of Glamorgan and Clisson, Pays de la Loire
Cowes, Isle of Wight and Deauville, Calvados
Crewe, Cheshire and Mâcon, Saône-et-Loire
Devizes, Wiltshire and Mayenne, Pays de la Loire
Dorchester, Dorset and Bayeux, Calvados
Dover, Kent and Calais, Pas-de-Calais
Droylsden, Tameside and Villemomble, Seine-Saint-Denis
Dukinfield, Cheshire and Champagnole, Jura
Dundee and Orléans, Loiret
Ealing, London and Marcq-en-Barœul, Nord
East Preston, West Sussex and Brou, Eure-et-Loir
Edinburgh and Nice, Alpes-Maritimes
Elmbridge, Surrey and Rueil-Malmaison, Hauts-de-Seine
Epsom, Surrey and Chantilly, Oise
Exeter, Devon and Rennes, Ille-et-Vilaine
Exmouth, Devon and Dinan, Côtes-d'Armor
Fareham, Hampshire, and Vannes, Morbihan
Ferndown, Dorset and Segré, Maine-et-Loire
Farnborough, Hampshire and Meudon, Hauts-de-Seine
Folkestone, Kent and Boulogne-sur-Mer, Pas-de-Calais
Glasgow and Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône
Gloucester, Gloucestershire and Metz, Moselle
Godalming, Surrey and Joigny, Yonne
Hailsham, East Sussex and Gournay-en-Bray, Seine-Maritime
Hammersmith and Fulham, London and Boulogne-Billancourt, Hauts-de-Seine
Harrogate, Yorkshire and Luchon, Haute-Garonne
Harrold, Bedfordshire and Sainte-Pazanne, Loire-Atlantique
Harrow, London and Douai, Nord
Hastings, East Sussex and Béthune, Pas-de-Calais
Havering, London and Hesdin, Pas-de-Calais
Hereford, Herefordshire and Vierzon, Cher
Herne Bay, Kent and Wimereux, Pas-de-Calais
Hillingdon, London and Mantes-la-Jolie, Yvelines
Hitchin, Hertfordshire and Nuits-Saint-Georges, Côte-d'Or
Horsham, West Sussex and Saint-Maixent-l'Ecole, Deux-Sèvres
Hounslow, London and Issy-les-Moulineaux, Hauts-de-Seine
Inverness and Saint-Valery-en-Caux, Seine-Maritime
Ipswich, Suffolk and Arras, Pas-de-Calais
Kensington and Chelsea, London and Cannes, Alpes-Maritimes
Leeds, Yorkshire and Lille, Nord
Leicester and Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin
Lewisham, London and Antony, Hauts-de-Seine
Lichfield, Staffordshire and Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Lyon Metropolis
Littlehampton, West Sussex and Chennevières-sur-Marne, Val-de-Marne
Llandeilo, Carmarthenshire and Le Conquet, Finistère
Llanelli, Carmarthenshire and Agen, Lot-et-Garonne
London and Paris (this is not a twinning, since Paris is twinned only with Rome, but they are partner cities)
Loughborough, Leicestershire and Épinal, Vosges
Maidenhead, Berkshire and Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine
Maidstone, Kent and Beauvais, Oise
Merthyr Tydfil, Merthyr Tydfil and Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine
Middlesbrough, Yorkshire and Dunkirk, Nord
Newcastle upon Tyne and Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle
Newhaven, East Sussex and La Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin, Loiret
Northampton, Northamptonshire and Poitiers, Vienne
Norwich, Norfolk and Rouen, Seine-Maritime
Oxford, Oxfordshire and Grenoble, Isère
Perth and Cognac, Charente
Plymouth, Devon and Brest, Finistère
Portsmouth, Hampshire and Caen, Calvados
Poole, Dorset and Cherbourg-Octeville, Manche
Preston, Lancashire and Nîmes, Gard
Ramsgate, Kent and Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, Yvelines
Reigate, Surrey and Brunoy, Essonne
Richmond upon Thames, London and Fontainebleau, Seine-et-Marne
Rochdale, Greater Manchester and Tourcoing, Nord
Rotherham, Yorkshire and Saint-Quentin, Aisne
Royston, Hertfordshire and La Loupe, Eure-et-Loir
Borough of Runnymede, Surrey and Joinville-le-Pont, Val-de-Marne
Salford, Greater Manchester and Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Dôme
Salisbury, Wiltshire and Saintes, Charente-Maritime
Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire and Bry-sur-Marne, Val-de-Marne
Selby, Yorkshire and Carentan, Manche
Sherborne, Dorset and Granville, Manche
City of Southampton, Hampshire and Le Havre, Seine-Maritime
Southborough, Kent and Lambersart, Nord
Spelthorne, Surrey and Melun, Seine-et-Marne
St Albans, Hertfordshire and Nevers, Nièvre
Stalybridge, Tameside and Armentières, Nord
Stevenage, Hertfordshire and Autun, Saône-et-Loire
Stockport, Greater Manchester and Béziers, Hérault
Sturminster Newton, Dorset and Montebourg, Manche
Sunderland, Tyne & Wear and Saint-Nazaire, Loire-Atlantique
Sutton, London and Gagny, Seine-Saint-Denis
Taunton, Somerset and Lisieux, Calvados
Truro, Cornwall and Morlaix, Finistère
Vale of White Horse, Oxfordshire and Colmar, Haut-Rhin
Verwood, Dorset and Champtoceaux, Maine-et-Loire
Ware, Hertfordshire and Cormeilles-en-Parisis, Val d'Oise
Wareham, Dorset and Conches-en-Ouche, Eure
Watford, Hertfordshire and Nanterre, Hauts-de-Seine
Wellington, Shropshire and Châtenay-Malabry, Hauts-de-Seine
Wembury, Devonshire and Locmaria-Plouzané, Finistère
Wetherby, Yorkshire and Privas, Ardèche
Weymouth and Portland, Dorset and Louviers, Eure
Whitstable, Kent and Dainville, Pas-de-Calais
Wigan, Greater Manchester and Angers, Maine-et-Loire
Wimborne Minster, Dorset and Valognes, Manche
Winchester, Hampshire and Laon, Aisne
Windsor, Berkshire and Neuilly-sur-Seine, Hauts-de-Seine
Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, Merseyside and Lorient, Morbihan and Gennevilliers, Hauts-de-Seine
Woking, Surrey and Le Plessis-Robinson, Hauts-de-Seine
York, Yorkshire and Dijon, Côte-d'Or
There are lists of twinnings (including those to towns in other countries) at List of twin towns and sister cities in France and at List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom.
Resident diplomatic missions
France has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Paris and consulates in Bordeaux and Marseille and a trade office in Lyon.
See also
Angevin Empire
Anglo-French War (disambiguation)
History of French foreign relations
Auld Alliance, between France and Scotland
Common Security and Defence Policy
Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris
English claims to the French throne
Entente cordiale
Entente Cordiale Scholarships
Franco-British Union
French migration to the United Kingdom
Hundred Years' War
List of British French
List of ambassadors from the Kingdom of England to France (up to 1707)
List of ambassadors of Great Britain to France (from 1707 to 1800).
List of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France (since 1800)
List of Ambassadors of France to the United Kingdom (since 1800)
Military history of England
Military history of France
Perfidious Albion
Second Hundred Years' War
SEPECAT Jaguar
Triple Entente
1983 France–United Kingdom Maritime Boundary Convention
1996 France–United Kingdom Maritime Delimitation Agreements
EU–UK relations
European Union–NATO relations
France–UK border
References
Further reading
Chassaigne, Philippe, and Michael Dockrill, eds. Anglo-French Relations 1898-1998: From Fashoda to Jospin (Springer, 2001).
Gibson, Robert. The Best of Enemies: Anglo-French Relations Since the Norman Conquest (2nd ed. 2011) major scholarly study excerpt and text search
Horne, Alistair, Friend or Foe: An Anglo-Saxon History of France (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005).
Johnson, Douglas, et al. Britain and France: Ten Centuries (1980) table of contents
Tombs, Robert and Isabelle Tombs. That Sweet Enemy: Britain and France: The History of a Love-Hate Relationship (2008) 1688 to present online
To 1918
Acomb, Frances Dorothy. Anglophobia in France, 1763–1789: an essay in the history of constitutionalism and nationalism (Duke UP, 1950).
Andrew, Christopher, "France and the Making of the Entente Cordiale" Historical Journal 10#1 (1967), pp 89–105.
Andrews, Stuart. The British periodical press and the French Revolution, 1789–99 (Macmillan, 2000)
Baer, Werner. "The Promoting and the Financing of the Suez Canal" Business History Review (1956) 30#4 pp. 361–381 online
Baugh, Daniel A. The Global Seven Years' War, 1754–1763: Britain and France in a Great Power Contest (Longman, 2011)
Black, Jeremy. Natural and Necessary Enemies: Anglo-French Relations in the Eighteenth Century (1986).
Blockley, John Edward. "Cross Channel Reflections: French Perceptions of Britain from Fashoda to the Boer War" (PhD dissertation Queen Mary University of London, 2015). online
Brogan, D. W. France under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1939) (1941), Scholarly history by a British expert; 764pp. online
Brown, David. "Palmerston and Anglo–French Relations, 1846–1865." Diplomacy and Statecraft 17.4 (2006): 675–692.
Carroll, E. Malcolm. French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs, 1870–1914 (1931) online
Cameron-Ash, M. Lying for the Admiralty: Captain Cook's Endeavour Voyage, 2018, Rosenberg Publishing, Sydney,
Clark, Christopher. The sleepwalkers: how Europe went to war in 1914 (2012)
Crouzet, François. Britain Ascendant. Comparative Studies in Franco-British Economic History (Cambridge UP, 1990).
Davis, Richard. Anglo-French relations before the Second World War: appeasement and crisis (Springer, 2001).
Dickinson, Harry Thomas, ed. Britain and the French Revolution, 1789–1815 (1989).
Golicz, Roman. "Napoleon III, Lord Palmerston and the Entente Cordiale". History Today 50#12 (December 2000): 10–17
Gifford, Prosser and William Roger Louis. France and Britain in Africa: Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule (1971)
Harris, John R. Industrial Espionage and Technology Transfer: Britain and France in the 18th Century (Taylor & Francis, 2017).
Harvey, Robert, The War of Wars: The Great European Conflict 1793–1815 (Robinson, 2007).
Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967) pp 22–85.
Jacobs, Wilbur R. Diplomacy and Indian gifts: Anglo-French rivalry along the Ohio and Northwest frontiers, 1748–1763 (1950)
Jones, Colin. Britain and Revolutionary France: Conflict, Subversion, and Propaganda (1983); 96pp
Keiger, J.F.V. France and the World since 1870 (2001)
Kennan, George Frost. The fateful alliance: France, Russia, and the coming of the First World War (1984) ; covers 1890 to 1894.
Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890 (1950); advanced diplomatic history
Langer, William. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (1950); advanced diplomatic history
McLynn, Frank, 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World (Pimlico, 2005).
MacMillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2014) pp 142–71. online
Mayne, Richard, Douglas Johnson, and Robert Tombs, eds. Cross Channel Currents 100 Years of the Entente Cordiale (Routledge: 2004),
Newman, Gerald. "Anti-French Propaganda and British Liberal Nationalism in the Early Nineteenth Century: Suggestions Toward a General Interpretation." Victorian Studies (1975): 385–418.
Otte, T. G. "From 'War-in-Sight' to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898." Diplomacy and Statecraft (2006) 17#4 pp: 693–714.
Parry, Jonathan Philip. "The impact of Napoleon III on British politics, 1851–1880." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (2001): 147–175. online; a study in distrust
Philpott, William James. Anglo-French Relations and Strategy on the Western Front 1914–18 (1996)
Prete, Roy A. Strategy and Command: The Anglo-French Coalition on the Western Front, 1915 (McGill-Queen's UP, 2021) online review by Michael S. Neiberg
Reboul, Juliette. French Emigration to Great Britain in Response to the French Revolution (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814–1914 (1991), comprehensive worldwide survey
Schmidt, H. D. "The Idea and Slogan of 'Perfidious Albion'" Journal of the History of Ideas (1953) pp: 604–616. ; on French distrust of "Albion" (i.e. England)
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (1994) 920pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
Seton-Watson, R.W. Britain in Europe: 1789–1914 (1937) detailed survey or foreign policy with much on France; online
Schuman, Frederick L. War and diplomacy in the French Republic; an inquiry into political motivations and the control of foreign policy (1931)
Sharp, Alan, & Stone, Glyn, eds. Anglo-French Relations in the Twentieth Century (2000)
Simms, Brendan, Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire (Penguin Books, 2008), 18th century wars
Smith, Michael S. Tariff reform in France, 1860–1900: the politics of economic interest (Cornell UP, 1980).
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (1954) 638pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
Since 1919
Adamthwaite, Anthony. Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe, 1914–1940 (Hodder Arnold, 1995).
Alexander, Martin S. and William J. Philpott. Anglo-French Defence Relations Between the Wars (2003), 1919–39 excerpt and text search
Bell, P. M. H. France and Britain, 1900–1940: Entente and Estrangement (2nd ed. 2014).
Bell, P. M. H. France and Britain, 1940–1994: The Long Separation (1997).
Berthon, Simon. Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle (2001). 356 pp.
Boyce, Robert, ed. French foreign and defence policy, 1918–1940: the decline and fall of a great power (Routledge, 2005).
Brunschwig, Henri. Anglophobia and French African Policy (Yale UP, 1971).
Capet, Antoine, ed. Britain, France and the Entente Cordiale Since 1904 (Palgrave Macmillan 2006).
Chassaigne, Philippe, and Michael Lawrence Dockrill, eds. Anglo-French Relations 1898–1998: From Fashoda to Jospin (Palgrave, 2002)
Clarke, Michael. "French and British security: mirror images in a globalized world." International Affairs 76.4 (2000): 725–740. Online
Crossley, Ceri, and Ian Small, eds. Studies in Anglo French Cultural Relations: Imagining France (1988)
Davis, Richard. Anglo-French Relations before the Second World War: Appeasement and Crisis (2001)
Funk, Arthur Layton. Charles de Gaulle: the crucial years, 1943-1944 (1959).
Grayson, Richard S. Austen Chamberlain and the Commitment to Europe: British Foreign Policy 1924-1929 (Routledge, 2014).
Johnson, Gaynor. "Sir Austen Chamberlain, the Marquess of Crewe and Anglo-French Relations, 1924–1928." Contemporary British History 25.01 (2011): 49–64. online
Hucker, Daniel. Public opinion and the end of appeasement in Britain and France (Routledge, 2016).
Jennings, Eric T. "Britain and Free France in Africa, 1940–1943." in British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle East (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp. 277–296.
Keiger, J.F.V. France and the World since 1870 (2001)
Kolodziej, Edward A. French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur (1974)
Lahav, Pnina. "The Suez Crisis of 1956 and Its Aftermath: A Comparative Study of Constituons, Use of Force, Diplomacy and International Relations." Boston University Law Review 95 (2015): 1297–1354 online
MacMillan, Margaret, Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World (2003) on Versailles Conference of 1919 online
Maclean, Mairi, and Jean-Marie Trouille, eds. France, Germany and Britain: Partners in a Changing World (Palgrave Macmillan, 2001).
Mayne, Richard et al. Cross-Channel Currents: 100 Years of the Entente Cordiale (2004)
Nere, J. The Foreign Policy of France from 1914 to 1945 (2002)
Oye, Kenneth A. "The sterling-dollar-franc triangle: Monetary diplomacy 1929–1937." World Politics (1985) 38#1 pp: 173–199.
Pickles, Dorothy. The Uneasy Entente. French Foreign Policy and Franco-British Misunderstandings (1966).
Roshwald, Aviel. Estranged Bedfellows: Britain and France in the Middle East During the Second World War (Oxford UP, 1990).
Scazzieri, Luigi. "Britain, france, and Mesopotamian oil, 1916–1920." Diplomacy & Statecraft 26.1 (2015): 25–45.
Sharp, Alan et al. eds. Anglo-French Relations in the Twentieth Century: Rivalry and Cooperation (2000) excerpt and text search
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External links
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University of London in Paris (ULIP)
French Embassy in the United Kingdom
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4170780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interim%20Peace | Interim Peace | The Interim Peace (, ) was a short period in the history of Finland during the Second World War. The term is used for the time between the Winter War and the Continuation War, lasting a little over 15 months, from 13 March 1940 to 24 June 1941. The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed by Finland and the Soviet Union on 12 March 1940 and it ended the 105-day Winter War.
In the aftermath of the Winter War, both the Soviet Union and Finland were preparing for a new war while the Soviets pressured the Finns politically. In early 1940 Finland sued for an alliance with Sweden but both the Soviet Union and Germany opposed it. In April, Germany occupied Denmark and Norway. In June the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states. The next year, Finland negotiated its participation in the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.
Background
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the Winter War
The 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact clarified Soviet–German relations and enabled the Soviet Union to bring pressure to bear on the small Baltic republics and Finland, perhaps in order to better its strategic position in Eastern Europe in case of a widening of the war. The Baltic republics soon gave in to Soviet demands for bases and troop transfer rights, but Finland continued to refuse. As diplomatic pressure had failed, arms were resorted to, and on November 30, 1939, the Soviet Union began an invasion of Finland—the Winter War.
The Winter War produced in Finns a rude awakening to international politics. Condemnation by the League of Nations and by countries all over the world seemed to have no effect on Soviet policy. Sweden allowed volunteers to join the Finnish army, but did not send military support, and refused passage to French or British troops—which were in any event made ready in lower numbers than promised. Even right-wing extremists were shocked to find that Nazi Germany did not help at all, and also blocked material help from other countries.
The Moscow Peace Treaty, which ended the Winter War, was perceived as a great injustice. It seemed as if the losses at the negotiation table, including Viipuri (Finland's second-largest city [Population Register] or fourth-largest city [Church and Civil Register], depending on the census data), had been worse than on the battlefield. A fifth of the country's industrial capacity and 9% of its territory were lost. Of the 12% of Finland's population who lived in the lost territories, only a few hundred stayed, the remaining 420,000 moving to the Finnish side of the new border.
After the Moscow Peace Treaty
The Moscow Peace Treaty, signed on March 12, 1940, was a shock for the Finns. It was perceived as the ultimate failure of Finland's 1930s foreign policy, which had been based on multilateral guarantees for support from similar countries, first in the world order established by the League of Nations, and later from the Oslo group and Scandinavia. The immediate response was to broaden and intensify this policy. Binding bilateral treaties were now sought where Finland formerly had relied on goodwill and national friendship, and formerly frosty relations with ideological adversaries, such as the Soviet Union and the Third Reich, had necessarily to be eased.
Closer and improved relations were sought particularly with:
Sweden and Norway
the United Kingdom
the Soviet Union
the Third Reich
With exception for the case of Nazi Germany, all of these attempts turned out to meet critical obstacles—either due to Moscow's fear that Finland would slide out of the Soviet sphere of influence or due to general dynamics of the world war.
Reaction in Finland
Public opinion in Finland longed for the re-acquisition of the homes of the 12% of Finland's population who had been forced to leave Finnish Karelia in haste, and put their hope in the peace conference that was generally assumed would follow the World War. The term Välirauha ("Interim peace") hence became popular after the harsh peace was announced.
To protest the Moscow Peace Treaty, two ministers resigned and Prime Minister Ryti was forced to form a new cabinet right away. To achieve better national consensus, all parties except the right extremist IKL participated in the cabinet.
The most difficult post to fill was that of Foreign Minister, for which Ryti and Mannerheim first thought of Finland's ambassador to London G. A. Gripenberg, but as he believed himself to be too unpopular in Berlin, Rolf Witting, who was less British-oriented and more suitable to achieve improved relations with Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, was selected.
Attempted Nordic Defence Alliance
During the last days of war, Väinö Tanner and Per Albin Hansson had mentioned the possibility of a Nordic Defence Alliance, possibly including also Norway and Denmark, to stabilize the situation in the region. On March 15, this plan was published for discussion in the parliaments. However, on March 29 the Soviet Union declared that an alliance would be in breach of the Moscow Peace Treaty, which stalled the plan, and Germany's invasion of Denmark and Norway killed even the option of a smaller Scandinavian defence union, which would have benefited Finland even if it were not a party to it.
Re-armaments
Although the peace treaty was signed, the state of war was not revoked because of the widening world war, the difficult food supply situation, and the poor shape of the Finnish military. Censorship was not abolished and was used to suppress critics of the Moscow peace treaty and the most blatantly anti-Soviet comments.
The continued state of war made it possible for President Kyösti Kallio to ask Field Marshal Mannerheim to remain commander-in-chief and supervise the reorganization of Finland's Armed Forces and the fortification of the new border, a task that was critically important in the unruly times. Within a week after the peace treaty was signed, the fortification works were started along the 1200 km long Salpalinja ("the Bolt Line"), where the focus was between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Saimaa.
During the summer and autumn, Finland received material purchased and donated during and immediately after the Winter War, but it took several months before Mannerheim was able to present a somewhat positive assessment of the state of the army. Military expenditures rose in 1940 to 45% of Finland's state budget. Military purchases were prioritised over civilian needs. Mannerheim's position and the continued state of war enabled an efficient management of the military, but it created an unfortunate parallel government that from time to time clashed with the structures of the civilian government.
On March 13, the same day that the Moscow Peace Treaty came into effect, the British Ministry of Economic Warfare (MEW) asked the Foreign Office to start negotiations with Finland as soon as possible to secure positive relations with Finland. The under-secretary of MEW, Charles Hambro was authorized to form the war trade treaty with Finland, and he travelled to Helsinki on April 7. He had already exchanged letters with Ryti, and they quickly reached a basic understanding of the contents of the treaty. The Finns were eager to start trade and from the first meeting the preliminary treaty was created, which Finns accepted immediately; but Hambro needed the approval of his superiors and stressed that the treaty would not be considered official until the final version was negotiated. In the treaty Finland gave control of her strategic material exports to Britain in exchange for armaments and other necessary materials. However, the next day, Germany attacked Norway, making the treaty unworkable due to the lack of safe trade routes between the two countries.
Foreign relations
Denmark and Norway occupied
After Nazi Germany's assault on Scandinavia on April 9, 1940, Operation Weserübung, Finland was physically isolated from her traditional trade markets in the west. Sea routes to and from Finland were now controlled by the Kriegsmarine. The outlet of the Baltic sea was blockaded, and in the far north Finland's route to the world was an Arctic dirt road from Rovaniemi to the ice-free harbour of Petsamo, from where the ships had to pass a long stretch of German-occupied Norwegian coast by the Arctic Ocean. Finland, like Sweden, was spared occupation but encircled by Nazi Germany and Soviet Union. With direct support by Marshal Mannerheim a volunteer unit was formed and sent to Norway to help the fight against the Nazi army. The ambulance unit participated in the war until the Germans conquered the area in which it was serving. The volunteers returned to Finland.
Especially damaging was the loss of fertilizer imports, that, together with the loss of arable land ceded in the Moscow Peace, the loss of cattle during the hasty evacuation after the Winter War, and the unfavourable weather in the summer of 1940, resulted in a drastic fall of foodstuff production to less than two thirds of what was Finland's estimated need. Some of the deficit could be purchased from Sweden and some from the Soviet Union, although delayed deliveries were then a means to exert pressure on Finland. In this situation, Finland had no alternative but to turn to Germany for help.
Finland seeks German rapprochement
Germany has traditionally been a counterweight to Russia in the Baltic region, and despite the fact that Hitler's Third Reich had acquiesced with the invader, Finland perceived some value in also seeking warmer relations in that direction. After the German occupation of Norway, and particularly after the Allied evacuation from northern Norway, the relative importance of a German rapprochement increased. Finland had queried about the possibility of buying arms from Germany on May 9, but Germany refused to even discuss the matter.
From May 1940, Finland pursued a campaign to re-establish the good relations with Germany that had soured in the last year of the 1930s. Finland rested her hope in the fragility of the Nazi–Soviet bond, and in the many personal friendships between Finnish and German athletes, scientists, industrialists, and military officers. A part of that policy was accrediting the energetic former Prime Minister Toivo Mikael Kivimäki as ambassador in Berlin in June 1940. The Finnish mass media not only refrained from criticism of Nazi Germany, but also took active part in this campaign. Dissent was censored. Seen from Berlin, this looked like a refreshing contrast to the annoyingly anti-Nazi press in Sweden.
After the fall of France, in late June, the Finnish ambassador in Stockholm heard from the diplomatic sources that Britain could soon be forced to negotiate peace with Germany. The experience from World War I emphasized the importance of close and friendly relations with the victors, and accordingly the courting of Nazi Germany was stepped up still further.
The first crack in the German coldness towards Finland was registered in late July, when Ludwig Weissauer, a secret representative of the German Foreign Minister, visited Finland and queried Mannerheim and Ryti about Finland's willingness to defend the country against the Soviet Union. Mannerheim estimated the Finnish army could last a few weeks without more arms. Weissauer left without any promises.
Continued Soviet pressure
The implementation of the Moscow Peace Treaty created problems due to the Soviet Vae Victis-mentality. Border arrangements in the Enso industrial area, which even Soviet members of the border commission considered to be on the Finnish side of the border, the forced return of evacuated machinery, locomotives, and rail cars; and inflexibility on questions which could have eased hardships created by the new border, such as fishing rights and the usage of Saimaa Canal merely served to heighten distrust about the objectives of the Soviet Union.
The Soviet attitude was personified in the new ambassador to Helsinki, Ivan Zotov. He behaved undiplomatically and had a stiff-necked drive to advance Soviet interests, real or imagined, in Finland. During the summer and autumn he recommended several times in his reports to the Soviet Foreign Office that Finland ought to be finished off and wholly annexed by the Soviet Union.
On June 14, Soviet bombers shot down the Finnish passenger plane Kaleva, while en route from Tallinn to Helsinki. All nine passengers and crew perished.
On June 23, the Soviet Union proposed that Finland should revoke Petsamo mining rights from the British–Canadian company and transfer them to the Soviet Union, or to a joint venture owned by the Soviets and the Finns. On June 27, Moscow demanded either demilitarization or a joint fortification effort in Åland. After Sweden had signed the troop transfer agreement with Germany on July 8, Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov demanded similar rights for a Soviet troop transit to Hanko on July 9. The transfer rights were given on September 6, and demilitarization of Åland was agreed on October 11, but negotiations on Petsamo continued to drag on, with Finnish negotiators stalling as much as possible.
The Communist Party was so discredited in the Winter War that it never managed to recuperate between the wars. Instead, on May 22, the Peace and Friendship Society of Finland and Soviet Union was created, and it actively propagated Soviet viewpoints. Ambassador Zotov had very close contacts with the Society by holding weekly meetings with the Society leadership in the Soviet embassy and having Soviet diplomats participating in Society board meetings. The Society started by criticizing the government and military, and gained around 35,000 members at maximum. Emboldened by its success, it started organizing almost daily violent demonstrations during the first half of August which were supported politically by Zotov and a press campaign in Leningrad. The government reacted forcefully and arrested leading members of the society which ended the demonstrations in spite of Zotov's and Molotov's protests. The Society was finally outlawed in December 1940.
The Soviet Union demanded that Väinö Tanner be discharged from the cabinet because of his anti-Soviet stance and he had to resign August 15. Ambassador Zotov further demanded the resignation of both the Minister of Social Affairs Karl-August Fagerholm because he had called the Society a fifth column in a public speech, and the Minister of Interior Affairs Ernst von Born, who was responsible for police and led the crackdown of the Society, but they retained their places in the cabinet after Ryti delivered a radio speech in which he stated the willingness of his government to improve relations between Finland and the Soviet Union.
President Kallio suffered a stroke on August 28, after which he was unable to work, but when he presented his resignation November 27, the Soviet Union reacted by announcing that if Mannerheim, Tanner, Kivimäki, Svinhufvud or someone of their ilk were chosen president, it would be considered a breach of the Moscow peace treaty.
All of this reminded the public heavily of how the Baltic Republics had been occupied and annexed only a few months earlier. It was no wonder that the average Finn feared that the Winter War had produced only a short delay of the same fate.
British policy change
Compared to the early spring, during the summer of 1940, British foreign policy looked to gain some support from the Soviet Union, so the new Britain government under Churchill appointed Sir Stafford Cripps, from the left wing of the Labour Party, as ambassador to Moscow. He had openly supported the Terijoki Government during the Winter War and he wondered to Ambassador Paasikivi 'didn't the Finns really want to follow Baltic Republics and join the Soviet Union?'. He also dismissively called President Kallio "Kulak" and Nordic social democracy "reactionary". However, his opinions were not shared by the British Foreign Office, which apologized for his language to Ambassador Gripenberg.
During the nickel negotiations the Foreign Office pressured the license owning British-Canadian company to "temporarily" release the license and offered diplomatic support to Soviet attempts to gain control of the mine with the precondition that no ore would be shipped to Germany.
Improved relations with Nazi Germany
Unbeknownst to Finland, Adolf Hitler had started to plan his forthcoming invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) now that France had collapsed. He had not been interested in Finland before the Winter War, but now he saw the value of Finland as an operating base, and perhaps also the military value of the Finnish army. In the first weeks of August, German fears of a likely immediate Soviet attack on Finland caused Hitler to free the arms embargo. The arms deliveries, which were stopped under the Winter War, were now resumed.
The next visitor from Germany came on August 18, when a representative of Hermann Göring, arms dealer Joseph Veltjens, arrived. He negotiated with Ryti and Mannerheim about German troop transfer rights between Finnmark in Northern Norway and ports of Gulf of Bothnia in exchange for arms and other material. At first these arms shipments were transferred via Sweden, but later they came directly to Finland. For the Third Reich, this was a breach of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, as well as being for Finland a material breach of the Moscow Peace Treaty—that in fact had been chiefly targeted against cooperation between Germany and Finland. It has been disputed in retrospect whether the ailing President Kallio was informed. Possibly Kallio's health collapsed before he could be confidentially briefed.
From the campaign to ease the Third Reich's coldness towards Finland, it seemed a natural development to also promote closer relations and cooperation, especially since the much-disliked Moscow Peace Treaty had, in clear language, tried to persuade the Finns not to do exactly that. Propaganda in the censored press contributed to Finland's international re-orientation—although with very measured means.
Soviet negotiators had insisted that the troop transfer agreement (to Hanko) should not be published for parliamentary discussion or voting. This precedent made it easy for the Finnish government to keep a troop transfer agreement with the Germans secret until the first German troops arrived at the port of Vaasa on September 21. The arrival of German troops produced much relief to the insecurity of average Finns, and was largely approved. Most contrary voices opposed more the way the agreement was negotiated than the transfer itself, although the Finnish people knew only the barest details of the agreements with the Third Reich. The presence of German troops was seen as a deterrent for further Soviet threats and a counterbalance to the Soviet troop transfer right. The German troop transfer agreement was augmented November 21 allowing the transfer of wounded, and soldiers on leave, via Turku. Germans arrived and established quarters, depots, and bases along the rail lines from Vaasa and Oulu to Ylitornio and Rovaniemi, and from there along the roads via Karesuvanto and Kilpisjärvi or Ivalo and Petsamo to Skibotn and Kirkenes in northern Norway. Also roadworks for improving winter road (between Karesuvanto and Skibotn) and totally new road (from Ivalo to Karasjok) were discussed, and later financed, by Germans.
Ryti, Mannerheim, Minister of Defence Walden and chief of staff Heinrichs decided October 23 that information concerning Finnish defence plans of Lappland could be given to the Wehrmacht to gain goodwill, even with the risk that they could be forwarded to the Soviet Union.
When Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov visited Berlin on November 12, he demanded that Germany stop supporting Finland, and the right to handle Finland in a similar way to Baltic states, but Hitler demanded that there should be no new military activities in Northern Europe before summer. Through unofficial channels, Finnish representatives were informed that "Finnish leaders can sleep peacefully, Hitler has opened his umbrella over Finland."
Attempted defence union with Sweden
On August 19, a new initiative was launched for co-operation between Sweden and Finland. It called for a union of the two states in exchange for a Finnish declaration of satisfaction with the current borders. The plans were primarily championed by the Swedish Foreign Minister, Christian Günther, and Conservative party leader Gösta Bagge, Education Minister in Stockholm. They had to counter increasing anti-Swedish opinions in Finland; and in Sweden, Liberal and Socialist suspicions against what was seen as right-wing dominance in Finland. One of the chief objectives of the plan was to ensure greatest possible liberty for Sweden and Finland in a presumed post-war Europe totally dominated by Nazi Germany. In Sweden, political opponents criticized the necessary adaptations to the Nazis; in Finland, the resistance centred on the loss of sovereignty and influence—and the acceptance of the loss of Finnish Karelia. However, the general feeling of Finland's dire and deteriorating position quieted many critics.
The official request for a union was made by Christian Günther on October 18, and Finland's approval was received on October 25, but by November 5, the Soviet ambassador in Stockholm, Alexandra Kollontai, warned Sweden about the treaty. The Swedish government retreated from the issue but discussions for a more acceptable treaty continued until December when, on December 6, the Soviet Union and, on December 19, Germany announced their strong opposition to any kind of union between Sweden and Finland.
Road to war
At the autumn of 1940, Finnish generals visited Germany and German occupied Europe several times to purchase additional material, guns and munition. Mannerheim even wrote a personal letter January 7, 1941, to Göring where he tried to persuade him to release Finnish purchased artillery pieces Germany had captured in Norwegian harbours during Weserübung. During one of these visits, Major General Paavo Talvela met with Chief of Staff of OKH, Col. Gen Franz Halder and Göring January 15–18, 1941, and was asked about Finnish plans to defend itself in case of new Soviet invasion. The Germans also inquired about the possibility of someone from Finland coming and giving a presentation about the experiences of the Winter War.
After the resignation of president Kallio, Risto Ryti was elected by parliament as the new president of Finland December 19. Johan Wilhelm Rangell formed a new government January 4, and this time the far-right IKL party was included in the cabinet as an act of goodwill toward Nazi Germany.
Petsamo Crisis
Finland had negotiated with the Germans since spring 1940 about the production of Kolosjoki nickel mines in Petsamo. In July 1940 Finland made a contract with the German company I.G. Farbenindustrie: 60% of the nickel produced was to be shipped to Germany. The negotiations alarmed the Soviet Union, which in June asked for 75% ownership of the mine and a nearby power plant together with the right to handle security in the area.
According to German reports, the ore body of Kolosjoki mines had a value of over 1 billion Reichsmark, and it could fulfil the demand for nickel in the Third Reich for 20 years. Later on, at the end of 1940, the Germans raised their estimate of the Kolosjoki nickel reserves four times larger.
Negotiations with the Soviet Union had dragged on for six months when the Soviet Foreign Ministry announced on January 14, 1941, that the negotiations had to be concluded quickly. On the same day, the Soviet Union interrupted grain deliveries to Finland. Soviet ambassador Zotov was recalled home on January 18 and Soviet radio broadcasts started attacking Finland. On January 21, 1941, the Soviet Foreign Ministry issued an ultimatum demanding that nickel negotiations be concluded in two days.
When Finnish military intelligence spotted troop movements on the Soviet side of the border, Mannerheim proposed on January 23, 1941, a partial mobilization, but Ryti and Rangell didn't accept. Ambassador Kivimäki reported on January 24, 1941, that Germany was conscripting new age classes, and it was unlikely that they were needed against Britain.
Finnish Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Heinrichs visited Berlin on January 30–February 3, officially giving a lecture about Finnish experiences in the Winter War, but also including discussions with Halder. During the discussions Halder speculated about a possible German assault on the Soviet Union and Heinrichs informed him about Finnish mobilization limits and defence plans with and without German or Swedish participation.
Col. Buschenhagen had reported from northern Norway on February 1 that the Soviet Union had collected 500 fishing ships in Murmansk, capable of transporting a division. Hitler ordered troops in Norway to occupy Petsamo (Operation Rentier) immediately if the Soviet Union started attacking Finland.
Mannerheim submitted his letter of resignation on February 10, claiming that the continuing appeasement made it impossible to defend the country against an invader. He took his resignation back the next day after discussions with Ryti and after stricter instructions were sent to negotiators: 49% of mining rights to the Soviet Union, the power plant to a separate Finnish company, reservation of the highest management positions for Finns and no further Soviet agitation against Finland. The Soviet Union rejected those terms on February 18, thus ending nickel negotiations.
Diplomatic activities
After Heinrichs' visit and the end of the nickel negotiations, diplomatic activities were halted for a few months. The most significant activities of that time was the visit of Colonel Buschenhagen to Helsinki and Northern Finland February 18 – March 3 when he familiarized himself with the terrain and climate of Lappland. He also had discussions with Mannerheim, Heinrichs, Major General Airo and chief-of-operational-office Colonel Tapola. Both sides were careful to point out the speculative nature of these discussions, although later they became the basis of formal agreements.
Already in December 1940, leaders of Germany's Waffen-SS had demanded that Finland should show its orientation towards Germany "with deeds", by which it was clear that it meant enlistment of Finnish troops to the SS. The official contact was made on March 1, and in the following negotiations the Finns tried in vain to transform the troops from SS to Wehrmacht, in commemoration of the World War I-era Finnish Jäger Battalion. Ryti and Mannerheim considered the battalion necessary to reinforce German support of Finland, thence the nickname "Panttipataljoona" ("Pawn battalion"), and the negotiations were concluded on April 28 with the Finnish conditions that Government, Civil Guards or Armed Forces would not enlist and that all military personnel wishing to participate must first take their leave of the Finnish army. (These conditions were designed to limit Finnish commitment to Nazi Germany.) The enlistment was carried out in May, and in June the troops were transferred to Germany where a Finnish SS battalion was founded June 18. Foreign minister Witting informed Sweden, where similar activities were also conducted, already on March 23 about possible enlistment. The British ambassador to Helsinki, Gordon Vereker, notified the Finnish Foreign Ministry May 16 on the issue, demanding an end to the enlistment.
Relations between Sweden and Germany strained in March, and on March 15 Sweden mobilized 80,000 more men and moved military units to the southern coast and western border making it even more likely that Sweden couldn't support Finland if war broke out. This also affected Swedish-Finnish co-operation as the Finnish interest for intelligence exchange diminished considerably during April.
Race issues were sources of particular concern: the Finns were not viewed favourably by the Nazi race theorists. By active participation on Germany's side, Finnish leaders hoped for a more independent position in post-war Europe, through the removal of the Soviet threat and the incorporation of the related Finnish peoples of neighbouring Soviet areas, especially Karelia. This view gained increasing popularity in the Finnish leadership, and also in the press, during the spring of 1941.
From February to April, Germany prepared Barbarossa in secret, and apart from the above contacts, no operational or political discussions were concluded during this time. Instead they published disinformation, such as claims that the German troop buildup in the East was merely a ruse ahead of a planned invasion of Britain (such a plan had been considered under the codename Operation Sea Lion) or safe training locations from British bombers, to hide their real intentions. When Germany invaded Yugoslavia and Greece beginning on April 6, suspicion of German intentions increased in Finland, though uncertainty still prevailed as to whether Hitler really intended to attack the Soviet Union before the Battle of Britain was concluded.
However, the Finns had, in the past, learned bitterly how a small country can be used as small change in the deals of great powers, and in such a case Finland could have been used as a token of reconciliation between Hitler and Stalin, something which the Finns had every reason to fear, which is why relations with Berlin were considered of the utmost priority for the future of Finland, especially so if the war between Germany and Soviet Union failed to materialize.
Once again the German Foreign Ministry sent Ludwig Weissauer to Finland May 5, this time to clarify that war between Germany and the Soviet Union would not be launched before spring 1942. Ryti and Witting believed that, at least officially, and forwarded the message to Swedish Foreign Minister Günther, who was visiting Finland May 6–9. Witting also sent the information to Finnish-ambassador-to-London Gripenberg. When the war broke out only a couple of weeks later, it was understandable that both Swedish and British governments felt that the Finns had lied to them.
Part of that disinformation campaign was a request to ambassador Kivimäki that Finland should offer proposals for a new border that the Germans could pressure the Soviets to accept in negotiations. On May 30, 1941, General Airo produced five alternative border drafts for delivery to the Germans, who should then propose the best they felt they could bargain from the Soviet Union. In reality, the Germans had no such intentions, but the exercise served to fuel the support among leading Finns for taking part in Operation Barbarossa.
Operations like Barbarossa don't begin without some advance notice, and worsening of Soviet-German relations, which began with the meeting in Berlin November 12, was visible around the end of March 1941. Stalin tried to improve relations toward the Third Reich by taking the leadership of the Soviet government May 6, backed off from unimportant issues, and fulfilled all trade deals even as German deliveries were late. Part of this policy was also improving relations with Finland. A new ambassador, Pavel Orlov, was named to Helsinki April 23 and a gift of a trainload of wheat was presented to J. K. Paasikivi when he retired from Moscow. The Soviet Union also renounced opposition to a Swedish-Finnish defence alliance, but Swedish disinterest and German opposition to that kind of alliance rendered the proposal moot. Soviet radio propaganda against Finland also ceased. Orlov acted very conciliatory and soothed many feelings which had been raised by his predecessor, but as he failed to solve any critical issues (like the disagreement over Petsamo nickel) or to restart grain imports from Soviet Union, his line was seen only as a new facade on old policy.
British-ambassador-Vereker saw Finland moving towards Germany, and due to his reports, the British Foreign Office had requested easing Finnish trade regulations in Petsamo March 30. On April 28 Vereker reported that the British government should pressure the Soviet Union to return Hanko or Vyborg to Finland as he saw it as the only possible way to secure Finnish neutrality in the case of German-Soviet war.
The Petsamo crisis had disillusioned Finnish politicians, especially Ryti and Mannerheim, creating the impression that peaceful co-existence with the Soviet Union was impossible, and that Finland would survive in peace only if the Soviet Union was defeated, as Ryti presented it to US ambassador Arthur Schoenfeld on April 28. The effect of this general feeling was that voices advocating closer ties with Germany grew stronger and the voices advocating armed neutrality within Finland's new borders (some among the Social Democrats, and some of the more left-leaning in the Swedish People's Party) softened. Contacts with Sweden's Conservative Foreign Minister Günther showed an enthusiasm unusual for the Swedes for the anticipated "Crusade against Bolshevism".
After the successful occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece by the spring of 1941, the German army's standing was at its zenith, and its victory in the war seemed more than likely. The envoy of the German Foreign Ministry, Karl Schnurre, visited Finland May 20–24, and invited one or more staff officers to negotiations in Salzburg.
Cooperation with Germany
A group of staff officers led by General Heinrichs left Finland on May 24 and participated in discussions with OKW in Salzburg on May 25 where the Germans informed them about the northern part of Operation Barbarossa. The Germans also presented their interest in using Finnish territory to attack from Petsamo to Murmansk and from Salla to Kandalaksha. Heinrichs presented Finnish interest in Eastern Karelia, but Germany recommended a passive stance. The negotiations continued the next day in Berlin with OKH, and contrary to the negotiations of the previous day, Germany wanted Finland to form a strong attack formation ready to strike on the eastern or western side of Lake Ladoga. The Finns promised to examine the proposal, but notified the Germans that they were only able to arrange supply to the Olonets-Petrozavodsk-line. The issue of mobilization was also discussed. It was decided that the Germans would send signal officers to enable confidential messaging to Mannerheim's headquarters in Mikkeli. Naval issues were discussed, mainly for securing sea lines over the Baltic Sea, but also possible usage of the Finnish navy in the upcoming war. During these negotiations the Finns presented a number of material requests ranging from grain and fuel to airplanes and radio equipment.
Heinrichs' group returned on May 28 and reported their discussions to Mannerheim, Walden and Ryti. And on May 30 Ryti, Witting, Walden, Kivimäki, Mannerheim, Heinrichs, Talvela and Aaro Pakaslahti from Foreign Ministry had a meeting where they accepted the results of those negotiations with a list of some prerequisites: a guarantee of Finnish independence, the pre-Winter War borders (or better), continuing grain deliveries, and that Finnish troops would not cross the border before a Soviet incursion.
The next round of negotiations occurred in Helsinki on June 3–6 regarding some practical details. During these negotiations it was decided that Germany would be responsible for the area north of Oulu. This area was easily given to them because it was sparsely inhabited and not critical to the defence of the more important southern provinces. The Finns also agreed to give two divisions to the Germans in northern Finland (30 000 men) and to the usage of airfields in Helsinki and Kemijärvi (Because of the number of German aircraft, airfields at Kemi and Rovaniemi were added later). Finland also warned Germany that an attempt to establish a Quisling government would end co-operation as they considered it very important that Finland not be the aggressor and that no invasion should be launched from Finnish soil.
The negotiations for naval operations continued on June 6 in Kiel. It was agreed that the Kriegsmarine would close the Gulf of Finland with mines as soon as the war began.
The arrival of German troops participating in Operation Barbarossa began on June 7 in Petsamo, where SS Division Nord started southwards, and on June 8 in the ports of the Gulf of Bothnia where the German 169th Infantry Division was transported by rail to Rovaniemi, where both of these turned eastward on June 18. Britain cancelled all naval traffic to Petsamo June 14 in protest of these moves. Starting from June 14, a number of German minelayers and supporting MTBs arrived in Finland, some on an official naval visit, others hiding in the southern archipelago.
Finnish parliament was informed for the first time on June 9, when first mobilization orders were issued for troops needed to safeguard the following mobilization phases, like anti-air and border guard units. The Committee on Foreign Affairs complained that parliament was bypassed when deciding on these issues, and protesting that Parliament should be trusted with sensitive information, but no other actions were taken. Swedish ambassador Karl-Ivan Westman wrote that the Soviet-minded "Sextuples", the far-left Social Democrats, were the reason that parliament couldn't be trusted in foreign policy questions. When Soviet news agency TASS reported on June 13 that no negotiations were ongoing between Germany and the Soviet Union, Ryti and Mannerheim decided to delay mobilization as no guarantees had been received from Germany. General Waldemar Erfurt, who had been nominated as liaison officer to Finland on June 11, reported to OKW June 14, that Finland wouldn't finalize mobilization unless the prerequisites were granted. Although the Finns continued on the same day (June 14) with the second phase of mobilization, this time the mobilizing forces were located in northern Finland and later operated under German command. Field Marshal Keitel sent a message on June 15 stating that the Finnish prerequisites were accepted, and the general mobilization restarted on June 17, two days later than scheduled. On June 16, two Finnish divisions were transferred to the German army in Lapland.
An airfield in Utti was evacuated by Finnish planes on June 18 and the Germans were allowed to use it for refuelling from June 19. German reconnaissance planes were stationed at Tikkakoski, near Jyväskylä, on June 20.
On June 20 Finland's government ordered 45,000 people at the Soviet border to be evacuated. On June 21 Finland's chief of the General Staff, Erik Heinrichs, was finally informed by his German counterpart that the attack was to begin.
To the opening of hostilities
Operation Barbarossa had already commenced in the northern Baltic by the late hours of June 21, when German minelayers, which had been hiding in the Finnish archipelago, laid two large minefields across the Gulf of Finland, one at the mouth of the Gulf and a second in the middle of the Gulf.
These minefields ultimately proved sufficient to confine the Soviets' Baltic Fleet to the easternmost part of the Gulf of Finland until the end of the Continuation War. Three Finnish submarines participated in the mining operation by laying 9 small fields between Suursaari Island and the Estonian coast with first mines being laid at 0738 on 22 June 1941 by .
Later the same night, German bombers, flying from East Prussian airfields, flew along the Gulf of Finland to Leningrad and mined the harbour and the river Neva. Finnish air defence noticed that one group of these bombers, most likely the ones responsible for mining the river Neva, flew over southern Finland. On the return trip, these bombers refuelled in Utti airfield before returning to East Prussia.
Finland feared that the Soviet Union would occupy Åland as soon as possible and use it to close naval routes from Finland to Sweden and Germany (together with Hanko base), so Operation Kilpapurjehdus (Sail Race) was launched in the early hours of June 22 to deliver Finnish troops to Åland. Soviet bombers launched attacks against Finnish ships during the operation at 0605 on 22 June 1941 before the Finnish ships had delivered the troops to Åland but no damage was inflicted in the air attack.
Individual Soviet artillery batteries started to shoot at Finnish positions from Hanko early in the morning, so the Finnish commander sought permission to return fire, but before the permission was granted, Soviet artillery had stopped shooting.
On the morning of June 22, the German Gebirgskorps Norwegen started Operation Rentier and began its move from Northern Norway to Petsamo. The German ambassador initiated urgent negotiations with Sweden for transfer of the German 163rd Infantry Division from Norway to Finland using Swedish rail. Sweden agreed to this on June 24.
On the morning of June 22, both the Soviet Union and Finland declared that each would be neutral in respect of the other in the war that was now underway. This precipitated unease in the Nazi leadership, which tried to provoke a response from the Soviet Union by using both the Finnish archipelago as a base, and Finnish airfields for refuelling. Hitler's public statement worked in the same direction; Hitler declared that Germany would attack the Bolshevists "(...) in the North in alliance ["im Bunde"] with the Finnish freedom heroes". This was in flat contradiction of the statement made to parliament by British Foreign Secretary Eden on June 24 affirming Finnish neutrality.
Finland did not allow direct German attacks from its soil to the Soviet Union, so German forces in Petsamo and Salla had to hold their fire. Air attacks were also prohibited, and very bad weather in northern Finland helped to keep the Germans from flying. Only one attack from Southern Finland against the White Sea Canal was approved, but even that had to be cancelled due to bad weather. There were occasional individual and group level small arms shooting between Soviet and Finnish border guards, but otherwise the front was quiet.
To keep a close eye on their opponents, both parties—and also the Germans—performed active air reconnaissance over the border, but no air fights ensued.
After three days, early on the morning of June 25, the Soviet Union made its move and unleashed a major air offensive against 18 cities with 460 planes, mainly striking airfields but seriously damaging civilian targets as well. The worst damage was done in Turku, where the airfield become inoperable for a week, but among civilian targets, the medieval Turku Castle was damaged. (After the war, the castle was repaired, but the work took until 1961.) Heavy damage to civilian targets was also sustained in Kotka and Heinola. However, civilian casualties of this attack were relatively limited.
The Soviet Union justified the attack as being directed against German targets in Finland, but even the British embassy had to admit that the heaviest hits had been taken by southern Finland, and airfields where there were no Germans. Only two targets had German forces present at the time of attack: Rovaniemi and Petsamo. Once again Foreign Minister Eden had to admit to parliament on June 26 that the Soviet Union had initiated the war.
A meeting of parliament was scheduled for June 25 when Prime Minister Rangell had been due to present a notice about Finland's neutrality in the Soviet-German war, but the Soviet bombings led him to instead observe that Finland was once again at war with the Soviet Union. The Continuation War had begun.
See also
Aftermath of the Winter War
References
External links
1940 in Finland
1940 in international relations
1940 in the Soviet Union
1941 in Finland
1941 in international relations
1941 in the Soviet Union
Finland in World War II
Finland–Soviet Union relations
Military history of Finland during World War II |
4170870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20R.%20Heinze | Andrew R. Heinze | Andrew R. Heinze (born 19 January 1955) is an American playwright, non-fiction author, and scholar of American history. Growing up in New Jersey in a close-knit Jewish family, he left home at fourteen to attend Blair Academy, graduated from Amherst College in Massachusetts, and moved to California. He did his graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley, training in American history, with an emphasis on the history of race, immigration and the history of American Jews. During his academic career he taught both American and Jewish history at several American universities and was a tenured professor of history at the University of San Francisco, where he was director of the Swig Judaic Studies Program, holding the Mae and Benjamin Swig Chair and creating several new programs including an Ulpan and a Judaic studies lecture series.
He has written extensively about the American Jewish social, intellectual and cultural experience, and is the author of Adapting to Abundance (1990), the first full-length study of the impact of American consumer culture on an immigrant group, as well as Jews and the American Soul (2004), which hypothesizes that Jewish intellectuals provided a framework that came to shape the American psyche. He co-authored two books that deal with race and ethnicity, and he has contributed to a wide variety of scholarly journals as well as to popular newspapers, periodicals and online publications. His books and articles have been widely reviewed, praised in the scholarly community, and cited extensively.
In 2006, feeling creatively stifled by the confines of academic writing, he left his tenured full professorship at USF and moved to New York City to begin playwriting. He has written one-act as well as full-length plays, many of them focusing on the historical and Jewish themes that had absorbed him in his former career; these include a comedy about Moses and his family, a drama about a New York Jewish family adjusting to life after World War II, and a drama about an Israeli Russian immigrant who, in desperation, has turned to prostitution. His plays have been produced Off-Broadway in New York City and around the United States; several have won awards in national playwriting competitions.
Early life and education
Andrew R. Heinze was born on January 19, 1955, into a close-knit Jewish family in Passaic, New Jersey. His paternal grandmother (also born in Passaic) was one of eight children born to a self-made Polish Jew who had supplied coal to the city of Passaic. Heinze memorialized his grandmother in an article he wrote for The Jewish Daily Forward shortly after she died at the age of 101; he described her as a flamboyant, stylish, and impeccably dressed woman, and he recalled that after his grandfather (her husband of 60 years) had died, she "kept on going, honestly confessing her loneliness but unflaggingly maintaining her enthusiasm for life and for us." He quoted her as frequently giving him the reminder, "We are 100% Americans, dear, always remember that!" Heinze has a close relationship with his parents; in his acknowledgements of his second book, he wrote, "I have been blessed with extraordinarily devoted parents who enabled me, as a child, to feel at home in the world." His mother, he said, is a woman of "gentle disposition, sensitivity to human qualities that others overlook, vivacious imagination, love of art, and whimsical sense of humor," and his father he described as a man of "great loyalty, heartfelt devotion, and frequent praise [that] helped me set my sights high and pick myself up when fallen low."
At age fourteen Heinze won a scholarship to Blair Academy, a private boarding school in Warren County, New Jersey. His experience at Blair was formative. It was there that he first discovered a fascination with both writing and history. In a 2005 interview, he recalled that he had relished the mental stimulation his Blair teachers had given him, that they took his intellectual growth very seriously, and that he still recalled distinct lectures from many of his classes. He honed his writing skills working for Blair's school newspaper; he started as a reporter doing local news and human interest stories and ended up as the paper's editor-in-chief. Graduating from Blair in 1973, he won a Bodman Foundation scholarship which enabled him to attend Amherst College, where he received his BA in 1977, graduating magna cum laude. After graduating from Amherst, he left the East Coast, moved to California, and attended graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley where he received his MA (1980) and his PhD (1987) in American history.
Academic career
Heinze's first professorship was at San Jose State University, where he taught United States History and won San Jose State University's Meritorious Performance and Professional Promise Award for 1988–1989. He later taught United States History at the University of California, Davis and the University of California, Berkeley before becoming a tenured full professor at the University of San Francisco, where he taught American history from 1994 to 2006. He won the University of San Francisco's Ignatian Faculty Service Award in 2003.
Heinze specialized in the history of race and immigration in the United States, the evolution of American consumer culture, and the interaction between psychology and religion in American history. He researched and taught extensively on both African-Americans and Jews in the United States, and he maintained strong interests in relations between Christianity and Judaism, religion and homosexuality, racism and antisemitism.
In 1997 Heinze, who was faculty adviser to USF's Jewish Student Union, was appointed to be the Mae and Benjamin Swig Chair in the Swig Judaic Studies Program and to direct the program. The Swig program was established in 1977 and is believed to have been the first such program established in a Catholic university. Heinze's first act as director was to invite Jan Karski, a man he had long admired, to speak at the program's upcoming 20th anniversary dinner. Karski, renowned for his active role in the Polish resistance movement in World War II, delivered the keynote address before an audience that included former secretary of state, George Shultz.
To solidify the Swig Program's academic standing, Heinze created a Jewish Studies Certificate program and expanded the curriculum beyond the theology department by introducing courses in Hebrew, Jewish history, The Holocaust, Jewish American literature, and Yiddish culture. Free public lectures and programs were made available to the general public, and in 1998 he created Ulpan San Francisco, an intense Israeli-style Hebrew immersion program that was scheduled during the summer and served anyone living in the San Francisco Bay area; it was the first such program to be offered there and is still a part of that community.
In 1998 Heinze inaugurated The Swig Annual Lecture Series (1998–2005) which brought distinguished scholars to the university; the lectures were presented free to the general public and were published and distributed to universities, public libraries, and individual scholars in the United States and abroad. Heinze hand-picked the topics as well as the participating lecturers, bringing public attention to a range of often controversial subjects that were of special interest to him. Two of the lectures garnered particularly strong public interest: one dealt with relations between Catholicism and Judaism (the speakers were Cardinal Edward Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews, and renowned British rabbi, Rabbi Norman Solomon). The other lecture focused on homosexuality. Heinze had wanted to discover if there was a way "gay and lesbian Jews and Christians [might] find a more comfortable place within their faith-communities." (He had wanted to include Muslim speakers but was unable to find anyone.) The lecture was presented in the form of a symposium and was entitled "New Jewish and Christian Approaches to Homosexuality." Even in the liberal community of San Francisco, it sparked heated debate because established religion did not normally deal explicitly with the issue.
Non-fiction writing
Scholarly writings
Heinze's first book, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity, was published in 1990. It was the first full-length study of the impact of American consumer culture on an immigrant group. Hasia Diner, professor of history at New York University, said about Heinze: “Historians of immigration and Jewish history will be indebted to him for opening up whole areas of behavior which they previously shrugged off as irrelevant.” The Journal of Consumer Affairs remarked upon the variety of topics that the book explored: the rise of ad campaigns for major American products in the foreign-language press; the rise of the summer vacation among working people; installment-buying as a way for working families to obtain expensive furnishings such as pianos; the role of Jewish women as agents of assimilation through their control over family purchases; and the way that American abundance altered religious rituals, especially holidays such as Chanukah and Passover. Adapting to Abundance established Heinze's reputation as part of a scholarly vanguard that produced the first histories of mass consumption in Europe and America. It is widely referenced in books, articles and syllabi around the world.
In 2004 Heinze published Jews and the American Soul: Human Nature in the Twentieth Century. David Hollinger, professor of history at the University of California, Berkeley said, "Jews and the American Soul is the most forthright, probing, nuanced, and carefully documented book yet addressed to the ways in which modern American culture has been influenced by Jews. A truly distinctive work of American history." Jon Butler, professor of American studies, history, and religious studies at Yale University, said about the book, "Heinze explains how Jewish intellectuals uncovered and explicated the marrow of American identity even as, or precisely because, they sought to secure their place in an America that did not always want them. Heinze uplifts an unexpected, enlightening story with insight, grace, and not infrequent irony--a simply fascinating read." It was named one of the "Best Books of 2004" by Publishers Weekly, was runner up in the 2005 National Jewish Book Award in the American Jewish History category, and was a Jewish Book Council Finalist for the 2004 Weinberg Judaic Studies Institute Book Award, University of Scranton.
Heinze was one of nine authors who contributed to The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America (Columbia University Press), and to the abridged Race and Ethnicity in America: A Concise History. The Columbia Documentary History was praised as a "massive collection of primary-source documents dealing with 'the other' in America... [including]... an extensive introductory essay by a leading historian in the field."
His scholarly articles have appeared in a wide variety of journals, including Journal of American History, Judaism. American Quarterly, Religion and American Culture, American Jewish History, Journal of the West, American Jewish Archives, and Reviews in American History.
Opinion pieces and essays
Heinze's essays and opinion pieces have been widely published in newspapers, journals, periodicals and online publications. His opinion pieces are occasionally political, sometimes historical, but most focus on timely issues involving race, immigration or religion. His essays, in contrast, are often cultural critiques of popular books, television shows or movies. Sometimes his essays explore his own family or his personal life; sometimes they are serious, but often they are light-hearted or comic.
Opinion pieces
Heinze's opinion pieces rarely focus on politics, but in 2002 on the History News Network, he faulted George W. Bush for giving "a businessman's response" to questions about corporate greed. He suggested that Theodore Roosevelt (one of his favorite historical figures) would have spoken differently. "Theodore Roosevelt," Heinze said, "never thought or spoke like a businessman. On the contrary," he pointed out, "he placed military men, statesmen and even scholars – but not businessmen – at the top of his hierarchy of values... Selfishness, especially materialistic selfishness, offended him as a profound moral dereliction."
Heinze has often written about antisemitism, but his concerns have usually focused on countries other than the United States. "One of the reasons Jews have traditionally viewed America as a promised land is the comparative absence of violence against them," he said. In 1999, however, Buford Furrow and the Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting got his attention, and he wrote an opinion piece about it for the San Francisco Examiner. "Standing at the end of the decade, the century and the millennium," he wrote, "I think we must agree with Buford Furrow about one thing. The attack on a Jewish day care center in Los Angeles is a wake-up call."
Heinze has written a number of opinion pieces that have focused on the relations between Catholics and Jews. It was logical that he would be interested in the subject because he was a Jew who worked in a Catholic university, he was faculty advisor for the school's Jewish Student Union, and he was director of the school's Jewish Studies program. There was another, more personal, reason for his interest, however; in 1997 he had met Jan Karski, the courageous Polish Catholic who was recognized in 1982 as Righteous Among the Nations for his efforts to help the Jews in World War II. (Karski had said in 1981, "just as my wife’s entire family was wiped out in the ghettos of Poland, in its concentration camps and crematoria — so have all the Jews who were slaughtered become my family. But I am a Christian Jew... I am a practicing Catholic... My faith tells me the second original sin has been committed by humanity. This sin will haunt humanity to the end of time. And I want it to be so.”) After Karski delivered the keynote address at the first Swig function Heinze had presided over, he had spent some personal time with Heinze and his family; Heinze never forgot Karski's gentle warmth, his integrity and his courage.
In 1998 Heinze wrote an opinion piece for the Examiner, "The Vatican Repents Catholic Anti-Semitism;" it focused on the long-awaited and newly released document, We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, published by Cardinal Edward Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews. The document had caused heated controversy; many critics argued that it didn't go far enough in taking responsibility for the past. Heinze's Examiner article opened with the story of Bernard Lichtenberg, a Catholic priest who was arrested in 1941 by the Berlin Gestapo because he had publicly prayed for the Jews; after his arrest, Lichtenberg asked to be sent away with the Jews so that he could pray for their welfare. He spent the next two years in a Nazi prison camp and died on his way to Dachau. After telling the story of Father Lichtenberg, Heinze gave his opinion of the We Remember document. He agreed with the critics that "The Catholic Church must reckon with historical fact, proving its awareness of sin in high places." "But," he added, "the rest of us must encourage the message of repentance and renewal the church is preaching to its followers because, in the end, that is what produces people such as Bernard Lichtenberg." It was an opinion piece that encouraged reconciliation, not anger. Two years later Heinze invited Cardinal Cassidy to San Francisco to participate in a Swig lecture on interfaith understanding. Cardinal Cassidy accepted the invitation.
Essays
In his Jewish Daily Forward essay, "Breaking the Mold of the Sitcom," Heinze analyzes his favorite TV comedy, Seinfeld, casting an affectionate eye on the show's creators, Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David, and marveling at their success in probing "the many gestures, innuendoes and gaps in the messages we send each other every day in every type of situation. Those, they know, contain the real meanings that pass back and forth beneath the surface of our conventions. Those are the explosives littering the minefield that is life in society." Heinze is stunned that the show is able to pack so much original comedy into twenty-two minutes of airtime, and he has little sympathy for people who dismiss the show as being shallow or neurotically self-focused: "People with little sense of humor have failed, time and again, to understand that the notorious self-centeredness of the show’s characters enables us to laugh at the selfish, neurotic traits we all share but prefer to disguise."
In another Jewish Daily Forward essay, "Life Among the Goyim," Heinze looks at the British comedian, Sacha Baron Cohen, and his TV comedy, Da Ali G Show, whose title character is a parody of a "white wannabe-gangsta rapper who not only adopts all the appropriate clothes, gestures and locutions but also convinces himself that he is black." In his essay, Heinze points out that Baron Cohen is a Jew who speaks Hebrew and keeps kosher; and his undergraduate history thesis at Cambridge University was on black-Jewish relations. Yet, Heinze wonders, is there anything about his comedy that is specifically Jewish? For Heinze, the answer is yes, and he arrives at the "yes" in the following whimsical way: "If we take 'goyim' loosely to mean people who are strange, often affable, and potentially dangerous, then, yes, 'Da Ali G Show' is Jewish comedy and we, in our digital phantasmagoria of a world, are all goyim, all on camera, all the time."
"A Lost Chapter From the Life of Oz" (also in The Jewish Daily Forward) explores Amos Oz's 2005 memoir, A Tale of Love and Darkness. Heinze (who speaks Hebrew) noticed that the English translation was missing a chapter (chapter five). His essay is built on that discovery, and it seems the missing chapter was extracted (presumably by the editors) because it was a rant against "bad readers." It was thought, apparently, that chapter five would interrupt the flow of the book, or otherwise "put-off" the English-speaking audience. As to the actual information in chapter five: Oz believes that "bad readers" are intrusive; they are inquisitive about the author's life; they ask very personal questions; they pry; they make his life hell; they behave like the people on TMZ. Oz equates "the bad reader" with “a psychopathic lover.” Heinze was fascinated by the missing chapter and by Oz's assessment of things, and he approached the memoir (and its missing chapter) from an interesting slant, comparing it to the memoir Hunger of Memory by Richard Rodriguez, whose editors also tried (unsuccessfully) to get him to take out certain controversial passages from his book.
Theatrical career
In a 2005 interview, Heinze spoke of the creative frustration that led him to leave academia. "Even though I was doing a lot of academic writing," he said, "I had this ceaseless, nagging feeling that I wasn't fulfilling myself creatively... I finally took the plunge into a real fiction project... [and] it became clear to me that creative rather than scholarly writing was my real métier." He chose playwriting, in particular, because of Joe Orton; the intensity, intelligence and dark humor of Orton's plays had fascinated him. In 2006 he left his tenured full professorship at USF, moved to New York City, and embarked on a career in playwriting.
His first full-length play, Turtles All the Way Down, although unproduced, was praised by the Soho Theatre in London as "an accomplished first effort...sharp and highly enjoyable... very theatrical: fast moving with lots of humour." His next play, The Invention of the Living Room, started as a one-act play; it was produced in 2009 by HB Studio in Manhattan's West Village, and it had a second production at the Metropolitan Playhouse in the East Village.
The play focused on a Lower East Side Jewish family, struggling in the aftermath of World War II. Heinze expanded it into a full-length version that won a place in the Harriet Lake Festival of New Plays at the Orlando Shakespeare Theater in 2011. In 2012 it was a Finalist for the Blue Ink Playwriting Award given by the American Blues Theater in Chicago, and in 2014 it won the Texas NonProfit Theatres' New Play Project, with a World Premiere at the Tyler Civic Theatre.
He wrote Hamilton, a tragedy about Alexander Hamilton, in 2012; it was a semi-finalist for the 2012 National Playwrights Conference at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre and a Finalist for the T. Schreiber Studio’s 2012 New Works Festival. His dark comedy Please Lock Me Away was a Finalist at the Kitchen Dog Theater (Dallas) 2014 New Play competition. Moses, The Author, a comedy about the biblical Moses, "shows the 120-year-old lawgiver on his last day on earth as he races to finish the Torah" Heinze said the play "is a 'midrash' that imagines how Moses might have dealt with the series of crushing setbacks that faced him, from having a speech defect to being told that could not enter the Promised Land." Moses, The Author had a World Premiere at the New York International Fringe Festival in 2014, won a place in the Harriet Lake Festival of New Plays at the Orlando Shakespeare Theater (2014), and had an extended run at the SoHo Playhouse in Manhattan.
Heinze has written a number of one-act plays and believes the short-play format can teach a writer "the basics of dramatic structure." His short plays have been produced across the United States and have won numerous awards. In 2010 his one-act comedy, The FQ, won "Audience Favorite" at the New York City Fifteen-Minute Play Festival, and at the same festival, the following year, his short comedy, The Bar Mitzvah of Jesus Goldfarb, won "Judges' Choice" and "Audience Choice for Best Play." The FQ was published in The Best Ten-Minute Plays 2011, by Smith & Kraus. His one-act drama Masha: Conditions in the Holy Land won the Jury Prize for Best Script at the Fusion Theatre Company's 2012 Short Play Festival (Albuquerque, New Mexico), and in 2013 it was produced for the 38th Annual Samuel French Off-Off-Broadway Short Play Festival in New York City.
Asked by Samuel French, Inc. if he could name the playwright who had most influenced him, Heinze said, "If I were darker, it would be Orton. If I were more laconic, it would be Pinter. If I were more lyrically erudite, it would be Stoppard. If I had ten additional brains, it would be Shakespeare. Hm. Everyone seems to be English. If I were more Irish, it would be Beckett. (And if I had more savoir faire, it would be Molière.)" He added, "I think all my sources of inspiration are unconventional. It's the feeling of something unconventional that makes me want to write the play. At least for a full-length play that’s true. I think I wouldn't want to invest the time if I didn’t have that feeling."
Selected works
Selected non-fiction Books
Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption and the Search for American Identity (Columbia University Press, 1990)
Jews and the American Soul: Human Nature in the Twentieth Century (Princeton University Press, 2004)
He is a co-author of the following books:
Race and Ethnicity in America: A Concise History (Columbia University Press, 2003),
The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America (Columbia University Press, 2004),
Selected scholarly articles
His scholarly articles have appeared in a wide variety of scholarly journals including, Journal of American History, Judaism. American Quarterly, Religion and American Culture, American Jewish History, Journal of the West, American Jewish Archives, and Reviews in American history.
Selected essays and opinion pieces
His essays and opinion pieces have been widely published. His work has appeared in various newspapers, journals, periodicals and online publications, including Chronicle of Higher Education, The Wall Street Journal, The San Francisco Examiner, Taki's Magazine, History News Network, San Francisco Gate, and The Jewish Daily Forward.
Selected theatrical plays
The Invention of the Living Room (2009)
The FQ (2010)
The Bar Mitzvah of Jesus Goldfarb (2011)
Hamilton (2012)
Masha: Conditions in the Holy Land (2012)
Please Lock Me Away (2013)
What It Takes to Get Things Done in Washington (2014)
Moses, The Author (2014)
The Swig Lectures 1998-2005
Jewish-Catholic Relations in a Secular Age (1998) – David Novak, professor of religion and philosophy at the University of Toronto
The New Otherness: Marrano Dualities in the First Generation (1999) – Yirmiyahu Yovel, professor of philosophy at The New School
Inaugural Symposium of the Flannery-Hyatt Institute for Interfaith Understanding (2000) – Cardinal Edward Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews; Rabbi Norman Solomon, winner of the Sir Edmund Sternberg Award in Christian-Jewish Relations
Worshipping Together in Uniform: Christians and Jews in World War II (2001) – Deborah Dash Moore, professor of history at the University of Michigan
New Jewish and Christian Approaches to Homosexuality: A Symposium (2002) – Patricia Beattie Jung, professor of theology at Loyola University Chicago; Jeffrey Siker, professor of theology at Loyola Marymount University; Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff, professor in philosophy at American Jewish University; Bishop Frederick H. Borsch, Fifth Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Los Angeles; Rabbi Rebecca Alpert, professor of religion and women's studies at Temple University; Donal Godfrey, Society of Jesus, University Ministry at the University of San Francisco
The Popes and the Jews (2003) – Richard McBrien, professor of theology at the University of Notre Dame
Tax Policy as a Moral Issue Under Judeo-Christian Ethics (2004) – Susan Pace Hamill, professor of law at the University of Alabama
Is America’s Jesus Good for the Jews (2005)– Stephen Prothero, chairman of the department of religion and professor of religion at Boston University
Notes and references
Footnotes
References
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Historians of the United States
Living people
Writers from Passaic, New Jersey
Writers from New York City
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Jewish historians
Amherst College alumni
Blair Academy alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of San Francisco faculty
1955 births
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Historians from New York (state)
Historians from New Jersey
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American Jews |
4171266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out%201 | Out 1 | Out 1, also referred to as Out 1: Noli Me Tangere, is a 1971 French film directed by Jacques Rivette and Suzanne Schiffman. It is indebted to Honoré de Balzac's La Comédie humaine, particularly the History of the Thirteen collection (1833–35). Known for its length of nearly 13 hours, the film is divided into eight parts of approximately 90–100 minutes each.
The vast length of Out 1 allows Rivette and Schiffman, like Balzac, to construct multiple loosely connected characters with independent stories whose subplots weave amongst each other and continually uncover new characters with their own subplots. A shorter version of the film exists, and its Spectre subtitle was chosen for the name's ambiguous and various indistinct meanings, while the Noli me tangere ("touch me not") subtitle for the original version is clearly a reference to it being the full-length film as intended by Rivette.
The film's experimentation with parallel subplots was influenced by André Cayatte's two-part Anatomy of a Marriage (1964), while the use of expansive screen time was first toyed with by Rivette in L'amour fou (1969). The parallel narrative structure has since been used in many other notable films, including Krzysztof Kieślowski's Dekalog and Lucas Belvaux's Trilogie, which includes Un couple épatant, Cavale and Après la vie, to name a few. Each part begins with a title in the form of "from person to person" (usually indicating the first and last characters seen in each episode), followed by a handful of black and white still photos recapitulating the scenes of the prior episode, then concluded by showing the final minute or so (in black and white) of the last episode before cutting into the new episode itself (which is entirely in color).
Out 1 received 13 votes in the 2012 Sight & Sound critics' poll of the greatest films ever made, resulting in a final ranking of 127th.
Plot and themes
When asked why the film is called Out 1, Rivette responded, "I chose 'Out' as the opposite of the vogue word 'in', which had caught on in France and which I thought was silly. The action of the film is rather like a serial which could continue through several episodes, so I gave it the number 'One'."
From the starting image of a small group of actors lying down with their legs bent back toward themselves, Rivette again focuses his film on rehearsals for a play, a motif present in both L'amour fou and his debut feature Paris nous appartient (1960); in particular, he extends L'amour fous relentless reportage-style examination of the continual development of a play under rehearsal (in that case Jean Racine's Andromaque) and its effects on the director and his wife. In the case of Out 1, the two main anchors of the film are two different theater groups each rehearsing a different Aeschylus play (Seven Against Thebes and Prometheus Bound), and the film does not particularly privilege any character within these groups more than any other. External to these two groups, two outsiders peripheral to the theater are featured: Colin (Jean-Pierre Léaud), a young man who believes that there may be a real-life Thirteen group in operation, and Frédérique (Juliet Berto), a young swindler who happens to steal letters which may prove to be communication between members of the Thirteen. Other featured characters include Emilie (Bulle Ogier), who runs a local hangout under the name Pauline and whose husband, Igor, has been missing for six months. Michael Lonsdale plays Thomas, the director of the Prometheus Bound group, and there are cameos by directors Barbet Schroeder and Éric Rohmer, who plays a Balzac professor in a scene of both plot exposition and comic relief.
The first few hours of the film alternate between documentary-style scenes observing the two troupes' rehearsals, Colin soliciting money from café patrons as a deaf man by playing irritating harmonica tunes, and Frédérique stealing money through a variety of deceptions. The plot gradually develops when Colin receives three mysterious messages in quick succession containing cryptic references to "the Thirteen" and to Lewis Carroll's The Hunting of the Snark. He quickly connects this to Balzac and begins a quixotic quest to uncover what the messages mean and who the Thirteen are. Sometime afterward, Frédérique casually interrupts a businessman, Etienne, playing chess against himself at home; when she has the room to herself briefly, she attempts to locate a stash of money but instead steals a collection of letters. Sensing that they refer to some sort of secret society, she attempts to sell them to several of the correspondents in exchange for either money or more information on the group, but fails to gain any information. Only Emilie buys the letters, but only because they refer to her husband.
The Seven Against Thebes production takes on a newcomer, Renaud, to assist in the production, but he quickly begins to take over more and more of the creative direction of the piece from Lili, who recedes into the background in disgust. Their fortunes appear high when Quentin wins a million francs at the races, but during the ensemble's celebration, Renaud steals all the cash; the production is cancelled, and the members undertake a futile search for Renaud, spreading out all across Paris with a photo of him to try to discover his whereabouts. Thomas brings in old friend Sarah to help work through a creative block on Prometheus Bound, but she instead causes a rift within the group and the play is abandoned after another player leaves for unrelated reasons. It turns out that Thomas's block was largely due to his break-up with Lili after being with her personally and professionally for seven years.
Thomas also is revealed to be a key member of the Thirteen, although the group never really was fully functional and had agreed to go into a period of dormancy two years earlier. Ironically, a chance encounter between Colin and Thomas motivates the latter to suggest reviving the Thirteen to Etienne, who is reluctant because the group never really did anything to begin with. One of the main correspondents in Etienne's letters, Pierre, is frequently discussed but never seen, and is described alternately as sinister and childlike. After reading the contents of the letters sold to her by Frédérique, Emilie prepares packages to be sent to major Parisian newspapers containing photocopies of these letters and purporting to disclose the existence of a scandal involving Pierre setting up Igor. Since Pierre and Igor are both members of the Thirteen, members of the group are forced to reconstitute to prevent the disclosure, and Thomas, Etienne and the ruthless lawyer Lucie de Graffe (Françoise Fabian) meet to discuss what to do.
Frédérique eventually meets up with the young man that her gay friend Honey Moon (Michel Berto) is infatuated with, who turns out to be Renaud; the two become married in a blood ritual, but she suspects that he may be a member of another secret society even more sinister than the Thirteen. After seeing him associate with a local gang, she draws a gun on him, but warns him – causing him to turn around and shoot instantly, killing her.
Colin gives up on the idea of the Thirteen, while it is quietly suggested during a discussion between two other members of the Thirteen, Lucie de Graffe and the cynical professor named Warok (Jean Bouise), that perhaps Pierre was the author of the messages to Colin and has been the invisible hand behind much of the plot, because he misses the Thirteen and wants to either restore it or replace it with young blood like Colin. Several of the characters retreat in the end to Emilie's small seaside house in Normandy called "the Obade" (another Balzacian reference, see "Ferragus"), where she breaks down in front of Sarah, confessing her love for Colin (who had been courting her earlier) and Igor at the same time. Her dilemma is solved at the end, when she receives a call from Igor telling her to meet him in Paris. She and Lili set off for Paris.
Thomas remains behind on the beach at the Obade with two of his actors and has a drunken hysterical episode there, when he pretends to collapse on the sand. His actors are worried and frantically try to revive him. When he reveals his jest, they walk away in disgust and get in the car to go back to Paris. Thomas is left alone on the beach, crying and laughing at the same time, stranded at the Obade and, for the first time in the film, part of no group whatsoever. The film then quickly cuts to a completely unrelated shot of Marie, an actress from the Thebes group, who still seems to be searching for the missing Renaud and the money he stole. A golden statue of a Greek goddess, perhaps Athena, towers above her. The shot is held for a second before fading out.
CharactersAchille (Sylvain Corthay): Actor in Prometheus Bound troupe. Accompanies Thomas and Rose to the Obade at the end of the film.Arsenal (Marcel Bozonnet): Actor in Seven Against Thebes troupe. Vaguely knew Renaud and introduced him to the rest of the group. Also known as Nicolas, Papa, or Theo.Balzac specialist (Éric Rohmer): Professor who Colin contacts (while still pretending to be a deaf man) to attempt to discover some further clues as to the possibility of the existence of the Thirteen in real life.Beatrice (Edwine Moatti): Actress in Prometheus Bound troupe. Is a confidant and possibly lover of Thomas. Engages in a threesome with Thomas and Sarah. Her relationship with the Ethnologist is broken off when he announces his intention to depart for the Basque region for work. This also causes her to leave the troupe.Bergamotte (Bernadette Onfroy): Actress in Prometheus Bound troupe.Colin (Jean-Pierre Léaud): Young outsider who pretends to be a deaf whilst playing a harmonica for money around Parisian cafes. Receives three messages from Pierre, which set him off to try to uncover a real-life "Thirteen" in the vein of the Balzac novels. Falls in love with Pauline after numerous meetings at her store. Makes many connections through his investigations, but ultimately fails to find any cooperative parties and abandons his belief in the Thirteen.Elaine (Karen Puig): Actress in Seven Against Thebes troupe. Alerts Lucie when Lili goes missing for several days (which turns out to be a trip with Emilie to the Obade).Emilie (Bulle Ogier): Member of the Thirteen. Name that Pauline goes by at home. With Lili she murders the courier and hides his body in the basement of the shop. Wife to Igor and mother of two children with him. His disappearance six months earlier causes her to buy Pierre's letters from Frédérique; these refer to the disappearance. Despite Sarah's admonitions, she plans to send photocopies of the letters to newspapers in order to discover what is going on; however, Iris winds up burning them behind her back. Leaves for Obade, where she confesses her love for Colin and Igor to Sarah. Igor calls her not long after and tells her to meet him in Paris. She leaves with Lili. See Pauline.The Ethnologist (Michel Delahaye): Romantic interest of Beatrice. Breaks up with her when he announces his departure to the Basque region for work. Beatrice leaves Prometheus Bound shortly afterward because of this.Etienne (Jacques Doniol-Valcroze): Member of the Thirteen. Frederique steals his letters during an attempted con and tries to sell them off for money and information about the group. Meets with Thomas to discuss the revival of the group and later with Thomas and Lucie to discuss how to control Emilie's potential contact with newspapers.Faune (Monique Clement): Actress in Prometheus Bound troupe.Frédérique (Juliet Berto): Young petty thief who deceives and exploits men only as long as she needs to get into their wallets. Her only friend and confidant is Honey Moon, a gay barfly played by Juliet Berto's real-life husband Michel Berto. She finds Etienne's letters while looking for his money and takes them instead. Starts calling the correspondents to sell them for money, but begins to try to make sense of the information referring to the Thirteen and also asks for information, particularly from Lucie. Meets Honey Moon's crush, who turns out to be Renaud, and has a blood wedding with him. After suspecting his involvement in a secret society, she follows him and causes him to shoot her dead before he realizes who she is.Georges (unseen): Member of the Thirteen. Lili's current boyfriend.Gian-Reto (Barbet Schroeder): Hanger-on at Pauline's store.Honey Moon (Michel Berto): Gay confidant of Frédérique who borrows money from her, incites her to disrupt black market pornographers. He is infatuated with Renaud, and this eventually leads to Frédérique seeking out Renaud.Igor (unseen): Emilie's husband and father of her two young children. Member of the Thirteen. Been missing since leaving for work six months ago. Discussed in Etienne's letters, some of which Emilie buys from Frédérique. At the film's end Emilie receives a phone call from Igor asking her to meet him in Paris at Warok's.Iris (Ode Bitton): Pregnant nanny of Emilie and Igor's children. Solves their problem by giving to Thomas Emilie's letters to the newspapers which would have revealed the Thirteen and scandalized Pierre.Lili (Michèle Moretti): Director of the Seven Against Thebes troupe, formerly involved with Thomas. May be involved with Quentin. Gradually recedes from the production as Renaud's influence expands. Accidentally takes a picture of Renaud which the troupe uses to try to get someone from the public to identify him. Member of the Thirteen.Lucie (Françoise Fabian): Lawyer with whom Lili renews contact after a long silence. Member of the Thirteen. Correspondent in some of Etienne's letters. Is contacted by Frédérique and meets her, but instead takes some of the letters from her.Marie (Hermine Karagheuz): Actress in the Seven Against Thebes troupe. Delivers one of Pierre's messages to Colin, which clearly seems to make her a member of the Thirteen. Last character seen in the film, standing next to a Paris monument.Marlon (Jean-François Stevenin): Thug with a criminal history who is an acquaintance of Frédérique. She encounters him in a bar, and he bizarrely beats her, but she pickpockets him during the beating.Max (Louis Julien): Quentin's son. Suggests the Seven Against Thebes troupe use Lili's photograph of Renaud to ask members of the public if they've seen him around.Nicolas (Marcel Bozonnet): Actor in Seven Against Thebes troupe. Vaguely knew Renaud and introduced him to the rest of the group. Also known as Arsenal, Papa, or Theo.Papa (Marcel Bozonnet): Actor in Seven Against Thebes troupe. Vaguely knew Renaud and introduced him to the rest of the group. Also known as Arsenal, Nicolas, or Theo.Pauline (Bulle Ogier): Name that Emilie goes by at her store where local youths hang out. Colin meets her there and soon falls in love with her. She abandons the shop to retreat to the Obade. See Emilie.Pierre (unseen): Member of the Thirteen. Author of letters to Colin. Correspondent in some of Etienne's letters who may be implicated in Igor's disappearance. Emilie threatens to send evidence of this to newspapers after she pays Frédérique for the letters.Quentin (Pierre Baillot): Actor in the Seven Against Thebes troupe. Father to Max. Wins a million francs in the lottery, which is promptly stolen during celebrations by Renaud. Attempts to find Renaud but fails, and joins Prometheus Bound troupe briefly afterwards.Renaud (Alain Libolt): Brought in by Arsenal/Nicolas/Papa/Theo to help the Seven Against Thebes troupe, but gradually starts to exert more and more influence on the production, to Lili's chagrin. Steals Quentin's million francs of lottery winnings during the troupe's celebration. Turns out to be Honey Moon's crush, which allows Frédérique to find him. She soon suspects that he may be a member of a secret society (though ultimately it seems more likely to be a local gang, and not the Thirteen). He shoots and kills her when she catches him off-guard.Rose (Christiane Corthay): Actress in Prometheus Bound troupe. Accompanies Thomas and Achille to the Obade and comforts him during some of his hysterical episodes at the end.Sarah (Bernadette Lafont): Writer living in Igor's Obade home. Thomas asks her to help him with the direction of Prometheus Bound, and later has a threesome with her and Beatrice. She clashes with the group, which is a factor in the abandonment of the play, along with Beatrice's departure, which is caused by personal factors. Member of the Thirteen, she doesn't trust Thomas and strenuously attempts (unsuccessfully) to intervene to prevent Emilie from sending Pierre's letters to the newspapers. Emilie later confides her love for Colin and Igor to her.Theo (Marcel Bozonnet): Actor in Seven Against Thebes troupe. Vaguely knew Renaud and introduced him to the rest of the group. Also known as Arsenal, Nicolas, or Papa.Thomas (Michael Lonsdale): Director of the Prometheus Bound troupe, formerly involved with Lili, and in ambiguously romantic relationships with both Beatrice and Sarah during the course of the film. Asks Sarah to help him direct the play. After a threesome with Sarah and Beatrice, abandons it because of Sarah's friction with the group and Beatrice's unrelated departure. Member of the Thirteen. Destroys Emilie's letters incriminating Pierre. Proposes to reunite with Lili, but is rejected by her, which leads to his final hysteria on the beach.Warok (Jean Bouise): Member of the Thirteen. Referred to in Etienne's letters. Both Frédérique and Colin ask him about the group, but he denies all knowledge.
Style
After working with both 35mm film and 16mm film in L'amour fou, Rivette was comfortable enough with the 16mm format to work with it on Out 1, the massive length of which precluded any serious attempt to shoot the whole film on expensive 35mm. Despite the immense length of the final product, the film was shot under a tight shooting schedule of only six weeks. Rivette's preference for the long take was the main reason why such a schedule could be maintained. Because he wanted the performances to have a level of realism, some takes include lines "fluffed" by actors, or other common "mistakes" such as camera and boom microphone shadows, as well as unwitting extras looking at the camera in exterior shots (including a well-known scene where two young boys doggedly follow Jean-Pierre Léaud along the street during an extended monologue). Rivette has said that the intimacy of the performances in the face of such mistakes was precisely why he kept those takes in the film. Many of the rehearsal scenes, particularly those of the Prometheus Bound group, are composed almost entirely of long shots, although the film also contains more conventional editing elsewhere. The slow pacing of the film as a whole is also loosely based on Balzac, and its first few hours are constructed more like a prologue, where the editing is slower and the characters are no more than introduced. It is not until three or four hours into the film that characters' motives and the story lines begin to reveal themselves.
The work also includes stylistically adventurous techniques, including the shooting of long shots through mirrors (again developing from work in L'amour fou), shortcuts to black to punctuate otherwise continuous scenes, short cutaways to unrelated or seemingly meaningless shots, non-diegetic sound blocking out crucial parts of the dialogue, and even a conversation in which selected lines are re-edited so that they appear to be spoken backward. However, these experiments form a fairly small part of the work as a whole, which is generally conventional in style (aside from the length of takes and of the work as a whole).
Exhibition
First shown as a work in progress at the Maison de la Culture in Le Havre, the film was re-edited down to a four-hour "short" version called Out 1: Spectre, which is more accessible and available (although not widely). Richard Roud, writing in The Guardian, called this version "a mind-blowing experience, but one which, instead of taking one 'out of this world' as the expression has it, took one right smack into the world. Or into a world which one only dimly realised was there – always right there beneath the everyday world ... the cinema will never be the same again, and nor will I." Few people have seen the full-length version, though it is championed by Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum, who compares it to Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow, and has included both Out 1: Noli Me Tangere and Out 1: Spectre in the 100 films singled out from his 1000 favourite films, published in his anthology Essential Cinema.
Out 1: Noli Me Tangere was restored in Germany in 1990 and was shown again at the Rotterdam and Berlin Film Festivals shortly thereafter. It disappeared again into obscurity until 2004, when both Noli Me Tangere and its shorter version Out 1: Spectre featured in the programme on 1–21 June, in the complete retrospective Jacques Rivette Viaggio in Italia di un metteur en scène organized by Deep A.C. and curated by Goffredo De Pascale in Rome at the Sala Trevi Centro Sperimentale and in Naples at Le Grenoble. Then, only in the April/May 2006 Rivette retrospective at London's National Film Theatre, with the shorter film also screening twice across two subsequent nights at Anthology Film Archives in New York City on the same April weekend as the NFT projection of the long work. The North American premiere of Noli Me Tangere took place on 23 and 24 September 2006 in Vancouver's Vancouver International Film Centre organized by Vancouver International Film Festival programmer and Cinema Scope editor Mark Peranson, attended by around twenty people (22 at Peranson's initial count, before episode 1, though others came and went). A subsequent screening took place as a part of the 2006 festival over 30 September and 1 October, introduced by Jonathan Rosenbaum.
The subtitled Out 1: Noli Me Tangere provides a particular challenge for exhibitors, as the subtitles are not burned onto the print of the film itself, as is usual with most foreign films shown in North America. Rather, the subtitles for Out 1, provided by the British Film Institute, are projected from a computer in a separate stream (in the Vancouver screening, just below the film itself); this then has to be synchronized with the film itself, almost certainly by someone unfamiliar with the entire Out 1. Few theatres can meet this technical challenge, especially over a thirteen-hour span. In addition, the film was shot on 16mm at a nonstandard 25 frames per second, a speed few current projectors are equipped to handle. In the Vancouver screening, the film was projected at 24fps, adding about half an hour to the film as a whole.
Screenings of both the long and short works took place in late November and December 2006, during an extensive retrospective of Rivette's work which ran at the Museum of the Moving Image in Astoria, Queens, New York City. The screening of the longer version was sold out for the 9 and 10 December 2006 screening, so the Museum held an encore performance of the film on 3 and 4 March in 2007 (which came close to selling out). It was shown on both occasions over 2 days. In interviews, Rivette has explicitly stated that the work is meant to be seen theatrically "on the big screen", and apparently dislikes it being watched on television. Ironically, the preparation of the film in eight episodes was in large part due to the "naive hope", according to Rivette, of it originally being distributed like that on French television, although his disdain for that mode of exhibition only arose after the film's completion.
Out 1 was restored by Carlotta Films in 2015 and made its U.S. theatrical premiere at the Brooklyn Academy of Music on 4 November 2015. This version has now been released on DVD and Blu-ray in the U.S., while Arrow Films have released it on both formats in the UK.
The restored Out 1 was screened in London, England over two days at the Prince Charles Cinema, Leicester Place on 28 and 29 November 2015. The screening was presented by the Badlands Collective and A Nos Amours.
Reception
Out 1 has garnered acclaim from critics. The film holds an aggregate score of 87/100 on Metacritic, based on 7 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Rotten Tomatoes reports 100% approval based on 22 reviews, with a weighted average of 8.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Time is an essential character in Jacques Rivette's Out 1, Noli Me Tangere, a brilliant 13-hour study of human relationships and an exploration of how a generation's dreams and ideals slowly fade as life goes ruthlessly by."
TitleOut 1 is known by many titles. Out 1: Noli Me Tangere, the frequently-cited longer title of the film, has its origins as a phrase written on the film canister of an early workprint. This longer title was commonly understood as the film's actual title until a finished print was made in 1989 for exhibition at the Rotterdam Film Festival and as a telecine transfer for TV broadcast. At that point Rivette asserted the title on-screen as simply Out 1.Out 1: Spectre''' is the proper title of the shorter, four-hour version, which is nonetheless a completely separate and distinctive work rather than simply a shortened form of the longer feature.
See also
List of longest films by running time
References
Fieschi, Jean-André. La Nouvelle Critique, April 1973.
Fieschi, Jean-André. "Jacques Rivette" in Richard Roud (ed). Cinema: A Critical Dictionary. New York: Secker and Warburg, 1980.
Monaco, James. The New Wave: Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rohmer, Rivette. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Rivette, Jacques, interviewed by Carlos Clarens and Edgardo Cozarinsky. Sight and Sound, Autumn 1974.
Rivette, Jacques, interviewed by Bernard Eisenschitz, Jean-Andre Fieschi, and Eduardo de Gregorio. La Nouvelle Critique, April 1973.
Rivette, Jacques, interviewed by Jonathan Rosenbaum, Lauren Sedofsky, and Gilbert Adair. Film Comment, September 1974.
Rosenbaum, Jonathan, Movies as Politics, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
Rosenbaum, Jonathan, Placing Movies: The Practice of Film Criticism, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
Thomson, David. The New Biographical Dictionary of Film''. New York: Little, Brown, 2002.
Further reading
External links
1971 films
1971 drama films
1970s French films
1970s French-language films
1970s mystery drama films
Films about theatre
Films based on French novels
Films based on works by Honoré de Balzac
Films directed by Jacques Rivette
Films set in Normandy
Films set in Paris
Films shot in Normandy
Films shot in Paris
French film series
French mystery drama films |
4171312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Eurana | SS Eurana | Eurana was a steam cargo ship built on speculation in 1915 by Union Iron Works of San Francisco. While under construction, the ship was acquired by Frank Duncan McPherson Strachan to operate in the Atlantic trade for his family's Strachan Shipping Company. The vessel made several trips between the Southeast of the United States and Europe before being sold to the Nafra Steamship Company in 1917. The freighter then entered the Mediterranean trade where she remained until September 1918 when she was requisitioned by the Emergency Fleet Corporation and transferred to the United States Navy to transport military supplies prior to the end of World War I, and as a troop transport after the war's end. In October 1919, the ship was returned to Nafra, which was then being reorganized to become the Green Star Steamship Company. In 1923, Eurana and twelve other ships passed to the Planet Steamship Company, newly formed to receive them from Green Star's bankruptcy. The ship remained principally engaged in the West Coast to East Coast trade for the next seven years. In 1930, together with several other vessels, Eurana was purchased by the Calmar Steamship Corporation, and renamed Alamar. The ship continued carrying various cargo between the East and West Coasts of the United States through 1941. On 27 May 1942, while en route from Hvalfjord to Murmansk carrying lend-lease war materiel to the Soviet Union during World War II as part of Arctic convoy PQ-16, she was fatally damaged by German aircraft bombs and was consequently scuttled by a British submarine to prevent her from becoming a menace to navigation.
Design and construction
Early in 1915 James Rolph Jr., mayor of San Francisco and owner of the two shipping companies Rolph, Hind & Company and Rolph Coal and Navigation Company, placed an order with Union Iron Works to build a new vessel of approximately 9,000 tons. With Germany conducting unrestricted submarine warfare in early parts of 1915, European ship-owners suffered considerable shipping losses. As a result, the prices for new and existing ships and freight fees skyrocketed, prompting some entrepreneurs to enter the highly speculative shipbuilding business. In anticipation of increasing demand for vessels, Union Iron Works decided to build two ships of the same design and size instead of one.
On 1 June 1915, with much fanfare, Rolph himself drove the first rivet fastening the keel of his vessel, to be named Annette Rolph. A few days later Union Iron Works laid the keel for her yet unnamed sister ship. On 11 September 1915, Eurana Schwab, wife of Charles M. Schwab, pressed a button in her house in Bethlehem and the electrically operated guillotine cut the cord releasing the vessel into the water. Mrs. John McGregor, the wife of the president of the Union Iron Works, served as a local sponsor. As the ship slipped into the water, she was christened Eurana in honor of Mrs. Schwab. A few months later, in November 1915, while the new vessel was still under construction, she was purchased for $ by shipping magnate Frank Duncan McPherson Strachan of Savannah for use in the cotton trade between the southeastern United States and Europe.
Eurana was built on the three-island principle with fairly short well decks both fore and aft. The ship had two main decks and was built using the Isherwood principle of longitudinal framing, strengthening the body of the vessel. Her machinery was situated amidships and she also possessed all the modern cranes for quick loading and unloading of cargo. The vessel was equipped with a de Forest-type radio and had electric lights installed along the decks.
As built, the ship was long (between perpendiculars) and abeam, and had a depth of . Eurana was assessed at and and had deadweight tonnage of approximately 9,450. The vessel had a steel hull and a single steam turbine rated at , double-reduction geared to a single screw propeller that moved the ship at up to . The steam for the engine was supplied by three Scotch marine boilers fitted for oil fuel.
Sea trials were held on 16 January 1916 in the San Francisco Bay, just off California City in Paradise Cove. The vessel made several runs on a measured mile reaching an average speed of . Following successful completion of the trials, the vessel returned to Union Iron Works and her title was conveyed to her new owners, Walker Armstrong & Company.
Operational history
In December 1915, when nearing completion, Eurana was chartered by the Sperry Flour Company to transport a large cargo of flour to Europe. After being transferred to her owners, the ship loaded part of her cargo and sailed out from San Francisco on 20 January bound for Tacoma to load the remainder of her cargo. On her way north, Eurana tried to aid the schooner Centralia which was embattled by storms, but in the dark and foggy weather, Eurana crew were unable to find the distressed vessel. Upon arrival in Tacoma, Eurana loaded 8,850 long tons of flour bound for France, the largest cargo to be sent there that year. The steamer finished loading on 3 February, and departed for France the same day, reaching Bordeaux on 21 April. Eurana returned to Newport News on 31 May, successfully concluding her maiden voyage. The freighter was then transferred to the control of a subsidiary of Walker Armstrong, the Southland Steamship Corporation, and proceeded to Jacksonville and then Savannah where she embarked a large cargo of various southern goods, such as rosin, turpentine, pig iron, tobacco, lumber and cotton, and departed for Liverpool. On her return voyage, she was stopped by a German submarine for inspection, but was released after examination. Eurana made three more trips to Europe, first with 8,200 tons of grain to Rotterdam, then one to France with record cargo of cotton and other southern goods, and finally one to England in January 1917 also with cargo loaded at Jacksonville and Savannah. Upon return to the United States, Eurana was sold by her owners on 26 April 1917 to the Nafra Company for about .
Nafra had recently entered into a contract with the Italian Government to transport 60,000 tons of metal from the United States to Italy. As the company could not charter vessels at reasonable rates it decided to buy three steamers, including Eurana, to fulfill the contract. Eurana managed to make two trips to Italy between May and October 1917, but on 12 October 1917, the United States Shipping Board (USSB) sent out a letter to all ship-owners advising them of imminent requisition of all vessels above 2,500 gross register tons for war purposes. Following a lengthy dispute, the requisition agreement was signed on 13 April 1918, and Eurana was placed under Shipping Board control on a bareboat basis. On 2 July 1918 the Shipping Board transferred Eurana to the War Department and her trips to the Mediterranean ended.
U.S. Navy service, World War I
Following her transfer to the War Department, Eurana was acquired by the U.S. Navy on 13 September 1918 and officially commissioned on 21 September. The freighter was put under control of Naval Overseas Transportation Service (NOTS), renamed USS Eurana and assigned identification number SP-1594. She was also defensively armed with two naval guns. Her first trip under Navy control was as part of convoy HN-86 carrying tanks and military supplies. After returning to New York on 24 February 1919, she was transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force on 2 March 1919 and was thereafter used as a troop transport. On her next trip she returned home carrying 1,737 men of 326th Infantry and several "casuals", soldiers temporarily separated from their units, including Percy L. Jones, commander of the American ambulance service with the French Army. Eurana sailed once more to France, returning to New York on 14 September, following which she proceeded to Norfolk where she was decommissioned from the US Navy on 9 October 1919. Two weeks later, the Baltimore Dry Dock & Shipbuilding Company was awarded a contract for extensive repairs to Eurana following her naval service.
Return to commercial service
While Eurana was undergoing repairs, the Nafra Company was reorganized and incorporated, together with all its assets, into the newly formed Green Star Steamship Corporation. After completion of repairs, Eurana was returned to her owners and sailed from Baltimore on 10 December 1919 for New York to load cargo bound for Italy. After returning from Italy in February 1920, Eurana was reassigned to the Far East trade and proceeded to Baltimore and Savannah. She embarked a full cargo of phosphates and cotton and departed from Savannah on 9 March bound for Kobe. While underway, she experienced problems with her turbines, and had to put in into Honolulu for repairs. After quickly finishing the repairs, Eurana continued to her destination, reaching Kobe on 3 May. The ship returned uneventfully to New York, arriving on 5 August. Upon discharging her cargo, the steamer continued to Baltimore where she loaded 8,000 tons of steel and departed for Singapore on 21 September. While on this trip, she again developed problems with her turbines and boilers and was forced to call at Honolulu on 30 October. This time the repairs took more than seven weeks and the ship eventually left on 23 December. However, about 120 miles out of Honolulu, she developed further problems with her turbines and had to turn back. It took more than a month to finish this third round of repairs and the freighter left port again on 4 February 1921. Before departure she went on an extended trial run to ensure all problems were resolved. On returning to harbor from the trial run, Eurana struck a pier, damaging her bow just above the waterline. The ensuing repairs took several more days, and the ship was finally able to depart on 10 February. The vessel reached Singapore on 3 July after stopovers in Shanghai and Hong Kong. She then continued on to Sourabaja and from there to Colombo where she developed more problems, this time with leaking condenser tubes and her feed pumps out of order. Nevertheless, the vessel was able to proceed slowly to Aden where she was repaired and from there continue on to Europe via the Suez Canal. Eurana finally returned to New York on 14 May 1922, finishing a nearly 20-month, trouble-filled, round-the-world journey.
By the time Eurana returned to the East Coast, her owners, the Green Star Steamship Corporation, were financially strained, and feeling the effects of a shipping crisis that had begun the prior year. The company had attempted a rapid expansion, acquiring close to forty vessels and incurring large debts. As business dried up and many ships were forced to be either laid up or sit idle in ports, the company defaulted on its debts and after a two-year-long struggle to get help from USSB, it was forced into receivership and sold its assets. Many vessels remained idle during this time, but in June 1922, Steele Steamship Company announced their intention to acquire seven of the ships for the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean to Pacific trade. That plan failed to materialize, as a subsequent rate war made profits from that route unlikely.
Planet Steamship Corporation
In February 1923, the newly formed Planet Steamship Corporation took over the remaining assets of the Green Star Line. The new company acquired seven vessels including Eurana at two US Marshal's auctions with an intent to put them into West Coast to East Coast trade.
Eurana remained idle until late July when she was finally put into action and departed New York with almost 8,500 tons of general cargo and steel bound for Seattle. After stopovers at San Pedro and San Francisco, the vessel reached her destination on 13 September, and upon discharging the cargo proceeded to Tacoma, Everett and Portland to load more than 5,000,000 feet of lumber.
The vessel reached Boston on 1 November, successfully completing her first trip under new ownership. Eurana continued sailing mainly on the East to West Coast route through the end of 1929, often carrying steel and steel products and general cargo on her westward journeys under charter to the Isthmian Steamship Company. On one her typical trips, in September 1926, she was laden with 1,000 tons of iron pipe for the Union Oil Company. On her eastward trips she carried lumber, canned fish, fruit and other general cargo from ports of the Pacific Northwest and California.
In June 1924 when navigating up the Columbia River, the steamer's steering gear failed and she ran aground suffering minor damage to her hull. In October 1924 she made her first trip to the United Kingdom, carrying lumber, lumber products, cotton and canned goods to London and Liverpool. On her return trip, she ran into a severe storm and sprang a leak in her forward compartment but was able to stay afloat and safely make it to Boston. Upon finishing repairs the ship again sailed to the West Coast where she loaded another cargo for United Kingdom, this time carrying grain in addition to lumber and other merchandise.
In December 1925 Eurana made her only trip to Hawaii bringing general cargo, including 11,000 pounds of empty bottles. On her way back the vessel carried large shipment of pineapples to San Francisco, and then proceeded to Puget Sound to load her usual cargo of lumber, copper and other general cargo for delivery to the East Coast. In April 1926 while on her usual trip to the West Coast with general cargo and steel, Eurana hit a reef near the entrance of the Panama Canal, but suffered only minor damage and was able to continue on her trip.
Collision with the Second Narrows Bridge
Eurana arrived at the Puget Sound ports in late February 1927 and upon discharging her cargo proceeded to Port Alberni to load lumber destined for the East Coast. She continued to New Westminster and Vancouver, loading lumber at each port. On the evening of 10 March 1927 the ship departed Dollarton laden with more than 4,000,000 feet of lumber and was proceeding down the Burrard Inlet to load a remaining 800,000 feet of lumber at Victoria. The ship was piloted by captain Walter Wingate, an experienced local pilot.
Shortly after 18:00 the vessel appeared in view of the Second Narrows Bridge, a bascule bridge built in 1925 across the Burrard Inlet, connecting East Vancouver to North Vancouver. As the ship was closing in, the bascule gate was opened and Eurana headed straight for it. When approximately 400 feet away from the bridge, the freighter suddenly started shearing forcing the pilot to put engines full ahead. The vessel continued to swerve, and when it became obvious she would not be able to clear through the bridge, both anchors were dropped in an attempt to slow her down and mitigate the impact. While the starboard anchor held, the port one dragged, swinging the vessel further north and at approximately 18:15 Eurana struck the bridge approximately 60 feet north of the bascule gate. As the freighter crashed into the bridge, her forward upper works, derricks, the forward mast, the bridge house and chartroom were sheared off, and the ship came to rest with the east side of the bridge nearly touching her funnel. The bridge's east footwalk was destroyed but the bridge held and its west side was undamaged.
Salvage tugs worked to free the damaged vessel, as she was entangled with the bridge and the rising tide threatened to break the vessel in two. After nearly two hours of salvage work, Eurana was freed and was towed to the eastern anchorage at approximately 20:35. The ship and the bridge were surveyed following the accident and the damage to the bridge was estimated at and to the vessel at .
On 13 March Eurana was towed to Seattle to undergo repairs, with her owners posting bonds as the bridge owners voiced their intent to libel the ship for damages. The repairs took two weeks to finish and cost approximately . On 2 April 1927 Eurana returned to Victoria to finish loading her cargo.
While the ship returned to her usual responsibilities, the bridge owners filed a libel case, alleging improper navigation and seeking compensation in the amount of approximately . The ship owners filed a counterclaim alleging that the bridge was poorly designed, as it was not tall enough and the bascule gate was not in the middle of the stream, which impeded water flow and created dangerous eddy currents during tides. The pilot, Captain Wingate, testified for Euranas owners, describing the accident and explaining how the bridge design affected the tidal currents. Two more local captains testified agreeing with captain Wingate that the bridge was not properly designed and was a menace to navigation. In addition, Euranas owners claimed the bridge's construction deviated from its legislature-approved blueprints, and was therefore constructed illegally. In April 1929, the court dismissed both of the competing claims, finding that Eurana was navigating properly and that the bridge was built legally and was not a menace to navigation.
While the court case was under way, Eurana continued operating on her usual route. In August 1928 when leaving Baltimore, her steering gear failed and she ran aground. After being refloated, she was towed to anchorage where she was struck in the stern by Munson steamer . Neither vessel suffered significant damage and each was able to continue on its respective journey. The repairs to Euranas steering gear were done at the Port of Oakland upon arrival there. Eurana was then selected by Planet Steamship Company to sail directly between the Puget Sound and Belfast and Dublin in Ireland.
Sinking of SS Dorothy
Eurana departed Baltimore on 31 August 1929, partially loaded, headed for New York to pick up the remainder of her cargo. In the early morning hours of 1 September 1929 the ship was proceeding slowly down the Chesapeake Bay under control of pilot Willard Wade. At the same time, A. H. Bull steamer SS Dorothy was sailing with a full cargo of phosphate rock from Tampa, bound for Baltimore. The night was clear with good visibility. Shortly after midnight, captain Olaf Andresen of Dorothy sighted Eurana and her green light about 2 miles off starboard side, and turned the wheel to starboard about half a point to give the incoming steamer more room to pass. Captain Andersen then saw both of Euranas lights and turned the wheel to starboard side again. Captain Wade, on the other hand, first sighted Dorothy about three and a half miles to his port side. Seeing the other steamer's port light, captain Wade turned the wheel to port side to give Dorothy more space to pass. He then too noticed the other ship showing both of her lights and ported the wheel more. Both Wade and the second officer claimed it appeared to them that Dorothy was zigzagging.
As the ships continued maneuvering they found themselves just off Smith's Point at the mouth of the Potomac River. The vessels closed in and the collision became unavoidable. As Dorothy was cutting across Euranas bow, captain Wade ordered to reverse the engines but it was too late and his ship's bow struck Dorothy amidships, opening a 10 foot hole in her hull, immediately flooding her engine compartment and shutting her engines down. Captain Wade tried to keep the ships together to prevent Dorothy from sinking, but eventually the ships came apart and approximately 45 minutes after the collision, at about 02:00, Dorothy turned over and sank. Thirty crewmembers of Dorothy were able to board Eurana by means of a rope ladder thrown over her bow. Two people were trapped inside of stricken steamer and went down with her. Eurana had her bow smashed but did not take on any water and was able to slowly proceed to Newport News for repairs and disembark the crew of Dorothy.
The repairs took approximately two weeks to finalize and Eurana was able to leave Newport News on 18 September for Portland to finish loading her cargo. The wreck of Dorothy was examined by divers who determined that the vessel was laying on her side in approximately of water. Neither the owners nor the underwriters decided to attempt to salvage Dorothy; the ship was declared a total loss and abandoned.
Calmar Steamship Corporation
In 1927, Bethlehem Steel founded Calmar Steamship Corporation as a wholly owned subsidiary company to transport steel and steel products from the company's steel mills in Maryland and Pennsylvania to the West Coast costumers. Calmar exclusively transported Bethlehem's products westbound but served as a common carrier carrying lumber and other cargoes on their return voyages eastwards for a variety of shippers.
In November 1929 it was reported that Calmar placed a bid in the amount of for five steamers operated by Planet Steamship Corp., with Eurana being valued at . Approximately two weeks later, the sale went through and all five vessels were sold to Calmar, increasing the size of their operational intercoastal fleet to eleven vessels. Following the sale all five new vessels were renamed according to Calmar Steamship's established naming pattern, where the names of the ships consisted of two parts, the prefix corresponding to a state, city or facility operated by Bethlehem Steel, and the second part consisting of word "-mar", an abbreviation for Maryland. Under this naming tradition, Eurana became Alamar in honor of Alameda. At the time of the sale, Eurana was on a voyage to United Kingdom, subsequently departing Liverpool on 18 January 1930 and reaching Baltimore on 6 February. After unloading and repairs, the steamer was transferred to her new owners on 4 March.
Alamar departed on her first voyage under new ownership on 22 March 1930 bound for West Coast ports via Philadelphia carrying full cargo of steel and hardware. The vessel arrived at Los Angeles on 20 April successfully completing her voyage under new name and ownership. She continued serving this general route through the early part of 1941. On her westward journeys the ship carried steel, steel products and hardware for various ports along the West Coast. The freighter carried mainly lumber and lumber products eastwards on her return trips to the North Atlantic ports. For example, in December 1930 the ship carried well over 3,000,000 feet of lumber to the East Coast, and in July 1937 she delivered over 4,500,000 feet of lumber to Boston.
In the early morning on 17 November 1932, Alamar was proceeding up the Delaware Bay towards Baltimore with her usual cargo of lumber. The weather was very foggy. When approximately 20 miles south of Newcastle the freighter was suddenly struck on her port side by Cunard Line steamer SS Makalla who had left Philadelphia two hours earlier. The resulting collision completely demolished Alamars forecastle, destroying the crew cabin and crushing one crewmember to death. Another crewmember, Walter Sandusky, a carpenter, was thrown from his bunk bed almost a hundred feet and landed in Makallas hold, but only suffered minor injuries. Makalla had her bow stove in just above the waterline, and was towed by tugs to port while Alamar was able to proceed to her destination under her own power. Upon unloading her cargo, Alamar returned to Baltimore in early December to enter the drydock for repairs. A few months later, in March 1933, while Alamar was berthed in San Pedro, Walter Sandusky died of alcohol poisoning after a night of drinking.
Early in 1934 Alamar transported among other cargo 300 Studebaker automobiles from Philadelphia to the Pacific Coast dealers.
During the night of 4–5 November 1935, Alamar was progressing down the Columbia River towards Portland after taking a partial lumber cargo at Vancouver. The vessel deviated from the channel too far to the Oregon side of the river and went aground on a sand bar. Due to shortage of tugs, US Coast Guard cutter was dispatched to help to float the freighter, however, the first attempt on 7 November proved to be unsuccessful. The ship was successfully dislodged at higher tide later the same day and continued to her destination.
In 1937 Alamar was involved in two accidents with other vessels. In the evening of 10 March, while on one of her regular trips, Alamar rammed and sunk San Francisco-based fishing trawler Normandie approximately thirteen miles off the entrance into Humboldt Bay. There were no casualties, as the crew was saved by another trawler, Wanderer. On 17 April, Alamar under command of Captain Ragnar Emanuel Nystrom was proceeding from Philadelphia to Sparrows Point drydock. As the vessel entered the harbor, just off Fort McHenry, she tried to pass another steamer, SS City of Havre, on her port side. At the same time, SS Yorktown, a passenger liner on her passage from Norfolk to Baltimore with close to 100 passengers under command of Captain Elliot, was attempting to overtake Alamar. As Yorktown was gaining on Alamar she was forced towards the mid-channel by water compression near shore, while the freighter started executing her maneuver, turning into Yorktowns path. As the steamers were very close too each other, Yorktown struck Alamar on her port side roughly amidships. As a result of the collision, the passenger ship had her bow smashed and twisted and had one passenger injured, but was able to make port on her own. Alamar also suffered only minor damage and continued on to Sparrows Point for repairs. Following a probe into the crash, both captains were suspended, Captain Elliot for 30 days and Captain Nystrom for 15, for unskillful navigation and inattention to duty.
The freighter returned to East Coast on her last peace-time trip in early July 1941 and went into dock for maintenance and repairs. At the same time, following the Emergency proclamation issued by President Roosevelt on 27 May 1941, the vessel together with many other ships were chartered by the Maritime Commission for Red Sea service, which would allow the vessels under US flag to transport war matériel and supplies acquired through lend-lease by the British War Ministry for British troops fighting in North Africa. Alamar loaded her cargo and sailed from New York on 26 July 1941 arriving in Port Sudan on 25 September via Cape Town and Aden. The freighter returned to New York on 24 January 1942 after picking up cargo at Calcutta and Colombo.
Alamar remained in Baltimore until 6 March 1942 when she was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and sailed to Philadelphia for loading. After embarking her wartime cargo of general supplies, ammunition and fuel in drums, the vessel proceeded to Halifax, a gathering port for all Atlantic convoys. The freighter then sailed from Halifax as part of convoy SC-77 bound for Reykjavik where she was to join one of the Arctic convoys to deliver lend-lease supplies to the Soviet Union. The ship was detached from the convoy and safely reached Iceland on 15 April and remained there for over a month waiting for ice floes to recede in the Northern Atlantic.
Sinking
Together with 34 other cargo vessels, Alamar departed Hvalfjord on 21 May as part of convoy PQ-16. The vessel carried 6,762 tons of military cargo consisting of munitions, tanks, fuel, trucks and foodstuffs for the Red Army. She was under command of Captain Nystrom, had a crew of thirty six, and carried nine Navy gunners. Two days later the convoy was joined by its escorts. At approximately 19:00 on 23 May the convoy was spotted by a German reconnaissance plane at approximate position . During the night of 23–24 May thick fog resulted in the convoy inadvertently separating into two groups, which were able to rejoin by the following night. At about 06:35 on 25 May, a Focke-Wulf Condor reconnaissance plane began shadowing the convoy. Later that evening the convoy was attacked unsuccessfully for the first time by a group of seven He-111 torpedo bombers from Luftwaffe bomber wing KG 30 and six Ju-88 long range bombers from KG 26. Two more unsuccessful air attacks followed during the night of 25 May and the evening of 26 May. At about 03:20 on 27 May, the convoy weathered a third unsuccessful attack, after which it altered its course to the southeast to avoid pack ice. At about 11:10, the convoy came under a massive attack, mostly by Ju-88 dive bombers. At about 13:10 Alamar was hit on aft-deck by two bombs in quick succession setting the ship and her cargo on fire. Alamar started to take on water and soon developed a starboard list, forcing hasty but successful evacuation. 20–25 minutes later, Alamar was scuttled by a British submarine. The crew was picked up by HMS Starwort and HMS St. Elsten approximately twelve hours later and were safely landed at Murmansk on 30 May 1942.
The survivors from Alamar sailed from Murmansk for New York aboard another Calmar vessel, SS Massmar, in Convoy QP 13. On 5 July 1942, while travelling in stormy weather with poor visibility, an escort and six merchant vessels including Massmar mistakenly entered the Northern Barrage minefield SN72, laid at the entrance to the Denmark Strait. Massmar hit two mines near her #4 and #5 holds, forcing the passengers and crew to abandon ship in three lifeboats and three rafts. Soon after, two lifeboats capsized including one with sixty men on board. French corvette Roselys picked up the survivors after about thirty minutes. Twenty-two crewmen and four gunners from Alamar as well as seventeen crewmembers and five gunners from Massmar died from drowning and exposure. All the survivors, including twenty-three from Alamar, were landed in Reykjavik.
References
1915 ships
Ships built by Union Iron Works
Steamships of the United States
Merchant ships of the United States
Ships sunk by German aircraft
Maritime incidents in May 1942
World War II shipwrecks in the Arctic Ocean
Patrol vessels of the United States Navy |
4171947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Acts%20of%20the%20Parliament%20of%20England%2C%201603%E2%80%931641 | List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1603–1641 | This is a list of Acts of the Parliament of England for the years 1603–1641.
For Acts passed during the period 1707–1800 see List of Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain. See also the List of Acts of the Parliament of Scotland, the List of Acts of the Parliament of Ireland to 1700, and the List of Acts of the Parliament of Ireland, 1701–1800.
For Acts passed from 1801 onwards see List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. For Acts of the devolved parliaments and assemblies in the United Kingdom, see the List of Acts of the Scottish Parliament, the List of Acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly, and the List of Acts and Measures of Senedd Cymru; see also the List of Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland.
For medieval statutes, etc. that are not considered to be Acts of Parliament, see the List of English statutes.
The number shown after each Act's title is its chapter number. Acts are cited using this number, preceded by the year(s) of the reign during which the relevant parliamentary session was held; thus the Union with Ireland Act 1800 is cited as "39 & 40 Geo. 3 c. 67", meaning the 67th Act passed during the session that started in the 39th year of the reign of George III and which finished in the 40th year of that reign. Note that the modern convention is to use Arabic numerals in citations (thus "41 Geo. 3" rather than "41 Geo. III"). Acts of the last session of the Parliament of Great Britain and the first session of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are both cited as "41 Geo. 3".
Acts passed by the Parliament of England did not have a short title; however, some of these Acts have subsequently been given a short title by Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (such as the Short Titles Act 1896).
Acts passed by the Parliament of England were deemed to have come into effect on the first day of the session in which they were passed. Because of this, the years given in the list below may in fact be the year before a particular Act was passed.
See also the List of Ordinances and Acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660 for Ordinances and Acts passed by the Long Parliament and other bodies without royal assent, and which were not considered to be valid legislation following the Restoration in 1660.
1603–1610
1603 (1 Jas. 1)
The first session of the 1st Parliament of King James I (the 'Blessed Parliament') which met from 19 March 1604 until 7 July 1604.
Note that this session was traditionally cited as 2 Jac. 1; it is listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as 1 Ja. 1
Public Acts
Succession to the Crown Act 1603 c. 1 A moste joyfull and juste Recognition of the immediate lawful and undoubted Succession Descent and Righte of the Crowne. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
Union of England and Scotland Act 1603 c. 2 An Acte authorizinge certaine Commissioners of the Realme of England to treate withe Comissioners of Scotland for the weale of both Kingdomes. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Episcopal lands) c. 3 An Acte againste the Diminuation of the Posessions of Archbishoprickes and Bishoprickes, and for avoydinge of Dilapidations of the same. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
Jesuits etc. Act 1603 c. 4 An Acte for the due Execution of the Statutes against Jesuites Seminary Preistes Recusants &c. — repealed by Religious Disabilities Act 1846
Court Leet Act 1603 c. 5 An Acte to prevent the overcharge of the People by Stewards of Courte Leets and Courte Barons. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1958
(Labourers) c. 6 An Acte made for the Explanation of the Statute made in the Fifte Year of the late Queen Elizabethe's Reigne, concerninge Labourers. — repealed by Repeal of Obsolete Statutes Act 1856
Vagabonds Act 1603 c. 7 An Acte for the Continuance and Explanation of the Statute made in the 39 yeere of our late Queene Elizabeth, intituled "An Acte for Punishmente of Rogues Vagaboundes and Sturdie Beggers." — repealed by Vagrants Act 1713
Statute of Stabbing 1603 c. 8 An Acte to take awaye the benefite of Clergie from some kinde of Manslaughter. — repealed by Offences Against the Person Act 1828
(Inns) c. 9 An Acte to restraine the inordinate hauntinge and tiplinge in Innes Ale houses and other Victuallinge Houses. — repealed by Alehouse Act 1828
(Officers of courts) c. 10 An Acte for the better execution of Justice. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Bigamy Act 1603 c. 11 An Acte to restrayne all persons from Marriage until theire former Wyves and former Husbandes be deade. — repealed by Offences Against the Person Act 1828
Witchcraft Act 1604 c. 12 An Acte against Conjuration Witchcrafte and dealinge with evill and wicked Spirits. — repealed by Witchcraft Act 1735
Privilege of Parliament Act 1603 or the Parliamentary Privilege Act 1603 c. 13 An Acte for new Executions to be sued againste any which shall hereafter be delivered out of Execution by Priviledge of Parliament, and for discharge of them out of whose Custody such persons shall be delivered. — (still in force)
City of London Court of Conscience Act 1603 c. 14 An Acte for the Recoverie of Small Debtes, and releevinge of poor Debtors in London. — repealed by City of London Court of Requests Act 1835
(Bankrupts) c. 15 An Acte for the better Reliefe of the Creditors againste suche as shall become Bankrupts. — repealed by Bankruptcy Act 1825
Thames Watermen Act 1604 c. 16 An Acte concerninge Wherrymen and Watermen. — repealed by Thames Watermen and Lightermen Act 1827
(Hats) c. 17 An Acte for the better Execution of former Lawes touchinge the makinge of Hats and Felts, and for the more restrainte of unskilfull and deceivable workmanshippe therein used, to the wronge of all sortes of the People of this Realme.— repealed by Manufacture of Hats Act 1776
(Hops) c. 18 An Acte for avoydinge of deceiptfull sellinge buyinge or spendinge corrupte and unwholesome Hoppes. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Spices) c. 19 An Acte for the well garblinge of Spices. — repealed by City of London (Garbling of Spices and Admission of Brokers) Act 1707
(Painting) c. 20 An Act for Redress of certain Abuses and Deceipts used in Paintinge. — repealed by Repeal of Obsolete Statutes Act 1856
(Act against brokers) c. 21 An Acte againste Brokers. — repealed by Sale of Goods Act 1893
(Leather) c. 22 An Acte concerning Tanners Curriers Shoomakers and other Arfificers occupyinge the cuttinge of Leather. — repealed by Repeal of Acts Concerning Importation Act 1822
(Fisheries) An Acte for the better preservation of Fishinge in the Counties of Somersett Devon and Cornewall, and for the reliefe of Bakers Conders and Fishermen againste malicious Suites. c. 23
(Sail cloth) c. 24 An Acte againste the deceiptfull and false makinge of Mildernix and Powle Davies whereof Saile Clothes for the Navie and other Shippinge are made. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Continuance of Laws, etc.) c. 25 An Acte for continuynge and revivinge of divers Statutes and for repealinge of some others. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Exchequer) c. 26 An Acte for the continuance and due observation of certaine Orders for the Exchequer first set downe and established by virtue of a Privie Seale from the late Queene Elizabeth. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Game Act 1603 c. 27 An Acte for the better execucion of thintent and meaning of former Statuts made againste shootinge in Gunnes and for the preservation of the Game of Pheasantes and Partridges and againste the destroyinge of Hares with Harepipes and tracinge Hares in the Snowe. — repealed by Game Act 1831
(Berwick-on-Tweed) An Acte for Confirmation of the Kinges Majesties Charter and Letters Patentes graunted to the Mayor Bayliffes and Burgesses of the Burroughe of Berwicke upon Twede and theire Successors, and of the Franchises Liberties Priviledges Jurisdictions and Customes of the saide Burroughe. c. 28
(Increase of seamen (fish-days)) c. 29 An Acte to encourage the Seamen of England to take Fishe wherebie they may encrease to furnishe the Navie of England. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Melcombe Regis and Radipole, Dorset (church)) c. 30 An Acte for the erectinge and buildinge of a Churche in Melcombe Regis to be the Parishe Churche of Radipoll; and for makinge the oulde Churche of Radipoll a Chappell belonginge to the same. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(The plague) c. 31 An Acte for the charitable Reliefe and Orderinge of persons infected with the Plague. — repealed by Punishment of Offences Act 1837
Dover Harbour Act 1603 c. 32. An Acte for repaire of Dover Haven. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Taxation) c. 33 An Acte for a Subsiedie of Tonnage and Poundage. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Private Acts
Confirmation of Queen Anne's jointure. c. 1 An Acte of Confirmation of the Jointure of the moste highe and mightie Princesse Anne Queene of England Scotland France and Ireland.
Assignment of sums for paying the King's household expenses. c. 2 An Acte for an Assignment of certaine Sumes of Money for the defrayinge of the Charges of the Kinges most honorable Houshold.
Restitution of the Earl of Southampton. c. 3
Restitution of the Earl of Essex's children. c. 4
Restitution of the Earl of Arundel's son. c. 5
Restitution in blood of the Duke of Norfolk's descendants. c. 6
Restitution of Lord Pagett's son. c. 7
Restitution in blood of Thomas Lucas. c. 8
Securing Simpson's debt and the safety of the Warden of the Fleet in Sir Thomas Shirley's Case. c. 9
Securing the debt of Simpson and others and the safety of the Warden of the Fleet in Sir Thomas Shirley's Case. c. 10
Naturalization of Duke of Lennox, Henry, Lord of Obigney, and their children. c. 11
Naturalization of the Countess of Nottingham. c. 12
Naturalization of the Earl of Marre and family. c. 13
Naturalization of Sir George Howme and family. c. 14
Confirmation of Sir George Howme's letters patent. c. 15
Naturalization of Sir Edward Bruce and confirmation of letters patent. c. 16
Naturalization of Sir Thomas Areskin and family. c. 17
Confirmation of letters patent to Earl of Nottingham, Earl of Suffolk, Sir John Leveson and Sir John Trevor, for use of Lady Cobham. c. 18
Naturalization of Dame Marie Aston and family. c. 19
Naturalization of Sir John Ramsey. c. 20
Naturalization of Sir James Hay. c. 21
Naturalization of John Gordon, Dean of Sarum, and family. c. 22
Naturalization of Sir John Kennedy. c. 23
Naturalization of Sir John Drummond. c. 24
Naturalization of Adam Newton. c. 25
Restitution in blood of Thomas Littleton, and family. c. 26
Naturalization of William, Anne and Barbara Browne. c. 27
Thomas Throckmorton's estate: enabling sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 28
Naturalization of Thomas Glover, Margaret Mordant, Francis Collymore, Alexander Daniell, Nicholas Gilpine and Marie Copcote. c. 29
Sir Thomas Rowse's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 30
Settlement of the late Sir George Rodney's estate. c. 31
Assurance of lands to the Dean and Canons of Windsor, and of a lease of the prebend of Bedwin (Wiltshire) to the Earl of Hertford. c. 32
Henry Jernegan's estate: sale of manors of Dages in Raveningham and Heringfleet alias St. Olav's (Norfolk and Suffolk) for payment of debts. c. 33
Mary Calthrop's jointure. c. 34
Relief of Thomas Lovell. c. 35
Edward Nevill's estate: explanation of the Act of 1601 [c. 4] [Edward Nevill and Sir Henry Nevill: disposal of copyhold lands held of the manors of Rotherfield (Sussex) and Alesley and Fylongley (Warwickshire)]. c. 36
John Tebold's estate: enabling him to sell parts for the preferment of his children and to make a jointure. c. 37
Naturalization of Katherine, Elizabeth, Susan, Hester and Marie Vincents. c. 38
Naturalization of Victor Chauntrell, Peter Martin, Mentia Van Ursell and Sabina, Edward and Peregrine Aldrich. c. 39
1605 (3 Jas. 1)
The second session of the 1st Parliament of King James I (the 'Blessed Parliament'), which met from 6 January 1606 until 27 May 1606.
The start of the session was delayed by a day due to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot.
Note that this session was traditionally cited as 3 Jac. 1; it is listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as 3 Ja. 1
Public Acts
Observance of 5th November Act 1605 c. 1 An Acte for a Publicque Thancksgiving to Almighty God everie Yeare on the fifte day of November. — repealed by Anniversary Days Observance Act 1859
(Attainder of Guy Fawkes and others) c. 2 An Acte for the Attaindors of divers Offendors in the late moste barbarous monstrous destestable and damnable Treasons. — repealed by Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1977
Union of England and Scotland Act 1605 c. 3 An Act declaratorie, explayning a branche of an Acte made in the first Session of this Parliament, intituled, "An Acte authorizing certaine Comissioners of the Realme of Englande to treat with Comissioners of Scotlande for the Weale of both Kingdomes." — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Popish Recusants Act 1605 c. 4 An Act for the better discovering and repressing of Popish Recusants. — repealed by Religious Disabilities Act 1846
Presentation of Benefices Act 1605 c. 5 An Act to prevent and avoid Dangers which may grow by Popish Recusants.
(Foreign trade) c. 6 An Acte to enable all his Majesties loving Subjects of Englande and Wales to trade freely into the Dominions of Spaine Portugale and France.
(Attorneys) c. 7 An Acte to reforme the Multitudes and Misdemeanors of Attorneyes and Sollicitors at Lawe, and to avoide sundrie unneccessarie Suits and Charges in Lawe.
(Execution) c. 8 An Act for avoiding of unneccessarie Delaies of Executions. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Skinners) c. 9 An Acte for the Reliefe of suche as lawfully use the Trade and Handicrafte of Skynners.
(Conveyance of offenders to gaol) c. 10 An Acte for the rating and levying of the Charges for conveying Malefactors and Offendors to the Gaole.
(Exportation) c. 11 An Act for the transportacion of Beere over the Seas.
(Fish) c. 12 An Act for the better preservation of Sea Fishe.
(Stealing of deer, etc.) c. 13 An Act against unlawfull hunting and stealing of Deere and Connies.
Thames Commission of Sewers Act 1605 c. 14 An Acte for explanacion of the Statute of Sewers.
City of London Court of Conscience Act 1605 c. 15 — repealed by City of London Court of Requests Act 1835
(Kerseys) c. 16 An Act for the Repeal of One Act made in the Fourteenth Year of Queen Elizabeth's Reign concerning the Length of Kersies.
(Welsh cottons) c. 17 An Acte concerning Walsh Cottons.
(New River) c. 18 An Acte for the bringing in of a freshe Streame of running Water to the Northe parts of the City of London.
(Highways at Long Ditton) c. 19 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(The Thames) c. 20 An Acte for clearing the Passage of Water from London to and beyond the Citye of Oxforde.
Theatre Regulation Act 1605 c. 21 An Acte to restraine Abuses of Players.
(Drury Lane paving) c. 22 An Act for paving of Drury Lane and the Towne of St. Giles in the Fieldes within the County of Middlesex. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Chepstow Bridge (maintenance, etc.)) c. 23 An Act for the newe making upp and keeping in Reparacion of Chepstow Bridge. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Upton-upon-Severn Bridge (maintenance, etc.)) c. 24 An Act for the reedifying of a Bridge over the River of Seaverne neare the Towne of Upton upon Seaverne. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Taxation) c. 25 An Acte Confirmacion of the Subsidies graunted by the Clergie. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 26 An Acte for the Grant of three entire Subsidies and Six Fifteenes and Tenthes granted by the Temporalty. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(General pardon) c. 27 An Acte for the Kinges Majesties most gracious generall and free Pardon. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Private Acts
Assurance of ground to Earl of Salisbury for enlargement of Salisbury House, Strand. c. 1
Assurance of the Countess of Essex's jointure. c. 2
Corpus Christi College, Oxford. c. 3
Lord Windsor's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts and better performance of his will. c. 4
Establishing the possessions and inheritance of Edmond, late Lord Chandos. c. 5
Vesting in the Crown the estates of Lord Cobham and George Brooke, attainted of high treason, with a confirmation of grants made by the King. c. 6
Confirmation of leases by Lord Spencer and his parents. c. 7
Restoration of Lord Danvers as heir to Sir John Danvers notwithstanding the attainder of his brother, Sir Charles Danvers. c. 8
Oriel College, Oxford, confirmation of letters patent. c. 9
St. Bees' Grammar School (Cumberland): confirmation of letters patent. c. 10
Sir Christopher Hatton's estate: enabling sale of property. c. 11
Sale of lands in Middlesex to Sir Thomas Lake and Dame Mary Knight his wife. c. 12
Sir Jonathan Trelawney's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 13
Assurance of Dame Elinor Cave's jointure. c. 14
John Hotham senior and John Hotham junior's estate: enabling them to convey lands to provide a jointure for John Hotham junior's future wife. c. 15
Settlement of manor of Rie (Gloucestershire and Worcestershire) on William Throckmorton. c. 16
Sir Thomas Rous' estate: sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 17
Sir John Skynner's estate: assurance of lands to Sir William Smith and Sir Michael Hicks. c. 18
John Roger's relief for a breach of trust made by Robert, Paul and William Taylor. c. 19
Assurance of lands of Walter Walshe. c. 20
Edward Downes' estate : sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 21
Naturalization of Sir Daniel Foulis and confirmation of letters patent. c. 22
Naturalization of Sir Edward Conway's children. c. 23
Naturalization of Sir James Areskyn and family. c. 24
Naturalization of Sir David Murray and Thomas Murray. c. 25
Naturalization of Daniel Godfrey. c. 26
Restitution in blood of John and Thomas Holland. c. 27
Restitution in blood of Roland Meyrick and Dame Margaret Knight. c. 28
Execution of Chancery decree between William le Gris and Robert Cottrell. c. 29
1606 (4 Jas. 1)
The third session of the 1st Parliament of King James I (the 'Blessed Parliament') which met from 18 November 1606 until 4 July 1607.
Note that this session was traditionally cited as 4 Jac. 1; it is listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as 4 Ja. 1
Public Acts
(Union of England and Scotland) c. 1 An act for the utter abolition of all memory of hostility, and the dependence thereof, between England and Scotland, and for repressing of occasions of disorders, and disorders in time to come. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Woollen cloths) c. 2 An Act for the true making of Woollen Cloth.
(Costs) c. 3 An Act to give Costs to the Defendant upon a Non-sute of the Playntiff or a Verdict agaynst him.
(Sale of beer) c. 4 An Act to restraine the utterance of Beere and Ale to Alehouse Keepers and Typlers not licenced.
(Drunkenness) c. 5 An Act for repressing the odious and loathsome sinne of Drunkennes.
(Leather) c. 6 An Act for repealing of so much of One Branch of a Statute made in the First Year of His Majesty's Reign, intituled "An Act concerning Tanners Curriers Shoemakers and other Artificers occupying the cutting of Leather," as concerneth the sealing of Sheepskins and to avoid selling of tanned Leather by Weight.
Northleech Grammar School Act 1606 c. 7 An Act for the founding and incorporating of a free grammar school in the town of Northleech in the county of Gloucester.
(Land drainage (Kent Marshes, Lessness and Fantes)) c. 8 An Act touching the drowned marshes of Lesnes and Fants in the county of Kent. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Explanation of 3 Jas. 1. c. 6) c. 9 An Act to explain a former act made in the last session of this parliament, intituled, "An Act to enable all his Majesty's loving subjects of England and Wales to trade freely into the dominions of Spain, Portugal and France." — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Charter of Southampton) c. 10 An act for confirmation of some part of a charter granted by King Henry the Sixth to the mayor, bailiffs and burgesses of the town of Southampton, and for the relief of the said town.
(Land inclosure, Herefordshire) c. 11 An Act for the better provision of meadow and pasture for necessary maintenance of husbandry and tillage in the manors, lordships and parishs of Marden, alias Mawarden, Bodenham, Wellington, Sutton St. Michael, Sutton St Nicholas, Murton upon Lug, and the parish of Pipe, and every of them, in the county of Hereford.
(New River channel) c. 12 An Act for explanation a statute made the third year of the reign of King James, intituled, "An Act for the bringing in of a fresh stream of running water to the north parts of the city of London."
(Land drainage (Waldersey Ring and Coldham)) c. 13 An Act for the draining of certain fens and low grounds in the isle of Ely, subject to hurt by surrounding, containing about six thousand acres, compelled about with certain banks commonly called and named the ring of Waldersey and Cooldham.
Private Acts
Assurance of a life interest in Theobalds House and other manors and lands to the Queen, of the same properties and other manors and lands to the King and of other manors and lands to the Earl of Salisbury. c. 1
John Good's estate: enabling him to convey a small piece of land to the King for a term of years. c. 2
Earl of Derby's estate: establishment and assurance of possessions and hereditaments. c. 3
Enabling Richard Sackville to surrender the office of Chief Butler to the King despite his minority. c. 4
Assurance of advowson of Cheshunt [Hertfordshire] to the Earl of Salisbury and of Orsett [Essex] to the Bishop of London. c. 5
William Ibgrave's estate: confirmation of an agreement between Lord Bruce and Michael Doyley and others. c. 6
Confirmation of letters patent to Robert Bathurst of the manor and borough of Lechlade (Gloucestershire). c. 7
Confirmation of letters patent to William Bourcher of the manor of Bardisley (Gloucestershire). c. 8
Confirmation of lands to All Souls' College, Oxford, and to Sir William Smith. c. 9
Confirmation of lands etc. to City of London companies and to the City. c. 10
Assurance to purchasers of lands, late the estate of Sir Jonathan Trelawney, directed to be sold for payment of debts. c. 11
Restitution in blood of Edward Windsor's children. c. 12
John Evelyn's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 13
Maintenance of John Tompson (the son of a lunatic), and assignment of a jointure for his future wife. c. 14
William Waller's estate: sale of lands for payment of a debt of £505 10s 6d. c. 15
Naturalization of John Steward. c. 16
Naturalization of Peter and Mary Baron or Baro. c. 17
Naturalization of James and Mary Desmaistres. c. 18
Naturalization of Fabian Smith. c. 19
Naturalization of John Ramsden. c. 20
1609 (7 Jas. 1)
The fourth session of the 1st Parliament of King James I (the 'Blessed Parliament'), which met from 9 February 1610 until 23 July 1610.
Note that this session was traditionally cited as 7 Jac. 1; it is listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as 7 Ja. 1
Public Acts
(Criminal law) c. 1 An act for the better execution of justice, and suppressing of criminal offenders, in the north parts of the kingdom of England. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Naturalisation and Restoration of Blood Act 1609 c. 2 An Act that all such as are to be naturalized, or restored in blood, shall first receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and the oath of allegiance and the oath of supremacy.
(Apprentice) c. 3 An Act for the continuing and better maintenance of husbandry and other manual occupations, by the true implement of monies given and to be given for the binding out of apprentices. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Vagabonds Act 1609 c. 4 An Act for the due execution of divers laws and statutes heretofore made against rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars, and other lewd and idle persons. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Public officers protection) c. 5 An Act for ease in pleading troublesome and contentious suits prosecuted against justices of the peace, mayors, constables, and certain other his Majesty's officers, for the lawful execution of their office.
Oath of Allegiance, etc. Act 1609 c. 6 An Act for administring the oath of allegiance, and reformation of married women recusants.
(Wool sorters, etc.) c. 7 An Act for the punishing and correcting of deceit and frauds committed by sorts, kembers and spinsters of wool, and weavers of woolen yarn. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Cattle) c. 8 An Act to inlarge an act of parliament made in the second and third year of King Philip and Queen Mary, intituled, "An Act for the keeping of milch-kine, or breeding and rearing of calves." — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(London water (Hackney)) c. 9 An Act for the bringing of fresh streams of water by engine from Hackney-Marsh to the city of London, for the benefit of the King's college at Chelsey. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Alehouse) c. 10 An Act for the reformation of alehouse-keepers.
Game Act 1609 c. 11 An act to prevent the spoil of corn and grain, by untimely hawking, and for the better presevation of pheasants and partridges.
Shop-books Evidence Act 1609 c. 12 An Acte to avoide the double Payment of Debtes.
(Deer stealing) c. 13 An Act for the explanation of a statute made in the second session of this present parliament, intituled, "An Act against unlawful hunting and stealing of deer and conies."
(Horns) c. 14 An Act for reviving of part of a former act made in the fourth year of King Edward the Fourth, That no stranger or alient shall buy English horns unwrought; and that the wardens of the horners of the city of London for the time being, should have power to search all manner of wares appertaining to their mystery in London, and twenty-four miles on every side of it. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Crown Debts Act 1609 c. 15 An Acte concerninge some maner of Assignementes of Debtes to His Majesty.
(Cloths) c. 16 An Act for the encouragement of many poor people in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in the towns and parishes of Carptmell, Oxhead and Broughton in the county of Lancaster, to continue a trade of making cogware, kendals, carptmeals and coarse cottons. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Burning of moor) c. 17 An Act against burning of Ling and Heath & other Moorburning in the Counties of York Durham Northumberland Cumberland Westerland Lancaster Darby Nottingham and Leicester at unseasonable tymes of yeare. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Sea Sand (Devon and Cornwall) Act 1609 c. 18 An Acte for the takinge landinge and carryinge of Sea Sand for the betteringe of Grounds, and for the Increase of Corne and Tillage within the Counties of Devon and Cornwall.
(River Exe, weir) c. 19 An act for the continuance and reparation of a new built weare upon the river of Exe, near unto the city of Exeter.
(Inundations, Norfolk and Suffolk) c. 20 An Act for the speedy recovery of many thousand acres of marsh ground, and other ground within the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, lately surrounded by the range of the sea in divers parts of the said counties, and for the prevention of the danger of the like surrounding hereafter. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Confirmation of decrees as to copyholds, etc.) c. 21 An act for confirmation of decrees hereafter to be made in the exchequer-chamber, and duchy-court, concerning copyhold lands and tenements. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Taxation) c. 22 An Acte for Confirmacion of the Subsidie granted by the Clergie. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 23 An Acte for the Grant of one entire Subsidie and one Fiftenth and Tenth by the Temporalitie. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(General pardon) c. 24 An Acte for the Kinges Most gracious generall and free Pardon. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Private Acts
Manor of Wakefield (Yorkshire): confirmation of decrees between King and copyholders. c. 1
Manor of Edmonton (Middlesex): confirmation of a decree between King and copyholders. c. 2
Manors or Lordships of Clitheroe, Derby, Accrington, Colne and Ightenhill (Lancashire): creation and confirmation of copyholds. c. 3
Assurance of the Isle of Man Act 1609 c. 4 An Acte for the Assuringe and Establishing of the Isle of Manne in the name and blood of William, Earl of Derby.
Earl of Derby's estate: explanation of the Act of 1606 [c. 3] [establishment and assurance of possessions and hereditaments]. c. 5
Assurance of lands to Bishop of Durham and Earl of Salisbury. c. 6
Naturalization of Sir Robert Karr. c. 7
Naturalization of Jane Drummond. c. 8
Earl of Oxenford's estate: sale of manor of Bretts and farm of Plaistow (Essex) towards repurchasing the castle, manor and parks of Henningham (Essex). c. 9
Assurance of farm and demesnes of Damerham (Wiltshire) according to the grants of the King and King Edward VI. c. 10
Foundation of hospital and grammar school, and maintenance of a teacher, in Thetford. c. 11
Naturalization of John Murray, Richard Murray, John Levingston and John Auchmothy. c. 12
Naturalization of Levinus Munk. c. 13
William and Edward Elringtons' orphans' provision: confirming and executing the Chancery decree against Edward Cage, executor of Rowland Elrington. c. 14
Naturalization of Robert Browne. c. 15
Confirmation of fines levied by John Arundell of Guarnack to John Arundell of Trerise, deceased, and settlement of the property comprised in the fines to John Arundell, son of John Arundell of Trerise. c. 16
Estates of Lord Abergavenny and Sir Henry Nevill: alienation of lands for payment of debts and advancement of children, and assurance of other lands lately purchased from the King. c. 17
Restitution in blood of George Brooke's children. c. 18
Disuniting the parsonages of Ashe and Deane (Hampshire). c. 19
Naturalization of Henry Gibb. c. 20
William Essex's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts, and settlement of residue. c. 21
Relief of John Holdich, disinherited by the extraordinary amending of the errors of a fine. c. 22
Naturalization of Sir George Ramsay, Walter Alexander and John Sandilandis. c. 23
Naturalization of Peter Vanloore. c. 24
Confirmation of the estate of the Company of Salters and Brewers of London. c. 25
Uniting parishes of Froome Whitfield (Dorset) and Holy Trinity, Dorchester. c. 26
Repair of river Exe weir near city of Exeter. c. 27
Establishment of Thomas Sutton's charities. c. 28
Establishing the inheritance of Sir Henry Crisp and rendering certain conveyances void. c. 29
Sir John Wentworth's estate: assurance of lands to provide portions, confirmation of life estates in other lands and enabling the sale of other lands for payment of debts. c. 30
Reginald Rous's estate: sale of lands in Badingham, Tymington and Little Glemham (Suffolk), to his nephew, Reginald Rous of the Inner Temple. c. 31
Naturalization of Edward and Henry Palmers and Michael Boyle. c. 32
Charles Waldegrave's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts and advancement of children. c. 33
Naturalization of Richard, John and Robert Bladwell, George and John Hasden, Elizabeth and Ann Cradock, Jane or Janekin Carstens and Elizabeth Van Buechton. c. 34
Confirmation of sales of property, late the estate of Henry Jarnegan, made by Sir Thomas Hirne, Christopher Hirne and Clement Hirne to Sir John and Dame Bridget Heveningham. c. 35
Naturalization of John Mounsy. c. 36
Naturalization of Joane Greensmith. c. 37
Revocation of Sir Robert Drury's conveyances. c. 38
Naturalization of Margaret Clark. c. 39
Sir John Biron's estate. c. 40
Naturalization of George Montgomery, Bishop of Derry, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Hugh and James Montgomery and Sir James Fullarton. c. 41
Naturalization of Martinus Schonerus, Dorothee and Engella Seelken, Katherine Benneken, John Wolfgang Rumbler and Anna de Lobell alias Wolfgang Rumbler. c. 42
Christopher and Millicent Smith: confirmation of deed of revocation. c. 43
1611–1620
1620 (18 & 19 Jas. 1)
The 3rd Parliament of King James I which met from 16 January 1621 until 19 December 1621.
Note that this session is not listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes"; the titles of the Acts are printed in "The Statutes of the Realm", Vol. IV, Part II; the Record Commissioners were unable to find any surviving copy of the text of either Act
Public Acts
An Act for the Grant of Two entire Subsidies, granted by the Temporalty c. 1
An Act for Confirmation of the Subsidies granted by the Clergy c. 2
1621–1630
1623 (21 Jas. 1)
The 4th Parliament of King James I (the 'Happy Parliament') which met from 12 February 1624 until 29 May 1624.
Public Acts
Hospitals Act 1623 c. 1 An Act for the reviving and making perpetual of one act made in the nine and thirtieth year of the late Queen Elizabeth, intituled, "An Act for erecting of hospitals, and abiding and working houses for the poor." — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Crown suits, etc.) c. 2 An Act for the general quiet of the subjects against all pretences of concealment whatsoever. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Statute of Monopolies 1624 c. 3 An Act concerning monopolies and dispensations with penal laws and the forfeitures thereof. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
Common Informers Act 1623 c. 4 An Act for the case of the subject, concerning informations upon penal statutes.
(Sheriffs) c. 5 An Act that sheriffs, their heirs, executors and administrators, having a Quietus est, shall be absolutely discharged of their accounts. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Female convicts) c. 6 An Act concerning women convicted of small felonies. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Drunkenness) c. 7 An Act for the better repressing of drunkeness, and refraining the inordinate haunting of inns, alehouses, and other victualling houses.
(Certiorari abuses) c. 8 An Act to prevent and punish the abuses in procuring process and Supersedeas of the peace and good behaviour, out of his Majesty's courts at Westminster, and to prevent the abuses in procuring writs of Certiorari out of the said courts, for the removing of indictments found before justices of the peace in their general sessions.
(Welsh cloths) c. 9 An Act for the free trade and traffick of Welsh clothes, cottons, frines, linings and plains in and through the kingdom of England and dominion of Wales. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Amendment of 34 & 35 Hen. 8. c. 26) c. 10 An Act of repeal of one branch of the statute made in the session of parliament holden by prorogation at Westminster the twenty-second day of January in the thirty-fourth year of the reign of King Henry the Eighth, intituled, "An Act for certain ordinances in the King's majesty's dominion and principality of Wales."
Heron's Fish-Curing Patent Void Act 1623 c. 11 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Public officers protection) c. 12 An act to enlarge and make perpetual the act made for ease in pleading against troublesome and contentious suits prosecuted against justices of the peace, mayors, constables and certain other his Majesty's officers, for the lawful execution of their office, made in the seventh year of his Majesty's most happy reign.
(Jeofails) c. 13 An Act for the further reformation of jeofails.
Intrusions Act 1623 c. 14 An Act to admit the subject to plead the general issue in informations of intrusions brought on behalf of the King's majesty, and retain his possession til trial.
Forcible Entry Act 1623 c. 15 An Act to enable judges and justices of the peace to give restitution of possession in certain cases. — repealed by Criminal Law Act 1977
Limitation Act 1623 c. 16 An Act for limitation of actions, and for avoiding of suits in law. — repealed by Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1986
Usury Act 1623 c. 17 An act against usury. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Woollen cloths) c. 18 An Act for continuance of a former act made in the fourth year of the King's majesty's reign of England, &c., intituled, "An Act for the true making woolen clothes, and for some additions and alterations in and to the same."
(Bankrupts) c. 19 An Act for the further description of a bankrupt, and relief of creditors against such as shall become bankrupts, and for inflicting corporal punishment upon the bankrupts in some special cases.
(Profane swearing) c. 20 An Act to prevent and reform profane swearing and cursing.
Horsebread Act 1623 c. 21 An Act concerning Hostlers and Inn-holders.
(Butter and cheese) c. 22 An Act for the explanation of the statutes made in the third, fourth and fifth years of King Edward the Sixth, concerning the traders of butter and cheese. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Inferior courts) c. 23 An Act for avoiding of vexations delays caused by removing actions and suits out of inferior courts. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Execution) c. 24 An Act for the relief of creditors against such persons as die in execution. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
Crown Lands Act 1623 c. 25 An Act for the relief of patentees, tenants and farmers of crown-lands and duchy-lands, or of lands within the survey of the court of wards and liveries, in cases of forfeiture for not payment of their rents, or other service or duty. — still in force
(Fines and recoveries) c. 26
(Concealment of birth of bastards) c. 27 An Act to prevent the destroying and murthering of bastard children.
(Continuance of Acts, etc.) c. 28 An Act for continuing and reviving divers statutes, and repeal of divers others.
Duchy of Cornwall Act 1623 c. 29 An Act to enable the most excellent prince Charles to make leases of lands, parcel of his Highness duchy of Cornwall, or annexed to the same. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Exchange of lands, King and Archbishop of York) c. 30
Hallamshire Cutlers Act 1623 c. 31
Thames Navigation Act 1623 c. 32 An Act for making the river of Thames navigable for barges, boats and lighters, from the village of Bercot, in the county of Oxon, unto the university and city of Oxon.
(Taxation) c. 33 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 34 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(General pardon) c. 35 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Private Acts
Confirmation of Wadham College, Oxford, and its possessions. c. 1
Naturalization of Philip Burlemacchi. c. 2
Naturalization of Giles Vandeputt. c. 3
Earl of Hertford and Sir Francis Seymour: sale of lands for payment of debts, and establishment of others in lieu and of better value. c. 4
Naturalization of Sir Robert Anstrother, Sir George Abercromy and John Cragge. c. 5
Manors of Stepney and Hackney, confirmation of copyholders' rights. c. 6
Confirmation of sale of lands by Sir Thomas and Dame Elizabeth Beamond to Sir Thomas Checke. c. 7
Erection of free school, almshouses and house of correction in Lincolnshire. c. 8
Martin Calthrope's estate: sale of lands for preferment of children and payment of debts. c. 9
Assurance of manor of Goodneston and other lands of Sir Edward Engham. c. 10
Naturalization of Elizabeth and Mary Vere. c. 11
Alice Dudley's estate: enabling her to assure her estate in manor of Killingworth and other lands in Warwickshire to the Prince. c. 12
Confirmation of exchange of lands between Prince Charles and Sir Lewis Watson. c. 13
Viscount Montagu's estate: payment of debts and raising daughters' portions. c. 14
Sir Richard Lumley's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts and preferment of children. c. 15
Manor of Painswick (Gloucestershire): confirmation of Chancery decree between lord of the manor and customary tenants. c. 16
Naturalization of Sir Francis Stewart, Walter Maxwell, William Carr and James Levingston. c. 17
Naturalization of John Young. c. 18
Conveyance of manor of Little Munden (Hertfordshire) by Sir Peter Vanlore and Sir Charles and Dame Anne Cesar to Edmund Woodhall. c. 19
Naturalization of Jane Murrey and William Murrey. c. 20
Vincent Lowe's estate (Derbyshire): sale of lands for payment of debts. c. 21
Toby Pallavicine's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts and preferment of family. c. 22
Naturalization of Sir Robert Carre. c. 23
Assurance of manors of Newlangport and Sevans or Sephans and other lands in Kent, late the inheritance of Sir Henry James, convicted in a praemunire, to Martin Lumley, Alice Woodroffe and Edward Cropley. c. 24
Naturalization of Stephen Leisure. c. 25
Naturalization of the Marquis of Hamilton. c. 26
Naturalization of Sir William Anstrother, Walter Bellcanquall and Patrick Abercromy. c. 27
Sir Edward Heron's estate: confirmation of sale of lands to Bevell Molesworth, enabling sale of others for payment of debts and settlement of others upon Robert and Edward Heron in lieu. c. 28
Naturalization of Abigail and William Little. c. 29
Establishment of manors and lands in Cornwall, Devon and Dorset on John Mohun. c. 30
Edward Alcocke's estate: enabling the sale of the manor of Rampton, and lands in Rampton, Wivelingham and Cottenham (Cambridgeshire). c. 31
Estates of Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, and Fisher: explanation of the Act of 1580 [c. 5] [assurance of a rent of £82 10s. to the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield]. c. 32
Establishment of Thomas Whetenhall's lectures in divinity. c. 33
Colchester: repair and maintenance of the haven river and channel, and provision of paving. c. 34
Sir Francis Clerke's estate: sale of lands for payment of debts and provision of portions for children. c. 35
Alteration of tenure and custom of lands formerly of Thomas Potter and of Sir George and Sir John Rivers in Kent from gavelkind to the common law, and to settle them on Sir John Rivers and his heirs. c. 36
Earl of Middlesex's estate: subjecting lands to the payment of debts. c. 37
Sale of manor of Abbotts Hall (Essex) for payment of Sir James Pointz's creditors. c. 38
1625 (1 Cha. 1)
The 1st Parliament of King Charles I (the 'Useless Parliament') which met from 17 May 1625 until 12 August 1625.
Note that this session was traditionally cited as 1 Car. 1; it is listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as 1 Cha. 1
Public Acts
Sunday Observance Act 1625 c. 1 An Act for punishing divers abuses committed on the Lord's day, called Sunday.
Duchy of Cornwall Act 1625 c. 2 An Act to enable the King's majesty to make leases of lands, parcel of his Highness dutchy of Cornwall, or annexed to the same. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Licences of alienation) c. 3 An Act for the ease in obtaining of licences of alienation, and in the pleading of alienations with licence, or of pardons of alienations without licence, in the court of exchequer, or elsewhere.
(Alehouses) c. 4 An Act for the further restraint of tippling in inns, alehouses, and other victualling-houses.
(Taxation) c. 5
(Taxation) c. 6
(Parliament) c. 7 This session of parliament (by reason of the increase of the sickness and other inconveniences of the season, requiring a speedy adjournment, nevertheless) shall not determine by his Majesty's royal assent to this and some other acts. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
Private Acts
Manors of Cheltenham and Asheley or Charlton Kings (Gloucestershire): confirmation of copyhold estates and customs according to an agreement between the King (then Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall and of York and Earl of Chester), lord of the manor of Cheltenham, Giles Greville lord of the manor of Asheley and the copyholders of the manors. c. 1
Manor of Macclesfield (Cheshire): confirmation of an agreement between the Commissioners of Revenue on behalf of His Majesty (then Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester) and the copyholders of the manor, and of an Exchequer decree for making a parcel of the manor copyhold. c. 2
1627 (3 Cha. 1)
The 3rd Parliament of King Charles I which met from 17 March 1628 until 10 March 1629.
Public Acts
Petition of Right c. 1 (still in force)
Sunday Observance Act 1627 c. 2 An Act for the further reformation of sundry abuses committed on the Lord's day, commonly called Sunday.
Popery Act 1627 c. 3 An Act to restrain the passing or sending of any to be popishly-bred beyond the seas.
(Alehouse) c. 4 An Act for the better suppressing of unlicenced alehouse-keepers.
(Continuance of Acts, etc.) c. 5 An Act for the continuance and repeal of divers statutes. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Lands at Bromfield and Yale, Denbighshire) c. 6
(Taxation) c. 7 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
(Taxation) c. 8 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1948
Private Acts
Foundation of Sutton's Hospital in Charterhouse. c. 1
Sir Thomas Neville's estate: assurance of jointure to Frances Nevill and sale of lands by him and Lord Abergavenny for payment of debts and preferment of children. c. 2
Earl of Devon's estate. c. 3
Earl of Arundel's title, name, dignity and estate. c. 4
Lord Gerrard's estate: provision of jointure for any future wife, provision for younger children and securing maintenance for his sisters Alice, Frances and Elizabeth. c. 5
Confirmation of Earl of Bristol's letters patent. c. 6
William Morgan's estate: discharging the trust concerning property in Somerset. c. 7
Naturalization of Sir Robert Dyell and George Kerke. c. 8
Naturalization of Sir Daniel Deligne. c. 9
Naturalization of Isaac, Henry, Thomas and Bernard Asteley. c. 10
Naturalization of Sir Robert Ayton. c. 11
Naturalization of Samuel Powell. c. 12
Vincent Lowe's estate: amendment of the Act of 1623 [c. 21] [sale of land for payment of debts]. c. 13
Naturalization of Alexander Levingston. c. 14
Naturalization of James Freese. c. 15
Restitution in blood of Carew Raleigh, son of Sir Walter Raleigh, and confirmation of Earl of Bristol's letters patent. c. 16
Naturalization of John, Mary, Ann, Elizabeth and Margaret Aldersey. c. 17
Confirmation of estates of customary tenants of Henry, Baron of Rye, in the manor of Horneby and elsewhere in the townships of Tatham, Gressingham and Eskrigg (Lancashire). c. 18
Naturalization of John and Anne Trumball, William, Edward and Sidney Bere and Samuel Wentworth. c. 19
1631–1640
1640 (16 Cha. 1)
The first session of the 5th Parliament of King Charles I (the 'Long Parliament') which met from 3 November 1640 until 21 August 1642.
Notes:
This session was traditionally cited as 16 Car. 1; it is listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as 16 Cha. 1
Private Act c. 1 is printed as Public Act c. 38 in "The Statutes of the Realm"; it is also listed in the "Chronological Table of the Statutes" as c. 38
Acts in this session were passed between 1641 and 1642
Public Acts
Triennial Act 1641 c. 1 An Act for preventing of Inconveniences happening by the long Intermission of Parliaments. (16 February 1641) — repealed by Triennial Parliaments Act 1664
(Taxation) c. 2 An Act for Relief of His Majesty's Army and the Northern Parts of the Kingdom. (16 February 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 3 An Act for the reforming of some things mistaken in the late act made in this present parliament for the granting of four subsidies, intituled, "An act for the relief of his Majesty's army, and the northern parts of this kingdom," and to make good the acts of the commissions and other officers by them authorized or appointed, and to be authorized or appointed. (25 March 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 4 An Act for the relief of his Majesty's army, and the northern parts of the kingdom.
(Impressment of seamen) c. 5 An Act for the better raising and levying of mariners, sailors and others for the present guarding of the seas, and necessary defence of the realm. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Michaelmas term) c. 6 An Act concerning the limitation and abbreviation of Michaelmas term. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Parliament) c. 7 – An Act to prevent inconveniences which may happen by the untimely adjourning, proroguing, or dissolving this present Parliament. (10 May 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 8 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 9 An Act for the speedy Provision of Money, for disbanding the Armies and settling the Peace of the Two Kingdoms of England and Scotland. (3 July 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Habeas Corpus Act 1640 c. 10 An Act for the regulating of the privy council, and for taking away the court commonly called the star-chamber. (5 July 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Abolition of High Commission Court Act 1640 c. 11 A repeal of a branch of a statute primo Elizabethæ, concerning commissions for causes ecclesiastical. (5 July 1641)
(Taxation) c. 12 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Payment for billets) c. 13 An Act for the securing of such Monies as are or shall be due to the Inhabitants of the County of Yorke, and the other adjoining Counties, wherein His Majesty's Army is or hath been billeted, for the Billet of the Soldiers of the said Army; as also to certain Officers of the said Army, who do forbear Part of their Pay, according to an Order in that Behalf made in the House of Commons this present Session, for such Part of their Pay as they shall forbear. (7 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Ship Money Act 1640 c. 14 An Act for the declaring unlawful and void the late Proceedings touching Ship-money, and for the vacating of all Records and Process concerning the same. (7 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
(Stannaries Court) c. 15 An Act against divers Incroachments and Oppressions in the Stannary Courts. (7 August 1641)
Delimitation of Forests Act 1640 c. 16 An Act for the Certainty of Forests, and of the Meers, Metes, Limits, and Bounds of the Forests. (7 August 1641) — repealed by Wild Creatures and Forest Laws Act 1971
Pacification, England and Scotland Act 1640 c. 17 An Act for the Confirmation of the Treaty of Pacification between the Two Kingdoms of England and Scotland. (10 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Payment to Scotland) c. 18 An Act for securing by Publick Faith the Remainder of the Friendly Assistance and Relief promised to our Brethren of Scotland. (10 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Clerk of the Market Act 1640 c. 19 – An Act for the better ordering and regulating of the Office of the Clerk of the Market, allowed and confirmed by this Statute; and for the Reformation of false Weights and Measures. (10 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Knighthood) c. 20 An Act for the Prevention of vexatious Proceedings touching the Order of Knighthood. (10 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Gunpowder) c. 21 An Act for the free bringing in of Gunpowder and Salt-petre from Foreign Parts, and for the free making of Gunpowder in this Realm. (10 August 1641) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Subsidy) c. 22 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Impressment of seamen) c. 23 An Act for pressing of Mariners and Sailors, for the present Guarding of the Seas, and the Defence of His Majesty's Dominions. (15 January 1642)
(Piracy) c. 24 An Act for the freeing of the Captives at Algier; and to prevent the taking of others. (15 January 1642) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 25 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Impressment of seamen) c. 26 An Act for the better raising and levying of Mariners, Sailors, and others, for the present guarding of the Seas, and necessary Defence of this Realm and other of His Majesty's Dominions. (4 February 1642) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Clergy Act 1640 c. 27 An Act for the disenabling all persons in holy orders to exercise any temporal jurisdiction or authority. (14 February 1642)
(Impressment of soldiers) c. 28 An Act for the raising of soldiers for the defence of England and Ireland. (14 February 1642) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Subsidy) c. 29 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
Relief of Ireland Act 1640 c. 30 An Act for a contribution and loan for the distressed people of Ireland. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 31 — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Taxation) c. 32
Adventurers' Act 1640 c. 33 An Act for reducing the rebels in Ireland to their obedience to his Majesty and the crown of England. (19 March 1642) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1950
(Lands of Irish rebels; adventurers' subscriptions) c. 34 – An Act for the explanation of a former act for reducing the rebels in Ireland. (6 April 1642) — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1950
(Lands of Irish rebels; adventurers' subscriptions) c. 35 – An Act to enable corporations to adventure to Ireland. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1950
(Taxation) c. 36
Irish Rebels Act 1640 c. 37 An Act for the further reducing of the rebels in Ireland to their obedience to the King and crown of England. — repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1863
(Attainder of Earl of Strafford) c. 38
Private Acts
Earl of Strafford's attainder. c. 1
Marquis of Winchester's estate: enabling grant of leases of three lives or 21 years of lands in Hampshire. c. 2
Naturalization of Dorothy Spencer. c. 3
Earl of Winchelsea's estate: sale and leasing of lands for payment of debts. c. 4
Estate of Elizabeth, Dowager Countess of Exeter: vesting in her the site of St. Leonard's Hospital, Newark-upon-Trent (Nottinghamshire) and vesting other property in the hospital in lieu. c. 5
Hoole Chapel (Lancashire): making it a parish church. c. 6 An Act for the making of the Chapel of Hoole, in the County of Lancaster, a Parish Church, and no Part of the Parish of Croston. (7 August 1641)
John Eggar's Free School, Alton (Hampshire). c. 7 An Act for John Eggar's Free-school, within the Parish of Alton, in the County of Southampton. (7 August 1641)
Settling property on Katherine, Dowager Countess of Bedford, William, Earl of Bedford, John Russell and Edward Russell. c. 8 An Act for the settling of certain Manors, Lands, Tenements, and Hereditaments, on Katherine Countess Dowager of Bedford, William now Earl of Bedford, John Russell and Edward Russell, Esquires, Sons of Francis Earl of Bedford, deceased. (7 August 1641)
Confirmation of letters patent to Plymouth, division of the parish and erection of a new church. c. 9 An Act for the Confirmation of His Majesty's Letters Patents to the Town of Plymouth, and for dividing the Parish and building of a new Church there. (7 August 1641)
Bishop of London's estate: alteration of the tenure of lands held of the manor of Fulham. c. 10 An Act for the Alteration of the Estate and Tenure of some Lands, within the Parish of Fulham, in the County of Middlesex, held of the Lord Bishop of London, as of the Manor of Fulham. (7 August 1641)
Settlement of manor of Belgrave and other lands (Leicestershire) on William Byerly towards payment of debts of William Davenport deceased. c. 11 An Act to settle the Manor of Belgrave, and other Lands, in the County of Leycester, to and upon William Byerly, Esquire, his Heirs and Assigns, for (fn. 5) and towards Payment of the Debts of William Davenport, Esquire, deceased. (7 August 1641)
Sir Alexander Denton's estate: power to sell manor of Barford St Michael (Oxfordshire) for payment of debts and preferment of children. c. 12 An Act to enable Sir Alexander Denton, Knight, to sell the Manor of Great Barvard, alias Barford Saint Michaell, and other Lands in this present Act mentioned, for the Payment of his Debts, and Preferment of his younger Children. (7 August 1641)
Bishop of Durham's estate: assurance of Durham House, St Martin in-the-Fields to Philip, Earl of Pembroke, and a yearly rent of £200 to the Bishop of Durham and his successors in lieu. c. 13
See also
List of Acts of the Parliament of England
References
1603
17th century in English law |
4172020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%20%28surname%29 | Stone (surname) | Stone is a surname of Old English origin which means "stone".
List of people with the surname
A
Adam Stone, American professor and political scientist
Alan Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Alan A. Stone (1929–2022), American scholar of law and psychology at Harvard, and film critic
Alan Stone (opera director) (1929–2008), founder of the Chicago Opera Theater
Alan Stone (wrestler) (born 1977), Mexican professional wrestler
Albert Stone (born 1928), owner of Sterilite and a philanthropist from Townsend, Massachusetts
Alfred Stone (disambiguation), several people, including:
Alfred Stone (musician) (1840–1878), English organist and choir-trainer
Alfred Stone (1834–1908), American architect from Rhode Island; partner in Stone, Carpenter & Willson
Alfred Holt Stone (1879–1955), American planter, writer, politician, from Mississippi
Alfred P. Stone (1813–1865), American politician from Ohio
Allan Stone (born 1945), Australian tennis player
Allen Stone (born 1987), American musician
Amy Wentworth Stone (1876–1938), American children's book author
Andrew Stone (disambiguation), several people
Andrew Stone, Baron Stone of Blackheath (born 1942), Labour member of the House of Lords
Andrew Stone (cricketer) (born 1983), Zimbabwean cricketer
Andrew Stone (field hockey), represented United States at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Andrew Stone (footballer) for Indy Eleven
Andrew Stone (MP) (1703–1773), British MP for Hastings, 1741–1761
Andrew Stone (Pineapple Dance Studios), dance instructor, cast member of English reality TV series
Andrew Stone (sailor), participated in Sailing at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's 470
Andrew A. Stone (1885-?), head football coach for the University of Tennessee, 1910
Andrew C. Stone (born 1956), American computer programmer
Andrew H. Stone, American judge in the State of Utah
Andrew L. Stone (1902–1999), American screenwriter, director, and producer
Andrew Leete Stone (1815–1892), author, Civil War chaplain and pastor
Angie Stone (born 1961), American R&B singer
Anthony Stone, British theoretical chemist
Arthur Stone (disambiguation), several people, including:
Arthur Stone (priest) (died 1927), Irish-English Anglican priest and Archdeacon of Calcutta
Arthur J. Stone (1847–1938), American silversmith
Arthur Burr Stone (1874–1943), American aviation pioneer
Arthur Stone (actor) (1883–1940), American film actor
Arthur Thomas Stone (1897–1988), politician in Saskatchewan, Canada
Arthur Harold Stone (1916–2000), British mathematician
Arthur Stone (rugby union) (born 1960), New Zealand rugby union player
B
Barton Warren Stone (1772–1844), preacher during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century
Bernard Stone (1927–2005), alderman of the 50th Ward in Chicago
Bill Stone (footballer) (1894–1975), Australian rules footballer for Fitzroy
Bill Stone (politician) (born 1965), member of the Mississippi State Senate
Bill Stone (Royal Navy sailor) (1900–2009) British veteran of WWI and WWII
Billy Stone (American football) (1925–2004), running back
Billy Stone (arena football) (born 1963), American football fullback
Billy Stone (Australian footballer) (1901–1993), Australian rules footballer for Carlton
Billy Stone (rugby league), English rugby union and rugby league footballer who played in the 1910s and 1920s
Biz Stone (Christopher Isaac Stone, born 1974), American entrepreneur who co-founded Twitter
C
Carl Stone (born 1953), American composer
Charles Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Sir Charles Stone (mayor) (1850–1931), mayor of Greenwich, England, 1915–1920
Charles Stone III (born 1966), American film director, son of Chuck Stone
Charles B. Stone III (1904–1992), United States Air Force general
Charles D. Stone (1920–1992), Pennsylvania politician
Charles Edwin Stone (1889–1952), English recipient of the Victoria Cross
Charles Joel Stone (1936–2019), American statistician and mathematician
Charles Stone (English cricketer) (1865–1951), English cricketer
Charles Stone (New Zealand cricketer) (1866–1903), New Zealand cricketer
Charles Stone (priest) (died 1799), Anglican priest in Ireland
Charles P. Stone (1915–2012), American major general and commander of the 4th Infantry Division in the Vietnam War
Charles Pomeroy Stone (1824–1887), Union general during the American Civil War
Charles Warren Stone (1843–1912), United States Representative from and Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania
Charlie Stone (rugby league) (1950–2018), English rugby league player
Cheryl Stone, South African-born co-founder of Bangarra Dance Theatre, an Indigenous dance company in Australia
Chic Stone (1923–2000), comic book artist
Chris Stone (Animation Director), Animation director of Dead Space (video game) and other games
Chris Stone (entrepreneur), co-founder of the Record Plant recording studios
Chris Stone (footballer) (born 1959), Australian rules footballer
Chris Stone (sprinter) (born 1995), British sprint athlete and runner-up at the 2019 British Indoor Athletics Championships
Christopher Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Christopher Stone (MP) (1556–1614), English politician
Christopher Stone (actor) (1942–1995), American actor
Christopher Stone (broadcaster) (1882–1965), first disc jockey in the United Kingdom
Christopher Stone (cricketer) (born 1951), English cricketer
Christopher Stone (criminal justice expert), American criminal justice expert
Christopher Stone, Research Director, Centre for Policy Development, Australia
Christopher Stone, contestant in series 4 of Britain's Got Talent
C.J. Stone (Christopher James Stone, born 1953), author, journalist and freelance writer
Chuck Stone (1924–2014), journalist and Tuskegee airman
Clara Stone Fields Collins (1908–1981), Alabama legislator
Cliffie Stone (1917–1998), American country singer, musician, record producer, music publisher, and radio and TV personality
Clyde E. Stone (1876–1948), American jurist
Curt Stone (1922–2021), American long-distance runner
D
Daren Stone (born 1985), National Football League defensive back for Atlanta Falcons
Dave Stone (born 1964), British author of several Dr. Who and Judge Dredd spin-off novels
David Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
David B. Stone (1927–2010), American businessman
David E. Stone (born 1947), American sound editor
David Henry Stone (1812–1890), Lord Mayor of London in 1874
David John Anthony Stone (born 1947), British Army officer and military historian
David Lee Stone (born 1978), British fantasy author
David R. Stone (born 1968), American military historian
David Scott Stone, musician
David Stone (cyclist) (born 1981), British cyclist
David Stone (footballer) (born 1942), English footballer
David Stone (keyboardist) (born 1953), keyboardist
David Stone (magician) (born 1972), French magician
David Stone (politician) (1770–1818), American politician, Governor of North Carolina and U.S. Senator
David Stone (producer) (born 1966), American theatre and musical producer</onlyinclude>
Dean Stone (1929–2018), Major League Baseball pitcher
Devin James Stone, American lawyer and YouTuber
Don Stone (publisher), DJ, publisher and businessman
Donnie Stone, American football player
Donna J. Stone (1933–1994), American poet and philanthropist
Doug Stone (born 1956), American country singer
Doug Stone (voice actor) (born 1950), Canadian voice actor
Douglas Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Douglas M. Stone, United States Marine Corps general officer
Douglas Maxwell Stone (born 1948), Australian geologist and author
Doug Stone (born 1956), American country music singer
Doug Stone (voice actor) (born 1950), American actor
E
Edmund Stone (c. 1700 – c. 1768), Scottish mathematician
Edward Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Edward Stone (natural philosopher) (1702–1768), English cleric and discoverer of active ingredient in aspirin
Edward James Stone (1831–1897), British astronomer, president of the Royal Astronomical Society 1882–1884
Edward Albert Stone (1844–1920), Australian judge, chief justice in Western Australia
Edward Giles Stone (1873–1947), Australian engineer working with reinforced concrete and manufacturing cement
Edward Durell Stone (1902–1978), American modernist architect
Edward C. Stone or Ed Stone (born 1936), American astronomer
Edward R. Stone (died 2012), American swimmer and diver, later an educator
Edward Daniel Stone (1832–1916), deacon, classical scholar and schoolmaster at Eton College
Edward Durell Stone Jr. (1932–2009), American landscape architect
Eliphalet Stone (disambiguation), several people
Elizabeth Stone (disambiguation), several people
Elmer Fowler Stone (1887–1936), aviator and commander in the US Coast Guard
Emma Stone (born 1988), American actress and singer
Eugenia Stone (1872–1934), Australian journalist, later Lady Doughty
Ezra Stone (1917–1994), American actor
F
Francis Gordon Albert Stone (1925–2011), British chemist
Frank Stone (Wisconsin politician) (1876–1937), American politician
Fred Stone (1873–1959), American theater and film actor
Fred Stone (musician) (1935–1986), Canadian musician
Freddie Stone (born 1946), Sly & the Family Stone singer/guitarist
Frederick Stone (1820–1899), American politician from Maryland
G
Galen L. Stone (1862–1926), American financier and philanthropist
George Stone (disambiguation), several people including
George Stone (basketball) (1946–1993), American basketball player
George Stone (bishop) (1708–1764), Irish archbishop and sermon writer
George Stone (composer) (born 1965), American composer and educator
George Stone (outfielder) (1876–1945), American Major League Baseball batting champion
George Stone (pitcher) (born 1946), American baseball pitcher
George Stone (politician) (1907–2001), British socialist journalist
George Albert Stone III (born 1994), American rapper known professionally as EST Gee
George Cameron Stone (1858–1935), American arms collector and author
George E. Stone (1903–1967), Polish-born American actor
George Frederick Stone (1812–1875), Western Australia Attorney General and census writer
George Lawrence Stone (1886–1967), American drummer and author
Georgie Stone (1909–2010), American silent film child actor in Rio Grande (1920 film)
Georgie Stone (born 2000), Australian actress and transgender rights advocate
Geno Stone (born 1999), American football player
Gordon Stone (rugby union) (Charles Gordon Stone, 1914–2015), Australian rugby union player
Grace Zaring Stone (1891–1991), American author
H
Hal Stone (died 2007), American actor
Harlan Fiske Stone (1872–1946), Chief Justice of the United States
Henry Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Henry Stone born Henry David Epstein (1921–2014), American record company executive
Henry Stone (comedian) (born 1988), Australian comedian, writer, and actor
Henry Stone (painter) (1616–1653), English painter
Henry Stone, 1887 mayor of Shire of Hinchinbrook
Herbert L. Stone, an American magazine editor and publisher, and a renowned sailor
Homer A. Stone (1868–1938), American politician
Horace M. Stone (1890–1944), New York politician
I
I. F. Stone (Isidor Feinstein Stone, 1907–1989), American journalist
Isabelle Stone, (1868–1944), American physicist
Irving Stone (1903–1989), American author
Irwin Stone (1907–1984) biochemist
Ivan Brude Stone (1907-1985), American businessman and politician
J
J. F. S. Stone (John Frederick Smerdon Stone, c. 1891–1957), British archaeologist
J. N. Stone (1882–1926), college football and basketball coach
J. Riley Stone (1886–1978), Wisconsin State Assemblyman
James Stone (disambiguation), several people including
James Stone, ring name of James Maritato, American wrestler
James Stone (academic administrator), first president of Kalamazoo College, involved in the founding of the United States Republican Party
James Stone (American football) (born 1992), American football player
James Stone (executive) (born 1947), American business executive
Jamie Stone (politician) (born 1954), Scottish politician
James L. Stone (1922–2012), United States Army officer and Medal of Honor recipient
James M. Stone, politician in the Massachusetts House of Representatives
James Riley Stone (1908–2005), Canadian military commander of the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry during the Battle of Kapyong
James W. Stone (1813–1854), United States Representative from Kentucky
Jamie Magnus Stone (born 1985), Scottish film director and animator
Jeff Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Jeff Stone (author) (active since 2003), American author of Kung Fu themed books for children
Jeff Stone (baseball) (born 1960), American former baseball outfielder
Jeff Stone (California politician) (born 1956), American politician in California State Senate since 2014
Jeff Stone (Wisconsin politician) (born 1961), American politician in Wisconsin State Assembly
B. Jeff Stone (1936–2011), American rockabilly and country singer
Jeffrey Stone (1926–2012), American actor and voice-over artist
Jennifer Stone (born 1993), American actress
Jeremy Stone (1935–2017), scientist and activist
Jesse Stone (disambiguation), several people
Jesse Stone (Georgia politician), state senator from Georgia (U.S. state)
Jesse Stone (Wisconsin politician) (1836–1902), Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin from 1899 to 1903
Jimmy Stone (1876–1942), English cricketer
Joanna Stone (born 1972), Australian javelin thrower
John Stone (disambiguation), several people including
John Stone (actor) (1924–2007), Welsh actor
John Stone (American football) (born 1979), American football player
John Stone (Australian politician) (born 1929), Australian Senator and Treasury Secretary
John Stone (baseball) (1905–1955), American baseball outfielder
John Stone (footballer) (born 1953), English footballer
John Stone (martyr) (died c. 1539), English martyr
John Stone (Parliamentarian) (before 1632 – after 1659), English politician
John Stone (MP for Wallingford) (before 1679 – after 1685), English politician
John Stone (producer) (1888–1961), American film producer and screenwriter
John Stone (1765) (1765–1834), American church deacon
John A. Stone (died 1864), American collector and publisher of folk songs
John Augustus Stone (1801–1834), American dramatist and playwright
Sir John Benjamin Stone (1838–1914), British Member of Parliament
John G. Stone (1876–1934), Newfoundland politician
John Hoskins Stone (1750–1804), American politician
John Hurford Stone (1763–1818), British radical political reformer and publisher
John Marshall Stone (1830–1900), American politician and Governor of Mississippi, 1876–1882 and 1890–1896
John N. Stone (1882–1926), American football coach at Clemson University in 1908
John Stone Stone (1869–1943), American mathematician, physicist and inventor
John Timothy Stone (1868–1954), American Presbyterian clergyman
John W. Stone (1838–1922), American politician and jurist from Michigan
John Stone (comics), character in DC Comics Planetary series
Jon Stone (1931–1997), children's television writer
Jordan Stone (born 1984), American soccer player
Joseph Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Joseph Stone, Baron Stone (1903–1986), Officer in the British Army, doctor, and royal peer
Joseph Champlin Stone (1829–1902), U.S. Representative from Iowa
Joseph Stone (screenwriter), screenwriter, see Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)
Joshua David Stone (died 2005), author and meditation teacher
J. Stone & Co founded by Josiah Stone, British engineer
Joss Stone (born 1987), British soul singer
Julian Stone (born 1962), British actor
Julius Stone (1907–1985), professor of law
K
Kate Stone (1841–1907), diarist
L
Leonard Stone (1923–2011), television and film actor
Lewis Stone, (1879–1953), American actor
Lucinda Hinsdale Stone (1814–1900), American feminist, educator, traveler, writer, philanthropist
Lucy Stone (1818–1893), women's rights activist
M
Mark Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Mark Stone, real name Mark Kennedy (police officer) (born 1969), undercover Metropolitan Police officer in the UK
Mark Stone (baritone) (born 1969), British baritone
Mark Stone (ice hockey) (born 1992), Canadian ice hockey player
Mark Stone (journalist), Asia Correspondent of Sky News, from 2012
Mark Stone (politician), California politician
Marshall Harvey Stone (1903–1989), American mathematician
Martin Stone (disambiguation), several people, including
Martin Stone (actor), actor in British TV serial The Chronicles of Narnia
Martin Stone (guitarist) (1946–2016), guitarist and rare book dealer
Martin Stone, co-founder of the Carlin Motorsport team
Martin Stone (wrestler), British wrestler
Matt Stone (born 1971), comedian, a co-creator of the TV series South Park
Merlin Stone, sculptor, author, academic
Michael Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Michael Stone (American football) (born 1978), safety for the Houston Texans
Michael Stone (Australian Army officer), Australian Army officer
Michael Stone (author) (born 1966), English author
Michael Stone (criminal) (born 1960), English convicted murderer
Michael Stone (cyclist) (born 1991), American cyclist
Michael Stone (Hustle), a character from the UK television series Hustle
Michael Stone (ice hockey) (born 1990), Canadian ice hockey player
Michael Stone (loyalist) (born 1955), loyalist paramilitary from Northern Ireland
Michael H. Stone, American psychiatrist
Michael Stone, the nom de guerre of the American and later Israeli military officer Mickey Marcus, David "Mickey" Marcus
Michael Jenifer Stone (1747–1812), U.S. politician
Michael P. W. Stone (1925–1995), Secretary of the U.S. Army
Michael E. Stone (born 1938), scholar of Armenian studies
Mike Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Mike Stone (baseball) (born 1955), American college baseball coach
Mike Stone (defence) (born 1953), Chief Information Officer of the British Ministry of Defence
Mike Stone (ice hockey) (born 1972), retired American professional ice hockey centre
Mike Stone (karate) (born 1944), American martial arts competitor and actor
Mike Stone (lacrosse) (born 1986), current player for the Boston Cannons
Mike Stone (musician) (born 1969), guitarist for the progressive metal band Queensrÿche
Mike Stone (radio personality) (born 1958), sports radio broadcaster in Detroit, Michigan
Mike C. Stone (born 1970), American businessman and politician from North Carolina
Mike Stone (record producer) (1951–2002), English recording engineer and record producer
Mike D. Stone (1949–2017), American recording engineer
Mike Stone, founder of independent record label Clay Records, Stoke-on-Trent
Mike Stone (character), lead character of The Streets of San Francisco
Milburn Stone (1904–1980), actor
N
Nicholas Stone (1586/87–1647), English sculptor and architect
Nick Stone (disambiguation) several people, including:
Nick Stone (author) (born 1966), British thriller writer
Nick Stone (screenwriter), see Alien Intruder
Nick Stone (footballer born 1981), Australian rules footballer, played with Hawthorn & St Kilda between 2002 and 2005
Nick Stone (footballer born 1972), Australian rules footballer, played with West Coast between 1997 and 2000
Norman Stone (1941–2019), British professor of history
O
Oliver Stone (born 1946), American motion picture scriptwriter and director
P
Patrick Thomas Stone (1889–1963) United States federal judge
Pete Stone, footballer in the 1956 Summer Olympics
Peter Stone (disambiguation), several people
Peter Stone (footballer) (born 1954), Australian footballer
Pete Stone, Australian footballer in the 1956 Summer Olympics
Peter Stone (professor) (born 1971), professor in computer science at the University of Texas at Austin
Peter G. Stone (born 1957), British archaeologist
Philip Stone (1924–2003), English film actor
R
Richard Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Richard Stone (anti-racism activist) (born 1937), British medical doctor and activist
Richard Stone (composer) (1953–2001), American composer
Richard Stone (fencer) (1926–2006), Australian Olympic fencer
Richard Stone (musician), American lutenist
Richard Stone (painter) (born 1951), British portrait painter
Richard Stone (sculptor and painter) (born 1974), British sculptor and painter
Richard Stone (politician) (1928–2019), U.S. Senator from Florida
Richard Stone (priest), Archdeacon of Lewes, 1393–1395
Richard Stone, also known as Charlie Stone (rugby league) (1950–2018), English rugby league footballer who played in the 1970s, and 1980s
Richard Stone, member of rock band Mayday (Taiwanese band)
Rick Stone, rugby league football coach
Ricky Stone (born 1975), baseball pitcher
Rob Stone (actor) (born 1962), American actor and director
Rob Stone (entrepreneur) (born 1968), New York-based executive
Rob Stone (rapper) (born 1995), American rapper
Rob Stone (sportscaster), American football and soccer commentator
Robert Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Robert Stone (architect) (born 1968), American architect based in Southern California
Robert Stone (athlete) (born 1965), Australian sprinter
Robert Stone (attorney) (1866–1957), Speaker of the Kansas House of Representatives, 1915
Robert Stone (basketball) (born 1987), Australian basketball player
Robert Stone (British Army officer) (1890–1974)
Robert Stone (composer) (1516–1614), English composer
Robert Stone (cricketer) (1749–1820), English amateur cricketer
Robert Stone (director), Oscar-nominated documentary director for Radio Bikini
Robert Stone (novelist) (1937–2015), U.S. author, journalist
Robert Stone (rugby league) (1956–2005), Australian player for St. George Dragons
Robert Stone (scientist) (1922–2016), professor, doctor, director National Institutes of Health
Robert Stone (silversmith) (1903–1990), English silversmith
Robert Stone (trail guide writer) (born 1951), writer of hiking books
Robert Granville Stone (1907–2002), American philatelic scholar
Robert King Stone (1822–1872), doctor who served U.S. President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War
Robert L. Stone (1922–2009), chief executive of the Hertz Corporation
Robert Spencer Stone (1895–1966), Canadian American pioneer in radiology, radiation therapy and radiation protection
Roger Stone (born 1952) American political consultant, author, lobbyist and strategist
Rose Stone (born 1945), Sly & the Family Stone singer/keyboardist
Royal A. Stone (1875–1942), American jurist
Ruby Stone (1924–2013), American politician
Rupert Stone (1972–2005), American serial killer
Ruth Stone (1915–2011), American poet
Ryan Stone (born 1985), ice hockey player
S
Sandy Stone (artist) (born 1936), American author and artist
Sean Stone (born 1984), film director, producer, cinematographer, screenwriter, and actor.
Shane Stone, Chief Minister of the Northern Territory (1995–1999)
Sharman Stone (born 1951), member of the Australian House of Representatives
Sharon Stone (born 1958), U.S. actress
Sly Stone (born 1944), Sly & the Family Stone singer-songwriter, frontman
Spencer Stone (born 1992), American United States Air Force staff sergeant
Steve Stone (disambiguation), several people
Stu Stone, film, television, and voice actor
T
Tanya Lee Stone (born 1965), American author
Ted G. Stone (1934–2006), Southern Baptist evangelist
Thomas Stone (1743–1787), a signer of the US Declaration of Independence as a delegate from Maryland
Thomas Treadwell Stone (1801–1895), American Unitarian pastor and abolitionist
Tobias Stone (died 2012), American bridge player
Tom Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Tom Stone (soccer), head coach of the women's soccer team at Texas Tech University
Tom Stone (photographer) (born 1971), American documentary photographer
Tom Stone (magician) (born 1967), otherwise known as Thomas Bengtsson, Swedish magician, editor and author
Thomas Treadwell Stone (1801–1895), American Unitarian pastor, Abolitionist, and Transcendentalist
Tom Stone (wrestler), American wrestler
Tony Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Tony Stone (filmmaker), American independent filmmaker
Tony Stone (music producer) (born 1982), American music producer and project developer for Christian hip hop artists
Tony Stone (Edinburgh), Scottish entrepreneur and founder of porridge maker Stoats Porridge Bars
Tuffy Stone, American competitive barbecue chef
U
Ulysses S. Stone (1878–1962), American politician from Oklahoma
V
Vet Stone (born 1949), Sly & the Family Stone singer
Vicki Stone (born 1949), American folk artist
W
Walter Stone (disambiguation), several people including
Walter Napleton Stone (1891–1917), English recipient of the Victoria Cross
Walter F. Stone (1822–1874), Republican politician and judge in Ohio
Walter W. Stone (1910–1981), Australian book publisher and book collector
Walter Stone (screenwriter) (1920–1999), chief writer for The Honeymooners
Warren Stanford Stone (1860–1925), railway engineer, headed Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers from 1903 to 1925.
William Stone (disambiguation), several people including
William Stone (attorney) (1842–1897), Freedmen's Bureau agent, Attorney General of South Carolina
William Stone (baritone) (born 1944), operatic baritone
William Stone (caver) (born 1952), expeditionary caver
William Stone (MP for Salisbury), Member of Parliament (MP) for Salisbury (UK Parliament constituency)
William Stone (Maryland governor) (1603–1660), governor of the colony of Maryland
William Stone (Tennessee politician) (1791–1853), U.S. Representative from Tennessee
William A. Stone (1846–1920), governor of Pennsylvania
William C. Stone, Chairman and CEO of SS&C Technologies
William Carlos Stone (1859–1939), philatelist
William Duncan Stone, Hong Kong judge, see Silver Bauhinia Star
William F. Stone (1909–1973), Virginia lawyer and legislator
William Frank Stone, Canadian ambassador to Afghanistan
William Henry Stone (1828–1901), U.S. representative from Missouri
William Henry Stone (MP) (1834–1896), British politician, MP for Portsmouth, 1865–1874
William Henry Stone (physician) (1830–1891), English physician, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians
William Johnson Stone (1841–1923), US Representative from Kentucky
William J. Stone (1848–1918), governor of Missouri
William M. Stone (1827–1893), governor of Iowa
William H. Stone (politician), California politician
William Leete Stone (disambiguation), multiple people
William Murray Stone (1779–1838), American Episcopal bishop of Maryland
William Oliver Stone (1830–1875), American portrait painter
William S. Stone (1910–1968), U.S. Air Force general and U.S. Air Force Academy superintendent
Wilson Stone (disambiguation), several people:
Wilson Stone (scientist) (1907–1968), American geneticist and zoologist
Wilson Stone (politician), US politician from Kentucky
Witmer Stone (1866–1939), American ornithologist, botanist, and mammalogist
Fictional characters
Stone, fictional character in the G.I. Joe universe
Agent Stone, the secondary antagonist of the film Sonic the Hedgehog and its sequel
Benjamin Stone in the TV series Law & Order
Candace Stone, a character in the TV series You
Charlie Stone, a character in the TV series Veronica Mars
Judge Harold T. Stone in the TV series Night Court
Henry Stone, fictional character in The Fugitive
Dr. Jeremy Stone, character in the film The Andromeda Strain
Jesse Stone, policeman in Jesse Stone novels by Robert B. Parker, also a film series featuring Tom Selleck in the title role
Michael Stone (Hustle) played by Adrian Lester on the BBC drama series Hustle
Lt. Mike Stone played by Karl Malden in The Streets of San Francisco
Nick Stone, fictional hero of several books by Andy McNab
Patsy Stone, character in the comedy series Absolutely Fabulous
Peter Stone, a character in the drama series Degrassi: The Next Generation
Ramona A. Stone, character in the 1995 David Bowie album Outside
Sam Stone, fictional U.S. veteran of the Vietnam War in the John Prine song of the same name
Sandy Stone (character) played by Barry Humphries
Steven Stone, see List of Pokémon characters
Tom Stone, character in Tom Stone, a 2002–2003 Canadian TV series known in the U.S. as Stone Undercover
Victor Stone, better known by his alias, Cyborg, one of DC's Teen Titans
Families
Stone family in the 2005 comedy The Family Stone
Kelly Stone, played by Craig T. Nelson
Sybil Stone, played by Diane Keaton
Everett Stone, played by Dermot Mulroney
Ben Stone, played by Luke Wilson
Amy Stone, played by Rachel McAdams
Thad Stone, played by Tyrone Giordano
Susannah Stone Trousdale, by Elizabeth Reaser
Stone family in the 2013 comedy series Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous
Zach Stone, played by Bo Burnham
Sydney Stone, played by Kari Coleman
Drew Stone, played by Tom Wilson
Andy Stone, played by Cameron Palatas
Stone family in the 2018 drama series Manifest
Michaela Stone, played by Melissa Roxburgh
Ben Stone, played by Josh Dallas
Grace Stone, played by Athena Karkanis
Olive Stone, played by Luna Blaise
Cal Stone, played by Jack Messina and Ty Doran
Steve Stone, played by Malachy Cleary
Karen Stone, played by Geraldine Leer
See also
Stones (surname)
Stone (disambiguation)
References
English-language surnames
Surnames of English origin
Surnames of Old English origin |
4172627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical%20Archaeology%20Society | Nautical Archaeology Society | The Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) is a charity registered in England and Wales and in Scotland and is a company limited by guarantee.
The charitable aims and object of the company are to further research in Nautical Archaeology and publish the results of such research and to advance education and training in the techniques pertaining to the study of Nautical Archaeology for the benefit of the public.
Nautical archaeology is an archaeological sub-discipline more generally known as maritime archaeology. It encompasses the archaeology of shipwrecks, underwater archaeology in seas and elsewhere and the archaeology of related features.
The society's logo is derived from the image of a merchant sailing ship on a Bichrome Ware Cypro-Archaic pottery jug 750-600BC, thought to be from the Karpas Peninsula in North Cyprus. The ancient vessel is part of the British Museum's collection (GR 1926.6-28.9). An analysis of how the iconography on this pot has been misinterpreted in recent history and how the image has been adapted for the society's logo, can be read in the editorial of the society's publication the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2000) 29.1: 1–2.
History
Council for Nautical Archaeology
The predecessor of the Nautical Archaeology Society was the Council for Nautical Archaeology (CNA). This was formed in 1964
initially under the name the Committee for Nautical Archaeology:"so as to ensure that the many discoveries being made by divers should not go by default through lack of contact with the appropriate learned bodies and to act as a channel of communication with the many interests that were growing up in this new field of research and exploration."
The inaugural meeting of the CNA was held in Joan du Plat Taylor's office at the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, at the University of London. The Council includedindividuals from the Council for British Archaeology, the [Science Museum], the [Museum of London], the National Maritime Museum, [Bristol University], and the Institute of Archaeology at London University. The Society for Nautical Research, the Society for Post Medieval Archaeology. and the British Sub-Aqua Club were also represented on the council.
It was the CNA that was responsible for establishing the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and the Nautical Archaeology Trust in 1972, but it was also concerned with the promotion of legislation for the protection of nautical archaeological sites playing a key part in what became the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973.
In 1984 the CNA was incorporated into the Council for British Archaeology as one of its research sub-committees
The Nautical Archaeology Trust
The predecessor of the Nautical Archaeology Society was a truust originally incorporated and registered as a charity under the name (The) Nautical Archaeological Trust Limited.
The Trust was established by the Council for Nautical Archaeology as its limited liability charitable arm. As a corporate body the Trust gained the legal ability to enter into contracts and to hold assets. The Trust's objects were
"the furtherance of research into nautical archaeology and the publication of the results of such research together with the advancement of training and education in the techniques pertaining to the study of nautical archaeology for the benefit of the public"
The Trust organised lectures, conferences and seminars, produced a newsletter and had a mechanism for associate membership for groups, associate individual members and subscribers. Associate membership provided a discounted purchase price for the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology.
In 1974, the then chairman of the CNA and of NAT, Professor W. F. Grimes, proposed that what was needed was a membership society but this took some years to establish. The CNA and the Trust eventually agreed the form of constitution of such a Society and the inaugural meeting took place in 1981. The intention of the Society was to act as a forum for the interchange of ideas and all of the associates and subscribers of the Trust were transferred to full membership the Society. The specific intention was to further cooperation between amateurs and professionals and its impact spread beyond the UK with a third of the new membership in its first year being from outside the UK. Joan du Plat Taylor was the first president.
For a few years from 1981, the activities of the charity (the Trust) were separated from the interchange between the members (the Society) although both had identical aims, but the situation was resolved by a special meeting of the Trust held on 3 July 1986 at the Science Museum. At this meeting, the members of the Trust voted to change the name of the Trust to the Nautical Archaeology Society and to change the constitution (the articles of association) to reflect the change to a membership organisation. The reconstituted organisation continued to have responsibility for producing the IJNA and a clause safeguarding the academic standards of the journal was added to the articles. The renamed Trust thus subsumed the role of providing a forum for the interchange of ideas and the memberships of those who had participated in the Society (many of whom were in any case the original associates and subscribers of the Trust) transferred to membership of the incorporated body.
The beginning of NAS training
With the dual advantages of a participatory membership and its status as a registered charity, in 1986 the newly reconstituted Nautical Archaeology Society ran the first events in what later became its four-part internationally accredited training syllabus.
NAS training and education
NAS training in the UK
The society educates and trains professional and avocational archaeologists and commercial and recreational divers. The aim of the NAS training syllabus is to develop awareness, respect for and understanding of the maritime cultural heritage and to develop capability in the maritime archaeological sector by training in relevant archaeological and underwater skills as well as to develop knowledge and understanding of the technology of the past.
In the past, NAS Training has been supported by Cadw and Historic Scotland to provide training opportunities in Wales and Scotland respectively. The development of the NAS training curriculum was supported by English Heritage and its predecessors from 1991 to 2004.
In 2015, the NAS Education Programme underwent a major revision to adapt to the increasing use of online learning and to make the qualification system more flexible. As of 2017, the NAS qualification system in the UK consists of the following:
NAS Foundation in Maritime Archaeology
10 or 15 credits
This qualification is achieved by completing:
Two Elearning courses: Intro to Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Archaeology or Intertidal Archaeology
Underwater Recorder and Surveyor Skills Days or Foreshore Recorder and Surveyor Skills Days
NAS Certificate in Maritime Archaeology
100 credits in total
This qualification is achieved by completing:
NAS Foundation, and
85 or 90 credits from Maritime Archaeology Courses, Events or Fieldwork
NAS Award in Maritime Archaeology
300 credits in total
This qualification is achieved by completing:
NAS Certificate (worth 100 credits),and an additional
200 credits from Maritime Archaeology Courses, Events or Fieldwork, and
A 2,000-word archaeological report
NAS members progress through these qualifications by earning credits which are accrued by participating in courses, events and fieldwork. Attending NAS-run activities accrues 5 credits per day while attending non-NAS or self-directed activities earns 2.5 credits per day.
NAS Training International
The NAS four-part qualification system is still used by the numerous International Training Partners that use a locally adapted version of the NAS syllabus to share knowledge and practical skills to local divers and non-divers. The list and contact details of current International Training Partners can be found here.
NAS Conference
The annual two-day NAS conference provides a forum for a wide range of presentations on nautical archaeology. At the event the annual Adopt-a-Wreck award is presented. Administration of the Muckelroy award was transferred to the NAS in 2009 and is presented every two years to the best publication.
Publications
International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (IJNA) is published bi-annually (Print , online ) for NAS by Wiley Publishing Ltd. It is a peer-reviewed academic journal but articles by amateur researchers that meet the journal's standards have been published.
IJNA aims to cover all aspects of nautical archaeological research including the seas, ships, cargos, harbours and sailors of the past.
IJNA was first published in 1972 under the founding editor Joan du Plat Taylor. Since 1980, IJNA has been edited by Ian Morrison, James Kirkman, Valerie Fenwick and Paula Martin. The current editor, Miranda Richardson, took over in 2012. Angela Croome held the position of reviews editor from the journal's foundation until 2016 when Paula Martin took over.
NAS Monograph Series
The first in the NAS monograph series is the report of the Sound of Mull Archaeological Project (SOMAP), which ran from 1994 to 2005.
The NAS monograph series was edited by Gerald Grainge until 2016, who was replaced by Julian Whitewright.
NAS Handbook
The NAS Handbook provides an introduction to underwater archaeology. The material in the handbook is consistent with the teaching of the NAS Training programme.
Awards
Joan du Plat Taylor Award
The Joan du Plat Taylor Award is a grant awarded annually by the Nautical Archaeology Society to support publication of nautical archaeological research. The grant was originally funded personally by Joan du Plat Taylor, the founder editor of IJNA and the first president of the Nautical Archaeology Society.
Adopt-a-Wreck
The Adopt-a-wreck scheme, run by the Nautical Archaeology Society was set up as a joint initiative with the Maritime and Coastguard Agency to encourage groups and individuals to take a close interest in a maritime site, and adopt a minimum level of stewardship, monitoring how the site changes over time. As well as shipwrecks, adopted sites can include harbour works and buildings with nautical connections, coastal habitations, hulks and other sea wrack of archaeological interest. The society maintains a register of all such adopted sites and since 2003 has provided an annual award to the person or group that has made the most significant contribution to maritime archaeology and research through the adoption process. A pilot for the Adopt-a-Wreck scheme was run on the East Indiaman Halsewell
Past winners of the Adopt-a-Wreck award have included:
2003. The Joint Services Dive Club and the Gibraltar Museum's Underwater Research Unit for their work on the "Inner and Outer" wreck sites at Gibraltar Harbour.
2004. The Queen's University Belfast Sub-Aqua Club (QUBSAC) for their investigation of the Alastor, a steel-hulled luxury motor yacht that sank in 1948
2005. The Weymouth LUNAR Society for their work on the Earl of Abergavenny shipwreck
2007. Paul Barnett for work on the hulks at Purton on the River Severn
2008. Ed Cumming and Todd Stevens for the project on the Nancy packet, the Rosevear Ledge wrecksite, published as a book.
2009. Alison Mayor and the Southsea Sub Aqua Club for Tanks & Bulldozers "Sleeping Centaurs" site off the south coast of England
2010. Southsea Sub Aqua Club for the Landing Craft LTC (A) 2428.
2011. Weymouth Lunar Society for the "Lost torpedoes of Weymouth and Portland".
Keith Muckelroy Award
This award is made in memory of Keith Muckelroy and until 2008 was awarded as part of the British Archaeological Awards. In 2008 the administration of the award was transferred to the Nautical Archaeological Society, and the award has been presented bi-annually at the NAS conference since 2009. It is awarded for the best published work covering maritime, nautical or underwater archaeology which best reflects the pioneering ideas and scholarly standards of Keith Muckelroy.
Projects
The Gresham Ship
In 2004 the Nautical Archaeological Society took custody of the remains of an Elizabethan wreck discovered in the Princes Channel of the Thames Estuary during dredging operations by the Port of London Authority. The remains represented a navigation hazard, and as they had been disturbed and damaged by the dredging operations, preservation in situ was not an option. The remains were investigated by Wessex Archaeology and dendrochronology by Nigel Nayling of the University of Wales gave a construction date of soon after 1754, probably in East Anglia. The remains were transferred to Horsea Island, an estuarine lake near Portsmouth, where the brackish water should enable the timbers to stabilise while they are accessible to students for study and training purposes. The remains of the ship are being studied as part of a five-year project also involving the Port of London Authority, the Museum at Docklands, the Institute of Archaeology at University College London, Gresham College and the University of Southern Denmark. The ship has been termed the "Gresham Ship" because one of the guns recovered had the initials and emblem of Sir Thomas Gresham.
Wreckmap Projects
The Nautical Archaeology Society manages or participates in research projects with the aims of firstly furthering research and secondly enabling novice professionals and avocational archaeologists to have opportunities to get involved in archaeological research and hence develop individual experience and promote best practice in investigative techniques. Wreckmap projects focus on surveying and recording sites in a specific area. Projects have included the 'Sound of Mull Archaeological Project' (SOMAP), which ran from 1994 to 2005 and the "SubMAP" project, which investigated the wreck of Resurgam. Wreckmap projects have also been conducted in Portland, Dorset and Teesbay (near Hartlepool).
Wreckmap Britain 2005 encouraged recreational divers to submit a recording form for a favourite dive anywhere in Britain. Wreckmap Britain 2006 was launched at the London International Dive Show (LIDS) on 1 April 2006 and has distributed 100,000 recording forms to recreational divers. The results will be added to the Shipwreck Index. WreckMap Britain is conducted in partnership with the Marine Conservation Society (SeaSearch) and sponsored by Crown Estate, the BSAC Jubilee Trust and PADI through the Project AWARE Foundation.
Forton Lake
Forton Lake is a community based project to record the hulks of vessels abandoned at Forton Lake, Gosport. The field work and community training for the project was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund from 2006 to 2007 and the final year of fieldwork in 2008 and publication is being supported by Crown Estate. The project is carried out jointly with the Hampshire and Wight Trust for Maritime Archaeology.
Diving into history
The Diving into History Project, supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, ran from 2006 to 2008 and included outreach activities to the public and support for Adopt-a-Wreck groups. In addition community based projects were carried out, including an industrial and oral history project involving underwater survey of Stoney Cove and archive and oral history research.
Dig, Dive and Discover
In 2006 a group of sea cadets were given the opportunity to become maritime archaeologists, learning to scuba dive, to research archives and to design web sites. The project was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund 'Young roots' programme and was carried out in conjunction with Hartlepool library and Hartlepool Diving Club. An excavation of a wreck was carried out at Middleton Sands on Teesbay and the cadets built their own website documenting their experiences.
Archives
North East England Maritime Archaeology Research Archive
The North East England Maritime Archaeology Research Archive (NEEMARA) was established in 2006 thanks to grant funding from English Heritage and from local councils. The archive contains reference material on ships, shipbuilding and archaeological reports and is housed at the offices of Hartlepool Borough Council.
NAS Project and NAS Part Two Reports
Projects directly run by NAS (including Wreckmap projects) have project reports that are submitted to the appropriate Heritage Environment Record(HER). As part of NAS training, students submit a project report for part two of the NAS Certificate in Underwater and Foreshore Archaeology. Where appropriate reports are submitted to the appropriate local HER. NAS project reports and NAS Part two reports are also available to view at NAS offices in Portsmouth.
The Big Anchor Project
The Big Anchor Project is an international project which is attempting to collect data on anchors to provide a research resource for the identification of anchors. Following a pilot exercise by the South West Maritime History Society and Dorset County Council, a web site enables anyone to upload pghotographs and information about anchors.
Hartlepool Built
The Hartlepool Built project is a project to gather data on ships built in Hartlepool and on the people who sailed them. Designed as a web-based oral history type project, the project captures, and publishes on the web information on ships built in Hartlepool over the last 170 years, with photographs and other information from relatives of those whose lives were affected.
References
External links
NAS website
Archaeological organizations
Archaeology of the United Kingdom
Diver organizations
1972 establishments in the United Kingdom
Maritime archaeology
Organizations established in 1972
Underwater diving in the United Kingdom |
4172697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping%20at%20the%20Olympic%20Games | Doping at the Olympic Games | Competitors at the Olympic Games have used banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs.
History
The use of performance-enhancing tactics or more formally known as PEDs, and more broadly, the use of any external device to nefariously influence the outcome of a sporting event has been a part of the Olympics since its inception in Ancient Greece. One speculation as to why men were required to compete naked was to prevent the use of extra accoutrements and to keep women from competing in events specifically designed for men. Athletes were also known to drink "magic" potions and eat exotic meats in the hopes of giving them an athletic edge on their competition. If they were caught cheating, their likenesses were often engraved into stone and placed in a pathway that led to the Olympic stadium. In the modern Olympic era, chemically enhancing one's performance has evolved into a sophisticated science, but in the early years of the Modern Olympic movement the use of performance-enhancing drugs was almost as crude as its ancient predecessors. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach, even during the race.
During the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes discovered ways to improve their athletic abilities by boosting testosterone. As their methods became more extreme, it became increasingly evident that the use of performance-enhancing drugs was not only a threat to the integrity of sport but could also have potentially fatal side effects on the athlete. The only Olympic death linked to athletic drug use occurred at the Rome Games of 1960. During the cycling road race, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamine, which had caused him to lose consciousness during the race. Jensen's death exposed to the world how endemic drug use was among elite athletes. By the mid-1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and the IOC followed suit in 1967.
The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use, "two beers" to steady his nerves. Liljenwall was the only athlete to test positive for a banned substance at the 1968 Olympics, as the technology and testing techniques improved, the number of athletes discovered to be chemically enhancing their performance increased as well.
The most systematic case of drug use for athletic achievement is that of the East German Olympic teams of the 1970s and 1980s. In 1990, documents were discovered that showed many East German female athletes, especially swimmers, had been administered anabolic steroids and other drugs by their coaches and trainers. Girls as young as eleven were started on the drug regimen without consent from their parents. American female swimmers, including Shirley Babashoff, accused the East Germans of using performance-enhancing drugs as early as the 1976 Summer Games. Babashoff's comments were dismissed by the international and domestic media as sour grapes since Babashoff, a clear favorite to win multiple gold medals, won three silver medals – losing all three times to either of the two East Germans Kornelia Ender or Petra Thümer, and one gold medal in a relay. There was no suspicion of cheating on the part of the East German female swimmers even though their medal tally increased from four silvers and one bronze in 1972 to ten golds (out of a possible 12), six silvers, and one bronze in 1976. No clear evidence was discovered until after the fall of the Berlin Wall, when the aforementioned documents proved that East Germany had embarked on a state-sponsored drug regimen to dramatically improve their competitiveness at the Olympic Games and other international sporting events. Many of the East German authorities responsible for this program have been subsequently tried and found guilty of various crimes in the German penal system.
The report, titled "Doping in Germany from 1950 to today", details how the West German government helped fund a wide-scale doping program. West Germany encouraged and covered up a culture of doping across many sports for decades. Doping of West German athletes was prevalent at the Munich Games of 1972, and at the 1976 Montreal Olympics.
According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the International Olympic Committee to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts". On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games."
Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.
China conducted a state sanctioned doping programme on athletes in the 1980s and 1990s. In a July 2012 interview published by the Sydney Morning Herald newspaper, Chen Zhangho, the lead doctor for the Chinese Olympic team at the Los Angeles, Seoul and Barcelona Olympics told of how he had tested hormones, blood doping and steroids on about fifty elite athletes. Chen also accused the United States, the Soviet Union and France of using performance-enhancing drugs at the same time as China.
A very publicized steroid-related disqualification at an Olympic Games was the case of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, who won the Men's 100 metres at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, but tested positive for stanozolol. His gold medal was subsequently stripped and awarded to runner-up Carl Lewis, who had tested positive for stimulants at the U.S. Olympic Trials. The highest level of stimulant Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as a negative test. The acceptable level was later raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." The IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC followed the correct procedures in dealing with positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration.
Response
In the late 1990s, the IOC took the initiative in a more organized battle against doping, leading to the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. The 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics have shown that the effort to eliminate performance-enhancing drugs from the Olympics is not over, as several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified due to failing a drug test. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the "Olympic Standard") has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate. During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood testing was used in a coordinated effort to detect banned substances and recent blood transfusions. While several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games, six athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing.
Prohibited drugs
Summer Olympic Games
What follows is a list of all the athletes that have tested positive for a banned substance either during or after an Olympic Games in which they competed. Any medals listed were revoked by the International Olympic Commission (IOC). In 1967 the IOC banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs, instituted a Medical Commission, and created a list of banned substances. Mandatory testing began at the following year's Games. In a few cases the IOC has reversed earlier rulings that stripped athletes of medals.
1968 Mexico City
In addition, the Bulgarian Greco-Roman wrestler Hristo Traykov was disqualified from his bout against Dave Hazewinkel for using concealed smelling salts during their bout.
1972 Munich
As a 16-year-old, Rick DeMont qualified to represent the United States at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany. He originally won the gold medal in the men's 400-meter freestyle, but following the race, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) disqualified DeMont after his post-race urinalysis tested positive for traces of the banned substance ephedrine contained in his prescription asthma medication, Marax. The positive test following the 400-meter freestyle final also deprived him of a chance at multiple medals, as he was barred from any other events at the Olympics, including the 1,500-meter freestyle for which he was the then-current world record-holder.
Before the Olympics, DeMont had properly declared his asthma medications on his medical disclosure forms, but the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) had not cleared them with the IOC's medical committee. In 2001, his gold medal performance in the 1972 Summer Olympics was recognised by the United States Olympic Committee (USOC). However, only the IOC has the power to restore his medal, and it has, as of 2019, refused to do so.
1976 Montreal
Leibel was disqualified from the race that took place on the day that he provided the positive sample but was allowed to continue in the event.
1980 Moscow
Though no athletes were caught doping at the 1980 Summer Olympics, it has been revealed that athletes had begun using testosterone and other drugs for which tests had not been yet developed. According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts". A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner ... who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".
A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.
1984 Los Angeles
The organizers of the Los Angeles games had refused to provide the IOC doping authorities with a safe prior to the start of the games. Due to a lack of security, medical records were subsequently stolen. A 1994 letter from IOC Medical Commission chair Alexandre de Mérode claimed that Tony Daly, a member of the Los Angeles organizing committee had destroyed the records. Dick Pound later wrote of his frustration that the organizing committee had removed evidence before it could be acted on by the IOC. Pound also claimed that IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch and Primo Nebiolo, President of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) had conspired to delay the announcement of positive tests so that the games could pass without controversy.
The American cyclist Pat McDonough later admitted to "blood doping" at the 1984 Los Angeles Games. Following the games it was revealed that one-third of the U.S. cycling team had received blood transfusions before the games, where they won nine medals, their first medal success since the 1912 Summer Olympics. "Blood doping" was banned by the IOC in 1985 (at the time of the Olympics it was not banned), though no test existed for it at the time.
1988 Seoul
1992 Barcelona
1996 Atlanta
Five athletes tested positive for the stimulant bromantan and were disqualified by the IOC, but later reinstated after an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport: swimmers Andrey Korneyev and Nina Zhivanevskaya, Greco-Roman wrestler Zafar Guliev and sprinter Marina Trandenkova, all from Russia, and the Lithuanian track cyclist Rita Razmaitė. Dr. Vitaly Slionssarenko, physician to the Lithuanian cycling team and team coach Boris Vasilyev were expelled from the games by the IOC for their role in the scandal. The athletes and officials were reprimanded.
The Irish long-distance runner Marie McMahon (Davenport) got a reprimand after testing positive for the stimulant phenylpropanolamine, and Cuban judoka Estella Rodriguez Villanueva got a reprimand after she tested positive for the diuretic furosemide.
2000 Sydney
2004 Athens
2008 Beijing
"Zero Tolerance for Doping" was adopted as an official slogan for the Beijing Olympic Games. A number of athletes were already eliminated by testing prior to coming to Beijing.
Out of the 4,500 samples that were collected from participating athletes at the games, six athletes with positive specimens were ousted from the competition. Further positive tests were found in 2016, as samples had been sealed and stored for eight years. The quality of the original testing was questioned when the BBC reported that samples positive for EPO were labeled as negative by Chinese laboratories in July 2008. The initial rate of positive findings was lower than at Athens in 2004, but the prevalence of doping had not necessarily decreased; the technology for creating and concealing drugs had become more sophisticated, and a number of drugs could not be detected.
In August 2015, the Turkish Athletics Federation confirmed that an in-competition test of Elvan Abeylegesse at the 2007 IAAF World Championships
in Athletics had been retested and found to be positive for a controlled substance, and that she had been temporarily suspended. On 29 March 2017, the IAAF confirmed the positive test, announced retroactive disqualifications and voided all of her results from 25 August 2007 until 25 August 2009, including the 2008 Summer Olympics. As a result, she was stripped of two silver medals she had won in the women's 5,000 and 10,000 meter races.
In May 2016, following the Russian doping scandal, the IOC announced that 32 targeted retests had come back positive for performance-enhancing drugs, of which Russian News Agency TASS announced that 14 were from Russian athletes, 11 of them track and field athletes, including 2012 Olympic champion high jumper Anna Chicherova. Authorities have sent the B-samples for confirmation testing. Those confirmed as having taken doping agents stand to lose records and medals from the 2008 games to 2016 under IOC and WADA rules.
On 18 June 2016, the IWF reported that as a consequence of the IOC's reanalyses of samples from the 2008 Olympic Games, the samples of the following seven weightlifters had returned positive results: Hripsime Khurshudyan (Armenia), Intigam Zairov (Azerbaijan), Alexandru Dudoglo (Moldova), gold medalist Ilya Ilyin (Kazakhstan), bronze medalist Nadezda Evstyukhina and silver medalist Marina Shainova (both from Russia), and Nurcan Taylan (Turkey). In line with the relevant rules and regulations, the IWF imposed mandatory provisional suspensions upon the athletes. Zairov and Ilyin had been serving previous suspensions. In November 2016, Ilyin was stripped of the gold medal.
On 22 July 2016, Sibel Özkan (TUR) was disqualified due to an anti-doping rule violation and stripped of her silver medal. Medals have not been reallocated as yet.
On 28 July 2016, it was announced that retests of samples from the 2008 Summer Olympics detected a positive sample for performance-enhancing drugs from Aksana Miankova of Belarus, who won a gold medal in the women's hammer throw. There have been no decisions about stripping and reallocation of medals as yet.
On 16 August 2016, the Russian women's 4 × 100 metres relay team was disqualified for doping. Russian teammates were stripped of their gold Olympic medals, as Yuliya Chermoshanskaya had her samples reanalyzed and tested positive for two prohibited substances. The IAAF was requested to modify the results accordingly and to consider any further action within its own competence.
On 19 August 2016, the Russian women's 4 × 400 metres relay team was disqualified for doping. Russian teammates were stripped of their silver Olympic medals, as Anastasiya Kapachinskaya had her samples reanalyzed and tested positive for the same two prohibited substances as Chermoshanskaya.
On 24 August 2016, the IWF reported that as a consequence of the IOC's reanalyses of samples from the 2008 Olympic Games, the samples of the following athletes had returned positive results: Nizami Pashayev (Azerbaijan), Iryna Kulesha, Nastassia Novikava, Andrei Rybakou (all from Belarus), Cao Lei, Chen Xiexia, Liu Chunhong (all from China), Mariya Grabovetskaya, Maya Maneza, Irina Nekrassova, Vladimir Sedov (all from Kazakhstan), Khadzhimurat Akkaev, Dmitry Lapikov (both from Russia), and Natalya Davydova and Olha Korobka (both from Ukraine). In line with the relevant rules and regulations, the IWF imposed mandatory provisional suspensions upon the athletes, who remain provisionally suspended in view of potential anti-doping rule violations until their cases are closed.
On 29 August 2016, some non-official reports indicated that Artur Taymazov of Uzbekistan had been stripped of the 2008 Olympic gold medal in the freestyle wrestling 120 kg event due to a positive test for doping.
On 31 August 2016, the IOC disqualified six sportspeople for failing doping tests at the 2008 Games. They included three Russian medalists: weightlifters Nadezhda Evstyukhina (bronze medal in the women's 75 kg event), Marina Shainova (silver medal in the women's 58 kg event), and Tatyana Firova, who finished second with teammates in the 4 × 400 m relay. Bronze medal weightlifter Tigran Martirosyan of Armenia (men's 69 kg event) and fellow weightlifters Alexandru Dudoglo (9th place) of Moldova and Intigam Zairov (9th place) of Azerbaijan were also disqualified.
On 1 September 2016, the IOC disqualified a further two athletes. Cuban discus thrower Yarelys Barrios, who won a silver medal in the women's discus, was disqualified after testing positive for Acetazolamide and ordered to return her medal. Qatari sprinter Samuel Francis, who finished 16th in the 100 meters, was also disqualified after testing positive for Stanozolol.
On 13 September 2016, four more Russian athletes were disqualified for doping offenses. Two of those were medalists from the 2008 Summer Olympics: silver medalist Mariya Abakumova in the women's javelin throw and Denis Alekseyev, who was part of the bronze medal team in the men's 4 × 400 m relay. Inga Abitova, who finished 6th in the 10,000 meters, and cyclist Ekaterina Gnidenko also tested positive for a banned substance and were disqualified.
On 23 September 2016, some non-official reports indicate wrestler Vasyl Fedoryshyn of Ukraine has been stripped of the 2008 Olympic silver medal in the freestyle 60 kg event due to a positive test for doping.
On 6 October 2016, the IOC disqualified Anna Chicherova of the Russian Federation for testing positive for performance-enhancing drugs. She won a bronze medal in the women's high jump. Russia would likely keep the bronze medal, as the fourth-place athlete in the competition was also from Russia. Through 6 October 2016, the IOC has reported Adverse Analytical Findings for 25 weightlifters from its 2016 retests of samples from the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, all but three of whom tested positive for anabolic agents (three Chinese weightlifters were positive for growth hormones).
On 26 October 2016, the IOC disqualified nine more athletes for failing drugs tests at the 2008 Games. Among them were six medal winners: weightlifters Andrei Rybakou and Nastassia Novikava, both from Belarus, and Olha Korobka of Ukraine; women's steeplechase bronze medalist Ekaterina Volkova of Russia; and freestyle wrestlers Soslan Tigiev of Uzbekistan and Taimuraz Tigiyev of Kazakhstan. The others were men's 62 kg weightlifter Sardar Hasanov of Azerbaijan, long jumper Wilfredo Martinez of Cuba, and 100m-hurdler Josephine Nnkiruka Onyia of Spain.
On 17 November 2016, the IOC disqualified 16 more athletes for failing drugs tests at the 2008 games. Among them were 10 medal winners: weightlifters Khadzhimurat Akkaev and Dmitry Lapikov and wrestler Khasan Baroev from the Russian Federation, weightlifters Mariya Grabovetskaya, Irina Nekrassova and wrestler Asset Mambetov from Kazakhstan, weightlifter Nataliya Davydova and pole vaulter Denys Yurchenko from Ukraine, long/triple jumper Hrysopiyí Devetzí of Greece and wrestler Vitaliy Rahimov of Azerbaijan. The others were women's 75 kg weightlifter Iryna Kulesha of Belarus, women's +63 kg weightlifter Maya Maneza of Kazakhstan, women's high jumper Vita Palamar of Ukraine, men's 94 kg weightlifter Nizami Pashayev of Azerbaijan, men's 85 kg weightlifter Vladimir Sedov of Kazakhstan, and women's high jumper Elena Slesarenko of the Russian Federation.
On 25 November 2016, the IOC disqualified 5 more athletes for failing drugs tests at the 2008 games. Among them were 3 medal winners: gold-medalists 94 kg weightlifter Ilya Ilin of Kazakhstan and hammer thrower Aksana Miankova of Belarus and silver-medalist shot putter Natallia Mikhnevich of Belarus. The others were shot putter Pavel Lyzhyn and 800m runner Sviatlana Usovich, both of Belarus.
On 12 January 2017, the IOC disqualified five more athletes for failing drug tests at the 2008 Games. These included three Chinese women's weightlifting gold medalists: Lei Cao (75 kg), Xiexia Chen (48 kg) and Chunhong Liu (69 kg). Two women athletes from Belarus were disqualified: bronze medalist shot putter Nadzeya Ostapchuk and hammer thrower Darya Pchelnik, who did not medal.
On 25 January 2017, the IOC stripped Jamaica of the athletics gold medal in the men's 4 × 100 m relay due to Nesta Carter testing positive for the prohibited substance methylhexaneamine. The IOC also stripped Russian jumper Tatyana Lebedeva of two silver medals in women's triple jump and long jump due to use of turinabol.
On 1 March 2017, the IOC disqualified Victoria Tereshchuk of Ukraine due to use of turinabol and stripped her of the bronze medal in modern pentathlon.
By April 2017, the 2008 Summer Olympics has had the most (50) Olympic medals stripped for doping violations. Russia is the leading country with 14 medals stripped.
Disqualified
Did not start
Athletes who were selected for the Games, but provisionally suspended before competing.
2012 London
It was announced prior to the Summer games that half of all competitors would be tested for drugs, with 150 scientists set to take 6,000 samples between the start of the games and the end of the Paralympic games at GlaxoSmithKline's New Frontiers Science Park site in Harlow, Essex. All medalists would also be tested. The Olympic anti-doping laboratory would test up to 400 samples every day for more than 240 prohibited substances.
The head of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), John Fahey, announced on 24 July that 107 athletes had been sanctioned for doping offences in the six months to 19 June. The "In-competition" period began on 16 July. During the "In-competition" period Olympic competitors can be tested at any time without notice or in advance.
British sprinter Dwain Chambers, cyclist David Millar and shot putter Carl Myerscough competed in London after the British Olympic Association's policy of punishing drug cheats with lifetime bans was overturned by the Court of Arbitration for Sport.
Russian Darya Pishchalnikova participated in the 2012 Olympics and was awarded a silver medal. However, she tested positive for the anabolic steroid oxandrolone in the samples taken in May 2012. In December 2012, she sent an email to WADA containing details on an alleged state-run doping program in Russia. According to The New York Times, the email reached three top WADA officials but the agency decided not to open an inquiry and instead sent her email to Russian sports officials. In April 2013 Pishchalnikova was banned by the Russian Athletics Federation for ten years, and her results from May 2012 were annulled, meaning she was set on track to lose her Olympic medal. Her ban by the Russian Athletics Federation was likely in retaliation.
Gold medalists at the games who had been involved in previous doping offences included Alexander Vinokourov, the winner of the men's road race, Tatyana Lysenko, the winner of the women's hammer throw, Aslı Çakır Alptekin winner of the women's 1500 meters and Sandra Perković, winner of the women's discus throw. Other competitors at the Summer games involved in previous doping cases included American athletes Justin Gatlin and LaShawn Merritt, and Jamaican sprinter Yohan Blake.
Spanish athlete Ángel Mullera was first selected for the 3000 m steeplechase and later removed when emails were published in which he discussed EPO use with a trainer. Mullera appealed to CAS which ordered the Spanish Olympic Committee to allow him to participate.
Prior to the Olympic competition, several prominent track and field athletes were ruled out of the competition due to failed tests. World indoor medallists Dimitrios Chondrokoukis, Debbie Dunn, and Mariem Alaoui Selsouli were withdrawn from their Olympic teams in July for doping, as was 2004 Olympic medallist Zoltán Kővágó. At the Olympic competition, Tameka Williams admitted to taking a banned stimulant and was removed from the games. Ivan Tsikhan did not compete in the hammer throw as a retest of his sample from the 2004 Athens Olympics, where he won silver, was positive. Amine Laâlou, Marina Marghieva, Diego Palomeque, and defending 50 km walk champion Alex Schwazer were also suspended before taking part in their events.
Syrian hurdler Ghfran Almouhamad became the first track-and-field athlete to be suspended following a positive in-competition doping sample. Nadzeya Astapchuk was stripped of the women's shot put title after her sample came back positive for the banned anabolic agent metenolone. Karin Melis Mey was withdrawn before the long jump final when an earlier failed doping test was confirmed.
A WADA report released in 2015 detailed an extensive Russian state-sponsored doping program implicating athletes, coaches, various Russian institutions, doctors and labs. The report stated that the London Olympic Games "were, in a sense, sabotaged by the admission of athletes who should have not been competing" and detailed incidents of bribery and bogus urine samples. The report recommended that Russia be barred from track and field events for the 2016 Olympics. It also recommended lifetime bans for five coaches and five athletes from the country, including runners Mariya Savinova, Ekaterina Poistogova, Anastasiya Bazdyreva, Kristina Ugarova, and Tatjana Myazina.
On 15 June 2016, it was announced that four London 2012 Olympic weightlifting champions had tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs. They include Kazakhstan's Ilya Ilyin (94 kg), Zulfiya Chinshanlo (53 kg), Maiya Maneza (63 kg) and Svetlana Podobedova (75 kg). If confirmed, Kazakhstan would drop from 12th to 23rd in the 2012 medal standings. Six other lifters who competed at the 2012 Games also tested positive after hundreds of samples were reanalysed. Among them are Russia's Apti Aukhadov (silver at 85 kg), Ukraine's Yuliya Kalina (bronze at 58 kg), Belarusian Maryna Shkermankova (bronze at 69 kg), Azerbaijan's Boyanka Kostova and Belarus duo Dzina Sazanavets and Yauheni Zharnasek. On 27 July 2016, IWF has reported in the second wave of re-sampling that three silver medalists from Russia, namely Natalya Zabolotnaya (at 75 kg), Aleksandr Ivanov (at 94 kg) and Svetlana Tsarukaeva (at 63 kg), together with bronze medalists Armenian Hripsime Khurshudyan (at 75+ kg), Belarusian Iryna Kulesha (at 75 kg) and Moldovan Cristina Iovu (at 53 kg) have tested positive for steroid dehydrochlormethyltestosterone. Aukhadov was stripped of his silver medal by the IOC on 18 October 2016. On 27 October 2016 Maiya Maneza was stripped of her gold medal. In November 2016, Ilyin was stripped of the London gold medal.
On 13 July 2016, the IOC announced that Yuliya Kalina of Ukraine had been disqualified from the 2012 Summer Olympics and ordered to return the bronze medal from the 58 kg weightlifting event. Reanalysis of Kalina's samples from London 2012 resulted in a positive test for the prohibited substance dehydrochlormethyltestosterone (turinabol). The positions were adjusted accordingly.
On 9 August 2016, the IOC announced that Oleksandr Pyatnytsya of Ukraine would be stripped of his silver medal in the javelin throw after he tested positive for the prohibited substance dehydrochlormethyltestosterone (turinabol). Redistribution of medals has not yet been announced, but the likely case is the silver and bronze medals will be given to Finland and Czech Republic instead.
On 20 August 2016, the IOC announced that Yevgeniya Kolodko of Russia would be stripped of her silver medal in shot put after she tested positive of dehydrochlormethyltestosterone (turinabol) and ipamorelin. Medals are not reallocated yet.
On 29 August 2016, a report indicated that a retested sample for Besik Kudukhov of Russia, the silver medalist in the men's 60 kg freestyle wrestling event, had returned a positive result (later disclosed as dehydrochlormethyltestosterone). Kudakhov died in a car crash in December 2013. On 27 October 2016, the IOC dropped all disciplinary proceedings against Kudukhov, stating that such proceedings cannot be conducted against a deceased person. As a result, it said, Olympic results that would have been reviewed will remain uncorrected, which is the unavoidable consequence of the fact that the proceedings cannot move forward.
On 13 September 2016, the IWF reported that the men's 94 kg weightlifting bronze medalist, Moldova's Anatolie Cîrîcu, had tested positive for the dehydrochlormethyltestosterone.
On 6 October 2016, the IWF reported that as a consequence of the IOC's reanalyses of samples from the 2012 Olympic Games, a sample of Norayr Vardanyan, who represented Armenia, had returned a positive result. In line with the relevant rules and regulations, the IWF imposed mandatory provisional suspensions upon Vardanyan, who remains provisionally suspended until his case is closed. On 12 January 2017, the IOC disqualified Vardanyan. Through 6 October 2016, the IOC had reported Adverse Analytical Findings for 23 weightlifters from its 2016 retests of samples from the 2012 London Olympic Games, all of whom tested positive for anabolic agents.
On 11 October 2016, Tatyana Lysenko of the Russian Federation was disqualified from the women's hammer throw, in which she won the gold medal. She had tested positive for a banned substance. The IOC requested the IAAF to modify the results of this event accordingly. The silver medalist Anita Włodarczyk of Poland would likely take the gold medal in her place.
On 18 October 2016, the IOC disqualified Apti Aukhadov of the Russian Federation for doping and stripped him of the silver medal. The IOC requested the IWF to modify the results of this event accordingly; it has not yet published modified results.
On 18 October 2016, the IOC reported that Maksym Mazuryk of Ukraine, who competed in the Men's Pole Vault event, was disqualified from the 2012 London Games, in which he ranked 18th. Re-analysis of Mazuryk's samples resulted in a positive test for dehydrochlormethyltestosterone.
On 27 October 2016 the IOC disqualified a further eight athletes for failing doping tests at the games. This included four medal winners in weightlifting: Zulfiya Chinshanlo, Maiya Maneza and Svetlana Podobedova, all from Kazakhstan, and Maryna Shkermankova of Belarus. The others were hammer thrower Kirill Ikonnikov of Russia, women's 69 kg weightlifter Dzina Sazanavets of Belarus, pole vaulter Dmitry Starodubtsev of Russia, and men's +105 kg weightlifter Yauheni Zharnasek of Belarus.
On 21 November 2016 the IOC disqualified a further 12 athletes for failing doping tests at the games. This included 6 medal winners in weightlifting, including Alexandr Ivanov (Russia), Anatoli Ciricu (Moldova), Cristina Iovu (Moldova), Natalya Zabolotnaya (Russia), Iryna Kulesha (Belarus), and Hripsime Khurshudyan (Armenia). Moldova has lost all its 2012 London medals. The others were hammer thrower Oleksandr Drygol and long jumper Margaryta Tverdokhlib, both of Ukraine, 85 kg weightlifter Rauli Tsirekidze of Georgia, 94 kg weightlifter Almas Uteshov of Kazakhstan, 94 kg weightlifter Andrey Demanov of Russia and 3000m steeplechaser Yuliya Zaripova of Russia, who had previously been sanctioned in March 2016 by the Court of Arbitration for Sport.
On 25 November 2016, the IOC disqualified 4 more athletes for failing drug tests at the 2012 games. They were gold medalist 94 kg weightlifter Ilya Ilin of Kazakhstan, hammer thrower Aksana Miankova and long jumper Nastassia Mironchyk-Ivanova, both of Belarus, and 58 kg weightlifter Boyanka Kostova of Azerbaijan.
On 29 November 2016 the Court of Arbitration for Sport issued a decision that all results achieved by 2012 Olympic heptathlon bronze medalist Tatyana Chernova of Russia between 15 August 2011 and 22 July 2013 are annulled. It also annulled all of Yekaterina Sharmina's results between 17 June 2011 and 5 August 2015, including her 33rd-place finish in the 2012 women's 1500m. CAS ruled that they "have been found to have committed an anti-doping rule violation ... of the International Athletic Association Federation (IAAF) Competition Rules after analysis of their Athlete Biological Passports (ABP) showed evidence of blood doping."
On 12 January 2017, the IOC disqualified three weightlifters for failing drug tests at the 2012 games. Two competed in men's 94 kg weightlifting: Intigam Zairov of Azerbaijan and Norayr Vardanyan of Armenia. Women's 63 kg weightlifter Sibel Simsek of Turkey was disqualified. None was a medalist at these games.
On 1 February 2017, the IOC disqualified three athletes due to failed doping tests, all of whom tested positive for turinabol. Russian women's discus thrower Vera Ganeeva, who finished 23rd, Turkish boxer Adem Kilicci, who ranked 5th in men's 69–75 kg boxing, and Russian 400m runner Antonina Krivoshapka, who finished 6th, were disqualified. Krivoshapka also was part of the Russian silver medal-winning women's 4 × 400 m relay team, which was stripped of the silver medals.
In December 2014, a documentary aired on German TV in which 800m gold medalist Mariya Savinova allegedly admitted to using banned substances on camera. In November 2015, Savinova was one of five Russian runners the World Anti-Doping Agency recommended to receive a lifetime ban for doping during the London Olympics, along with 800m bronze medalist Ekaterina Poistogova. On 10 February 2017, the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld a four-year ban that effectively stripped Savinova of her Olympic gold and other medals. On 7 April 2017, CAS refused to decide on disqualification from 2012, and disqualify Ekaterina Poistogova from 2015. Thus, Ekaterina Poistogova retained her Olympic 2012 medal at women's 800 metres athletic event.
As of December 2022, the 2012 Summer Olympics has seen a record 40 Olympic medals stripped for doping violations. Russia is the leading country with 17 medals stripped.
On 21 March 2022, the Athletics Integrity Unit of World Athletics issued a two-year ban for Russian racewalker Elena Lashmanova, starting from 9 March 2021, and also disqualified her results from 18 February 2012, to 3 January 2014, thus stripping her gold medal.
Disqualified
Did not start
Athletes who were selected for the Games, but provisionally suspended before competing.
2016 Rio de Janeiro
Originally, Russia submitted a list of 389 athletes for competition. On 7 August 2016, the IOC cleared 278 athletes, and 111 were removed because of the state-sponsored doping scandal.
The Taiwanese weightlifter Lin Tzu-chi was withdrawn from the games hours before her event by her team's delegation for an abnormal drugs test.
Kenyan athletics coach, John Anzrah who travelled to Rio independently of his country's delegation, was sent home after being caught posing as an athlete during a doping test, and was followed by Kenya's track and field manager, Michael Rotich, who was filmed by a newspaper offering to give athletes advanced notice of any pending drugs test in return for a one-off payment.
On 13 October 2016, the IWF reported that weightlifter Gabriel Sincraian of Romania, who won bronze in the men's 85-kg event, tested positive for excess testosterone in a test connected to the Rio Olympics. On 8 December 2016, the CAS affirmed the disqualification of Sincraian and stripped him of the bronze medal. The CAS also disqualified silver medalist 52 kg boxer Misha Aloian of Russia after he tested positive for tuaminoheptane.
Disqualified
Did not start
Athletes who were selected for the Games, but provisionally suspended before competing.
2020 Tokyo
Did not start
Athletes who were selected for the Games, but provisionally suspended before competing.
Winter Olympic Games
1968 Grenoble
No athletes were caught doping at these Games.
1972 Sapporo
1976 Innsbruck
1980 Lake Placid
No athletes tested positive at these Games.
1984 Sarajevo
The Finnish cross-country skier Aki Karvonen admitted in 1994 that he'd had blood transfusions for the Sarajevo Games. Blood transfusions weren't formally banned by IOC until 1986. Karvonen won a silver and two bronze at the games.
1988 Calgary
1992 Albertville
No athletes were caught using performance-enhancing drugs at these Games. The Russian biathlete Sergei Tarasov admitted in 2015 that the Russian biathlon team had carried out illegal blood transfusions at the Games. Something went very wrong with his transfusion, and he was rushed to the hospital where they saved his life.
1994 Lillehammer
No athletes were caught using performance-enhancing drugs at these Games.
1998 Nagano
No athletes were caught using performance-enhancing drugs at these Games. The Canadian snowboarder Ross Rebagliati, winner of the men's giant slalom, was initially disqualified and stripped of his gold medal by the International Olympic Committee's executive board after testing positive for marijuana. Marijuana was not then on the list of prohibited substances by the IOC, and their decision was reversed by the Court of Arbitration for Sport and Rebagliati's medal reinstated.
2002 Salt Lake City
2006 Turin
On 25 April 2007, six Austrian athletes were banned for life from the Olympics for their involvement in a doping scandal at the 2006 Turin Olympics, the first time the IOC punished athletes without a positive or missed doping test. The Austrians were found guilty of possessing doping substances and taking part in a conspiracy, based on materials seized by Italian police during a raid on the athletes' living quarters. The Austrians also had their competition results from Turin annulled. A seventh athlete, cross-country skier Christian Hoffmann, had his case referred to the International Ski Federation for further investigation, but IOC charges were dismissed.
The IOC has retested nearly 500 doping samples that were collected at the 2006 Turin Games. In 2014, the Estonian Olympic Committee was notified by the IOC that a retested sample from cross-country skier Kristina Šmigun had tested positive. On 24 October 2016, the World Anti-Doping Agency Athletes' Commission stated that Šmigun, who won two gold medals at the Turin Games, faces a Court of Arbitration for Sport hearing before the end of October. If Šmigun were to be stripped of her gold medals, Kateřina Neumannová of Czech Republic could be elevated to gold in the 7.5 + 7.5 km double pursuit event. Marit Bjørgen of Norway could acquire a seventh gold medal in the 10 km classical event.
The case against Šmigun was dropped on 13 December 2017 without any charges being raised.
Did not start
On 13 February 2006, the Brazilian Olympic Committee announced that Armando dos Santos' preventive antidoping test, which had been done in Brazil on 4 January 2006, was positive for the forbidden substance nandrolone. Santos was ejected from the team, being replaced by former sprinter Claudinei Quirino, the team's substitute athlete.
Disqualified during the Games
Disqualified after the Games
2010 Vancouver
On 23 December 2016, the IOC stated that it will re-analyse all samples from Russian athletes at the Olympic Winter Games of Vancouver 2010. In October 2017, the IOC stated that one sole athlete was caught from retests of doping samples from the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic Games. Biathlete Teja Gregorin was confirmed as this athlete by the International Biathlon Union. A total of 1195 samples from Vancouver 2010 (70% of the 1700 available) were reanalyzed. This included all medalists and all of the 170 Russian athletes. The IOC requested all Russian samples from the 2010 Games be retested after the publication of the McLaren Report. Russia's disappointing performance at Vancouver (11th in gold medal table with a total of 3 golds) is cited as the reason behind the implementation of a doping scheme alleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi.
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Disqualified after the Games
2014 Sochi
According to the director of the country's antidoping laboratory at the time, Grigory Rodchenkov, dozens of Russian athletes at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, including at least 15 medal winners, were part of a state-run doping program, meticulously planned for years to ensure dominance at the Games.
In December 2016, following the release of the McLaren report on Russian doping at the Sochi Olympics, the International Olympic Committee announced the initiation of an investigation of 28 Russian athletes (the number later rose to 46) at the Sochi Olympic Games. La Gazzetta dello Sport reported the names of 17 athletes, of whom 15 are among the 28 under investigation.
Three female figure skaters were named as being under investigation. They are Adelina Sotnikova, the singles gold medalist, as well as pairs skaters Tatiana Volosozhar and Ksenia Stolbova. Volosozhar and Stolbova won gold and silver medals, respectively, in pairs skating. Both also won gold medals in the team event, which also puts the other eight team medalists at risk of losing their golds. In November 2017 the proceeding against Sotnikova was dropped.
Six cross-country skiers were suspended from competition on the basis of the McLaren Report: Evgeniy Belov, Alexander Legkov, Alexey Petukhov, Maxim Vylegzhanin, Yulia Ivanova and Evgenia Shapovalova. Legkov won a gold and silver medals, and Vylegzhanin won three silver medals. The IOC disqualified all six from Sochi, imposed lifetime bans and, in the process, stripped Legkov and Vylegzhanin of the medals they had won in four events (three individual medals and one team medal). Nikita Kryukov, Alexander Bessmertnykh and Natalya Matveyeva were also disqualified on 22 December 2017.
The International Biathlon Union suspended two Russian biathletes who were in the Sochi games: Olga Vilukhina and Yana Romanova. Vilukhina won silver in sprint, and both women were on a relay team that won the silver medal. They were disqualified and stripped of their medals on 27 November 2017.
The International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation suspended four Russian skeleton sliders. They were Alexander Tretyakov, Elena Nikitina, Maria Orlova and Olga Potylitsina. Tretyakov won a gold medal, and Nikitina won a bronze. On 22 November 2017, the IOC stripped these medals and imposed lifetime Olympic bans on all four. Skeleton racer Sergei Chudinov was sanctioned on 28 November 2017.
Seven Russian female ice hockey players were to have hearings before the Oswald Commission on 22 November 2017. Two of the seven were accused of submitting samples showing readings that were physically impossible to be held by a woman. The Russian women's ice hockey team finished sixth at Sochi 2014. On 12 December 2017, six of them were disqualified. Tatiana Burina and Anna Shukina were also disqualified ten days later.
On 24 November 2017, the IOC imposed life bans on bobsledder Alexandr Zubkov and speed skater Olga Fatkulina who won a combined 3 medals (2 gold, 1 silver). All their results were disqualified, meaning that Russia lost its first place in the medal standings. Bobsledders Aleksei Negodaylo and Dmitry Trunenkov were disqualified 3 days later. 3 other Russian athletes who didn't win medals were banned on 29 November 2017. Biathlete Olga Zaitseva and 2 other Russian athletes were banned on 1 December 2017. Bobsledder Alexey Voyevoda who had been already stripped of his gold medals due to the anti-doping violations committed by his teammates was sanctioned on 18 December 2017. Speed skaters Ivan Skobrev and Artyom Kuznetsov, lugers Albert Demchenko and Tatiana Ivanova, and bobsledders Liudmila Udobkina and Maxim Belugin were disqualified on 22 December 2017, bringing the total to 43. Demchenko and Ivanova were also stripped of their silver medals.
2018 Pyeongchang
After the Russian Olympic Committee was barred from competing at the 2018 Winter Olympics, Russian athletes deemed to be clean were allowed to compete as Olympic Athletes from Russia.
2022 Beijing
By the end of the Beijing Olympics, a total five athletes were reported for doping violations.
Controversy surrounding the ROC
The medal ceremony for the team event in figure skating, where the Russian Olympic Committee (ROC) won gold, originally scheduled for 8 February, was delayed over what International Olympic Committee (IOC) spokesperson Mark Adams described as a situation that required "legal consultation" with the International Skating Union. Several media outlets reported on 9 February that the issue was over a positive test for trimetazidine by the ROC's Kamila Valieva, which was officially confirmed on 11 February. Valieva's sample in question was taken by the Russian Anti-Doping Agency (RUSADA) at the 2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships on 25 December, but the sample was not analyzed at the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) laboratory where it was sent for testing until 8 February, one day after the team event concluded.
Valieva was assessed a provisional suspension after her positive result, but upon appeal, she was cleared by RUSADA's independent Disciplinary Anti-Doping Committee (DAC) on 9 February, just a day after receiving the provisional suspension. Following formal appeals lodged by the IOC, the International Skating Union (ISU), and WADA to review RUSADA DAC's decision, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) heard the case on 13 February, and removal of her provisional suspension was upheld on 14 February, ahead of her scheduled appearance in the women's singles event beginning 15 February. Due to Valieva being a minor at the time, as well as being classified as a "protected person" under WADA guidelines, RUSADA and the IOC announced on 12 February that they would broaden the scope of their respective investigations to include members of her entourage (e.g. coaches, team doctors, etc.).
On 14 February, the CAS declined to reinstate Valieva's provisional suspension issued the previous Monday and ruled that she would be allowed provisionally to compete in the women's singles event. The CAS decided that preventing her from competing "would cause her irreparable harm in the circumstances", while noting that any medals won by Valieva at the Beijing Olympics would be withheld pending the results of the continuing investigation into her doping violation. The temporary provisional decision from the court was made on three grounds: 1/ Due to her age, she is a "Protected Person" as per WADA Code, subject to different rules than adult athletes; 2/ Athlete "did not test positive during the Olympic Games in Beijing"; 3/ "There were serious issues of untimely notification of the results, ... which impinged upon the Athlete’s ability to establish certain legal requirements for her benefit". The IOC announced that the team event medal ceremony, as well as the women's singles flower ceremony and medal ceremony if Valieva were to medal, would not take place until the investigation is over, and there is a concrete decision whether to strip Valieva and the ROC of their medals. To allow for the possibility that Valieva's results may be disqualified, the IOC asked the ISU to expand the qualifying field for the women's singles free skating by one to 25.
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Athletes who were selected for the Games, but provisionally suspended before competing.
See also
Doping at the Asian Games
List of sporting scandals
List of stripped Olympic medals
List of doping cases in sport
World Anti-Doping Agency
Technology doping
References
External links
Olympic Movement Anti-doping Code
Olympic Games controversies
Lists of doping cases
Olympic Games
Olympics-related lists
Doping in Russia
Lists of Olympic competitors |
4172748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Oratore | De Oratore | De Oratore (On the Orator) is a dialogue written by Cicero in 55 BC. It is set in 91 BC, when Lucius Licinius Crassus dies, just before the Social War and the civil war between Marius and Sulla, during which Marcus Antonius (orator), the other great orator of this dialogue, dies. During this year, the author faces a difficult political situation: after his return from exile in Dyrrachium (modern Albania), his house was destroyed by the gangs of Clodius in a time when violence was common. This was intertwined with the street politics of Rome.
Amidst the moral and political decadence of the state, Cicero wrote De Oratore to describe the ideal orator and imagine him as a moral guide of the state. He did not intend De Oratore as merely a treatise on rhetoric, but went beyond mere technique to make several references to philosophical principles. Cicero believed that the power of persuasion—the ability to verbally manipulate opinion in crucial political decisions—was a key issue and that in the hands of an unprincipled orator, this power would endanger the entire community.
As a consequence, moral principles can be taken either by the examples of noble men of the past or by the great Greek philosophers, who provided ethical ways to be followed in their teaching and their works.
The perfect orator shall be not merely a skilled speaker without moral principles, but both an expert of rhetorical technique and a man of wide knowledge in law, history, and ethical principles.
De Oratore is an exposition of issues, techniques, and divisions in rhetoric; it is also a parade of examples for several of them and it makes continuous references to philosophical concepts to be merged for a perfect result.
Choice of the historical background of the dialogue
At the time when Cicero wrote the dialogue, the crisis of the state concerned everyone. The dialogue deliberately clashes with the quiet atmosphere of the villa in Tusculum. Cicero tries to reproduce the feeling of the final peaceful days in the old Roman republic.
Despite De Oratore (On the Orator) being a discourse on rhetoric, Cicero has the original idea of inspiring himself to Plato's Dialogues, replacing the streets and squares of Athens with a nice garden of a country villa of a noble Roman aristocrat.
With this fanciful device, he avoided the arid explanation of rhetoric rules and devices. The work contains the second known description of the method of loci, a mnemonic technique (after the Rhetorica ad Herennium).
Book I
The first of three books addressed to Cicero's brother Quintus.
Introduction
Cicero begins his book by addressing this as a conversation to his brother. He continues on reflecting about so little time left in his life to be dedicated to noble studies. Unfortunately, the deep crisis of the state (the civil war between Marius and Sulla, the conjuration of Catilina and the first triumvirate, that excluded him from the active political life) has wasted away his best years.
Education of the orator
Cicero explains that he wants to write something more refined and mature than what he had previously published in his younger and more immature days in his treatise De Inventione.
Several eminent men in all fields, except oratory
Cicero questions why, despite the fact that many people have exceptional abilities, there are so few exceptional orators. Many are the examples of war leaders, and will continue to be throughout history, but only a handful of great orators.
Countless men have become eminent in philosophy, because they have studied the matter thoroughly, either by scientific investigation or using dialectic methods. Each philosopher has become excellent in his individual field, which includes oratory. Nevertheless, the study of oratory has attracted the smallest number of distinguished men, even less than poetry. Cicero finds this amazing, as the other arts are usually found in hidden or remote sources; on the contrary, all of oratory is public and in plain view to mankind, making it easier to learn.
Oratory is an attractive but difficult study
Cicero claims that in Athens, "where the supreme power of oratory was both invented and perfected," no other art study has a more vigorous life than the art of speaking.
After Roman peace had been established, it seemed as though everyone wanted to begin learning the eloquence of oral rhetoric.
After first trying rhetoric without training or rules, using only natural skill, young orators listened and learned from Greek orators and teachers, and soon were much more enthusiastic for eloquence.
Young orators learned, through practice, the importance of variety and frequency of speech.
In the end, orators were awarded with popularity, wealth, and reputation.
But Cicero warns that oratory fits into more arts and areas of study than people might think.
This is the reason why this particular subject is such a difficult one to pursue.
Students of oratory must have a knowledge of many matters to have successful rhetoric.
They must also form a certain style through word choice and arrangement. Students must also learn to understand human emotion so as to appeal to their audience.
This means that the student must, through his style, bring in humor and charm—as well as the readiness to deliver and respond to an attack.
Moreover, a student must have a significant capacity for memory—they must remember complete histories of the past, as well as of the law.
Cicero reminds us of another difficult skill required for a good orator: a speaker must deliver with control—using gestures, playing and expressing with features, and changing the intonation of the voice.
In summary, oratory is a combination of many things, and to succeed in maintaining all of these qualities is a great achievement.
This section marks Cicero's standard canons for the rhetorical composing process.
Responsibility of the orator; argument of the work
Orators must have a knowledge in all important subjects and arts. Without this, his speech would be empty, without beauty and fullness. The term "orator" in itself holds a responsibility for the person to profess eloquence, in such a way that he should be able to treat every subject with distinction and knowledge. Cicero acknowledges that this is a practically impossible task, nevertheless it is at least a moral duty for the orator.
The Greeks, after dividing the arts, paid more attention to the portion of oratory that is concerned with the law, courts, and debate, and therefore left these subjects for orators in Rome.
Indeed, all that the Greeks have written in their treaties of eloquence or taught by the masters thereof, but Cicero prefers to report the moral authority of these Roman orators. Cicero announces that he will not expose a series of prescriptions but some principles, that he learnt to have been discussed once by excellent Roman orators.
Date, scene, and persons
Cicero exposes a dialogue, reported to him by Cotta, among a group of excellent political men and orators, who came together to discuss the crisis and general decline of politics. They met in the garden of Lucius Licinius Crassus' villa in Tusculum, during the tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus (91 BCE). Thereto also gathered Lucius Licinius Crassus, Quintus Mucius Scaevola, Marcus Antonius, Gaius Aurelius Cotta and Publius Sulpicius Rufus. One member, Scaevola, wants to imitate Socrates as he appears in Plato's Phaedrus. Crassus replies that, instead, they will find a better solution, and calls for cushions so that this group can discuss it more comfortably.
Thesis: the importance of oratory to society and the state
Crassus states that oratory is one of the greatest accomplishments that a nation can have. He extols the power that oratory can give to a person, including the ability to maintain personal rights, words to defend oneself, and the ability to revenge oneself on a wicked person. The ability to converse is what gives mankind our advantage over other animals and nature. It is what creates civilization. Since speech is so important, why should we not use it to the benefit of oneself, other individuals, and even the entire State?
Thesis challenged
Scaevola agrees with Crassus's points except for two. Scaevola does not feel that orators are what created social communities and he questions the superiority of the orator if there were no assemblies, courts, etc. It was good decision making and laws that formed society, not eloquence. Was Romulus an orator? Scaevola says that there are more examples of damage done by orators than good, and he could cite many instances. There are other factors of civilization that are more important than orator: ancient ordinances, traditions, augury, religious rites and laws, private individual laws. Had Scaevola not been in Crassus's domain, Scaevola would take Crassus to court and argue over his assertions, a place where oratory belongs. Courts, assemblies and the Senate are where oratory should remain, and Crassus should not extend the scope of oratory beyond these places. That is too sweeping for the profession of oratory.
Reply to challenge
Crassus replies that he has heard Scaevola's views before, in many works including Plato's Gorgias. However, he does not agree with their viewpoint. In respects to Gorgias, Crassus reminds that, while Plato was making fun of orators, Plato himself was the ultimate orator. If the orator was nothing more than a speaker without the knowledge of oratory, how is it possible that the most revered people are skilled orators? The best speakers are those who have a certain "style", which is lost, if the speaker does not comprehend the subject matter on which he is speaking.
Rhetoric is a science
Crassus says he does not borrow from Aristotle or Theophrastus their theories regarding the orator. For while the schools of Philosophy claim that rhetoric and other arts belong to them, the science of oratory which adds "style," belong to its own science.
Lycurgus, Solon were certainly more qualified about laws, war, peace, allies, taxes, civil right than Hyperides or Demosthenes, greater in the art of speaking in public.
Similarly in Rome, the decemviri legibus scribundis were more expert in right than Servius Galba and Gaius Lelius, excellent Roman orators.
Nevertheless, Crassus maintains his opinion that "oratorem plenum atque perfectum esse eum, qui de omnibus rebus possit copiose varieque dicere". (the complete and perfect orator is him who can speak in public about every subject with richness of arguments and variety of tunes and images).
The orator must know the facts
To speak effectively, the orator must have some knowledge of the subject. Can an advocate for or against war speak on the subject without knowing the art of war? Can an advocate speak on legislation if he does not know law or how the administration process works?
Even though others will disagree, Crassus states that an expert of the natural science also must use oratory style to give an effective speech on his subject. For example, Asclepiades, a well-known physician, was popular not just because of his medical expertise, but because he could share it with eloquence.
The orator can have technical skills, but must be versed in moral science
Anyone who can speak with knowledge upon a subject, can be called an orator as long as he does so with knowledge, charm, memory and has a certain style. Philosophy is divided into three branches: natural studies, dialectic and knowledge of human conduct (in vitam atque mores). To truly be a great orator, one must master the third branch: this is what distinguishes the great orator.
The orator, like the poet, needs a wide education
Cicero mentions Aratos of Soli, not expert in astronomy, and yet he wrote a marvellous poem (Phaenomena). So did Nicander of Colophon, who wrote excellent poems on agriculture (Georgika).
An orator is very much like the poet. The poet is more encumbered by rhythm than the orator, but richer in word choice and similar in ornamentation.
Crassus then replies to Scaevola's remark: he would not have claimed that orators should be experts in all subjects, should he himself be the person he is describing.
Nevertheless, everyone can easily understand, in the speeches before assemblies, courts or before the Senate, if a speaker has good exercise in the art of speaking in public or if he is also well educated in eloquence and all the liberal arts.
Scaevola, Crassus and Antonius debate on the orator
Scaevola says he will debate with Crassus no longer, because he was able to twist some of what he has said to his own benefit. Scaevola appreciates that Crassus, unlike some others, did not jeer at philosophy and the other arts; instead, he gave them credit and put them under the category of oratory. Scaevola cannot deny that a man who had mastered all the arts, and was also a powerful speaker, would indeed be a remarkable man. And if there ever were such a man, it would be Crassus.
Crassus again denies that he is this kind of man: he is talking about an ideal orator. However, if others think so, what then would they think of a person who will show greater skills and will be really an orator?
Antonius approves all what Crassus said. But to become a great orator by Crassus's definition would be difficult. First, how would a person get knowledge of every subject? Second, it would be hard for this person to stay strictly true to traditional oratory and not be led astray into advocacy. Antonius ran into this himself while delayed in Athens. Rumor got out that he was a "learned man", and he was approached by many people to discuss with him, according to each one's capabilities, on the duties and the method of the orator.
A reported debate at Athens
Antonius tells of the debate that occurred in Athens regarding this very subject.
Menedemus said that there is a science of the fundamentals of foundation and government of the state.
On the other side, Charmadas replied that this is found in philosophy. He thought that the books of rhetoric do not teach knowledge of the gods, the education of young people, justice, tenacy and self-control, moderation in every situation. Without all those things, no state can exist nor be well ordered. By the way, he wondered why the masters of rhetoric, in their books, did not write a single word on the constitution of the states, on how to write a law, about equality, about justice, loyalty, on retaining desires or the building of human character. They have built up with their art such a plenty of very important arguments, with books full of prooemiums, epilogues and similar trivial things - he used exactly this term. Because of this, Charmadas was used to mock their teachings, saying that they were not only the competence they claimed, but also they did not know the method of eloquence.
Indeed, he stated that a good orator must shine of a good light himself, that is by his dignity of life, about which nothing is said by those masters of rhetoric.
Moreover, the audience is directed into the mood, in which the orator drives them. But this can not happen, if he does not know in how many and in which ways he can drive the feelings of the men.
This is because these secrets are hidden in the deepest heart of philosophy and the rhetors have never even touched it in its surface.
Menedemus rebutted Charmadas by quoting passages from the speeches of Demosthenes. And he gave examples of how speeches given from the knowledge of law and politics can compel the audience.
Charmadas agrees that Demosthenes was a good orator, but questions whether this was a natural ability or because of his studies of Plato. Demosthenes often said that there was no art to eloquence—but there is a natural aptitude, that makes us able to blandish and beg someone, to threaten rivals, to expose a fact and reinforce our thesis with arguments, refuting the other's ones.
In a nutshell, Antonius thought Demosthenes appeared to be arguing that there was no "craft" of oratory and no one could speak well unless he had mastered philosophical teaching.
Charmadas, finally stated that Antonius was a very docile listener, Crassus was a fighting debater.
Difference between disertus and eloquens
Antonius, convinced by those arguments, says he wrote a pamphlet about them.
He names disertus (easy-speaking), a person who can speak with sufficient clearness and smartness, before people of medium level, about whichever subject;
on the other hand he names eloquens (eloquent) a person, who is able to speak in public, using nobler and more adorned language on whichever subject, so that he can embrace all sources of the art of eloquence with his mind and memory.
Someday, somewhere a man will come along who will not just claim to be eloquent, but will actually be truly eloquent. And if this man is not Crassus, then he can only be a little bit better than Crassus.
Sulpicius is gleeful that, as he and Cotta had hoped, someone would mention Antonius and Crassus in their conversations so that they could get some glimmer of knowledge from these two respected individuals. Since Crassus started the discussion, Sulpicius asks him to give his views on oratory first. Crassus replies that he would rather have Antonius speak first as he himself tends to shy away from any discourse on this subject. Cotta is pleased that Crassus has responded in any way because it is usually so difficult to get him to respond in any manner about these matters. Crassus agrees to answer any questions from Cotta or Sulpicius, as long as they are within his knowledge or power.
Is there a science of rhetoric?
Sulpicius asks, "is there an 'art' of oratory?" Crassus responds with some contempt. Do they think he is some idle talkative Greekling? Do they think that he just answers any question that is posed to him? It was Gorgias that started this practice—which was great when he did it—but is so overused today that there is no topic, however grand, that some people claim they cannot respond to. Had he known this was what Sulpius and Cotta wanted, he would have brought a simple Greek with him to respond—which he still can do if they want him to.
Mucius chides Crassus. Crassus agreed to answer the young men's questions, not to bring in some unpracticed Greek or another to respond. Crassus has been known for being a kind person, and it would be becoming for him to respect their question, to answer it, and not run away from responding.
Crassus agrees to answer their question. No, he says. There is no art of speaking, and if there is an art to it, it is a very thin one, as this is just a word. As Antonius had previously explained, an Art is something that has been thoroughly looked at, examined and understood. It is something that is not an opinion, but is an exact fact. Oratory cannot possibly fit into this category. However, if the practices of oratory and how oratory is conducted is studied, put into terms and classification, this could then—possibly—be considered to be an art.
Crassus and Antonius debate on the orator's natural talent
Crassus says that natural talent and mind are the key factors to be a good orator.
Using Antonius's example earlier, these people didn't lack the knowledge of oratory, they lacked the innate ability.
The orator shall have by nature not only heart and mind, but also speedy moves both to find brilliant arguments and to enrich them with development and ornate, constant and tight to keep them in memory.
Does anybody think really that these abilities can be gained by an art?
No, they are gifts of nature, that is the ability to invent, richness in talking, strong lungs, certain voice tones, particular body physique as well as a pleasant looking face.
Crassus does not deny that rhetoric technique can improve the qualities of orators; on the other hand, there are people with so deep lacks in the just cited qualities, that, despite every effort, they will not succeed.
It is a really heavy task to be the very one man speaking, on the most important issues and in a crowded assembly, while everyone keeps silent and pays more attention to the defects than the merits of the speaker himself.
Should he say something unpleasant, this would cancel also all the pleasant he said.
Anyway, this is not intended to make the young people go away from the interest in oratory, provided that they have natural gifts for it: everyone can see the good example of Gaius Celius and Quintus Varius, who gained the people's favour by their natural ability in oratory.
However, since the objective is to look for The Perfect Orator, we must imagine one who has all the necessary traits without any flaws. Ironically, since there is such a variety of lawsuits in the courts, people will listen to even the worst lawyer's speeches, something we would not put up with in the theatre.
And now, Crassus states, he will finally speak about that which he has always kept silent. The better the orator is, the more shame, nervous and doubtful he will feel about his speeches. Those orators that are shameless should be punished. Crassus himself declares that he is scared to death before every speech.
Because of his modesty in this speech, the others in the group elevate Crassus in status even higher.
Antonius replies that he has noticed this sacredness in Crassus and other really good orators.
This is because really good orators know that, sometimes, the speech does not have the intended effect that the speaker wished it to have.
Also, orators tend to be judged harsher than others, as they are required to know so much about so many topics.
An orator is easily set-up by the very nature of what he does to be labeled ignorant.
Antonius completely agrees that an orator must have natural gifts and no master can teach him them. He appreciates Apollonius of Alabanda, a great master of rhetoric, who refused to continue teaching to those pupils he did not find able to become great orators.
If one studies other disciplines, he simply needs to be an ordinary man.
But for an orator, there are so many requirements such as the subtility of a logician, the mind of a philosopher, the language of a poet, the memory of a lawyer, the voice of a tragic actor and the gesture of the most skilled actor.
Crassus finally considers how little attention is paid in learning the art of oratory versus other arts.
Roscius, a famous actor, often complained that he hadn't found a pupil who deserved his approval. There were many with good qualities, but he could not tolerate any fault in them. If we consider this actor, we can see that he makes no gesture of absolute perfection, of highest grace, exactly to give the public emotion and pleasure. In so many years, he reached such a level of perfection, that everyone, who distinguishes himself in a particular art, is called a Roscius in his field.
The man who does not have the natural ability for oratory, he should instead try to achieve something that is more within his grasp.
Crassus replies to some objections by Cotta and Sulpicius
Sulpicius asks Crassus if he is advising Cotta and him to give up with oratory and rather to study civil right or to follow a military career.
Crassus explains that his words are addressed to other young people, who have not the natural talent for oratory, rather than discourage Sulpicius and Cotta, who have great talent and passion for it.
Cotta replies that, given that Crassus stimulates them to dedicate themselves to oratory, now it is time to reveal the secret of his excellence in oratory.
Moreover, Cotta wishes to know which other talents they have still to reach, apart those natural, which they have—according to Crassus.
Crassus says that this is quite an easy task, since he asks him to tell about his own oratory ability, and not about the art of oratory in general.
Therefore, he will expose his usual method, which he used once when he was young, not anything strange or mysterious nor difficult nor solemn.
Sulpicius exults: "At last the day we desired so much, Cotta, has come! We will be able to listen from his very words the way he elaborates and prepares his speeches".
Fundamentals of rhetoric
"I will not tell you anything really mysterious", Crassus says the two listeners.
First is a liberal education and follow the lessons that are taught in these classes.
The main task of an orator is to speak in a proper way to persuade the audience; second, each speech can be on a general matter, without citing persons and dates, or a specific one, regarding particular persons and circumstances.
In both cases, it is usual to ask:
if the fact has happened and, if so,
which is its nature
how can it be defined
if it is legal or not.
There are three kind of speeches: first, those in the courts, those in public assemblies, and those that praise or blame someone.
There are also some topics (loci) to be used in trials, whose aim is justice; other ones to be used in assemblies, whose aim is give opinions; other ones to be used in laudatory speeches, whose aim is to celebrate the cited person.
All energy and ability of the orator must apply to five steps:
find the arguments (inventio)
dispose them in logical order, by importance and opportunity (dispositio)
ornate the speech with devices of the rhetoric style (elocutio)
retain them in memory (memoria)
expose the speech with art of grace, dignity, gesture, modulation of voice and face (actio).
Before pronouncing the speech, it is necessary to gain the goodwill of the audience;
then expose the argument; after, establish the dispute;
subsequently, show evidence of one's own thesis; then, rebut the other party's arguments;
finally, remark our strong positions and weaken the other's.
As regards the ornaments of style, first one is taught to speak with pure and Latin language (ut pure et Latine loquamur); second to express oneself clearly; third to speak with elegance and corresponding to the dignity of the arguments and conveniently.
The rhetors' rules are useful means for the orator. The fact is, however, that these rules came out by the observation of some people on the natural gift of others.
That is, it is not the eloquence that is born from rhetoric, but the rhetoric is born by eloquence.
I do not refuse rhetoric, although I believe it is not indispensable for the orator.
Then Sulpicius says: "That is what we want to better know! The rhetoric rules that you mentioned, even if they are not so now for us. But this later; now we want your opinion about exercises".
The exercise (exercitatio)
Crassus approves the practice of speaking, imaging to be treating a trial in a court.
However, this has the limit of exercising the voice, not yet with art, or its power, increasing the speed of speaking and the richness of vocabulary; therefore, one is alluded to have learnt to speak in public.
On the contrary, the most important exercise, that we usually avoid because it is the most tiring, it is to write speeches as much as possible.
Stilus optimus et praestantissimus dicendi effector ac magister (The pen is the best and most efficient creator and master of speaking).
Like an improvised speech is lower than a well thought one, so this one is, compared to a well prepared and built writing.
All arguments, either those of rhetoric and from one's nature and experience, come out by themselves.
But the most striking thoughts and expressions come one after the other by the style; so the harmonic placing and disposing words is acquired by writing with oratory and not poetic rhythm (non poetico sed quodam oratorio numero et modo).
The approval towards an orator can be gained only after having written speeches very long and much; this is much more important than physical exercise with the greatest effort.
In addition, the orator, who is used to write speeches, reaches the aim that, even in an improvised speech, he seems to speak so similar to a written text.
Crassus remembers some of his exercises when he was younger, he began to read and then imitate poetry or solemn speeches.
This was a used exercise of his main adversary, Gaius Carbo. But after a while, he found that this was an error, because he did not gain benefit imitating the verses of Ennius or the speeches of Gracchus.
So he began to translate Greek speeches into Latin. This led to finding better words to use in his speeches as well as providing new neologisms that would appeal to the audience.
As for the proper voice control, one should study good actors, not just orators.
Train one's memory by learning as many written works as possible (ediscendum ad verbum).
One should also read the poets, know the history, read and study authors of all disciplines, criticize and refute all opinions, taking all likely arguments.
It is necessary to study the civil right, know the laws and the past, that is rules and traditions of the state, the constitution, the rights of the allies and the treaties.
Finally, as an added measure, shed a bit of fine humor on the speech, like the salt on the food.
Everyone is silent. Then Scaevola asks if Cotta or Sulpicius have any more questions for Crassus.
Debate on Crassus' opinions
Cotta replies that Crassus' speech was so raging that he could not catch his content completely. It was like he entered in a rich house, full of rich carpets and treasures, but piled in disorder and not in full view or hidden. "Why do not you ask Crassus," Scaevola says to Cotta, "to place his treasures in order and in full view?"
Cotta hesitates, but Mucius asks again Crassus to expose in detail his opinion about the perfect orator.
Crassus gives examples of orators not expert in civil right
Crassus first hesitates, saying that he does not know some disciplines as much as a master.
Scaevola then encourages him to expose his notions, so fundamental for the perfect orator: on the nature of men, on their attitudes, on the methods by which one excites or calms their souls; notions of history, of antiquities, of State administration and of civil right.
Scaevola knows well that Crassus has a wise knowledge of all these matters and he is also an excellent orator.
Crassus begins his speech underlining the importance of studying civil right.
He quotes the case of two orators, Ipseus and Cneus Octavius, which brought a lawsuit with great eloquence, but lacking of any knowledge of civil right.
They committed great gaffes, proposing requests in favour of their client, which could not fit the rules of civil right.
Another case was the one of Quintus Pompeius, who, asking damages for a client of his, committed a formal, little error, but such that it endangered all his court action.
Finally Crassus quotes positively Marcus Porcius Cato, who was at the top of eloquence, at his times, and also was the best expert in civil right, although he said he despised it.
As regards Antonius, Crassus says he has such a talent for oratory, so unique and incredible, that he can defend himself with all his devices, gained by his experience, although he lacks of knowledge of civil right.
On the contrary, Crassus condemns all the others, because they are lazy in studying civil right, and yet they are so insolent, pretending to have a wide culture; instead, they fall miserably in private trials of little importance, because they have no experience in detailed parts of civil right .
Studying civil right is important
Crassus continues his speech, blaming those orators who are lazy in studying civil right.
Even if the study of law is wide and difficult, the advantages that it gives deserve this effort.
Notwithstanding the formulae of Roman civil right have been published by Gneus Flavius, no one has still disposed them in systematic order.
Even in other disciplines, the knowledge has been systematically organised; even oratory made the division on a speech into inventio, elocutio, dispositio, memoria and actio.
In civil right there is need to keep justice based on law and tradition. Then it is necessary to depart the genders and reduce them to a reduce number, and so on: division in species and definitions.
Gaius Aculeo has a secure knowledge of civil right in such a way that only Scaevola is better than he is.
Civil right is so important that - Crassus says - even politics is contained in the XII Tabulae and even philosophy has its sources in civil right.
Indeed, only laws teach that everyone must, first of all, seek good reputation by the others (dignitas), virtue and right and honest labour are decked of honours (honoribus, praemiis, splendore).
Laws are fit to dominate greed and to protect property.
Crassus then believes that the libellus XII Tabularum has more auctoritas and utilitas than all others works of philosophers, for those who study sources and principles of laws.
If we have to love our country, we must first know its spirit (mens), traditions (mos), constitution (disciplines), because our country is the mother of all of us; this is why it was so wise in writing laws as much as building an empire of such a great power.
The Roman right is well more advanced than that of other people, including the Greek.
Crassus' final praise of studying civil right
Crassus once more remarks how much honour gives the knowledge of civil right.
Indeed, unlike the Greek orators, who need the assistance of some expert of right, called pragmatikoi, the Roman have so many persons who gained high reputation and prestige on giving their advice on legal questions. Which more honourable refuge can be imagined for the older age than dedicating oneself to the study of right and enrich it by this?
The house of the expert of right (iuris consultus) is the oracle of the entire community: this is confirmed by Quintus Mucius, who, despite his fragile health and very old age, is consulted every day by a large number of citizens and by the most influent and important persons in Rome.
Given that—Crassus continues—there is no need to further explain how much important is for the orator to know public right, which relates to government of the state and of the empire, historical documents and glorious facts of the past.
We are not seeking a person who simply shouts before a court, but a devoted to this divine art, who can face the hits of the enemies, whose word is able to raise the citizens' hate against a crime and the criminal, hold them tight with the fear of punishment and save the innocent persons by conviction.
Again, he shall wake up tired, degenerated people and raise them to honour, divert them from the error or fire them against evil persons, calm them when they attack honest persons.
If anyone believes that all this has been treated in a book of rhetoric, I disagree and I add that he neither realises that his opinion is completely wrong.
All I tried to do, is to guide you to the sources of your desire of knowledge and on the right way.
Mucius praises Crassus and tells he did even too much to cope with their enthusiasm.
Sulpicius agrees but adds that they want to know something more about the rules of the art of rhetoric; if Crassus tells more deeply about them, they will be fully satisfied. The young pupils there are eager to know the methods to apply.
What about—Crassus replies—if we ask Antonius now to expose what he keeps inside him and has not yet shown to us? He told that he regretted to let him escape a little handbook on the eloquence.
The others agree and Crassus asks Antonius to expose his point of view.
Views of Antonius, gained from his experience
Antonius offers his perspective, pointing out that he will not speak about any art of oratory, that he never learnt, but on his own practical use in the law courts and from a brief treaty that he wrote.
He decides to begin his case the same way he would in court, which is to state clearly the subject for discussion.
In this way, the speaker cannot wander dispersedly and the issue is not understood by the disputants.
For example, if the subject were to decide what exactly is the art of being a general, then he would have to decide what a general does, determine who is a General and what that person does. Then he would give examples of generals, such as Scipio and Fabius Maximus and also Epaminondas and Hannibal.
And if he were defining what a statesman is, he would give a different definition, characteristics of men who fit this definition, and specific examples of men who are statesmen, he would mention Publius Lentulus, Tiberius Gracchus, Quintus Cecilius Metellus, Publius Cornelius Scipio, Gaius Lelius and many others, both Romans and foreign persons.
If he were defining an expert of laws and traditions (iuris consultus), he would mention Sextus Aelius, Manius Manilius and Publius Mucius.
The same would be done with musicians, poets, and those of lesser arts. The philosopher pretends to know everything about everything, but, nevertheless he gives himself a definition of a person trying to understand the essence of all human and divine things, their nature and causes; to know and respect all practices of right living.
Definition of orator, according to Antonius
Antonius disagrees with Crassus' definition of orator, because the last one claims that an orator should have a knowledge of all matters and disciplines.
On the contrary, Antonius believes that an orator is a person, who is able to use graceful words to be listened to and proper arguments to generate persuasion in the ordinary court proceedings. He asks the orator to have a vigorous voice, a gentle gesture and a kind attitude.
In Antonius' opinion, Crassus gave an improper field to the orator, even an unlimited scope of action: not the space of a court, but even the government of a state.
And it seemed so strange that Scaevola approved that, despite he obtained consensus by the Senate, although having spoken in a very synthetic and poor way.
A good senator does not become automatically a good orator and vice versa. These roles and skills are very far each from the other, independent and separate.
Marcus Cato, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, Gaius Lelius, all eloquent persons, used very different means to ornate their speeches and the dignity of the state.
Neither nature nor any law or tradition prohibit that a man is skilled in more than one discipline.
Therefore, if Pericles was, at the same time, the most eloquent and the most powerful politician in Athens, we cannot conclude that both these distinct qualities are necessary to the same person.
If Publius Crassus was, at the same time, an excellent orator and an expert of right, not for this we can conclude that the knowledge of right is inside the abilities of the oratory.
Indeed, when a person has a reputation in one art and then he learns well another, he seems that the second one is part of his first excellence.
One could call poets those who are called physikoi by the Greeks, just because the Empedocles, the physicist, wrote an excellent poem.
But the philosophers themselves, although claiming that they study everything, dare to say that geometry and music belong to the philosopher, just because Plato has been unanimously acknowledged excellent in these disciplines.
In conclusion, if we want to put all the disciplines as a necessary knowledge for the orator, Antonius disagrees, and prefers simply to say that the oratory needs not to be nude and without ornate; on the contrary, it needs to be flavoured and moved by a graceful and changing variety.
A good orator needs to have listened a lot, watched a lot, reflecting a lot, thinking and reading, without claiming to possess notions, but just taking honourable inspiration by others' creations.
Antonius finally acknowledges that an orator must be smart in discussing a court action and never appear as an inexperienced soldier nor a foreign person in an unknown territory.
Difference between an orator and a philosopher
Antonius disagrees with Crassus' opinion: an orator does not need to have enquired deeply the human soul, behaviour and motions—that is, study philosophy—to excite or calm the souls of the audience.
Antonius admires those who dedicated their time to study philosophy nor despites them, the width of their culture and the importance of this discipline. Yet, he believes that it is enough for the Roman orator to have a general knowledge of human habits and not to speak about things that clash with their traditions.
Which orator, to put the judge against his adversary, has been ever in trouble to ignore anger and other passions, and, instead, used the philosophers' arguments? Some of these latest ones claim that one's soul must be kept away from passions and say it is a crime to excite them in the judges' souls.
Other philosophers, more tolerant and more practical, say that passions should be moderate and smooth.
On the contrary, the orator picks all these passions of everyday life and amplifies them, making them greater and stronger.
At the same time he praises and gives appeal to what is commonly pleasant and desirable.
He does not want to appear the wise among the stupids: by that, he would seem unable and a Greek with a poor art; otherwise they would hate to be treated as stupid persons.
Instead, he works on every feeling and thought, driving them so that he need not to discuss philosophers' questions.
We need a very different kind of man, Crassus, we need an intelligent, smart man by his nature and experience, skilled in catching thoughts, feelings, opinions, hopes of his citizens and of those who want to persuade with his speech.
The orator shall feel the people pulse, whatever their kind, age, social class, investigate the feelings of those who is going to speak to.
Let him keep the books of the philosophers for his relax or free time; the ideal state of Plato had concepts and ideals of justice very far from the common life.
Would you claim, Crassus, that the virtue (virtus) become slave of the precept of these philosophers? No, it shall always be anyway free, even if the body is captured.
Then, the Senate not only can but shall serve the people; and which philosopher would approve to serve the people, if the people themselves gave him the power to govern and guide them? .
Episodes of the past: Rutilius Rufus, Servius Galba, Cato and Crassus
Antonius then reports a past episode: Publius Rutilius Rufus blamed Crassus before the Senate spoke not only parum commode (in few adequate way), but also turpiter et flagitiose (shamefully and in scandalous way).
Rutilius Rufus himself blamed also Servius Galba, because he used pathetical devices to excite compassion of the audience, when Lucius Scribonius sued him in a trial.
In the same proceeding, Marcus Cato, his bitter and dogged enemy, made a hard speech against him, that after inserted in his Origines.
He would be convicted, if he would not have used his sons to rise compassion.
Rutilius strongly blamed such devices and, when he was sued in court, chose not to be defended by a great orator like Crassus.
Rather, he preferred to expose simply the truth and he faced the cruel feeling of the judges without the protection of the oratory of Crassus.
The example of Socrates
Rutilius, a Roman and a consularis, wanted to imitate Socrates. He chose to speak himself for his defence, when he was on trial and convicted to death. He preferred not to ask mercy or to be an accused, but a teacher for his judges and even a master of them.
When Lysias, an excellent orator, brought him a written speech to learn by heart, he read it and found it very good but added: "You seem to have brought to me elegant shoes from Sicyon, but they are not suited for a man": he meant that the written speech was brilliant and excellent for an orator, but not strong and suited for a man.
After the judges condemned him, they asked him which punishment he would have believed suited for him and he replied to receive the highest honour and live for the rest of his life in the Pritaneus, at the state expenses.
This increased the anger of the judges, who condemned him to death.
Therefore, if this was the end of Socrates, how can we ask the philosophers the rules of eloquence?.
I do not question whether philosophy is better or worse than oratory; I only consider that philosophy is different by eloquence and this last one can reach the perfection by itself.
Antonius: the orator need not a wide knowledge of right
Antonius understands that Crassus has made a passionate mention to the civil right, a grateful gift to Scaevola, who deserves it. As Crassus saw this discipline poor, he enriched it with ornate.
Antonius acknowledges his opinion and respect it, that is to give great relevance to the study of civil right, because it is important, it had always a very high honour and it is studied by the most eminent citizens of Rome.
But pay attention, Antonius says, not to give the right an ornate that is not its own. If you said that an expert of right (iuris consultus) is also an orator and, equally, an orator is also an expert of right, you would put at the same level and dignity two very bright disciplines.
Nevertheless, at the same time, you admit that an expert of right can be a person without the eloquence we are discussing on, and, the more, you acknowledge that there were many like this.
On the contrary, you claim that an orator cannot exist without having learnt civil right.
Therefore, in your opinion, an expert of right is no more than a skilled and smart handler of right; but given that an orator often deals with right during a legal action, you have placed the science of right nearby the eloquence, as a simple handmaiden that follows her proprietress.
You blame—Antonius continues—those advocates, who, although ignoring the fundamentals of right face legal proceedings, I can defend them, because they used a smart eloquence.
But I ask you, Antonius, which benefit would the orator have given to the science of right in these trials, given that the expert of right would have won, not thanks to his specific ability, but to another's, thanks to the eloquence.
I was told that Publius Crassus, when was candidate for Aedilis and Servius Galba, was a supporter of him, he was approached by a peasant for a consult.
After having a talk with Publius Crassus, the peasant had an opinion closer to the truth than to his interests.
Galba saw the peasant going away very sad and asked him why. After having known what he listened by Crassus, he blamed him; then Crassus replied that he was sure of his opinion by his competence on right.
And yet, Galba insisted with a kind but smart eloquence and Crassus could not face him: in conclusion, Crassus demonstrated that his opinion was well founded on the books of his brother Publius Micius and in the commentaries of Sextus Aelius, but at last he admitted that Galba's thesis looked acceptable and close to the truth .
There are several kinds of trials, in which the orator can ignore civil right or parts of it, on the contrary, there are others, in which he can easily find a man, who is expert of right and can support him.
In my opinion, says Antonius to Crassus, you deserved well your votes by your sense of humour and graceful speaking, with your jokes, or mocking many examples from laws, consults of the Senate and from everyday speeches.
You raised fun and happiness in the audience: I cannot see what has civil right to do with that.
You used your extraordinary power of eloquence, with your great sense of humour and grace.
Antonius further critiques Crassus
Considering the allegation that the young do not learn oratory, despite, in your opinion, it is so easy, and watching those who boast to be a master of oratory, claiming that it is very difficult,
you are contradictory, because you say it is an easy discipline, while you admit it is still not this way, but it will become such one day.
Second, you say it is full of satisfaction: on the contrary everyone will let to you this pleasure and prefer to learn by heart the Teucer of Pacuvius than the leges Manilianae.
Third, as for your love for the country, do not you realise that the ancient laws are lapsed by themselves for oldness or repealed by new ones?
Fourth, you claim that, thanks to the civil right, honest men can be educated, because laws promise prices to virtues and punishments to crimes. I have always thought that, instead, virtue can be communicated to men, by education and persuasion and not by threatens, violence or terror.
As for me, Crassus, let me treat trials, without having learnt civil right: I have never felt such a failure in the civil action, that I brought before the courts.
For ordinary and everyday situations, cannot we have a generic knowledge?
Cannot we be taught about civil right, in so far as we feel not stranger in our country?
Should a court action deal with a practical case, then we would obliged to learn a discipline so difficult and complicate; likewise, we should act in the same way, should we have a skilled knowledge of laws or opinions of experts of laws, provided that we have not already studied them by young.
Fundamentals of rhetorics according to Antonius
Shall I conclude that the knowledge of civil right is not at all useful for the orator?
Absolutely not: no discipline is useless, particularly for who has to use arguments of eloquence with abundance.
But the notions that an orator needs are so many, that I am afraid he would be lost, wasting his energy in too many studies.
Who can deny that an orator needs the gesture and the elegance of Roscius, when acting in the court?
Nonetheless, nobody would advice the young who study oratory to act like an actor.
Is there anything more important for an orator than his voice?
Nonetheless, no practising orator would be advised by me to care about this voice like the Greek and the tragic actors, who repeat for years exercise of declamation, while seating; then, every day, they lay down and lift their voice steadily and, after having made their speech, they sit down and they recall it by the most sharp tone to the lowest, like they were entering again into themselves.
But of all this gesture, we can learn a summary knowledge, without a systematic method and, apart gesture and voice that cannot be improvised nor taken by others in a moment, any notion of right can be gained by experts or by the books.
Thus, in Greece, the most excellent orators, as they are not skilled in right, are helped by expert of right, the pragmatikoi.
The Romans behave much better, claiming that law and right were guaranteed by persons of authority and fame.
Old age does not require study of law
As for the old age, that you claim relieved by loneliness, thanks to the knowledge of civil right, who knows that a large sum of money will relieve it as well?
Roscius loves to repeat that the more he will go on with the age the more he will slow down the accompaniment of a flute-player and will make more moderate his chanted parts.
If he, who is bound by rhythm and meter, finds out a device to allow himself a bit of a rest in the old age, the easier will be for us not only to slow down the rhythm, but to change it completely.
You, Crassus, certainly know how many and how various are the way of speaking,.
Nonetheless, your present quietness and solemn eloquence is not at all less pleasant than your powerful energy and tension of your past.
Many orators, such as Scipio and Laelius, which gained all results with a single tone, just a little bit elevated, without forcing their lungs or screaming like Servius Galba.
Do you fear that you home will no longer be frequented by citizens?
On the contrary I am waiting the loneliness of the old age like a quiet harbour: I think that free time is the sweetest comfort of the old age
General culture is sufficient
As regards the rest, I mean history, knowledge of public right, ancient traditions and samples, they are useful.
If the young pupils wish to follow your invitation to read everything, to listen to everything and learn all liberal disciplines and reach a high cultural level, I will not stop them at all.
I have only the feeling that they have not enough time to practice all that and it seems to me, Crassus, that you have put on these young men a heavy burden, even if maybe necessary to reach their objective.
Indeed, both the exercises on some court topics and a deep and accurate reflexion, and your stilus (pen), that properly you defined the best teacher of eloquence, need much effort.
Even comparing one's oration to another's and improvise a discussion on another's script, either to praise or to criticize it, to strengthen it or to refute it, need much effort both on memory and on imitation.
This heavy requirements can discourage more than encourage persons and should more properly be applied to actors than to orators.
Indeed, the audience listens to us, the orators, the most of the times, even if we are hoarse, because the subject and the lawsuit captures the audience; on the contrary, if Roscius has a little bit of hoarse voice, he is booed.
Eloquence has many devices, not only the hearing to keep the interest high and the pleasure and the appreciation.
Practical exercise is fundamental
Antonius agrees with Crassus for an orator, who is able to speak in such a way to persuade the audience, provided that he limits himself to the daily life and to the court, renouncing to other studies, although noble and honourable.
Let him imitate Demosthenes, who compensated his handicaps by a strong passion, dedition and obstinate application to oratory.
He was indeed stuttering, but through his exercise, he became able to speak much more clearly than anyone else.
Besides, having a short breath, he trained himself to retain the breath, so that he could pronounce two elevations and two remissions of voice in the same sentence.
We shall incite the young to use all their efforts, but the other things that you put before, are not part of the duties and of the tasks of the orator.
Crassus replied: "You believe that the orator, Antonius, is a simple man of the art; on the contrary, I believe that he, especially in our State, shall not be lacking of any equipment, I was imaging something greater.
On the other hand, you restricted all the task of the orator within borders such limited and restricted, that you can more easily expose us the results of your studies on the orator's duties and on the precepts of his art.
But I believe that you will do it tomorrow: this is enough for today and Scaevola too, who decided to go to his villa in Tusculum, will have a bit of a rest. Let us take care of our health as well".
All agreed and they decided to adjourn the debate.
Book II
De Oratore Book II is the second part of De Oratore by Cicero. Much of Book II is dominated by Marcus Antonius. He shares with Lucius Crassus, Quintus Catulus, Gaius Julius Caesar, and Sulpicius his opinion on oratory as an art, eloquence, the orator's subject matter, invention, arrangement, and memory.
Oratory as an art
Antonius surmises "that oratory is no more than average when viewed as an art". Oratory cannot be fully considered an art because art operates through knowledge. In contrast, oratory is based upon opinions. Antonius asserts that oratory is "a subject that relies on falsehood, that seldom reaches the level of real knowledge, that is out to take advantage of people's opinions and often their delusions" (Cicero, 132). Still, oratory belongs in the realm of art to some extent because it requires a certain kind of knowledge to "manipulate human feelings" and "capture people's goodwill".
Eloquence
Antonius believes that nothing can surpass the perfect orator. Other arts do not require eloquence, but the art of oratory cannot function without it. Additionally, if those who perform any other type of art happen to be skilled in speaking it is because of the orator. But, the orator cannot obtain his oratorical skills from any other source.
The orator's subject matter
In this portion of Book II Antonius offers a detailed description of what tasks should be assigned to an orator. He revisits Crassus' understanding of the two issues that eloquence, and thus the orator, deals with. The first issue is indefinite while the other is specific. The indefinite issue pertains to general questions while the specific issue addresses particular persons and matters. Antonius begrudgingly adds a third genre of laudatory speeches. Within laudatory speeches it is necessary include the presence of “descent, money, relatives, friends, power, health, beauty, strength, intelligence, and everything else that is either a matter of the body or external" (Cicero, 136). If any of these qualities are absent then the orator should include how the person managed to succeed without them or how the person bore their loss with humility. Antonius also maintains that history is one of the greatest tasks for the orator because it requires a remarkable "fluency of diction and variety". Finally, an orator must master “everything that is relevant to the practices of citizens and the ways human behave” and be able to utilize this understanding of his people in his cases.
Invention
Antonius begins the section on invention by proclaiming the importance of an orator having a thorough understanding of his case. He faults those who do not obtain enough information about their cases, thereby making themselves look foolish. Antonius continues by discussing the steps that he takes after accepting a case. He considers two elements: "the first one recommends us or those for whom we are pleading, the second is aimed at moving the minds of our audience in the direction we want" (153). He then lists the three means of persuasion that are used in the art of oratory: "proving that our contentions are true, winning over our audience, and inducing their minds to feel any emotion the case may demand" (153). He discerns that determining what to say and then how to say it requires a talented orator. Also, Antonius introduces ethos and pathos as two other means of persuasion. Antonius believes that an audience can often be persuaded by the prestige or the reputation of a man. Furthermore, within the art of oratory it is critical that the orator appeal to the emotion of his audience. He insists that the orator will not move his audience unless he himself is moved. In his conclusion on invention Antonius shares his personal practices as an orator. He tells Sulpicius that when speaking his ultimate goal is to do good and if he is unable to procure some kind of good then he hopes to refrain from inflicting harm.
Arrangement
Antonius offers two principles for an orator when arranging material. The first principle is inherent in the case while the second principle is contingent on the judgment of the orator.
Memory
Antonius shares the story of Simonides of Ceos, the man whom he credits with introducing the art of memory. He then declares memory to be important to the orator because "only those with a powerful memory know what they are going to say, how far they will pursue it, how they will say it, which points they have already answered and which still remain" (220).
Book III
De Oratore, Book III is the third part of De Oratore by Cicero. It describes the death of Lucius Licinius Crassus.
They belong to the generation, which precedes the one of Cicero: the main characters of the dialogue are Marcus Antonius (not the triumvir) and Lucius Licinius Crassus (not the unofficial triumvir); other friends of them, such as Gaius Iulius Caesar (not the dictator), Sulpicius and Scaevola intervene occasionally.
At the beginning of the third book, which contains Crassus' exposition, Cicero is hit by a sad memory. He expresses all his pain to his brother Quintus Cicero. He reminds him that only nine days after the dialogue, described in this work, Crassus died suddenly. He came back to Rome the last day of the ludi scaenici (19 September 91 BC), very worried by the speech of the consul Lucius Marcius Philippus. He made a speech before the people, claiming the creation of a new council in place of the Roman Senate, with which he could not govern the State any longer. Crassus went to the curia (the palace of the Senate) and heard the speech of Drusus, reporting Lucius Marcius Philippus' speech and attacking him.
In that occasion, everyone agreed that Crassus, the best orator of all, overcame himself with his eloquence. He blamed the situation and the abandonment of the Senate: the consul, who should be his good father and faithful defender, was depriving it of its dignity like a robber. No need of surprise, indeed, if he wanted to deprive the State of the Senate, after having ruined the first one with his disastrous projects.
Philippus was a vigorous, eloquent and smart man: when he was attacked by the Crassus' firing words, he counter-attacked him until he made him keep silent. But Crassus replied:" You, who destroyed the authority of the Senate before the Roman people, do you really think to intimidate me? If you want to keep me silent, you have to cut my tongue. And even if you do it, my spirit of freedom will hold tight your arrogance".
Crassus' speech lasted a long time and he spent all of his spirit, his mind and his forces. Crassus' resolution was approved by the Senate, stating that "not the authority nor the loyalty of the Senate ever abandoned the Roman State". When he was speaking, he had a pain in his side and, after he came home, he got fever and died of pleurisy in six days.
"How insecure is the destiny of a man!", Cicero says. Just in the peak of his public career, Crassus reached the top of the authority, but also destroyed all his expectations and plans for the future by his death.
This sad episode caused pain, not only to Crassus' family, but also to all the honest citizens. Cicero adds that, in his opinion, the immortal gods gave Crassus his death as a gift, to preserve him from seeing the calamities that would befall the State a short time later. Indeed, he has not seen Italy burning by the social war (91-87 BC), neither the people's hate against the Senate, the escape and return of Gaius Marius, the following revenges, killings and violence.
Notes
References
Bibliography
De Oratore editions
Critical editions
M TULLI CICERONIS SCRIPTA QUAE MANSERUNT OMNIA FASC. 3 DE ORATORE edidit KAZIMIERZ F. KUMANIECKI ed. TEUBNER; Stuttgart and Leipzig, anastatic reprint, 1995
L'Orateur - Du meilleur genre d'orateurs. Collection des universités de France Série latine. Latin text with translation in French. Publication Year: June 2008
M. Tulli Ciceronis De Oratore Libri Tres, with Introduction and Notes by Augustus Samuel Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1902. (Reprint: 1961). Available from the Internet Archive here.
Editions with a commentary
De oratore libri III / M. Tullius Cicero; Kommentar von Anton D. Leeman, Harm Pinkster. Heidelberg : Winter, 1981-<1996 > Description: v. <1-2, 3 pt.2, 4 >; (Bd. 3 : kart.) (Bd. 3 : Ln.) (Bd. 1) (Bd. 1 : Ln.) (Bd. 4) (Bd. 2 : kart.) (Bd. 2 : Ln.)
"De Oratore Libri Tres", in M. Tulli Ciceronis Rhetorica (ed. Augustus Samuel Wilkins), Vol. I. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1892. (Reprint: Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert, 1962). Available from the Internet Archive here.
Translations
Further reading
Elaine Fantham: The Roman World of Cicero's De Oratore, Paperback edition, Oxford University Press, 2007,
External links
Cicero, De Oratore (translated by J.S. Watson) at attalus.org
Works by Cicero on oratory
Mnemonics
Books about tropes |
4172937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Eight%20Racing | Triple Eight Racing | Triple Eight Racing (888 Racing) was a motorsports team formed in 1996 as Triple Eight Race Engineering, which competed in the British Touring Car Championship and the British GT Championship.
The team's original focus was to design, build and race Vauxhalls on behalf of the General Motors brand in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC). A close working alliance developed during a decade of success and Triple Eight became Vauxhall's technical partner for motorsport. In 2009, Vauxhall Motors ended its support for the BTCC, however the team continued to compete using Vauxhalls until the end of the 2011 season. From the 2012 season, Triple Eight began to build and race MG6 GT cars on behalf of MG, in a revival of the marque in the BTCC. The following year, the team entered the British GT Championship, running a pair of BMW Z4 GT3s.
Prior to the start of the 2015 season, the team rebranded itself as Triple Eight Racing across all its motorsport programs, introducing a new team name and logo.
British Touring Car Championship
Vauxhall manufacturer entry (1997–2009)
Vauxhall Vectra (1997–2000)
Triple Eight was founded by Derek Warwick, Roland Dane and Ian Harrison in late 1996. The team made its BTCC debut in 1997 by running the works Vauxhall team left by RML and providing Vectras for 2 time Vauxhall champion John Cleland and team owner Derek Warwick. The season was not successful with the Vectra uncompetitive because of aerodynamics which had been holomogated for the Vectra model across all Supertouring championships in 1996 and was primarily set up for the faster French, German and Italian tracks; where the Opel Vectra was much more competitive.
John Cleland and Derek Warwick finished 12th and 14th in the championship with their best race results being a 5th. Triple Eight finished 8th in the teams' and manufacturers' (as Vauxhall) championships.
1998 would be a much more competitive season, Triple Eight changed the aerodynamic package and the Vauxhall Vectra became a much more competitive car, after the FIA Touring Car Bureau agreed that Vauxhall could homologate a differing aerodynamic package to Opel's. Triple Eight's first BTCC win came at round 5 at Donington Park after John Cleland achieved a great start and never lost the lead. This would also be John Cleland's first victory since his championship year in 1995, and Vauxhall's first since James Thompson at Snetterton 1996. John Cleland would win again at Donington Park at round 12 in one of the best BTCC races ever witnessed. Derek Warwick would also take his first BTCC victory at Knockhill. While the season was successful, it was not smooth. John Cleland suffered a crash at Snetterton with reigning champion Alain Menu causing cracked ribs and heavy bruising causing him to miss the next round at Thruxton. His place was taken by Brazilian driver Flavio Figueiredo. John Cleland and Derek Warwick finished 8th and 9th in the championship. Triple Eight finished 5th in the teams' and manufacturers' award.
1999 saw Derek Warwick retire from full-time racing and to focus on running the team. His place was taken by Frenchmen Yvan Muller moving from Audi. The Vectra went through some changes as well for the season. Ludo Lacroix joined the team in 1999. The season only saw one win from Vauxhall by Yvan Muller at Brands Hatch round 7. Yvan Muller finished an eventual 6th in the championship, however John Cleland had a much harder season finishing 13th and announcing his retirement after 11 successful seasons with Vauxhall including 2 championships in 1989 (Vauxhall Astra) and 1995 (Vauxhall Cavalier). 2000 saw the final year of the Supertouring era and many of the manufacturers depart the BTCC (these included Renault (Williams) – 1997 champions, Volvo (TWR) – 1998 champions and Nissan (RML Group) 1999 champions) leaving Ford (Prodrive), Honda (WSR) and Vauxhall (Triple Eight). Every team increased to three cars. Triple Eight had Yvan Muller, Jason Plato (departing Renault) and Vincent Radermecker (departing Volvo) Ford were the dominant manufacturer throughout the season with all three Fords finishing 1–2–3 in the drivers' championship (Alain Menu – Anthony Reid – Rickard Rydell) with Yvan Muller and Jason Plato finishing 4th and 5th with Vincent Radermecker finishing 10th. Triple Eight finished 2nd and 3rd in the teams and manufacturers award.
Triple Eight competed twice in the Bathurst 1000 in Australia. In 1997, two Vectras were entered for John Cleland/James Thompson and Derek Warwick/Peter Brock, while in 1998, Cleland and Warwick shared a car with Russell Ingall and Greg Murphy driving the second car.
Vauxhall Astra Coupé (2001–04)
2001 saw the arrival of the new touring car regulation. This system was designed to make the cars much less expensive to build and run. Vauxhall replaced the Vectra with the Astra Coupe for 2001 and would so until 2004. Yvan Muller and Jason Plato retained their seats at Vauxhall and were the class of the field. The title came down between Yvan Muller and Jason Plato in the final race. After an early spin by Plato, Yvan Muller looked comfortable to take the title, until two excursions at Clearways caused an oil leak and fire for Yvan Muller leaving Plato champion. Triple Eight finished 1st in the teams and manufacturers award. 2002 saw the departure of Jason Plato from the BTCC to race in the British ASCAR stock car championship. Yvan Muller retained his seat at Vauxhall and was more determined to take the title. Plato's seat at Vauxhall was filled by James Thompson moving up from egg:sport. The season saw the Astra Coupe again the car to beat against rivals MG, Honda, Peugeot and Proton, however the Astra suffered reliability issues throughout the season. Despite this, Yvan Muller and James Thompson and for much of the season Matt Neal (egg:sport) fought for the championship. In the end James Thompson won the championship from Yvan Muller and Matt Neal. Triple Eight again finished 1st in the teams and manufacturers award.
2003 saw Vauxhall increase to three cars with James Thompson, Yvan Muller and Paul O'Neill moving up from egg:sport. Vauxhall also changed the team name to VX Racing standing for the new Vauxhall tuning company VXR.
The season saw the Astra challenged by Honda and MG throughout the year, however Yvan Muller and James Thompson again challenged each other for the title. In the end Yvan Muller secured the title. Triple Eight again won the teams and manufacturers award. 2004 would be the final season for the Astra Coupe. Yvan Muller and James Thompson were joined by 2003 Production class champion Luke Hines. The Astra Coupe faced a huge challenge against Honda, MG and newcomers Seat who had Jason Plato returning to the championship. Despite the Astra Coupe at times during the season not the quickest car its consistency allowed Yvan Muller and James Thompson for the third year in a row fight for the title. In the end James Thompson won the title by one point from Yvan Muller. The Astra Coupe would be known as the most successful car to race in the BTCC. For the fourth year in a row Triple Eight won the teams and manufacturers award.
egg:sport (2001–02)
For 2001 Triple Eight ran a second team to run alongside the Vauxhall Motorsport known as egg:sport using the Astra Coupe. 2001 saw egg:sport run two cars for James Thompson and newcomer Phil Bennett. James Thompson won four races while Phil Bennett won three races. Andy Priaulx raced at Oulton Park for egg:sport replacing Phil Bennett after an altercation with Steve Soper caused him to be given a round ban. James Thompson and Phil Bennett finished 3rd and 4th in the championship. egg:sport finished 2nd in the teams award and 1st along with Vauxhall Motorsport in the manufacturers award as Vauxhall.
2002 saw a new driver lineup for the season. Matt Neal returned to the BTCC after a year in the ETCC. His teammate would be Paul O'Neill who moved up from the Production Class. Matt Neal and Paul O'Neill showed promise throughout the season with Matt Neal a challenger for the title for much of the season by winning three races and Paul O'Neill winning his first race and on the pace during the year. Matt Neal and Paul O'Neill finished 3rd and 8th in the championship. egg:sport finished 3rd in the teams award and 1st in the manufacturers award
Vauxhall Astra Sport Hatch (2005–06)
2005 saw the introduction to the Vauxhall Astra Sport Hatch to replace the successful Astra Coupe. While the Astra Coupe was able to soak up all the challenges it faced throughout the four years the Astra Sport Hatch faced much harder opposition including the new Honda Integra Type R prepared by Team Halfords (Team Dynamics). Yvan Muller retained his seat at Triple Eight and Vauxhall, James Thompson would not return to the championship to retain his title, instead setting his sights on the new WTCC. His place was taken Colin Turkington moving from West Surrey Racing and MG while a third car was prepared for Gavin Smith. While Vauxhall were expected to once again win the championship, the Astra Sport Hatch was outclassed by the Integra Type R of Matt Neal and Dan Eaves. While Yvan Muller challenged Matt Neal for the title, Matt Neal managed to complete all 30 races without a single retirement. Yvan Muller finished 2nd in the championship with 6 race wins, Colin Turkington finished 6th in the championship with 2 race wins while Gavin Smith finished 10th in the championship. Triple Eight managed to win the manufacturers award for a 5th year in a row from Seat who were somewhat outclassed by both Team Halfords and VX Racing. Triple Eight finished 2nd in the teams award.
2006 saw a new look for Triple Eight and Vauxhall. Holiday Inn became a main sponsor for VX Racing and the driver lineup also saw new changes. After seven successful seasons and a championship (2003) Yvan Muller left VX Racing and the BTCC to compete with Seat in the WTCC. Colin Turkington also left the team to return to West Surrey Racing. Yvan Muller's place was taken by Italian Fabrizio Giovanardi moving from the WTCC and Colin Turkington's place was taken by Tom Chilton moving from Honda. Gavin Smith retained his seat at VX Racing. The season was a disappointing one for Triple Eight with the Astra Sport Hatch not quite as competitive as its competitors, again outclassed by the Integra Type R and Seat with its new Leon. Tom Chilton struggled to learn the car, Fabrizio Giovanardi also had issues trying to learn the car and tracks. While the dominance was missing from the previous seasons there were highlights throughout the season. Fabrizio Giovanardi's first win happened to be Vauxhall's 100th BTCC race win. He then won another race at Brands Hatch, Tom Chilton and Gavin Smith went through the season without a win. Triple Eight finished 2nd and 3rd in the manufacturers and teams award.
Vauxhall Vectra (2007–09)
2007 saw the start of a new era for the BTCC as the series adopted the S2000 regulations as used in the World Touring Car Championship. The changes in regulations meant that the Vauxhall Astra Sport Hatch was replaced by the Vauxhall Vectra. VX Racing downsized to a two-car team, retaining Fabrizio Giovanardi and Tom Chilton. 2007 saw the full potential of Fabrizio Giovanardi, winning 10 races and the title against Seat rival Jason Plato. While the season was successful for Giovanardi, Tom Chilton again had a challenging season without a win and an eventual 9th in the championship. For the final round at Thruxton, the championship difference was 9 points (Jason Plato to Fabrizio Giovanardi) Both teams brought in a third driver. Seat brought in Tom Coronel, while Vauxhall brought in Alain Menu, the 1997 champion with Renault and 2000 champion with Ford. Triple Eight won the manufacturers award and 2nd in the teams award.
For 2008 Triple Eight returned to a three-car operation. Fabrizio Giovanardi retained his seat as defending champion, Tom Chilton and Matt Neal exchanged seats at Triple Eight and Team Dynamics with Tom Chilton moving to Team Dynamics and Matt Neal to Triple Eight. The third car was taken by Tom Onslow-Cole moving from Team RAC (WSR). The season was somewhat untroubling for Giovanardi to another championship ahead of Jason Plato. Matt Neal finished 5th with one win and Tom Onslow-Cole finished 6th with two wins. Triple Eight finished 1st in the manufacturers and teams award.
2009 saw new changes to Triple Eight. Triple Eight were the only team with manufacturer support. Fabrizio Giovanardi and Matt Neal retained their seats at VX Racing while Tom Onslow-Cole moved to drive part-time for Team AON Ford. His place was taken by Andrew Jordan. Despite the success of the Vectra and Giovanardi it would not continue into 2009. While Giovanardi challenged for the title he was outclassed by Colin Turkington in the RAC BMW (WSR) and Jason Plato with RML Chevrolet. Fabrizio Giovanardi finished the season 3rd while Matt Neal and Andrew Jordan finished 4th and 10th in the championship. Triple Eight finished 1st in the teams and manufacturers award. 2009 would also witness the final year with a works Vauxhall team. Vauxhall pulled out of the sport due to lack of official manufacturers and the economic crisis.
Independent entry (2010–11)
Vauxhall Vectra C (2010–11)
On 23 March 2010 at the BTCC Media Day at Brands Hatch, Triple 8 Race Engineering appeared on the official entry list for the 2010 season. Although without manufacturer support from Vauxhall, Triple Eight intended to run a pair of Vauxhall Vectras in the Independent category.
For 2010 Triple Eight had hired Renault Cup champion Phil Glew and a last minute deal with Fabrizio Giovanardi. Uniq would be the main sponsor along with WD40 and DUNLOP. The season started sensationally for Giovanardi, winning the first two races at Thruxton and a fifth in the final race gave him a lead in the championship. Phil Glew also started well finishing in the top 10 in both races only to retire in the final race. While Triple Eight were looking like contenders for the championship, the team was turned on its head. Before the next round at Rockingham, Uniq pulled out sponsorship, as a result a lack of money meant that both Fabrizio Giovanardi and Phil Glew were forced to leave the team. James Nash was hired to race for the remainder of the season and Triple Eight ran a second car at times during the season driven by Daniel Lloyd (Round 5), Jeff Smith (Round 8) and Sam Tordoff (Round 10). The season was a disappointment for Triple Eight with changes in sponsors and lack of results, a third at Oulton Park by James Nash was only the real result of the season since Giovanardi's two wins at Thruxton. James Nash finished the season 8th and 12th in the Independents Trophy and outright championship. Fabrizio Giovanardi finished 12th and 14th in the Independents Trophy and outright championship. Phil Glew finished 14th and 16th in the Independents Trophy and outright championship (Phil Glew also drove for Special Tuning UK using a Seat Leon at Silverstone Round 7). Daniel Lloyd finished 18th and 17th in the Independents Trophy and outright championship. Sam Tordoff finished 23rd in the Independents Trophy and outright championship. Jeff Smith finished equal 24th in the Independents Trophy and outright championship. Triple Eight finished 5th and 7th in the Independents Team Trophy and Teams championship.
With an unexpected and disappointing 2010 season, Triple Eight were hoping for a much improved season. The team again used the Vectra as their weapon for the new season along with the new NGTC turbocharged engine replacing the S2000 naturally aspirated engine. James Nash was hired as the full-time driver. He was joined by three different drivers throughout the season. Tony Gilham (Rounds 1–6), Aron Smith (Round 7) and Ollie Jackson (9–10). Another change to the team was the sponsorship. Collins Contractors became the main sponsor for the team. The season ran well with James Nash securing podiums and at times the championship lead. His breakthrough win came at Rockingham Round 8. James Nash went on to win the Independents Trophy and Independents Team Trophy for Triple Eight and outright third in the teams championship. James Nash finished equal 4th in the overall championship with Mat Jackson. Tony Gilham finished 15th and 19th in the Independents Trophy and outright championship (Tony Gilham also drove for Geoff Steel Racing). Aron Smith finished equal 21st and equal 22nd in the Independents Trophy and outright championship. Ollie Jackson finished equal 19th and equal 26th in the championship.
MG manufacturer entry (2012–2017)
MG6 GT (2012–2017)
It was officially announced that Triple Eight would return to Manufacturer status with MG, running a pair of MG6 GT cars to the latest Next Generation Touring Car specification. Jason Plato joined the team from Chevrolet, alongside Andy Neate, who had joined from Team Aon. This meant that although Triple Eight were the reigning Independent Driver and Team champions, they would be ineligible to defend their titles due to the MG's manufacturer support.
Entering the championship as MG KX Momentum Racing, with the main sponsor being Tesco through its KX energy drink and Momentum Fuel brands, the car made its debut at Brands Hatch after hardly turning a wheel during its build and development. Nevertheless, the car was on the pace straight away, scoring a third place in race two and the car's maiden win at the hands of Plato in race three. Throughout the rest of the first half of the 2012 season, the MG6 and Plato scored a further six podium positions including a second win at Croft just before the mid-season break. This left Plato third in the drivers' championship and the team fourth in the teams' championship. Plato's teammate Andy Neate, however, did not fare as well with his debut with the team, with his best result being sixth but often struggling to get his MG into the top ten; which left him only 17th at the halfway point of the season. The second half of the year saw Plato add four more wins to his tally, at Snetterton, Rockingham and Silverstone placing him 3rd in the final standings, while Neate ended up 16th. The team meanwhile slipped to 5th place in the overall championship and came 2nd in the Manufacturers' standings.
Plato stayed with the team for 2013, while Neate was replaced by Porsche Carrera Cup race winner Sam Tordoff. Their second year with the MG6 GT proved more successful, with both drivers securing more top-spot finishes. However, despite the improvements, Plato still only finished 3rd in the drivers championship, with the team finishing as runners up to Honda Yuasa Racing in both Teams and Manufacturer's championships.
In 2014, the team entered as MG KX Clubcard Fuel Save and retained their 2013 driver lineup. However, the team expanded to run a third, independent entry MG6 GT under the name Quantel BiFold Racing for 1999 British Formula Three Championship winner and Head of Driver Development at Marussia F1 Marc Hynes. The campaign got off to a good start with Plato and Tordoff both scoring race wins at the second round at Donington Park. Plato continued his good form scoring a further five wins during the season finishing the season as runner up. The pairing of Plato and Tordoff was good enough thought to secure MG's first Manufacturers Championship, beating rivals Honda by ninety-five points. This was the first title that the team has won since the departure of Vauxhall and the swap to MG.
A new driver lineup and sponsor package was announced for the 2015 British Touring Car Championship. 2013 Drivers' Champion Andrew Jordan moved to the team from his family run Eurotech Racing.
The 2016 British Touring Car Championship is the first of a new 3-year deal between Triple Eight and MG to race in the BTCC. A new line-up was formed of 2015 Jack Sears Trophy winner Josh Cook, who moved from Power Maxed Racing, and 2015 Renault UK Clio Cup champion Ashley Sutton graduated into the championship.
Triple Eight left the BTCC after the 2017 season and folded on 13 November 2018.
BTCC gallery
BTCC results
Notes
* Season still in progress
† Swapped teams mid season
GT racing
Triple Eight made their debut into Sports car racing during the 2013 British GT season. They prepared and ran a pair of BMW Z4 GT3 cars in a joint venture with Optimum Motorsport and entered the championship as 888Optimum. The team did well in their first year, securing several podium positions as well as two pole positions at Brands Hatch and Donington Park, with their experienced driver parings of Joe Osborne & Lee Mowle and Daniel Brown & Steve Tandy.
Triple Eight continued racing during the 2014 British GT season, using the BMWs. However, whilst they retained Joe Osborne & Lee Mowle, they added the new pairing of Derek Johnston and Luke Hines. Towards the end of the season, Warren Hughes and Jody Firth joined the team in a third Z4. The team finished the year 7th in the team's championship, 2 places behind the debut years finishing position, with Derek Johnston being the highest placed driver finishing 14th.
Triple Eight also entered select rounds of the 2014 Blancpain Endurance Series season and the British-based GT Cup Championship. In the Blancpain Endurance Series, Ryan Ratcliffe joined Lee Mowle and Derek Johnston for the 3 Hours of Silverstone, retiring after 16 minutes, where as Jody Firth and Warren Hughes were joined by Alexander Sims for the 1000 km Nürburgring finishing a respectable ninth, only two laps behind the race winner.
British GT results
Formula Renault BARC
In 2010 Triple 8 teamed up with Uniq to enter a single car into the Formula Renault BARC championship, under the Uniq Racing with 888 name. They entered this series to gain experience for expansion into other series in 2011, particularly series which support the BTCC. Malaysian driver Sazlan Sirajudin drove the car at all six meetings, with 10th being his best finish at Silverstone. He finished the season 16th overall.
Series results
Porsche Carrera Cup GB and Ginetta GT Supercup
Triple Eight announced that they were going to run at least two cars in the 2011 Porsche Carrera Cup Great Britain and that they were going to enter the 2011 Ginetta GT Supercup season. Howerever, they failed to enter any races in both championships.
Other projects
Triple Eight are also involved in several other forms of motorsport, ranging from the British Rally Championship to the Dunlop Sport Maxx Cup.
BTC-T Vauxhall Vectra
The team built a Vectra to the BTC-T Specifications for the 2004 British Touring Car Championship season. However the car was never used due to problems making the car competitive.
Supercars
In September 2003, Triple Eight entered the Australian V8 Supercars series purchasing Briggs Motor Sport and renaming it Triple Eight Race Engineering. The team is now under separate ownership and is no longer directly linked to its British progenitor, although Ian Harrison remains a minority shareholder.
Pro1000 Series
Triple 8 were given the opportunity to develop 16 race-spec Caparo T1000's for the 2010 season. The T1000 was a modified version of the Caparo T1. However, the series never materialised.
Customer Car Division
The customer division of Triple Eight is also growing. Triple Eight Performance Vehicles launched a limited edition Astra Sport Hatch turbo diesel, which followed on from the 2001 manufacture of 100 Special Edition road cars, in the form of the Astra Coupé 888 which was engineered to translate race-winning experience into phenomenal road car response. The T8 proved to be one of Vauxhall's fastest ever selling road vehicles.
References
External links
MG KX Momentum Racing
Quantel Bifold Racing
Auto racing teams in the United Kingdom
British Touring Car Championship teams
1996 establishments in England
2018 disestablishments in England
British GT Championship teams
Blancpain Endurance Series teams
British racecar constructors
British Formula Renault teams
Auto racing teams established in 1996
Auto racing teams disestablished in 2018 |
4173176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Record%20of%20Singing | The Record of Singing | The Record of Singing is a compilation of classical-music singing from the first half of the 20th century, the era of the 78-rpm record.
It was issued on LP (with accompanying books) by EMI, successor to the British company His Master's Voice (better known as HMV) — perhaps the leading organization in the early history of audio recording.
The project was accompanied initially by two illustrated books, containing singers' biographies and appraisals, which were published in London, by Duckworth, in the late 1970s. It covers the period running from circa 1900, when the earliest recordings were made, through until the early 1950s, when the last 78-rpm records were produced. Singers are divided into groups arranged according to national 'schools' and fach or voice type. In practice, this means that there are separate Italian, German, French, Anglo-American and East European classifications.
Rather than concentrating on famous singers whose recordings are widely available elsewhere, The Record of Singing includes a large number of lesser-known artists in order to give a broad picture of the contemporary operatic world. Vocal artists of such lasting renown as Enrico Caruso, Nellie Melba, Titta Ruffo, Feodor Chaliapin, Kirsten Flagstad, Rosa Ponselle and Maria Callas are thus represented but by only a few recordings in each case. Nonetheless, no such compilation can ever be exhaustive in scope, and the project has been criticised from time to time since its initial release for overlooking a few important singers who, while largely forgotten today, were highly talented performers who once enjoyed substantial careers and made records of enduring artistic merit.
Origins
The original idea for the series came from the collector Vivian Liff, who chose the recordings used in the first two volumes, almost all of which came from the Stuart-Liff Collection, as well as the photographs of the singers which were published in the books that accompanied volumes 1 and 2 of the project. Michael Scott was asked to write these two books. They contained brief singers' biographies, too and featured a critical (sometimes controversial) commentary (see below) about their accomplishments, as gleaned from certain discs they had made. Bryan Crimp of EMI was responsible for the transfers of the original recorded material to LP. Keith Hardwick, however, was responsible for the transfers, etc., on the final two volumes of the survey (which were not accompanied by books).
Publication on LPs
EMI first released the collection on vinyl LP (long-playing) records.
Volume 1 first appeared in 1977, with a second edition in 1982 including corrections to the pitch of many of the recordings. The supplement also appeared around 1982. Volume 2 was published in 1979. Volume 3 and Volume 4 were released around 1984 and 1989 respectively.
The complete set was on 47 discs. Volumes 1, 2 and 3 each occupied 13, with Volume 4 having 8 discs. The original intention was apparently to produce 12 LPs per volume; but the selection of singers included in Volume 1 proved controversial, and an extra record (entitled a 'Supplement') was added to partly correct oversights. Volumes 2 and 3 were then assigned 13 records each.
Compact discs
Volume 4 was republished on seven compact discs (CD) by EMI Classics under the title The Record of Singing Volume Four in 1991. This was not apparently a commercial success and the firm did not proceed to reissue the first three volumes in the same format.
Volume 3, however, was subsequently republished in 1999 on 10 CDs by Testament under the title The EMI Record of Singing Volume Three: 1926–1939. This was still available through retail outlets (as of 2010).
Two related sets, each containing 10 CDs, were issued by EMI Classics in 2009. The Record of Singing, 1899–1952: The Very Best of Vols. 1–4 consists of selections previously released in the original four volumes of LPs. The Record of Singing, Vol. 5: 1953–2007 – From the LP to the Digital Era is a new compilation which brings the series up to the present day. It has been criticised, however, for not being properly representative of non-EMI artists.
MP3 download
Volume 2 is available as MP3 download on several internet platforms. The original LPs are now spread over 13 parts. Each part comes with an individual cover, resembling the original cover picture, but varying in color.
Documentation
The collection was published with extensive documentation, including the numbers of the original recordings and full biographies of the singers.
The first two volumes were accompanied by books by Michael Scott:
The Record of Singing to 1914, London, Duckworth, 1977,
The Record of Singing Volume Two: 1914–1925, London, Duckworth, 1979,
They were republished in paperback by Northeastern University Press in 1993,
(The books are still widely available from second hand book sellers.)
The Record of Singing Volume 1 (1899–1919)
The Castrato Voice: Alessandro Moreschi
The Old School: Adelina Patti, Emma Albani, Marcella Sembrich
Melba and the Marchesi Pupils: Nellie Melba, Sigrid Arnoldson, Emma Eames, Lillian Blauvelt, Suzanne Adams, Ellen Beach Yaw, Blanche Marchesi
English-speaking singers
Dramatic sopranos: Agnes Nicholls, Lillian Nordica, Olive Fremstad, Geraldine Farrar, Susan Strong, Zélie de Lussan
Contraltos: Louise Homer, Louise Kirkby Lunn, Clara Butt
Tenors: Edward Lloyd, Ben Davies, Dan Beddoe, Evan Williams
Baritones and basses: Charles Santley, George Henschel, Harry Plunket Greene, Robert Watkin-Mills, Andrew Black, David Bispham, Emilio de Gogorza, Clarence Whitehill
The French
Tenors: Émile Scaremberg, Charles Dalmorès, Lucien Muratore, Charles Rousselière
Lyric tenors: Victor Capoul, Edmond Clément, Adolphe Maréchal, Albert Vaguet
High Cs and Heroic Voices: Léon Escalais, Agustarello Affré, Georges Imbart de la Tour, Albert Alvarez
Baritones: Jean Lasalle, Victor Maurel, Maurice Renaud, Henri Albers, Jean Noté, Léon Melchissédec, Lucien Fugère, Gabriel Soulacroix, Jean Périer, Charles Gilibert
Basses: Pol Plançon, Édouard de Reszke, Pedro Gailhard, Jean-François Delmas, Juste Nivette, Hippolyte Belhomme
Dramatic Sopranos: Emma Calvé, Félia Litvinne, Aino Ackté, Mary Garden
Lyric sopranos: Julia Guiraudon, Marguerite Carré, Lucette Korsoff, Lise Landouzy, Alice Verlet, Blanche Arral
Contraltos: Blanche Deschamps-Jéhin, Marie Delna, Jeanne Gerville-Réache
The Emergence of Verismo
'La Gloria d'Italia': Mattia Battistini, Antonio Cotogni, Giuseppe Kaschmann, Francisco D'Andrade, Antonio Magini-Coletti, Giuseppe Pacini, Mario Ancona
Scotti, de Luca and Pini-Corsi: Antonio Scotti, Giuseppe De Luca, Antonio Pini-Corsi
Verismo triumphant: Eugenio Giraldoni, Mario Sammarco, Pasquale Amato, Titta Ruffo
The basso: Francesco Navarini, Giovanni Gravina, Andres de Segurola, Adamo Didur
Tradition and the Italian tenor: Francesco Marconi, Fernando Valero, Fernando De Lucia, Francesco Vignas, Florencio Constantino
Lyric tenors: Alessandro Bonci, Giuseppe Anselmi, Aristodemo Giorgini, Edoardo Garbin
Dramatic tenors: Francesco Tamagno, Giovanni de Negri, Giuseppe Borgatti, Fiorello Giraud, Amadeo Bassi, Giovanni Zenatello, Antonio Paoli, Enrico Caruso
Sopranos 'B.C.': Ines de Frate, Elena Teodorini, Fanny Torresella, Medea Mei-Figner, Olimpia Boronat, Ada Adini
After Cavalleria: Gemma Bellincioni, Angelica Pandolfini, Emma Carelli, Cesira Ferrani, Lina Cavalieri, Rosina Storchio, Salomea Krusceniski, Teresa Arkel, Amelia Pinto, Janina Korolewicz-Wayda
Four dramatic sopranos: Maria de Macchi, Eugenia Burzio, Giannina Russ, Celestina Boninsegna
Tetrazzini and some 'coloraturas': Luisa Tetrazzini, Regina Pacini, Josefina Huguet, Maria Galvany
Italian contraltos: Guerrina Fabbri, Eugenia Mantelli, Armida Parsi-Pettinella, Maria Gay
Wagner and the German Style
The instrumental example: Irene Abendroth, Margarethe Siems, Erika Wedekind, Hermine Bosetti, Marie Gutheil-Schoder, Hedwig Francillo-Kaufmann, Gertrude Förstel, Frieda Hempel, Selma Kurz
Lilli Lehmann: Lilli Lehmann
Sopranos of the Bayreuth school: Sophie Sedlmair, Pelagie Greef-Andriessen, Hatharina Senger-Bettaque, Ellen Gulbranson, Thila Plaichinger, Anna Bahr-Mildenburg, Katharine Fleischer-Edel, Felice Kaschowska, Lucie Weidt
Gadski and Destinn: Johanna Gadski, Emmy Destinn
Contraltos: Marianne Brandt, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, Rosa Olitzka, Edyth Walker, Margarete Matzenauer
Heldentenors: Hermann Winkelmann, Erik Schmedes, Ernest van Dyck, Andreas Dippel, Heinrich Knote, Karel Burian, Alfred von Bary, Wilhelm Herold, Jacques Urlus, Leo Slezak, Karl Jörn,
Lieder singers: Gustav Walter, Felix Senius
Baritones and basses: Karl Scheidemantel, Baptist Hoffmann, Anton van Rooy, Theodor Bertram, Leon Rains, Leopold Demuth, Wilhelm Hesch
Singers of Imperial Russia
Sopranos and contraltos: Natalia Yuzhina, Antonina Nezhdanova, Marie Michailova, Alma Fohrström, Nina Friede, Eugenia Zbujeva, Anastasia Vialtzeva
Tenors, baritones and basses: Nikolay Figner, Ivan Erschov, Leonid Sobinov, Andrei Labinsky, Alexander Davidov, Ivan Altchevsky, Tadeusz Leliva, Joachim Tartakov, Nicholai Shevelev, Waclav Brzezinski, Lev Sibiriakov, Vladimir Kastorsky, Feodor Chaliapin
Supplement
Félia Litvinne, Georgette Bréjean-Silver, Léon Lafitte, Méyriane Héglon, Gemma Bellincioni, Elisa Bruno, Alice Cucini, Mario Gilion, Francesco Maria Bonini, Giuseppe De Luca, Enrico Nani, Vittorio Arimondi, Oreste Luppi, Nazzareno De Angelis, Elise Elizza, Marie Dietrich, Minnie Nast, Marie Götze, Wilhelm Grüning, John Forsell
The Record of Singing Volume 2 (1914–1925)
Revolution and Russian Songs
Chaliapin: Feodor Chaliapin (1873–1938), George Baklanov (1880–1938), Alexander Bragin (1881–1955), Ivan Grizounov (1897–1919), Ivan Ivantzov (c.1880–?)
Smirnov: Dimitri Smirnov (1881–1944)
Kouznetsova to Koshetz: Maria Nikolaevna Kouznetsova (1880–1966), Marianne Tcherkasskaya (1884–1919), Nina Koshetz (1891–1965)
Two 'Coloraturas': Lydia Lipkowska (1882–1958), Eugenia Bronskaya (1882–1953)
Contraltos: Elisaveta Petrenko (1880–1951), Vera Petrova-Zvanceva (1875–1944), Klavdia Tugarinova (1877–?)
The French Tradition in Decline
Franz, Ansseau and Fontaine: Paul Franz (1876–1950), Fernand Ansseau (1890–1972), Charles Fontaine (1878–1955)
A Quintet of Lyric Tenors: David Devriès (1881–1936), Fernand Francell (1880–1966), Charles Friant (1890–1947), Louis Cazette (1887–1922), René Lapelletrie (1884–1956)
Baritones of the Opéra: Dinh Gilly (1877–1940), Louis Lestelly (1877–1936)
Journet and the Basses: Marcel Journet (1867–1933), Hector Dufranne (1870–1951), Paul Payan (1878–1959)
Singing Actors: Vanni Marcoux (1877–1962), Jean Aquistapace (1888–1952), Alfred Maguenat (c. 1880–?), Armand Crabbé (1883–1947)
Contraltos: Suzanne Brohly (1882–1943), Marie Charbonnel (1880–1969), Jacqueline Royer (1884–?)
Five International Sopranos: Marie-Louise Edvina (1880–1948), Marthe Chenal (1881–1947), Geneviève Vix (1879–1939), Yvonne Gall (1885–1972), Fanny Heldy (1888–1973)
Lyric Sopranos at the Opéra-Comique: Marguerite Mérentié (1880–?), Aline Vallandri (1878–1952), Zina Brozia (1876–1958)
A Trio of Concert Singers: Gabrielle Ritter-Ciampi (1886–1974), Berthe Auguez de Montalant (1865–1937), Georgette Leblanc-Maeterlinck (1860–1941)
The Heyday of Verismo
The Duse of Song: Claudia Muzio (1889–1936)
Raisa and some Dramatic Sopranos: Rosa Raisa (1892–1963), Elena Ruszkowska (1878–1948), Maria Labia (1880–1953), Adelina Agostinelli (1880–1954), Ester Mazzoleni (1883–1982)
Verismo Sopranos: Tina Poli-Randaccio (1879–1956), Carmen Melis (1885–1967), Juanita Caracciolo (1890–1924), Gilda Dalla Rizza (1892–1975)
Galli-Curci and the 'Coloraturas': Amelita Galli-Curci (1882–1963), Maria Barrientos (1884-1946), Graziella Pareto (1889–1975), Elvira de Hidalgo (1892–1980), Lucrezia Bori (1887–1960)
Italian Contraltos: Gabriella Besanzoni (1888–1962), Fanny Anitùa (1887–1968), Luisa Bertana (1898–1933)
Lyric Tenors: Tito Schipa (1889–1965), Fernando Carpi (1876–1959),
Tradition and the Italian Tenor: Beniamino Gigli (1890–1957), Hipólito Lázaro (1887–1974), Miguel Fleta (1893–1938), Giulio Crimi (1885–1939), Ulysses Lappas (1881–1971)
Four Dramatic Tenors: Bernardo de Muro (1881–1955), Edoardo Ferrari-Fontana (1878–1936), Icilio Calleja (1882–1941), Giovanni Martinelli (1885–1969)
Principal Baritones: Giuseppe De Luca (1870–1950), Riccardo Stracciari (1875–1955), Domenico Viglione-Borchese (1877–1957), Renato Zanelli (1892–1935), Emilio Sagi-Barba (1875–1949)
Mardones: José Mardones (1868–1932)
Singers from the English-Speaking World
Alda and Mason: Frances Alda (1879–1952), Edith Mason (1892–1973)
American Concert Sopranos: Alma Gluck (1884-I938), Hulda Lashanska (1893–1974), Anna Case (1889–1984), Éva Gauthier (1885–1958)
American Lyric Sopranos: Anna Fitziu (1888–1967), Carolina White (1886–1961), Lucille Marcel (1887–1921), Julia Heinrich (1880–1919), Marguerite Namara (1888–1977)
Gramophone Singers: Eleanor Jones-Hudson (1874–1946), Ruth Vincent (1877–1955), Lucy Isabelle Marsh (1878–1956), Olive Kline (1887–1976)
A Quartet of 'Coloraturas': Evelyn Scotney (1886–1967), Mabel Garrison (1886–1963), Florence Macbeth (1891–1966), Luella Paikin (1900–?)
English Lyric Sopranos: Maud Perceval Allen (1880–1955), Rosina Buckman (1880–1948)
Miura and Bryhn-Langard: Tamaki Miura (1884–1946), Borghild Bryhn-Langard (1883–1939)
Ponselle and Easton: Rosa Ponselle (1897–1981), Florence Easton (1882–1955)
Contraltos: Carmen Hill (1883–?), Leila Megane (1891–1960), Carolina Lazzari (1891–1946), Edna Thornton (1875–1958), Sophie Braslau (1892–1935), Eleonora de Cisneros (1878–1934)
A Quartet of American Tenors: Riccardo Martin (1874–1952), Orville Harrold (1878–1933), Charles Hackett (1887–1941), Mario Chamlee (1892–1966)
A British Born Trio: Edward Johnson (1878–1959) (actually born in Canada), Alfred Piccaver (1883–1958), Joseph Hislop (1884–1977)
High Cs and Heroic Voices: John O'Sullivan (1878–1948), Frank Mullings (1881–1953)
The Ballad and Oratorio Tradition: John Coates (1865–1941), Gervase Elwes (1866–1921), Walter Hyde (1875–1951), Paul Reimers (1877–1942)
McCormack: John McCormack (1884–1945)
Baritones and Basses: Reinald Werrenrath (1883–1953), Peter Dawson (1882–1961), Horace Stevens (1876–1954), Malcolm McEachern (1883–1945)
The German Style in Evolution
Lyric Sopranos: Eva von der Osten (1881–1936), Luise Perard-Petzl (1884–1936), Zinaida Jurjevskaya (1896–1925), Elisabeth Rethberg (1894–1976), Grete Stückgold (1895–1977)
Lyric-Dramatic Sopranos: Elsa Bland (1880–1935), Lily Hafgren-Dinkela (1884–1965), Barbara Kemp (1881–1959), Charlotte von Seebök (1886–1952)
Dramatic Sopranos: Melanie Kurt (1880–1941), Berta Morena (1878–1952), Helene Wildbrunn (1882–1972), Gertrude Bindernagel (1894–1932), Gertrude Kappel (1884–1971), Frida Leider (1888–1975)
Schumann: Elisabeth Schumann (1888–1952), Berta Kiurina (1881–1933), Lola Artôt de Padilla (1880–1933), Claire Dux (1885–1967), Vera Schwarz (1884–1964), Maria Ivogün (1891–1987)
Jeritza and Lehmann: Maria Jeritza (1887–1982), Lotte Lehmann (1888–1976)
Five Contraltos: Margarethe Arndt-Ober (1885–1971), Ottilie Metzger (1878–1943), Ankar Horvat (1888– c.1921), Sabine Kalter (1889–1957), Emmi Leisner (1885–1958)
The Great Lieder Singers: Elena Gerhardt (1883–1961), Julia Culp (1880–1970)
Baritones: Julius von Raatz-Brockmann (1870–1944), Friedrich Broderson (1873–1926), Heinrich Rehkemper (1894–1949), Hans Duhan (1890–1971), Hermann Weil (1876–1949), Cornelis Bronsgeest (1878–1957), Joseph Groenen (1885–1959), Joseph Schwarz (1880–1926)
Basses: Michael Bohnen (1887–1965), Paul Bender (1875–1947), Richard Mayr (1877–1935), Walter Soomier (1878–1955), Carl Braun (1886–1960), Alexander Kipnis (1891–1978)
Tauber and the Lyric Tenors: Richard Tauber (1891–1948), Alexander Kirchner (1876–1948), Johannes Sembach (1881–1944), Herman Jadlowker (1877–1953)
East European Tenors: Ottokar Marak (1872–1939), Ignacy Dygas (1881–1955), Joseph Mann (1883–1921), Tino Pattiera (1890–1966)
Heldentenors: Richard Schubert (1885–1969), Walter Kirchhoff (1879–1951), Lauritz Melchior (1890–1973)
The Record of Singing Volume 3 (1926–1939)
The German School
Lauritz Melchior, Max Lorenz, Franz Völker, Helge Rosvaenge, Torsten Ralf, Richard Tauber, Marcel Wittrisch, Herbert Ernst Groh, Joseph Schmidt, Julius Patzak, Karl Erb, Leo Slezak, Gerhard Hüsch, Heinrich Schlusnus, Herbert Janssen, Willi Domgraf-Fassbaender, Karl Hammes, Rudolf Bocklemann, Friedrich Schorr, Hans-Hermann Nissen, Alfred Jerger, Leo Schützendorf, Wilhelm Strienz, Ivar F. Andresen, Alexander Kipnis
Sigrid Onégin, Karin Branzell, Kerstin Thorborg, Maria Olczewska, Margarete Klose, Rosette Anday, Marta Fuchs, Elena Gerhardt, Lula Mysz-Gmeiner, Jo Vincent, Ria Ginster, Ursula van Diemen, Elisabeth Schumann, Lotte Schöne, Fritzi Jokl, Adele Kern, Miliza Korjus, Erna Berger, Emmy Bettendorf, Felicie Hüni-Mihacsek, Margherita Perras, Luise Helletsgruber, Meta Seinemeyer, Margarete Teschemacher, Delia Reinhardt, Tiana Lemnitz, Maria Cebotari, Elisabeth Rethberg, Rose Pauly, Göta Ljungberg, Lotte Lehmann, Maria Müller, Maria Nemeth, Elisabeth Ohms, Nanny Larsén-Todsen, Frida Leider, Kirsten Flagstad
The Italian School
Conchita Supervía, Gianna Pederzini, Irene Minghini-Cattaneo, Ebe Stignani, Florica Christoforeanu, Pia Tassinari, Giannina Arangi-Lombardi, Bianca Scacciati, Dusolina Giannini, Maria Caniglia, Lina Bruna Rasa, Gina Cigna, Iva Pacetti, Margaret Burke Sheridan, Rosetta Pampanini, Claudia Muzio, Hina Spani, Maria Farneti, Maria Zamboni, Mafalda Favero, Licia Albanese, Magda Olivero, Bidu Sayão, Conchita Badía, Adelaide Saraceni, Mercedes Capsir, Toti Dal Monte, Lina Pagliughi
Ezio Pinza, Tancredi Pasero, Nazzareno De Angelis, Salvatore Baccaloni, Afro Poli, Mariano Stabile, Mario Basiola, Apollo Granforte, Cesare Formichi, Carlo Galeffi, Benvenuto Franci, Giovanni Inghilleri, Carlo Tagliabue, Riccardo Stracciari, Dino Borgioli, Enzo de Muro Lomanto, Tito Schipa, Tino Folgar, Luigi Fort, Alessandro Ziliani, Galliano Masini, Francesco Merli, Renato Zanelli, Beniamino Gigli, Jussi Björling, Antonio Cortis, Giacomo Lauri-Volpi, Aureliano Pertile
The French School
Lily Pons, Leila Ben Sedira, Emma Luart, Germaine Féraldy, Eidé Norena, Ninon Vallin, Povla Frijsh, Jane Bathori, Madeleine Grey, Germaine Martinelli, Suzanne Cesbron-Viseur, Suzanne Balguerie, Germaine Lubin, Germaine Cernay, Claire Croiza, Alice Raveau
Georges Thill, René Maison, José Luccioni, César Vezzani, René Verdière, Gaston Micheletti, Miguel Villabella, André d'Arkor, Giuseppe Lugo, Joseph Rogatchewsky, Jean Planel, Charles Panzéra, Pierre Bernac, Martial Singher, Roger Bourdin, Arthur Endrèze, Robert Couzinou, André Balbon, Lucien Fugère, Vanni Marcoux, Yvonne Printemps, Reynaldo Hahn
The Anglo-American School
Lawrence Tibbett, John Charles Thomas, Dennis Noble, John Brownlee, Harold Williams, Peter Dawson, John McCormack, Roland Hayes, Charles Kullman, Heddle Nash, Thomas Burke, Richard Crooks, Walter Widdop, Norman Allin
Marguerite d'Alvarez, Madame Charles Cahier, Muriel Brunskill, Clara Butt, Marian Anderson, Susan Metcalfe Casals, Grace Moore, Gladys Swarthout, Ina Souez, Maggie Teyte, Isobel Baillie, Dora Labbette, Joan Cross, Florence Easton, Rosa Ponselle, Marjorie Lawrence, Eva Turner, Florence Austral
The East European/Slavic School
Jarmila Novotná, Nathalie Vechor, Ada Nordenova, Maria Kurenko, Xenia Belmas, Ada Sari, Oda Slobodskaya, Maria Krasová, Maria Basilides, Mark Reizen, Feodor Chaliapin, Imre Palló, Vladimir Rosing, Sergei Lemeshev
The Record of Singing Volume 4 (1939 to the end of the 78 era, circa 1955)
The Anglo-American School
Margaret Ritchie, Gwen Catley, Dorothy Kirsten, Florence Quartararo, Elsie Houston, Eleanor Steber, Maggie Teyte, Dorothy Maynor, Joan Hammond, Astrid Varnay, Helen Traubel, Rose Bampton, Blanche Thebom, Jennie Tourel, Flora Nielsen, Gladys Ripley, Kathleen Ferrier, David Lloyd, Webster Booth, Peter Pears, Jan Peerce, Walter Midgley, James Johnston, Richard Tucker, Alfred Deller, Robert Irwin, Frederick Fuller, Igor Gorin, Mack Harrell, Leonard Warren, Robert Merrill, Norman Walker, George London, Oscar Natzka
The French School
Mado Robin, Martha Angelici, Irène Joachim, Géori Boué, Ginette Guillamat, Renée Doria, Victoria de los Ángeles, Suzanne Danco, Suzanne Juyol, Irma Kolassi, Solange Michel, Hélène Bouvier, Rita Gorr, Hugues Cuénod, Raoul Jobin, Pierre Bernac, Camille Maurane, Gérard Souzay
The German School
Elisabeth Schumann, Erika Köth, Maria Stader, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Irmgard Seefried, Maria Reining, Elisabeth Grümmer, Sena Jurinac, Ljuba Welitsch, Gré Brouwenstijn, Leonie Rysanek, Inge Borkh, Friedel Beckmann, Hilde Konetzni, Elisabeth Höngen, Hugo Meyer Welfing, Anton Dermota, Walther Ludwig, Julius Patzak, Peter Anders, Rudolf Schock, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Karl Schmitt-Walter, Erich Kunz, Marko Rothmuller, Paul Schöffler, Hans Hotter, Ludwig Weber, Josef Herrmann, Theo Herrmann, Gottlob Frick
The Scandinavian School
Kirsten Flagstad, Lorri Lail, Gjurgja Leppée, Aksel Schiøtz, Stefán Íslandi, Nicolai Gedda, Jussi Björling, Hugo Hasslo, Bernhard Sönnerstedt, Joel Berglund, Kim Borg
The Russian and Slavonic Schools
Mascia Predit, Zara Dolukhanova, Claudia Novikova, Nadezhda Obukhova, Georgi Vinogradov, Ivan Zhadan, Georgi Nelepp, Beno Blachut, Ivan Kozlovsky, Pavel Lisitsian, Andrei Ivanov, Boris Christoff, Mark Reizen, Boris Gmyrya, Endre Koréh
The Italian School
Ferruccio Tagliavini, Beniamino Gigli, Giuseppe Di Stefano, Luigi Infantino, Giovanni Malipiero, Giacinto Prandelli, Mario Del Monaco, Paolo Silveri, Tito Gobbi, Giuseppe Valdengo, Giampiero Malaspina, Gino Bechi, Raffaele Arié, Nicola Rossi-Lemeni, Tancredi Pasero, Cloe Elmo, Giulietta Simionato, Fedora Barbieri, Ebe Stignani, Alda Noni, Elena Arizmendi, Margherita Carosio, Magda László, Alba Anzellotti, Gabriella Gatti, Renata Tebaldi, Sara Scuderi, Margherita Grandi, Zinka Milanov, Maria Callas
The Record of Singing Volume 5 (From the LP to the digital era 1953–2007)
Wagner singers of the 1950s and early 1960s
Kirsten Flagstad, Birgit Nilsson, Elisabeth Grümmer, Régine Crespin, Rita Gorr, Gottlob Frick, Ludwig Weber, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Fritz Wunderlich, Astrid Varnay, Ludwig Suthaus, Martha Mödl, Hans Hotter, Otto Edelmann, Rudolf Schock, Ferdinand Frantz, Josef Greindl
Sopranos and mezzo-sopranos: 1953–1968
Joan Hammond, Joan Sutherland, Maria Callas, Rita Streich, Erika Köth, Renate Holm, Elsie Morison, Antonietta Stella, Martha Angelici, Janine Micheau, Graziella Sciutti, Aase Nordmo Løvberg, Anna Moffo, June Bronhill, Hilde Gueden, Victoria de los Ángeles, Melitta Muszely, Amy Shuard, Lisa Della Casa, Hanny Steffek, Pilar Lorengar, Andrée Esposito, Sari Barabas, Lucia Popp, Renata Scotto, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Mirella Freni, Anneliese Rothenberger, Reri Grist, Gwyneth Jones, Christa Ludwig
Tenors: 1953–1968
Jussi Björling, Henri Legay, Léopold Simoneau, Albert Lance, Eugenio Fernandi, João Gibin, Richard Lewis, Charles Craig, Giuseppe Campora, Fritz Wunderlich, Ronald Dowd, Alfredo Kraus, Luigi Alva, Wilfred Brown, Jess Thomas, Franco Corelli, Peter Schreier, Nicolai Gedda, James King, Luciano Pavarotti
Baritones and basses: 1955–1967
Tito Gobbi, Boris Christoff, Rolando Panerai, Nicola Zaccaria, Michel Dens, Eberhard Wächter, Ernest Blanc, Hermann Prey, Nicolai Ghiaurov, Cornell MacNeil
Sopranos: 1969–1988
Martina Arroyo, Mady Mesplé, Elly Ameling, Montserrat Caballé, Helga Dernesch, Gundula Janowitz, Edda Moser, Margaret Price, Beverly Sills, Galina Vishnevskaya, Heather Harper, Leontyne Price, Ileana Cotrubaş, Elisabeth Söderström, Kiri Te Kanawa, Ghena Dimitrova, Jessye Norman, Edita Gruberová, Hildegard Behrens, Luciana Serra
Mezzo-sopranos: 1969–1984
Grace Bumbry, Shirley Verrett, Yvonne Minton, Frederica von Stade, Fiorenza Cossotto, Irina Arkhipova, Elena Obraztsova, Teresa Berganza, Tatiana Troyanos, Agnes Baltsa, Janet Baker, Marilyn Horne, Ann Murray
Tenors: 1969–1988
Carlo Bergonzi, Jon Vickers, René Kollo, Ian Partridge, Donald Smith, Franco Bonisolli, José Carreras, Alain Vanzo, Neil Shicoff
Baritones and basses: 1966–1986
John Shirley-Quirk, Piero Cappuccilli, Geraint Evans, Gabriel Bacquier, Gérard Souzay, Kurt Moll, Walter Berry, Peter Glossop, Ruggero Raimondi, Sherrill Milnes, Martti Talvela, Aage Haugland, José van Dam, Thomas Allen
Sopranos: 1989–2004
June Anderson, Barbara Hendricks, Cheryl Studer, Katia Ricciarelli, Dagmar Schellenberger, Karita Mattila, Solveig Kringelborn, Ruth Ann Swenson, Felicity Lott, Christine Brewer, Jane Eaglen
Mezzo-sopranos: 1988–2001
Brigitte Fassbaender, Anne Sofie von Otter, Waltraud Meier, Hera Lind, Michelle DeYoung, Bernarda Fink, Katarina Karnéus, Lorraine Hunt-Lieberson
Tenors: 1989–2001
John Aler, Plácido Domingo, Chris Merritt, Ben Heppner, Michael Schade, Roberto Alagna, José Cura
Baritones and basses: 1991–1995
Bryn Terfel, Bernd Weikl, François le Roux, Thomas Hampson, Simon Keenlyside, Thomas Quasthoff
Singers of Baroque and early music and early music 1953–2005
Female: Montserrat Figueras, Helen Donath, Arleen Auger, Emily Van Evera, Nancy Argenta, Emma Kirkby, Catherine King, Patricia Petibon, Susan Graham, Véronique Gens
Male: Alfred Deller, James Bowman, Nigel Rogers, Paul Esswood, Aris Christofellis, Charles Brett, René Jacobs, Michael Chance, Harry van der Kamp, Dominique Visse, Derek Lee Ragin, Gérard Lesne, Philippe Jaroussky, Bejun Mehta
Singers of the new millennium: 2000–2007
Sopranos, mezzo-sopranos and contraltos: Angela Gheorghiu, Sandrine Piau, Natalie Dessay, Violeta Urmana, Patrizia Ciofi, Joyce DiDonato, Sine Bundgaard, Deborah Voigt, Christine Rice, Nina Stemme, Diana Damrau, Hyunah Yu, Kate Royal, Stephanie Blythe, Vivica Genaux
Tenors and countertenors: Daniil Shtoda, Jonas Kaufmann, Ian Bostridge, Yu Qiang Dai, David Daniels, Lawrence Brownlee, Rolando Villazón, Max Emanuel Cenčić, Toby Spence, Franco Fagioli
Baritones and basses: Laurent Naouri, Giovanni Furlanetto, Luca Pisaroni, Erwin Schrott, Jonathan Lemalu, Rodion Pogossov, Ildebrando D'Arcangelo
Bibliography
Albright, William (1990) 'The Record of Singing: A Brief Overview of a Monumental Project' in The Opera Quarterly 1990 7(1):31–42, Oxford University Press
Discography
The EMI Record of Singing, Volume 3 (1926–1939) (Testament Records) alt
The Record of Singing – The Very Best of Volumes 1–4 (From 1899 to the end of the 78 era: 1899–1952 (EMI Records) alt
Opera recordings
1970s classical albums
1980s classical albums |
4173231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyce%20Hatto | Joyce Hatto | Joyce Hilda Hatto (5 September 1928 – 29 June 2006) was an English concert pianist and piano teacher. In 1956 she married William Barrington-Coupe, a record producer who was convicted of Purchase Tax evasion in 1966. Hatto became famous very late in life when unauthorised copies of commercial recordings made by other pianists were released under her name, earning her high praise from critics. The fraud did not come to light until 2007, more than six months after her death.
Early life and early career
Joyce Hatto was born in St John's Wood, London. Her father was an antique dealer and piano enthusiast. As a promising young professional, she played at a large number of concerts in London, and throughout Britain and Europe, beginning in the 1950s. There were concertos in which she was accompanied by the Boyd Neel, Haydn and London Symphony Orchestras, and many others; solo recitals at the Wigmore Hall, the Queen Elizabeth Hall and elsewhere; and concerts by "pupils of Joyce Hatto" in the late 1960s and early 1970s. She supplemented her earnings with work as a répétiteur for the London Philharmonic Choir under such conductors as Thomas Beecham and Victor de Sabata, and as a piano teacher, both privately and at schools including Crofton Grange, a girls' boarding school in Hertfordshire, where her pupils included the novelist Rose Tremain. She was also active in the recording studios for several companies such as Saga Records in England, as well as others in Hamburg and Paris.
Critical reception
Hatto's playing drew mixed notices from the critics. A critic for The Times wrote of a performance at Chelsea Town Hall in October 1953 that "Joyce Hatto grappled doggedly with too hasty tempi in Mozart's D minor piano concerto and was impeded from conveying significant feelings towards the work, especially in quick figuration." Trevor Harvey wrote of her Saga recording of Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2 "one wonders ... whether her technique is really on top of the difficulties of this music ... She shows a musical sense of give and take with the orchestra but it remains a small, rather pallid performance" (The Gramophone, August 1961).
Vernon Handley, who conducted the Guildford Philharmonic on Hatto's 1970 recording of Sir Arnold Bax's Symphonic Variations for her husband's Revolution label, said; "[a]s a solo pianist, she was absolutely marvellous. She had ten wonderful fingers and she could get round anything and also she was an extraordinarily charming person to work with, even if she could be very difficult." In another interview, after the 2007 hoax perpetrated by her husband had been revealed, he added; "[s]he had a very doubtful sense of rhythm ... [t]he recording of the Bax was a tremendous labour." Still the record received a favourable review: "Joyce Hatto gives a highly commendable account of the demanding piano part," wrote Robert Layton (Gramophone, February 1971).
In 1973 Hatto gave the world premiere of two recently published Bourrées by Frédéric Chopin in London's Queen Elizabeth Hall. In 1976 she stopped performing in public and moved to Royston, Hertfordshire. It was later claimed that she already had cancer at the time. However, the consultant radiologist who saw her every six weeks for the last eight years of her life stated that she was first treated for ovarian cancer in 1992, fourteen years before her death, and had had no previous history of the disease.
Fraud
In Hatto's last years more than 100 recordings falsely attributed to her appeared. The repertoire represented on the CDs included the complete sonatas of Beethoven, Mozart and Prokofiev, concertos by Rachmaninoff, Tchaikovsky, Brahms and Mendelssohn and most of Chopin's compositions, along with rarer works such as the complete Godowsky Studies on Chopin's Études. The recordings were released, along with piano recordings falsely attributed to Sergio Fiorentino, by the Concert Artist Recordings label run by Hatto's husband William Barrington-Coupe, who had a long history in the record industry. The distinguished critic Neville Cardus had been dazzled by her playing, according to a story found in one obituary.
From 2003 onwards the recordings attributed to Hatto began to receive enthusiastic praise from a small number of participants on various Usenet groups, mailing lists and web forums, sparked by a blind-listening test in December 2002 posted on ThePiano Yahoo! group featuring a recording under Hatto's name of Liszt's Mephisto Waltz. Specialised record review magazines and websites such as Gramophone, MusicWeb and Classics Today, as well as newspapers such as The Boston Globe, eventually discovered Hatto, reviewed the recordings (with mostly very favourable notices) and published interviews and appreciations of her career; in one case, she was described as "the greatest living pianist that almost no one has ever heard of." Those praising the recordings included Tom Deacon, a former record producer for Philips, who produced that label's Great Pianists of the 20th Century series and was so fooled he praised and derided the same recording, thinking that one was by Hatto and the other by Matsuzawa; Bryce Morrison, a long-time reviewer for Gramophone; Jed Distler, a reviewer for Gramophone and Classics Today; Ateş Orga, a music critic who also wrote some of the liner notes for Concert Artist, as well as an obituary; and Ivan Davis, a well-known professional pianist.
In May 2005 the musicologist Marc-André Roberge reported on the Yahoo! Godowsky group that, in Hatto's version of the Chopin-Godowsky Studies on the Concert Artist label, a misreading of a chord was identical to one on the Carlo Grante recording (AIR-CD-9092, released 1993). However this coincidence did not prompt Roberge or others to investigate further at that time and verification of the copying from the Grante disc would only occur in 2007.
In early 2006 doubts about various aspects of Hatto's recording output were expressed, both in the rec.music.classical.recordings Usenet group and, following the publication of a lengthy appreciation of Hatto in the March issue of Gramophone, by readers of that magazine. In particular, some found it hard to believe that a pianist who had not performed in public for decades and was said to be fighting cancer should produce in her old age a large number of recordings, all apparently of high quality. It also proved difficult to confirm any of the details of the recordings made with orchestra, including even the existence of the conductor credited. The doubters were vigorously countered, most publicly by critic Jeremy Nicholas who in the July 2006 issue of Gramophone, challenged unnamed sceptics to substantiate their accusations by providing evidence that would "stand up in a court of law". Nicholas's challenge was not taken up and in December Radio New Zealand was able in all innocence, to re-broadcast its hour-long programme of glowing appreciation of the Concert Artist Hatto CDs. This programme included excerpts from a telephone interview with Hatto herself, conducted on 6 April 2006, in which she said nothing to dispel the presenter's assumption that she was the sole pianist on all the CDs.
The favourable reviews and publicity generated substantial sales for the Concert Artist CDs: in 2006, one online retailer did £50,000 worth of business with Barrington-Coupe. Barrington-Coupe himself claimed to have sold 3,051 Hatto CDs in 2005 and 2006, and 5,500 from 2007 up to February 2009, and that he had made a "thumping great loss" on them.
Death
Hatto died from ovarian cancer and deep vein thrombosis at her home in Royston, Hertfordshire, on 29 June 2006. She was cremated in Cambridge on 11 July 2006.
Revelation of fraud
In February 2007 it was announced in a series of articles in Gramophone and on the magazine's website, after the editor, James Inverne, had commissioned an intensive investigation by the audio expert Andrew Rose and others, that the CDs ascribed to Hatto had been discovered to contain copies, in some cases digitally manipulated (stretched or shrunk in time, re-equalised and rebalanced), of published commercial recordings made by other artists. While some of these artists were well-known, the majority were not. When Brian Ventura, a financial analyst from Mount Vernon, New York, put the recording of Liszt's Transcendental Études credited to Hatto into his computer the Gracenote database used by the iTunes software identified the disc, not as a recording by Hatto, but as one by László Simon. On checking online samples of the Simon recording Ventura found it to be remarkably similar to the version credited to Hatto. He then contacted Jed Distler, a critic for Classics Today and Gramophone, who had praised many of the recordings ascribed to Hatto.
Distler has said:
An identification of the source of another recording, which had been in preparation for some months, was released the following day by the AHRC Research Centre for the History and Analysis of Recorded Music (CHARM, based at Royal Holloway, University of London) as a by-product of research on performances of Chopin Mazurkas. Within a week of the initial story being posted on the Gramophone website on 15 February, the sources for some 20 of Hatto's Concert Artist CDs had been identified.
On each of the concerto recordings published in Hatto's final years under her name the conductor's name was given as "René Köhler", and Barrington-Coupe provided a detailed biography for "Köhler". The information given there has not withstood careful scrutiny. The conductors whose work is represented on the concerto recordings credited to Hatto and Köhler are now known to include Esa-Pekka Salonen, André Previn and Bernard Haitink, while the orchestras, claimed to be the National Philharmonic-Symphony and the Warsaw Philharmonia, are now known to include the Vienna Philharmonic, the Philharmonia, and the Royal Philharmonic.
Admission of fraud
Barrington-Coupe initially denied any wrongdoing but subsequently admitted the fraud in a letter to Robert von Bahr, the head of the Swedish record label BIS, which had originally issued some of the recordings plagiarised by Concert Artists. Bahr shared the contents of the letter with Gramophone, which reported the confession on its website on 26 February 2007. Barrington-Coupe claims that Hatto was unaware of the deception, that she would hear the final recordings believing that they were all her own work, that he acted out of love, that he made little money from the enterprise and that he started out by pasting portions of other pianists' recordings into recordings made by Hatto to cover up her gasps of pain. Some critics however have cast doubt on this version of events, not least James Inverne in Gramophone.
The discovery of plagiarised tracks on a Concert Artist CD released under the name of pianist Sergio Fiorentino raised further questions. Barrington-Coupe refused to help identify the sources of the recordings issued under Hatto's name, claiming that "whatever I do, it won't be enough".
Aftermath
The British Phonographic Industry (BPI) announced an investigation. According to a BPI spokesman in 2007, if the allegations were true, it would have been "one of the most extraordinary cases of piracy the record industry had ever seen".
Robert von Bahr of the BIS label said that he "had given a lot of thought" to suing Barrington-Coupe for damages but was inclined not to do so on the assumption that the hoax recordings were "a desperate attempt to build a shrine to a dying wife". He also said that he had advised László Simon to take advantage of the publicity by securing more concert engagements.
Barrington-Coupe himself said that he "had given up worrying" about possible legal consequences and added that "I don't consider I've hurt anybody. A lot of attention has been drawn to forgotten artists."
The Hertfordshire Constabulary said that it would not take any action unless a complaint was made by the copyright holder of one of the original recordings. This did not occur.
In 2009 Channel 4 in Britain broadcast a 20-minute documentary about the scam.
Barrington-Coupe died at his home in Royston on 19 October 2014.
TV film
A TV film, Loving Miss Hatto, was filmed in Ireland and screened on BBC Television on 23 December 2012. The screenplay was by Victoria Wood and the film was made by Left Bank Pictures. Hatto was portrayed by Maimie McCoy and Francesca Annis. Rory Kinnear and Alfred Molina played her husband. Barrington-Coupe was still alive at the time, but Wood stated in an interview with The Guardian that she did not consult him when she was writing the screenplay, although members of the research team for the project had met with him on a number of occasions.
In literature
Hatto's story inspired a novel by the French-Vietnamese author Minh Tran Huy, La Double vie d'Anna Song ("The double life of Anna Song"). Anna Song, described as "the greatest pianist that no one has heard of", appears to record a huge discography despite illness and old age. Her husband, Paul Desroches, acts as producer for the recordings. It is later revealed in a magazine that the recordings are not the work of Song, but have been stolen by her husband from the work of others.
Another novel drawn from the Hatto case is Lynne Sharon Schwartz's Two-Part Inventions (2012). Schwartz has stated that her novel is directly based on the story of Hatto and Barrington-Coupe.
Recordings and their sources
The following is a list of some of the performances attributed to Hatto whose sources have so far been discovered (sorted by Concert Artist catalogue number). More detailed track by track information can be found at the Joyce Hatto Identifications website.
Early discography
The release of Arnold Bax's Symphonic Variations in E major (CACD90212 on the Concert Artist label) is a reissue of Hatto's 1970 recording with the Guildford Philharmonic conducted by Vernon Handley, originally issued on Barrington-Coupe's Revolution label.
Hatto's authentic recordings never had a wide distribution and the above-mentioned work of Bax was the last to appear on LP in 1970. In the 1980s, more works were released on cassette tapes (Grieg Piano Concerto and a number of Liszt compositions: the two Piano Concerti, Rigoletto paraphrase, Miserere del Trovatore paraphrase, Totentanz solo piano version, Seven Hungarian Historical Portraits). The solo piano repertoire of these releases shows works Hatto played also at that time in London on various occasions at the Wigmore Hall and other venues.
Her early releases include:
Concert Artist 7-inch EPs:
Walter Gaze Cooper Piano Concerto #3
Elspeth Rhys-Williams, 4 Impressions, 2 Songs
Michael Williams Introduction & Allegro for piano & orchestra
Saga:
"Music for the Films" (Addinsell, Bath, Chas. Williams) w/London Variety Theatre Orchestra/Gilbert Vinter
Gershwin Rhapsody in Blue w/Hamburg Pro Musica/George Byrd
Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2 w/Hamburg Pro Musica/George Hurst
Chopin Sonatas No. 1 & 3
Chopin Minor Piano works (Albumblatt, Fugue, Andante cantabile etc.)
Delta:
Mozart Piano Concertos K. 466 & 488 w/Pasdeloup Orchestra/Isaie Disenhaus
Mozart Piano Concerto K. 453, Rondo K. 382 w/London Classic Players/David Littaur
Fidelio:
Chopin 10 Nocturnes
Gershwin 16 items from the "Song Book"
Lecuona assorted piano pieces
Revolution:
Bax Piano Sonata #1, Piano Sonata #4, Toccata, Water Music
Bax Symphonic Variations in E w/Guildford Philharmonic/Vernon Handley
Boulevard
Rhapsody in Blue & An American in Paris from George Gershwin, with The New York Symphonica, conducted by George Byrd(Album brought out in 1973, by Allied Records Ltd., 326 Kensal Road, London, W10, as Boulevard, number 4124)
References
External links
Andrys Basten's comprehensive listing of links to news items, interviews and commentaries; includes download of Mephisto Waltz recording cited in Jan. 2003 on RMCR newsgroup
Joyce Hatto Identifications website
Mark Lawson, "Our ears may deceive us", The Guardian, 2 March 2007.
Geoff Edgers, "Cherished music wasn't hers", Boston Globe, 27 February 2007.
Gramophone: "'I did it for my wife' – Joyce Hatto exclusive, William Barrington-Coupe confesses", published 26 February 2007
Telegraph: "The Hatto scandal is no human tragedy – but it might make a melodrama" – Julian Lloyd Webber, published: 5 April 2007
International Herald Tribune: "The Joyce Hatto Scandal", Denis Dutton, published 25 February 2007. Republished in New York Times
The Telegraph: " My wife's virtuoso recordings are genuine", published 20 February 2007
David Patrick Stearns, "Ears don't deceive – the CD covers do". Philadelphia Inquirer, 20 February 2007.
"Will the Real Joyce Hatto Please Stand Up", by David Hurwitz, published 18 February 2007
Gramophone: "Masterpieces or Fakes? The Joyce Hatto Scandal", published 15 February 2007
"Joyce Hatto – The Ultimate Recording Hoax" on PristineClassical.com, released 15 February 2007
Times Online: "Piano ‘genius’ is branded a fake", published 17 February 2007
New York Times: "A Pianist’s Recordings Draw Praise, but Were They All Hers?," published 17 February 2007
Boston Globe "Joyce Hatto, at 77; pianist was prolific recording artist" published 4 July 2006, retrieved 10 July 2006
Joyce Hatto – A Pianist of Extraordinary Personality and Promise
Joyce Hatto, English pianist, dies aged 77 - Gramophone 5 July 2006
iTunes fingers musical fraud
Radio New Zealand feature including interview with Hatto, first broadcast 28 May 2006
"'Hatto Recordings Counterfeit?', Radio New Zealand, 19 Feb 2007"
Fantasia For Piano (New Yorker article including interview with William Barrington-Coupe), 17 September 2007
"The Hatto scandal is no human tragedy - but it might make a melodrama", Daily Telegraph 12 April 2007
Who Was Joyce Hatto? (BBC Radio 4 programme)
1928 births
2006 deaths
English classical pianists
English women pianists
Musical hoaxes
Deaths from ovarian cancer
Musicians from London
People from St John's Wood
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century English musicians
21st-century classical pianists
Deaths from cancer in England
People from Royston, Hertfordshire
English fraudsters
20th-century English women musicians
21st-century English women musicians
20th-century English businesspeople
20th-century women pianists
21st-century women pianists |
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